User talk:DaSupremo

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      <text bytes="44208" sha1="o45efn6ms8ccqxufrdq8jles1s0ixu2" xml:space="preserve">== Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! ==

Hi DaSupremo, and also ping @[[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]], @[[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]], @[[User:Feliciopedro2|Feliciopedro2]], @[[User:Sunkanmi12|Sunkanmi12]], @[[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]], @[[User:NanaYawBotar|NanaYawBotar]], @[[User:Afimaame|Afimaame]], @[[User:Elkay20|Elkay20]] and @[[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]].

Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! You and all your co-contributors have done a great job so far in getting here, and I would like to congratulate you on finally having the newest official Wikipedia edition! Well done to all of you!

For previous wikis, there have usually been some technical issues that take some time to fix, but for the first time in many years, I think all of the normal technical issues have actually already bene solved now, less than one day after the Wikipedia was created. Visual editor works like it should, the same with the DiscussionTools, Wikidata support has been enabled, and the statistics in [[Special:Statistics]] look correct.

But still, if you notice any issues, or if there are things you want to do but aren't able to for some reason, please feel free to reach out to me, and I can help figure out how to solve them.

Best of luck to all of you with your new Wikipedia, and happy editing! 🎉 [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) 01:07, 6 July 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) thanks for that and we are also grateful for your continuous help and support. We would like to fix the use of bare URLS for references. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:48, 6 July 2023 (GMT)
:Thanks  [[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]] ([[User talk:NanaKojo16|talk]]) 08:38, 7 July 2023 (GMT)
==Modifications to the home page==
Hello dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]]
I've made a slight modification to the homepage, by adding the number of existing articles.
And I designed and programmed a new template for the introduction of the home page.
I hope you see it:[[User:Osps7/Test]]

With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 18:26, 19 August 2023 (GMT)

:Wow...thanks for that. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) It will help us track and remove vandalism on articles. Really grateful [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 21:38, 19 August 2023 (GMT)
==Important inquiry==
Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I am trying to work on developing the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding new tools and improving the work of the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding software tools that contribute to increasing effectiveness and contribute to protecting the encyclopedia from vandalism.
I'm trying to work on an add-on (MediaWiki:Gadget-autocomplete.js)
But I need permissions, how can I request permissions?

With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 11:42, 20 August 2023 (GMT)

:I think you can propose it on [[phab:|Phabricator]] and start working on it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:36, 20 August 2023 (GMT)

== Suggestions ==

First off, congratulations on leading the creation of and becoming admin of this Wikipedia, which is still the newest AFAIK. Hope that this project continues to grow and thrive. Onto the suggestions: with regards to the references, I think if you used your admin permissions to import the CS1 citation templates from enwiki it would also take care of the dependent modules. Or maybe someone from the community should file a request on MetaWiki. Documentation templates would also be handy I also think it might be a good idea to add a system or template for handling linguistic issues: for instance, I've already seen a page copied from enwiki with no effort made to translate it (although I can't find the specific page right now). Thanks! [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 15:43, 24 August 2023 (GMT)

:Thanks for the good wishes. I would really need help cos I am not conversant with the templates. I will ask a couple of guys around. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:34, 24 August 2023 (GMT)
==suggestion==
Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]],
What do you think of the idea of ​​adding a new section to the home page called “In the News” and updating it continuously?--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 12:00, 10 September 2023 (GMT)

:Sounds good. A very good idea [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:07, 10 September 2023 (GMT)

== Note ==

Dear @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I hope you are well.
Over the past few days, I have developed a bot that I will activate here soon. It will create categories and templates that will help us. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 22:03, 3 November 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]), I am good and you? Noted and thanks for the continuous support. We really appreciate it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:21, 3 November 2023 (GMT)

== Translation ==
Hi, could you please translate this to Ghanaian Pidgin?

Guosa is a constructed interlanguage originally created by Alex Igbineweka in 1965. It was designed to be a combination of the indigenous languages of Nigeria and to serve as a lingua franca to West Africa.

It has the following characteristics:
* It is an isolating language with subject–verb–object word order.
* There are no articles.
* There is no grammatical gender or noun class system.
* Most grammatical meaning is expressed through particles that precede the words they modify.
* Adjectives follow the noun.
* Guosa is generally prepositional.

Thank you. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]) 07:12, 16 November 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]), thanks for reaching out. This is the Ghanaian Pidgin translation:
:Guosa be constructed interlanguage wey Alex Igbineweka originally create am for 1965 insyd. Dem design am make e be combination of de indigenous languages for Nigeria wey e go serve as lingua franca go West Africa.
:E get de characteristics wey dey follow:
:•E be language wey dey isolate plus subject–verb–object word order.
:•No articles dey.
:•No grammatical gender anaa noun class system dey.
:•Dem dey express chaw grammatical meaning thru particles wey dey precede de words dem modify.
:•Adjectives dey follow de noun.
:•Guosa be generally prepositional. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:03, 16 November 2023 (GMT)

==Importing citation templates==
Was looking at importing cite journal, cite book, and cite web. Best way to do this would be to use this tool and select &quot;Include all templates and transcluded pages&quot; https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Import

Would be happy to but only certain user groups have permission to use the tool. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:30, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
:By the way hope to see you do more healthcare translations. Once we get the templates imported things will come through better. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:44, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
::Thanks [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) for this information. It is valuable for us. I have checked it out and I realized it is a good tool. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:05, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
:::Are you able to make me a member of one of these groups &quot;Administrators or Importers&quot; so that I can help. Looking at &quot;Template:Cite book&quot; and not sure it worked properly. [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 23:17, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
::::No please. But I think you can request for a temporal admin [[metawiki:Steward_requests/Permissions#Administrator_access|here]] to enable you carry that task.  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:05, 27 October 2024 (GMT)

== delete ==

Can you please delete [[Talk:Audrey Sitsofe Gadzekpo]] and [[Talk:Joseph Kwame Kumah]]? they are orphaned. Best regards, [[User:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] ([[User talk:TenWhile6|talk]]) 17:01, 14 November 2024 (GMT)

:Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:59, 14 November 2024 (GMT)

== Thank you for being a medical translator! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2024 Cure Translators Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2024 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&amp;project=all&amp;year=2024&amp;start=Filter joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We look forwards to working together in 2025.
|}

Thanks again :-)  -- [https://mdwiki.org/wiki/User:Doc_James &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 06:54, 26 January 2025 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2024&amp;oldid=28173086 --&gt;
:I appreciate the award. Hope to do more this year [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 10:24, 26 January 2025 (GMT)

== Request for help ==

Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]],

My name is [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|Uzoma]], I am the Movement Communications Specialist supporting the [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization]] team. I am reaching out because you [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&amp;_Community-defined_lists/Collaborators#User_names_and_campaigns|indicated interest]] in participating in the [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&amp;_Community-defined_lists|Translation suggestions: Topic-based &amp; Community-defined lists]] project.

We now have the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;campaign=contributionsmenu&amp;to=sw&amp;filter-type=automatic&amp;filter-id=collections&amp;active-list=suggestions&amp;from=en Community-defined list feature] in the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;campaign=contributionsmenu&amp;to=sw&amp;filter-type=automatic&amp;filter-id=previous-edits&amp;active-list=draft&amp;from=en Content translation tool]. We want to approach organisers of Wiki campaigns that involve translation happening now or soon to add the collection tags to their article list. So that people who use the Content translation tool can discover these campaigns and participate directly from the moment they access the tool using their mobile device. The campaign suggestions will be in the &quot;All Collection&quot; category of the Translation suggestion feature in the tool, as illustrated in the GIF below.

[[File:How_to_select_a_specific_collection_&amp;_all_collections_(1).gif|Screen record of how to select a specific collection and &quot;all collections&quot;]]

'''Our request'''

Please help us by providing a list of the campaigns happening in your community and the organisers we can approach to add the tag. This is important to us because we need to learn from its usage for campaigns.

I would appreciate your help connecting me to the campaigns you are preparing for in your community.

I look forward to your response, and please let me know if you need any clarification. Thank you so much!

Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 22:28, 11 February 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] thanks for reaching out. The Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia will be participating in this year's [[metawiki:Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025/Participants#Participating_Communities|Wiki Loves Ramadan]]. I will keep you posted when the community participates in subsequent editathons and campaigns. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:43, 11 February 2025 (GMT)
::Thank you so much, @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], for this information. I will keep in touch.
::Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 18:47, 13 February 2025 (GMT)
:::Ok @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:14, 13 February 2025 (GMT)

== Follow-up on Incomplete Information for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 ==

Hi DaSupremo,

Thank you for signing up your community for For Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Please provide the following missing information on the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants|participants' page of Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]].

* Local Project Page Link
* Local Organizer
* Jury Tools Link
* Jury Members

''For the Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 05:49, 1 April 2025 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:ZI Jony|'''ZI Jony''']] [[User talk:ZI Jony|&lt;sup&gt;''(Talk)''&lt;/sup&gt;]], thanks for the message. Please none of the information above were created because I am the only person contributing on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia participating in the contest. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo#top|talk]]) 11:00, 1 April 2025 (UTC) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:01, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you for your efforts. Unfortunately, above requirements are mandatory. I would like to request you to create an local Wikipedia project page (you would be able to copy content from [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Sample|here]], and then translate in your local language). Ask others to join with you as local organizer and jury members. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:23, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
:::Thanks. Can I still participate as a participant because we did not apply for a grant to organise this event so we have no funds to award winners and its associated cost? [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:29, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
::::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], you still can continue as an local participant. Most of local organizers work without grant, as there are international prizes available. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:46, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
:::::Oh okay...thanks. I will set up the local page then. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 15:10, 1 April 2025 (GMT)

== Reminder: Submit Your Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May ==

Dear DaSupremo,

Thank you for your valuable contributions to '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' in your communities!

This is a kind reminder that the '''deadline to submit your local results is 15 May 2025'''.

Please make sure to submit the '''complete and detailed results''' of your local contest on the following Meta-Wiki page:  
'''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]'''

Additionally, feel free to add a brief summary of your local event under the '''Results''' section in your country/region’s row on the participants page:  
'''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]'''

If you need any assistance during this process, don’t hesitate to reach out.

Thank you for your continued dedication and support!


For, Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team 11:51, 2 May 2025 (GMT)
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==Testing the tool==
Hey DaSupremo was just testing the tool here and thus had put it in my user space. Article is not actually translated

https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rabies&amp;action=history

[[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:24, 7 May 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Doc James|Doc James]], yeah I realized that and that is the reason I am moving them to mainspace and translating them. Thanks  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:01, 7 May 2025 (GMT)
::Excellent, and we have the disease infobox / other infoboxes formating correctly now. See [[Glioblastoma]] [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:59, 8 May 2025 (GMT)
:::Great. Thank you for this. Now we can have infoboxes on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. Greatly appreciated [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:28, 8 May 2025 (GMT)

== Final Reminder – Submit Full Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May EOD ==

Dear DaSupremo,

This is a final reminder that the deadline to submit your '''full and detailed local results''' for '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' is '''15 May 2025''' EOD.

Please ensure you complete the following as soon as possible:

* Submit your full results on Meta-Wiki here: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]'''
* Add a brief summary of your local event under the &quot;Results&quot; column on: '''[[Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]'''

Failure to submit by the deadline may result in exclusion from the international jury consideration.

If you need help or encounter any issues, feel free to contact the international team.

Thank you once again for your dedication and hard work!


''Warm regards,''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team''', 02:39, 15 May 2025 (GMT)
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== Share Your Feedback – Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 ==

Dear DaSupremo

Thank you for being a part of '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' — whether as a contributor, jury member, or local organizer. Your efforts helped make this campaign a meaningful celebration of culture, heritage, and community on Wikimedia platforms.

To help us improve and grow this initiative in future years, we kindly ask you to complete a short '''feedback form'''. Your responses are valuable in shaping how we support contributors like you.

* '''Feedback Form:''' [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Submit your feedback here]
* '''Deadline to submit:''' 31 May 2025

It will only take a few minutes to complete, and your input will directly impact how we plan, communicate, and collaborate in the future.

Thank you again for your support. We look forward to having you with us in future campaigns!


Warm regards,&lt;br/&gt;
''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'' 08:51, 19 May 2025 (GMT)
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== Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 – Global Top 10 Winner: Congratulations! ==

'''Dear DaSupremo,'''

Congratulations! You have been selected as one of the '''Top 10 Global Winners''' (ranks 4 to 10) of the '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' campaign. Your contributions and participation have greatly enriched the project, and we sincerely appreciate your efforts.

To send you your prize and the official campaign T-shirt, we kindly request the following details:

* Full name:  
* Wikimedia username:  
* Country of residency:  
* Email address:  
* Preferred T-shirt size (M, L, XL):  
* Preferred T-shirt color (Black, White, Navy):  

'''Please send the above information within 24 hours to:''' '''support@wikilovesramadan.org'''

Your prize will be delivered through the [https://www.tremendous.com/catalog/ Tremendous] platform.

Also, we kindly request you to fill the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Participant Feedback Form]''' at your earliest convenience.

Once again, thank you for your amazing contribution.

'''Best regards,'''  
''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 03:43, 27 May 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]], Thanks for the message. I have some reservations about the Winner of the campaign. I do not understand the language but it is clear when an article is created in a particular language. Most of their contributions (from what I sampled) where actually 'discussion pages' rather than translated articles. See [[:bn:আলাপ:মরক্কোতে_আশুরা|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:গ্রেটার_টলেডো_ইসলামিক_সেন্টার|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:মুসলিম_আমেরিকান_সোসাইটি|this]] and most could be found on the [[xtools:pages/bn.wikipedia.org/Hasan muntaseer/1|Xtool]]. Moreover, they were not even registered on the dashboard as we were told it was a requirement. On the dashboard, only [[wmfdashboard:courses/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025|241 articles]] where created in the Bangla Wikipedia. I might be wrong but their results need to be reviewed to ensure fairness and transparency. Thank you. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 08:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT)
::[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I believe that the same question you maybe asked to Dnshitobu earlier! Mostly tracking categories are used in the talk page of the articles for almost all Wikipedia, including Bangla and English Wikipedia. They use a template on the article talk page where a description also placed, instead of using on the main articles. Using dashboard were not a mandatory tool, because many wikis' developed thier own jury tools, like Bangla, Ukrainian, even English Wikipedia also used a different tool called [https://fountain.toolforge.org Fountain], it’s depend on local organizers which tool they are comfortable to use. Bangla Wikipedia was submitted 1806 articles, due to non-relevant issue they removed several articles. For you clarity, Bangla Wikipedia was looking for additional jury members to complete thier jury process in time, and I joined to help then, in the meantime I have re-reviewd several articles. So, I believe that the jury process were well strictured and trusted. I kindly request you to provide the details you have been asked at your earliest convenience. Additional inquiry, are you attending EduWiki Conference 2025? Or, someone who can receive your gift and certificate from the conference let me know in the same email. Thank you! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 10:51, 27 May 2025 (GMT)
:::Ok...thanks for the detailed explanation. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT)

== [[José Rafael Córdero Sánchez]] ==

Hi DaSupremo, I need your help about this article because is a crosswiki spam, for more details please check: [[:nl:Overleg Wikipedia:Checklijst langdurig structureel vandalisme/Josercs1|this report]] from Dutch Wikipedia. Thank you. [[User:Taichi|Taichi]] ([[User talk:Taichi|talk]]) 23:48, 16 October 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Taichi|Taichi]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:01, 17 October 2025 (GMT)

== [[Samata (fashion entrepreneur)]] ==

Hi DaSupremo, I noticed that you expanded this article in 2023 by translating content from English Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia article was deleted earlier this year as most of the sources were found to be spam or unreliable. Other language Wikipedias like French, Arabic, Swahili and Igbo have also deleted this article on similar grounds. It seems the original English article was written by a spammer for promotional purposes, therefore the Ghanaian Pidgin article (which was primarily translated from English) should also be deleted. Let me know your thoughts. [[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]] ([[User talk:Acoustical|talk]]) 19:16, 25 November 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. Since it has been deleted from other language Wikipedias, I think it should be deleted too on the Ghanaian Pidgin WIkipedia. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:32, 25 November 2025 (GMT)

== Undeletion Request ==

hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]]

I noticed that you previously improved the article about Adebayo Temitayo (Realjjfrosh). I wanted to let you know that the page was later deleted.

If you have time, I would appreciate any guidance on whether the sources used (Punch, Vanguard, ThisDay, BusinessDay, Daily Trust) meet the project’s notability standards, or how the article could be reworked to comply fully with policy.

Thank you for your earlier improvements and for any advice you may be able to offer. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|&amp;#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:13, 3 February 2026 (GMT)

:It was deleted because of (Spam and it was a ([[metawiki:steward|steward]] action)) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:19, 3 February 2026 (GMT)
::Ok thanks  [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|&amp;#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:39, 3 February 2026 (GMT)

== Thank you for being a medical contributors! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|130px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2025 Cure Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2025 you '''[[mdwiki:WikiProjectMed:WikiProject_Medicine/Stats/Top_medical_editors_2025_(all)|were one of the top medical editors in your language]]'''. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We appreciate you and the vital work you do! 

Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider joining for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs.

Additionally one of our primary efforts revolves around translating health content. We invite you to '''[https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/index.php try our new workflow]''' if you have not already. Our dashboard automatically [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php collects statistics] of your efforts and we are working on [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/fixwikirefs.php tools to automatically improve formating].
|}

Look forwards to collaborating in the year ahead. Thanks again :-)  -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:42, 14 February 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;

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== Thank you for being a medical translator! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2025 Cure Translators Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2025 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&amp;user_group=all&amp;year=2025&amp;month=All joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public.

Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider formally joining the organization for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs.
|}

Look forwards to collaborating further in the year ahead. Thanks again :-)  -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:53, 14 February 2026 (GMT)
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(This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.)
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== Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers &amp; Jury ==

Hello {{PAGENAME}}!,

Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts!

To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have:
* Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]:
* Started promoting the campaign within your community.
* Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified.
* Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community.

=== Internet &amp; Childcare Support ===
Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''.

'''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]'''

Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained.

=== Important Participation Guidelines ===

* Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers).
* If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us.

=== Community Engagement ===

* Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign.
* Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally.
* In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''.
Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊

Thank you for your collaboration!

''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.''

Feminism and Folklore International Team.

–[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 05:17, 16 February 2026 (GMT)
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== Translation request ==

Hello, DaSupremo.

Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Bazardüzü]] and [[:en:Campi Flegrei]] in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia? 

Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 07:39, 15 March 2026 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]]. Noted [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:22, 15 March 2026 (GMT)
::Hello, DaSupremo.
::Thank you very much for the new article.
::Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 16:43, 9 April 2026 (GMT)
:::Welcome @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:47, 9 April 2026 (GMT)

== Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers ==

&lt;div style=&quot;border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]]

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1em 2em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;''{{int:please-translate}}''&lt;/div&gt;

Dear Organizer,

I hope this message finds you well.

First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause.

As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]].

Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed.

Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. 

Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful.

Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon.

Warm regards,

[[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]]

on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team 

&lt;nowiki&gt;#WeTogether&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:57, 11 April 2026 (GMT)
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== You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Greetings,

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years.

This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required.

The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run.

In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:33, 28 April 2026 (GMT) &lt;/div&gt;
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== Ghanaian Pidgin ==

Hello. I'm looking for Ghanaian Pidgin translation of descriptions of a few items for Wikidata. Would you help? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 19:45, 7 May 2026 (GMT)

:Sure [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 20:07, 7 May 2026 (GMT)
:: I'm looking for:
: &quot;studio album by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;compilation album by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;song by Käärijä den Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;single by Käärijä den Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;promotional single by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;music video by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;lyric video by Basshunter&quot;
:: [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 20:17, 7 May 2026 (GMT)
:::@[[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:25, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::: So they are almost like English with the only difference of &quot;den&quot;? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 18:00, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::::Ghanaian Pidgin is more of English with a bit of local Ghanaian languages [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:50, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::::: Good to know. All added. Thanks a lot. [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 21:30, 8 May 2026 (GMT)

== Request writing about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) ==

hi DaSupremo Would you like to write about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) for the GPE Wikipedia? It'll be appreciated if it 'll be done. [[User:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[User talk:Boss-well63|talk]]) 18:41, 29 May 2026 (GMT)

== Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, 

This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''.

Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026.

Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign.

Best regards,

'''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:09, 3 June 2026 (GMT)
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== Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]]

Dear {{PAGENAME}},

Your dedication, coordination, and hard work played a vital role in making this year's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign successful. We truly appreciate the time and effort you invested in engaging your community and supporting participants.

As we have completed the jury phase and begin planning for next year's campaign, we would like to learn from your experiences. Please complete the organisers' feedback form and share your insights, challenges, and suggestions on how we can improve the campaign.

'''This feedback form is mandatory for all organisers''', as it helps us evaluate the campaign and make meaningful improvements for future editions.

'''Form link [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf6IsGAsxkTEWTwueyLg-gBjRVlY3g2kTNj3xRhDiILiQnQwQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]'''

Please submit your response by '''25 June 2026'''.

Thank you once again for your invaluable contributions and for helping make Feminism and Folklore a global success. We look forward to working with you again in the future!

Regards,

'''Feminism and Folklore Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:05, 18 June 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;
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== Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]]

Dear {{PAGENAME}},

Your contributions helped make this year's [[:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign a great success, and we are truly grateful for your time, knowledge, and dedication to documenting women's stories and folklore on Wikimedia projects.

As we reflect on this year's campaign and prepare for the next edition, we'd love to hear about your experience. Please take a few minutes to fill out our feedback form and share your thoughts and suggestions.

As a token of our appreciation, everyone who completes the form will receive a '''special digital postcard'''! in their email. This year marks '''''25 years of Wikipedia''''', and the postcard has been created to celebrate this milestone and to recognize the incredible efforts of participants like you who continue to enrich free knowledge for the world.

'''Form Link - [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdqFZN9IdWbAnZ_7DyG5bIsuq7KAkdsIxweC_TdPH9In-tthQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]'''

Please complete the feedback form by '''25 June 2026'''.

Thank you once again for making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a success. We hope to see you again in future campaigns!

Best regards,

Feminism and Folklore international Team.

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 14:31, 18 June 2026 (GMT)

&lt;/div&gt;
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== Share your Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 journey! ==

Dear Organizer,

On behalf of the Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team, I want to send a massive thank you for your leadership and hard work during the 2026 campaign. Organizing local events, coordinating juries, and tracking metrics takes a lot of effort, and your dedication has been vital to bridging the knowledge gap regarding Islamic heritage and traditions.

As we wrap up this year's campaign, we would love to hear how things went in your community. We have put together the Organizer Feedback Form to capture your successes, challenges, and metrics.

* '''Link to form''': https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfDsuYSv2S4RCQuwAO9MlykJwgPIy-l9ENTr7I_GxpfVuo2TA/viewform
* '''Deadline''': 31 July 2026

Thank you again for championing this campaign. We couldn't do this without you.


Warm Regards, [[m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] (Project Lead) for the Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 International Team. 20:12, 29 June 2026 (GMT)
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      <sha1>o45efn6ms8ccqxufrdq8jles1s0ixu2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105886</id>
      <parentid>105884</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T20:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MediaWiki message delivery</username>
        <id>110</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Thank you for joining Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026! */ new section</comment>
      <origin>105886</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="45390" sha1="t9e27njqmcmaqe7xos5b1khnqjr6bhp" xml:space="preserve">== Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! ==

Hi DaSupremo, and also ping @[[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]], @[[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]], @[[User:Feliciopedro2|Feliciopedro2]], @[[User:Sunkanmi12|Sunkanmi12]], @[[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]], @[[User:NanaYawBotar|NanaYawBotar]], @[[User:Afimaame|Afimaame]], @[[User:Elkay20|Elkay20]] and @[[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]].

Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! You and all your co-contributors have done a great job so far in getting here, and I would like to congratulate you on finally having the newest official Wikipedia edition! Well done to all of you!

For previous wikis, there have usually been some technical issues that take some time to fix, but for the first time in many years, I think all of the normal technical issues have actually already bene solved now, less than one day after the Wikipedia was created. Visual editor works like it should, the same with the DiscussionTools, Wikidata support has been enabled, and the statistics in [[Special:Statistics]] look correct.

But still, if you notice any issues, or if there are things you want to do but aren't able to for some reason, please feel free to reach out to me, and I can help figure out how to solve them.

Best of luck to all of you with your new Wikipedia, and happy editing! 🎉 [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) 01:07, 6 July 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) thanks for that and we are also grateful for your continuous help and support. We would like to fix the use of bare URLS for references. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:48, 6 July 2023 (GMT)
:Thanks  [[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]] ([[User talk:NanaKojo16|talk]]) 08:38, 7 July 2023 (GMT)
==Modifications to the home page==
Hello dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]]
I've made a slight modification to the homepage, by adding the number of existing articles.
And I designed and programmed a new template for the introduction of the home page.
I hope you see it:[[User:Osps7/Test]]

With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 18:26, 19 August 2023 (GMT)

:Wow...thanks for that. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) It will help us track and remove vandalism on articles. Really grateful [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 21:38, 19 August 2023 (GMT)
==Important inquiry==
Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I am trying to work on developing the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding new tools and improving the work of the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding software tools that contribute to increasing effectiveness and contribute to protecting the encyclopedia from vandalism.
I'm trying to work on an add-on (MediaWiki:Gadget-autocomplete.js)
But I need permissions, how can I request permissions?

With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 11:42, 20 August 2023 (GMT)

:I think you can propose it on [[phab:|Phabricator]] and start working on it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:36, 20 August 2023 (GMT)

== Suggestions ==

First off, congratulations on leading the creation of and becoming admin of this Wikipedia, which is still the newest AFAIK. Hope that this project continues to grow and thrive. Onto the suggestions: with regards to the references, I think if you used your admin permissions to import the CS1 citation templates from enwiki it would also take care of the dependent modules. Or maybe someone from the community should file a request on MetaWiki. Documentation templates would also be handy I also think it might be a good idea to add a system or template for handling linguistic issues: for instance, I've already seen a page copied from enwiki with no effort made to translate it (although I can't find the specific page right now). Thanks! [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 15:43, 24 August 2023 (GMT)

:Thanks for the good wishes. I would really need help cos I am not conversant with the templates. I will ask a couple of guys around. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:34, 24 August 2023 (GMT)
==suggestion==
Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]],
What do you think of the idea of ​​adding a new section to the home page called “In the News” and updating it continuously?--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 12:00, 10 September 2023 (GMT)

:Sounds good. A very good idea [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:07, 10 September 2023 (GMT)

== Note ==

Dear @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I hope you are well.
Over the past few days, I have developed a bot that I will activate here soon. It will create categories and templates that will help us. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 22:03, 3 November 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]), I am good and you? Noted and thanks for the continuous support. We really appreciate it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:21, 3 November 2023 (GMT)

== Translation ==
Hi, could you please translate this to Ghanaian Pidgin?

Guosa is a constructed interlanguage originally created by Alex Igbineweka in 1965. It was designed to be a combination of the indigenous languages of Nigeria and to serve as a lingua franca to West Africa.

It has the following characteristics:
* It is an isolating language with subject–verb–object word order.
* There are no articles.
* There is no grammatical gender or noun class system.
* Most grammatical meaning is expressed through particles that precede the words they modify.
* Adjectives follow the noun.
* Guosa is generally prepositional.

Thank you. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]) 07:12, 16 November 2023 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]), thanks for reaching out. This is the Ghanaian Pidgin translation:
:Guosa be constructed interlanguage wey Alex Igbineweka originally create am for 1965 insyd. Dem design am make e be combination of de indigenous languages for Nigeria wey e go serve as lingua franca go West Africa.
:E get de characteristics wey dey follow:
:•E be language wey dey isolate plus subject–verb–object word order.
:•No articles dey.
:•No grammatical gender anaa noun class system dey.
:•Dem dey express chaw grammatical meaning thru particles wey dey precede de words dem modify.
:•Adjectives dey follow de noun.
:•Guosa be generally prepositional. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:03, 16 November 2023 (GMT)

==Importing citation templates==
Was looking at importing cite journal, cite book, and cite web. Best way to do this would be to use this tool and select &quot;Include all templates and transcluded pages&quot; https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Import

Would be happy to but only certain user groups have permission to use the tool. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:30, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
:By the way hope to see you do more healthcare translations. Once we get the templates imported things will come through better. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:44, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
::Thanks [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) for this information. It is valuable for us. I have checked it out and I realized it is a good tool. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:05, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
:::Are you able to make me a member of one of these groups &quot;Administrators or Importers&quot; so that I can help. Looking at &quot;Template:Cite book&quot; and not sure it worked properly. [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 23:17, 26 October 2024 (GMT)
::::No please. But I think you can request for a temporal admin [[metawiki:Steward_requests/Permissions#Administrator_access|here]] to enable you carry that task.  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:05, 27 October 2024 (GMT)

== delete ==

Can you please delete [[Talk:Audrey Sitsofe Gadzekpo]] and [[Talk:Joseph Kwame Kumah]]? they are orphaned. Best regards, [[User:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] ([[User talk:TenWhile6|talk]]) 17:01, 14 November 2024 (GMT)

:Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:59, 14 November 2024 (GMT)

== Thank you for being a medical translator! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2024 Cure Translators Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2024 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&amp;project=all&amp;year=2024&amp;start=Filter joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We look forwards to working together in 2025.
|}

Thanks again :-)  -- [https://mdwiki.org/wiki/User:Doc_James &lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 06:54, 26 January 2025 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2024&amp;oldid=28173086 --&gt;
:I appreciate the award. Hope to do more this year [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 10:24, 26 January 2025 (GMT)

== Request for help ==

Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]],

My name is [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|Uzoma]], I am the Movement Communications Specialist supporting the [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization]] team. I am reaching out because you [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&amp;_Community-defined_lists/Collaborators#User_names_and_campaigns|indicated interest]] in participating in the [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&amp;_Community-defined_lists|Translation suggestions: Topic-based &amp; Community-defined lists]] project.

We now have the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;campaign=contributionsmenu&amp;to=sw&amp;filter-type=automatic&amp;filter-id=collections&amp;active-list=suggestions&amp;from=en Community-defined list feature] in the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;campaign=contributionsmenu&amp;to=sw&amp;filter-type=automatic&amp;filter-id=previous-edits&amp;active-list=draft&amp;from=en Content translation tool]. We want to approach organisers of Wiki campaigns that involve translation happening now or soon to add the collection tags to their article list. So that people who use the Content translation tool can discover these campaigns and participate directly from the moment they access the tool using their mobile device. The campaign suggestions will be in the &quot;All Collection&quot; category of the Translation suggestion feature in the tool, as illustrated in the GIF below.

[[File:How_to_select_a_specific_collection_&amp;_all_collections_(1).gif|Screen record of how to select a specific collection and &quot;all collections&quot;]]

'''Our request'''

Please help us by providing a list of the campaigns happening in your community and the organisers we can approach to add the tag. This is important to us because we need to learn from its usage for campaigns.

I would appreciate your help connecting me to the campaigns you are preparing for in your community.

I look forward to your response, and please let me know if you need any clarification. Thank you so much!

Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 22:28, 11 February 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] thanks for reaching out. The Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia will be participating in this year's [[metawiki:Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025/Participants#Participating_Communities|Wiki Loves Ramadan]]. I will keep you posted when the community participates in subsequent editathons and campaigns. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:43, 11 February 2025 (GMT)
::Thank you so much, @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], for this information. I will keep in touch.
::Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 18:47, 13 February 2025 (GMT)
:::Ok @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:14, 13 February 2025 (GMT)

== Follow-up on Incomplete Information for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 ==

Hi DaSupremo,

Thank you for signing up your community for For Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Please provide the following missing information on the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants|participants' page of Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]].

* Local Project Page Link
* Local Organizer
* Jury Tools Link
* Jury Members

''For the Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 05:49, 1 April 2025 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:ZI Jony|'''ZI Jony''']] [[User talk:ZI Jony|&lt;sup&gt;''(Talk)''&lt;/sup&gt;]], thanks for the message. Please none of the information above were created because I am the only person contributing on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia participating in the contest. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo#top|talk]]) 11:00, 1 April 2025 (UTC) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:01, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you for your efforts. Unfortunately, above requirements are mandatory. I would like to request you to create an local Wikipedia project page (you would be able to copy content from [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Sample|here]], and then translate in your local language). Ask others to join with you as local organizer and jury members. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:23, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
:::Thanks. Can I still participate as a participant because we did not apply for a grant to organise this event so we have no funds to award winners and its associated cost? [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:29, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
::::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], you still can continue as an local participant. Most of local organizers work without grant, as there are international prizes available. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:46, 1 April 2025 (GMT)
:::::Oh okay...thanks. I will set up the local page then. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 15:10, 1 April 2025 (GMT)

== Reminder: Submit Your Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May ==

Dear DaSupremo,

Thank you for your valuable contributions to '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' in your communities!

This is a kind reminder that the '''deadline to submit your local results is 15 May 2025'''.

Please make sure to submit the '''complete and detailed results''' of your local contest on the following Meta-Wiki page:  
'''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]'''

Additionally, feel free to add a brief summary of your local event under the '''Results''' section in your country/region’s row on the participants page:  
'''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]'''

If you need any assistance during this process, don’t hesitate to reach out.

Thank you for your continued dedication and support!


For, Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team 11:51, 2 May 2025 (GMT)
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==Testing the tool==
Hey DaSupremo was just testing the tool here and thus had put it in my user space. Article is not actually translated

https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rabies&amp;action=history

[[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:24, 7 May 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Doc James|Doc James]], yeah I realized that and that is the reason I am moving them to mainspace and translating them. Thanks  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:01, 7 May 2025 (GMT)
::Excellent, and we have the disease infobox / other infoboxes formating correctly now. See [[Glioblastoma]] [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:59, 8 May 2025 (GMT)
:::Great. Thank you for this. Now we can have infoboxes on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. Greatly appreciated [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:28, 8 May 2025 (GMT)

== Final Reminder – Submit Full Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May EOD ==

Dear DaSupremo,

This is a final reminder that the deadline to submit your '''full and detailed local results''' for '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' is '''15 May 2025''' EOD.

Please ensure you complete the following as soon as possible:

* Submit your full results on Meta-Wiki here: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]'''
* Add a brief summary of your local event under the &quot;Results&quot; column on: '''[[Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]'''

Failure to submit by the deadline may result in exclusion from the international jury consideration.

If you need help or encounter any issues, feel free to contact the international team.

Thank you once again for your dedication and hard work!


''Warm regards,''&lt;br/&gt;
'''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team''', 02:39, 15 May 2025 (GMT)
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== Share Your Feedback – Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 ==

Dear DaSupremo

Thank you for being a part of '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' — whether as a contributor, jury member, or local organizer. Your efforts helped make this campaign a meaningful celebration of culture, heritage, and community on Wikimedia platforms.

To help us improve and grow this initiative in future years, we kindly ask you to complete a short '''feedback form'''. Your responses are valuable in shaping how we support contributors like you.

* '''Feedback Form:''' [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Submit your feedback here]
* '''Deadline to submit:''' 31 May 2025

It will only take a few minutes to complete, and your input will directly impact how we plan, communicate, and collaborate in the future.

Thank you again for your support. We look forward to having you with us in future campaigns!


Warm regards,&lt;br/&gt;
''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'' 08:51, 19 May 2025 (GMT)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Participants&amp;oldid=28751574 --&gt;

== Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 – Global Top 10 Winner: Congratulations! ==

'''Dear DaSupremo,'''

Congratulations! You have been selected as one of the '''Top 10 Global Winners''' (ranks 4 to 10) of the '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' campaign. Your contributions and participation have greatly enriched the project, and we sincerely appreciate your efforts.

To send you your prize and the official campaign T-shirt, we kindly request the following details:

* Full name:  
* Wikimedia username:  
* Country of residency:  
* Email address:  
* Preferred T-shirt size (M, L, XL):  
* Preferred T-shirt color (Black, White, Navy):  

'''Please send the above information within 24 hours to:''' '''support@wikilovesramadan.org'''

Your prize will be delivered through the [https://www.tremendous.com/catalog/ Tremendous] platform.

Also, we kindly request you to fill the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Participant Feedback Form]''' at your earliest convenience.

Once again, thank you for your amazing contribution.

'''Best regards,'''  
''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 03:43, 27 May 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]], Thanks for the message. I have some reservations about the Winner of the campaign. I do not understand the language but it is clear when an article is created in a particular language. Most of their contributions (from what I sampled) where actually 'discussion pages' rather than translated articles. See [[:bn:আলাপ:মরক্কোতে_আশুরা|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:গ্রেটার_টলেডো_ইসলামিক_সেন্টার|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:মুসলিম_আমেরিকান_সোসাইটি|this]] and most could be found on the [[xtools:pages/bn.wikipedia.org/Hasan muntaseer/1|Xtool]]. Moreover, they were not even registered on the dashboard as we were told it was a requirement. On the dashboard, only [[wmfdashboard:courses/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025|241 articles]] where created in the Bangla Wikipedia. I might be wrong but their results need to be reviewed to ensure fairness and transparency. Thank you. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 08:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT)
::[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I believe that the same question you maybe asked to Dnshitobu earlier! Mostly tracking categories are used in the talk page of the articles for almost all Wikipedia, including Bangla and English Wikipedia. They use a template on the article talk page where a description also placed, instead of using on the main articles. Using dashboard were not a mandatory tool, because many wikis' developed thier own jury tools, like Bangla, Ukrainian, even English Wikipedia also used a different tool called [https://fountain.toolforge.org Fountain], it’s depend on local organizers which tool they are comfortable to use. Bangla Wikipedia was submitted 1806 articles, due to non-relevant issue they removed several articles. For you clarity, Bangla Wikipedia was looking for additional jury members to complete thier jury process in time, and I joined to help then, in the meantime I have re-reviewd several articles. So, I believe that the jury process were well strictured and trusted. I kindly request you to provide the details you have been asked at your earliest convenience. Additional inquiry, are you attending EduWiki Conference 2025? Or, someone who can receive your gift and certificate from the conference let me know in the same email. Thank you! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 10:51, 27 May 2025 (GMT)
:::Ok...thanks for the detailed explanation. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT)

== [[José Rafael Córdero Sánchez]] ==

Hi DaSupremo, I need your help about this article because is a crosswiki spam, for more details please check: [[:nl:Overleg Wikipedia:Checklijst langdurig structureel vandalisme/Josercs1|this report]] from Dutch Wikipedia. Thank you. [[User:Taichi|Taichi]] ([[User talk:Taichi|talk]]) 23:48, 16 October 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Taichi|Taichi]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:01, 17 October 2025 (GMT)

== [[Samata (fashion entrepreneur)]] ==

Hi DaSupremo, I noticed that you expanded this article in 2023 by translating content from English Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia article was deleted earlier this year as most of the sources were found to be spam or unreliable. Other language Wikipedias like French, Arabic, Swahili and Igbo have also deleted this article on similar grounds. It seems the original English article was written by a spammer for promotional purposes, therefore the Ghanaian Pidgin article (which was primarily translated from English) should also be deleted. Let me know your thoughts. [[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]] ([[User talk:Acoustical|talk]]) 19:16, 25 November 2025 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. Since it has been deleted from other language Wikipedias, I think it should be deleted too on the Ghanaian Pidgin WIkipedia. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:32, 25 November 2025 (GMT)

== Undeletion Request ==

hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]]

I noticed that you previously improved the article about Adebayo Temitayo (Realjjfrosh). I wanted to let you know that the page was later deleted.

If you have time, I would appreciate any guidance on whether the sources used (Punch, Vanguard, ThisDay, BusinessDay, Daily Trust) meet the project’s notability standards, or how the article could be reworked to comply fully with policy.

Thank you for your earlier improvements and for any advice you may be able to offer. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|&amp;#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:13, 3 February 2026 (GMT)

:It was deleted because of (Spam and it was a ([[metawiki:steward|steward]] action)) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:19, 3 February 2026 (GMT)
::Ok thanks  [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|&amp;#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:39, 3 February 2026 (GMT)

== Thank you for being a medical contributors! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|130px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2025 Cure Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2025 you '''[[mdwiki:WikiProjectMed:WikiProject_Medicine/Stats/Top_medical_editors_2025_(all)|were one of the top medical editors in your language]]'''. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We appreciate you and the vital work you do! 

Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider joining for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs.

Additionally one of our primary efforts revolves around translating health content. We invite you to '''[https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/index.php try our new workflow]''' if you have not already. Our dashboard automatically [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php collects statistics] of your efforts and we are working on [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/fixwikirefs.php tools to automatically improve formating].
|}

Look forwards to collaborating in the year ahead. Thanks again :-)  -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:42, 14 February 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;

(This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Other_Language_Editors_2025&amp;oldid=30070084 --&gt;

== Thank you for being a medical translator! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;&quot; | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]]
|style=&quot;font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;&quot; |'''The 2025 Cure Translators Award''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;&quot; |In 2025 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&amp;user_group=all&amp;year=2025&amp;month=All joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public.

Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider formally joining the organization for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs.
|}

Look forwards to collaborating further in the year ahead. Thanks again :-)  -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0000f1&quot;&gt;'''Doc James'''&lt;/span&gt;]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:53, 14 February 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;

(This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.)
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== Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers &amp; Jury ==

Hello {{PAGENAME}}!,

Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts!

To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have:
* Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]:
* Started promoting the campaign within your community.
* Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified.
* Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community.

=== Internet &amp; Childcare Support ===
Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''.

'''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]'''

Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained.

=== Important Participation Guidelines ===

* Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers).
* If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us.

=== Community Engagement ===

* Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign.
* Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally.
* In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''.
Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊

Thank you for your collaboration!

''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.''

Feminism and Folklore International Team.

–[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 05:17, 16 February 2026 (GMT)
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== Translation request ==

Hello, DaSupremo.

Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Bazardüzü]] and [[:en:Campi Flegrei]] in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia? 

Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 07:39, 15 March 2026 (GMT)

:Hello @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]]. Noted [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:22, 15 March 2026 (GMT)
::Hello, DaSupremo.
::Thank you very much for the new article.
::Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 16:43, 9 April 2026 (GMT)
:::Welcome @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:47, 9 April 2026 (GMT)

== Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers ==

&lt;div style=&quot;border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]]

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1em 2em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;''{{int:please-translate}}''&lt;/div&gt;

Dear Organizer,

I hope this message finds you well.

First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause.

As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]].

Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed.

Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. 

Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful.

Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon.

Warm regards,

[[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]]

on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team 

&lt;nowiki&gt;#WeTogether&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:57, 11 April 2026 (GMT)
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== You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Greetings,

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years.

This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required.

The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run.

In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:33, 28 April 2026 (GMT) &lt;/div&gt;
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== Ghanaian Pidgin ==

Hello. I'm looking for Ghanaian Pidgin translation of descriptions of a few items for Wikidata. Would you help? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 19:45, 7 May 2026 (GMT)

:Sure [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 20:07, 7 May 2026 (GMT)
:: I'm looking for:
: &quot;studio album by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;compilation album by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;song by Käärijä den Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;single by Käärijä den Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;promotional single by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;music video by Basshunter&quot;
: &quot;lyric video by Basshunter&quot;
:: [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 20:17, 7 May 2026 (GMT)
:::@[[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:25, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::: So they are almost like English with the only difference of &quot;den&quot;? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 18:00, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::::Ghanaian Pidgin is more of English with a bit of local Ghanaian languages [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:50, 8 May 2026 (GMT)
:::::: Good to know. All added. Thanks a lot. [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 21:30, 8 May 2026 (GMT)

== Request writing about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) ==

hi DaSupremo Would you like to write about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) for the GPE Wikipedia? It'll be appreciated if it 'll be done. [[User:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[User talk:Boss-well63|talk]]) 18:41, 29 May 2026 (GMT)

== Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, 

This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''.

Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026.

Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign.

Best regards,

'''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:09, 3 June 2026 (GMT)
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== Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]]

Dear {{PAGENAME}},

Your dedication, coordination, and hard work played a vital role in making this year's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign successful. We truly appreciate the time and effort you invested in engaging your community and supporting participants.

As we have completed the jury phase and begin planning for next year's campaign, we would like to learn from your experiences. Please complete the organisers' feedback form and share your insights, challenges, and suggestions on how we can improve the campaign.

'''This feedback form is mandatory for all organisers''', as it helps us evaluate the campaign and make meaningful improvements for future editions.

'''Form link [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf6IsGAsxkTEWTwueyLg-gBjRVlY3g2kTNj3xRhDiILiQnQwQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]'''

Please submit your response by '''25 June 2026'''.

Thank you once again for your invaluable contributions and for helping make Feminism and Folklore a global success. We look forward to working with you again in the future!

Regards,

'''Feminism and Folklore Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:05, 18 June 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/div&gt;
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== Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]]

Dear {{PAGENAME}},

Your contributions helped make this year's [[:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign a great success, and we are truly grateful for your time, knowledge, and dedication to documenting women's stories and folklore on Wikimedia projects.

As we reflect on this year's campaign and prepare for the next edition, we'd love to hear about your experience. Please take a few minutes to fill out our feedback form and share your thoughts and suggestions.

As a token of our appreciation, everyone who completes the form will receive a '''special digital postcard'''! in their email. This year marks '''''25 years of Wikipedia''''', and the postcard has been created to celebrate this milestone and to recognize the incredible efforts of participants like you who continue to enrich free knowledge for the world.

'''Form Link - [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdqFZN9IdWbAnZ_7DyG5bIsuq7KAkdsIxweC_TdPH9In-tthQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]'''

Please complete the feedback form by '''25 June 2026'''.

Thank you once again for making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a success. We hope to see you again in future campaigns!

Best regards,

Feminism and Folklore international Team.

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 14:31, 18 June 2026 (GMT)

&lt;/div&gt;
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== Share your Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 journey! ==

Dear Organizer,

On behalf of the Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team, I want to send a massive thank you for your leadership and hard work during the 2026 campaign. Organizing local events, coordinating juries, and tracking metrics takes a lot of effort, and your dedication has been vital to bridging the knowledge gap regarding Islamic heritage and traditions.

As we wrap up this year's campaign, we would love to hear how things went in your community. We have put together the Organizer Feedback Form to capture your successes, challenges, and metrics.

* '''Link to form''': https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfDsuYSv2S4RCQuwAO9MlykJwgPIy-l9ENTr7I_GxpfVuo2TA/viewform
* '''Deadline''': 31 July 2026

Thank you again for championing this campaign. We couldn't do this without you.


Warm Regards, [[m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] (Project Lead) for the Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 International Team. 20:12, 29 June 2026 (GMT)
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== Thank you for joining Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026! ==

Dear Participant,

Thank you so much for participating in the Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 campaign! Whether you were writing articles or uploading photos to Wikimedia Commons, your contributions have helped share beautiful traditions, Islamic history, and cultural heritage with the rest of the world. 

We want to make sure next year's campaign is even better, and we need your help to do it! We would love it if you could take 3–5 minutes to fill out our quick '''Participant Feedback Form'''. 

* '''Link to form''': https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScw_bPHsVzpby50jc2_syJD5-mS9scnRL5BLv9UXH2tK3Mr8w/viewform

Thank you again for sharing your knowledge and creativity with the Wikimedia movement. Keep an eye on your talk page and our social media for the final winner announcements soon!  Happy editing,


Warm Regards, [[m:User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] (Project Lead) for the Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 International Team. 20:13, 29 June 2026 (GMT)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/2026/Participants&amp;oldid=30750498 --&gt;</text>
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    <title>ENISA (singer)</title>
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      <text bytes="7477" sha1="75sk2uu9wadm5u3e650yhu9ord4ull7" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
'''Enisa Nikaj''' ([[:en:Help:IPA/English|/ɛniːsɑː ˈniːkaɪ/]]; born March 5, 1996), dem know am professionally as '''Enisa''' (dem stylize insyd all caps), be an American singer den songwriter. She begin ein music career insyd 2015 wey she perform cover songs wey she begin dey release original music insyd 2016. She sign to Atlantic Records den Highbridge The Label insyd December 2019, wey she compete insyd de ''American Song Contest'' insyd March 2022.

== Early life ==
Na dem born Enisa Nikaj insyd Brooklyn, New York to Albanian parents wey komot Tuzi, Montenegro.&lt;ref name=&quot;c-heads&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.c-heads.com/2016/02/16/everything-happened-organically-sharing-is-everything-a-talk-with-enisa/|title='Everything happened organically, sharing is everything': A Talk with Enisa|last=Engel|first=Lauren|website=www.c-heads.com|publisher=C-Heads Magazine|date=February 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206081715/http://www.c-heads.com:80/2016/02/16/everything-happened-organically-sharing-is-everything-a-talk-with-enisa/|archive-date=February 6, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://telegrafi.com/producenti-amerikan-timbaland-shpreh-interesim-per-vallen-e-shotes/|title=Producenti amerikan, Timbaland shpreh interesim për 'Vallen e Shotës'|website=Telegrafi|date=August 19, 2019|access-date=September 27, 2021|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dritare&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://dritare.net/ekskluzive-enisa-nga-nju-jorku-nje-shqiptare-superstar|title=Ekskluzive: Enisa nga Nju Jorku, një shqiptare superstar|last=Turishta|first=Kozeta|website=Dritare.com|date=April 24, 2017|access-date=September 28, 2021|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt; Na ein poppie emigrate from de SFR Yugoslavia to de [[United States]] for de age of 25, wey later ein mommie follow.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koha&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.koha.mk/enisa-nje-amy-whinehouse-shqiptare-foto/|title=ENISA: Një 'Amy Whinehouse' shqiptare!|last=Rexhepi|first=Blerand|website=www.koha.mk|date=August 24, 2019|access-date=September 25, 2021|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt; Enisa be a middle kiddie, wey she get older den younger bro, both take up dey play basketball while Enisa lean towards music.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Rose, Audrey (October 6, 2017). [https://twelvny.com/fashion/enisa-exclusive-interviewfashion-story-freedom &quot;Enisa Exclusive Interview: Fashion Story 'Freedom'&quot;]. ''twelvny.com''. Retrieved December 8, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt; She begin dey sing for home as a young kiddie.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.anabelmagazine.com/artikull/9382/enisa-nikaj-shqiptarja-qe-mund-te-behet-nje-yll-muzike/|title=Enisa Nikaj, shqiptarja që mund të bëhet një yll muzike|website=AnabelMagazine.com|date=September 5, 2015|access-date=September 25, 2015|language=sq}}&lt;/ref&gt; Enisa attend PS 130 The Parkside elementary school,&lt;ref name=&quot;PS130&quot;&gt;@IAmENISA (November 21, 2020). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210929010712/https://twitter.com/IAmENISA/status/1330239021621125121 &quot;Fun Fact I was Valedictorian at my school 😌 🧠 Smart girls don't need no DUMB Boys‼️&quot;] (Tweet). Archived from [https://x.com/IAmENISA/status/1330239021621125121 the original] on September 29, 2021 – via Twitter.&lt;/ref&gt; wer she participate insyd theater den de school choir,&lt;ref name=&quot;Dritare&quot; /&gt; wey she graduate as valedictorian.&lt;ref name=&quot;PS130&quot; /&gt; For age seven, she play de role of Dorothy insyd a school play of ''The Wizard of Oz'' insyd de fourth grade.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koha&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TUN&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tun.com/blog/star-on-the-rise-enisa-nikaj-brooklyn-college/|title=Star on the Rise: Enisa Nikaj from Brooklyn College|website=www.tun.com|publisher=The University Network|last=Bonilla|first=Brian|date=February 28, 2017|access-date=December 8, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Enisa attend I.S. 259 William McKinley Junior High School den Edward R. Murrow High School, wey she graduate insyd 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Flaunt&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://flaunt.com/content/enisa|title=Enisa: The Albanian Recording Artist Talks Latest Release 'Tears Hit the Ground'|last=Ju|first=Shirley|website=Flaunt|date=July 20, 2021|access-date=September 25, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rapper Joey Badass be one of ein schoolmates.&lt;ref&gt;Setaro, Shawn (November 30, 2017). [https://www.complex.com/music/2017/11/statik-selektah-g-eazy-joey-badass-enisa-aint-a-damn-thing-change &quot;Premiere: Statik Selektah Grabs G-Eazy, Joey Badass, and Enisa for 'Ain't a Damn Thing Change'&quot;]. ''Complex''. Retrieved September 30, 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; She attend Brooklyn College, wey she graduate early plus a bachelor's degree insyd business administration insyd May 2018.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TUN&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;@IAmENISA (May 31, 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210929013440/https://twitter.com/IAmENISA/status/1002150847244009472 &quot;My graduation is at the Barclays Center today, hopefully next time I'm back here I'll be performing 🎤😬🤞🏼 #LetTheUniverseKnow #DreamBIG&quot;] (Tweet). Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20250124044913/https://x.com/IAmENISA/status/1002150847244009472 the original] on September 29, 2021 – via Twitter.&lt;/ref&gt; She dey play de piano, wey na she do internships for advertising agencies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vulkan&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.vulkanmagazine.com:80/enisa/|title='Enisa'|last=Ntoi|first=Kevin|website=VulkanMagazine.com|date=April 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424212738/http://www.vulkanmagazine.com:80/enisa/|archive-date=April 24, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Enisa grow up dey listen to Albanian music, for addition to artists such as Frank Sinatra, Nina Simone den Justin Timberlake. Na she cite Adele den Amy Winehouse as ein inspirations.&lt;ref name=&quot;c-heads&quot; /&gt;

== Discography ==
===Extended play===
* ''Fake Love'' (2022)

=== Singles ===
;As lead artist
* 2016: &quot;Burn This Bridge&quot;
* 2017: &quot;Glory Days&quot;
* 2017: &quot;Freedom&quot;
* 2018: &quot;Reunite&quot;
* 2019: &quot;Something Beautiful&quot;
* 2019: &quot;Wait for Love&quot;
* 2020: &quot;Love Cycle&quot;
* 2020: &quot;Dumb Boy&quot;
* 2020 : &quot;Green Light &quot;
* 2021: &quot;Count My Blessings&quot;
* 2021: &quot;Love Cycle (Remix)&quot; {{small|(ft. [[Davido]])}}
* 2021: &quot;Tears Hit the Ground&quot;
* 2022: &quot;One Thing&quot;
* 2022: &quot;Get That Money&quot;
* 2022: &quot;Just A Kiss (Muah)&quot;
* 2022: &quot;OLÉ&quot;
* 2024: &quot;Allo&quot; {{small|(plus Anastasia)}}
* 2024: &quot;Disco Cone (Take It High)&quot; {{small|(ft. Wenzl McGowen)}}
* 2024: &quot;Tears Don't Fall&quot; {{small|(ft. Kaskade)}}

;As featured artist
* 2017: &quot;Ain't A Damn Thing Change&quot; {{small|(Statik Selektah ft. G-Eazy, Joey Badass, Enisa)}}
* 2019: &quot;Travel the World&quot; {{small|(Termanology, Dame Grease ft. Bun B, Enisa)}}
* 2019: &quot;Karma (Remix)&quot; {{small|(Scridge, Enisa, Ghenda)}}
* 2021: &quot;Number One (Remix)&quot; {{small|(Rayvanny ft. Enisa)}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
*[http://www.enisamusic.com/ Official website]
{{DEFAULTSORT:ENISA (singer)}}
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Human]]
[[Category:21st-century American women singers]]
[[Category:21st-century American singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:American people of Albanian descent]]
[[Category:American people of Montenegrin descent]]
[[Category:American contemporary R&amp;B singers]]
[[Category:American soul singers]]
[[Category:American women pop singers]]
[[Category:American women singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Brooklyn College alumni]]
[[Category:Edward R. Murrow High School alumni]]
[[Category:Female models wey komot New York (state)]]
[[Category:Models wey komot New York City]]
[[Category:Singers wey komot New York City]]
[[Category:Singer-songwriters wey komot New York (state)]]
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    <title>User talk:Sunkanmi12</title>
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      <text bytes="2432" sha1="ru1wffomsuz1ogf48ilwb4bsr92ain0" xml:space="preserve">== Share Your Feedback – Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 ==

Dear Sunkanmi12

Thank you for being a part of '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' — whether as a contributor, jury member, or local organizer. Your efforts helped make this campaign a meaningful celebration of culture, heritage, and community on Wikimedia platforms.

To help us improve and grow this initiative in future years, we kindly ask you to complete a short '''feedback form'''. Your responses are valuable in shaping how we support contributors like you.

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    <title>Ebola River</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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De '''Ebola River''' (/iˌboʊlə/ anaa /əˈboʊlə/),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &amp;#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; sanso commonly be known by ein Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',&lt;ref name=&quot;Tanghe&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bossche|first=J.-P. vanden|url=https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s|title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M.|last3=Nations|first3=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United|date=1990|publisher=Food &amp; Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-102983-1|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.  

De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', ein name insyd Ngbandi wich dey mean 'white water'.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] na dese names be interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''&lt;ref name=&quot;Tanghe&quot; /&gt; den rarely ''L'Ébola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot; /&gt;

Insyd 1976, na dem first identify Ebola virus insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, buh de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town no go be associated plus de disease ein stigma.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot; /&gt; Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (dem usually refer to as simply &quot;Ebola&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
{{Commons}}

[[Category:Ebola]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of de Congo stubs]]</text>
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De '''Ebola River''' (/iˌboʊlə/ anaa /əˈboʊlə/),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &amp;#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; sanso commonly be known by ein Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',&lt;ref name=&quot;Tanghe&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bossche|first=J.-P. vanden|url=https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s|title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M.|last3=Nations|first3=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United|date=1990|publisher=Food &amp; Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-102983-1|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.  

De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', ein name insyd Ngbandi wich dey mean 'white water'.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] na dese names be interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''&lt;ref name=&quot;Tanghe&quot; /&gt; den rarely ''L'Ébola''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot; /&gt;

Insyd 1976, na dem first identify Ebola virus insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, buh de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town no go be associated plus de disease ein stigma.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wordsworth&quot; /&gt; Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (dem usually refer to as simply &quot;Ebola&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
{{Commons}}

[[Category:Ebola]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of de Congo stubs]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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    <title>Mutumuna Falls</title>
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'''Mutumuna Falls''' be a wide waterfall insyd [[Zambia]]. E be de &quot;Upper Fall&quot; insyd de 3-falls cascade dem commonly refer to as de [[Chisimba Falls]] (sanso be Chishimba Falls), insyd Kasama District, insyd de Northern Province of Zambia. Mutumuna Falls den de oda two components insyd de cascade, host de 15 megawatts [[Chishimba Hydroelectric Power Station]] den related infrastructure, across de ''Luombe River''.&lt;ref name=&quot;1R&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.world-of-waterfalls.com/waterfalls/africa-chishimba-falls/ |title=Chishimba Falls: Kasama, Northern Province, Zambia |date=16 August 2010 |author=World of Waterfalls
|work=World-of-Waterfalls.com |access-date=20 May 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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    <title>Congo Basin</title>
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        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course and drainage basin of the Congo River with countries marked]]
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.
== References ==</text>
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        <id>1645</id>
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      <comment>Improve am</comment>
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      <text bytes="9977" sha1="7vo3vojjgz0eyo32c4qojx6kuxhs3bu" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of the Conventional Congo Basin]]
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of the Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]

== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of the Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
== References ==</text>
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&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

== References ==</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

== References ==</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="14386" sha1="exc11u4e1c1bx74iapqwueiuhvynru9" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}

[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.
== References ==</text>
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        <id>1645</id>
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      <comment>Improve am</comment>
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      <text bytes="14783" sha1="hrbkqe6483sd4se03sbhjt3jq6mw0iz" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}

[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Regions of Africa]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Regions of Africa]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Regions of Africa]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]
[[Category:Congolian forests]]</text>
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[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, making am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic &amp; onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, but de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity. Sediment started to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), causing am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Many of de formations deposited by these freshwater den marine habitats are rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes dat are thought to have formed during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are de source of de region's famous diamonds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occurred plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited insyd de basin:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo)
* Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo)
* Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation
* Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series
* Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group)
* Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
* Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series
== Description ==
{{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River with countries marked]]
Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin begins insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Because of de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river's yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDonald2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits &amp; Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be delineated largely by swells including de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]]
De basin ends wey de river empties into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands.

Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}}
*[[Angola]]
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Burundi]]
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Zambia]]
{{Div col end}}
== History ==
{{See also|Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|History of the Congo River|Colonization of the Congo Basin}}
De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrated there den founded de Kingdom of Kongo.

Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later established [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de &quot;conventional basin&quot; of de Congo, wich included de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis was not respected during de First World War.
[[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]]
De World Resources Institute estimated dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|[[Aka people|Pygmy]] hunter-gatherers in the Central African Republic.]]
== Climate ==
De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two being over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. These three regions together drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin has de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1}}&lt;/ref&gt; De high rainfall supports de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink&lt;ref&gt;Dargie, Greta C., et al. &quot;Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.&quot; Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.&lt;/ref&gt; den an important component of de global carbon cycle.

Averaged across de whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (&lt;80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; De systems last over 11 hours on average den have a mean size exceeding 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;doi.org&quot; /&gt;
[[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the [[Lukenie River]] as it meanders through the [[Central Congolian lowland forests]]]]
Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) are lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (The sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa.

Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.&lt;ref&gt;IPCC AR6 2022&lt;/ref&gt; There be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region fir change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fit becam more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere.

Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e has been suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest could act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.&lt;ref&gt;Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3&lt;/ref&gt;
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Congo drainage basin]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]]
[[Category:Regions of Africa]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]
[[Category:Congolian forests]]
[[Category:Landforms of Angola]]</text>
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    <title>Lubigi Drainage Canal</title>
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The &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''Lubigi Drainage Canal'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt; na one big [[:en:Flood-control|flood-control]] [[:en:Canal|canal]] wey dey for the [[:en:Points_of_the_compass#Designations|northwestern]] part of [[:en:Kampala|Kampala]], Uganda. E dey pass through the [[:en:Lubigi|Lubigi]] [[:en:Wetland|Wetland]] and e dey form part of Kampala primary [[:en:Stormwater|stormwater]] [[:en:Drainage_system_(agriculture)|drainage network.]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=K. Kayima |first=John |last2=W. Mayo |first2=Aloyce |last3=Nobert |first3=Joel |date=2018-08 |title=Ecological Characteristics and Morphological Features of the Lubigi Wetland in Uganda |url=https://www.hrpub.org/journals/article_info.php?aid=7146 |journal=Environment and Ecology Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=218–228 |doi=10.13189/eer.2018.060402 |issn=2331-625X |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260116065547/https://www.hrpub.org/journals/article_info.php?aid=7146 |archive-date=2026-01-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem develop the canal to improve stormwater conveyance and reduce the flooding wey dey happen again and again for the low-lying [[:en:Urban_area|urban areas]] of the [[:en:Ugandan|Ugandan]] [[:en:Capital_city|capital]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Admin |first=KCCA web |date=2025-02-06 |title=KCCA COMMITS TO FAST TRACKING LUBIGI DRAINAGE CHANNEL COMPLETION- KCCA {{!}} For a better City |url=https://www.kcca.go.ug/news/916/kcca-commits-to-fast-tracking-lubigi-drainage-channel-completion |access-date=2026-06-27 |website=KAMPALA CAPITAL CITY AUTHORITY {{!}} For a better City |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== History ==
Dem upgrade the Lubigi Drainage Canal under the Second Kampala Institutional and Infrastructure Development Project (KIIDP II), wey the [[:en:Kampala_Capital_City_Authority|Kampala Capital City Authority]] implement am with financial support from the [[:en:World_Bank_Group|World Bank]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=witnessradio.org |date=2023-01-09 |title=World Bank extends the Lubigi drainage project dispute resolution process for another six months. DEFENDING LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS » Witness Radio |url=https://witnessradio.org/world-bank-extends-the-lubigi-drainage-project-dispute-resolution-process-for-another-six-months/ |access-date=2026-06-27 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Design Review and Construction Supervision of Drainage Improvement Works in Kampala (Lot 1: Lubigi Primary Channel and Lot 2: Nakamiro Secondary Channel) {{!}} Gauff Consultants Uganda Ltd |url=https://gauff.co.ug/project/design-review-and-construction-supervision-drainage-improvement-works-kampala-lot-1-lubigi |access-date=2026-06-27 |website=gauff.co.ug}}&lt;/ref&gt; The project include widening, desilting and rehabilitating the drainage infrastructure to make the city fit handle flooding better.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P133590 |url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P133590 |access-date=2026-06-27 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Function ==
The canal dey collect and carry stormwater runoff from plenty urban catchments wey dey inside Kampala.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Admin |first=KCCA web |date=2021-05-31 |title=140 People Okay Construction of Lubigi Drainage Channel- KCCA {{!}} For a better City |url=https://www.kcca.go.ug/news/478/140-People-Okay-Construction-of-Lubigi-Drainage-Channel |access-date=2026-06-27 |website=KAMPALA CAPITAL CITY AUTHORITY {{!}} For a better City |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem consider am as one of the [[:en:City-state|city]] most important drainage [[:en:Hallway|corridors]] and e dey meant to reduce [[:en:Flooding|flooding]] for the time wey [[:en:Rainfall|rain]] dey fall heavy.

== Environmental concerns ==
The expansion works wey dem dey do along the canal don cause concerns about wetland [[:en:Degradation_of_the_environment|degradation]], compensation of people wey the project affect and how to balance [[:en:Flood_control|flood control]] and [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] conservation for the long term.
[[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Kampala]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Water treatment</title>
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      <text bytes="28598" sha1="czay5aiappu6uwdobxkxnqu3ssp2wle" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant.jpg|thumb|Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant, Washington, D.C.]]

'''Water treatment''' be any process wey dey improve the quality of water make e fit for a particular use. That use fit be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, keeping river flow, water recreation, or plenty other purposes, including returning the water safely back into the environment. Water treatment dey remove contaminants and other unwanted substances, or reduce the amount inside the water, so the water go fit for the purpose wey dem want use am for. This treatment be very important for human health and e help people use water safely for drinking and irrigation.

In recent decades, scientists don develop more advanced water treatment methods because of growing concerns about new pollutants like microplastics, pharmaceuticals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). These methods include advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration, and adsorption techniques wey dey use special materials like engineered nanomaterials and activated carbon. Besides that, people dey pay more attention to energy efficiency, resource recovery, and sustainability for water treatment systems, especially for places wey water scarce and environmental challenges dey increase.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nishmitha |first=P. S. |last2=Akhilghosh |first2=Kochuparambil Ajayaghosh |last3=Aiswriya |first3=Vijayalekshmi Padmachandran |last4=Ramesh |first4=Athira |last5=Muthuchamy |first5=Muthukumar |last6=Muthukumar |first6=Anbazhagi |date=2025-05-01 |title=Understanding emerging contaminants in water and wastewater: A comprehensive review on detection, impacts, and solutions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416625001664 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances |volume=18 |article-number=100755 |doi=10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100755 |issn=2772-4166|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Types ==

=== Drinking water treatment ===
{{Main|Water purification|Drinking water|water supply}}

Water contamination mostly happen because industries and commercial businesses discharge untreated wastewater. Wastewater from different companies, wey get different kinds and amounts of contaminants, often enter rivers and other water sources. The wastewater fit contain plenty organic and inorganic contaminants from the beginning. Industries produce wastewater through manufacturing processes, paper and pulp production, textile production, chemical industries, and systems like cooling towers, boilers, and production lines.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=N. B. |last2=Nagpal |first2=Garima |last3=Agrawal |first3=Sonal |last4=Rachna |date=2018-08-01 |title=Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352186417302663 |journal=Environmental Technology &amp; Innovation |language=en |volume=11 |pages=187–240 |doi=10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006 |bibcode=2018EnvTI..11..187S |issn=2352-1864 |s2cid=103693107|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Illustration of a typical drinking water treatment process.png|thumb|Typical drinking water treatment processes]]

Treatment for drinking water production dey involve removing contaminants and making harmful microorganisms inactive from raw water so the final water go pure enough for human consumption without causing any short-term or long-term health problems. The biggest microbial risks usually come from drinking water contaminated with human or animal (including bird) feces. Feces fit carry harmful bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. Removing or destroying these disease-causing microorganisms be very important. This usually involve using chemical agents together with treatment methods to remove suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals like iron and manganese. Research, including the work of Professor Linda Lawton and her team at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, dey help improve the detection of cyanobacteria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Linda Lawton – 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria|url=http://ictc11.org/speakers/linda-lawton/|access-date=2021-06-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; These harmful substances still dey affect many developing countries wey no get effective water purification systems.{{Original research inline|date=March 2023}}

Making sure water quality dey good no depend only on treatment. E also include how the treated water dey transported and distributed. Because of this, e be common practice to leave a small amount of disinfectant inside treated water to kill bacteria during distribution and keep water pipes clean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.dwi.gov.uk/consumers/learn-more-about-your-water/chlorine/|title=Chlorine|publisher=Drinking water inspectorate|access-date=2 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water wey people receive for house through tap water or other domestic uses fit receive extra treatment before use. These additional treatments fit include water softening or ion exchange. {{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Wastewater treatment ===
{{excerpt|wastewater treatment|paragraphs=1-3}}

=== Industrial water treatment ===
{{excerpt|Industrial water treatment#Overview|file=no}}

[[File:Imeytysallas Virttaankankaan tekopohjavesilaitos.JPG|thumb|At Turun Seudun Vesi Oy's artificial groundwater plant, the pretreated raw water from the Kokemäki River dey soak through the basins enter the Virttaankangas ridge formation.]]

== Processes ==

[[File:Prázdná aerační místnost, ÚV Káraný.jpg|thumb|upright|Empty aeration tank for iron precipitation]]

To remove hazardous chemicals from water, people dey use different treatment methods.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Jothirani|first1=R.|last2=Kumar|first2=P. Senthil|last3=Saravanan|first3=A.|last4=Narayan|first4=Abishek S.|last5=Dutta|first5=Abhishek|date=2016-07-25|title=Ultrasonic modified corn pith for the sequestration of dye from aqueous solution|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1226086X1630137X|journal=Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=39|pages=162–175|doi=10.1016/j.jiec.2016.05.024|issn=1226-086X|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The processes wey dey remove contaminants include physical methods like settling and filtration, chemical methods like disinfection and coagulation, and biological methods like slow sand filtration.

Water treatment plants around the world choose one or more of these processes depending on the season and the type of contaminants and chemicals inside the raw water.

=== Chemical ===

[[File:Pískové rychlofiltry odželezovny v Káraném v klidu.jpg|thumb|Tanks with sand filters to remove precipitated iron (not working at the time)]]

Different chemical treatment methods dey help convert harmful substances into safer forms or remove pollutants completely before safe disposal.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Saravanan |first1=A. |last2=Senthil Kumar |first2=P. |last3=Jeevanantham |first3=S. |last4=Karishma |first4=S. |last5=Tajsabreen |first5=B. |last6=Yaashikaa |first6=P. R. |last7=Reshma |first7=B. |date=2021-10-01 |title=Effective water/wastewater treatment methodologies for toxic pollutants removal: Processes and applications towards sustainable development |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653521010663 |journal=Chemosphere |language=en |volume=280 |article-number=130595 |bibcode=2021Chmsp.28030595S |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130595 |issn=0045-6535 |pmid=33940449|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Pre-chlorination to control algae growth and stop biological growth.
* Aeration together with pre-chlorination to remove dissolved iron when small amounts of manganese dey present.
* Disinfection to kill bacteria, viruses, and other disease-causing microorganisms by using chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet light.
=== Chemical ===
[[File:Pískové rychlofiltry odželezovny v Káraném v klidu.jpg|thumb|Tanks wey get sand filters to remove iron wey don settle (dem no dey work for dat time)]]

Different chemical methods dey help convert substances into final products or remove pollutants so dem fit safely remove contaminants.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;/&gt;

* Pre-[[Water chlorination|chlorination]] to control algae and stop biological growth.
* [[Aeration]] plus pre-chlorination to remove dissolved iron, especially if small amount of manganese dey inside.
* Disinfection to kill bacteria, viruses and other pathogens by using chlorine, ozone and ultraviolet light.

=== Physical ===

Physical water and wastewater treatment methods dey depend on physical processes instead of biological or chemical changes to remove contaminants.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

The most common physical methods be:

* [[Sedimentation]] be one of the main wastewater treatment processes. [[Gravity separation|Gravity settling]] separate particles from liquid. As water speed reduce during treatment, suspended particles begin settle down because of gravity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Gottfried|first1=A.|last2=Shepard|first2=A. D.|last3=Hardiman|first3=K.|last4=Walsh|first4=M. E.|date=2008-11-01|title=Impact of recycling filter backwash water on organic removal in coagulation–sedimentation processes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135408003291|journal=Water Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=18|pages=4683–4691|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2008.08.011|pmid=18789473 |bibcode=2008WatRe..42.4683G |issn=0043-1354|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Samal|first=Sneha|date=2020-04-15|title=Effect of shape and size of filler particle on the aggregation and sedimentation behavior of the polymer composite|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032591020301613|journal=Powder Technology|language=en|volume=366|pages=43–51|doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2020.02.054|s2cid=213499533 |issn=0032-5910|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey mainly remove [[suspended solids]] wey trap inside floc.
* [[Filtration]] dey remove pollutants based on particle size. Removing pollutants from wastewater make e possible to reuse the water for different purposes. The type of filter wey dem go use depend on the contaminants inside the water. Particle filtration and [[Membrane filter|membrane filtration]] be the two main filtration methods.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ahmad|first1=Arslan|last2=Rutten|first2=Sam|last3=de Waal|first3=Luuk|last4=Vollaard|first4=Peter|last5=van Genuchten|first5=Case|last6=Bruning|first6=Harry|last7=Cornelissen|first7=Emile|last8=van der Wal|first8=Albert|date=2020-06-15|title=Mechanisms of arsenate removal and membrane fouling in ferric based coprecipitation–low pressure membrane filtration systems|journal=Separation and Purification Technology|language=en|volume=241|article-number=116644|doi=10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116644|s2cid=214445348 |issn=1383-5866|doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-8699161|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Dissolved air flotation]] ([[Degasification]]) na process wey dey remove dissolved gases from [[Solution (chemistry)|solution]]. According to [[Henry's law]], the amount of gas wey dissolve inside liquid depend on the gas pressure. Degasification be low-cost way to remove [[carbon dioxide]] gas from wastewater, wey dey increase the water [[pH]] by removing the gas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* [[Deaerator]] dey reduce oxygen and nitrogen for boiler feed water applications.

=== Physico-chemical ===

Also dem dey call am &quot;Conventional&quot; Treatment.

* Coagulation for [[flocculation]]. Adding coagulants dey destabilize colloidal suspensions by neutralizing their charges, wey make the smaller particles join together during coagulation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Nyström|first1=Fredrik|last2=Nordqvist|first2=Kerstin|last3=Herrmann|first3=Inga|last4=Hedström|first4=Annelie|last5=Viklander|first5=Maria|date=2020-09-01|title=Removal of metals and hydrocarbons from stormwater using coagulation and flocculation|journal=Water Research|language=en|volume=182|article-number=115919|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2020.115919|pmid=32622122 |s2cid=219414366 |issn=0043-1354|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020WatRe.18215919N }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Coagulant aids, wey dem also dey call [[polyelectrolyte]]s, dey improve coagulation and help create stronger flocs.
* Polyelectrolytes or [[polymer]]s normally get either positive or negative charge. The type wey dem go choose depend on the characteristics of the source water.
* Most times dem dey use these together with primary coagulants like ferric chloride, ferric sulfate or alum.

[[Precipitation (chemistry)|Chemical precipitation]] be common process wey dey reduce [[heavy metals]] concentration for wastewater. Dissolved metal ions dey change into insoluble form through chemical reaction with precipitating agents like lime. For industrial work, dem fit use stronger alkalis to make the precipitation complete. For drinking water treatment, the [[common-ion effect]] dey help reduce water hardness.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Wang|first1=Lawrence K.|chapter=Chemical Precipitation|date=2005|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=141–197|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|last2=Vaccari|first2=David A.|last3=Li|first3=Yan|last4=Shammas|first4=Nazih K.|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:141 |isbn=978-1-58829-165-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flotation dey use bubbles attach to solids or dispersed liquids so dem fit separate dem from liquid phase.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Wang|first1=Lawrence K.|chapter=Dissolved Air Flotation|date=2005|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=431–500|editor-last=Wang|editor-first=Lawrence K.|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|language=en|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431|isbn=978-1-58829-165-3|access-date=2021-11-12|last2=Fahey|first2=Edward M.|last3=Wu|first3=Zucheng|editor2-last=Hung|editor2-first=Yung-Tse|editor3-last=Shammas|editor3-first=Nazih K.|chapter-url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==== Membrane filtration ====

Membrane filtration fit remove suspended solids, organic substances, plus inorganic pollutants like heavy metals. To remove heavy metals, dem fit use different types of [[Membrane filter|membrane filtration]] like [[ultrafiltration]], [[nanofiltration]], and [[reverse osmosis]], depending on the particle size wey the membrane fit hold back.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chadha |first1=Utkarsh |last2=Selvaraj |first2=Senthil Kumaran |last3=Vishak Thanu |first3=S. |last4=Cholapadath |first4=Vishnu |last5=Abraham |first5=Ashesh Mathew |last6=Zaiyan |first6=Mohammed |last7=Manikandan |first7=M |last8=Paramasivam |first8=Velmurugan |title=A review of the function of using carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from wastewater |journal=Materials Research Express |date=6 January 2022 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=012003 |doi=10.1088/2053-1591/ac48b8|bibcode=2022MRE.....9a2003C |s2cid=245810763 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kurniawan|first1=Tonni Agustiono|last2=Chan|first2=Gilbert Y. S.|last3=Lo|first3=Wai-Hung|last4=Babel|first4=Sandhya|date=2006-05-01|title=Physico–chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385894706000362|journal=Chemical Engineering Journal|language=en|volume=118|issue=1|pages=83–98|doi=10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015|bibcode=2006ChEnJ.118...83K |issn=1385-8947|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Antiscalant]]s fit help maintain membrane filtration system.&lt;ref name=&quot;f467&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Armbruster | first1=Dominic | last2=Müller | first2=Uwe | last3=Happel | first3=Oliver | title=Characterization of phosphonate-based antiscalants used in drinking water treatment plants by anion-exchange chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry | journal=Journal of Chromatography A | volume=1601 | date=2019 | doi=10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.014 | pages=189–204| pmid=31130225 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some very small molecules fit still [[Permeation|permeate]] pass through some [[membrane]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;f467&quot;/&gt;

==== Ion exchange ====

Ion exchange be reversible process wey one insoluble substance ([[resin]]) take ions from electrolytic solution and release other ions wey get the same charge in almost equal amount, without changing the structure of the resin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Vigneswaran|first1=Saravanamuthu|chapter=Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse|date=2005|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=635–676|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|last2=Ngo|first2=Huu Hao|last3=Chaudhary|first3=Durgananda Singh|last4=Hung|first4=Yung-Tse|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:635 |isbn=978-1-58829-165-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rengaraj|first1=S|last2=Yeon|first2=Kyeong-Ho|last3=Moon|first3=Seung-Hyeon|date=October 2001|title=Removal of chromium from water and wastewater by ion exchange resins|journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials|volume=87|issue=1–3|pages=273–287|doi=10.1016/s0304-3894(01)00291-6|pmid=11566415|bibcode=2001JHzM...87..273R|issn=0304-3894}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Electrochemical treatment techniques ====

* Electrodialysis (ED)
* Membrane electrolysis (ME)
* Electrochemical precipitation (EP)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;

==== Adsorption ====

Adsorption be mass transfer process wey one substance move from liquid phase go the surface of solid or liquid adsorbent, then e attach there physically or chemically as adsorbate. Dem dey divide adsorption into two types based on the attraction between the adsorbent and adsorbate: physical adsorption (physisorption) and chemical adsorption (chemisorption).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=N. B.|last2=Nagpal|first2=Garima|last3=Agrawal|first3=Sonal|last4=Rachna|date=2018-08-01|title=Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352186417302663|journal=Environmental Technology &amp; Innovation|language=en|volume=11|pages=187–240|doi=10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006|bibcode=2018EnvTI..11..187S |s2cid=103693107 |issn=2352-1864|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=BABEL|first1=Sandhya|last2=KURNIAWAN|first2=Tonni Agustiono|date=2003|title=A Research Study on Cr(VI) Removal from Contaminated Wastewater Using Natural Zeolite|journal=Journal of Ion Exchange|volume=14|issue=Supplement|pages=289–292|doi=10.5182/jaie.14.supplement_289|bibcode=2003JIEx...14S.289B |issn=1884-3360|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===== Activated carbon =====

[[Activated carbon]]s (ACs) or biological-activated carbon (BAC)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00029-X|title=The BAC-process for treatment of waste water Containing non-ionogenic synthetic surfactants |year=2001 |last1=Sirotkin |first1=A. |last2=Koshkina |first2=L. Yu. |last3=Ippolitov |first3=K. G. |journal=Water Research |volume=35 |issue=13 |pages=3265–3271 |pmid=11487125 |bibcode=2001WatRe..35.3265S }}&lt;/ref&gt; be very effective adsorbents for many different contaminants. One of the industrial uses be removing colour, smell, taste and other harmful organic and inorganic substances from drinking water and wastewater through adsorption.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mezohegyi 148–164&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezohegyi|first1=Gergo|last2=van der Zee|first2=Frank P.|last3=Font|first3=Josep|last4=Fortuny|first4=Agustí|last5=Fabregat|first5=Azael|date=2012-07-15|title=Towards advanced aqueous dye removal processes: A short review on the versatile role of activated carbon|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479712000904|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|language=en|volume=102|pages=148–164|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.02.021|pmid=22459012 |bibcode=2012JEnvM.102..148M |issn=0301-4797|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

If activated carbon get high surface area plus plenty pores, e dey work better. Plenty studies don use activated carbon remove heavy metals and other contaminants from wastewater. But commercial activated carbon (AC) don become expensive because e no dey enough. Because of the high surface area, porosity and flexibility, activated carbon still get plenty potential for wastewater treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mezohegyi 148–164&quot;/&gt;
=== Biological ===

This method na where dem dey remove dissolved and suspended organic chemical substances through [[biodegradation]], where dem add correct amount of [[microorganism]] so dem fit continue the same natural self-purification process wey dey happen for nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=GracePavithra|first1=Kirubanandam|last2=Jaikumar|first2=V.|last3=Kumar|first3=P. Senthil|last4=SundarRajan|first4=PanneerSelvam|date=2019-08-10|title=A review on cleaner strategies for chromium industrial wastewater: Present research and future perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619311965|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=228|pages=580–593|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.117|bibcode=2019JCPro.228..580G |s2cid=159345994 |issn=0959-6526|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Microorganisms fit break down organic matter for wastewater through two main biological processes: biological oxidation and biosynthesis.

For biological oxidation, microorganisms dey convert organic materials inside wastewater into end products like [[mineral]]s, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. These products remain inside the wastewater and later dey discharge with the effluent.

For biosynthesis, microorganisms dey use organic materials inside wastewater to create new microbial cells. This new biomass go become dense and later dem remove am through [[sedimentation]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Nick|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781315276106/water-technology-nick-gray|title=Water Technology|date=2017-01-31|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-27610-6|edition=3|location=London|doi=10.1201/9781315276106}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Standards ==

[[Image:Safe drink tap water map.png|thumb|Countries where tap water dey safe to drink (blue)]]

{{main|Drinking water quality standards}}

Many developed countries get their own standards wey dem dey apply locally. For Europe, this include the [[Drinking water directive|European Drinking Water Directive]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Legislation: The Directive overview |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-drink/legislation_en.html |date=2019-12-31 |publisher=European Commission |location=Brussels |website=Environment}}&lt;/ref&gt;, while for United States, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) set standards under the [[Safe Drinking Water Act]].

For countries wey no get strong legal framework, the [[World Health Organization]] provide guidelines wey dem fit follow.&lt;ref&gt;Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition; World Health Organization; 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

China also get their own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) under the [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Environmental Protection]] in 2002.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/shjbh/shjzlbz/200206/t20020601_66497.htm|title=Environmental quality standards for surface water|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2018-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803083322/http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/shjbh/shjzlbz/200206/t20020601_66497.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even where standards dey exist, most of them be guidelines or targets instead of strict laws, and only few get real enforcement power.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title = What is the purpose of drinking water quality guidelines/regulations? | url = http://www.safewater.org/resources/fact-sheets.html | publisher = Safe Drinking Water Foundation | location = Canada }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20111006230543/http://www.safewater.org/PDFS/PurposeofDrinkingWaterQualityGuidelinesRegulations.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006230543/http://www.safewater.org/PDFS/PurposeofDrinkingWaterQualityGuidelinesRegulations.pdf |date=2011-10-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Only exceptions be the European Drinking Water Directive and the Safe Drinking Water Act for United States, wey require legal compliance.

== Developing countries ==

{{Further|Self-supply of water and sanitation}}

Appropriate technology for water treatment for developing countries include both community-scale systems and household-level point-of-use (POU) or self-supply systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cawstHWT&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=March 2008 |title=Household Water Treatment Guide |url=http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809090835/https://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs |archive-date=2018-08-09 |access-date=2011-03-09 |publisher=[[Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology]], Canada}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some of these systems dey use solar water disinfection (SODIS), where sunlight, especially UV-A rays, dey kill harmful microorganisms for water directly or indirectly with photocatalysts like titanium dioxide (TiO₂).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sand as a low-cost support for titanium dioxide photocatalysts |url=http://www.materialsviews.com/sand-as-a-low-cost-support-for-titanium-dioxide-photocatalysts/ |work=Materials Views |publisher=Wiley VCH }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even though SODIS technology don improve, military surplus water treatment units like ERDLator still dey used for some developing areas. New portable Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Units (ROWPU) also dey become more available for civilian use.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Lindsten, Don C. |title=Technology transfer: Water purification, U.S. Army to the civilian community |journal=The Journal of Technology Transfer |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=September 1984 |pages=57–59 |doi=10.1007/BF02189057 |s2cid=154344107 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

For waterborne disease control to last long, treatment programs wey research groups start for developing countries must be sustainable by local people, so that when external teams leave, the system go still continue working well.

== Energy Consumption ==

Water treatment plants fit consume plenty energy. For example, for California, more than 4% of electricity consumption dey go into moving and treating water over long distances.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph240/spearrin1/|title=Energy Costs of Water in California|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=2017-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For areas where clean water dey flow by gravity, energy cost dey low. But pumping water dey consume most of the energy in many systems.

Some low-energy water treatment methods include trickling filters, slow sand filters, and gravity aqueduct systems.

== Materials ==

Stainless steels like Type 304L and 316L dey widely use for building water treatment plants because dem resist corrosion from water and chlorine used for disinfection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill |title=Stainless Steels for Potable Water Treatment Plants |url=https://nickelinstitute.org/en/library/technical-guides/stainless-steel-for-potable-water-treatment-plants-10087/ |website=Nickel Institute |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=A.H. Tuthill and S. Lamb |title=Guidelines for the use of Stainless Steel in Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plants |url=https://nickelinstitute.org/en/library/technical-guides/guidelines-for-the-use-of-stainless-steel-in-municipal-waste-water-treatment-plants-10076/ |website=Nickel Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==

* {{annotated link|Water pollution#Control and reduction|Control of water pollution}}
* {{annotated link|Clean Water Act}}
* {{annotated link|Peak water}}
* {{annotated link|Pulsed-power water treatment}}
* {{annotated link|Solar water disinfection}}
* {{annotated link|Raw water#Treatment}}
* {{annotated link|Water purification}}
* {{annotated link|Water quality}}
* {{annotated link|Water softening}}
* {{annotated link|Water supply}}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

{{Commons}}

* [http://www.iwahq.org International Water Association] Professional / research organization  
* [https://www.nsf.org NSF International] – Independent non-profit standards organization  
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060621162202/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/index.html WHO.int], WHO Guidelines  
* [http://www.gvsu.edu/haitiwater/ Safe and Sustainable Water for Haiti web site hosted by Grand Valley State University]  
* [https://waterpurifierinsights.in/guides/compare-scmt-ro-uv-mf-and-uf-water-purifiers/ Different types of water purification systems compared]  

{{Water}}
{{Euthenics}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[File:Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant.jpg|thumb|Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant, Washington, D.C.]]

'''Water treatment''' be any process wey dey improve the quality of water make e fit for a particular use. That use fit be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, keeping river flow, water recreation, or plenty other purposes, including returning the water safely back into the environment. Water treatment dey remove contaminants and other unwanted substances, or reduce the amount inside the water, so the water go fit for the purpose wey dem want use am for. This treatment be very important for human health and e help people use water safely for drinking and irrigation.

In recent decades, scientists don develop more advanced water treatment methods because of growing concerns about new pollutants like microplastics, pharmaceuticals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). These methods include advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration, and adsorption techniques wey dey use special materials like engineered nanomaterials and activated carbon. Besides that, people dey pay more attention to energy efficiency, resource recovery, and sustainability for water treatment systems, especially for places wey water scarce and environmental challenges dey increase.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nishmitha |first=P. S. |last2=Akhilghosh |first2=Kochuparambil Ajayaghosh |last3=Aiswriya |first3=Vijayalekshmi Padmachandran |last4=Ramesh |first4=Athira |last5=Muthuchamy |first5=Muthukumar |last6=Muthukumar |first6=Anbazhagi |date=2025-05-01 |title=Understanding emerging contaminants in water and wastewater: A comprehensive review on detection, impacts, and solutions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416625001664 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances |volume=18 |article-number=100755 |doi=10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100755 |issn=2772-4166|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Types ==

=== Drinking water treatment ===
{{Main|Water purification|Drinking water|water supply}}

Water contamination mostly happen because industries and commercial businesses discharge untreated wastewater. Wastewater from different companies, wey get different kinds and amounts of contaminants, often enter rivers and other water sources. The wastewater fit contain plenty organic and inorganic contaminants from the beginning. Industries produce wastewater through manufacturing processes, paper and pulp production, textile production, chemical industries, and systems like cooling towers, boilers, and production lines.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=N. B. |last2=Nagpal |first2=Garima |last3=Agrawal |first3=Sonal |last4=Rachna |date=2018-08-01 |title=Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352186417302663 |journal=Environmental Technology &amp; Innovation |language=en |volume=11 |pages=187–240 |doi=10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006 |bibcode=2018EnvTI..11..187S |issn=2352-1864 |s2cid=103693107|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Illustration of a typical drinking water treatment process.png|thumb|Typical drinking water treatment processes]]

Treatment for drinking water production dey involve removing contaminants and making harmful microorganisms inactive from raw water so the final water go pure enough for human consumption without causing any short-term or long-term health problems. The biggest microbial risks usually come from drinking water contaminated with human or animal (including bird) feces. Feces fit carry harmful bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. Removing or destroying these disease-causing microorganisms be very important. This usually involve using chemical agents together with treatment methods to remove suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals like iron and manganese. Research, including the work of Professor Linda Lawton and her team at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, dey help improve the detection of cyanobacteria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Linda Lawton – 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria|url=http://ictc11.org/speakers/linda-lawton/|access-date=2021-06-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; These harmful substances still dey affect many developing countries wey no get effective water purification systems.{{Original research inline|date=March 2023}}

Making sure water quality dey good no depend only on treatment. E also include how the treated water dey transported and distributed. Because of this, e be common practice to leave a small amount of disinfectant inside treated water to kill bacteria during distribution and keep water pipes clean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.dwi.gov.uk/consumers/learn-more-about-your-water/chlorine/|title=Chlorine|publisher=Drinking water inspectorate|access-date=2 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water wey people receive for house through tap water or other domestic uses fit receive extra treatment before use. These additional treatments fit include water softening or ion exchange. {{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

=== Wastewater treatment ===
{{excerpt|wastewater treatment|paragraphs=1-3}}

=== Industrial water treatment ===
{{excerpt|Industrial water treatment#Overview|file=no}}

[[File:Imeytysallas Virttaankankaan tekopohjavesilaitos.JPG|thumb|At Turun Seudun Vesi Oy's artificial groundwater plant, the pretreated raw water from the Kokemäki River dey soak through the basins enter the Virttaankangas ridge formation.]]

== Processes ==

[[File:Prázdná aerační místnost, ÚV Káraný.jpg|thumb|upright|Empty aeration tank for iron precipitation]]

To remove hazardous chemicals from water, people dey use different treatment methods.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Jothirani|first1=R.|last2=Kumar|first2=P. Senthil|last3=Saravanan|first3=A.|last4=Narayan|first4=Abishek S.|last5=Dutta|first5=Abhishek|date=2016-07-25|title=Ultrasonic modified corn pith for the sequestration of dye from aqueous solution|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1226086X1630137X|journal=Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=39|pages=162–175|doi=10.1016/j.jiec.2016.05.024|issn=1226-086X|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The processes wey dey remove contaminants include physical methods like settling and filtration, chemical methods like disinfection and coagulation, and biological methods like slow sand filtration.

Water treatment plants around the world choose one or more of these processes depending on the season and the type of contaminants and chemicals inside the raw water.

=== Chemical ===

[[File:Pískové rychlofiltry odželezovny v Káraném v klidu.jpg|thumb|Tanks with sand filters to remove precipitated iron (not working at the time)]]

Different chemical treatment methods dey help convert harmful substances into safer forms or remove pollutants completely before safe disposal.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Saravanan |first1=A. |last2=Senthil Kumar |first2=P. |last3=Jeevanantham |first3=S. |last4=Karishma |first4=S. |last5=Tajsabreen |first5=B. |last6=Yaashikaa |first6=P. R. |last7=Reshma |first7=B. |date=2021-10-01 |title=Effective water/wastewater treatment methodologies for toxic pollutants removal: Processes and applications towards sustainable development |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653521010663 |journal=Chemosphere |language=en |volume=280 |article-number=130595 |bibcode=2021Chmsp.28030595S |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130595 |issn=0045-6535 |pmid=33940449|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Pre-chlorination to control algae growth and stop biological growth.
* Aeration together with pre-chlorination to remove dissolved iron when small amounts of manganese dey present.
* Disinfection to kill bacteria, viruses, and other disease-causing microorganisms by using chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet light.
=== Chemical ===
[[File:Pískové rychlofiltry odželezovny v Káraném v klidu.jpg|thumb|Tanks wey get sand filters to remove iron wey don settle (dem no dey work for dat time)]]

Different chemical methods dey help convert substances into final products or remove pollutants so dem fit safely remove contaminants.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;/&gt;

* Pre-[[Water chlorination|chlorination]] to control algae and stop biological growth.
* [[Aeration]] plus pre-chlorination to remove dissolved iron, especially if small amount of manganese dey inside.
* Disinfection to kill bacteria, viruses and other pathogens by using chlorine, ozone and ultraviolet light.

=== Physical ===

Physical water and wastewater treatment methods dey depend on physical processes instead of biological or chemical changes to remove contaminants.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

The most common physical methods be:

* [[Sedimentation]] be one of the main wastewater treatment processes. [[Gravity separation|Gravity settling]] separate particles from liquid. As water speed reduce during treatment, suspended particles begin settle down because of gravity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Gottfried|first1=A.|last2=Shepard|first2=A. D.|last3=Hardiman|first3=K.|last4=Walsh|first4=M. E.|date=2008-11-01|title=Impact of recycling filter backwash water on organic removal in coagulation–sedimentation processes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135408003291|journal=Water Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=18|pages=4683–4691|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2008.08.011|pmid=18789473 |bibcode=2008WatRe..42.4683G |issn=0043-1354|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Samal|first=Sneha|date=2020-04-15|title=Effect of shape and size of filler particle on the aggregation and sedimentation behavior of the polymer composite|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032591020301613|journal=Powder Technology|language=en|volume=366|pages=43–51|doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2020.02.054|s2cid=213499533 |issn=0032-5910|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey mainly remove [[suspended solids]] wey trap inside floc.
* [[Filtration]] dey remove pollutants based on particle size. Removing pollutants from wastewater make e possible to reuse the water for different purposes. The type of filter wey dem go use depend on the contaminants inside the water. Particle filtration and [[Membrane filter|membrane filtration]] be the two main filtration methods.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ahmad|first1=Arslan|last2=Rutten|first2=Sam|last3=de Waal|first3=Luuk|last4=Vollaard|first4=Peter|last5=van Genuchten|first5=Case|last6=Bruning|first6=Harry|last7=Cornelissen|first7=Emile|last8=van der Wal|first8=Albert|date=2020-06-15|title=Mechanisms of arsenate removal and membrane fouling in ferric based coprecipitation–low pressure membrane filtration systems|journal=Separation and Purification Technology|language=en|volume=241|article-number=116644|doi=10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116644|s2cid=214445348 |issn=1383-5866|doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-8699161|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Dissolved air flotation]] ([[Degasification]]) na process wey dey remove dissolved gases from [[Solution (chemistry)|solution]]. According to [[Henry's law]], the amount of gas wey dissolve inside liquid depend on the gas pressure. Degasification be low-cost way to remove [[carbon dioxide]] gas from wastewater, wey dey increase the water [[pH]] by removing the gas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* [[Deaerator]] dey reduce oxygen and nitrogen for boiler feed water applications.

=== Physico-chemical ===

Also dem dey call am &quot;Conventional&quot; Treatment.

* Coagulation for [[flocculation]]. Adding coagulants dey destabilize colloidal suspensions by neutralizing their charges, wey make the smaller particles join together during coagulation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Nyström|first1=Fredrik|last2=Nordqvist|first2=Kerstin|last3=Herrmann|first3=Inga|last4=Hedström|first4=Annelie|last5=Viklander|first5=Maria|date=2020-09-01|title=Removal of metals and hydrocarbons from stormwater using coagulation and flocculation|journal=Water Research|language=en|volume=182|article-number=115919|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2020.115919|pmid=32622122 |s2cid=219414366 |issn=0043-1354|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020WatRe.18215919N }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Coagulant aids, wey dem also dey call [[polyelectrolyte]]s, dey improve coagulation and help create stronger flocs.
* Polyelectrolytes or [[polymer]]s normally get either positive or negative charge. The type wey dem go choose depend on the characteristics of the source water.
* Most times dem dey use these together with primary coagulants like ferric chloride, ferric sulfate or alum.

[[Precipitation (chemistry)|Chemical precipitation]] be common process wey dey reduce [[heavy metals]] concentration for wastewater. Dissolved metal ions dey change into insoluble form through chemical reaction with precipitating agents like lime. For industrial work, dem fit use stronger alkalis to make the precipitation complete. For drinking water treatment, the [[common-ion effect]] dey help reduce water hardness.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Wang|first1=Lawrence K.|chapter=Chemical Precipitation|date=2005|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=141–197|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|last2=Vaccari|first2=David A.|last3=Li|first3=Yan|last4=Shammas|first4=Nazih K.|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:141 |isbn=978-1-58829-165-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flotation dey use bubbles attach to solids or dispersed liquids so dem fit separate dem from liquid phase.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Wang|first1=Lawrence K.|chapter=Dissolved Air Flotation|date=2005|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=431–500|editor-last=Wang|editor-first=Lawrence K.|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|language=en|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431|isbn=978-1-58829-165-3|access-date=2021-11-12|last2=Fahey|first2=Edward M.|last3=Wu|first3=Zucheng|editor2-last=Hung|editor2-first=Yung-Tse|editor3-last=Shammas|editor3-first=Nazih K.|chapter-url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==== Membrane filtration ====

Membrane filtration fit remove suspended solids, organic substances, plus inorganic pollutants like heavy metals. To remove heavy metals, dem fit use different types of [[Membrane filter|membrane filtration]] like [[ultrafiltration]], [[nanofiltration]], and [[reverse osmosis]], depending on the particle size wey the membrane fit hold back.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chadha |first1=Utkarsh |last2=Selvaraj |first2=Senthil Kumaran |last3=Vishak Thanu |first3=S. |last4=Cholapadath |first4=Vishnu |last5=Abraham |first5=Ashesh Mathew |last6=Zaiyan |first6=Mohammed |last7=Manikandan |first7=M |last8=Paramasivam |first8=Velmurugan |title=A review of the function of using carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from wastewater |journal=Materials Research Express |date=6 January 2022 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=012003 |doi=10.1088/2053-1591/ac48b8|bibcode=2022MRE.....9a2003C |s2cid=245810763 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kurniawan|first1=Tonni Agustiono|last2=Chan|first2=Gilbert Y. S.|last3=Lo|first3=Wai-Hung|last4=Babel|first4=Sandhya|date=2006-05-01|title=Physico–chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385894706000362|journal=Chemical Engineering Journal|language=en|volume=118|issue=1|pages=83–98|doi=10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015|bibcode=2006ChEnJ.118...83K |issn=1385-8947|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Antiscalant]]s fit help maintain membrane filtration system.&lt;ref name=&quot;f467&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Armbruster | first1=Dominic | last2=Müller | first2=Uwe | last3=Happel | first3=Oliver | title=Characterization of phosphonate-based antiscalants used in drinking water treatment plants by anion-exchange chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry | journal=Journal of Chromatography A | volume=1601 | date=2019 | doi=10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.014 | pages=189–204| pmid=31130225 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some very small molecules fit still [[Permeation|permeate]] pass through some [[membrane]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;f467&quot;/&gt;

==== Ion exchange ====

Ion exchange be reversible process wey one insoluble substance ([[resin]]) take ions from electrolytic solution and release other ions wey get the same charge in almost equal amount, without changing the structure of the resin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last1=Vigneswaran|first1=Saravanamuthu|chapter=Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse|date=2005|title=Physicochemical Treatment Processes|pages=635–676|place=Totowa, NJ|publisher=Humana Press|last2=Ngo|first2=Huu Hao|last3=Chaudhary|first3=Durgananda Singh|last4=Hung|first4=Yung-Tse|doi=10.1385/1-59259-820-x:635 |isbn=978-1-58829-165-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rengaraj|first1=S|last2=Yeon|first2=Kyeong-Ho|last3=Moon|first3=Seung-Hyeon|date=October 2001|title=Removal of chromium from water and wastewater by ion exchange resins|journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials|volume=87|issue=1–3|pages=273–287|doi=10.1016/s0304-3894(01)00291-6|pmid=11566415|bibcode=2001JHzM...87..273R|issn=0304-3894}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Electrochemical treatment techniques ====

* Electrodialysis (ED)
* Membrane electrolysis (ME)
* Electrochemical precipitation (EP)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;

==== Adsorption ====

Adsorption be mass transfer process wey one substance move from liquid phase go the surface of solid or liquid adsorbent, then e attach there physically or chemically as adsorbate. Dem dey divide adsorption into two types based on the attraction between the adsorbent and adsorbate: physical adsorption (physisorption) and chemical adsorption (chemisorption).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=N. B.|last2=Nagpal|first2=Garima|last3=Agrawal|first3=Sonal|last4=Rachna|date=2018-08-01|title=Water purification by using Adsorbents: A Review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352186417302663|journal=Environmental Technology &amp; Innovation|language=en|volume=11|pages=187–240|doi=10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006|bibcode=2018EnvTI..11..187S |s2cid=103693107 |issn=2352-1864|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=BABEL|first1=Sandhya|last2=KURNIAWAN|first2=Tonni Agustiono|date=2003|title=A Research Study on Cr(VI) Removal from Contaminated Wastewater Using Natural Zeolite|journal=Journal of Ion Exchange|volume=14|issue=Supplement|pages=289–292|doi=10.5182/jaie.14.supplement_289|bibcode=2003JIEx...14S.289B |issn=1884-3360|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===== Activated carbon =====

[[Activated carbon]]s (ACs) or biological-activated carbon (BAC)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00029-X|title=The BAC-process for treatment of waste water Containing non-ionogenic synthetic surfactants |year=2001 |last1=Sirotkin |first1=A. |last2=Koshkina |first2=L. Yu. |last3=Ippolitov |first3=K. G. |journal=Water Research |volume=35 |issue=13 |pages=3265–3271 |pmid=11487125 |bibcode=2001WatRe..35.3265S }}&lt;/ref&gt; be very effective adsorbents for many different contaminants. One of the industrial uses be removing colour, smell, taste and other harmful organic and inorganic substances from drinking water and wastewater through adsorption.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mezohegyi 148–164&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezohegyi|first1=Gergo|last2=van der Zee|first2=Frank P.|last3=Font|first3=Josep|last4=Fortuny|first4=Agustí|last5=Fabregat|first5=Azael|date=2012-07-15|title=Towards advanced aqueous dye removal processes: A short review on the versatile role of activated carbon|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479712000904|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|language=en|volume=102|pages=148–164|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.02.021|pmid=22459012 |bibcode=2012JEnvM.102..148M |issn=0301-4797|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

If activated carbon get high surface area plus plenty pores, e dey work better. Plenty studies don use activated carbon remove heavy metals and other contaminants from wastewater. But commercial activated carbon (AC) don become expensive because e no dey enough. Because of the high surface area, porosity and flexibility, activated carbon still get plenty potential for wastewater treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mezohegyi 148–164&quot;/&gt;
=== Biological ===

This method na where dem dey remove dissolved and suspended organic chemical substances through [[biodegradation]], where dem add correct amount of [[microorganism]] so dem fit continue the same natural self-purification process wey dey happen for nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=GracePavithra|first1=Kirubanandam|last2=Jaikumar|first2=V.|last3=Kumar|first3=P. Senthil|last4=SundarRajan|first4=PanneerSelvam|date=2019-08-10|title=A review on cleaner strategies for chromium industrial wastewater: Present research and future perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619311965|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=228|pages=580–593|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.117|bibcode=2019JCPro.228..580G |s2cid=159345994 |issn=0959-6526|url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Microorganisms fit break down organic matter for wastewater through two main biological processes: biological oxidation and biosynthesis.

For biological oxidation, microorganisms dey convert organic materials inside wastewater into end products like [[mineral]]s, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. These products remain inside the wastewater and later dey discharge with the effluent.

For biosynthesis, microorganisms dey use organic materials inside wastewater to create new microbial cells. This new biomass go become dense and later dem remove am through [[sedimentation]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Nick|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781315276106/water-technology-nick-gray|title=Water Technology|date=2017-01-31|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-27610-6|edition=3|location=London|doi=10.1201/9781315276106}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Standards ==

[[Image:Safe drink tap water map.png|thumb|Countries where tap water dey safe to drink (blue)]]

{{main|Drinking water quality standards}}

Many developed countries get their own standards wey dem dey apply locally. For Europe, this include the [[Drinking water directive|European Drinking Water Directive]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Legislation: The Directive overview |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-drink/legislation_en.html |date=2019-12-31 |publisher=European Commission |location=Brussels |website=Environment}}&lt;/ref&gt;, while for United States, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) set standards under the [[Safe Drinking Water Act]].

For countries wey no get strong legal framework, the [[World Health Organization]] provide guidelines wey dem fit follow.&lt;ref&gt;Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition; World Health Organization; 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

China also get their own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) under the [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Environmental Protection]] in 2002.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/shjbh/shjzlbz/200206/t20020601_66497.htm|title=Environmental quality standards for surface water|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2018-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803083322/http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/shjbh/shjzlbz/200206/t20020601_66497.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even where standards dey exist, most of them be guidelines or targets instead of strict laws, and only few get real enforcement power.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title = What is the purpose of drinking water quality guidelines/regulations? | url = http://www.safewater.org/resources/fact-sheets.html | publisher = Safe Drinking Water Foundation | location = Canada }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20111006230543/http://www.safewater.org/PDFS/PurposeofDrinkingWaterQualityGuidelinesRegulations.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006230543/http://www.safewater.org/PDFS/PurposeofDrinkingWaterQualityGuidelinesRegulations.pdf |date=2011-10-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Only exceptions be the European Drinking Water Directive and the Safe Drinking Water Act for United States, wey require legal compliance.

== Developing countries ==

{{Further|Self-supply of water and sanitation}}

Appropriate technology for water treatment for developing countries include both community-scale systems and household-level point-of-use (POU) or self-supply systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cawstHWT&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=March 2008 |title=Household Water Treatment Guide |url=http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809090835/https://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs |archive-date=2018-08-09 |access-date=2011-03-09 |publisher=[[Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology]], Canada}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some of these systems dey use solar water disinfection (SODIS), where sunlight, especially UV-A rays, dey kill harmful microorganisms for water directly or indirectly with photocatalysts like titanium dioxide (TiO₂).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sand as a low-cost support for titanium dioxide photocatalysts |url=http://www.materialsviews.com/sand-as-a-low-cost-support-for-titanium-dioxide-photocatalysts/ |work=Materials Views |publisher=Wiley VCH }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even though SODIS technology don improve, military surplus water treatment units like ERDLator still dey used for some developing areas. New portable Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Units (ROWPU) also dey become more available for civilian use.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Lindsten, Don C. |title=Technology transfer: Water purification, U.S. Army to the civilian community |journal=The Journal of Technology Transfer |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=September 1984 |pages=57–59 |doi=10.1007/BF02189057 |s2cid=154344107 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

For waterborne disease control to last long, treatment programs wey research groups start for developing countries must be sustainable by local people, so that when external teams leave, the system go still continue working well.

== Energy Consumption ==

Water treatment plants fit consume plenty energy. For example, for California, more than 4% of electricity consumption dey go into moving and treating water over long distances.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph240/spearrin1/|title=Energy Costs of Water in California|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=2017-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For areas where clean water dey flow by gravity, energy cost dey low. But pumping water dey consume most of the energy in many systems.

Some low-energy water treatment methods include trickling filters, slow sand filters, and gravity aqueduct systems.

== Materials ==

Stainless steels like Type 304L and 316L dey widely use for building water treatment plants because dem resist corrosion from water and chlorine used for disinfection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill |title=Stainless Steels for Potable Water Treatment Plants |url=https://nickelinstitute.org/en/library/technical-guides/stainless-steel-for-potable-water-treatment-plants-10087/ |website=Nickel Institute |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=A.H. Tuthill and S. Lamb |title=Guidelines for the use of Stainless Steel in Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plants |url=https://nickelinstitute.org/en/library/technical-guides/guidelines-for-the-use-of-stainless-steel-in-municipal-waste-water-treatment-plants-10076/ |website=Nickel Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==

* {{annotated link|Water pollution#Control and reduction|Control of water pollution}}
* {{annotated link|Clean Water Act}}
* {{annotated link|Peak water}}
* {{annotated link|Pulsed-power water treatment}}
* {{annotated link|Solar water disinfection}}
* {{annotated link|Raw water#Treatment}}
* {{annotated link|Water purification}}
* {{annotated link|Water quality}}
* {{annotated link|Water softening}}
* {{annotated link|Water supply}}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

{{Commons}}

* [http://www.iwahq.org International Water Association] Professional / research organization  
* [https://www.nsf.org NSF International] – Independent non-profit standards organization  
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060621162202/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/index.html WHO.int], WHO Guidelines  
* [http://www.gvsu.edu/haitiwater/ Safe and Sustainable Water for Haiti web site hosted by Grand Valley State University]  
* [https://waterpurifierinsights.in/guides/compare-scmt-ro-uv-mf-and-uf-water-purifiers/ Different types of water purification systems compared]  

{{Water}}
{{Euthenics}}
{{Authority control}}

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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia. For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit. According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps. De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit. According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps. De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps. De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps. De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average, wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd. For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd. For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas. De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd. For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd. For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas. De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd. For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas. De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd. For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas. De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas. De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance, but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd. As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

== References ==</text>
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        <username>Emmanuel Anin</username>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011. Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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      <id>105862</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-29T13:10:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emmanuel Anin</username>
        <id>1692</id>
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      <comment>#AWC2026</comment>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest. As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;. About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;. About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kscafthit&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 July 2011 |title=Kenya: schools close as famine takes hold in Turkana |url=http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172150/http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Indcatholicnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kscafthit&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 July 2011 |title=Kenya: schools close as famine takes hold in Turkana |url=http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172150/http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Indcatholicnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nksoboiof&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|title=Now Kenya stands on brink of its own famine|work=The Independent|location=London|date=29 July 2011|access-date=7 August 2011|first=Emily|last=Dugan|archive-date=19 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019171915/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="29561" sha1="cda5ijtoj3xy77nkleysd4mz8sr2xez" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kscafthit&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 July 2011 |title=Kenya: schools close as famine takes hold in Turkana |url=http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172150/http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Indcatholicnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nksoboiof&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|title=Now Kenya stands on brink of its own famine|work=The Independent|location=London|date=29 July 2011|access-date=7 August 2011|first=Emily|last=Dugan|archive-date=19 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019171915/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For August 2012 insyd, famine reportedly affect an estimated 87,000 pippoe for de Taita-Taveta District of Kenya insyd, a situation dem attribute to a combination of wildlife invasions den drought. Large herds of elephants den monkeys ovarun farms for de district ein lowland den highland areas insyd, respectively, wey dey ruin thousands of acres of crops. Local residents, about 67,000 of wey dey receive food aid, sanso accuse de Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) of intentionally moving de monkeys to de district. Howeva, de KWS deny am.

== References ==</text>
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Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kscafthit&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 July 2011 |title=Kenya: schools close as famine takes hold in Turkana |url=http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172150/http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Indcatholicnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nksoboiof&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|title=Now Kenya stands on brink of its own famine|work=The Independent|location=London|date=29 July 2011|access-date=7 August 2011|first=Emily|last=Dugan|archive-date=19 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019171915/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For August 2012 insyd, famine reportedly affect an estimated 87,000 pippoe for de Taita-Taveta District of Kenya insyd, a situation dem attribute to a combination of wildlife invasions den drought. Large herds of elephants den monkeys ovarun farms for de district ein lowland den highland areas insyd, respectively, wey dey ruin thousands of acres of crops. Local residents, about 67,000 of wey dey receive food aid, sanso accuse de Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) of intentionally moving de monkeys to de district. Howeva, de KWS deny am.&lt;ref name=&quot;AA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Raphael Mwadime |date=30 August 2012 |title=Kenya: Hungry Taita Taveta Residents Now Appeal for Relief Supplies |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208310427.html |publisher=AllAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="29808" sha1="d51b0idx549s39cozsopgb279psbaaz" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
Samtin wey dey occur between July 2011 den mid-2012, a severe drought affect de entire East African region.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) |date=10 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa Drought Humanitarian Report No. 3 |url=http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703142101/http://reliefweb.int/node/419452 |archive-date=3 July 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |publisher=reliefweb.int}} &gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Dem say am to be &quot;de worst for 60 years insyd&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|title=Horn of Africa tested by severe drought|author=Mike Wooldridge|date=4 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713232854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14023160|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; de drought cause a severe food crisis across Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia den Kenya dat threaten de livelihood of 9.5 million pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisobasn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=6 February 2012 |title=UN: Somali famine is over, but action still needed |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.thejournal.ie/un-somalian-famine-is-over-but-action-still-needed-347449-Feb2012/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Thejournal.ie}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many refugees from southern Somalia flee to neighboring Kenya den Ethiopia, wey crowded, unsanitary conditions togeda plus severe malnutrition lead to a large nomba of deaths.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 16 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|title=Somalia Food Crisis One of Biggest in Decades: U.S. State Department Official|date=16 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=16 July 2011|first=Eline|last=Gordts|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718063437/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/15/somalia-food-crisis_n_899811.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda countries for East Africa insyd, wey dey include Sudan, South Sudan den parts of Uganda, a food crisis sanso affect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 4 July 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS-Net 24 June 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=OCHA, [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|FEWS-Net]] |date=24 June 2011 |title=East Africa: Famine warning for southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |publisher=FEWS-Net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|title=Horn of Africa drought: 'A vision of hell'|author=Ben Brown|date=8 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710113113/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14078074|archive-date=10 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 12 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|title=Horn of Africa drought: Somalia aid supplies boosted|date=12 July 2011|work=BBC News|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712112254/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118507|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Manufacturing a famine: How Somalia crisis became a fund-raising opportunity |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How+Somalia+crisis++became+a+fund+raising+opportunity+/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172557/http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/How%20Somalia%20crisis%20%20became%20a%20fund%20raising%20opportunity%20/-/2558/1246690/-/item/0/-/vkrx97/-/index.html |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Theeastafrican.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human Rights Watch (HRW) consequently note dat most of de displaced persons belong to de agro-pastoral Rahanweyn clan den de agricultural Bantu ethnic minority group.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hrwp&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |title=Human Rights Watch Plan |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=17 |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/somalia0214_ForUpload.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 20 July top, de United Nations officially declare famine for two regions insyd for de southern part of de country insyd (IPC Phase 5), de first time de UN already declare a famine for de region insyd for nearly thirty years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=UN declares first famine in Africa for three decades as US withholds aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|agency=Telegraph|date=20 July 2011|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030035/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/8648296/UN-declares-first-famine-in-Africa-for-three-decades-as-US-withholds-aid.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CBC 18 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/somalia-on-verge-of-famine-1.1065398|title=Somalia on verge of famine|date=18 July 2011|publisher=CBC News|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035002/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/07/18/un-famine-east-africa.html|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe tens of thousands of pippoe to already die for southern Somalia insyd before dem declare famine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; Dis be mainly a result of Western governments wey dey prevent aid from reaching affected areas for an attempt insyd to weaken de Al-Shabaab militant group, against wey dem engage am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|author1=Alex Perry|title=Somalia: A Very Man-Made Disaster|url=https://world.time.com/2011/08/18/somalia-a-very-man-made-disaster/|access-date=8 January 2016|magazine=TIME|date=18 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=A sharp-eyed look at contemporary Africa|url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21685433-sharp-eyed-look-contemporary-africa-clear-sighted|access-date=8 January 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=8 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although fighting disrupted aid delivery for sam areas insyd, a scaling up of relief operations for mid-November insyd already unexpectedly significantly reduce malnutrition den mortality rates for southern Somalia insyd, wey e prompt de UN to downgrade de humanitarian situation for de Bay, Bakool den Lower Shabele regions insyd from famine to emergency levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123171933/http://af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2011|access-date=21 November 2011|newspaper=Reuters|date=18 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de Lutheran World Federation, military activities for de country ein southern conflict zones insyd by early December 2011 already sanso greatly reduce de movement of migrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nosrddtaar&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=5 December 2011 |title=Number of Somali refugees declining due to aid and rainfall |url=http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911214432/http://www.pcusa.org/news/2011/12/5/number-somali-refugees-declining-due-aid-and-rainf/ |archive-date=11 September 2016 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Pcusa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By February 2012, several thousand pippoe sanso begin already dey return to demma homes den farms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kdptc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author=Clar ni Chonghaile in Nairobi|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/22/kenya-denies-plan-to-close-refugee-camp|title=Kenya denies planning to close world's largest Somalia refugee camp at Dadaab|work=Guardian|date=22 February 2012|access-date=7 August 2012|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; For addition insyd, humanitarian access to rebel-controlled areas already improve den rainfall already surpass expectations, wey e improve de prospects of a good harvest for early 2012 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rfrisbwba&quot; /&gt;

By January 2012, de food crisis for southern Somalia insyd dey no longer at emergency levels according to de International Committee of de Red Cross (ICRC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Sfcrwtty&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Source: alertnet // Maria Caspani |title=Somalia food crisis recovery will take two years – ICRC |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808172753/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/somalia-food-crisis-recovery-will-take-two-years-icrc |archive-date=8 August 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012 |publisher=Trust.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN indicate for February 2012 insyd say indirect data from health den relief centers point to improved general conditions from August 2011. De UN sanso announce say de famine for southern Somalia insyd be ova.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=U.N. Says Famine in Somalia Is Over, but Risks Remain |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107082519/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=26 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, FEWS NET indicate say Emergency (IPC Phase 4) levels of food insecurity persist thru March for several areas insyd for account of crop flooding top den ongoing military operations for dem areas insyd, wey restrict humanitarian access, trade den movement.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWSNETFeb&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=FEWS NET – Emergency levels of food insecurity will continue in parts of southern Somalia; grave food security concerns in Sudan and South Sudan |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314172443/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/East%20Africa%20Regional%20Brief%202012_02_final.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aid agencies subsequently shift demma emphasis to recovery efforts, wey dey include digging irrigation canals den distributing plant seeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Unsfisiobrr&quot; /&gt; Long-term strategies by national governments for conjunction insyd plus development agencies dem say am to offer de most sustainable results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Twdisyihoa&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Background ==
[[File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine_Oxfam_01.jpg|right|thumb|Carcasses of sheep den goats amidst a severe drought for Waridaad insyd for de Somaliland region insyd for 2017 insyd]]Weather conditions ova de Pacific, wey dey include an unusually strong La Niña, wey e interrupt seasonal rains give two consecutive seasons. De rains fail for 2011 insyd for Kenya den Ethiopia insyd, den give de previous two years for Somalia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot;&gt;[http://www.smh.com.au/world/famine-victims-soar-20110910-1k33e.html Famine victims soar], Sydney Morning Herald, Nairobi, 11 September 2011.  &quot; . . . which developed after three successive years of failed rains and accelerated as food prices soared and livestock died . . . &quot;&lt;/ref&gt; For many areas insyd, de precipitation rate during de main rainy season from April to June, de primary season, dey less dan 30% of de average of 1995–2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=24 June 2011 |title=Eastern Africa: Humanitarian Snapshot |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921052910/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/Horn_of_Africa_Drought_2011_06.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=21 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lack of rain lead to crop failure den widespread loss of livestock, as high as 40–60% for sam areas insyd, wey decrease milk production sana dey exacerbate a poor harvest. As a result, cereal prices rise to record levels while livestock prices den wages fell, wey e reduce purchasing power across de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172016/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=4 August 2011 |publisher=Relief Web, UN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem no sanso expect rains to return until September of de year.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReliefWeb 10 June 2011&quot; /&gt; Dem compound de crisis by rebel activity wey dey around southern Somalia from de Al-Shabaab group.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 8 July 2011&quot; /&gt;      

De head of de United States Agency give International Development, Rajiv Shah, state say climate change contribute to de severity of de crisis. &quot;Der dey no question dat hotter den drier growing conditions for sub-Saharan Africa insyd already reduce de resiliency of dem communities.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Huffington Post 14 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|title=East Africa Famine Threatens Regional Stability, USAID Chief Says|author=Joshua Hersh|date=13 July 2011|work=Huffington Post|location=US|access-date=13 July 2011|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716164906/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/13/famine-in-africa-usaid_n_897644.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de oda hand top, two experts plus de International Livestock Research Institute suggest dat e be premature to blame climate change give de drought. Indeed, de majority of climate models already predict a long-term increase for rain insyd give dis area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Rowell |first1=David P. |last2=Booth |first2=Ben B. B. |last3=Nicholson |first3=Sharon E. |last4=Good |first4=Peter |date=7 October 2015 |title=Reconciling Past and Future Rainfall Trends over East Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=28 |issue=24 |pages=9768–9788 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.9768R |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0140.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=129146135}}&lt;/ref&gt; While der dey consensus dat a particularly strong La Niña contribute to de intensity of de drought, dem no establish de relationship between La Niña den climate change well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Eastern Africa: Too soon to blame climate change for drought|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=93204|date=12 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722175016/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=93204|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dem criticize de failure of de international community to heed de early warning system give leading to a worsening of de crisis. De Famine Early Warning Systems Network, wey U.S.A.I.D. finance am, anticipate de crisis as early as August 2010, den by January 2011, de American ambassador to Kenya declare a disaster den bell am give urgent assistance. For 7 June 2011 top, FEWS NET declare dat de crisis be &quot;de most severe food security emergency for de world insyd today, den de current humanitarian response dey inadequate to prevent further deterioration&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New York Times 29 November 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/famine-africa-solutions-aid-foreign|title=The Famine Next Time|first=Sausage|last=Loewenberg|work=The New York Times|date=26 November 2011|access-date=13 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; De UN later announce for 28 June top say de drought affect 12 million pippoe for de East Africa region insyd den dat sam areas dey for de brink of famine top, plus many wey dem displace am for search of water den food insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wdixy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 June 2011 |title=Worst drought in 60 years hits 10 mln in east Africa |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701190627/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gACog4nDVD8yZ8RDDjs4FQjHII4g |archive-date=1 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oxfam ein humanitarian director Jane Cocking state say &quot;Dis be a preventable disaster den solutions dey possible&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2011/07/07/once-more-unto-the-abyss|title=Once more unto the abyss|newspaper=The Economist|date=7 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000612/http://www.economist.com/node/18929467|archive-date=18 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suzanne Dvorak, de chief executive of '''Save the Children''', write say &quot;politicians den policymakers for rich countries insyd dey often skeptical about taking preventative action sekof dem dey think aid agencies dey inflate de problem. Dem embarass developing country governments about being seen as unable to feed demma pippoe. [...] dem kiddies dey waste away for a disaster insyd dat we fi—den suppose—already prevent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/contributors/african-crisis-exposes-failed-logic-of-humanitarian-system-20110717-1hk0u.html|title=African crisis exposes failed logic of humanitarian system|date=18 July 2011|access-date=18 July 2011|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}&lt;/ref&gt; Soon after, dem declare a famine for parts of southern Somalia insyd. Oxfam sanso charge several European governments of &quot;wilful neglect&quot; ova de crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gdundfis&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=UN declares famine in Somalia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|access-date=21 July 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 July 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720232835/http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/jul/20/un-declares-famine-somalia|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; E issue a statement wey dey say dat &quot;Dem already see de warning signs give months, den de world already dey slow to act. Dem need much greater long-term investment for food production insyd den basic development to help pippoe cope plus poor rains den dey ensure say dis be de last famine for de region insyd.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|title=U.N. declares famine in Somalia; makes urgent appeal to save lives|date=20 July 2011|access-date=21 July 2011|work=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721063202/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/20/somalia.famine/|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Humanitarian situation ==
For 20 July 2011 top, de UN declare a famine for de Lower Shabelle den Bakool insyd, two regions of southern Somalia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt; For 3 August top, dem further declare famine for de Balcad den Cadale districts insyd for Middle Shabelle insyd sana de IDP settlements for Mogadishu den Afgooye insyd for response insyd to data from de UN ein food security den nutrition analysis unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AtlanticWire 20 July 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Uri Friedman |date=20 July 2011 |title=What It Took for the U.N. to Declare a Famine in Somalia |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914184849/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/07/what-it-took-un-declare-famine-somalia/40152/ |archive-date=14 September 2011 |access-date=20 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to de UN, famine go spread to all eight regions of southern Somalia for four to six weeks insyd sekof inadequate humanitarian response wey cause both by ongoing access restrictions den funding gaps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; De Economist sanso report say widespread famine go soon occur across de entire Horn of Africa, &quot;a situation...wey dem no see give 25 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Economist 7 July 2011&quot; /&gt;
[[File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horn_of_Africa_lack_of_Rainfall.jpg|right|thumb|Rainfall levels for de larger East Africa region insyd from 1995 to 2011.]]According to Luca Alivoni, de head of FAO-Somalia, de food crisis for Somalia insyd primarily affect farmers for de south insyd rada dan de northern pastoralists since farmers dey often stay behind for demma land plots top to &quot;protect demmar crops&quot;, while herders dey move plus demma livestock to pastureland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mafhscbafro&quot; /&gt;

For 20 July 2011 top, staple prices dey at 68% ova de  five-year average,&lt;ref name=&quot;UN 25 July 2011&quot;&gt;[http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_216.pdf Horn of Africa Drought Crisis Factsheet 28 July 2011]. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include increases of up to 240% for southern Somalia insyd, 117% for south-eastern Ethiopia insyd, den 58% for northern Kenya insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS Net&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;smh&quot; /&gt; For early July insyd, de UN World Food Programme say dat e expect 10 million pippoe across de Horn of Africa region to need food aid, wey e revise upward an earlier estimate of 6&amp;#x20;million. Later for de month insyd, de UN further update de figure to 12&amp;#x20;million, plus 2.8&amp;#x20;million for southern Somalia insyd alone, wey be de most affected area. For 3 August top, de UN declare famine for three oda regions of southern Somalia insyd, wey e cite worsening conditions den inadequate humanitarian response. Dem expect famine to spread across all regions of de south for de following four to six weeks insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Relief Web 3 August 2011 famine&quot; /&gt; For 5 Sep top, de UN add de entire Bay region for Somalia insyd to de list of famine-stricken areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/africa/06somalia.html Famine Spreads in Somalia, U.N. Says], New York Times, Jeffrey Gettleman, 5 September 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14785304 Somalia famine: UN warns of 750,000 deaths], BBC, 5 September 2011 Last updated at 13:00 ET.&lt;/ref&gt; De UN already conduct several airlifts of supplies for addition insyd to on-the-ground assistance,&lt;ref name=&quot;Rhombus&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Mvunganyi|first=Jackson|title=The UN World Food Program Begins Relief Flights to Somalia|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/the-un-world-food-program-begins-relief-flights-to-somalia072711/158561.html|access-date=27 July 2011|publisher=VOA News|date=27 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917110159/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/The-UN-World-Food-Program-Begins-Relief-Flights-to-Somalia072711.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; but a severe lack of funding give international aid wey couple plus security issues already hinder humanitarian response to de crisis for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 20 July&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|title=UN to declare famine in parts of drought-hit Somalia|date=20 July 2011|publisher=BBC|access-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720080542/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14211905|archive-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Telegraph 20 July b&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|title=The forgotten people of Africa's famine cry out for aid|date=20 July 2011|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 July 2011|location=London|first=Mike|last=Pflanz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719092817/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/8637978/The-forgotten-people-of-Africas-famine-cry-out-for-aid.html|archive-date=19 July 2011|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of September 2011, dem already finance 63 percent of de UN ein appeal give $2.5&amp;#x20;billion (US) for humanitarian assistance insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SydneyMorningHeraldSept11&quot; /&gt;

Dem expect de crisis to worsen for de following months insyd, wey e peak for August den September insyd, plus large-scale assistance needed until at least December 2011.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEWS 20 July press release&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=20 July 2011 |title=Expanding famine across southern Somalia |url=http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921054319/http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/FSNAU_FEWSNET_200711press%20release_final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2011 |access-date=2 August 2011 |publisher=FEWS NET}}&lt;/ref&gt; Torrential rains sanso exacerbate de situation for Mogadishu insyd by destroying makeshift homes. Dem consequently lef tens of thousands of southern Somalia ein internally displaced pippoe out for de cold insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Guardianrain&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Somali famine victims lose homes as torrential rain hits refugee camps|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/31/somali-famine-victims-rain-camps|access-date=1 August 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|date=31 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_There_Are_No_Weddings.jpg|right|thumb|Turkana women for de Turkana District insyd, one of [[Kenya]] ein most drought-affected regions.]]For addition insyd, de Kenyan Red Cross warns of a looming humanitarian crisis for de northwestern Turkana region of Kenya insyd, wey e border [[South Sudan]]. According to officials plus de aid agency, ova three-fourths of de area ein population rydee dey for dire need of food supplies insyd. Malnutrition levels sanso be at demma highest.&lt;ref name=&quot;RedCross&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=SawaSawa.com (webmaster@sawasawa.com) |date=25 July 2011 |title=Red Cross warns of catastrophe in Turkana |url=http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104173650/http://www.kbc.co.ke/news.asp?nid=71528 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Kbc.co.ke}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a consequence, dem shut down schools for de region insyd &quot;sekof der dey no food for de kiddies&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kscafthit&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=28 July 2011 |title=Kenya: schools close as famine takes hold in Turkana |url=http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172150/http://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory=18686 |archive-date=19 October 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |publisher=Indcatholicnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 385,000 kiddies for dem neglected parts of Kenya dey already malnourished, along plus 90,000 pregnant den breast feeding women. Dem estimate a further 3.5&amp;#x20;million pippoe for Kenya insyd to be at risk of malnutrition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nksoboiof&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|title=Now Kenya stands on brink of its own famine|work=The Independent|location=London|date=29 July 2011|access-date=7 August 2011|first=Emily|last=Dugan|archive-date=19 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019171915/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/now-kenya-stands-on-brink-of-its-own-famine-2328372.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For August 2012 insyd, famine reportedly affect an estimated 87,000 pippoe for de Taita-Taveta District of Kenya insyd, a situation dem attribute to a combination of wildlife invasions den drought. Large herds of elephants den monkeys ovarun farms for de district ein lowland den highland areas insyd, respectively, wey dey ruin thousands of acres of crops.&lt;ref name=&quot;AA&quot; /&gt; Local residents, about 67,000 of wey dey receive food aid, sanso accuse de Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) of intentionally moving de monkeys to de district. Howeva, de KWS deny am.&lt;ref name=&quot;AA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Raphael Mwadime |date=30 August 2012 |title=Kenya: Hungry Taita Taveta Residents Now Appeal for Relief Supplies |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208310427.html |publisher=AllAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Water supply and sanitation in Benin</title>
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{{Infobox water supply and sanitation
|country             = Benin
|image               = Image:Flag of Benin.svg
|caption             =
|water_coverage      = (improved) 75% (2010)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot;&gt;{{cite web
  | last = World Health Organization
  | author-link = World_Health_Organization
  | author2 = UNICEF
  | title = drinking water
  | url = http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-06-04
  | archive-date = 2011-11-24
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;br&gt;
Based on:
*{{cite book
  | title = Enquête démographique et de santé
  | year = 2003}}
*{{cite book
  | title = Enquête socio-anthropologique sur la fécondité et la mortalité infantile et maternelle
  | year = 2003}}
*{{cite book
  | title = Questionnaire des indicateurs de base du bien-être
  | year = 2003}}
*{{cite book
  | title = Recencement général de la population et des habitations
  | year = 2002}}
*{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001}}
*{{cite book
  | last = Bénin. Ministère du plan, de la restructuration economique et de la promotion de l'emploi.
  | title = Demographic and Health Survey
  | year = 1996}}, p. 18
*{{cite book
  | title = 1992 Census as recorded in Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Questionnaire
  | year = 1999}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|sanitation_coverage = (improved) 12% (2010)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|continuity_of_supply= 24 hours for Cotonou, but e depend on electricity supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;
|urban_water_use     = 29&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = M'bareka
  | first = R.
  |author2=Behle, C.
  |author3=Mulindabigwi, V.
  |author4=Schopp, M.
  |author5=Singer, U.
  | title = Sustainable resource management in Benin embedded in the process of decentralisation
  | journal = Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
  | volume = 30
  | issue = 6–7
  | pages = 365–371
  | year = 2005
  | doi = 10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.016
  | bibcode = 2005PCE....30..365M
  }}, p. 366&lt;/ref&gt;
|tariff              = 0.41 for di first five m³&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 43&lt;/ref&gt;
|metering            = n/a
|investment          = less than US$2 per person for rural areas (1999–2002)
|share_by_utilities  = Operation and Maintenance: High&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;
|tax_financing       = not available
|external_financing  = High
|decentralization    = For rural areas, since 1999
|company             = National Water Company of Benin (SONEB)
|regulator           = None
|policy_setting      = Water: Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water &lt;br/&gt;
Sanitation: Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority under the Ministry of Health
|sector_law          = Yes, but e no dey work well.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Water and Sanitation Program - Africa
  | title = Getting Africa on Track to Meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/319200725615_312007101903_MDGs_All_final3_high.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16
  }}, p. 2-4&lt;/ref&gt;
|urban_providers     = 1
|rural_providers     = not available
}}

'''Drinking water supply and sanitation for Benin''' don improve well-well since di 1990s, especially for rural areas, where plenty people get access pass many oda African countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Program |title=Benin Challenges and Opportunities |url=http://wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |access-date=2008-05-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714011544/http://www.wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |archive-date=July 14, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Almost all development partners dey follow one national demand-responsive strategy wey government adopt for 1992.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 106&lt;/ref&gt; Dem adopt new strategies to improve water supply for rural and urban areas for 2005 and 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 12-13&lt;/ref&gt; Tariffs for both urban and rural areas mostly dey enough to cover operation and maintenance costs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

Even with dis progress, challenges still dey. Rural areas now get clearer institutional framework and plenty projects don happen with support from external donors. Government define responsibilities for water supply inside one national strategy for 2007, and di national utility SONEB dey receive plenty investment plus technical support.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot; /&gt; But sanitation never get enough attention. Wastewater treatment almost no dey exist at all.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 21&lt;/ref&gt;

To achieve di Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation, di Ministry of Economic and Financial Development estimate say Benin need about US$80 million every year for water and US$22 million every year for sanitation from 2006 to 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17-18&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot;&gt;1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.002093 (2006-12-31); source: http://oanda.com&lt;/ref&gt;

If person compare am, dem invest less than US$10 million every year for rural water supply and sanitation, even though 55% of Benin population dey live for rural areas. No official figures dey about investments for urban areas. Most likely, investment go need increase plenty before Benin fit achieve di MDGs.

==Access==

For 2015, 78% of people for Benin get access to &quot;improved&quot; water source. For urban areas na 85%, while rural areas get 72%. By dat same year, around 2 million people still no get access to improved water. For sanitation matter, 20% of di population get access to improved sanitation—36% for urban areas and only 7% for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://washwatch.org/en/countries/benin/summary/statistics/|title=WASHwatch.org - Benin|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt;

According to di Joint Monitoring Programme of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three quarters of Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while only 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis figure rise from 63% for water and 5% for sanitation in 1990. Urban areas get much better coverage pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
According to the Joint Monitoring Program of the World Health Organization and UNICEF, by 2008, three quarters of people for Benin fit get access to improved water source, while 12% fit get improved sanitation. For 1990, na 63% of people get access to improved water source and only 5% get improved sanitation. Access for urban areas dey far better pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation in Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of the population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of the population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across the different regions. The situation depend on how easy e be to get ground water, where donor investment programmes focus, and whether people for the community or region really need the service.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, plenty people wey no get access to safe water dey stay mostly for the outskirts of the cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt;

The national government dey use another definition for access.&lt;ref&gt;In rural and semi-urban areas, the water supply coverage rate represents the share of population covered by water supply points, which serve up to 250 inhabitants on the basis of 20 liters per day and capita (l/p/d) at a distance of not more than 500 meters from the place of consumption. The following sources are recognized as water points:
*A borehole equipped with a hand pump corresponds to one water point
*A modern well corresponds to one water point
*A public stand post in a rural water supply scheme corresponds to two water points
*An autonomouos water stand post (''Poste d'Eau Autonome'') corresponds to four water points

In urban and peri-urban areas, access is defined as connection to the urban water supply network. One connection provides water to on average twelve persons (two households with six persons per household). Source: {{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; According to this definition, water supply coverage for 2005 be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas, and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas. The annual review of the water sector for the 2009 financial year show say access rise go 55.1% for rural areas and 57% for urban areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;&gt;Personal communication with sector practitioners, April 2011&lt;/ref&gt; To reach the MDGs, the national government plan be say make coverage increase to 75% for urban and peri-urban areas and 67.5% for rural and semi-urban areas by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;

As for sanitation, the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development report say for 2003, about 67% of the population no get proper facilities to dispose human waste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; The annual sector review show say by 2009, access to sanitation facilities be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Definition of urban and rural areas===
Like many other countries, Benin divide the water supply sector into urban and rural sectors before resources reach the people. But for the official documents, rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban areas. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements wey get less than 10,000 people plus 22 secondary towns wey get more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 104&lt;/ref&gt; while all the remaining places be classified as urban and peri-urban.
==Service quality==

===Continuity of supply===
Since 1991, dem no make any major investment for the Greater Cotonou Area. Because water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% every year), the present capacity of the well fields, the two water treatment plants and the distribution system no fit meet the demand again. This dey cause low water pressure, and e dey make people for the outskirts of the city struggle to get enough water. Water supply for Cotonou normally dey available 24 hours every day, but frequent power cuts from the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey affect the system badly. About 50% of the electricity wey the pumping stations need fit come from generators to keep pipelines and water towers working. Regular power outages reduce how reliable the water supply system be.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Since 2007/2008, major expansion works don receive funding and planning support from important development partners (West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW Entwicklungsbank and the Netherlands). Work on these projects still dey continue.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Drinking water quality===
No nationwide study don fully assess water quality for Benin before. Under one research project wey study water supply for the peri-urban areas of Cotonou, researchers collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one community well and Lake Nokoue for the peri-urban communities of Ladji and Vossa. The study conclude say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be of good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB water network dey common for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main distribution system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; To regulate this practice, the Ministry responsible for water together with SONEB introduce one special &quot;pro-poor&quot; tariff for water resale in July 2009. Local governments dey help implement the policy.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

People also report cases of saltwater intrusion close to Cotonou, where drinking water dey come from underground sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===Wastewater treatment===
Wastewater treatment no dey common at all for Benin. For most places, people no even dispose wastewater properly. According to one national health survey from 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dispose of their wastewater properly. Most households just pour am into the environment or inside open drains. This practice dey cause pollution and fit spread water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article published in 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one wastewater treatment plant wey dey work, where sludge from septic tanks and latrines dey receive treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ of sludge every day. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem fit discharge the sludge. The wastewater first pass through primary and secondary treatment before dem discharge am into the ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access =
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Besides this, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==

[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say Benin get enough water resources to satisfy both present and future demand, even if agriculture and industry increase their water use. At the moment, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The country get an estimated 3,954 m³ of renewable water resources per person every year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say, according to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage only dey happen occasionally or for some local areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Around 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², representing about 1.8% of Benin's total land area (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average annual rainfall be about 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm, although the amount differ from one region and season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide a €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management, especially by upgrading stormwater drainage systems to collect plastic waste. The project go reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastic and other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==

One study wey come out for 2005 show say the average water consumption be 17 litres per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural communities dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water become scarce during the dry season. Dem also discover say the outskirts of many towns face problems similar to those in rural areas. Dem expect water demand to increase because of urbanization and improving living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, 32% of all water withdrawals go for domestic use, 45% go for agriculture and 23% go for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause serious flooding across Benin, damaging water resources and causing major financial losses. Because the heavy rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, creating more pressure on the country's water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===

Souterrains wey date back to between the 17th and 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including to store water&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or to serve as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' During the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin start one national campaign and install 5,350 water points across the country. These efforts later show some major problems with the strategy. The problems include (i) users no take part enough for installing the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation too small; (iv) communities no dey involved well for managing and operating the water points; and (v) many of the water points stop working properly.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Because these investments and programmes no prove to be sustainable, the government, with support from the World Bank, prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation in 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:

*Decentralization of decision making.
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investment (about 3–10% of the total project cost).&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;
*Finding ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs.
*Allowing private companies to take part in construction and operation activities.

The strategy also get two additional important principles:

*Including hygiene education inside rural water programmes.
*Changing the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau), making am become the sector regulator and facilitator.

Since then, the strategy don dey implemented through several projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from many development partners. The strategy later receive revision for 2003 to match the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegated project implementation, and lessons learnt from the years of implementation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The aims of the policy be almost the same as the objectives of the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Until 2002, one institution called the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water services. After that, the electricity sector largely move go private hands, while the urban water sector remain under public control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===

Both urban and rural areas adopt new national strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 continue from the 1992 national strategy and target the achievement of the MDGs. The guiding principles remain almost the same but adapt to the new political and institutional environment. Like the earlier strategy, this one also follow a demand-responsive approach with five main principles:

*Decision making dey decentralized to municipalities, wey go respond according to community demand.
*Users go take part in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation of facilities and construction works.
*Research go continue to find ways to reduce water tariffs by using lower-cost technologies.
*Private companies go participate in construction, operation, maintenance and community mobilisation, while professionalism among local operators go increase.
*The technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration go become stronger, while better cooperation go exist between the central government and decentralized municipal institutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce the idea of one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Although the initiative never start by 2006, the plan be to achieve the MDGs by constructing rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and improve access for poorer households. The strategy base on four main principles:

*All institutions involved go perform their responsibilities under one clear legal and institutional framework.
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the water sector.
*The long-term sustainability of the sector depend on efficient and financially sound public water supply services.
*Making sure low-income households get access to safe water be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

As for '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme divide into three parts:

*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas.
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas.
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health together with its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
===Drinking water quality===
Nobody don do any broad assessment about water quality for Benin. Under one study wey analyse water supply for peri-urban areas around Cotonou, dem collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one communal well and Lake Nokoue for Ladji and Vossa. The study show say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Plenty private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB utility network dey operate for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main water network.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; The Ministry wey dey in charge of water and SONEB set one special “pro-poor” tariff for water resale to regulate this system for July 2009. Dem still dey implement am together with the local government.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don happen around Cotonou, the place wey dem dey collect drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===[[Wastewater treatment]]===
Wastewater treatment almost no dey happen for Benin. For plenty places, dem no even dispose wastewater well. According to one national health survey for 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dey dispose their wastewater the correct way. Most households just pour am directly inside the environment or drains. This one dey cause pollution and fit bring water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article wey come out for 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one functioning wastewater treatment plant, where dem dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ every day. After primary and secondary treatment, dem dey discharge the treated wastewater into the ocean. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem treat the sludge.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market 
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access = 
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Apart from that, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels too get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==
[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say the available water resources for Benin fit meet both current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry water use increase. Right now, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The total renewable water resources for the country be about 3,954 m³ per person every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report 
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage for Benin dey happen only once in a while or for some specific places.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark 
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², wey be 1.8% of the total land area of Benin (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average rainfall be 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm every year, but e dey differ from one region to another and from one season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management by upgrading stormwater drainage systems wey go catch plastic waste. The project go help reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastics plus other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==
One study wey dem publish for 2005 show say average water consumption be 17 liters per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural people dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water scarce during the dry season. For the outskirts of towns too, dem see conditions wey resemble rural areas. Dem expect say water demand go increase because of urbanization and better living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, domestic use account for 32% of all water withdrawal, agriculture use 45%, while industry use the remaining 23%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall for Benin cause serious flooding, damage water resources and bring heavy financial losses. Because the rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, wey affect the quality and availability of water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===
Souterrains wey date from the 17th–19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including water storage&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' Under the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin launch one campaign and install 5,350 water points. But the results show some weak points for the strategy: (i) users no really take part for the installation of the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation no dey enough; (iv) communities no dey fully involved for the management and operation of the water points; and (v) plenty of the water points no dey function well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Since these efforts and investments no really last, Benin prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation with help from the World Bank, and adopt am for 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:
*Decentralization of decision making
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investments (about 3–10% of the total cost)&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;)
*Search for ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs
*Privatization of construction and operation activities

The strategy also include two other important principles:
*Include hygiene education inside rural water programmes
*Change the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau) to become the sector regulator and facilitator

Since then, dem implement the strategy through different projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from several development partners. Dem revise the strategy for 2003 because of the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegation of works and lessons from the years wey dem don implement the strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The objectives be almost the same as the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Before 2002, the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water. After that, dem privatize most of the electricity sector, while the urban water sector remain under government control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===
For both urban and rural areas, Benin adopt new strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 follow the 1992 national strategy and target the MDGs. The principles still be similar but dem adjust am to match the new political and institutional system. Like the old strategy, this one too dey use demand-responsive approach and get five main principles:
*Decentralize decision-making to municipalities, wey go respond to community demand
*Users go participate in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation and construction of facilities
*Research ways to reduce water tariffs by using low-cost technologies
*Privatize construction, operation, maintenance and social mediation, with special effort to improve the professionalism of local operators
*Strengthen technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration as sector regulator, and create functional relationships between the municipalities and the central government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Even though dem never implement am by 2006, the aim be to reach the MDGs by building rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and make poorer households get better access to water. The strategy base on four principles:
*Every stakeholder go perform their responsibilities inside one clear legal and institutional framework
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the sector
*The sector go remain sustainable through efficient and financially sound public water supply
*Giving low-income people access to water supply be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

Concerning '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme get three sub-programmes:
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health and its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
==Responsibility for water supply and sanitation==

===Policy and regulation===
[[Image:Benin-CIA WFB Map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Benin]]

The national Ministry of Energy and Water dey set overall water sector policies and dey supervise how dem implement am. National sanitation policy dey handled by the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

Benin dey currently implement decentralization policy, where responsibility for water supply and sanitation don transfer go the 77 communes (municipalities), wey get population between 25,000 and 600,000 people. Each commune get elected council and mayor. According to Law No. 97-029 of 1999, communes get full responsibility to provide drinking water and sanitation. The law still allow dem to request technical support from national government or private sector. The central government still responsible for providing necessary financial resources to enable communes carry out their duties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 23-27&lt;/ref&gt;

For rural and semi-urban areas, the General Water Authority (DGEau) under the Ministry of Energy and Water dey implement national policies, coordinate water use for different purposes, and promote Integrated Water Resources Management. DGEau still responsible for maintaining database on water resources and how dem dey use am. To ensure national policies reach local level, DGEau get 11 water service divisions and six departmental divisions under the ministry. As decentralization dey continue, some responsibilities don shift from central DGEau go local divisions.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot; /&gt;

There is no independent regulator for economic regulation of water and sanitation sector. However, the national Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction (2007) recommend say such authority should be created.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

===Service provision===
After decentralization, municipalities and Water User Associations become responsible for operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; For rural and semi-urban areas, DGEau dey support dem. For urban and peri-urban areas, the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB) dey in charge of urban water supply and wastewater treatment on behalf of local authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

SONEB dey serve about 69 urban districts as at 2007. Around 80% of urban water demand dey concentrated for Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou, and Abomey/Bohicon. Like DGEau, SONEB dey under Ministry of Energy and Water. Even though e be public company, SONEB get autonomy for decision-making and financial management.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority dey handle sanitation for public places like schools and health centers. Responsibility still dey shared among SONEB, local communities, and ministries like Environment, Housing and Urbanism, and Public Works and Transportation.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

===Other functions===

'''Private sector:''' For rural areas, private companies dey involved under PADEAR strategy. Companies like FORAG and FORATECH dey drill about 1,000 water points every year. Private operators still dey help with maintenance activities.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt; Private consulting firms dey prepare feasibility studies and supervise construction work, while local artisans dey handle small jobs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Office International de l'Eau (OIEAU)
  | title = Alimentation en eau potable et assainissement en milieu rural au Bénin
  | url = http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | access-date = 2008-05-21
  | language = fr
  | archive-date = 2012-02-10
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120210191235/http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 27-28&lt;/ref&gt;

For urban areas, private participation inside SONEB system no dey really happen. However, for Cotonou, private company SIBEAU dey operate the only wastewater treatment plant in the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

'''Non-governmental organizations (NGOs):''' Plenty NGOs dey active for Benin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; Dem usually dey educate communities, give advice, and support them to manage their water supply responsibilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = IGIP Afrique
  | title = Intégration des aspects genre et développement dans le Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et Assainissement (PADSEA) et dans le Projet d'Assistance au Développement du secteur de l'alimentation en Eau et de l'Assainissement en zone Rurale (PADEAR) au Bénin. Rapport Provisoire Version 2 
  | location = Cotonou
  | year = 2002|language=fr}}, p. 31&lt;/ref&gt;

==Economic efficiency==
Efficiency of water supply fit be measured through different indicators, but for Benin, access to data dey limited. However, a contract plan between SONEB and the Ministry in charge of water (2008–2010) introduce indicators to measure performance of urban water strategy adopted in 2007. SONEB dey report progress through yearly sector reviews.

One key indicator be non-revenue water (NRW), meaning water wey dem produce but no dey billed due to leakages or illegal connections. According to Ministry of Economic and Financial Development, NRW for SONEB be 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt; Even though there is no universal agreement on ideal NRW levels, Tynan and Kingdom propose 23% as benchmark for developing countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tynan/Kingdom&quot; /&gt;

SONEB performance dey close to that benchmark.

==Financial aspects==

===Tariffs and cost recovery===
'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' A tariff reform introduce for July 2009 based on 2006 tariff study. Connection fee set at 50,000 CFA francs. There is no difference between residential, commercial, or industrial users, but consumption dey charged under block tariff system.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Before the reform, tariff system charge US$0.41 per m³ for first 5 m³, and US$1.03 per m³ for usage above 5 m³. This structure start from 2002. In addition, users pay fixed fee of US$0.99 for water meter maintenance.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2004&quot; /&gt; One study show say tariffs dey cover most capital cost and all operating costs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 43-44&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2004, water sales generate about US$16.7 million revenue.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' Where Water User Associations dey operate, dem expected to cover operation and maintenance costs. According to DANIDA, water sale for rural areas fit be profitable and sustainable.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; Charging for water dey common where schemes exist, but less common for hand pumps and wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot; /&gt;

World Bank study assume average rural tariff of about US$1.04 per m³, and say this usually cover maintenance costs. Because rural households dey use small amount of improved water (about 5 litres per person per day), affordability no be major problem.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

===Investment and financing===
Water sector investment for Benin don increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment start later and remain lower. Until 2004, no full sector-wide review exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;/&gt;

Since 2002, Ministry of Energy and Water dey use three-year budget programme system to combine operational and investment funding for better planning and tracking.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt;

Public expenditure data difficult to compile, but World Bank estimates show say DGEau spending (1997–2002) fluctuate and still depend heavily on external funding. Domestic funding increase from 9% to 25%, but overall spending reduce from US$11.87 million to US$8.57 million.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 119-120; 127&lt;/ref&gt;

Government report for 2006 show say no proper mechanism exist for urban water investment coordination, so external support still dey very important.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

For 2009, officials report say corruption dey affect the sector badly, with inflated contracts and bribery especially for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
  | last = Global Water News Watch
  | title = Benin: &quot;Enormous&quot; corruption in the water sector
  | publisher = SAHRA - Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas
  | date = 2009-02-19
  | url = http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | access-date = 2009-02-27
  | archive-date = 2011-08-08
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110808224804/http://sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | url-status     = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Financing latest strategies====
'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' MDG implementation for 2006–2015 estimated to need about US$396 million total (US$40 million per year). Government say targets go difficult to achieve if funding no increase beyond 2002–2005 levels, but possible if resources fully mobilized.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  |publisher=Ministry of Economic and Financial Development: Ministry of Energy and Water
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Required investment also estimated at about US$400 million for 2006–2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt; Financing go come from state, municipalities, development partners, financial institutions, and SONEB. Poor households and peri-urban zones go receive subsidies and donor support. SONEB itself go focus on financing maintenance and rehabilitation through improved self-financing and tariffs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

'''Sanitation:''' About US$218 million needed for 2006–2015 to achieve sanitation MDGs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;
According to di Joint Monitoring Program of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three-quarters of di Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis share don increase from 63% for water and from 5% for sanitation for 1990. Coverage for urban areas dey higher pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation for Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of di population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of di population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across different regions. Di situation depend on how easy to access groundwater, how donor investment programs dey spread, and how people for di area dey demand water services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, lack of safe water dey mostly affect outskirts of cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Di national government dey use different definition for “access”.&lt;ref&gt;For rural and semi-urban areas, water supply coverage rate mean say how many people dey covered by water points wey serve up to 250 people based on 20 liters per day per person at distance not pass 500 meters from consumption place. Water points include:
* Borehole with hand pump = 1 water point
* Modern well = 1 water point
* Public stand post = 2 water points
* Autonomous water stand post = 4 water points

For urban areas, access mean connection to urban water network. One connection dey serve about 12 people. Source: Ministry of Economic and Financial Development and Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Under dis definition, water coverage be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas for 2005. Annual sector review for 2009 show say 55.1% rural access and 57% urban access.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot; /&gt; Government strategy dey aim to reach 75% urban and 67.5% rural coverage by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, ministry report say for 2003, 67% of population no get proper toilet facilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009, sanitation access be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Definition of urban and rural areas ===
Like other countries, Benin water sector split into urban and rural areas. But rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban zones. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements with less than 10,000 people and 22 secondary towns with more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot; /&gt; while other areas dey classified as urban and peri-urban.

== Service quality ==

=== Continuity of supply ===
Big investments for Greater Cotonou area no really happen since 1991. Water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% per year), pass the system design capacity of wells, treatment plants and distribution network. Dis one dey cause low water pressure wey dey reduce supply for outskirts.

For Cotonou, water dey available 24 hours daily, but electricity cuts from national power company dey disturb supply. About 50% of pump energy dey supported by generators to keep system running. Frequent power failure dey reduce reliability.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Since 2007/2008, donors like West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW and Netherlands don finance expansion works.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Drinking water quality ===
No big nationwide study for water quality exist. But small study for peri-urban Cotonou show say water from kiosks and vendors dey clean and good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Private water sellers connected to SONEB network dey common for cities, especially for people wey never get direct connection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; Government don introduce special pro-poor tariff for resale water in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don also affect areas near Cotonou where water dey collected.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater treatment ===
Wastewater treatment for Benin dey very rare. Most wastewater no dey treated properly. Study for 2001 show say for Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only 2 out of 1,000 households dey dispose wastewater properly. Most people dey pour am into environment, causing pollution and diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

Cotonou na di only city wey get functioning wastewater treatment plant. Plant dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Private company dey manage am and treat about 240–300 m³ per day before dumping treated water into ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

Some hospitals and hotels also get small treatment systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

== Water resources ==
== Water resources ==

[[File:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River for [[Pendjari National Park]] during dry season]]

Estimation show say Benin water resources dey enough to meet current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry use join. Current water use na about 1% of total available resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Total renewable water resources for di country estimated around 3,954 m³ per person per year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say water shortage only dey happen sometimes or for specific areas.

About 2,000 km² (1.8%) of Benin total land area dey covered by water. Rainfall average na 1,039 mm per year but e dey change depending on region and season.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | year = 2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, European Investment Bank give €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater drainage system. Di project go help capture plastic waste, reduce flooding, and improve environment for about 187,000 people around Cotonou and reduce pollution for Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot; /&gt;

== Water use ==

Study for 2005 show say average water use na 17 liters per person per day for rural areas and 29 liters per person per day for urban areas. Low usage for rural areas na because of long distance to water sources and limited availability during dry season.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report for 2001 show say 32% of total water withdrawal dey go domestic use, 45% for agriculture, and 23% for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = FAO
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause flooding for many parts of Benin, damage water systems and release plastics and debris into Lake Nokoué and Gulf of Guinea through drainage channels, reducing water quality and availability.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot; /&gt;

== History and recent developments ==

=== History ===

Souterrains wey date from 17th–19th century for Kingdom of Dahomey dey serve different purposes including water storage and seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Monroe
  | title = The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Rural areas ====
Under United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin build about 5,350 water points. But evaluation show some problems:
* No strong community participation
* Poor hygiene education
* Low investment in sanitation
* Weak community management
* Many water points no dey functional

Because of these issues, new demand-driven strategy start in 1992 with World Bank support. The strategy focus on:
* Decentralization of decision making
* Community contribution (3–10% of cost)
* Cost reduction for maintenance
* Private sector involvement

Extra principles include hygiene education and redefining role of General Water Authority (DGEau). This approach lead to PADEAR programs supported by development partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

In 1995, national sanitation policy also introduce with similar objectives.

==== Urban and peri-urban areas ====
Before 2002, electricity and water supply dey under same institution (Beninese Society of Electricity and Water). Later electricity sector partly privatized, but urban water remain public under National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Latest national strategies ==

From 2005–2006, new strategies adopt to meet MDGs by 2015.

=== Rural and semi-urban strategy (2005–2015) ===
This strategy continue 1992 approach with adjustments:
* Decentralization to municipalities
* User participation in financing and maintenance
* Low-cost technology research
* Private sector involvement
* Strengthening decentralization systems

There also plan to build rural water schemes in about 500 towns by 2015 to expand access in semi-urban areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Urban water strategy (2006–2015) ===
Focus include:
* Financial sustainability of water systems
* Equitable access for poor households
* Coordinated institutional framework
* Continuous sector development
* Strong public water utility system
* Social equity in access to water&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

=== Sanitation program ===
National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Program (2004–2008) include:
* Rural hygiene promotion
* Urban sanitation promotion
* Institutional support to DHAB under Ministry of Health

== Responsibility for water supply and sanitation ==

=== Policy and regulation ===

Ministry of Energy and Water set policies for water sector. Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under Ministry of Health handle sanitation policy.

Benin dey implement decentralization, where 77 municipalities get responsibility for water and sanitation services. Each municipality get elected council and mayor, and dem get legal responsibility to provide services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

General Water Authority (DGEau) dey coordinate rural water management, promote integrated water resources management, and manage water data systems.

No independent economic regulator exist, although government don propose am.

=== Service provision ===
Municipalities and Water User Associations dey manage local systems. Rural areas receive technical support from DGEau. Urban water supply dey handled by SONEB.

SONEB dey operate for major cities including Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou and Abomey-Bohicon, covering most urban demand.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Sanitation responsibilities dey shared between SONEB, municipalities, Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Public Works.

=== Private sector and NGOs ===
Private companies dey active for rural drilling and maintenance (like FORAG and FORATECH). NGOs also dey support communities through training and hygiene education.

== Economic efficiency ==
Non-revenue water (water loss or unpaid water) for SONEB was about 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

This level dey close to international best practice benchmark for developing countries (~23%).

== Financial aspects ==

=== Tariffs ===

Urban water tariff reform in 2009 introduce:
* Lower connection fee
* Block tariff system

Before reform, pricing was:
* First 5 m³: about US$0.41 per m³
* Above 5 m³: about US$1.03 per m³&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;

Rural areas dey usually charge water per use, especially where schemes exist. Some wells and hand pumps no get strict tariffs.

=== Investment ===
Water sector investment increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment still low. Funding system now follow 3-year budget planning.

External donors still play major role in financing.

=== Public-private partnership ===
Benin adopt decentralized water system where communes can delegate service delivery to private operators or water user associations.

== External cooperation ==

Benin water sector dey strongly supported by international partners under PADEAR program.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 6&quot; /&gt;

=== Denmark (DANIDA) ===
DANIDA support rural and semi-urban water programs, focusing on poverty reduction, hygiene and sanitation improvements, and institutional support.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark
  | title = Benin - Danida Programmes
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== France (AFD) ===
French Development Agency support water and sanitation programs to improve access and strengthen decentralization.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = AFD
  | title = Hydraulique Rural
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Germany ===
GTZ and KfW support rural water programs and urban water systems improvement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = GTZ
  | title = Priority areas in Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Netherlands ===
Dutch support helped provide water points for over 300,000 people and supports hygiene campaigns and decentralization.

=== World Bank ===
World Bank support includes poverty reduction credits and urban infrastructure development programs including sanitation and drainage systems.

== References ==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== External links ==
* Government of Benin Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
* Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water
* National Water Society of Benin (SONEB)

{{Benin topics}}
{{Water supply and sanitation by country}}

[[Category:Health in Benin]]
[[Category:Water in Benin]]
[[Category:Water supply and sanitation by country]]
[[Category:Decentralization]]</text>
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      <id>105827</id>
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      <text bytes="72415" sha1="f5iaon4ehxhmjg3ra1m667jh9h5ctme" xml:space="preserve">'''Drinking water supply and sanitation for Benin''' don improve well-well since di 1990s, especially for rural areas, where plenty people get access pass many oda African countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Program |title=Benin Challenges and Opportunities |url=http://wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |access-date=2008-05-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714011544/http://www.wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |archive-date=July 14, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Almost all development partners dey follow one national demand-responsive strategy wey government adopt for 1992.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 106&lt;/ref&gt; Dem adopt new strategies to improve water supply for rural and urban areas for 2005 and 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 12-13&lt;/ref&gt; Tariffs for both urban and rural areas mostly dey enough to cover operation and maintenance costs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

Even with dis progress, challenges still dey. Rural areas now get clearer institutional framework and plenty projects don happen with support from external donors. Government define responsibilities for water supply inside one national strategy for 2007, and di national utility SONEB dey receive plenty investment plus technical support.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot; /&gt; But sanitation never get enough attention. Wastewater treatment almost no dey exist at all.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 21&lt;/ref&gt;

To achieve di Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation, di Ministry of Economic and Financial Development estimate say Benin need about US$80 million every year for water and US$22 million every year for sanitation from 2006 to 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17-18&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot;&gt;1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.002093 (2006-12-31); source: http://oanda.com&lt;/ref&gt;

If person compare am, dem invest less than US$10 million every year for rural water supply and sanitation, even though 55% of Benin population dey live for rural areas. No official figures dey about investments for urban areas. Most likely, investment go need increase plenty before Benin fit achieve di MDGs.

==Access==

For 2015, 78% of people for Benin get access to &quot;improved&quot; water source. For urban areas na 85%, while rural areas get 72%. By dat same year, around 2 million people still no get access to improved water. For sanitation matter, 20% of di population get access to improved sanitation—36% for urban areas and only 7% for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://washwatch.org/en/countries/benin/summary/statistics/|title=WASHwatch.org - Benin|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt;

According to di Joint Monitoring Programme of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three quarters of Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while only 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis figure rise from 63% for water and 5% for sanitation in 1990. Urban areas get much better coverage pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
According to the Joint Monitoring Program of the World Health Organization and UNICEF, by 2008, three quarters of people for Benin fit get access to improved water source, while 12% fit get improved sanitation. For 1990, na 63% of people get access to improved water source and only 5% get improved sanitation. Access for urban areas dey far better pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation in Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of the population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of the population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across the different regions. The situation depend on how easy e be to get ground water, where donor investment programmes focus, and whether people for the community or region really need the service.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, plenty people wey no get access to safe water dey stay mostly for the outskirts of the cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt;

The national government dey use another definition for access.&lt;ref&gt;In rural and semi-urban areas, the water supply coverage rate represents the share of population covered by water supply points, which serve up to 250 inhabitants on the basis of 20 liters per day and capita (l/p/d) at a distance of not more than 500 meters from the place of consumption. The following sources are recognized as water points:
*A borehole equipped with a hand pump corresponds to one water point
*A modern well corresponds to one water point
*A public stand post in a rural water supply scheme corresponds to two water points
*An autonomouos water stand post (''Poste d'Eau Autonome'') corresponds to four water points

In urban and peri-urban areas, access is defined as connection to the urban water supply network. One connection provides water to on average twelve persons (two households with six persons per household). Source: {{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; According to this definition, water supply coverage for 2005 be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas, and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas. The annual review of the water sector for the 2009 financial year show say access rise go 55.1% for rural areas and 57% for urban areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;&gt;Personal communication with sector practitioners, April 2011&lt;/ref&gt; To reach the MDGs, the national government plan be say make coverage increase to 75% for urban and peri-urban areas and 67.5% for rural and semi-urban areas by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;

As for sanitation, the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development report say for 2003, about 67% of the population no get proper facilities to dispose human waste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; The annual sector review show say by 2009, access to sanitation facilities be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Definition of urban and rural areas===
Like many other countries, Benin divide the water supply sector into urban and rural sectors before resources reach the people. But for the official documents, rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban areas. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements wey get less than 10,000 people plus 22 secondary towns wey get more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 104&lt;/ref&gt; while all the remaining places be classified as urban and peri-urban.
==Service quality==

===Continuity of supply===
Since 1991, dem no make any major investment for the Greater Cotonou Area. Because water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% every year), the present capacity of the well fields, the two water treatment plants and the distribution system no fit meet the demand again. This dey cause low water pressure, and e dey make people for the outskirts of the city struggle to get enough water. Water supply for Cotonou normally dey available 24 hours every day, but frequent power cuts from the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey affect the system badly. About 50% of the electricity wey the pumping stations need fit come from generators to keep pipelines and water towers working. Regular power outages reduce how reliable the water supply system be.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Since 2007/2008, major expansion works don receive funding and planning support from important development partners (West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW Entwicklungsbank and the Netherlands). Work on these projects still dey continue.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Drinking water quality===
No nationwide study don fully assess water quality for Benin before. Under one research project wey study water supply for the peri-urban areas of Cotonou, researchers collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one community well and Lake Nokoue for the peri-urban communities of Ladji and Vossa. The study conclude say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be of good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB water network dey common for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main distribution system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; To regulate this practice, the Ministry responsible for water together with SONEB introduce one special &quot;pro-poor&quot; tariff for water resale in July 2009. Local governments dey help implement the policy.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

People also report cases of saltwater intrusion close to Cotonou, where drinking water dey come from underground sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===Wastewater treatment===
Wastewater treatment no dey common at all for Benin. For most places, people no even dispose wastewater properly. According to one national health survey from 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dispose of their wastewater properly. Most households just pour am into the environment or inside open drains. This practice dey cause pollution and fit spread water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article published in 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one wastewater treatment plant wey dey work, where sludge from septic tanks and latrines dey receive treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ of sludge every day. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem fit discharge the sludge. The wastewater first pass through primary and secondary treatment before dem discharge am into the ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access =
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Besides this, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==

[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say Benin get enough water resources to satisfy both present and future demand, even if agriculture and industry increase their water use. At the moment, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The country get an estimated 3,954 m³ of renewable water resources per person every year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say, according to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage only dey happen occasionally or for some local areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Around 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², representing about 1.8% of Benin's total land area (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average annual rainfall be about 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm, although the amount differ from one region and season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide a €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management, especially by upgrading stormwater drainage systems to collect plastic waste. The project go reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastic and other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==

One study wey come out for 2005 show say the average water consumption be 17 litres per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural communities dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water become scarce during the dry season. Dem also discover say the outskirts of many towns face problems similar to those in rural areas. Dem expect water demand to increase because of urbanization and improving living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, 32% of all water withdrawals go for domestic use, 45% go for agriculture and 23% go for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause serious flooding across Benin, damaging water resources and causing major financial losses. Because the heavy rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, creating more pressure on the country's water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===

Souterrains wey date back to between the 17th and 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including to store water&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or to serve as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' During the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin start one national campaign and install 5,350 water points across the country. These efforts later show some major problems with the strategy. The problems include (i) users no take part enough for installing the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation too small; (iv) communities no dey involved well for managing and operating the water points; and (v) many of the water points stop working properly.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Because these investments and programmes no prove to be sustainable, the government, with support from the World Bank, prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation in 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:

*Decentralization of decision making.
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investment (about 3–10% of the total project cost).&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;
*Finding ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs.
*Allowing private companies to take part in construction and operation activities.

The strategy also get two additional important principles:

*Including hygiene education inside rural water programmes.
*Changing the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau), making am become the sector regulator and facilitator.

Since then, the strategy don dey implemented through several projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from many development partners. The strategy later receive revision for 2003 to match the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegated project implementation, and lessons learnt from the years of implementation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The aims of the policy be almost the same as the objectives of the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Until 2002, one institution called the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water services. After that, the electricity sector largely move go private hands, while the urban water sector remain under public control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===

Both urban and rural areas adopt new national strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 continue from the 1992 national strategy and target the achievement of the MDGs. The guiding principles remain almost the same but adapt to the new political and institutional environment. Like the earlier strategy, this one also follow a demand-responsive approach with five main principles:

*Decision making dey decentralized to municipalities, wey go respond according to community demand.
*Users go take part in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation of facilities and construction works.
*Research go continue to find ways to reduce water tariffs by using lower-cost technologies.
*Private companies go participate in construction, operation, maintenance and community mobilisation, while professionalism among local operators go increase.
*The technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration go become stronger, while better cooperation go exist between the central government and decentralized municipal institutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce the idea of one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Although the initiative never start by 2006, the plan be to achieve the MDGs by constructing rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and improve access for poorer households. The strategy base on four main principles:

*All institutions involved go perform their responsibilities under one clear legal and institutional framework.
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the water sector.
*The long-term sustainability of the sector depend on efficient and financially sound public water supply services.
*Making sure low-income households get access to safe water be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

As for '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme divide into three parts:

*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas.
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas.
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health together with its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
===Drinking water quality===
Nobody don do any broad assessment about water quality for Benin. Under one study wey analyse water supply for peri-urban areas around Cotonou, dem collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one communal well and Lake Nokoue for Ladji and Vossa. The study show say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Plenty private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB utility network dey operate for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main water network.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; The Ministry wey dey in charge of water and SONEB set one special “pro-poor” tariff for water resale to regulate this system for July 2009. Dem still dey implement am together with the local government.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don happen around Cotonou, the place wey dem dey collect drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===[[Wastewater treatment]]===
Wastewater treatment almost no dey happen for Benin. For plenty places, dem no even dispose wastewater well. According to one national health survey for 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dey dispose their wastewater the correct way. Most households just pour am directly inside the environment or drains. This one dey cause pollution and fit bring water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article wey come out for 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one functioning wastewater treatment plant, where dem dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ every day. After primary and secondary treatment, dem dey discharge the treated wastewater into the ocean. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem treat the sludge.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market 
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access = 
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Apart from that, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels too get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==
[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say the available water resources for Benin fit meet both current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry water use increase. Right now, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The total renewable water resources for the country be about 3,954 m³ per person every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report 
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage for Benin dey happen only once in a while or for some specific places.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark 
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², wey be 1.8% of the total land area of Benin (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average rainfall be 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm every year, but e dey differ from one region to another and from one season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management by upgrading stormwater drainage systems wey go catch plastic waste. The project go help reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastics plus other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==
One study wey dem publish for 2005 show say average water consumption be 17 liters per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural people dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water scarce during the dry season. For the outskirts of towns too, dem see conditions wey resemble rural areas. Dem expect say water demand go increase because of urbanization and better living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, domestic use account for 32% of all water withdrawal, agriculture use 45%, while industry use the remaining 23%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall for Benin cause serious flooding, damage water resources and bring heavy financial losses. Because the rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, wey affect the quality and availability of water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===
Souterrains wey date from the 17th–19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including water storage&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' Under the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin launch one campaign and install 5,350 water points. But the results show some weak points for the strategy: (i) users no really take part for the installation of the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation no dey enough; (iv) communities no dey fully involved for the management and operation of the water points; and (v) plenty of the water points no dey function well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Since these efforts and investments no really last, Benin prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation with help from the World Bank, and adopt am for 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:
*Decentralization of decision making
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investments (about 3–10% of the total cost)&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;)
*Search for ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs
*Privatization of construction and operation activities

The strategy also include two other important principles:
*Include hygiene education inside rural water programmes
*Change the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau) to become the sector regulator and facilitator

Since then, dem implement the strategy through different projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from several development partners. Dem revise the strategy for 2003 because of the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegation of works and lessons from the years wey dem don implement the strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The objectives be almost the same as the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Before 2002, the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water. After that, dem privatize most of the electricity sector, while the urban water sector remain under government control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===
For both urban and rural areas, Benin adopt new strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 follow the 1992 national strategy and target the MDGs. The principles still be similar but dem adjust am to match the new political and institutional system. Like the old strategy, this one too dey use demand-responsive approach and get five main principles:
*Decentralize decision-making to municipalities, wey go respond to community demand
*Users go participate in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation and construction of facilities
*Research ways to reduce water tariffs by using low-cost technologies
*Privatize construction, operation, maintenance and social mediation, with special effort to improve the professionalism of local operators
*Strengthen technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration as sector regulator, and create functional relationships between the municipalities and the central government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Even though dem never implement am by 2006, the aim be to reach the MDGs by building rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and make poorer households get better access to water. The strategy base on four principles:
*Every stakeholder go perform their responsibilities inside one clear legal and institutional framework
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the sector
*The sector go remain sustainable through efficient and financially sound public water supply
*Giving low-income people access to water supply be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

Concerning '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme get three sub-programmes:
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health and its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
==Responsibility for water supply and sanitation==

===Policy and regulation===
[[Image:Benin-CIA WFB Map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Benin]]

The national Ministry of Energy and Water dey set overall water sector policies and dey supervise how dem implement am. National sanitation policy dey handled by the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

Benin dey currently implement decentralization policy, where responsibility for water supply and sanitation don transfer go the 77 communes (municipalities), wey get population between 25,000 and 600,000 people. Each commune get elected council and mayor. According to Law No. 97-029 of 1999, communes get full responsibility to provide drinking water and sanitation. The law still allow dem to request technical support from national government or private sector. The central government still responsible for providing necessary financial resources to enable communes carry out their duties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 23-27&lt;/ref&gt;

For rural and semi-urban areas, the General Water Authority (DGEau) under the Ministry of Energy and Water dey implement national policies, coordinate water use for different purposes, and promote Integrated Water Resources Management. DGEau still responsible for maintaining database on water resources and how dem dey use am. To ensure national policies reach local level, DGEau get 11 water service divisions and six departmental divisions under the ministry. As decentralization dey continue, some responsibilities don shift from central DGEau go local divisions.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot; /&gt;

There is no independent regulator for economic regulation of water and sanitation sector. However, the national Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction (2007) recommend say such authority should be created.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

===Service provision===
After decentralization, municipalities and Water User Associations become responsible for operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; For rural and semi-urban areas, DGEau dey support dem. For urban and peri-urban areas, the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB) dey in charge of urban water supply and wastewater treatment on behalf of local authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

SONEB dey serve about 69 urban districts as at 2007. Around 80% of urban water demand dey concentrated for Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou, and Abomey/Bohicon. Like DGEau, SONEB dey under Ministry of Energy and Water. Even though e be public company, SONEB get autonomy for decision-making and financial management.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority dey handle sanitation for public places like schools and health centers. Responsibility still dey shared among SONEB, local communities, and ministries like Environment, Housing and Urbanism, and Public Works and Transportation.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

===Other functions===

'''Private sector:''' For rural areas, private companies dey involved under PADEAR strategy. Companies like FORAG and FORATECH dey drill about 1,000 water points every year. Private operators still dey help with maintenance activities.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt; Private consulting firms dey prepare feasibility studies and supervise construction work, while local artisans dey handle small jobs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Office International de l'Eau (OIEAU)
  | title = Alimentation en eau potable et assainissement en milieu rural au Bénin
  | url = http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | access-date = 2008-05-21
  | language = fr
  | archive-date = 2012-02-10
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120210191235/http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 27-28&lt;/ref&gt;

For urban areas, private participation inside SONEB system no dey really happen. However, for Cotonou, private company SIBEAU dey operate the only wastewater treatment plant in the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

'''Non-governmental organizations (NGOs):''' Plenty NGOs dey active for Benin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; Dem usually dey educate communities, give advice, and support them to manage their water supply responsibilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = IGIP Afrique
  | title = Intégration des aspects genre et développement dans le Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et Assainissement (PADSEA) et dans le Projet d'Assistance au Développement du secteur de l'alimentation en Eau et de l'Assainissement en zone Rurale (PADEAR) au Bénin. Rapport Provisoire Version 2 
  | location = Cotonou
  | year = 2002|language=fr}}, p. 31&lt;/ref&gt;

==Economic efficiency==
Efficiency of water supply fit be measured through different indicators, but for Benin, access to data dey limited. However, a contract plan between SONEB and the Ministry in charge of water (2008–2010) introduce indicators to measure performance of urban water strategy adopted in 2007. SONEB dey report progress through yearly sector reviews.

One key indicator be non-revenue water (NRW), meaning water wey dem produce but no dey billed due to leakages or illegal connections. According to Ministry of Economic and Financial Development, NRW for SONEB be 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt; Even though there is no universal agreement on ideal NRW levels, Tynan and Kingdom propose 23% as benchmark for developing countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tynan/Kingdom&quot; /&gt;

SONEB performance dey close to that benchmark.

==Financial aspects==

===Tariffs and cost recovery===
'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' A tariff reform introduce for July 2009 based on 2006 tariff study. Connection fee set at 50,000 CFA francs. There is no difference between residential, commercial, or industrial users, but consumption dey charged under block tariff system.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Before the reform, tariff system charge US$0.41 per m³ for first 5 m³, and US$1.03 per m³ for usage above 5 m³. This structure start from 2002. In addition, users pay fixed fee of US$0.99 for water meter maintenance.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2004&quot; /&gt; One study show say tariffs dey cover most capital cost and all operating costs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 43-44&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2004, water sales generate about US$16.7 million revenue.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' Where Water User Associations dey operate, dem expected to cover operation and maintenance costs. According to DANIDA, water sale for rural areas fit be profitable and sustainable.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; Charging for water dey common where schemes exist, but less common for hand pumps and wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot; /&gt;

World Bank study assume average rural tariff of about US$1.04 per m³, and say this usually cover maintenance costs. Because rural households dey use small amount of improved water (about 5 litres per person per day), affordability no be major problem.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

===Investment and financing===
Water sector investment for Benin don increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment start later and remain lower. Until 2004, no full sector-wide review exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;/&gt;

Since 2002, Ministry of Energy and Water dey use three-year budget programme system to combine operational and investment funding for better planning and tracking.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt;

Public expenditure data difficult to compile, but World Bank estimates show say DGEau spending (1997–2002) fluctuate and still depend heavily on external funding. Domestic funding increase from 9% to 25%, but overall spending reduce from US$11.87 million to US$8.57 million.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 119-120; 127&lt;/ref&gt;

Government report for 2006 show say no proper mechanism exist for urban water investment coordination, so external support still dey very important.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

For 2009, officials report say corruption dey affect the sector badly, with inflated contracts and bribery especially for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
  | last = Global Water News Watch
  | title = Benin: &quot;Enormous&quot; corruption in the water sector
  | publisher = SAHRA - Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas
  | date = 2009-02-19
  | url = http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | access-date = 2009-02-27
  | archive-date = 2011-08-08
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110808224804/http://sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | url-status     = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Financing latest strategies====
'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' MDG implementation for 2006–2015 estimated to need about US$396 million total (US$40 million per year). Government say targets go difficult to achieve if funding no increase beyond 2002–2005 levels, but possible if resources fully mobilized.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  |publisher=Ministry of Economic and Financial Development: Ministry of Energy and Water
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Required investment also estimated at about US$400 million for 2006–2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt; Financing go come from state, municipalities, development partners, financial institutions, and SONEB. Poor households and peri-urban zones go receive subsidies and donor support. SONEB itself go focus on financing maintenance and rehabilitation through improved self-financing and tariffs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

'''Sanitation:''' About US$218 million needed for 2006–2015 to achieve sanitation MDGs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;
According to di Joint Monitoring Program of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three-quarters of di Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis share don increase from 63% for water and from 5% for sanitation for 1990. Coverage for urban areas dey higher pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation for Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of di population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of di population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across different regions. Di situation depend on how easy to access groundwater, how donor investment programs dey spread, and how people for di area dey demand water services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, lack of safe water dey mostly affect outskirts of cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Di national government dey use different definition for “access”.&lt;ref&gt;For rural and semi-urban areas, water supply coverage rate mean say how many people dey covered by water points wey serve up to 250 people based on 20 liters per day per person at distance not pass 500 meters from consumption place. Water points include:
* Borehole with hand pump = 1 water point
* Modern well = 1 water point
* Public stand post = 2 water points
* Autonomous water stand post = 4 water points

For urban areas, access mean connection to urban water network. One connection dey serve about 12 people. Source: Ministry of Economic and Financial Development and Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Under dis definition, water coverage be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas for 2005. Annual sector review for 2009 show say 55.1% rural access and 57% urban access.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot; /&gt; Government strategy dey aim to reach 75% urban and 67.5% rural coverage by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, ministry report say for 2003, 67% of population no get proper toilet facilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009, sanitation access be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Definition of urban and rural areas ===
Like other countries, Benin water sector split into urban and rural areas. But rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban zones. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements with less than 10,000 people and 22 secondary towns with more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot; /&gt; while other areas dey classified as urban and peri-urban.

== Service quality ==

=== Continuity of supply ===
Big investments for Greater Cotonou area no really happen since 1991. Water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% per year), pass the system design capacity of wells, treatment plants and distribution network. Dis one dey cause low water pressure wey dey reduce supply for outskirts.

For Cotonou, water dey available 24 hours daily, but electricity cuts from national power company dey disturb supply. About 50% of pump energy dey supported by generators to keep system running. Frequent power failure dey reduce reliability.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Since 2007/2008, donors like West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW and Netherlands don finance expansion works.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Drinking water quality ===
No big nationwide study for water quality exist. But small study for peri-urban Cotonou show say water from kiosks and vendors dey clean and good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Private water sellers connected to SONEB network dey common for cities, especially for people wey never get direct connection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; Government don introduce special pro-poor tariff for resale water in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don also affect areas near Cotonou where water dey collected.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater treatment ===
Wastewater treatment for Benin dey very rare. Most wastewater no dey treated properly. Study for 2001 show say for Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only 2 out of 1,000 households dey dispose wastewater properly. Most people dey pour am into environment, causing pollution and diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

Cotonou na di only city wey get functioning wastewater treatment plant. Plant dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Private company dey manage am and treat about 240–300 m³ per day before dumping treated water into ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

Some hospitals and hotels also get small treatment systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

== Water resources ==
== Water resources ==

[[File:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River for [[Pendjari National Park]] during dry season]]

Estimation show say Benin water resources dey enough to meet current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry use join. Current water use na about 1% of total available resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Total renewable water resources for di country estimated around 3,954 m³ per person per year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say water shortage only dey happen sometimes or for specific areas.

About 2,000 km² (1.8%) of Benin total land area dey covered by water. Rainfall average na 1,039 mm per year but e dey change depending on region and season.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | year = 2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, European Investment Bank give €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater drainage system. Di project go help capture plastic waste, reduce flooding, and improve environment for about 187,000 people around Cotonou and reduce pollution for Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot; /&gt;

== Water use ==

Study for 2005 show say average water use na 17 liters per person per day for rural areas and 29 liters per person per day for urban areas. Low usage for rural areas na because of long distance to water sources and limited availability during dry season.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report for 2001 show say 32% of total water withdrawal dey go domestic use, 45% for agriculture, and 23% for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = FAO
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause flooding for many parts of Benin, damage water systems and release plastics and debris into Lake Nokoué and Gulf of Guinea through drainage channels, reducing water quality and availability.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot; /&gt;

== History and recent developments ==

=== History ===

Souterrains wey date from 17th–19th century for Kingdom of Dahomey dey serve different purposes including water storage and seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Monroe
  | title = The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Rural areas ====
Under United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin build about 5,350 water points. But evaluation show some problems:
* No strong community participation
* Poor hygiene education
* Low investment in sanitation
* Weak community management
* Many water points no dey functional

Because of these issues, new demand-driven strategy start in 1992 with World Bank support. The strategy focus on:
* Decentralization of decision making
* Community contribution (3–10% of cost)
* Cost reduction for maintenance
* Private sector involvement

Extra principles include hygiene education and redefining role of General Water Authority (DGEau). This approach lead to PADEAR programs supported by development partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

In 1995, national sanitation policy also introduce with similar objectives.

==== Urban and peri-urban areas ====
Before 2002, electricity and water supply dey under same institution (Beninese Society of Electricity and Water). Later electricity sector partly privatized, but urban water remain public under National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Latest national strategies ==

From 2005–2006, new strategies adopt to meet MDGs by 2015.

=== Rural and semi-urban strategy (2005–2015) ===
This strategy continue 1992 approach with adjustments:
* Decentralization to municipalities
* User participation in financing and maintenance
* Low-cost technology research
* Private sector involvement
* Strengthening decentralization systems

There also plan to build rural water schemes in about 500 towns by 2015 to expand access in semi-urban areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Urban water strategy (2006–2015) ===
Focus include:
* Financial sustainability of water systems
* Equitable access for poor households
* Coordinated institutional framework
* Continuous sector development
* Strong public water utility system
* Social equity in access to water&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

=== Sanitation program ===
National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Program (2004–2008) include:
* Rural hygiene promotion
* Urban sanitation promotion
* Institutional support to DHAB under Ministry of Health

== Responsibility for water supply and sanitation ==

=== Policy and regulation ===

Ministry of Energy and Water set policies for water sector. Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under Ministry of Health handle sanitation policy.

Benin dey implement decentralization, where 77 municipalities get responsibility for water and sanitation services. Each municipality get elected council and mayor, and dem get legal responsibility to provide services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

General Water Authority (DGEau) dey coordinate rural water management, promote integrated water resources management, and manage water data systems.

No independent economic regulator exist, although government don propose am.

=== Service provision ===
Municipalities and Water User Associations dey manage local systems. Rural areas receive technical support from DGEau. Urban water supply dey handled by SONEB.

SONEB dey operate for major cities including Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou and Abomey-Bohicon, covering most urban demand.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Sanitation responsibilities dey shared between SONEB, municipalities, Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Public Works.

=== Private sector and NGOs ===
Private companies dey active for rural drilling and maintenance (like FORAG and FORATECH). NGOs also dey support communities through training and hygiene education.

== Economic efficiency ==
Non-revenue water (water loss or unpaid water) for SONEB was about 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

This level dey close to international best practice benchmark for developing countries (~23%).

== Financial aspects ==

=== Tariffs ===

Urban water tariff reform in 2009 introduce:
* Lower connection fee
* Block tariff system

Before reform, pricing was:
* First 5 m³: about US$0.41 per m³
* Above 5 m³: about US$1.03 per m³&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;

Rural areas dey usually charge water per use, especially where schemes exist. Some wells and hand pumps no get strict tariffs.

=== Investment ===
Water sector investment increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment still low. Funding system now follow 3-year budget planning.

External donors still play major role in financing.

=== Public-private partnership ===
Benin adopt decentralized water system where communes can delegate service delivery to private operators or water user associations.

== External cooperation ==

Benin water sector dey strongly supported by international partners under PADEAR program.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 6&quot; /&gt;

=== Denmark (DANIDA) ===
DANIDA support rural and semi-urban water programs, focusing on poverty reduction, hygiene and sanitation improvements, and institutional support.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark
  | title = Benin - Danida Programmes
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== France (AFD) ===
French Development Agency support water and sanitation programs to improve access and strengthen decentralization.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = AFD
  | title = Hydraulique Rural
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Germany ===
GTZ and KfW support rural water programs and urban water systems improvement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = GTZ
  | title = Priority areas in Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Netherlands ===
Dutch support helped provide water points for over 300,000 people and supports hygiene campaigns and decentralization.

=== World Bank ===
World Bank support includes poverty reduction credits and urban infrastructure development programs including sanitation and drainage systems.

== References ==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== External links ==
* Government of Benin Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
* Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water
* National Water Society of Benin (SONEB)

{{Benin topics}}
{{Water supply and sanitation by country}}

[[Category:Health in Benin]]
[[Category:Water in Benin]]
[[Category:Water supply and sanitation by country]]
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'''Drinking water supply and sanitation for Benin''' don improve well-well since di 1990s, especially for rural areas, where plenty people get access pass many oda African countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Program |title=Benin Challenges and Opportunities |url=http://wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |access-date=2008-05-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714011544/http://www.wsp.org/filez/country/117200715921_Benin.pdf |archive-date=July 14, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Almost all development partners dey follow one national demand-responsive strategy wey government adopt for 1992.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 106&lt;/ref&gt; Dem adopt new strategies to improve water supply for rural and urban areas for 2005 and 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 12-13&lt;/ref&gt; Tariffs for both urban and rural areas mostly dey enough to cover operation and maintenance costs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

Even with dis progress, challenges still dey. Rural areas now get clearer institutional framework and plenty projects don happen with support from external donors. Government define responsibilities for water supply inside one national strategy for 2007, and di national utility SONEB dey receive plenty investment plus technical support.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSP&quot; /&gt; But sanitation never get enough attention. Wastewater treatment almost no dey exist at all.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 21&lt;/ref&gt;

To achieve di Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation, di Ministry of Economic and Financial Development estimate say Benin need about US$80 million every year for water and US$22 million every year for sanitation from 2006 to 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17-18&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot;&gt;1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.002093 (2006-12-31); source: http://oanda.com&lt;/ref&gt;

If person compare am, dem invest less than US$10 million every year for rural water supply and sanitation, even though 55% of Benin population dey live for rural areas. No official figures dey about investments for urban areas. Most likely, investment go need increase plenty before Benin fit achieve di MDGs.

==Access==

For 2015, 78% of people for Benin get access to &quot;improved&quot; water source. For urban areas na 85%, while rural areas get 72%. By dat same year, around 2 million people still no get access to improved water. For sanitation matter, 20% of di population get access to improved sanitation—36% for urban areas and only 7% for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://washwatch.org/en/countries/benin/summary/statistics/|title=WASHwatch.org - Benin|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt;

According to di Joint Monitoring Programme of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three quarters of Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while only 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis figure rise from 63% for water and 5% for sanitation in 1990. Urban areas get much better coverage pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
According to the Joint Monitoring Program of the World Health Organization and UNICEF, by 2008, three quarters of people for Benin fit get access to improved water source, while 12% fit get improved sanitation. For 1990, na 63% of people get access to improved water source and only 5% get improved sanitation. Access for urban areas dey far better pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation in Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of the population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of the population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across the different regions. The situation depend on how easy e be to get ground water, where donor investment programmes focus, and whether people for the community or region really need the service.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, plenty people wey no get access to safe water dey stay mostly for the outskirts of the cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt;

The national government dey use another definition for access.&lt;ref&gt;In rural and semi-urban areas, the water supply coverage rate represents the share of population covered by water supply points, which serve up to 250 inhabitants on the basis of 20 liters per day and capita (l/p/d) at a distance of not more than 500 meters from the place of consumption. The following sources are recognized as water points:
*A borehole equipped with a hand pump corresponds to one water point
*A modern well corresponds to one water point
*A public stand post in a rural water supply scheme corresponds to two water points
*An autonomouos water stand post (''Poste d'Eau Autonome'') corresponds to four water points

In urban and peri-urban areas, access is defined as connection to the urban water supply network. One connection provides water to on average twelve persons (two households with six persons per household). Source: {{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; According to this definition, water supply coverage for 2005 be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas, and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas. The annual review of the water sector for the 2009 financial year show say access rise go 55.1% for rural areas and 57% for urban areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;&gt;Personal communication with sector practitioners, April 2011&lt;/ref&gt; To reach the MDGs, the national government plan be say make coverage increase to 75% for urban and peri-urban areas and 67.5% for rural and semi-urban areas by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;

As for sanitation, the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development report say for 2003, about 67% of the population no get proper facilities to dispose human waste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; The annual sector review show say by 2009, access to sanitation facilities be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Definition of urban and rural areas===
Like many other countries, Benin divide the water supply sector into urban and rural sectors before resources reach the people. But for the official documents, rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban areas. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements wey get less than 10,000 people plus 22 secondary towns wey get more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 104&lt;/ref&gt; while all the remaining places be classified as urban and peri-urban.
==Service quality==

===Continuity of supply===
Since 1991, dem no make any major investment for the Greater Cotonou Area. Because water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% every year), the present capacity of the well fields, the two water treatment plants and the distribution system no fit meet the demand again. This dey cause low water pressure, and e dey make people for the outskirts of the city struggle to get enough water. Water supply for Cotonou normally dey available 24 hours every day, but frequent power cuts from the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey affect the system badly. About 50% of the electricity wey the pumping stations need fit come from generators to keep pipelines and water towers working. Regular power outages reduce how reliable the water supply system be.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Since 2007/2008, major expansion works don receive funding and planning support from important development partners (West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW Entwicklungsbank and the Netherlands). Work on these projects still dey continue.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

===Drinking water quality===
No nationwide study don fully assess water quality for Benin before. Under one research project wey study water supply for the peri-urban areas of Cotonou, researchers collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one community well and Lake Nokoue for the peri-urban communities of Ladji and Vossa. The study conclude say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be of good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB water network dey common for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main distribution system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; To regulate this practice, the Ministry responsible for water together with SONEB introduce one special &quot;pro-poor&quot; tariff for water resale in July 2009. Local governments dey help implement the policy.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

People also report cases of saltwater intrusion close to Cotonou, where drinking water dey come from underground sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===Wastewater treatment===
Wastewater treatment no dey common at all for Benin. For most places, people no even dispose wastewater properly. According to one national health survey from 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dispose of their wastewater properly. Most households just pour am into the environment or inside open drains. This practice dey cause pollution and fit spread water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article published in 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one wastewater treatment plant wey dey work, where sludge from septic tanks and latrines dey receive treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ of sludge every day. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem fit discharge the sludge. The wastewater first pass through primary and secondary treatment before dem discharge am into the ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access =
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Besides this, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==

[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say Benin get enough water resources to satisfy both present and future demand, even if agriculture and industry increase their water use. At the moment, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The country get an estimated 3,954 m³ of renewable water resources per person every year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say, according to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage only dey happen occasionally or for some local areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Around 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², representing about 1.8% of Benin's total land area (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average annual rainfall be about 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm, although the amount differ from one region and season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide a €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management, especially by upgrading stormwater drainage systems to collect plastic waste. The project go reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastic and other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==

One study wey come out for 2005 show say the average water consumption be 17 litres per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural communities dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water become scarce during the dry season. Dem also discover say the outskirts of many towns face problems similar to those in rural areas. Dem expect water demand to increase because of urbanization and improving living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, 32% of all water withdrawals go for domestic use, 45% go for agriculture and 23% go for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause serious flooding across Benin, damaging water resources and causing major financial losses. Because the heavy rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, creating more pressure on the country's water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===

Souterrains wey date back to between the 17th and 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including to store water&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or to serve as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' During the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin start one national campaign and install 5,350 water points across the country. These efforts later show some major problems with the strategy. The problems include (i) users no take part enough for installing the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation too small; (iv) communities no dey involved well for managing and operating the water points; and (v) many of the water points stop working properly.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Because these investments and programmes no prove to be sustainable, the government, with support from the World Bank, prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation in 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:

*Decentralization of decision making.
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investment (about 3–10% of the total project cost).&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;
*Finding ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs.
*Allowing private companies to take part in construction and operation activities.

The strategy also get two additional important principles:

*Including hygiene education inside rural water programmes.
*Changing the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau), making am become the sector regulator and facilitator.

Since then, the strategy don dey implemented through several projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from many development partners. The strategy later receive revision for 2003 to match the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegated project implementation, and lessons learnt from the years of implementation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The aims of the policy be almost the same as the objectives of the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Until 2002, one institution called the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water services. After that, the electricity sector largely move go private hands, while the urban water sector remain under public control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===

Both urban and rural areas adopt new national strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 continue from the 1992 national strategy and target the achievement of the MDGs. The guiding principles remain almost the same but adapt to the new political and institutional environment. Like the earlier strategy, this one also follow a demand-responsive approach with five main principles:

*Decision making dey decentralized to municipalities, wey go respond according to community demand.
*Users go take part in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation of facilities and construction works.
*Research go continue to find ways to reduce water tariffs by using lower-cost technologies.
*Private companies go participate in construction, operation, maintenance and community mobilisation, while professionalism among local operators go increase.
*The technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration go become stronger, while better cooperation go exist between the central government and decentralized municipal institutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce the idea of one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Although the initiative never start by 2006, the plan be to achieve the MDGs by constructing rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and improve access for poorer households. The strategy base on four main principles:

*All institutions involved go perform their responsibilities under one clear legal and institutional framework.
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the water sector.
*The long-term sustainability of the sector depend on efficient and financially sound public water supply services.
*Making sure low-income households get access to safe water be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

As for '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme divide into three parts:

*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas.
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas.
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health together with its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
===Drinking water quality===
Nobody don do any broad assessment about water quality for Benin. Under one study wey analyse water supply for peri-urban areas around Cotonou, dem collect water samples from water kiosks, one water seller, one communal well and Lake Nokoue for Ladji and Vossa. The study show say the water from the kiosks and the water seller be good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt; Plenty private water sellers wey connect to the SONEB utility network dey operate for urban areas, and dem dey supply households wey never connect to the main water network.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; The Ministry wey dey in charge of water and SONEB set one special “pro-poor” tariff for water resale to regulate this system for July 2009. Dem still dey implement am together with the local government.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don happen around Cotonou, the place wey dem dey collect drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

===[[Wastewater treatment]]===
Wastewater treatment almost no dey happen for Benin. For plenty places, dem no even dispose wastewater well. According to one national health survey for 2001, for the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of every 1,000 households dey dispose their wastewater the correct way. Most households just pour am directly inside the environment or drains. This one dey cause pollution and fit bring water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Bénin
  | title = Enquête Démographique et de Santé
  | year = 2001|language=fr}}, cited in: {{cite news
 |title        = 0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement
 |publisher    = Panapress
 |date         = 2004-11-22
 |url          = http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22/11/2004
 |access-date   = 2008-05-20
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080606031901/http://www.panapress.com/newslatf.asp?code=fre066617&amp;dte=22%2F11%2F2004
 |archive-date = 2008-06-06
 |url-status     = dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to one article wey come out for 2004, Cotonou be the only town for Benin wey get one functioning wastewater treatment plant, where dem dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Another article talk say the treatment plant, wey the private company Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) dey operate, dey treat about 240–300 m³ every day. After primary and secondary treatment, dem dey discharge the treated wastewater into the ocean. The company dey charge septic tank truck operators before dem treat the sludge.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Solo
  | first = Tova Maria
  | title = Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market 
  | journal = Environment and Urbanization
  | volume = 11
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 133–144
  | publisher = International Institute for Environment and Development
  | date = April 1999
  | doi = 10.1177/095624789901100120| doi-access = 
  }}, p. 124&lt;/ref&gt; Apart from that, some local institutions like hospitals and hotels too get their own wastewater treatment facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

==Water resources==
[[Image:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season]]

Experts estimate say the available water resources for Benin fit meet both current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry water use increase. Right now, the country dey use only about 1% of the available water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; The total renewable water resources for the country be about 3,954 m³ per person every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | author-link = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report 
  | year = 2003
  | url = http://www.unesco.org/bpi/wwdr/WWDR_chart1_eng.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Falkenmark and Widstrand definition, water shortage for Benin dey happen only once in a while or for some specific places.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Falkenmark 
  | first = M.
  |author2=Widstrand, C.
   | title = Population and water resources: a delicate balance.
  | journal = Population Bulletin
  | volume = 47
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 1–36
  | publisher = Population Reference Bureau
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 1992| pmid = 12344702
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 2,000&amp;nbsp;km², wey be 1.8% of the total land area of Benin (112,620&amp;nbsp;km²), dey covered by water. Average rainfall be 1,039&amp;nbsp;mm every year, but e dey differ from one region to another and from one season to another.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, the European Investment Bank provide €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater management by upgrading stormwater drainage systems wey go catch plastic waste. The project go help reduce flooding around buildings, benefit about 187,000 people for and around Cotonou, and also reduce plastics plus other pollutants wey dey enter the Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water use==
One study wey dem publish for 2005 show say average water consumption be 17 liters per person per day (L/c/d) for rural areas and 29 L/c/d for cities. The researchers explain say rural people dey use small water because water sources no plenty, villages dey far from wells, and water scarce during the dry season. For the outskirts of towns too, dem see conditions wey resemble rural areas. Dem expect say water demand go increase because of urbanization and better living standards.&lt;ref name=&quot;M'bareka 366&quot; /&gt;

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations report say for 2001, domestic use account for 32% of all water withdrawal, agriculture use 45%, while industry use the remaining 23%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
  | author-link = Food and Agriculture Organization
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
  | date = 2008-05-02
  | url = http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_ben_en.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-04-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall for Benin cause serious flooding, damage water resources and bring heavy financial losses. Because the rains continue, plenty plastics and other waste enter Lake Nokoué and the Gulf of Guinea through open drains, wey affect the quality and availability of water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==History and recent developments==

===History===
Souterrains wey date from the 17th–19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey build am for different purposes, including water storage&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Monroe|first= J. Cemeron|title= The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7DeNAwAAQBAJ&amp;q=Dahomey+souterrain|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=137–142|isbn=9781107040182}}&lt;/ref&gt; or as seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Merkyte | first1=Inga | last2=Randsborg| first2=Klavs | title=Graves from Dahomey: Beliefs, Ritual and Society in Ancient Bénin| journal= Journal of African Archaeology| volume=7|issue=1 | pages=55–77 | year=2009|doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10126|jstor=43135468}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Rural areas:''' Under the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin launch one campaign and install 5,350 water points. But the results show some weak points for the strategy: (i) users no really take part for the installation of the water points; (ii) health and hygiene education no dey enough; (iii) investment for hygiene and sanitation no dey enough; (iv) communities no dey fully involved for the management and operation of the water points; and (v) plenty of the water points no dey function well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

Since these efforts and investments no really last, Benin prepare one new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation with help from the World Bank, and adopt am for 1992. The strategy base on four main principles:
*Decentralization of decision making
*Communities go contribute financially to the initial investments (about 3–10% of the total cost)&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;)
*Search for ways to reduce operation and maintenance costs
*Privatization of construction and operation activities

The strategy also include two other important principles:
*Include hygiene education inside rural water programmes
*Change the role of the General Water Authority (DGEau) to become the sector regulator and facilitator

Since then, dem implement the strategy through different projects under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in Rural Areas (PADEAR), with strong support from several development partners. Dem revise the strategy for 2003 because of the new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy, the MDGs, delegation of works and lessons from the years wey dem don implement the strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 6-9&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 5-6&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1995, Benin adopt one national sanitation policy. The objectives be almost the same as the 1992 rural water supply and sanitation strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Before 2002, the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water dey provide both electricity and water. After that, dem privatize most of the electricity sector, while the urban water sector remain under government control through the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | first = Claudia
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | journal = EPTD Discussion Papers
  | volume = 145
  | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
  | location = Washington, D.C.
  | year = 2006
  | url = http://www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp145.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-20}}, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

===Latest national strategies===
For both urban and rural areas, Benin adopt new strategies for 2005 and 2006 with the aim of reaching the MDGs for water supply by 2015.

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' The strategy for 2005–2015 follow the 1992 national strategy and target the MDGs. The principles still be similar but dem adjust am to match the new political and institutional system. Like the old strategy, this one too dey use demand-responsive approach and get five main principles:
*Decentralize decision-making to municipalities, wey go respond to community demand
*Users go participate in financing, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation and construction of facilities
*Research ways to reduce water tariffs by using low-cost technologies
*Privatize construction, operation, maintenance and social mediation, with special effort to improve the professionalism of local operators
*Strengthen technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration as sector regulator, and create functional relationships between the municipalities and the central government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 11-12&lt;/ref&gt;

For May 2004, government introduce one Water Initiative for semi-urban areas wey SONEB no dey serve. Even though dem never implement am by 2006, the aim be to reach the MDGs by building rural water supply systems for about 500 towns before 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' The urban water supply strategy for 2006–2015 no only target the MDGs by 2015, but e also want make public water supply become financially sustainable and make poorer households get better access to water. The strategy base on four principles:
*Every stakeholder go perform their responsibilities inside one clear legal and institutional framework
*Achieving the MDGs depend on continuous and balanced development of the sector
*The sector go remain sustainable through efficient and financially sound public water supply
*Giving low-income people access to water supply be one important national responsibility.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  |author2=Ministry of Mines |author3=Energy and Water
   | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

Concerning '''sanitation''', the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Programme cover the period from 2004 to 2008. The programme get three sub-programmes:
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for rural areas
*Promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation for urban areas
*Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health and its decentralized structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_Envir_Assainissement_Benin.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-23|language=fr}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;
==Responsibility for water supply and sanitation==

===Policy and regulation===
[[Image:Benin-CIA WFB Map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Benin]]

The national Ministry of Energy and Water dey set overall water sector policies and dey supervise how dem implement am. National sanitation policy dey handled by the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

Benin dey currently implement decentralization policy, where responsibility for water supply and sanitation don transfer go the 77 communes (municipalities), wey get population between 25,000 and 600,000 people. Each commune get elected council and mayor. According to Law No. 97-029 of 1999, communes get full responsibility to provide drinking water and sanitation. The law still allow dem to request technical support from national government or private sector. The central government still responsible for providing necessary financial resources to enable communes carry out their duties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 23-27&lt;/ref&gt;

For rural and semi-urban areas, the General Water Authority (DGEau) under the Ministry of Energy and Water dey implement national policies, coordinate water use for different purposes, and promote Integrated Water Resources Management. DGEau still responsible for maintaining database on water resources and how dem dey use am. To ensure national policies reach local level, DGEau get 11 water service divisions and six departmental divisions under the ministry. As decentralization dey continue, some responsibilities don shift from central DGEau go local divisions.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 12-13&quot; /&gt;

There is no independent regulator for economic regulation of water and sanitation sector. However, the national Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction (2007) recommend say such authority should be created.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Republic of Benin
  | title = Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
  | date = April 2007
  | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2008/cr08125.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

===Service provision===
After decentralization, municipalities and Water User Associations become responsible for operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; For rural and semi-urban areas, DGEau dey support dem. For urban and peri-urban areas, the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB) dey in charge of urban water supply and wastewater treatment on behalf of local authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

SONEB dey serve about 69 urban districts as at 2007. Around 80% of urban water demand dey concentrated for Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou, and Abomey/Bohicon. Like DGEau, SONEB dey under Ministry of Energy and Water. Even though e be public company, SONEB get autonomy for decision-making and financial management.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority dey handle sanitation for public places like schools and health centers. Responsibility still dey shared among SONEB, local communities, and ministries like Environment, Housing and Urbanism, and Public Works and Transportation.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt;

===Other functions===

'''Private sector:''' For rural areas, private companies dey involved under PADEAR strategy. Companies like FORAG and FORATECH dey drill about 1,000 water points every year. Private operators still dey help with maintenance activities.&lt;ref name=gettingafrica /&gt; Private consulting firms dey prepare feasibility studies and supervise construction work, while local artisans dey handle small jobs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Office International de l'Eau (OIEAU)
  | title = Alimentation en eau potable et assainissement en milieu rural au Bénin
  | url = http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | access-date = 2008-05-21
  | language = fr
  | archive-date = 2012-02-10
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120210191235/http://www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/at2/contribution/toupe2.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 27-28&lt;/ref&gt;

For urban areas, private participation inside SONEB system no dey really happen. However, for Cotonou, private company SIBEAU dey operate the only wastewater treatment plant in the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

'''Non-governmental organizations (NGOs):''' Plenty NGOs dey active for Benin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; Dem usually dey educate communities, give advice, and support them to manage their water supply responsibilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = IGIP Afrique
  | title = Intégration des aspects genre et développement dans le Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et Assainissement (PADSEA) et dans le Projet d'Assistance au Développement du secteur de l'alimentation en Eau et de l'Assainissement en zone Rurale (PADEAR) au Bénin. Rapport Provisoire Version 2 
  | location = Cotonou
  | year = 2002|language=fr}}, p. 31&lt;/ref&gt;

==Economic efficiency==
Efficiency of water supply fit be measured through different indicators, but for Benin, access to data dey limited. However, a contract plan between SONEB and the Ministry in charge of water (2008–2010) introduce indicators to measure performance of urban water strategy adopted in 2007. SONEB dey report progress through yearly sector reviews.

One key indicator be non-revenue water (NRW), meaning water wey dem produce but no dey billed due to leakages or illegal connections. According to Ministry of Economic and Financial Development, NRW for SONEB be 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt; Even though there is no universal agreement on ideal NRW levels, Tynan and Kingdom propose 23% as benchmark for developing countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tynan/Kingdom&quot; /&gt;

SONEB performance dey close to that benchmark.

==Financial aspects==

===Tariffs and cost recovery===
'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' A tariff reform introduce for July 2009 based on 2006 tariff study. Connection fee set at 50,000 CFA francs. There is no difference between residential, commercial, or industrial users, but consumption dey charged under block tariff system.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Before the reform, tariff system charge US$0.41 per m³ for first 5 m³, and US$1.03 per m³ for usage above 5 m³. This structure start from 2002. In addition, users pay fixed fee of US$0.99 for water meter maintenance.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2004&quot; /&gt; One study show say tariffs dey cover most capital cost and all operating costs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Thibault 
  | first = Adrien
  | title = Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin
  | publisher = Cranfield University
  | date = September 2007
  | url = https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2185/1/Thibault-2007.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-19}}, p. 43-44&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2004, water sales generate about US$16.7 million revenue.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' Where Water User Associations dey operate, dem expected to cover operation and maintenance costs. According to DANIDA, water sale for rural areas fit be profitable and sustainable.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 27&quot; /&gt; Charging for water dey common where schemes exist, but less common for hand pumps and wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;DANIDA 7&quot; /&gt;

World Bank study assume average rural tariff of about US$1.04 per m³, and say this usually cover maintenance costs. Because rural households dey use small amount of improved water (about 5 litres per person per day), affordability no be major problem.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank 126&quot; /&gt;

===Investment and financing===
Water sector investment for Benin don increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment start later and remain lower. Until 2004, no full sector-wide review exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot;/&gt;

Since 2002, Ministry of Energy and Water dey use three-year budget programme system to combine operational and investment funding for better planning and tracking.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
  | author-link = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)
  | date = August 2004
  | url = http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/67C09687-D240-40FB-A668-B9A8CE079C51/0/WS_ProgDocPhase2.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-16|language=fr}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt;

Public expenditure data difficult to compile, but World Bank estimates show say DGEau spending (1997–2002) fluctuate and still depend heavily on external funding. Domestic funding increase from 9% to 25%, but overall spending reduce from US$11.87 million to US$8.57 million.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | author-link = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
  | url = http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/11/000012009_20050111085004/Rendered/PDF/296560BEN.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21}}, p. 119-120; 127&lt;/ref&gt;

Government report for 2006 show say no proper mechanism exist for urban water investment coordination, so external support still dey very important.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

For 2009, officials report say corruption dey affect the sector badly, with inflated contracts and bribery especially for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
  | last = Global Water News Watch
  | title = Benin: &quot;Enormous&quot; corruption in the water sector
  | publisher = SAHRA - Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas
  | date = 2009-02-19
  | url = http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | access-date = 2009-02-27
  | archive-date = 2011-08-08
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110808224804/http://sahra.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/newsclips/newsclip_view.pl?mode=newsclip_view&amp;ID=20163
  | url-status     = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Financing latest strategies====
'''Rural and semi-urban areas:''' MDG implementation for 2006–2015 estimated to need about US$396 million total (US$40 million per year). Government say targets go difficult to achieve if funding no increase beyond 2002–2005 levels, but possible if resources fully mobilized.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  |publisher=Ministry of Economic and Financial Development: Ministry of Energy and Water
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)
  | date = December 2006
  | url = http://www.undp.org.bj/docs/omd/OMD_EAU.pdf
  | access-date = 2008-05-21|language=fr}}, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Urban and peri-urban areas:''' Required investment also estimated at about US$400 million for 2006–2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt; Financing go come from state, municipalities, development partners, financial institutions, and SONEB. Poor households and peri-urban zones go receive subsidies and donor support. SONEB itself go focus on financing maintenance and rehabilitation through improved self-financing and tariffs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

'''Sanitation:''' About US$218 million needed for 2006–2015 to achieve sanitation MDGs.&lt;ref name=&quot;MEPN 24&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;
According to di Joint Monitoring Program of di World Health Organization and UNICEF, three-quarters of di Benin population get access to improved water source for 2008, while 12% get access to improved sanitation. Dis share don increase from 63% for water and from 5% for sanitation for 1990. Coverage for urban areas dey higher pass rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#E6E6FA&quot; colspan=5|Access to water and sanitation for Benin (2008)&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! colspan=2|
! Urban&lt;br&gt;(41% of di population)
! Rural&lt;br&gt;(59% of di population)
! Total
|-
| rowspan=2|Water
| Improved water source
| 84%
| 69%
| 75%
|-
| Piped on premises
| 26%
| 2%
| 12%
|-
| Sanitation
| Improved sanitation
| 24%
| 4%
| 12%
|}

Big difference dey for water supply coverage across different regions. Di situation depend on how easy to access groundwater, how donor investment programs dey spread, and how people for di area dey demand water services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = World Bank
  | title = Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors
  | date = 2004-12-20
}}, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; For urban areas, lack of safe water dey mostly affect outskirts of cities.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Di national government dey use different definition for “access”.&lt;ref&gt;For rural and semi-urban areas, water supply coverage rate mean say how many people dey covered by water points wey serve up to 250 people based on 20 liters per day per person at distance not pass 500 meters from consumption place. Water points include:
* Borehole with hand pump = 1 water point
* Modern well = 1 water point
* Public stand post = 2 water points
* Autonomous water stand post = 4 water points

For urban areas, access mean connection to urban water network. One connection dey serve about 12 people. Source: Ministry of Economic and Financial Development and Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Under dis definition, water coverage be 50% for urban and peri-urban areas and 41% for rural and semi-urban areas for 2005. Annual sector review for 2009 show say 55.1% rural access and 57% urban access.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot; /&gt; Government strategy dey aim to reach 75% urban and 67.5% rural coverage by 2015.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

For sanitation, ministry report say for 2003, 67% of population no get proper toilet facilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009, sanitation access be 39.4% for households and 71.6% for school children.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Definition of urban and rural areas ===
Like other countries, Benin water sector split into urban and rural areas. But rural areas include semi-urban areas, while urban areas include peri-urban zones. For 2002, rural and semi-urban areas be settlements with less than 10,000 people and 22 secondary towns with more than 10,000 people,&lt;ref name=&quot;World Bank&quot; /&gt; while other areas dey classified as urban and peri-urban.

== Service quality ==

=== Continuity of supply ===
Big investments for Greater Cotonou area no really happen since 1991. Water demand dey grow fast (about 6–8% per year), pass the system design capacity of wells, treatment plants and distribution network. Dis one dey cause low water pressure wey dey reduce supply for outskirts.

For Cotonou, water dey available 24 hours daily, but electricity cuts from national power company dey disturb supply. About 50% of pump energy dey supported by generators to keep system running. Frequent power failure dey reduce reliability.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Since 2007/2008, donors like West African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, KfW and Netherlands don finance expansion works.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

=== Drinking water quality ===
No big nationwide study for water quality exist. But small study for peri-urban Cotonou show say water from kiosks and vendors dey clean and good quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 48&quot; /&gt;

Private water sellers connected to SONEB network dey common for cities, especially for people wey never get direct connection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thibault 43&quot; /&gt; Government don introduce special pro-poor tariff for resale water in 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;com&quot;/&gt;

Saltwater intrusion don also affect areas near Cotonou where water dey collected.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
}}, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater treatment ===
Wastewater treatment for Benin dey very rare. Most wastewater no dey treated properly. Study for 2001 show say for Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only 2 out of 1,000 households dey dispose wastewater properly. Most people dey pour am into environment, causing pollution and diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

Cotonou na di only city wey get functioning wastewater treatment plant. Plant dey treat sludge from septic tanks and latrines.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt; Private company dey manage am and treat about 240–300 m³ per day before dumping treated water into ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solo&quot; /&gt;

Some hospitals and hotels also get small treatment systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;panapress&quot; /&gt;

== Water resources ==
== Water resources ==

[[File:Pendjari river.jpg|300px|thumb|River for [[Pendjari National Park]] during dry season]]

Estimation show say Benin water resources dey enough to meet current and future demand, even if agriculture and industry use join. Current water use na about 1% of total available resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Total renewable water resources for di country estimated around 3,954 m³ per person per year,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = UNESCO
  | title = World Water Development Report
  | year = 2003
}}&lt;/ref&gt; meaning say water shortage only dey happen sometimes or for specific areas.

About 2,000 km² (1.8%) of Benin total land area dey covered by water. Rainfall average na 1,039 mm per year but e dey change depending on region and season.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
  | year = 2006
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, European Investment Bank give €50 million loan to help Cotonou improve stormwater drainage system. Di project go help capture plastic waste, reduce flooding, and improve environment for about 187,000 people around Cotonou and reduce pollution for Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot; /&gt;

== Water use ==

Study for 2005 show say average water use na 17 liters per person per day for rural areas and 29 liters per person per day for urban areas. Low usage for rural areas na because of long distance to water sources and limited availability during dry season.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report for 2001 show say 32% of total water withdrawal dey go domestic use, 45% for agriculture, and 23% for industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = FAO
  | title = Summary Fact Sheet Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2021, heavy rainfall cause flooding for many parts of Benin, damage water systems and release plastics and debris into Lake Nokoué and Gulf of Guinea through drainage channels, reducing water quality and availability.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot; /&gt;

== History and recent developments ==

=== History ===

Souterrains wey date from 17th–19th century for Kingdom of Dahomey dey serve different purposes including water storage and seasonal cisterns.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
  | last = Monroe
  | title = The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Rural areas ====
Under United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990), Benin build about 5,350 water points. But evaluation show some problems:
* No strong community participation
* Poor hygiene education
* Low investment in sanitation
* Weak community management
* Many water points no dey functional

Because of these issues, new demand-driven strategy start in 1992 with World Bank support. The strategy focus on:
* Decentralization of decision making
* Community contribution (3–10% of cost)
* Cost reduction for maintenance
* Private sector involvement

Extra principles include hygiene education and redefining role of General Water Authority (DGEau). This approach lead to PADEAR programs supported by development partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ministry of Economic and Financial Development&quot; /&gt;

In 1995, national sanitation policy also introduce with similar objectives.

==== Urban and peri-urban areas ====
Before 2002, electricity and water supply dey under same institution (Beninese Society of Electricity and Water). Later electricity sector partly privatized, but urban water remain public under National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Heidecke
  | title = Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Latest national strategies ==

From 2005–2006, new strategies adopt to meet MDGs by 2015.

=== Rural and semi-urban strategy (2005–2015) ===
This strategy continue 1992 approach with adjustments:
* Decentralization to municipalities
* User participation in financing and maintenance
* Low-cost technology research
* Private sector involvement
* Strengthening decentralization systems

There also plan to build rural water schemes in about 500 towns by 2015 to expand access in semi-urban areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = Ministry of Economic and Financial Development
  | title = Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Urban water strategy (2006–2015) ===
Focus include:
* Financial sustainability of water systems
* Equitable access for poor households
* Coordinated institutional framework
* Continuous sector development
* Strong public water utility system
* Social equity in access to water&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 13&quot; /&gt;

=== Sanitation program ===
National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Program (2004–2008) include:
* Rural hygiene promotion
* Urban sanitation promotion
* Institutional support to DHAB under Ministry of Health

== Responsibility for water supply and sanitation ==

=== Policy and regulation ===

Ministry of Energy and Water set policies for water sector. Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under Ministry of Health handle sanitation policy.

Benin dey implement decentralization, where 77 municipalities get responsibility for water and sanitation services. Each municipality get elected council and mayor, and dem get legal responsibility to provide services.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = DANIDA
  | title = Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

General Water Authority (DGEau) dey coordinate rural water management, promote integrated water resources management, and manage water data systems.

No independent economic regulator exist, although government don propose am.

=== Service provision ===
Municipalities and Water User Associations dey manage local systems. Rural areas receive technical support from DGEau. Urban water supply dey handled by SONEB.

SONEB dey operate for major cities including Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou and Abomey-Bohicon, covering most urban demand.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoB 52&quot; /&gt;

Sanitation responsibilities dey shared between SONEB, municipalities, Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Public Works.

=== Private sector and NGOs ===
Private companies dey active for rural drilling and maintenance (like FORAG and FORATECH). NGOs also dey support communities through training and hygiene education.

== Economic efficiency ==
Non-revenue water (water loss or unpaid water) for SONEB was about 21% in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 9&quot; /&gt;

This level dey close to international best practice benchmark for developing countries (~23%).

== Financial aspects ==

=== Tariffs ===

Urban water tariff reform in 2009 introduce:
* Lower connection fee
* Block tariff system

Before reform, pricing was:
* First 5 m³: about US$0.41 per m³
* Above 5 m³: about US$1.03 per m³&lt;ref name=&quot;CFA 2006&quot; /&gt;

Rural areas dey usually charge water per use, especially where schemes exist. Some wells and hand pumps no get strict tariffs.

=== Investment ===
Water sector investment increase since 1980s, but sanitation investment still low. Funding system now follow 3-year budget planning.

External donors still play major role in financing.

=== Public-private partnership ===
Benin adopt decentralized water system where communes can delegate service delivery to private operators or water user associations.

== External cooperation ==

Benin water sector dey strongly supported by international partners under PADEAR program.&lt;ref name=&quot;MMEE 6&quot; /&gt;

=== Denmark (DANIDA) ===
DANIDA support rural and semi-urban water programs, focusing on poverty reduction, hygiene and sanitation improvements, and institutional support.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark
  | title = Benin - Danida Programmes
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== France (AFD) ===
French Development Agency support water and sanitation programs to improve access and strengthen decentralization.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
  | last = AFD
  | title = Hydraulique Rural
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Germany ===
GTZ and KfW support rural water programs and urban water systems improvement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | last = GTZ
  | title = Priority areas in Benin
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Netherlands ===
Dutch support helped provide water points for over 300,000 people and supports hygiene campaigns and decentralization.

=== World Bank ===
World Bank support includes poverty reduction credits and urban infrastructure development programs including sanitation and drainage systems.

== References ==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== External links ==
* Government of Benin Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction
* Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water
* National Water Society of Benin (SONEB)

{{Benin topics}}
{{Water supply and sanitation by country}}

[[Category:Health in Benin]]
[[Category:Water in Benin]]
[[Category:Water supply and sanitation by country]]
[[Category:Decentralization]]</text>
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    <title>Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area</title>
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      <text bytes="15679" sha1="fq9gfksn940egmrkzzis4wps6px9bhe" xml:space="preserve">'''Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area''' na inshore conservation area wey dey inside territorial waters of South Africa.

== History ==
Langebaan Lagoon first become marine reserve under Sea Fisheries Act for 1973. For 1985, dem include am inside Langebaan National Park, wey later change name go West Coast National Park. For 25 April 1988, dem declare Langebaan Ramsar site. The Marine Protected Area (MPA) later become official when Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mohammed Valli Moosa, proclaim am for Government Gazette No. 21948 of 29 December 2000 under section 43 of Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; /&gt;

== Purpose ==
{{see also|Marine protected areas of South Africa|Marine protected area}}

Marine protected area na area wey IUCN define as “clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve long-term conservation of nature together with ecosystem services and cultural values”.&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; /&gt;

Langebaan Lagoon saltmarshes be unique for South Africa because no river dey flow enter the lagoon. Dem cover about 32% of all saltmarsh habitat for di whole country. The salinity dey quite stable, and the area support plenty molluscs and crustaceans plus different types of seaweed. The lagoon na breeding and nursery ground for young fishes, and e support about 55,000 water birds during summer, including 23 species of waders.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

== Extent ==
About 65&amp;nbsp;km coastline and 280&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; sea area dey protected under this MPA.

=== Boundaries ===
The MPA boundary dey follow high-water mark inside Langebaan Lagoon from south of northern boundary. The northern boundary na line from Leentjiesklip No.2 (S33°03.707′, E018°2.462′) go Salamander Point (S33°04.323′, E017°59.795′), reach seaward boundary of South African National Defence Force area as dem mark am with buoys shown for SAN Chart SC2. From there, boundary continue follow that line reach yellow buoy east of Meeu Island (S33°05.166′, E018°00.809′), then go Perlemoen Point (S33°05.590′, E018°00.211′) for western side of the lagoon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; /&gt;

=== Zonation ===
The lagoon divide into three zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt; Controlled zone for north allow recreational fishing and power boating; restricted zone allow only non-powered vessels and no fishing; sanctuary zone for south totally closed for all access.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

==== Controlled areas ====
== Management ==
[[File:ISS006-E-37018 - View of South Africa, Saldanha Bay &amp; Langebaan Lagoon.jpg|thumb|right|Saldanha Bay and the lagoon (below), seen from space]]

South African National Parks (SANParks) dey manage the MPA to make sure say dem protect the marine resources well and use dem in a sustainable way.

The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries na dem dey issue permits, quotas, and enforce the law.&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; /&gt;
{{expand section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- 
=== Law enforcement ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Funding ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Budget ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

== Use ==
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- === Activities requiring a permit ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Fishing ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Scuba diving ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
===== Named dive sites =====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Prohibited activities ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}} --&gt;

== Geography ==

&lt;!-- === General topography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Geology ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Hydrography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Bathymetry ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

=== Climate ===
{{see also|Climate of South Africa}}

South-western Cape ein climate different well-well from the rest of South Africa. Most parts of South Africa dey get plenty rain for summer, especially from December go February. But South-western Cape get Mediterranean-type climate, wey dey receive most of ein rainfall for winter, from June go September.

For summer, the main thing wey dey control the weather for the area na high-pressure zone wey dem dey call the South Atlantic High. E dey over the South Atlantic Ocean for the west side of the Cape coast. Winds wey dey move anticlockwise from this system dey blow enter the Cape from the south-east, and e fit bring strong winds for several days plus mostly clear skies. These winds dey help keep the area cool. Because the area dey the west coast, e dey always feel these winds.

For winter, disturbances for the circumpolar westerly winds dey create a series of eastward-moving low-pressure systems. These systems dey bring cool weather, plenty clouds, and rain from the north-west.

=== Seasonal variations in sea conditions ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Ecoregions of SA EEZ.png|thumb|upright=2|Marine ecoregions of the South African Exclusive Economic Zone: Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area is in the Benguela ecoregion]]

The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point, and the region stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic, meaning say dem dey only South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

Four main marine habitats dey inside this region, and dem differ based on the kind of substrate, or the material wey form the seabed. The substrate be important because e give plants and animals place to attach themselves. Rocky shores and reefs provide strong surfaces for plants and animals to grow. Some of these reefs get kelp forests wey reduce wave action and provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sandy beaches and sandy bottoms no stable enough to support kelp or many benthic organisms. Apart from these, open water too dey above the seabed and away from kelp forests, where organisms must drift or swim. Mixed habitats wey combine two or more of these habitats too common for the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;

'''Rocky shores and reefs'''

The area get rocky reefs plus mixed rocky and sandy bottoms. For many marine organisms, another marine organism fit also serve as substrate, so different layers of organisms dey commonly live together. Examples include red bait pods wey usually get sponges, ascidians, bryozoans, anemones, and gastropods attached to dem. Abalone too often get the same seaweeds wey grow for nearby rocks, together with many other organisms wey live inside the seaweeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.2}}

The type of rock wey make the reef matter because e affect the local landscape under the sea. Sandstone and other sedimentary rocks weather differently. Depending on the direction and steepness of the rock layers, dem fit form reefs wey flat or very rugged with many small cracks. These features fit face different directions toward the shoreline and incoming waves. Sandstone reefs usually no get many big holes or tunnels, but dem often get deep, low, horizontal cracks.

'''Kelp forests'''

Kelp forests be one type of rocky reef habitat because kelp need strong, stable surfaces to survive the force of repeated waves. The sea bamboo ''Ecklonia maxima'' dey grow for shallow water where e fit reach the surface by using ein gas-filled stems, forming a thick layer near or on top of the water depending on the tide. The shorter split-fan kelp ''Laminaria pallida'' mostly dey deeper reefs where competition from sea bamboo no too much. Both kelp species provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sea bamboo especially support many epiphytes, which themselves provide food and shelter for many more organisms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.4}}

[[File:West Coast National Park (11356224206).jpg|thumb|Saltmarshes of Langebaan]]

'''Sandy beaches and bottoms''' (including shelly, pebble and gravel bottoms)

At first glance, sandy bottoms fit look like empty places because the shifting sand no support plenty reef species, and the number of large organisms dey low. Waves dey always move the sand around, depending on the weather and how exposed the area be. Because of this, organisms wey live there need special adaptations to survive. The number of species wey dey sandy or gravel bottoms depend on all these conditions. Even though the habitat no stable, many animals fit dig enter the sand and move up and down inside am. This help dem find food and hide from predators. Other species fit dig holes to live inside or filter water through tunnels to feed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.3}}

'''The open sea'''

The pelagic water column be the biggest living space inside the sea. This na the water between the surface and the top of the benthic zone where organisms dey swim, float, or drift. The marine food chain start with phytoplankton, tiny photosynthetic organisms wey convert sunlight into organic matter wey feed almost every living thing either directly or indirectly. For temperate seas, phytoplankton growth follow seasonal cycles based on available nutrients and sunlight. Any of these fit limit growth. Phytoplankton grow best where enough light dey, but dem too reduce how deep sunlight fit enter the water, so areas with high productivity usually get shallower photosynthetic zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.6}} Zooplankton dey feed on phytoplankton, and bigger animals dey feed on zooplankton. Larger pelagic animals usually dey move fast and fit change depth to find food, avoid predators, or move to places where food plenty.

=== Marine species diversity ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Animals ====
*23 species of wading birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;
*29 species of bony fish&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*12 shark and ray species, including sandshark (''Rhinobatos annulatus'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Geelbek&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Cape stumpnose&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Snoek (''Thyrsites atun'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Yellowtail&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

More than 400 species of marine invertebrates.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*''Siphonaria''
*''Assiminea globulus''

==== Seaweeds ====
71 species of marine algae.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

==== Endemism ====
The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point and e stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic to South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

==== Alien invasive species ====
As of April 23, 2025, dem don record 29 known alien marine species inside the marine protected area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=New marine alien species Amathia verticillata discovered in Langebaan Lagoon MPA – Our Stories – Scientific Services |url=https://www.sanparks.org/conservation/scientific-services/stories/new-marine-alien-species-amathia-verticillata-discovered-in-langebaan-lagoon-mpa |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=SANParks |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; One example na the sea beard ''Amathia verticillata'', one invasive bryozoan wey dem discover for 2023. Researchers believe say e likely enter the area through the nearby Saldanha Bay port because of commercial shipping activities. These bryozoans dey cover large areas of seagrass and artificial surfaces like boat hulls and shipwrecks. Their population dey change with the seasons—dem reduce during winter and come back again for summer.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Threats ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Slipways and harbours in the MPA ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== See also ==
{{Marine protected areas of South Africa map}}
*{{annotated link|List of protected areas of South Africa}}
*{{annotated link|Marine protected areas of South Africa}}
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.photodestination.co.za/marine-protected-areas-of-the-west-coast-national-park.html |title=Marine Protected Areas of the West Coast National Park |website=www.photodestination.co.za |access-date=18 February 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Branch |first1=G.M. |last2=Branch |first2=M.L. |date=1985 |title=The Living Shores of Southern Africa |edition=3rd impression|publisher=C. Struik |location=Cape Town |isbn=0-86977-115-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; &gt;{{cite book|url=https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/MPA-various.pdf |title=Declaration of areas as Marine Protected Areas: Government Notice R1429 in Government Gazette 21948 |date=29 December 2000 |via= Centre for Environmental Rights |access-date= 19 January 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Fielding 2021&quot; &gt;{{cite report |url=https://www.nairobiconvention.org/clearinghouse/sites/default/files/MPA%20Outlook_South%20Africa.pdf |last=Fielding |first=P. |date=2021 |title=Marine &amp; Coastal Areas under Protection: Republic of South Africa |pages=133–166|work=UNEP-Nairobi Convention and WIOMSA. 2021. Western Indian Ocean Marine Protected Areas Outlook: Towards achievement of the Global Biodiversity Framework Targets. |publisher=UNEP and WIOMSA |location=Nairobi, Kenya |isbn=978-9976-5619-0-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/conservation/park_man/west_coast_approved_plan.pdf |title=West Coast National Park: Park Management Plan for the period 2013-2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.mpatlas.org/mpa/sites/67704832/ |title=Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area |website=www.mpatlas.org | access-date=18 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sanparks.org/parks/table_mountain/conservation/marine.php |title=Marine Protected Area |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt; |access-date=26 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot;&gt;{{cite report |work=South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report Vol. 4 Marine Component DRAFT |date=October 2004 |pages=97–109 |title=Appendix 1. South African marine bioregions |first1=K. |last1=Sink |first2=J. |last2=Harris |first3=A. |last3=Lombard |url=http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-26 |access-date=2019-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526041217/http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=http://mpaforum.org.za/marine-protected-areas/ |title=Marine Protected Areas |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt;|publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=24 May 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2011&quot; &gt;{{cite report|url=http://opus.sanbi.org/bitstream/20.500.12143/5809/1/Sinka_et_al_2010.pdf |work=Final Summary Report 2011 Offshore Marine Protected Area Project |publisher=South African National Biodiversity Institute |location=Cape Town |access-date=10 February 2019 |last1=Sink |first1=KJ |last2=Attwood |first2=CG |last3=Lombard |first3=AT |last4=Grantham |first4=H |last5=Leslie |first5=R |last6=Samaai |first6=T |last7=Kerwath |first7=S |last8=Majiedt |first8=P |last9=Fairweather |first9=T |last10=Hutchings |first10=L |last11=van der Lingen |first11=C |last12=Atkinson |first12=LJ |last13=Wilkinson |first13=S |last14=Holness |first14=S |last15=Wolf |first15=T |date=2011 |title=Spatial planning to identify focus areas for offshore biodiversity protection in South Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

}}</text>
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      <text bytes="15691" sha1="1cc3y4rjhxwgh8angi0es7d098kot3d" xml:space="preserve">{{databox}}
'''Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area''' na inshore conservation area wey dey inside territorial waters of South Africa.

== History ==
Langebaan Lagoon first become marine reserve under Sea Fisheries Act for 1973. For 1985, dem include am inside Langebaan National Park, wey later change name go West Coast National Park. For 25 April 1988, dem declare Langebaan Ramsar site. The Marine Protected Area (MPA) later become official when Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mohammed Valli Moosa, proclaim am for Government Gazette No. 21948 of 29 December 2000 under section 43 of Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; /&gt;

== Purpose ==
{{see also|Marine protected areas of South Africa|Marine protected area}}

Marine protected area na area wey IUCN define as “clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve long-term conservation of nature together with ecosystem services and cultural values”.&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; /&gt;

Langebaan Lagoon saltmarshes be unique for South Africa because no river dey flow enter the lagoon. Dem cover about 32% of all saltmarsh habitat for di whole country. The salinity dey quite stable, and the area support plenty molluscs and crustaceans plus different types of seaweed. The lagoon na breeding and nursery ground for young fishes, and e support about 55,000 water birds during summer, including 23 species of waders.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

== Extent ==
About 65&amp;nbsp;km coastline and 280&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; sea area dey protected under this MPA.

=== Boundaries ===
The MPA boundary dey follow high-water mark inside Langebaan Lagoon from south of northern boundary. The northern boundary na line from Leentjiesklip No.2 (S33°03.707′, E018°2.462′) go Salamander Point (S33°04.323′, E017°59.795′), reach seaward boundary of South African National Defence Force area as dem mark am with buoys shown for SAN Chart SC2. From there, boundary continue follow that line reach yellow buoy east of Meeu Island (S33°05.166′, E018°00.809′), then go Perlemoen Point (S33°05.590′, E018°00.211′) for western side of the lagoon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; /&gt;

=== Zonation ===
The lagoon divide into three zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt; Controlled zone for north allow recreational fishing and power boating; restricted zone allow only non-powered vessels and no fishing; sanctuary zone for south totally closed for all access.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

==== Controlled areas ====
== Management ==
[[File:ISS006-E-37018 - View of South Africa, Saldanha Bay &amp; Langebaan Lagoon.jpg|thumb|right|Saldanha Bay and the lagoon (below), seen from space]]

South African National Parks (SANParks) dey manage the MPA to make sure say dem protect the marine resources well and use dem in a sustainable way.

The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries na dem dey issue permits, quotas, and enforce the law.&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; /&gt;
{{expand section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- 
=== Law enforcement ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Funding ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Budget ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

== Use ==
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- === Activities requiring a permit ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Fishing ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Scuba diving ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
===== Named dive sites =====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Prohibited activities ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}} --&gt;

== Geography ==

&lt;!-- === General topography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Geology ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Hydrography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Bathymetry ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

=== Climate ===
{{see also|Climate of South Africa}}

South-western Cape ein climate different well-well from the rest of South Africa. Most parts of South Africa dey get plenty rain for summer, especially from December go February. But South-western Cape get Mediterranean-type climate, wey dey receive most of ein rainfall for winter, from June go September.

For summer, the main thing wey dey control the weather for the area na high-pressure zone wey dem dey call the South Atlantic High. E dey over the South Atlantic Ocean for the west side of the Cape coast. Winds wey dey move anticlockwise from this system dey blow enter the Cape from the south-east, and e fit bring strong winds for several days plus mostly clear skies. These winds dey help keep the area cool. Because the area dey the west coast, e dey always feel these winds.

For winter, disturbances for the circumpolar westerly winds dey create a series of eastward-moving low-pressure systems. These systems dey bring cool weather, plenty clouds, and rain from the north-west.

=== Seasonal variations in sea conditions ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Ecoregions of SA EEZ.png|thumb|upright=2|Marine ecoregions of the South African Exclusive Economic Zone: Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area is in the Benguela ecoregion]]

The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point, and the region stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic, meaning say dem dey only South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

Four main marine habitats dey inside this region, and dem differ based on the kind of substrate, or the material wey form the seabed. The substrate be important because e give plants and animals place to attach themselves. Rocky shores and reefs provide strong surfaces for plants and animals to grow. Some of these reefs get kelp forests wey reduce wave action and provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sandy beaches and sandy bottoms no stable enough to support kelp or many benthic organisms. Apart from these, open water too dey above the seabed and away from kelp forests, where organisms must drift or swim. Mixed habitats wey combine two or more of these habitats too common for the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;

'''Rocky shores and reefs'''

The area get rocky reefs plus mixed rocky and sandy bottoms. For many marine organisms, another marine organism fit also serve as substrate, so different layers of organisms dey commonly live together. Examples include red bait pods wey usually get sponges, ascidians, bryozoans, anemones, and gastropods attached to dem. Abalone too often get the same seaweeds wey grow for nearby rocks, together with many other organisms wey live inside the seaweeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.2}}

The type of rock wey make the reef matter because e affect the local landscape under the sea. Sandstone and other sedimentary rocks weather differently. Depending on the direction and steepness of the rock layers, dem fit form reefs wey flat or very rugged with many small cracks. These features fit face different directions toward the shoreline and incoming waves. Sandstone reefs usually no get many big holes or tunnels, but dem often get deep, low, horizontal cracks.

'''Kelp forests'''

Kelp forests be one type of rocky reef habitat because kelp need strong, stable surfaces to survive the force of repeated waves. The sea bamboo ''Ecklonia maxima'' dey grow for shallow water where e fit reach the surface by using ein gas-filled stems, forming a thick layer near or on top of the water depending on the tide. The shorter split-fan kelp ''Laminaria pallida'' mostly dey deeper reefs where competition from sea bamboo no too much. Both kelp species provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sea bamboo especially support many epiphytes, which themselves provide food and shelter for many more organisms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.4}}

[[File:West Coast National Park (11356224206).jpg|thumb|Saltmarshes of Langebaan]]

'''Sandy beaches and bottoms''' (including shelly, pebble and gravel bottoms)

At first glance, sandy bottoms fit look like empty places because the shifting sand no support plenty reef species, and the number of large organisms dey low. Waves dey always move the sand around, depending on the weather and how exposed the area be. Because of this, organisms wey live there need special adaptations to survive. The number of species wey dey sandy or gravel bottoms depend on all these conditions. Even though the habitat no stable, many animals fit dig enter the sand and move up and down inside am. This help dem find food and hide from predators. Other species fit dig holes to live inside or filter water through tunnels to feed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.3}}

'''The open sea'''

The pelagic water column be the biggest living space inside the sea. This na the water between the surface and the top of the benthic zone where organisms dey swim, float, or drift. The marine food chain start with phytoplankton, tiny photosynthetic organisms wey convert sunlight into organic matter wey feed almost every living thing either directly or indirectly. For temperate seas, phytoplankton growth follow seasonal cycles based on available nutrients and sunlight. Any of these fit limit growth. Phytoplankton grow best where enough light dey, but dem too reduce how deep sunlight fit enter the water, so areas with high productivity usually get shallower photosynthetic zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.6}} Zooplankton dey feed on phytoplankton, and bigger animals dey feed on zooplankton. Larger pelagic animals usually dey move fast and fit change depth to find food, avoid predators, or move to places where food plenty.

=== Marine species diversity ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Animals ====
*23 species of wading birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;
*29 species of bony fish&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*12 shark and ray species, including sandshark (''Rhinobatos annulatus'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Geelbek&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Cape stumpnose&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Snoek (''Thyrsites atun'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Yellowtail&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

More than 400 species of marine invertebrates.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*''Siphonaria''
*''Assiminea globulus''

==== Seaweeds ====
71 species of marine algae.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

==== Endemism ====
The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point and e stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic to South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

==== Alien invasive species ====
As of April 23, 2025, dem don record 29 known alien marine species inside the marine protected area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=New marine alien species Amathia verticillata discovered in Langebaan Lagoon MPA – Our Stories – Scientific Services |url=https://www.sanparks.org/conservation/scientific-services/stories/new-marine-alien-species-amathia-verticillata-discovered-in-langebaan-lagoon-mpa |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=SANParks |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; One example na the sea beard ''Amathia verticillata'', one invasive bryozoan wey dem discover for 2023. Researchers believe say e likely enter the area through the nearby Saldanha Bay port because of commercial shipping activities. These bryozoans dey cover large areas of seagrass and artificial surfaces like boat hulls and shipwrecks. Their population dey change with the seasons—dem reduce during winter and come back again for summer.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Threats ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Slipways and harbours in the MPA ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== See also ==
{{Marine protected areas of South Africa map}}
*{{annotated link|List of protected areas of South Africa}}
*{{annotated link|Marine protected areas of South Africa}}
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.photodestination.co.za/marine-protected-areas-of-the-west-coast-national-park.html |title=Marine Protected Areas of the West Coast National Park |website=www.photodestination.co.za |access-date=18 February 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Branch |first1=G.M. |last2=Branch |first2=M.L. |date=1985 |title=The Living Shores of Southern Africa |edition=3rd impression|publisher=C. Struik |location=Cape Town |isbn=0-86977-115-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; &gt;{{cite book|url=https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/MPA-various.pdf |title=Declaration of areas as Marine Protected Areas: Government Notice R1429 in Government Gazette 21948 |date=29 December 2000 |via= Centre for Environmental Rights |access-date= 19 January 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Fielding 2021&quot; &gt;{{cite report |url=https://www.nairobiconvention.org/clearinghouse/sites/default/files/MPA%20Outlook_South%20Africa.pdf |last=Fielding |first=P. |date=2021 |title=Marine &amp; Coastal Areas under Protection: Republic of South Africa |pages=133–166|work=UNEP-Nairobi Convention and WIOMSA. 2021. Western Indian Ocean Marine Protected Areas Outlook: Towards achievement of the Global Biodiversity Framework Targets. |publisher=UNEP and WIOMSA |location=Nairobi, Kenya |isbn=978-9976-5619-0-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/conservation/park_man/west_coast_approved_plan.pdf |title=West Coast National Park: Park Management Plan for the period 2013-2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.mpatlas.org/mpa/sites/67704832/ |title=Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area |website=www.mpatlas.org | access-date=18 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sanparks.org/parks/table_mountain/conservation/marine.php |title=Marine Protected Area |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt; |access-date=26 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot;&gt;{{cite report |work=South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report Vol. 4 Marine Component DRAFT |date=October 2004 |pages=97–109 |title=Appendix 1. South African marine bioregions |first1=K. |last1=Sink |first2=J. |last2=Harris |first3=A. |last3=Lombard |url=http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-26 |access-date=2019-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526041217/http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=http://mpaforum.org.za/marine-protected-areas/ |title=Marine Protected Areas |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt;|publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=24 May 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2011&quot; &gt;{{cite report|url=http://opus.sanbi.org/bitstream/20.500.12143/5809/1/Sinka_et_al_2010.pdf |work=Final Summary Report 2011 Offshore Marine Protected Area Project |publisher=South African National Biodiversity Institute |location=Cape Town |access-date=10 February 2019 |last1=Sink |first1=KJ |last2=Attwood |first2=CG |last3=Lombard |first3=AT |last4=Grantham |first4=H |last5=Leslie |first5=R |last6=Samaai |first6=T |last7=Kerwath |first7=S |last8=Majiedt |first8=P |last9=Fairweather |first9=T |last10=Hutchings |first10=L |last11=van der Lingen |first11=C |last12=Atkinson |first12=LJ |last13=Wilkinson |first13=S |last14=Holness |first14=S |last15=Wolf |first15=T |date=2011 |title=Spatial planning to identify focus areas for offshore biodiversity protection in South Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

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        <id>1332</id>
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'''Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area''' na inshore conservation area wey dey inside territorial waters of South Africa.

== History ==
Langebaan Lagoon first become marine reserve under Sea Fisheries Act for 1973. For 1985, dem include am inside Langebaan National Park, wey later change name go West Coast National Park. For 25 April 1988, dem declare Langebaan Ramsar site. The Marine Protected Area (MPA) later become official when Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mohammed Valli Moosa, proclaim am for Government Gazette No. 21948 of 29 December 2000 under section 43 of Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; /&gt;

== Purpose ==
{{see also|Marine protected areas of South Africa|Marine protected area}}

Marine protected area na area wey IUCN define as “clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve long-term conservation of nature together with ecosystem services and cultural values”.&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; /&gt;

Langebaan Lagoon saltmarshes be unique for South Africa because no river dey flow enter the lagoon. Dem cover about 32% of all saltmarsh habitat for di whole country. The salinity dey quite stable, and the area support plenty molluscs and crustaceans plus different types of seaweed. The lagoon na breeding and nursery ground for young fishes, and e support about 55,000 water birds during summer, including 23 species of waders.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

== Extent ==
About 65&amp;nbsp;km coastline and 280&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; sea area dey protected under this MPA.

=== Boundaries ===
The MPA boundary dey follow high-water mark inside Langebaan Lagoon from south of northern boundary. The northern boundary na line from Leentjiesklip No.2 (S33°03.707′, E018°2.462′) go Salamander Point (S33°04.323′, E017°59.795′), reach seaward boundary of South African National Defence Force area as dem mark am with buoys shown for SAN Chart SC2. From there, boundary continue follow that line reach yellow buoy east of Meeu Island (S33°05.166′, E018°00.809′), then go Perlemoen Point (S33°05.590′, E018°00.211′) for western side of the lagoon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; /&gt;

=== Zonation ===
The lagoon divide into three zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt; Controlled zone for north allow recreational fishing and power boating; restricted zone allow only non-powered vessels and no fishing; sanctuary zone for south totally closed for all access.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

==== Controlled areas ====
== Management ==
[[File:ISS006-E-37018 - View of South Africa, Saldanha Bay &amp; Langebaan Lagoon.jpg|thumb|right|Saldanha Bay and the lagoon (below), seen from space]]

South African National Parks (SANParks) dey manage the MPA to make sure say dem protect the marine resources well and use dem in a sustainable way.

The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries na dem dey issue permits, quotas, and enforce the law.&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; /&gt;
{{expand section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- 
=== Law enforcement ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Funding ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Budget ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

== Use ==
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

&lt;!-- === Activities requiring a permit ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Fishing ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Scuba diving ====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
===== Named dive sites =====
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Prohibited activities ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}} --&gt;

== Geography ==

&lt;!-- === General topography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Geology ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Hydrography ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

=== Bathymetry ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}
 --&gt;

=== Climate ===
{{see also|Climate of South Africa}}

South-western Cape ein climate different well-well from the rest of South Africa. Most parts of South Africa dey get plenty rain for summer, especially from December go February. But South-western Cape get Mediterranean-type climate, wey dey receive most of ein rainfall for winter, from June go September.

For summer, the main thing wey dey control the weather for the area na high-pressure zone wey dem dey call the South Atlantic High. E dey over the South Atlantic Ocean for the west side of the Cape coast. Winds wey dey move anticlockwise from this system dey blow enter the Cape from the south-east, and e fit bring strong winds for several days plus mostly clear skies. These winds dey help keep the area cool. Because the area dey the west coast, e dey always feel these winds.

For winter, disturbances for the circumpolar westerly winds dey create a series of eastward-moving low-pressure systems. These systems dey bring cool weather, plenty clouds, and rain from the north-west.

=== Seasonal variations in sea conditions ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Ecoregions of SA EEZ.png|thumb|upright=2|Marine ecoregions of the South African Exclusive Economic Zone: Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area is in the Benguela ecoregion]]

The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point, and the region stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic, meaning say dem dey only South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

Four main marine habitats dey inside this region, and dem differ based on the kind of substrate, or the material wey form the seabed. The substrate be important because e give plants and animals place to attach themselves. Rocky shores and reefs provide strong surfaces for plants and animals to grow. Some of these reefs get kelp forests wey reduce wave action and provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sandy beaches and sandy bottoms no stable enough to support kelp or many benthic organisms. Apart from these, open water too dey above the seabed and away from kelp forests, where organisms must drift or swim. Mixed habitats wey combine two or more of these habitats too common for the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;

'''Rocky shores and reefs'''

The area get rocky reefs plus mixed rocky and sandy bottoms. For many marine organisms, another marine organism fit also serve as substrate, so different layers of organisms dey commonly live together. Examples include red bait pods wey usually get sponges, ascidians, bryozoans, anemones, and gastropods attached to dem. Abalone too often get the same seaweeds wey grow for nearby rocks, together with many other organisms wey live inside the seaweeds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.2}}

The type of rock wey make the reef matter because e affect the local landscape under the sea. Sandstone and other sedimentary rocks weather differently. Depending on the direction and steepness of the rock layers, dem fit form reefs wey flat or very rugged with many small cracks. These features fit face different directions toward the shoreline and incoming waves. Sandstone reefs usually no get many big holes or tunnels, but dem often get deep, low, horizontal cracks.

'''Kelp forests'''

Kelp forests be one type of rocky reef habitat because kelp need strong, stable surfaces to survive the force of repeated waves. The sea bamboo ''Ecklonia maxima'' dey grow for shallow water where e fit reach the surface by using ein gas-filled stems, forming a thick layer near or on top of the water depending on the tide. The shorter split-fan kelp ''Laminaria pallida'' mostly dey deeper reefs where competition from sea bamboo no too much. Both kelp species provide food and shelter for many organisms. Sea bamboo especially support many epiphytes, which themselves provide food and shelter for many more organisms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.4}}

[[File:West Coast National Park (11356224206).jpg|thumb|Saltmarshes of Langebaan]]

'''Sandy beaches and bottoms''' (including shelly, pebble and gravel bottoms)

At first glance, sandy bottoms fit look like empty places because the shifting sand no support plenty reef species, and the number of large organisms dey low. Waves dey always move the sand around, depending on the weather and how exposed the area be. Because of this, organisms wey live there need special adaptations to survive. The number of species wey dey sandy or gravel bottoms depend on all these conditions. Even though the habitat no stable, many animals fit dig enter the sand and move up and down inside am. This help dem find food and hide from predators. Other species fit dig holes to live inside or filter water through tunnels to feed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.3}}

'''The open sea'''

The pelagic water column be the biggest living space inside the sea. This na the water between the surface and the top of the benthic zone where organisms dey swim, float, or drift. The marine food chain start with phytoplankton, tiny photosynthetic organisms wey convert sunlight into organic matter wey feed almost every living thing either directly or indirectly. For temperate seas, phytoplankton growth follow seasonal cycles based on available nutrients and sunlight. Any of these fit limit growth. Phytoplankton grow best where enough light dey, but dem too reduce how deep sunlight fit enter the water, so areas with high productivity usually get shallower photosynthetic zones.&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Ch.6}} Zooplankton dey feed on phytoplankton, and bigger animals dey feed on zooplankton. Larger pelagic animals usually dey move fast and fit change depth to find food, avoid predators, or move to places where food plenty.

=== Marine species diversity ===
{{empty section|date=February 2019}}

==== Animals ====
*23 species of wading birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;
*29 species of bony fish&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*12 shark and ray species, including sandshark (''Rhinobatos annulatus'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Geelbek&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Cape stumpnose&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Snoek (''Thyrsites atun'')&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*Yellowtail&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;

More than 400 species of marine invertebrates.&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; /&gt;
*''Siphonaria''
*''Assiminea globulus''

==== Seaweeds ====
71 species of marine algae.&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; /&gt;

==== Endemism ====
The MPA dey inside the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion for the west of Cape Point and e stretch north go reach the Orange River. Plenty species wey dey this coastline be endemic to South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot; /&gt;

==== Alien invasive species ====
As of April 23, 2025, dem don record 29 known alien marine species inside the marine protected area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=New marine alien species Amathia verticillata discovered in Langebaan Lagoon MPA – Our Stories – Scientific Services |url=https://www.sanparks.org/conservation/scientific-services/stories/new-marine-alien-species-amathia-verticillata-discovered-in-langebaan-lagoon-mpa |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=SANParks |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; One example na the sea beard ''Amathia verticillata'', one invasive bryozoan wey dem discover for 2023. Researchers believe say e likely enter the area through the nearby Saldanha Bay port because of commercial shipping activities. These bryozoans dey cover large areas of seagrass and artificial surfaces like boat hulls and shipwrecks. Their population dey change with the seasons—dem reduce during winter and come back again for summer.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Threats ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== Slipways and harbours in the MPA ==
{{empty section|date=January 2019}}

== See also ==

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

&lt;ref name=&quot;African Conservation&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.photodestination.co.za/marine-protected-areas-of-the-west-coast-national-park.html |title=Marine Protected Areas of the West Coast National Park |website=www.photodestination.co.za |access-date=18 February 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Branch 1985&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Branch |first1=G.M. |last2=Branch |first2=M.L. |date=1985 |title=The Living Shores of Southern Africa |edition=3rd impression|publisher=C. Struik |location=Cape Town |isbn=0-86977-115-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Declaration&quot; &gt;{{cite book|url=https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/MPA-various.pdf |title=Declaration of areas as Marine Protected Areas: Government Notice R1429 in Government Gazette 21948 |date=29 December 2000 |via= Centre for Environmental Rights |access-date= 19 January 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Fielding 2021&quot; &gt;{{cite report |url=https://www.nairobiconvention.org/clearinghouse/sites/default/files/MPA%20Outlook_South%20Africa.pdf |last=Fielding |first=P. |date=2021 |title=Marine &amp; Coastal Areas under Protection: Republic of South Africa |pages=133–166|work=UNEP-Nairobi Convention and WIOMSA. 2021. Western Indian Ocean Marine Protected Areas Outlook: Towards achievement of the Global Biodiversity Framework Targets. |publisher=UNEP and WIOMSA |location=Nairobi, Kenya |isbn=978-9976-5619-0-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Management plan&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/conservation/park_man/west_coast_approved_plan.pdf |title=West Coast National Park: Park Management Plan for the period 2013-2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;MPAtlas&quot; &gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.mpatlas.org/mpa/sites/67704832/ |title=Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area |website=www.mpatlas.org | access-date=18 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;SANParks&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.sanparks.org/parks/table_mountain/conservation/marine.php |title=Marine Protected Area |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt; |access-date=26 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2004&quot;&gt;{{cite report |work=South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report Vol. 4 Marine Component DRAFT |date=October 2004 |pages=97–109 |title=Appendix 1. South African marine bioregions |first1=K. |last1=Sink |first2=J. |last2=Harris |first3=A. |last3=Lombard |url=http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-26 |access-date=2019-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526041217/http://sanpcc.org.za/pssa-old/articles/includes/NSBA%20Vol%204%20Marine%20Component%20Oct%2004%20Appendices.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;WWF&quot; &gt;{{cite web |url=http://mpaforum.org.za/marine-protected-areas/ |title=Marine Protected Areas |author=&lt;!--not specified--&gt;|publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=24 May 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Sink et al 2011&quot; &gt;{{cite report|url=http://opus.sanbi.org/bitstream/20.500.12143/5809/1/Sinka_et_al_2010.pdf |work=Final Summary Report 2011 Offshore Marine Protected Area Project |publisher=South African National Biodiversity Institute |location=Cape Town |access-date=10 February 2019 |last1=Sink |first1=KJ |last2=Attwood |first2=CG |last3=Lombard |first3=AT |last4=Grantham |first4=H |last5=Leslie |first5=R |last6=Samaai |first6=T |last7=Kerwath |first7=S |last8=Majiedt |first8=P |last9=Fairweather |first9=T |last10=Hutchings |first10=L |last11=van der Lingen |first11=C |last12=Atkinson |first12=LJ |last13=Wilkinson |first13=S |last14=Holness |first14=S |last15=Wolf |first15=T |date=2011 |title=Spatial planning to identify focus areas for offshore biodiversity protection in South Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt;

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    <title>Kainji Dam</title>
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      <comment>added citations</comment>
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      <text bytes="1798" sha1="3stx93i0qu2au1abdemt4fww4qurbe2" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>Added heading</comment>
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      <text bytes="1816" sha1="ayppyzdkc4uuyqexxoxu348gh73q5bo" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
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      <comment>Added content</comment>
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      <text bytes="1936" sha1="2ouw1ymokd9f815or4ngm2s678fpclx" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.
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      <comment>Added content</comment>
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      <text bytes="2014" sha1="q4ohy6f1cr772hy30lkjab737wyyp5d" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).
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      <text bytes="2057" sha1="eu9lg1l7vq4zqhpap5529ispkeggle9" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,
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      <text bytes="2147" sha1="skposbrxiyzeddm38h5lyj307euk20v" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines, dem build from concrete.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <text bytes="2247" sha1="dibh6v6xsutcnas19htg17yxmzg82tb" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines, dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
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      <comment>Added links</comment>
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      <text bytes="2291" sha1="llrl8mynm2dtl8t0e96kq6q01pp22ov" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines, dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <comment>Added links</comment>
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      <text bytes="2329" sha1="c5bprprouqfwoc3ee9x3tnz96g4hiae" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
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      <comment>added citation</comment>
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      <text bytes="2761" sha1="jxoxx1cm34wlhq7lsit8hia5h4ef33z" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
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      <comment>Added heading</comment>
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      <text bytes="2782" sha1="47nr6mzm7leu0b5vitzunx1spxd4fuu" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <comment>Added content</comment>
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      <text bytes="2838" sha1="m7v0e2qd6gojc0no68if7h0kp4bykuu" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi),
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <text bytes="2902" sha1="hbai76i3uf0xkt50efd8pyjnxyctnek" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.
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      <text bytes="2979" sha1="sysre5ozio5z71titgq2kyx7v2jugqg" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <text bytes="3022" sha1="3hjqisjxl9e36p6ro2vzvvu5f41jkzh" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <text bytes="3087" sha1="gjb7wnwulkakz3t2xwt1rq34uqtddir" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines,
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      <text bytes="3111" sha1="74qugtynthcrshefity5h6t6lmbe60e" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines,dem build from concrete.
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      <text bytes="3153" sha1="6b467cocw6mo6ibe6ihsr7hwq1mdxc7" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines,dem build from concrete. This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <text bytes="3210" sha1="d2zzu1q2vhtygsmhrpxmgkuyxz54plv" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its saddle dam, wey dey close off a tributary valley.The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the hydroelectric turbines,dem build from concrete. This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high.Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="2860" sha1="0gvb498sgeqxzj00x9codrk77iv45gf" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="2914" sha1="e4gb1lhc0i3d465hwdvblbbbb6fdo08" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="2982" sha1="czbanidt4htiu33fhbwz1g5o5kz7haf" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp).
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="3051" sha1="pfjkny0ez8og3ozegllrtfqmdu1rznz" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="3124" sha1="9a9koqrknv1ewuo9czetg9qqlk4v1j7" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
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      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="3206" sha1="gmw9nr97fvnj40kzrtl6xyabqcl09cd" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable,
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <id>105959</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-30T11:36:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>updated content</comment>
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      <text bytes="3255" sha1="btj59lrqs2lf78vy82nzwz9zoexq7j8" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get generating capacity of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-30T11:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link</comment>
      <origin>105960</origin>
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      <text bytes="3280" sha1="ial9s9ptdv8ceql2f856rzpqrwtbshi" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 turbines dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-30T11:38:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link</comment>
      <origin>105961</origin>
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      <text bytes="3296" sha1="9x1gyby1erx9ooqmfatp6573et38pm2" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
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      <comment>added citation</comment>
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      <text bytes="3728" sha1="fif7a7r7y0paspqo14g45kxy6w1u11l" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for Nigeria.Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
        <id>3237</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link</comment>
      <origin>105963</origin>
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      <text bytes="3732" sha1="43j7if80xmcjugzg0ynkuadyx645ax3" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3968" sha1="o4c4k9t8oyfuzyi7qtirb50zkkinjig" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country Niger.On top of that, occasional droughts don make the Niger's water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4004" sha1="c6pxxbkql7x1uk75f4fw1ppugpnkxsa" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country [[Niger]].On top of that, occasional [[Drought|droughts]] don make the [[:en:Niger_State|Niger's]] water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
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      <comment>added citation</comment>
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      <text bytes="4304" sha1="hq3eb51dkq8ai07hog3adxqyp69no35" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country [[Niger]].On top of that, occasional [[Drought|droughts]] don make the [[:en:Niger_State|Niger's]] water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Guardian |first=The |date=2017-03-29 |title=Upgrading Kainji dam and improving electricity |url=https://guardian.ng/energy/upgrading-kainji-dam-and-improving-electricity/ |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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      <comment>added images</comment>
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      <text bytes="5347" sha1="qh3h96gpckt0czzibymyx6n5tupa7e4" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country [[Niger]].On top of that, occasional [[Drought|droughts]] don make the [[:en:Niger_State|Niger's]] water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Guardian |first=The |date=2017-03-29 |title=Upgrading Kainji dam and improving electricity |url=https://guardian.ng/energy/upgrading-kainji-dam-and-improving-electricity/ |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 083 Kainji Dam. The water flows from four openings.jpg|Flow of water through four openings in the Kainji Dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 081 Kainji Dam. Balustrade with a view over an island in the Niger with electricity pylons.jpg|Overview from the dam of the island in the Niger River with electricity File:pylons, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 084 Kainji Dam. White horned zebus in front of the openings of the dam.jpg|Zebus crossing the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 086 Kainji Dam. A shepherd boy in native clothing with a club and a hat for the balustrade on the dam.jpg|A shepherd boy at the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 082 Kainji Dam. A man with a white headscarf above sparkling water.jpg|Man above the foaming water, 1970–1973.
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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      <comment>Added heading</comment>
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      <text bytes="5361" sha1="pc56pur1gllkwdu4vgq76045xvanrzv" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country [[Niger]].On top of that, occasional [[Drought|droughts]] don make the [[:en:Niger_State|Niger's]] water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Guardian |first=The |date=2017-03-29 |title=Upgrading Kainji dam and improving electricity |url=https://guardian.ng/energy/upgrading-kainji-dam-and-improving-electricity/ |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 083 Kainji Dam. The water flows from four openings.jpg|Flow of water through four openings in the Kainji Dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 081 Kainji Dam. Balustrade with a view over an island in the Niger with electricity pylons.jpg|Overview from the dam of the island in the Niger River with electricity File:pylons, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 084 Kainji Dam. White horned zebus in front of the openings of the dam.jpg|Zebus crossing the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 086 Kainji Dam. A shepherd boy in native clothing with a club and a hat for the balustrade on the dam.jpg|A shepherd boy at the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 082 Kainji Dam. A man with a white headscarf above sparkling water.jpg|Man above the foaming water, 1970– 1973. 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Lock ==</text>
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      <id>105969</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-30T11:56:44Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Dinnani Hamdia</username>
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      <comment>Added content</comment>
      <origin>105969</origin>
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      <text bytes="5442" sha1="lrpkuvir1gn15dwmty3t8e9hi5cm4op" xml:space="preserve">Kainji Dam na [[:en:Dam|dam]] wey cross the [[Niger River]] for [[:en:Niger_State|Niger State]] for Central [[Nigeria]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Niger Community Demands Renaming Of Zungeru Dam To Theirs, Lament Injustice In Retaining Current Name {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2021/08/15/niger-community-demands-renaming-zungeru-dam-theirs-lament-injustice-retaining-current |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=saharareporters.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Construction of the dam by [[:en:Webuild|Impregilo]] (a consortium of Italian civil engineering contractors) start for 1964 and dem finish am for 1968.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Kainji Dam |date=2026-06-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kainji_Dam&amp;oldid=1358049158 |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Dem estimate the total cost reach US$209 million (wey go be about US$1.5 billion for 2024 money&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Measuring Worth - Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.measuringworth.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;),and one-quarter of this amount dem use to resettle people wey the construction of the dam and its reservoir, the Kainji Lake&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sarafinchin / Kainji and Jebba Dams, Niger River, Nigeria |url=https://www.sarafinchin.com/index.php/projects/africa/kainji-and-jebba-dams-niger-river-nigeria/ |access-date=2026-06-29 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simwa |first=Adrianna |date=2018-05-04 |title=Where is Kainji Dam located in Nigeria? - Legit.ng |url=https://www.legit.ng/1166894-where-kainji-dam-located-nigeria.html |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.legit.ng |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, displace.

== Dimensions ==
Kainji Dam dey extend for about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), including its [[:en:Saddle_dam|saddle dam]], wey dey close off a [[:en:Tributary_valley|tributary valley]]. The primary section across the outflow to the Niger na 550 metres (1,800 ft).Most of the structure dem build from earth,but the centre section, wey dey house the [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Turbine|turbines,]] dem build from concrete.This section dey 65 metres (213 ft) high. Kainji Dam be one of the longest dams for the whole world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Power station ==
Dem design the dam to get [[:en:Generating_plant|generating capacity]] of 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp)); but, only 8 out of the 12 [[:en:Turbine|turbines]] dem don install,and this don reduce the capacity reach 760 megawatts (1,020,000 hp). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=aliyu |title=An inside look at Kainji Dam |url=http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014181017/http://www.dailytrust.com.ng/index.php/other-sections/star-feature/14058-an-inside-look-at-kainji-dam |archive-date=2012-10-14 |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=www.dailytrust.com.ng |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The dam dey generate electricity for all the big cities for [[Nigeria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Construction of the Kainji Dam and Lake |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/construction-kainji-dam-and-lake |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=Environment &amp; Society Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;Some of the electricity dem dey sell give the neighbouring country [[Niger]].On top of that, occasional [[Drought|droughts]] don make the [[:en:Niger_State|Niger's]] water flow unpredictable, and this dey reduce the dam's electrical output.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Guardian |first=The |date=2017-03-29 |title=Upgrading Kainji dam and improving electricity |url=https://guardian.ng/energy/upgrading-kainji-dam-and-improving-electricity/ |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 083 Kainji Dam. The water flows from four openings.jpg|Flow of water through four openings in the Kainji Dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 081 Kainji Dam. Balustrade with a view over an island in the Niger with electricity pylons.jpg|Overview from the dam of the island in the Niger River with electricity File:pylons, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 084 Kainji Dam. White horned zebus in front of the openings of the dam.jpg|Zebus crossing the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 086 Kainji Dam. A shepherd boy in native clothing with a club and a hat for the balustrade on the dam.jpg|A shepherd boy at the dam, 1970–1973.
File:ASC Leiden - Rietveld Collection - Nigeria 1970 - 1973 - 01 - 082 Kainji Dam. A man with a white headscarf above sparkling water.jpg|Man above the foaming water, 1970– 1973. 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Lock ==
The dam get one single-lock chamber wey fit lift barges 49 metres (161 ft) high.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>World Water Day</title>
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      <id>105834</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T12:19:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
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      <text bytes="12654" sha1="kmy3ko2flfset9lf4apx97lobwu151s" xml:space="preserve">'''World Water Day''' na international observance wey United Nations (UN) dey celebrate every year on [[22 March]] to bring attention to how fresh water important reach for life. Di day dey focus on how people fit manage freshwater resources in better and sustainable way.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

Every year theme dey focus on clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), wey dey connect to Sustainable Development Goal 6 wey dey talk about clean water and sanitation for everybody.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP2017&quot;&gt;WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017&lt;/ref&gt;

UN dey also release World Water Development Report (WWDR) every year around this period.

UN-Water na the body wey dey organize World Water Day. Dem dey choose theme every year together with other UN agencies wey dey work on water issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

For 2021, the theme be &quot;Valuing Water&quot;. Dem encourage people make dem talk about how water dey important for dem life and share dem experiences for social media.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=World Water Day|url=https://www.worldwaterday.org/|url-status=live|access-date=21 March 2021|website=UN-Water|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601030038/https://www.worldwaterday.org/}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Past themes ===
Some past themes be:

* 2016: “Better Water, Better Jobs”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* 2017: “Why Waste Water?”&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Water Day theme (2017) |url=http://worldwaterday.org/2017/theme/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012175433/http://worldwaterday.org/2017/theme/ |archive-date=12 October 2018 |access-date=21 March 2018 |publisher=UN-Water}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 2018: “The Answer is in Nature”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
* 2019: “Leaving No One Behind”&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
* 2020: “Water and Climate Change”&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2020|title=World Water Day 2020 – Water and Climate Change|url=https://archive.worldwaterday.org/2020/|access-date=21 March 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 2021: Valuing Water
* 2022: Groundwater
* 2023: Accelerating Change
* 2024: Leveraging Water for Peace
* 2025: Glacier Preservation
* 2026: Water and Gender&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.unwater.org/our-work/world-water-day | title=World Water Day | publisher=UN | accessdate=14 March 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Day dey usually come with different activities like drama, music shows, awareness campaigns, and fundraising for water projects. First official UN World Water Day happen for 1993.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

== Objectives and structure ==

[[File:My School Toilet puppet theatre (5226853487).jpg|thumb|Children presenting puppet show for the &quot;My School Toilet&quot; contest in Cagayan de Oro, Philippines, World Water Day 2010]]

World Water Day be international observance wey the aim be to make people around the world understand water issues well and take action to solve am.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

For 2020, because of COVID-19 pandemic, dem add extra focus on handwashing and hygiene to help stop spread of disease.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Promote hand hygiene to save lives and combat COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/southeastasia/news/detail/04-05-2020-promote-hand-hygiene-to-save-lives-and-combat-covid-19|access-date=2021-03-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some major issues wey World Water Day dey highlight include water scarcity, water pollution, poor sanitation, and climate change impacts. The day also dey bring attention to inequality in access to clean water and sanitation services (WASH), plus the need to protect human right to water and sanitation.

Di official World Water Day website dey publish events, campaigns, and activities wey people fit join across different countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldwaterday.org/2020-home/learn/|title=World Water Day 'What is being done?' (2020)|access-date=21 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Convener ===

UN-Water na the main coordinator for World Water Day. Dem dey work with United Nations agencies and partner organizations wey dey focus on water issues.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2021-02-25|title=Celebration of World Water day in 2021 – Valuing Water|url=https://www.unwater.org/worldwaterday2021/|access-date=2021-03-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

UN-Water dey mobilize governments, organizations, and communities worldwide to take action on water issues both locally and globally.

== Examples of activities ==

Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) wey dey work for WASH sector, like UNICEF, WaterAid, and Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP), dey use World Water Day to raise awareness, attract media attention, and push action on water issues.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/jordan/media_10914.html|title=Humanitarian agencies come together to promote water conservation on World Water Day in Jordan|date=22 March 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Activities for World Water Day dey include documentary screenings, film production, seminars, roundtable discussions, exhibitions, and community outreach campaigns.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

Civil society group like End Water Poverty also dey organize Water Action Month every year, plus dem dey provide guidebooks to help people plan events.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.endwaterpoverty.org/news/water-action-month-2018|title=Water Action Month}}&lt;/ref&gt;

UN World Water Development Report (WWDR) dey also release every year on World Water Day to support policy and decision-making about water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unwater.org/publication_categories/world-water-development-report/|title=World Water Development Report}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For schools and universities, more educational programs dey focus on water conservation and management. For example, some schools dey organize competitions like poster design or sanitation awareness activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://kidworldcitizen.org/2012/03/22/celebrate-world-water-day-with-games-and-activities-for-all-ages/|title=Celebrate World Water Day with Games and Activities for all ages!}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==

World Water Day idea first come from Agenda 21 under the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development wey happen for Rio de Janeiro. Later, United Nations General Assembly pass resolution A/RES/47/193 wey officially declare 22 March as World Water Day every year.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

The first official celebration of World Water Day happen for 1993.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

== Annual themes ==

=== Prior to 2014 ===

Before 2014, World Water Day dey follow different yearly themes like:

* 1994: Caring for our Water Resources is Everybody's Business  
* 1995: Women and Water  
* 1996: Water for Thirsty Cities  
* 1997: The World's Water: Is there enough?  
* 2002: Water for Development  
* 2003: Water for Future  
* 2004: Water and Disasters  
* 2005: Water for Life Decade 2005–2015&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/|title=UN Decade for Water 2005–2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
* 2006: Water and Culture  
* 2007: Coping With Water Scarcity&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wwd.unwater.org/2007/|title=World Water Day 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
* 2008: Sanitation  
* 2009: Transboundary Waters&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wwd.unwater.org/2009/|title=World Water Day 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
* 2010: Clean Water for a Healthy World  
* 2011: Water for Cities: responding to the urban challenge  
* 2012: Water and Food Security  
* 2013: International Year of Water Cooperation  

=== 2014 – Water and Energy ===

Theme for 2014 focus on connection between water and energy (water-energy nexus). Energy production dey use water, and water supply too dey require energy for pumping, treatment, and distribution.

The goal be to encourage policies wey go connect water and energy sectors for sustainable development.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2014&quot; /&gt;

Journalists from different countries meet for Tokyo in March 2014 to discuss water issues and produce stories about water and energy relationship.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/final_report_wwd2014_journalist_workshop.pdf|title=Water and Energy Report on the Journalists Workshop|year=2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2015 – Water and Sustainable Development ===

Theme for 2015 focus on water role inside sustainable development agenda. The year align with transition from Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 6 wey focus on water and sanitation for all.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWATER2&quot; /&gt;

=== 2016 – Better Water, Better Jobs ===

Theme for 2016 highlight how water dey affect jobs and economy worldwide. Water scarcity fit affect agriculture, industry, and livelihoods, while good water supply fit create better employment opportunities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== 2017 – Why Waste Water? ===

Theme for 2017 focus on wastewater treatment and reuse. Dem encourage people and industries to reduce wastewater waste and reuse treated water for agriculture and industrial use.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== 2018 – Nature for Water ===

Theme for 2018 explore how nature-based solutions like wetlands, forests, and green infrastructure fit help manage water challenges like floods and droughts.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== 2019 – Leaving No One Behind ===

Theme for 2019 focus on making sure everyone get equal access to clean water, especially marginalized groups like women, children, refugees, and disabled people.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== 2020 – Water and Climate Change ===

Theme for 2020 show how water and climate change dey closely connected. Climate change dey affect water availability, while water management fit also reduce greenhouse gas emissions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

COVID-19 pandemic also make hygiene and handwashing become important message for the campaign.

=== 2021 – Valuing Water ===

Theme for 2021 encourage global discussion on how people value water in daily life, economy, culture, and environment.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== 2022 – Groundwater, Making the Invisible Visible ===

Theme for 2022 focus on groundwater, wey be one of the largest but less visible sources of freshwater on Earth.

=== 2023 – Accelerating Change ===

Theme for 2023 highlight urgent need to speed up action to solve global water challenges.

=== 2024 – Water for Prosperity and Peace ===

Theme for 2024 talk about how water fit bring peace or cause conflict depending on how people manage am.

=== 2025 – Glacier Preservation ===

Theme for 2025 focus on glaciers, their melting, and importance of meltwater for drinking water and ecosystems.

=== 2026 – Water and Gender ===

Theme for 2026 focus on gender equality in water access and decision-making. It emphasize say women and girls must get equal voice in water governance and leadership.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=World Water Day |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/water-day |access-date=2026-06-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Impacts ==

World Water Day campaign dey reach millions of people worldwide through media, social media, and global events.

For 2016, social media reach estimate be about 1.6 billion people.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNWater2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://www.unwater.org/publications/un-water-annual-report-2016/|title=Annual Report UN-Water|year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2017, over 700 events happen in more than 110 countries.

For 2018, online engagement increase due to stronger campaigns and celebrity support.

For 2021, #Water2me campaign generate thousands of conversations across over 140 countries.

== See also ==

* World Toilet Day  
* Water issues in developing countries  
* List of awareness days  

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

* https://www.worldwaterday.org – Official website  
* https://www.worldwaterday.org/archives – Archive of campaigns  
* http://www.unwater.org – UN-Water  
* https://sdg.fairgaze.com/one-day-for-water.html – One Day for Water campaign  
* https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/water/world-water-day-2024-precious-blue-liquid-is-a-thin-red-line-between-war-and-peace-says-un-report-95176 – World Water Day 2024 report  

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Environmental awareness days]]
[[Category:Health awareness days]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:United Nations days]]
[[Category:Water and politics]]
[[Category:Water and society]]
[[Category:Observances about food and drink]]
[[Category:Sanitation]]</text>
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    <title>Water politics</title>
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      <text bytes="15291" sha1="jvjnx8ewrypdd9ftkwnr8rwoodic60w" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Politics affected by the availability of water and water resources}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===
The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as an analytical model wey help to study how powerful or [[Hegemony|hegemonized]] countries wey dey share river water fit move from domination go cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony framework dey especially useful for cases where power balance dey between peace cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean say “hegemony for river basin level”, where strong side dey control water through strategies like capturing resources, integrating systems, and containing others. Dem dey use tactics like pressure, treaties, knowledge control, and other power methods inside weak international system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main base of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation power. Usually, “upstream people use water gain power, while downstream people use power gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; The group wey win control over water na the strongest actor for the system, often described as “first among equals”.

In 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão expand the model into four types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

Even though some scholars argue say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, weaker states sometimes try “counter-hydro-hegemony” to challenge power and negotiate better water sharing. Dem fit also change how people dey talk about water politics to support their side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na basic requirement for all living things, including crops, animals, and humans. UNDP consider access to clean water as basic human right and key for peace.

Ex-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk am for 2001 say: “Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.”

As development increase, industries like farming, mining, forestry, manufacturing, and recreation dey use plenty water. But this dey also increase pollution and reduce water quality, making sustainable management very important.

WHO state say each person need at least 20 litres of clean water per day for basic hygiene.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; That one equal about 7.3 cubic metres per person per year.

But water access no be same everywhere. Developed countries get better systems for treatment and distribution, while many parts of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Middle East still lack proper infrastructure. This situation fit lead to disease, hunger, and even death in some cases.

Almost all freshwater for Earth come from rainfall (rain, snow, mist) through the water cycle over long time periods. Freshwater na only about 3% of all water on Earth, and most of am dey frozen inside glaciers and ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The remaining small portion dey as groundwater and surface water. Surface water dey inside rivers, lakes, and wetlands, and be the most commonly used source. Some dey stored inside dams for drinking, farming irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey underground inside soil and rock spaces (aquifers). Some groundwater dey renewable, but some deep ones (fossil water) no dey renew easily.

Rivers fit pass through multiple countries, so water control between countries dey very important for survival and development. This fit sometimes cause tension or conflict.&lt;ref&gt;Daclon Corrado Maria, ''Geopolitics of Environment, A Wider Approach to the Global Challenges'', Comunità Internazionale, Italy, 2007&lt;/ref&gt;

Ethiopia highlands sometimes dey described as “water tower” of East Africa, because many rivers dey originate there.

== Contamination from human activity ==
Water pollution dey happen mainly through point source and non-point source pollution.

Point source pollution mean pollution wey come from one clear place like pipe, factory, or oil spill.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Non-point source pollution no get one exact source. E fit come from farming, runoff, or different small activities spread everywhere.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination | Other Uses of Water | Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Chemicals from factories and small businesses fit enter water if dem no manage am well.
  ** '''Local businesses''': Gas stations, factories, and dry cleaners fit leak chemicals into groundwater.
  ** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Old tanks fit rust and leak petroleum into soil and water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;
  ** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Old dumps fit leak toxic materials into groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': Things like paint, oil, detergent, and cleaning chemicals fit spoil water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Old pipes fit release lead into drinking water. This fit affect children brain development and cause health problems for adults.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': Wrong storage of treatment chemicals near wells fit contaminate water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agriculture activities wey cause pollution include:
* Poor animal farming systems
* Overgrazing
* Over-farming land
* Wrong use of pesticides, fertilizer, and irrigation water&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

Other causes include:
* '''Bacteria and nitrates''': From animal waste and septic tanks.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;
* '''Factory farms''': Large animal waste fit enter water supply if no control well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;
* '''Heavy metals''': Mining and old farming areas fit release dangerous metals like arsenic.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;
* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Chemicals fit wash into groundwater after rain.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

Rainwater runoff fit carry pollutants go rivers, lakes, and underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

In 2002 report to US Congress, agriculture pollution identified as main cause of river damage and second cause of lake pollution.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="16314" sha1="1gpo678kesm1o3yyil4ncoefrqrvum5" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Politics affected by the availability of water and water resources}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

Water pollution dey happen mainly through two ways: point source and non-point source pollution.

Point source pollution na pollution wey come from one identifiable place like pipe, factory, ship, or drain.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Non-point source pollution come from many scattered sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey well controlled.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination |website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many harmful chemicals dey used for business and industry. If dem no manage am well, e fit enter drinking water.
** '''Local businesses''': Factories, gas stations, dry cleaners and industrial plants fit leak dangerous chemicals into water sources.
** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Old tanks for fuel and chemicals fit leak enter groundwater through corrosion or poor installation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern dumps try contain waste, but floods fit still move pollutants. Old dumps dey even more risky.

* '''Household wastes''': Wrong disposal of cleaning chemicals, oil, paint, and detergents fit contaminate water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey common for natural water but dey enter from old pipes and plumbing materials. Old houses (before 1986) get higher risk. Lead fit affect brain development of children and cause kidney or blood pressure problems for adults.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': Poor storage of treatment chemicals near wells fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey cause pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land  
* Wrong use of pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation water&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''Bacteria and nitrates''': Animal and human waste fit contaminate water if septic tanks or manure no dey well managed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': Large-scale animal farms produce plenty waste wey fit pollute water if no proper control dey.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Mining and construction fit release metals like arsenic into water sources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Chemicals from farms, gardens, and golf courses fit enter groundwater depending on soil and rainfall conditions.

Runoff from rain or snow melt carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to US reports, agriculture na leading cause of river pollution and second major cause of lake pollution in United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;</text>
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{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;</text>
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{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;
== Water politics by country ==

=== OECD countries ===
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia]]

With almost {{convert|2,000|m3}} of water wey one person dey use every year,&lt;!-- The UN Development report says (575 [[liters]] per day); this would come out at over 5000 liters per day. --&gt; United States dey lead di whole world for water consumption per person. Among di developed OECD countries, U.S. dey top for water usage, then Canada wey dey use about {{convert|1,600|m3}} of water per person every year. Dis one be about double di amount wey average person for France dey use, three times pass wetin average German dey use, and almost eight times pass wetin average Dane for Denmark dey use.

One 2001 University of Victoria report talk say since 1980, total water use for Canada don increase by 25.7%. Dis one dey five times faster pass di overall OECD increase of 4.5%. But on di other hand, nine OECD countries fit reduce dia total water use since 1980 (Sweden, Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdocs/indicators/6wate.htm Water consumption indicator] in di OECD countries&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Golf 'is water hazard' |work=BBC News |date=March 17, 2003 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2857587.stm |first=Ben |last=Sutherland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== India ===
{{Main|Sharing the water of the Ganges}}
[[File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India]]

==== India–Bangladesh ====
Ganges River dey get dispute between India and Bangladesh. Di water wey dey inside di river dey reduce quick-quick and e dey also get polluted, while di Gangotri glacier wey dey feed di river dey retreat by hundreds of feet every year&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Decline-in-the-retreat-of-Gangotri-glacier-Study/articleshow/2770963.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021041619/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-10/global-warming/27756035_1_gangotri-glacier-maximum-recession-frequent-snowfall |url-status=live |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Decline in the retreat of Gangotri glacier: Study |date=February 10, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; (experts dey blame climate change&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot; /&gt;) and deforestation for Himalayas dey cause subsoil streams wey dey flow enter Ganges river to dry up.

For downstream side, India dey control di flow go Bangladesh through Farakka Barrage, wey dey about 10 kilometers (6 mi) from di border on di Indian side. Until late 1990s, India dey use di barrage divert di river go Calcutta, to make sure say di port of di city no go dry during dry season.

Dis action dey deny Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and e also dey put Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests for di river delta under serious threat. Now, di two countries don sign agreement to share di water more equally.

However, water quality still dey problem, with high level of arsenic and untreated sewage for di river water.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Ganges river – water hot spots |publisher=BBC News |date=n.d. |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/river_ganges.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;
== Water politics by country ==

=== OECD countries ===
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia]]

With almost {{convert|2,000|m3}} of water wey one person dey use every year,&lt;!-- The UN Development report says (575 [[liters]] per day); this would come out at over 5000 liters per day. --&gt; United States dey lead di whole world for water consumption per person. Among di developed OECD countries, U.S. dey top for water usage, then Canada wey dey use about {{convert|1,600|m3}} of water per person every year. Dis one be about double di amount wey average person for France dey use, three times pass wetin average German dey use, and almost eight times pass wetin average Dane for Denmark dey use.

One 2001 University of Victoria report talk say since 1980, total water use for Canada don increase by 25.7%. Dis one dey five times faster pass di overall OECD increase of 4.5%. But on di other hand, nine OECD countries fit reduce dia total water use since 1980 (Sweden, Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdocs/indicators/6wate.htm Water consumption indicator] in di OECD countries&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Golf 'is water hazard' |work=BBC News |date=March 17, 2003 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2857587.stm |first=Ben |last=Sutherland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== India ===
{{Main|Sharing the water of the Ganges}}
[[File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India]]

==== India–Bangladesh ====
Ganges River dey get dispute between India and Bangladesh. Di water wey dey inside di river dey reduce quick-quick and e dey also get polluted, while di Gangotri glacier wey dey feed di river dey retreat by hundreds of feet every year&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Decline-in-the-retreat-of-Gangotri-glacier-Study/articleshow/2770963.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021041619/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-10/global-warming/27756035_1_gangotri-glacier-maximum-recession-frequent-snowfall |url-status=live |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Decline in the retreat of Gangotri glacier: Study |date=February 10, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; (experts dey blame climate change&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot; /&gt;) and deforestation for Himalayas dey cause subsoil streams wey dey flow enter Ganges river to dry up.

For downstream side, India dey control di flow go Bangladesh through Farakka Barrage, wey dey about 10 kilometers (6 mi) from di border on di Indian side. Until late 1990s, India dey use di barrage divert di river go Calcutta, to make sure say di port of di city no go dry during dry season.

Dis action dey deny Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and e also dey put Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests for di river delta under serious threat. Now, di two countries don sign agreement to share di water more equally.

However, water quality still dey problem, with high level of arsenic and untreated sewage for di river water.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Ganges river – water hot spots |publisher=BBC News |date=n.d. |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/river_ganges.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}</text>
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      <text bytes="79983" sha1="fy9f9lu4rkjt0w72q7xuqswosyuccuk" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Politics affected by the availability of water and water resources}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;
== Water politics by country ==

=== OECD countries ===
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia]]

With almost {{convert|2,000|m3}} of water wey one person dey use every year,&lt;!-- The UN Development report says (575 [[liters]] per day); this would come out at over 5000 liters per day. --&gt; United States dey lead di whole world for water consumption per person. Among di developed OECD countries, U.S. dey top for water usage, then Canada wey dey use about {{convert|1,600|m3}} of water per person every year. Dis one be about double di amount wey average person for France dey use, three times pass wetin average German dey use, and almost eight times pass wetin average Dane for Denmark dey use.

One 2001 University of Victoria report talk say since 1980, total water use for Canada don increase by 25.7%. Dis one dey five times faster pass di overall OECD increase of 4.5%. But on di other hand, nine OECD countries fit reduce dia total water use since 1980 (Sweden, Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdocs/indicators/6wate.htm Water consumption indicator] in di OECD countries&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Golf 'is water hazard' |work=BBC News |date=March 17, 2003 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2857587.stm |first=Ben |last=Sutherland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== India ===
{{Main|Sharing the water of the Ganges}}
[[File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India]]

==== India–Bangladesh ====
Ganges River dey get dispute between India and Bangladesh. Di water wey dey inside di river dey reduce quick-quick and e dey also get polluted, while di Gangotri glacier wey dey feed di river dey retreat by hundreds of feet every year&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Decline-in-the-retreat-of-Gangotri-glacier-Study/articleshow/2770963.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021041619/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-10/global-warming/27756035_1_gangotri-glacier-maximum-recession-frequent-snowfall |url-status=live |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Decline in the retreat of Gangotri glacier: Study |date=February 10, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; (experts dey blame climate change&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot; /&gt;) and deforestation for Himalayas dey cause subsoil streams wey dey flow enter Ganges river to dry up.

For downstream side, India dey control di flow go Bangladesh through Farakka Barrage, wey dey about 10 kilometers (6 mi) from di border on di Indian side. Until late 1990s, India dey use di barrage divert di river go Calcutta, to make sure say di port of di city no go dry during dry season.

Dis action dey deny Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and e also dey put Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests for di river delta under serious threat. Now, di two countries don sign agreement to share di water more equally.

However, water quality still dey problem, with high level of arsenic and untreated sewage for di river water.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Ganges river – water hot spots |publisher=BBC News |date=n.d. |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/river_ganges.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
=== South America ===

The Guaraní Aquifer, wey dey between Mercosur countries like Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, get volume of about 40,000 km³, and e be very important source of fresh clean drinking water for all the four countries dem. Rain water and small small rivers and streams dey refill am, mostly for the edges where e dey get water inflow.

As population dey grow fast for the area, especially for places wey dey feed the aquifer—some of dem even be big big cities like São Paulo and Curitiba—dem need serious monitoring make dem no overuse am or spoil am. If dem no watch am well, e fit deplete or get polluted.

The risk of pollution dey come from weak environmental laws for farming activities and poor sanitation systems. For many areas, untreated sewage dey enter ground, and even refuse like urban waste dey exposed outside. This kind situation dey worsen flooding problems for the countries wey dey involved.

=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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      <text bytes="96796" sha1="701u25b97y6tg0c3eremfh34s6y1j5y" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Politics affected by the availability of water and water resources}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;
== Water politics by country ==

=== OECD countries ===
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia]]

With almost {{convert|2,000|m3}} of water wey one person dey use every year,&lt;!-- The UN Development report says (575 [[liters]] per day); this would come out at over 5000 liters per day. --&gt; United States dey lead di whole world for water consumption per person. Among di developed OECD countries, U.S. dey top for water usage, then Canada wey dey use about {{convert|1,600|m3}} of water per person every year. Dis one be about double di amount wey average person for France dey use, three times pass wetin average German dey use, and almost eight times pass wetin average Dane for Denmark dey use.

One 2001 University of Victoria report talk say since 1980, total water use for Canada don increase by 25.7%. Dis one dey five times faster pass di overall OECD increase of 4.5%. But on di other hand, nine OECD countries fit reduce dia total water use since 1980 (Sweden, Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdocs/indicators/6wate.htm Water consumption indicator] in di OECD countries&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Golf 'is water hazard' |work=BBC News |date=March 17, 2003 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2857587.stm |first=Ben |last=Sutherland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== India ===
{{Main|Sharing the water of the Ganges}}
[[File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India]]

==== India–Bangladesh ====
Ganges River dey get dispute between India and Bangladesh. Di water wey dey inside di river dey reduce quick-quick and e dey also get polluted, while di Gangotri glacier wey dey feed di river dey retreat by hundreds of feet every year&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Decline-in-the-retreat-of-Gangotri-glacier-Study/articleshow/2770963.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021041619/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-10/global-warming/27756035_1_gangotri-glacier-maximum-recession-frequent-snowfall |url-status=live |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Decline in the retreat of Gangotri glacier: Study |date=February 10, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; (experts dey blame climate change&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot; /&gt;) and deforestation for Himalayas dey cause subsoil streams wey dey flow enter Ganges river to dry up.

For downstream side, India dey control di flow go Bangladesh through Farakka Barrage, wey dey about 10 kilometers (6 mi) from di border on di Indian side. Until late 1990s, India dey use di barrage divert di river go Calcutta, to make sure say di port of di city no go dry during dry season.

Dis action dey deny Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and e also dey put Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests for di river delta under serious threat. Now, di two countries don sign agreement to share di water more equally.

However, water quality still dey problem, with high level of arsenic and untreated sewage for di river water.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Ganges river – water hot spots |publisher=BBC News |date=n.d. |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/river_ganges.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
=== South America ===

The Guaraní Aquifer, wey dey between Mercosur countries like Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, get volume of about 40,000 km³, and e be very important source of fresh clean drinking water for all the four countries dem. Rain water and small small rivers and streams dey refill am, mostly for the edges where e dey get water inflow.

As population dey grow fast for the area, especially for places wey dey feed the aquifer—some of dem even be big big cities like São Paulo and Curitiba—dem need serious monitoring make dem no overuse am or spoil am. If dem no watch am well, e fit deplete or get polluted.

The risk of pollution dey come from weak environmental laws for farming activities and poor sanitation systems. For many areas, untreated sewage dey enter ground, and even refuse like urban waste dey exposed outside. This kind situation dey worsen flooding problems for the countries wey dey involved.

=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
=== United States ===

Di '''Water Justice''' movement na mainly grassroots movement for US. E mean say small-small groups of citizens dey take matter of clean water into their own hand by protest, petition, raising funds, or even donating things like water filters so dem fit improve access to clean water. Some well-known people don use their fame support di cause of water justice: [[Erin Brockovich]], media personality and environmental activist, don talk against [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]] officials how dem handle di water crisis there.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/erin-brockovich-is-back-to-fight-in-flint |title=Erin Brockovich Is Back To Fight in Flint |last=Haglage |first=Abby |date=July 11, 2017 |website=[[The Daily Beast]] |publisher= |access-date=May 31, 2021 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/erin-brockovich-on-americas-water-crisis-and-why-no-one-is-coming-to-save-us |title=Erin Brockovich on America's water crisis and why no one is coming to save us |last=Booker |first=Christopher |date=November 22, 2020 |website=[[PBS]] |publisher= |access-date=May 31, 2021 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Actress [[Shailene Woodley]] even get arrest for [[Dakota Access Pipeline protests|Dakota Access Pipeline protest]], later she talk say: &quot;If you are a human who requires water to survive, then this issue directly involves you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|last1=Woodley |first1=Shailene |url=https://time.com/4538557/shailene-woodley-arrest-pipeline/|title=Shailene Woodley: The Truth About My Arrest|magazine=TIME |date=20 October 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important person for di Standing Rock protest na Standing Rock [[Sioux]] Tribal Chairman Dave Archambault II. E talk for [[United Nations Human Rights Council|Human Rights Council]] for Geneva on behalf of im people. E also thank people wey fight di pipeline &quot;in the name of protecting our water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web| url=http://standwithstandingrock.net/standing-rock-sioux-tribes-statement-u-s-army-corps-engineers-decision-not-grant-easement/| title=Standing Rock Sioux Tribe's Statement on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Decision to Not Grant Easement| date=2016-12-04| access-date=2019-01-19| archive-date=2016-12-04| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204230930/http://standwithstandingrock.net/standing-rock-sioux-tribes-statement-u-s-army-corps-engineers-decision-not-grant-easement/| url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water Justice movement don also spread reach global level. E include groups like Global Water Justice Movement, Friends of the Right to Water, [[Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions]], [[Food &amp; Water Watch|Food and Water Watch]], and [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]]. Dem believe say water na global common resource, so e no suppose dey privatized, and government suppose guarantee say everybody get right to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | url=http://www.epsu.org/article/global-water-justice-movement-denounces-world-bank%E2%80%99s-strategy-promote-privatization-water |title = Global Water Justice Movement denounces World Bank's strategy to promote privatization of water and the commodification of water resources through UN SDG Agenda &amp;#124; EPSU}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Legal acts====

To reduce pollution and protect drinking water, different legal acts don become law:

* '''The Clean Water Act''': The [[Clean Water Act]] start 1948 as Federal Water Pollution Control Act, later amend for 1972. Changes include:
** Ban dumping pollutants wey fit enter big water bodies
** Control how pollutants dey enter water
** Funding for sewage treatment plants
** Give [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] power to enforce water rules&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act |title=History of the Clean Water Act |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2017-02-23 |date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''The Ocean Dumping Act''': Passed 1972 to reduce ocean pollution. EPA fit fine up to $50,000 per violation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil_crs_oda.pdf|title=Ocean Dumping Act: A Summary of the Law}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Shore Protection Act (SPA)''': Part of Ocean Dumping Act. E stop ships from carrying waste inside coastal waters without permit.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-shore-protection-act|title=Summary of the Shore Protection Act|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2017-03-01|date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Right To Water''': Also known as [[Right to water|Human Right to Water and Sanitation]], United Nations approve am July 28, 2010. E recognize water and sanitation as basic human right.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|website=www.un.org|language=EN|access-date=2017-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)''': Passed 1974, protect both ground and surface water. 1996 amendment add risk and cost evaluation requirement.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-safe-drinking-water-act|title=Summary of the Safe Drinking Water Act |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en|access-date=2017-03-01|date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Activism ====

For US, big activism happen for Standing Rock, North Dakota and Flint, Michigan.

For Standing Rock pipeline issue, people start action immediately. 2016 petition gather nearly half a million signatures in three months.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fusion&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://fusion.net/story/372387/timeline-nodapl-protests-standing-rock/|title=A timeline of the year of resistance at Standing Rock|work=Fusion|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later dem sue Army Corps of Engineers, while Energy Transfer Partners counter-sue dem.

2016 presidential candidate [[Jill Stein]] also join protest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.omaha.com/news/politics/in-omaha-jill-stein-defends-spray-painting-bulldozer-at-north/article_39bae5a9-d586-55bf-8bb6-f884a763029e.html|title=In Omaha, Jill Stein defends spray-painting bulldozer at North Dakota pipeline protest |author=Robynn Tysver|work=Omaha.com|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Actress [[Shailene Woodley]] also get arrest for blocking pipeline.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2016/10/24/arrested_actor_shailene_woodley_why_do|title=Actor Shailene Woodley on Her Arrest, Strip Search and Dakota Access Pipeline Resistance|website=Democracy Now!|access-date=2017-03-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Flint water crisis, after 2014 decision to use Flint River, water quality begin drop.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.bridgemi.com/truth-squad-companion/disaster-day-day-detailed-flint-crisis-timeline?gclid=CNWI6YfKvNICFdU7gQodqDkDmA|title=Disaster Day by Day: A detailed Flint crisis timeline|date=2016-02-04|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ACLU sue government for high lead level.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2017/01/09/activists-flint-water-tests/96342196/|title=Activists urge caution on Flint water despite improved tests|work=Detroit Free Press|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Related organizations and programs====

Different organizations dey work for safe water access. Dem dey operate at local, national and global levels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|title=Drinking Water National and State Organizations and Programs|website=www.nesc.wvu.edu|access-date=2017-02-28|archive-date=2020-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128132141/http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Categories include:

* Education: Even though US get one of di safest water systems, sickness from contaminated water still dey happen every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyhomes/bytopic/water.html|title=CDC – Healthy Homes {{!}} Health Topics {{!}} Drinking Water Safety|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Industry: Some groups dey certify workers to ensure water system safety.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.abccert.org/|title=Association of Boards of Certification|website=www.abccert.org|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Research: Organizations dey fund environmental and health research.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.fwr.org/|title=FWR Home Page|last=Jones|first=Gordon|website=www.fwr.org|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Governmental: Some work with government at all levels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribalclimateguide.uoregon.edu/climate-programs/national-tribal-environmental-council|title=National Tribal Environmental Council {{!}} Tribal Climate Change Guide|website=tribalclimateguide.uoregon.edu|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Case studies: Africa ===

Obuasi, Ghana na one major gold mining area. Mining start 1897.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ashanti Company History&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Ashanti Company History |publisher=AngloGold Ashanti|year=2005|url=http://www.ashantigold.com/NR/rdonlyres/BDB5B570-C236-4C5B-9F53-1B5ED83F7E0C/0/Ashanti_CompanyHistory.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; Over time, mining process damage rivers, fishing areas and irrigation systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Water contamination reach 10–38 times above legal limit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 9&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 9&lt;/ref&gt; Main pollutants include arsenic and mining runoff.&lt;ref&gt;Golow et al., 703&lt;/ref&gt;

Dust from mining fit spread enter air, soil and water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot;&gt;Golow et al., 2010, 703&lt;/ref&gt; Rain also carry contamination go deeper into soil and groundwater.

Farmers suffer because irrigation water don spoil soil and kill crops.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot; /&gt; Rivers lose fish life due to chemicals.&lt;ref&gt;ActionAid, 2006, 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Even though companies like AngloGold Ashanti provide standpipes, many no dey work well or don contaminate.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 15&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 15&lt;/ref&gt; Some people dey walk far distance just to find clean water.&lt;ref&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 16&lt;/ref&gt;

== Economy ==

=== Global economy ===

Globalization increase trade and production, but e also increase water demand. OECD estimate say by 2050, global water demand go rise by 55%.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anders&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/global-water-crisis-politics-business-security|title=The global water crisis – why water politics matter for business security|last2=Jägerskog|first2=Dr Anders|date=30 August 2013|website=The Guardian|last3=Berggren|first3=Jens|last4=Joyce|first4=John|last1=Holmgren|first1=Torgny}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water scarcity dey cause tension between countries. About 50% of water resources dey shared across borders.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anders&quot; /&gt;

Jordan River and Aral Sea conflicts show how bad water management fit cause economic loss and political tension.

World Bank estimate say poor water management fit reduce GDP up to 6% in some regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/high-and-dry-climate-change-water-and-the-economy|title=High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy|website=World Bank|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Local economy ===

For local level, water politics affect business cost, farming, jobs and infrastructure.

For example, Texas plan build reservoirs costing over $600 per acre-foot.&lt;ref name=&quot;alamaro&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Alamaro|first1=Moshe|title=Water politics must adapt to a warming world|journal=Nature|date=30 September 2014|volume=514|issue=7520|pages=7|doi=10.1038/514007a|pmid=25279881|bibcode=2014Natur.514....7A|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Colorado River basin ===

Colorado River basin dey shared between US states and Mexico. Inside US, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Nevada and California dey share am.

Different governments and groups dey compete over water control and allocation.&lt;ref name=&quot;moore&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=19 January 2017|title=The dilemma of autonomy: decentralization and water politics at the subnational level|journal=Water International|volume=42|issue=2|pages=222–239|doi=10.1080/02508060.2017.1276038|last1=Moore|first1=Scott M.|bibcode=2017WatIn..42..222M |hdl=10986/26253|s2cid=157939313|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Human Rights ==

Water na basic human need. Without am, no human activity fit survive.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Elhance|title=Hydropolitics: Grounds for Despair, Reasons for Hope|journal=International Negotiation|date=1 February 2000|volume=5|issue=2|pages=201–222|doi=10.1163/15718060020848730}}&lt;/ref&gt;

United Nations declare water as human right under international law. Millennium Development Goals also support fair water sharing.&lt;ref name=&quot;khad&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Khadka|first1=Arjun Kumar|title=The Emergence of Water as a 'Human Right' on the World Stage: Challenges and Opportunities|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|date=22 January 2010|volume=26|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1080/07900620903391838|bibcode=2010IJWRD..26...37K |s2cid=154480603}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But water privatization still cause debate because many people believe water suppose remain public right.

There still over 275 shared river basins and 270 aquifers worldwide.&lt;ref name=&quot;siva&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sivakumar|first1=Bellie|title=Planning and management of shared waters: hydropolitics and hydropsychology – two sides of the same coin|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|date=16 October 2013|volume=30|issue=2|pages=200–210|doi=10.1080/07900627.2013.841072|s2cid=154793056}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydropsychology ==

Hydropsychology dey focus on how individual people use water small-small level. Hydropolitics dey look big international level, but hydropsychology dey look daily personal use.

Some countries get plenty water and use am for recreation, while others no even get clean water for survival.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot; /&gt;

Experts suggest combine both hydropolitics and hydropsychology to solve water problems better.&lt;ref name=&quot;siva&quot; /&gt;

== Privatization ==

Water privatization dey controversial because of high cost, poor service and ethical issues.

In Bolivia, IMF push privatization which later cause protest in Cochabamba in 2000.&lt;ref name=&quot;economist&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2000/02/10/water-war-in-bolivia|title=Water war in Bolivia|date=10 February 2000|newspaper=The Economist}}&lt;/ref&gt;

South Africa also face problems after privatization led to cholera outbreak that kill about 200 people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Water privatisation: ask the experts |work=BBC News |date=December 10, 2004 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/2957550.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Philippines experience price increase after Manila water privatization.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Rights Education Empowers People in the Philippines |publisher=[[Aurora Parong]] |year=1995 |url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/humanrights/publications/rn/rn_2004_5.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Privatization mean private companies take over water supply and try run am based on profit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pierce&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=December 2012|title=The Political Economy of Water Service Privatization in Mexico City, 1994–2011|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|volume=28|issue=4|pages=675–691|doi=10.1080/07900627.2012.685126|last1=Pierce|first1=Gregory|bibcode=2012IJWRD..28..675P |s2cid=153813854}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mexico City ===

Mexico City privatize water in 1994 to reduce loss from leaking pipes.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/mexico_city.stm|title=BBC NEWS|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some improvement happen, but later contract problems affect efficiency.

=== Bolivia ===

Bolivia privatize water in Cochabamba in 1999, which later cause massive protest called Cochabamba Water War.&lt;ref name=&quot;economist&quot; /&gt;

Water price increase sharply, even double or triple in some areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;coleman&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=2012|title=Who Owns the Water? An Analysis of Water Conflicts in Latin American and Modern Water Law|url=https://depts.washington.edu/chid/intersections_Spring_2012/Thomas_Coleman_Water_Conflicts_in_Latin_America_and_Water_Law.pdf|journal=Intersections|volume=12|issue=2|pages=1–19|last1=Coleman|first1=Thomas}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Protests eventually force government declare emergency, and later president resign.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Water}}

* [[Drainage law]]
* [[Water management]]
* [[Water export]]
* [[International waters]], [[Territorial waters]], [[Internal waters]]
* [[Water politics in the Nile Basin]]
* [[Mekong River Commission]]
* [[Water scarcity in Africa]]
* [[Water supply terrorism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
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{{Redirect-distinguish|Water policy|Water resource policy}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|right|People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo]]

'''Water politics''', wey some people dey also call '''hydropolitics''', na [[politics]] wey water matter and how water dey available dey affect am. Water na something wey every life on earth need, plus e dey very important for human development.

Arun P. Elhance talk say hydropolitics be &quot;the systematic study of conflict and cooperation between states over water resources that transcend international borders&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Arun P. Elhance|title=Hydropolitics in the 3rd World: Conflict and cooperation in International River Basins |location=Washington, DC|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=1999|pages=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mollinga, P. P. divide water politics into four main parts: &quot;the everyday politics of water resources management&quot;, &quot;the politics of water policy in the context of sovereign states&quot;, &quot;inter-state hydropolitics&quot; and &quot;the global politics of water&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mollinga, P. P., 2008. &quot; Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management.&quot; ''Water alternatives'', 1(1), 7., 12&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh drinking water wey dey available per person dey reduce worldwide, and e no enough again.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/world-s-supply-of-fresh-water-shrinking-dramatically-report-1.384437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050705/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2003/03/05/water_report030305.html |url-status=live |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |publisher=CBC News |title=World's supply of fresh water shrinking dramatically: report |date=March 5, 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The reasons for this problem dey many. Some of them include shortage of water for some places, small availability, population pressure,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://reportsyndication.news.blog/2019/10/12/the-coming-wars-for-water/|title=The Coming Wars for Water|date=October 12, 2019|website=Report Syndication}}&lt;/ref&gt; overuse of water, bad usage, environmental damage, water pollution, and also climate change.

Water na very important natural resource wey fit cause serious political tension when e dey scarce. As water dey reduce and demand dey increase, some people believe say clean water go become like “next oil”.

Because of this, countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia, and Peru wey get plenty water resources sometimes dey described as water-rich countries in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |title=Total Renewable Fresh Water Supply By Country |access-date=2008-04-18 |archive-date=2008-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516055735/http://worldwater.org/data20062007/Table1.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ec/wpapers/kerp0219.pdf Peter Lawrence et al. &quot;The Water Poverty Index : an International Comparison&quot;, Keele Economics Research Papers, 2002]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts]&lt;/ref&gt;

World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from World Water Assessment Program talk say within next 20 years, water wey go dey available for each person fit reduce by about 30%.

Right now, about 40% of people for world no get enough clean water for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people die for year 2000 because of sicknesses wey come from dirty water or drought.

For 2004, WaterAid report talk say pikin dey die every 15 seconds because of water-related disease wey fit be prevented, especially where toilet system or sewage system no dey good.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) summarize water inequality for 2006 report say: &quot;One part of the world, sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm# UNDP Human Development Report 2006] United Nations Development Programme, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fresh water today don become more important pass before because e dey used for agriculture, advanced manufacturing, and energy production. Because of that, people dey now see am as resource wey need proper management and sustainable use.

Water rights, especially riparian water rights, don become serious matter for international diplomacy and also local politics.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M. M. (Ed.) (2012) Special Issue: [http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=297&amp;year=2012&amp;vol=4&amp;issue=1/2 Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank Vice President Ismail Serageldin talk say: &quot;Many of the wars of the 20th century were about oil, but wars of the 21st century will be over water unless we change the way we manage water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serageldin, I. (2009) '[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/459163b.html Water: conflicts set to arise within as well as between states]', ''Nature'', Vol. 459, p.163.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |title=Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927064300/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LzvKQT9QJpyrMBm5G3VrTtYfFGfbQlRT9LK7nv5Kn7zym7CZG2VG!-331657331?docId=5008625832 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

But some researchers no agree fully with this idea. Dem argue say most water disputes dey settle through diplomacy, and e no really turn to war.&lt;ref&gt;Barnaby, W., 2009. &quot;Do nations go to war over water?&quot; ''Nature'', Vol. 458, 282–283&lt;/ref&gt;

Another group of scholars also talk say even if war no happen, fear of losing control over shared water fit still make countries dey prepare for conflict all the time.&lt;ref&gt;Rahaman, M.M. (2012) [http://www.inderscience.com/search/index.php?action=record&amp;rec_id=44658&amp;prevQuery=&amp;ps=10&amp;m=or Water Wars in 21st Century: Speculation or Reality?], ''International Journal of Sustainable Society'', Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp. 3–10. DOI:10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.044658&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water policy ==
{{Excerpt|Water resource policy}}
== Water politics concepts ==

=== Hydro-hegemony ===

The framework of hydro-hegemony was introduced by scholars Mark Zeitoun and Jeroen F. Warner in 2006 as a useful analytical way to study how powerful or dominated [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] countries that share river basins behave, and how dem fit move from domination go reach cooperation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Mark|last2=Warner|first2=Jeroen|date=2006-10-01|title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts|url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=435–460|doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054|bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |issn=1366-7017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This framework dey especially important for cases wey power relationship dey between cooperation and serious conflict like [[Water conflict|water wars]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hydro-hegemony mean “hegemony at river basin level,” wey dey happen through control of water resources using strategies like resource capture, integration, and containment. These strategies dey work through different tactics (like pressure, coercion, treaties, and knowledge control), and dem dey possible because power no balance well inside weak international systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeitoun Warner 2006&quot; /&gt;

The two main pillars of hydro-hegemony be riparian position and exploitation potential. Even though exceptions dey, general rule be say: “upstream countries use water to gain power, while downstream countries use power to gain water.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The actor wey eventually control the water resource na the one wey get strongest advantage, becoming the “first among equals.”

For 2010, Mark Zeitoun and Ana Elisa Cascão refine the idea come introduce four main types of power: geographical power, material power, bargaining power, and ideational power.&lt;ref&gt;Cascão, A. E. and Zeitoun, M. 2010. Power, hegemony and critical hydropolitics. In A. Earle, A. Jägerskog, &amp; J. Ojendal (Eds.), Transboundary water management: Principles and practice. London: Earthscan, 27–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

So hydro-hegemony na control of shared river water wey dey happen when strong actor dey dominate flow of water across borders.

Even though researchers like Zeitoun and Warner talk say hydro-hegemony fit bring stability, sometimes weaker states fit resist am. This resistance dey try shift power balance and renegotiate control. One strategy be to change the way people dey talk about the issue so e go favor the weaker side.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Mark |last2=Warner |first2=Jeroen |date=2006 |title=Hydro-hegemony – a framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts |journal=Water Policy |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=443–444, 454–455 |doi=10.2166/wp.2006.054 |bibcode=2006WaPol...8..435Z |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/29466/1/ZeitounWarner_-_HydroHegemony_%28as_published%29.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water as a critical resource ==
{{See also|Water conflict}}

Fresh water na very important requirement for all living things—plants, animals, and human beings included. UNDP see access to water as basic human right and also requirement for peace. Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan talk for 2001 say:

&quot;Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity.&quot;

As development dey increase, many industries like forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and recreation dey use more fresh water. But this one dey also increase pollution of air and water, which dey reduce water quality. Because of this, sustainable development practices dey very necessary.

According to WHO, each person need minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdr.undp.org/external/hdr2006/water/10.htm Water: A Human Right]&lt;/ref&gt; this equal about 7.3 cubic metres per year per person.

Water usage no be the same everywhere. Developed countries get systems to treat water and deliver am to homes, while many developing regions for Latin America, Asia, Africa, Middle East and Southeast Asia still lack enough water supply systems or infrastructure. This shortage dey lead to disease, hunger, and sometimes death.

Almost all freshwater come from precipitation (rain, mist, snow) through water cycle wey dey continue over long time.

Freshwater na only about 3% of all water for Earth, and more than two-thirds of am dey frozen inside glaciers and polar ice caps.&lt;ref name=&quot;USGS dist&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rest of freshwater mostly dey underground as groundwater, while small part dey surface as rivers, lakes, wetlands, and streams.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource |publisher=GreenFacts Website |access-date=2008-01-31 |url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Surface water dey include rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs behind dams. Dem dey use am for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Groundwater dey inside rock and soil spaces and dey flow inside aquifers. Some groundwater na renewable, while some (called fossil water) no dey renew again.

Rivers sometimes cross countries, so control of them very important for survival, economy, and peace. Groundwater also fit cross borders.

Because of this, competition for water sometimes cause conflict in history.

Highlands of Ethiopia dey serve as important water source region for East Africa. Control of upstream water dey influence downstream politics for long time.

== Contamination from human activity ==

[[Water pollution|Water contamination]] usually dey happen through two main ways: [[Point source pollution|point source]] and [[Nonpoint source pollution|non-point source]] pollution. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), point source pollution be “any single identifiable source of '''[[pollution]]''' from where '''[[pollutant]]s''' dey come out, like pipe, ditch, ship, or factory smokestack.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/03pointsource.html|title=NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Nonpoint Source Pollution |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So among the common examples of point source pollution, bad factory waste treatment and sewage treatment dey top list. Even though e no dey happen too often like others, [[oil spill]]s too na serious example of point source pollution and e fit damage water plenty.

On the other side, non-point source pollution be pollution wey no come from one clear place. E fit come from many different sources, especially agriculture activities wey no dey properly monitored, and dem fit spoil nearby water sources badly.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/contamination.html|title=Water Contamination &amp;#124; Other Uses of Water &amp;#124; Healthy Water {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Point sources of pollution ===

* '''Industrial products and wastes''': Many dangerous chemicals dey used inside business and industries. If dem no manage them well, dem fit enter drinking water and cause pollution.

** '''Local businesses''': Factories, industrial plants, gas stations, dry cleaners, and even small businesses dey handle different dangerous chemicals wey need careful control. If spill happen or waste no dey disposed well, e fit spoil underground water supply.

** '''Leaking underground tanks and piping''': Petroleum products, chemicals, and wastes wey dem store inside underground tanks and pipes fit leak enter groundwater. This happen when installation no correct or materials don spoil with age. Steel tanks and pipes fit rust over time. Some of these tanks dey even for old abandoned farms. EPA rules no always cover all farm tanks for petroleum and chemical storage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/potential-well-water-contaminants-and-their-impacts |title=Human Health and Contaminated Water |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=6 May 2015 |language=en |access-date=2017-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Landfills and waste dumps''': Modern landfill sites dey try contain waste properly, but flood fit still carry contaminants go outside barrier. Old dumpsites get plenty different pollutants wey fit seep enter groundwater.

* '''Household wastes''': If people throw away things like cleaning solvents, used engine oil, paints, paint thinners anyhow, e fit contaminate groundwater. Even soap and detergents fit spoil drinking water. This one mostly happen when septic tanks or soakaway systems no dey work well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Lead and copper''': Lead no dey commonly found inside natural water source, but e dey enter water from household plumbing materials. Houses wey dem build before 1986 get higher chance of having lead pipes and fittings. When these materials corrode, lead fit enter water system.

Water acidity or alkalinity dey measured as pH (0–14). Neutral water na 7. Acid water dey below 7, while alkaline water dey above 7. pH, temperature, and minerals dey affect corrosion level.

Lead inside drinking water fit cause serious health problems. For children, e fit slow down mental and physical development. For adults, long-term exposure fit cause kidney problems and high blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Water treatment chemicals''': If people no store or handle chemicals like disinfectants and corrosion inhibitors well near wells, e fit contaminate water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

=== Non-point sources of pollution ===

Agricultural activities wey dey cause non-point source pollution include:

* Poor animal feeding systems  
* Overgrazing  
* Over-ploughing land (like farming too frequently)  
* Wrong use of pesticides, irrigation water, and fertilizers&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

* '''[[Bacteria]] and [[nitrate]]s''': These pollutants dey come from human and animal waste. If septic tanks too many or animal farming plenty for one area, e fit cause nitrate and bacterial contamination. Proper management of septic systems and manure dey very important to protect private wells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Concentrated animal feeding operations''': The number of large-scale animal farms (wey people dey call “factory farms”) dey increase. For these farms, plenty animals dey kept inside small area, producing large amount of waste. If no proper management dey, this waste fit pollute water supply. Salts inside manure fit also contaminate groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Heavy metals''': Activities like mining and construction fit release heavy metals into groundwater. Some old fruit farms even still get arsenic inside soil because e dey used before as pesticide. These metals fit be dangerous when concentration high.&lt;ref name=&quot;Contaminated Water&quot; /&gt;

* '''Fertilizers and pesticides''': Farmers dey use fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yield and reduce pest damage. Same chemicals also dey used for lawns, golf courses, and gardens. Depending on how dem use am and local conditions like soil type and rainfall, these chemicals fit enter groundwater.

Groundwater normally dey look clean because soil dey filter particles. But chemicals still fit dey inside. As water dey move underground, minerals like iron and manganese fit dissolve and become high inside water.

Human activities like farming, urban development, industrial waste, leaking tanks, and chemical spills all fit affect groundwater quality. Even waste dumps or old contaminated sites fit later affect wells if dem locate for that area.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/groundwater-contaminants.html|title=Contaminants Found in Groundwater, USGS Water Science School|last=USGS|first=Howard Perlman|website=water.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rain or snowmelt wey dey run over land dey carry pollutants enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground water systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;

According to U.S. National Water Quality report (2002), agricultural non-point source pollution na the main cause of river and stream damage, and e be second highest cause of pollution for lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdc.gov&quot; /&gt;
== Water politics by country ==

=== OECD countries ===
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia]]

With almost {{convert|2,000|m3}} of water wey one person dey use every year,&lt;!-- The UN Development report says (575 [[liters]] per day); this would come out at over 5000 liters per day. --&gt; United States dey lead di whole world for water consumption per person. Among di developed OECD countries, U.S. dey top for water usage, then Canada wey dey use about {{convert|1,600|m3}} of water per person every year. Dis one be about double di amount wey average person for France dey use, three times pass wetin average German dey use, and almost eight times pass wetin average Dane for Denmark dey use.

One 2001 University of Victoria report talk say since 1980, total water use for Canada don increase by 25.7%. Dis one dey five times faster pass di overall OECD increase of 4.5%. But on di other hand, nine OECD countries fit reduce dia total water use since 1980 (Sweden, Netherlands, United States, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdocs/indicators/6wate.htm Water consumption indicator] in di OECD countries&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Golf 'is water hazard' |work=BBC News |date=March 17, 2003 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2857587.stm |first=Ben |last=Sutherland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== India ===
{{Main|Sharing the water of the Ganges}}
[[File:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India]]

==== India–Bangladesh ====
Ganges River dey get dispute between India and Bangladesh. Di water wey dey inside di river dey reduce quick-quick and e dey also get polluted, while di Gangotri glacier wey dey feed di river dey retreat by hundreds of feet every year&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Decline-in-the-retreat-of-Gangotri-glacier-Study/articleshow/2770963.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021041619/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-10/global-warming/27756035_1_gangotri-glacier-maximum-recession-frequent-snowfall |url-status=live |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Decline in the retreat of Gangotri glacier: Study |date=February 10, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; (experts dey blame climate change&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot; /&gt;) and deforestation for Himalayas dey cause subsoil streams wey dey flow enter Ganges river to dry up.

For downstream side, India dey control di flow go Bangladesh through Farakka Barrage, wey dey about 10 kilometers (6 mi) from di border on di Indian side. Until late 1990s, India dey use di barrage divert di river go Calcutta, to make sure say di port of di city no go dry during dry season.

Dis action dey deny Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and e also dey put Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests for di river delta under serious threat. Now, di two countries don sign agreement to share di water more equally.

However, water quality still dey problem, with high level of arsenic and untreated sewage for di river water.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc_ganges&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Ganges river – water hot spots |publisher=BBC News |date=n.d. |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/river_ganges.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
=== South America ===

The Guaraní Aquifer, wey dey between Mercosur countries like Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, get volume of about 40,000 km³, and e be very important source of fresh clean drinking water for all the four countries dem. Rain water and small small rivers and streams dey refill am, mostly for the edges where e dey get water inflow.

As population dey grow fast for the area, especially for places wey dey feed the aquifer—some of dem even be big big cities like São Paulo and Curitiba—dem need serious monitoring make dem no overuse am or spoil am. If dem no watch am well, e fit deplete or get polluted.

The risk of pollution dey come from weak environmental laws for farming activities and poor sanitation systems. For many areas, untreated sewage dey enter ground, and even refuse like urban waste dey exposed outside. This kind situation dey worsen flooding problems for the countries wey dey involved.

=== Mexico ===
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}Mexico don face serious wahala for stopping water contamination and water pollution, and also for how dem dey distribute clean water go households and businesses. As society don develop, urbanization increase, economy grow, and trade expand, demand for clean water too don increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hearne|first=Robert R.|date=2004|title=Evolving water management institutions in Mexico: EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN MEXICO|journal=Water Resources Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|doi=10.1029/2003WR002745|bibcode=2004WRR....4012S04H|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But pollution wey dey come from economic growth and industrialization, together with di dry (arid) climate, don reduce access to clean water for many households and firms. Di already dry climate dey also suffer droughts, and with climate change wey dey increase, e fit make water access even worse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Ilgen|first1=Silvana|last2=Sengers|first2=Frans|last3=Wardekker|first3=Arjan|date=2019|title=City-To-City Learning for Urban Resilience: The Case of Water Squares in Rotterdam and Mexico City|journal=Water|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=983|doi=10.3390/w11050983|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..11..983I |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/380617/Ilgen_ea_City_to_city_learning_urban_resilience_2019.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mexico dey depend mainly on groundwater for water supply, and dis don lead to overuse of aquifers and make cost of getting water increase.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hearne 2004&quot; /&gt; Mexico City, wey be di biggest urban center, get very high demand for drinking water. Di water supply wey “Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de Mexico” (SCAMEX) dey provide dey only 98 effective and because of that, about 48,000 households for di city no get water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Tapia|first1=Lilia|last2=Revollo-Fernández|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Morales-Novelo|first3=Jorge A.|date=2017|title=Household's Perception of Water Quality and Willingness to Pay for Clean Water in Mexico City|journal=Economies|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=12|doi=10.3390/economies5020012|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/197015|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even people wey get access to SCAMEX water still no dey satisfied. Dem still dey face water loss and bad water quality.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt; For Mexico City, estimated 40% of di water dey lost through leaking pipes wey dem build since early 1900s.

According to 2011 survey results, up to 87% of households for Mexico City prefer say dem go dey use other sources instead of tap water for cooking and drinking. Alternative ways to get water include buying bottled water, using filtration devices, or boiling water before dem drink am.

Problem be say these alternatives dey cost more pass using tap water wey city provide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rodríguez-Tapia etal 2017&quot; /&gt;
=== Middle East and North Africa ===
{{Main|Water politics in the Middle East}}For di Middle East and North Africa (MENA), water be very important resource plus political matter. According to report by Arab League in 1999, two-thirds of Arab countries get less than {{convert|1,000|m3}} of water per person every year, which dem consider as di limit.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries&quot;, Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1–3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in {{cite news |date=February 2000 |title=Drought in the Middle East |url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/02/08chesnot |publisher=Monde diplomatique}} – French original version freely available [https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/02/CHESNOT/13213.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2025, e dey predicted say countries for Arabian Peninsula go dey use water wey pass double wetin dem naturally get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Sutherland |first=Ben |date=March 18, 2003 |title=Water shortages 'foster terrorism' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2859937.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 2030, according to World Bank, MENA region likely go reach absolute water scarcity limit as United Nations define am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-10-06 |title=absolute water scarcity |url=https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity#:~:text=An%20insufficiency%20of%20supply%20to,scarcity%20(Falkenmark,%201989). |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Riots erupt in central Algeria over water shortages, government tries to appease population |url=https://thearabweekly.com/riots-erupt-central-algeria-over-water-shortages-government-tries-appease-population |website=The Arab Weekly}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Finding Institutional Solutions to Water Scarcity in MENA |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena/publication/finding-institutional-solutions-to-water-scarcity-in-mena |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=World Bank |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With fast population growth and climate change, water scarcity no dey likely reduce. Because of these stats and predictions, people dey often see water as something scarce for MENA, and dem dey sometimes use am explain conflicts and political instability. But some scholars argue say na framing be that, because problem no be only water availability, but how dem dey distribute and use am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics: Constructing a Zionist Network of Water Abundance, Immigration, and Colonization |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=363–365, 384 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barnes |first=Jessica |date=2020 |title=Water in the Middle East: A Primer |url=https://merip.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/MERIP-Primer-on-Water-in-the-Middle-East.pdf |journal=Middle East Report |volume=296 |pages=1–9 |via=Middle East Research and Information Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Middle East context, wey get different national, subnational, ideological, ethnic, religious and pan-national identities, water politics don play big role for conflicts between Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; Egypt and other Nile riparian states; plus Israel and Palestine. For MENA, all major rivers cross at least one international border, like Tigris and Euphrates wey pass through three major Middle Eastern countries. Nile even cross eleven countries. This one mean say downstream countries dey strongly affected by decisions of upstream countries wey dem no really fit control.

Besides rivers, other important water bodies for Middle East include Suez Canal, Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, Strait of Hormuz, and Persian Gulf.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Overview by country ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Country
!Water Politics
|-
|{{Flag|Algeria}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Algeria}}
Water scarcity dey increase problem for Algeria, and climate change plus drought periods dey worsen am. In 2024, protests against government water policies happen for Tiaret city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; To secure drinking water plus agricultural and industrial water supply, and to reduce risk from climate change, Algeria allocate USD 5.4 billion to improve desalination technology. By 2030, country plan say nearly two-thirds of water go come from desalination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Goosen |first=Matthew |date=2025-02-05 |title=Algeria Commits $5.4B to Desalination for Long-Term Water Security |url=https://energycapitalpower.com/algeria-commits-5-4b-to-desalination-for-long-term-water-security/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=energycapitalpower.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Bahrain}}
|Water politics be important matter for Bahrain as archipelago. Like other countries for region, natural water resources dey scarce. To meet demand, Bahrain dey use desalination plus greywater filtering for irrigation. These methods reduce depletion of water resources by 20% between 2000 and 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=WHAT PROGRESS LOOKS LIKE: BAHRAIN – SUSTAINABLE WATER USE |url=https://www.unwater.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sdg6_acceleration_snapshot_642_bahrain_feb_2023.pdf |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These sustainability goals dey inside Bahrain Vision 2030, and dem dey call am “pioneering” progress.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Electricity and Water: Bahrain's Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable Energy and Water |url=https://bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/HomeNationalPortal/ContentDetailsPage/!ut/p/z1/rVRNc5swFPwr7qFH0JMAAUccf7euXTukMZeMAFGrBaEQaur--oppphnjOLgz1QWQdtn3tCuhCN2jSLKD-MpqUUqW6-9dRB_w3IGZdwOwHtkEPt_5GzpcYlhOLfTlFIBvQ9CAebBZTUYYbIyia_hwYQRwHf8vYPZpPQK6mnkucYfWak1O-d3lXr51yvdDCkCnIcZ4oRv1yKv1BzDckKEFMN3C2_qkq38ucKp_61OghAQ22U4tWMEZ_wzwb_t3DojetucORShSiUjRzna5gyFxjRgTatgOJ0bMM2w4kGZAfWwBgRadyFrVe7SLpXrg8j0cyx_VIBcZHwg5iNm-YkLP8pwndSUSUR8HTKaDhtW8ujCNFv02R31OdACdJH-AHkAb9b7Neg3wEpbVWQ1-GE6AetOJbVNv4zou2mm73ItdODpPB8EbFMqyKvTx3b64k-HYc6ifGH6SZoaNITV8LW94wKivnYlZitEMnhUu1Bh8JH_-yZL2gkC7Rj2ZqqzqnNdPZi7k93axfTKlWtWkLEwRF2ajTJYWQpp7nutXpcyG53qRmyk_1GWZP3Vb6yRxbl1u7argLfpOgr7qxLfHxyjQCS1lzX_W6P4_RnTLJVJF-DwKz3IW4804W44tm8W_suIm9o5WE7z7DWJri_o!/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Government of Bahrain}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water laws from 1980s still dey guide management of water resources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Water Management in Bahrain |url=https://water.fanack.com/bahrain/water-management-bahrain/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Fanack Water |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|{{Flag|Egypt}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Nile Basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
Egypt water politics dey strongly influenced by Nile treaties of 1902, 1929, and 1959. These agreements confirm Egypt dominance over Nile and give am major access plus ability to block upstream projects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Other countries see am as colonial legacy, but Egypt still consider am legally binding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

With rise of nationalism and link between Nile and national identity, Egypt dey see Nile as survival issue. Construction of Aswan High Dam under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 be major milestone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Nile Water Control: Managing Africa's Lifeline |url=https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/infrastructure-projects/nile-water-control |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Toshka project suppose create new agricultural land using Lake Nasser water but e no finish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Jeroen |date=2013-06-01 |title=The Toshka mirage in the Egyptian desert – River diversion as political diversion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S146290111200202X |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=30 |pages=102–110 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.021 |bibcode=2013ESPol..30..102W |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Ethiopia announce Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia dominate water politics. Egypt fear say dam go reduce Nile flow and affect water security and hydropower production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 July 2020 |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=27 June 2020 |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=Quartz}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
|-
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Iran}}
From 1980s onward, Iran water policy no too future-oriented. For 1990s, dem increase construction of dams and wells for groundwater pumping, but now population dey grow fast while water resources plus infrastructure dey deteriorate quickly. Experts warning dem dey often ignore, leading some people to call am “water mafia.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dagres |first=Holly |date=2024-01-22 |title=A thirsty reality: Iran's dire water situation |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/iran-water-environment-us-policy/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies talk say corruption, nepotism, and environmental racism dey affect water allocation, as leaders dey favour their own regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Maddern |first=Kerra |date=2024-06-12 |title=Iran's water policy is discriminatory and an example of &quot;environmental racism&quot;, study says |url=https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-humanities-arts-and-social-sciences/irans-war-policy-is-discriminatory-and-an-example-of-environmental-racism-study-says/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agriculture sector, due to food sovereignty goals and sanctions, dey consume most water, sometimes even illegally.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1935-01-01 |title=Water stress and political tensions in Iran |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/water-stress-and-political-tensions-iran |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change plus soil salinisation dey also worsen water scarcity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=How the EU Can Help Iran Tackle Water Scarcity |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2022/07/how-the-eu-can-help-iran-tackle-water-scarcity?lang=en&amp;center=europe |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |date=7 July 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Iraq}}
|After 1991 uprising, Saddam Hussein drain Iraqi marshes as revenge against Marsh Arabs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis action destroy ecosystem and also displace Marsh Arabs, and e dey seen as genocide and ecocide. Water from Euphrates and Tigris was diverted into “Third River” to create farmland.

After 2003 US invasion, some efforts start to restore di marshes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ahram |first=Ariel I. |date=2015 |title=Development, Counterinsurgency, and the Destruction of the Iraqi Marshes |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=447–466 |doi=10.1017/S0020743815000495 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Today Iraq dey try improve cooperation with neighbours and international partners like Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Iraqi officials strengthen their collaborative approach to water management and governance |url=https://www.un-ihe.org/news/iraqi-officials-strengthen-their-collaborative-approach-water-management-and-governance |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=www.un-ihe.org |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, Iraq and UK agree on multi-billion water infrastructure deal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-01-14 |title=Iraq, UK agree on trade package worth up to $15 billion, defence deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-uk-agree-trade-package-worth-up-123-billion-pounds-iraqi-pm-office-says-2025-01-14/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|ISIS}}
|ISIS no be country but dem play big role in water politics during their control of territories. Dem capture dams and water infrastructure for Euphrates and Tigris regions from 2014. Water become weapon: dem fit cause shortage, flooding, or pollution. Water plus electricity from dams help dem control population and support military operations. Dem even threaten to destroy Mosul Dam, which fit flood Mosul and Baghdad.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Von Lossow |first=Tobias |date=2016 |title=Water as Weapon: IS on the Euphrates and Tigris |journal=SWP Comments |volume=3 |pages=1–8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Israel}}
|{{Further|Water politics in the Jordan River basin}}{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in Israel}}
Before Israel independence in 1948, Zionist settlement use water politics to expand control. Water was framed as abundant to justify settlement expansion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Alatout |first=Samer |date=2009 |title=Bringing Abundance into Environmental Politics |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=372–379, 384–385 |doi=10.1177/0306312708101979 |pmid=19848183 |bibcode=2009SSS....39..363A }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Today Israel dey invest heavily in desalination, irrigation, reuse of water, and dams. But inequality still dey, as Bedouins and people for occupied territories dey get less access to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-11-06 |title=Israel's sustainable water management plans |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ipac-policies-in-practice_22632907-en/israel-s-sustainable-water-management-plans_d81db5f5-en.html? |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=OECD |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water dey important for Arab–Israeli conflict, and even linked to 1967 Six-Day War.&lt;ref name=&quot;darwish03&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=May 30, 2003 |title=Analysis: Middle East water wars |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2949768.stm |work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oslo Accords talk say Palestinians get water rights, but in practice imbalance still dey. Gaza water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=The Occupation of Water |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/11/the-occupation-of-water/ |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Jordan}}
|Jordan dey downstream of Jordan River and Yarmouk River, so dem depend on neighbours for water. Country dey use desalination, reuse of irrigation water, and projects like Disi Water Conveyance to move groundwater go Amman.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1948-01-01 |title=Yarmouk River: Tensions and cooperation between Syria and Jordan |url=https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/yarmouk-river-tensions-and-cooperation-between-syria-and-jordan |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=climate-diplomacy.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan sign peace treaty with Israel in 1994, leading to some cooperation projects. But tensions still dey. Jordan also sign agreements with Syria but dem no always respect am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Kuwait}}
|Kuwait water politics dey linked to desalination and water storage infrastructure like Kuwait Water Towers. These towers supply Kuwait City with water and represent water security strategy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Al Mulla |first=Yasmena |date=2021-01-16 |title=Kuwait Towers: A symbol of independence and sovereignty |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-towers-a-symbol-of-independence-and-sovereignty-1.76529512 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwait expand reservoirs system to secure supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-11-28 |title=Kuwait works to improve water utilities |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/kuwait/2018-report/economy/the-government-is-working-to-improve-water-infrastructure-and-production-capacity-securing-resources |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=Oxford Business Group |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Lebanon}}
|Lebanon dey face water shortage for over two-thirds of population. Climate change go worsen am. Agriculture dey use more than half of water, so reuse of greywater fit help.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=Water solutions in Lebanon |url=https://rewater-mena.iwmi.org/news-events/water-solutions-in-lebanon-who-and-what-is-standing-in-the-way/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=ReWater MENA |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Conflict and crisis damage infrastructure, so people dey rely on informal water sources.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=Water informality in Lebanon |url=https://timep.org/2022/12/15/invisible-and-unjust-impacts-of-water-informality-in-lebanon/ |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=TIMEP |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Libya}}
|Libya Great Man-Made River Project try bring groundwater from south go north cities but project no finish after 2011 civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Libya Great Man-Made River Project |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/whats-next-libyas-great-man-made-river-project |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Libya depend heavily on groundwater, and war damage water infrastructure badly. Water systems even become target during conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNICEF Libya |date=2022 |title=Water Scarcity and Climate Change Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/19321/file/Libya%20water%20scarcity%20analysis%20and%20recommendations_%20UNICEF%20Sep%202022.pdf |access-date=2025-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Morocco}}
|Morocco water politics focus on sustainability but corruption and unequal distribution remain problem. Some regions dey use more water for cash crops than for local people. In Zagora, water scarcity lead to protests in 2017 called “thirst revolution.” Women and children mostly affected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Morocco thirst revolution |url=https://www.goethe.de/prj/ruy/en/dos/wil/21718884.html |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Goethe-Institut |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Oman}}
|Oman get diverse climate and traditional Aflaj irrigation system still dey active and recognised by UNESCO.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=UNESCO}}&lt;/ref&gt; But today Oman depend heavily on desalination for over 85% of drinking water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Arab Center Washington DC |date=2024-09-06 |title=Water desalination in Gulf |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-costs-and-benefits-of-water-desalination-in-the-gulf/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Palestine}}
|Water access for Palestine don long become political issue since Mandate era. Israeli control over water sources since 1967 reduce Palestinian access sharply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Oslo Accords reinforce imbalance, as Israel control most shared water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oslo Accords water control |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/oslo-accords-palestine-israel-entrenched-control-water |access-date=2025-03-15 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For Gaza, water situation very bad, with most water unsafe and access heavily restricted. Human Rights Watch report say water available no reach minimum human needs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Extermination and acts of genocide: Israel deliberately depriving Palestinians in Gaza of water |date=2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=979-8-88708-192-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Qatar}}
|Qatar get very low natural water but high consumption level. Dem depend almost fully on desalination and government provide water for free. Country dey expand infrastructure to meet demand and improve efficiency under SDG 6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Qatar SDG water security |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/qatar-34138 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=UN SDGs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Saudi Arabia water politics start from control of water for political power before oil era. Today, groundwater dey reduce so desalination now provide almost two-thirds of water supply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Murden |first=Robert |date=2021-01-07 |title=Water in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=USSBC |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; East-West pipeline move desalinated water from Jubail go Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cayMShmYgCA |title=Jubail-Riyadh Water System |date=2018-07-18 |last=Eng.Meshari Alanazi |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; NEOM project also depend fully on desalination and wastewater recycling.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NEOM Water Infrastructure |url=https://www.neom.com/en-us/our-business/sectors/water/infrastructure |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=neom.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Sudan}}
|Sudan water politics link closely with Egypt under Nile agreements of colonial era.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; After independence, Sudan challenge some agreements but later still accept parts of them. Later cooperation with Egypt and Ethiopia continue, including Declaration of Principles in 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Yihdego |first=Zeray |date=2017-05-25 |title=Nile Water Law cooperation |journal=Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1163/23529369-12340006 |hdl=2164/12347}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sudan later align with Egypt against Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, though negotiation still ongoing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Syria}}
|Syria dey face serious water shortage especially from Euphrates River. Reduced water cause rural migration, urban pressure, and energy shortage from hydropower loss. Civil war worsen water mismanagement and groundwater depletion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sottimano |first=Aurora |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria water crisis |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Turkey dams also reduce downstream flow and increase tension.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mauvais |first=Lyse |title=The Thirst for Power |publisher=CSIS Middle East Program |year=2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}
|Tunisia add water access into constitution, but scarcity still remain problem. Government plan aim to improve supply and efficiency by 2050.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia water policy |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2025/02/securing-tunisias-constitutional-right-to-water-policy-solutions?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt; Climate change dey cause desertification and rural migration, affecting agriculture heavily.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tunisia running dry |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/in-depth/environmental-reader/tunisia-running-dry/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=IMS}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Turkey}}
|Turkey Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) include building dams on Euphrates and Tigris. Iraq and Syria criticize am because it reduce downstream water flow. Some also accuse Turkey of using dams as political weapon against Kurdish groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|UAE water policy focus on Water Security Strategy 2036, aiming for sustainable desalination and better water use efficiency. Country support international cooperation on water scarcity solutions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=UAE Water Security Strategy |url=https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/environment-and-energy/water-and-energy/water-? |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=u.ae}}&lt;/ref&gt;

|-
|{{Flag|Yemen}}
|Before 2014, most water for Yemen go agriculture sector, especially cash crops like bananas, citrus, and khat, which no fit climate well.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2010-03-24 |title=Water conflict in Yemen |url=https://merip.org/2010/03/water-conflict-and-cooperation-in-yemen/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=MERIP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Civil war increase water scarcity sharply. Over half population no get clean water, and infrastructure dey destroyed. Water also don become weapon by different sides in war, which contribute to war crimes allegations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Jafarnia |first=Niku |date=2023-12-11 |title=Water rights in Yemen war |journal=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Houthis attack ships in Red Sea in response to Gaza war, causing Red Sea crisis and disrupting global trade routes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Red Sea crisis |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/yemen/248-calming-red-seas-turbulent-waters |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Crisis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
=== United States ===

The '''Water Justice''' movement na mostly grassroots movement for US wey small-small groups of people dey take am for dem hand by protest, petition, fundraising, or even donating tins like water filters so dem fit improve access to clean water for everybody. Some well-known people don use their fame support di cause of water justice: [[Erin Brockovich]], wey be media personality and environmental activist, don talk against [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]] officials dem bad handling of di water crisis wey happen for there.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/erin-brockovich-is-back-to-fight-in-flint |title=Erin Brockovich Is Back To Fight in Flint |last=Haglage |first=Abby |date=July 11, 2017 |website=[[The Daily Beast]] |publisher= |access-date=May 31, 2021 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/erin-brockovich-on-americas-water-crisis-and-why-no-one-is-coming-to-save-us |title=Erin Brockovich on America's water crisis and why no one is coming to save us |last=Booker |first=Christopher |date=November 22, 2020 |website=[[PBS]] |publisher= |access-date=May 31, 2021 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Actress [[Shailene Woodley]] too join matter when she go protest [[Dakota Access Pipeline protests|Dakota Access Pipeline]] and dem even arrest am. Later she talk say: &quot;If you are a human who requires water to survive, then this issue directly involves you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|last1=Woodley |first1=Shailene |url=https://time.com/4538557/shailene-woodley-arrest-pipeline/|title=Shailene Woodley: The Truth About My Arrest|magazine=TIME |date=20 October 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Water Justice movement don also spread go global level, and e now include many different groups like Global Water Justice Movement, Friends of the Right to Water, [[Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions]], [[Food &amp; Water Watch|Food and Water Watch]], and [[Heinrich Böll Foundation]]. These groups believe say water na part of global commons, so dem dey argue against privatization of water resources and dem dey push make government get responsibility to ensure say everybody get right to water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | url=http://www.epsu.org/article/global-water-justice-movement-denounces-world-bank%E2%80%99s-strategy-promote-privatization-water |title = Global Water Justice Movement denounces World Bank's strategy to promote privatization of water and the commodification of water resources through UN SDG Agenda &amp;#124; EPSU}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.bradford.ac.uk/social-sciences/peace-conflict-and-development/issue-11/PCD-Issue-11_Article_Water-Justice-Movement_Davidson-Naidoo-Harden.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-01-19 |archive-date=2017-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303123156/http://www.bradford.ac.uk/social-sciences/peace-conflict-and-development/issue-11/PCD-Issue-11_Article_Water-Justice-Movement_Davidson-Naidoo-Harden.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Legal acts====
To prevent more pollution, environmental damage, and make sure drinking water dey clean, different legal acts don enter law.

* '''The Clean Water Act''': The [[Clean Water Act]] dem pass am for 1948 under name Federal Water Pollution Control Act, but dem expand am well well for 1972. Amendments include:
** Dem ban any pollutant wey fit enter water wey go spoil big water bodies.
** Dem regulate how pollutants dey enter water.
** Dem give money support for sewage treatment plants.
** Dem give [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] power to enforce water rules.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act |title=History of the Clean Water Act |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2017-02-23 |date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''The Ocean Dumping Act:''' The [[Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972|Ocean Dumping Act]] dem pass am for 1972 to reduce too much pollution wey dey enter ocean. EPA fit fine up to $50,000 per violation. The law also support research on how to reduce dumping for ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil_crs_oda.pdf|title=Ocean Dumping Act: A Summary of the Law}}&lt;/ref&gt;

** '''Shore Protection Act (SPA):''' This one come from Ocean Dumping Act. E stop ships from carrying waste inside coastal waters without permit.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-shore-protection-act|title=Summary of the Shore Protection Act|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2017-03-01|date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Right To Water:''' E also known as [[Right to water|Human Right to Water and Sanitation]], United Nations establish am for July 28, 2010. UN recognize water and sanitation as basic human right, so countries suppose provide clean water wey people fit access.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005–2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|website=www.un.org|language=EN|access-date=2017-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA):''' Dem pass am for 1974. E protect water wey dey above ground and underground. For 1996, dem add amendment wey make EPA dey check risk and cost before dem set standards.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-safe-drinking-water-act|title=Summary of the Safe Drinking Water Act |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en|access-date=2017-03-01|date=2013-02-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Activism ====
For America side, plenty activism don happen around water matter for places like Standing Rock, North Dakota and Flint, Michigan.

When pipeline matter come up for [[Standing Rock Indian Reservation]] for North Dakota, people start action sharp-sharp. For January 2016 when dem propose pipeline, Sioux tribe release petition wey gather almost half a million signatures inside three months.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fusion&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://fusion.net/story/372387/timeline-nodapl-protests-standing-rock/|title=A timeline of the year of resistance at Standing Rock|work=Fusion|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dis action delay pipeline construction small, but matter no stop there. For July same year, tribe try sue Army Corps of Engineers say pipeline go spoil their water source. Energy Transfer Partners respond with counter lawsuit say dem dey block their work.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fusion&quot; /&gt;

2016 presidential candidate [[Jill Stein]] also support protest, even spray paint bulldozer write “I approve this message”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.omaha.com/news/politics/in-omaha-jill-stein-defends-spray-painting-bulldozer-at-north/article_39bae5a9-d586-55bf-8bb6-f884a763029e.html|title=In Omaha, Jill Stein defends spray-painting bulldozer at North Dakota pipeline protest |author=Robynn Tysver|work=Omaha.com|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Actress [[Shailene Woodley]] too get arrest because she block pipeline construction.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2016/10/24/arrested_actor_shailene_woodley_why_do|title=Actor Shailene Woodley on Her Arrest, Strip Search and Dakota Access Pipeline Resistance|website=Democracy Now!|access-date=2017-03-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flint, Michigan water crisis too make activists focus on clean water access. For 2014 when dem change Flint River make am main water source, people quickly notice say water quality dey drop.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.bridgemi.com/truth-squad-companion/disaster-day-day-detailed-flint-crisis-timeline?gclid=CNWI6YfKvNICFdU7gQodqDkDmA|title=Disaster Day by Day: A detailed Flint crisis timeline|date=2016-02-04|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

American Civil Liberties Union file multiple lawsuits say lead level for water too dangerous and dem demand make dem replace pipes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2017/01/09/activists-flint-water-tests/96342196/|title=Activists urge caution on Flint water despite improved tests|work=Detroit Free Press|access-date=2017-03-04|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But till now, the problem still dey continue and people still dey struggle for clean water.
====Related organizations and programs====

Plenty state and national organizations and programs dey work for safe water access matter. The type and scope of these organizations different depending on how far dem dey reach (some dey work inside small county, others dey work global level) and wetin dem dey focus on inside water justice. Some dey operate inside government system, others dey operate outside am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|title=Drinking Water National and State Organizations and Programs|website=www.nesc.wvu.edu|access-date=2017-02-28|archive-date=2020-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128132141/http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

These organizations help people understand water issues better, how e dey affect communities, and dem dey also work on solutions to improve access to clean water.

Categories of water justice organizations include:

*Education: United States get some of the safest drinking water systems for world, but still, some cases of contamination and sickness still dey happen every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyhomes/bytopic/water.html|title=CDC – Healthy Homes {{!}} Health Topics {{!}} Drinking Water Safety|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-02-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some organizations dey educate people about how to handle water safely and make communities know where their water dey come from.

*Industry: Many organizations dey work inside water industry to improve infrastructure and safety. Dem dey certify workers and professionals to make sure work and products meet standard.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.abccert.org/|title=Association of Boards of Certification|website=www.abccert.org|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem also dey organize engineers, public health experts, and researchers wey dey work for water systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|title=Drinking Water National and State Organizations and Programs|website=www.nesc.wvu.edu|access-date=2017-03-01|archive-date=2020-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128132141/http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/links/DW_nat.cfm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

*Research: Some organizations dey fund and support environmental and public health research related to water issues.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.fwr.org/|title=FWR Home Page|last=Jones|first=Gordon|website=www.fwr.org|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

*Governmental: Some water justice groups dey work directly with government bodies—city, state, tribal, or federal—to improve water policy and management.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribalclimateguide.uoregon.edu/climate-programs/national-tribal-environmental-council|title=National Tribal Environmental Council {{!}} Tribal Climate Change Guide|website=tribalclimateguide.uoregon.edu|access-date=2017-03-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Case studies: Africa ===

Obuasi, Ghana na one of the most important gold mining places for world. Dem first start use machinery to mine gold there for 1897.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ashanti Company History&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Ashanti Company History |publisher=AngloGold Ashanti|year=2005|url=http://www.ashantigold.com/NR/rdonlyres/BDB5B570-C236-4C5B-9F53-1B5ED83F7E0C/0/Ashanti_CompanyHistory.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As time dey go, dem introduce new methods to process the ore. By 1908, one chemist bring Australian method of “dry crushing and roasting preparatory to treatment with cyanide”.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ashanti Company History&quot; /&gt;

But this mining work cause serious environmental damage. Many rivers, fishing areas, and irrigation systems suffer pollution or complete destruction.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Mining companies try replace water access by building standpipes, but many of them no work well for local people.

Water contamination for Obuasi reach levels wey be 10–38 times higher than legal limit.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 9&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 9&lt;/ref&gt;

Main sources of pollution include arsenic dust from mills&lt;ref&gt;Golow et al., 703&lt;/ref&gt; and polluted runoff water from mining dams.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 9&quot;/&gt;

As dem dey process gold ore, dust fit contain arsenic, iron oxides, sulphur compounds and other harmful particles.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot;&gt;Golow et al., 2010, 703&lt;/ref&gt;

Wind and rain carry these pollutants go soil, rivers, and even human settlements.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Because Obuasi dey inside rainforest zone with heavy rainfall (Smedley, 1996, 464), rain help spread contamination further through oxidation and chemical reaction.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot; /&gt;

Soil become main target of pollution because plants absorb toxins, die, and return am back to soil, which later enter groundwater system again.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot; /&gt;

Even though groundwater less polluted than rivers, movement of rainwater still carry toxins deeper over time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Golow et al., 2010, 703&quot; /&gt;

Most affected areas na places close to mining sites, but wind carry dust reach areas hundreds of miles away.&lt;ref&gt;Golow et al., 2010, 706&lt;/ref&gt;

Local people suffer serious effects. Rivers wey be drinking water source before now get sludge and contamination.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot;/&gt;

All fish life for rivers die because chemical levels too high.&lt;ref&gt;ActionAid, 2006, 3&lt;/ref&gt;

Some reports show say companies even discharge waste directly into streams, sometimes causing flooding.&lt;ref&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 11&lt;/ref&gt;

Farmers suffer pass because irrigation water dey contaminated, which spoil soil and destroy crops.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot; /&gt;

Children school life also affected because flooding force many schools to close.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot; /&gt;

AngloGold Ashanti try provide standpipes, but many no work or get arsenic contamination issues.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 15&quot;&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 15&lt;/ref&gt;

Some standpipes install since 1940s and 1950s still dey contaminated or broken.&lt;ref name=&quot;Action Aid, 2006, 3&quot; /&gt;

People sometimes dey walk about 1.5 miles just to find clean water.&lt;ref&gt;Action Aid, 2006, 16&lt;/ref&gt;

Residents still dey struggle because no proper compensation for environmental damage.

== Economy ==

=== Global economy ===

Globalization improve economy through trade and production of food, energy, and goods, but e also increase water demand sharply.

OECD countries predict say by 2050, global water demand go increase by 55%.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anders&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/global-water-crisis-politics-business-security|title=The global water crisis – why water politics matter for business security|last2=Jägerskog|first2=Dr Anders|date=30 August 2013|website=The Guardian|last3=Berggren|first3=Jens|last4=Joyce|first4=John|last1=Holmgren|first1=Torgny}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water na limited resource, and about 50% of available water dey shared between two or more countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anders&quot; /&gt;

This make water politics very important because poor management fit cause conflict.

Countries wey get more water supply usually get stronger economy because agriculture and industry fit grow well.

Countries wey get less water struggle economically.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hoekstra&quot;&gt;{{cite report|date=January 2010|title=WHO: The Relation Between International Trade and Freshwater Scarcity|url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd201005_e.pdf|pages=1–26|last1=Hoekstra|first1=Arjen}}&lt;/ref&gt;

World Trade Organization also play role in water-related agricultural trade.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hoekstra&quot; /&gt;
==== Jordan River ====

The [[Jordan River]] conflict, wey some people also call War over Water, na example of water matter wey cause tension between countries like [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Palestine]]. This water conflict start around 1953 because of poor water management and disagreement between countries. Negotiations still dey continue till today.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/ted/ice/jordan.htm|title=JORDAN|website=gurukul.ucc.american.edu|last1=Cartwright|first1=Randy|access-date=2017-03-30|archive-date=2016-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222220452/http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/ted/ice/jordan.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The conflict begin when Jordan plan to use shared river basin for irrigation and agriculture. In response, Israel close dam gates for Sea of Galilee, reduce water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wolf |first1=Aaron |last2=Newton |first2=Joshua |url=http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Jordan_New.htm |title=Case studies {{!}} Water Conflict Management and Transformation at OSU |website=transboundarywaters.orst.edu |access-date=2017-03-30 |archive-date=2018-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225082416/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Jordan_New.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Later dem propose Bunger Plan to share Jordan River water fairly among countries, but Israel no accept say dem riparian rights no dey recognized.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton&quot; /&gt;

This conflict cause serious economic loss for irrigation, agriculture, and resources across all countries involved.

World Health Organization estimate say global economic loss from poor water management and sanitation reach about $260 billion yearly USD.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|date=March 2013|title=Global costs and benefits of reaching universal coverage of sanitation and drinking-water supply|journal=Journal of Water and Health|volume=11|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/wh.2012.105|last1=Hutton|first1=Guy|pmid=23428544|doi-access=free |bibcode=2013JWH....11....1H }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jordan River matter show say lack of proper transboundary water politics fit cause big economic damage.

Even now, countries still dey try reach agreement but no solid solution yet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton&quot; /&gt;

==== Aral Sea ====

The water crisis for [[Aral Sea]] na ongoing conflict wey start from 1991 between [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ECC Conflict Aral&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://library.ecc-platform.org/conflicts/conflict-over-water-aral-sea|title=Conflict Over Water in the Aral Sea {{!}} ECC Factbook|date=9 February 2015|website=ECC Library|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton 2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wolf |first1=Aaron |last2=Newton |first2=Joshua |url=http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Aral_Sea_New.htm |title=Case studies {{!}} Water Conflict Management and Transformation at OSU |website=transboundarywaters.orst.edu |access-date=2017-03-30 |archive-date=2018-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218093815/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Aral_Sea_New.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Main causes include economic growth, population increase, electricity demand, and pollution, wey all lead to water scarcity.&lt;ref name=&quot;ECC Conflict Aral&quot; /&gt;

Because water no plenty again, countries dey struggle to share am well.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton 2&quot; /&gt;

This scarcity affect fish, biodiversity, agriculture, forestry, air quality, and general ecosystem balance.&lt;ref name=&quot;ECC Conflict Aral&quot; /&gt;

Economic impact serious because agriculture depend heavily on water, and many communities lose income.&lt;ref name=&quot;ECC Conflict Aral&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolf Newton 2&quot; /&gt;

Some studies show say water scarcity fit reduce GDP by up to 6% and even cause migration of people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/high-and-dry-climate-change-water-and-the-economy|title=High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy|website=World Bank|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Different organizations try solve am like Interstate Commission for Water Coordination and Aral Sea Basin Program, but problem still dey continue.&lt;ref name=&quot;ECC Conflict Aral&quot; /&gt;

=== Local economy ===

Water politics for inside countries (subnational level) also very important. If management no good, e fit affect local economy badly.

Bad water politics fit increase cost for businesses, agriculture, and infrastructure, and e fit reduce jobs and competitiveness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.veolianorthamerica.com/en/implications-of-growth|title=Home page}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For example, Texas dey plan build reservoirs to handle water shortage, but construction cost fit pass $600 per acre-foot.&lt;ref name=&quot;alamaro&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Alamaro|first1=Moshe|title=Water politics must adapt to a warming world|journal=Nature|date=30 September 2014|volume=514|issue=7520|pages=7|doi=10.1038/514007a|pmid=25279881|bibcode=2014Natur.514....7A|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

So local governments play big role in managing water allocation, scarcity, and pollution.

==== Colorado River basin ====

The [[Colorado River]] basin na shared water system between United States and Mexico, but inside US itself, different states like [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]] and [[California]] dey share am too.

This make water management complicated because different governments get different interest.

Private companies and interest groups also dey involved in decisions.

If states cooperate well, dem fit reduce cost and improve agriculture output.

But if dem no agree, conflict fit arise over water distribution.&lt;ref name=&quot;moore&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=19 January 2017|title=The dilemma of autonomy: decentralization and water politics at the subnational level|journal=Water International|volume=42|issue=2|pages=222–239|doi=10.1080/02508060.2017.1276038|last1=Moore|first1=Scott M.|bibcode=2017WatIn..42..222M |hdl=10986/26253|s2cid=157939313|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Human Rights ==

[[File:Indian women carrying water.jpg|thumb|Indian women carrying water]]

Water na basic need for human survival. Without water, no human activity fit continue.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Elhance|title=Hydropolitics: Grounds for Despair, Reasons for Hope|journal=International Negotiation|date=1 February 2000|volume=5|issue=2|pages=201–222|doi=10.1163/15718060020848730}}&lt;/ref&gt;

United Nations recognize access to water as basic human right under international law.

Millennium Development Goals also include fair water distribution as major target.&lt;ref name=&quot;khad&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Khadka|first1=Arjun Kumar|title=The Emergence of Water as a 'Human Right' on the World Stage: Challenges and Opportunities|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|date=22 January 2010|volume=26|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1080/07900620903391838|bibcode=2010IJWRD..26...37K |s2cid=154480603}}&lt;/ref&gt;

UN and development goals no support water privatization because water na human right.

Idea be say everybody suppose get equal access to water without discrimination.

Right to water also help reduce disease and death especially for developing countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;khad&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;siva&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sivakumar|first1=Bellie|title=Planning and management of shared waters: hydropolitics and hydropsychology – two sides of the same coin|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|date=16 October 2013|volume=30|issue=2|pages=200–210|doi=10.1080/07900627.2013.841072|s2cid=154793056}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But even with over 300 water treaties globally, water conflict still dey happen because enforcement weak.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot; /&gt;

United Nations no still get strong system to punish countries wey break water agreements.&lt;ref name=&quot;khad&quot; /&gt;

Many developing countries dey suffer pass because dem no get strong water infrastructure.

Without proper agreements, some countries fit even go war over water.&lt;ref name=&quot;khad&quot; /&gt;

== Hydropsychology ==

Hydropsychology dey focus on how people dey use water for individual level (micro-level).

This approach different from hydropolitics wey dey focus on international level.

Before, leaders no really pay attention to micro water use, but now importance don increase because e affect water scarcity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot; /&gt;

For example, countries like US get plenty water so dem fit use am for recreation like water parks.

But many developing countries no even get clean drinking water.&lt;ref name=&quot;Elhance 2000&quot; /&gt;

This imbalance show inequality in global water access.

Some countries dey use water for comfort, others dey struggle for survival.

Experts suggest say combining hydropolitics and hydropsychology fit solve water management better.&lt;ref name=&quot;siva&quot; /&gt;

This approach go mix international policies with local-level management.

It also go help manage issues like climate change, dams, water trade, and river linking.&lt;ref name=&quot;siva&quot; /&gt;

== Privatization ==

Water privatization mean say private companies go take over water supply instead of government.

People don criticize am because of high price, poor service, and ethical issues.

United Nations still classify clean water as human right.&lt;ref name=&quot;UN-Water&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unwater.org/|title=UN-Water: Home|website=www.unwater.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mexico City ===

For Mexico City, water privatization start to reduce water loss wey be about 40% from leaking pipes.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/world/03/world_forum/water/html/mexico_city.stm|title=BBC NEWS|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Between 1994 and 2003, private companies improve water quality but government still control infrastructure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pierce&quot; /&gt;

But later, contract issues start reduce efficiency.

=== Bolivia ===

For Bolivia, Cochabamba water privatization cause serious protest wey dem call Cochabamba Water War.&lt;ref name=&quot;economist&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2000/02/10/water-war-in-bolivia|title=Water war in Bolivia|date=10 February 2000|newspaper=The Economist}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Water price increase sharply after privatization contract with Aguas del Tunari.

Protests force government to declare emergency, and eventually policy collapse.&lt;ref name=&quot;PBS Frontline Bolivia Cochabamba&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/timeline.html|title=Bolivia – Leasing the Rain. Timeline: Cochabamba Water Revolt |publisher=PBS}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
{{Portal|Water}}

* [[Drainage law]]
* [[Water management]]
* [[Water export]]
* [[International waters]], [[Territorial waters]], [[Internal waters]]
* [[Water politics in the Nile Basin]]
* [[Mekong River Commission]]
* [[Water scarcity in Africa]]
* [[Water supply terrorism]]

**US:**
* [[United States groundwater law]]
* [[Clean Water Protection Act]]
* [[Highlands Water Protection and Planning Act]]
* [[California Water Wars]]
* [[Colorado Water Compact]]
* [[Ogallala Aquifer]]
* [[Navajo Indian Irrigation Project]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* Boccaletti, Giulio. ''Water: A Biography'' (Pantheon Books, 2021)
* Action Aid (2006) Gold Rush report
* Golow et al. (1996) arsenic contamination study
* Rahaman, M. M. (2012) Water wars research
* United Nations (2010) Human Right to Water document

== External links ==
* ISARM – Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources Management
* Water Wars Multimedia on hydropolitics in East Africa
* Israel Ministry of Environment water section
* Water and Environmental Racism lesson</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Water crisis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
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    <id>27918</id>
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      <id>105877</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T15:25:50Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
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      <text bytes="8202" sha1="62rxpuwbharvqb9uvu7xyun57uu7b45" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Water crisis}}
{{Use American English|date = April 2019}}
[[File:Oxfam East Africa - The Congo River is a lifeline, but also a huge threat.jpg|thumb|Congo River – source of drinking water, but e still be threat to public health]]

Although Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) get the biggest freshwater resources for Africa, the country still dey face serious drinking water supply crisis. DRC get one of the lowest rates of access to clean drinking water for Sub-Saharan Africa and the whole world. Na only 46 percent of the population bin get access to improved drinking water source for 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Plus, sanitation coverage too dem estimate am say e be only 31 percent for 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Democratic%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo|title=UN Data. Democratic Republic of Congo.|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=2016-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Up till now, correct and updated information about water supply and sanitation services for DRC still no dey enough. Because water supply and sanitation services no dey enough, plenty people dey suffer from waterborne diseases, including diarrhoea, typhoid, and cholera.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://globalwateralliance.wordpress.com/2015/07/01/lessons-from-the-drc-the-importance-of-water-infrastructure/|title=Lessons from the DRC: The Importance of Water Infrastructure|last=Alliance|first=Global Water|date=2015-07-01|website=Global Water Alliance|access-date=2016-05-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/5/07-1260_article?commit=GO|title=Lakes as Source of Cholera Outbreaks, Democratic Republic of Congo - Volume 14, Number 5—May 2008 - Emerging Infectious Disease journal - CDC|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|doi=10.3201/eid1405.071260 |access-date=2016-05-30|last1=Bompangue |first1=Didier |last2=Giraudoux |first2=Patrick |last3=Handschumacher |first3=Pascal |last4=Piarroux |first4=Renaud |last5=Sudre |first5=Bertrand |last6=Ekwanzala |first6=Mosiana |last7=Kebela |first7=Ilunga |last8=Piarroux |first8=Martine |year=2008 |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=798–800 |pmid=18439365 |pmc=2600234 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Democratic Republic of the Congo in Africa (-mini map -rivers).svg|thumb|Location of the Democratic Republic of the Congo for Africa]]

The current water crisis come because water infrastructure spoil due to underinvestment for the water sector and destruction because of conflicts, plus the population dey grow fast. World Bank estimate for 2009 say population dey grow by 4 percent for urban areas and 2.5 percent for rural areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_water.pdf|title=Water Issues in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Challenges and Opportunities. Technical Report.|last=|first=|date=2011|website=|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)|access-date=|archive-date=2020-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185644/https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_water.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; In general, DRC water supply and sanitation sector get plenty institutions wey their responsibilities dey overlap and sometimes dey clash with one another.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Because of that, people fit describe the water crisis for DRC as economic water scarcity problem, and e dey slow down development for the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Article 48 of the 2006 Constitution of the DRC recognize water as human right.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.righttowater.info/progress-so-far/national-legislation-on-the-right-to-water/#DRC|title=The rights to water and sanitation in national law « Rights to Water and Sanitation|website=www.righttowater.info|access-date=2016-05-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rehabilitation and development of the water sector be one of the priorities wey the national government commit itself to under the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies and also as part of the international framework of the UN Millennium Development Goals.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-DRC-En.pdf|title=An AMCOW Country Status Overview. Water Supply and Sanitation in the Democratic Republic of Congo.No water. Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond.|last=|first=|date=2011|website=|publisher=The World Bank. Water and Sanitation Program - Africa Region.|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Freshwater resources and water supply==

[[File:Aerial view of the Congo River near Kisangani.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Congo River]]

DRC be the country wey get the most water resources for Africa. E account for about 52 percent of Africa surface water reserves and 23 percent of Africa internal renewable water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Dem estimate the internal renewable freshwater resources per person at 14,406 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/person/year for 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnado929.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609135412/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO929.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 9, 2010|title=Democratic Republic of the Congo. Water and Sanitation Profile.|last=|first=|date=2010|website=|publisher=US Aid|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; This figure dey far pass the internationally accepted water sufficiency limit of 1,700 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/person/year. DRC get average annual rainfall of around 1,543 mm/year,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/cf/readPdf.html?f=COD-CF_eng.pdf|title=AQUASTAT Country Fact Sheet. Democratic Republic of the Congo.|last=|first=|date=2016|website=|publisher=FAO|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; but e dey vary depending on place and time (800–1,800 mm/year). Plus, DRC get plenty water independence because 70 percent of all the renewable water resources come from rainfall inside the country itself. The plenty water resources for DRC connect to the large forest cover wey spread over 155.5 million ha.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Aruwimi-Ituri.png|thumb|Congo River drainage basin]]

Rivers and lakes make up around 3.5 percent of the surface area of DRC. The surface water resources for DRC mainly come from the Congo River and ein tributaries. With average flow of around 41,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s, the Congo River get the second biggest discharge volume for the world. The Congo River basin cover 98 percent of the country surface area and e provide one of the biggest river networks for the world. The quality of the surface water generally dey good, except for some places wey pollution dey around urban centres and mining operations. The high water quality mostly come because the river network fit dilute pollution well, the population density no high, and most human activities be subsistence type wey no dey affect the environment too much.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Groundwater dey make up about 47 percent of the internal renewable water resources of DRC. Springs wey dey inside dense forests be the main source of water supply for most of the population. But information about the size and quality of groundwater resources and springs for DRC still no dey enough. People commonly dey use simple capped springheads for water supply for scattered villages and peri-urban areas. Plenty cities, including Beni, Bunia, Lisala, Lubumbashi, Kisangani, and Mbuji-Mayi, dey use large-scale water supply from springs through distribution networks. Water supply from deep-drilled wells still reach only small percentage of the population. Most of the around 1,000 wells dem build am between the 1960s and 1990s, and the yields dey between 15 and 80 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/h. Hand pumps, mechanical pump wells, and dug wells provide around 10 percent of the drinking water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

For 2015, around 1 million people still no get access to &quot;improved&quot; water. For the same year, 76% of the population get access to &quot;improved&quot; water source, with 96% for urban areas and 40% for rural areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://washwatch.org/en/countries/congo/summary/statistics/|title=WASHwatch.org - Congo|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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    <title>Sebaou River</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-29T18:31:45Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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      <comment>Create a fresh article</comment>
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      <text bytes="836" sha1="5w3xk8soda25lmflfc672mgf3819w04" xml:space="preserve">De '''Sebaou''' River, anaa '''Oued Sebaou''' (''Asif n Sabaw'' insyd Kabyle, ''Wād Sībāw'' anaa ''Wād Nissa'' insyd Arabic) be de main river of de western Kabylie region of [[Algeria]] (roughly corresponding to de present-day Tizi Ouzou Province), wich flows into de Mediterranean near de coastal town of Dellys insyd Boumerdés Province. &lt;ref&gt; Adolphe Hanoteau &amp; Aristide Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles, 3 voll., [[Paris]], Impr. nationale, 1872-1873 (2 ed. A. Challamel, 1893), 2e éd. (sic) rev. et augm. Paris, Bouchene, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Vallée du Haut Sebaou.JPG|thumb|right|Valley of de upper Sebaou]]
Sebaou be sanso de name given to de valley crossed by dis river dat goes from Boubhir to Dellys.  Its name be shared by de village den former Ottoman fort of Bordi Sebaou, on its banks.  

== References ==</text>
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        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
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      <text bytes="882" sha1="pyj5w4z6x2rpg59bgokuibccfx64ca2" xml:space="preserve">De '''Sebaou''' River, anaa '''Oued Sebaou''' (''Asif n Sabaw'' insyd Kabyle, ''Wād Sībāw'' anaa ''Wād Nissa'' insyd Arabic) be de main river of de western Kabylie region of [[Algeria]] (roughly corresponding to de present-day Tizi Ouzou Province), wich flows into de Mediterranean near de coastal town of Dellys insyd Boumerdés Province. &lt;ref&gt; Adolphe Hanoteau &amp; Aristide Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles, 3 voll., [[Paris]], Impr. nationale, 1872-1873 (2 ed. A. Challamel, 1893), 2e éd. (sic) rev. et augm. Paris, Bouchene, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Vallée du Haut Sebaou.JPG|thumb|right|Valley of de upper Sebaou]]
Sebaou be sanso de name given to de valley crossed by dis river dat goes from Boubhir to Dellys.  Its name be shared by de village den former Ottoman fort of Bordi Sebaou, on its banks.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Rivers of Algeria]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105881</id>
      <parentid>105880</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T18:33:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
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      <text bytes="915" sha1="1piwqr2j614f9szi690qytp6vh615gz" xml:space="preserve">De '''Sebaou''' River, anaa '''Oued Sebaou''' (''Asif n Sabaw'' insyd Kabyle, ''Wād Sībāw'' anaa ''Wād Nissa'' insyd Arabic) be de main river of de western Kabylie region of [[Algeria]] (roughly corresponding to de present-day Tizi Ouzou Province), wich flows into de Mediterranean near de coastal town of Dellys insyd Boumerdés Province. &lt;ref&gt; Adolphe Hanoteau &amp; Aristide Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles, 3 voll., [[Paris]], Impr. nationale, 1872-1873 (2 ed. A. Challamel, 1893), 2e éd. (sic) rev. et augm. Paris, Bouchene, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Vallée du Haut Sebaou.JPG|thumb|right|Valley of de upper Sebaou]]
Sebaou be sanso de name given to de valley crossed by dis river dat goes from Boubhir to Dellys.  Its name be shared by de village den former Ottoman fort of Bordi Sebaou, on its banks.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Rivers of Algeria]]
[[Category:Boumerdès Province]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105882</id>
      <parentid>105881</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T18:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
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      <text bytes="936" sha1="fvv8co1oa3xhdfn9x2ydr9e4m9cye6r" xml:space="preserve">De '''Sebaou''' River, anaa '''Oued Sebaou''' (''Asif n Sabaw'' insyd Kabyle, ''Wād Sībāw'' anaa ''Wād Nissa'' insyd Arabic) be de main river of de western Kabylie region of [[Algeria]] (roughly corresponding to de present-day Tizi Ouzou Province), wich flows into de Mediterranean near de coastal town of Dellys insyd Boumerdés Province. &lt;ref&gt; Adolphe Hanoteau &amp; Aristide Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles, 3 voll., [[Paris]], Impr. nationale, 1872-1873 (2 ed. A. Challamel, 1893), 2e éd. (sic) rev. et augm. Paris, Bouchene, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Vallée du Haut Sebaou.JPG|thumb|right|Valley of de upper Sebaou]]
Sebaou be sanso de name given to de valley crossed by dis river dat goes from Boubhir to Dellys.  Its name be shared by de village den former Ottoman fort of Bordi Sebaou, on its banks.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Rivers of Algeria]]
[[Category:Boumerdès Province]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105883</id>
      <parentid>105882</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T18:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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      <comment>Add databox</comment>
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      <text bytes="948" sha1="dpnzlzsc3820n8gu4j377tpkl3vajj8" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
De '''Sebaou''' River, anaa '''Oued Sebaou''' (''Asif n Sabaw'' insyd Kabyle, ''Wād Sībāw'' anaa ''Wād Nissa'' insyd Arabic) be de main river of de western Kabylie region of [[Algeria]] (roughly corresponding to de present-day Tizi Ouzou Province), wich flows into de Mediterranean near de coastal town of Dellys insyd Boumerdés Province. &lt;ref&gt; Adolphe Hanoteau &amp; Aristide Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles, 3 voll., [[Paris]], Impr. nationale, 1872-1873 (2 ed. A. Challamel, 1893), 2e éd. (sic) rev. et augm. Paris, Bouchene, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Vallée du Haut Sebaou.JPG|thumb|right|Valley of de upper Sebaou]]
Sebaou be sanso de name given to de valley crossed by dis river dat goes from Boubhir to Dellys.  Its name be shared by de village den former Ottoman fort of Bordi Sebaou, on its banks.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Rivers of Algeria]]
[[Category:Boumerdès Province]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Khalij (Cairo)</title>
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    <id>27920</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-29T20:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
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      <text bytes="3727" sha1="p9045xao2laifknxnas9mt4761d6xue" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Former canal in Cairo, Egypt}}
[[File:Khalij Cairo circa 1873 FB IMG 1612522858783.jpg|thumb|Khalij for 19th century]]

'''Khalij''' ({{Langx|ar|الخلیج|translit=al-khalīj}} or ''al-khalīg'' for Egyptian Arabic pronunciation), wey dem dey also call '''''Khalij al-Misri''''' or '''''Khalij al-Masri''''' ({{Langx|ar|الخليج المصري|links=no}}), be one canal for Cairo, Egypt. E start for 7th century afta di new Arab people wey conquer Egypt rebuild one old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea from Pharaonic and Roman times. Di connection to Red Sea close for 8th century, but di canal still remain one important part of Cairo ein geography plus water supply. Traditionally, dem dey close am for part of every year den open am again during Nile floods. Every year, when dem reopen di canal, e be one big festival.

For 14th century, di Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad make second canal more to di west, wey dem call '''''Khalij al-Nasiri''''', and dem connect am to di main canal. For 1890s, as di canal no dey serve plenty purpose again, dem fill am up den turn am into wetin today be Port Said Street for central Cairo.

== History ==

=== Origins ===
{{See also|Canal of the Pharaohs}}

One old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea bin dey for di area from Pharaonic period, and e fit be say dem start am during di reign of Necho II ({{reign|610|595}} BC). Di Persian king Darius re-dig di canal later ({{reign|521|486}} BC).{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=2}} Di last person wey restore am be Roman emperor Trajan,{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}} wey move where di canal join Nile go more south to wetin today be Old Cairo, and e give am di name {{Lang|lt|Amnis Traianus}} or {{Transliteration|grc|Traianos potamos}} ({{lit.|Trajan's River}}) after ein own name.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Dem find remains of di big stone walls wey form di entrance to Trajan ein canal under present-day Coptic [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church|Church of Saint Sergius]] and di Coptic Church of Saint George.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=38–39}}&lt;!-- Do not confuse this with the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, which is a different building. --&gt; For where di canal join Nile River, Trajan build one harbour plus fortifications. For third century AD, Diocletian expand di fortifications and build Babylon Fortress for di mouth of di canal.{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Di canal hard to maintain, and by di time Arab conquest happen for Egypt for 641 AD, nobody dey use am again and e don spoil.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}}

Shortly afta di conquest, di commander of di Muslim force, Amr ibn al-As, order make dem dig di canal again because e don full with silt. E fit be say Caliph Umar ({{reign|634|644}} AD) request am so dem fit transport grain from Egypt go Medina (di capital of di new Islamic caliphate) more easily.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=15–16}} Di new canal wey Amr dig join Nile River more to di north, close to wetin today be Sayyida Zaynab neighbourhood for Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Instead, di mouth of Trajan ein canal become covered by di new Islamic city of Fustat,{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|p=40}} where di Arabs fit don already settle before dem start di canal project.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} To honour Umar, dem call di new canal {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij Amir al-Mu'minin}} (&quot;Canal of di {{Transliteration|ar|Leader of the Faithful}}&quot;).{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem build one bridge over di canal for 688 for one of di two main north–south roads for Fustat, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Tariq}} (&quot;the Way&quot;).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=21}}</text>
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      <id>105888</id>
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        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>Added more content</comment>
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      <text bytes="12525" sha1="pxjg3aw49hqc4mhpvrj1jy1dm60u0lg" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Former canal in Cairo, Egypt}}
[[File:Khalij Cairo circa 1873 FB IMG 1612522858783.jpg|thumb|Khalij for 19th century]]

'''Khalij''' ({{Langx|ar|الخلیج|translit=al-khalīj}} or ''al-khalīg'' for Egyptian Arabic pronunciation), wey dem dey also call '''''Khalij al-Misri''''' or '''''Khalij al-Masri''''' ({{Langx|ar|الخليج المصري|links=no}}), be one canal for Cairo, Egypt. E start for 7th century afta di new Arab people wey conquer Egypt rebuild one old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea from Pharaonic and Roman times. Di connection to Red Sea close for 8th century, but di canal still remain one important part of Cairo ein geography plus water supply. Traditionally, dem dey close am for part of every year den open am again during Nile floods. Every year, when dem reopen di canal, e be one big festival.

For 14th century, di Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad make second canal more to di west, wey dem call '''''Khalij al-Nasiri''''', and dem connect am to di main canal. For 1890s, as di canal no dey serve plenty purpose again, dem fill am up den turn am into wetin today be Port Said Street for central Cairo.

== History ==

=== Origins ===
{{See also|Canal of the Pharaohs}}

One old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea bin dey for di area from Pharaonic period, and e fit be say dem start am during di reign of Necho II ({{reign|610|595}} BC). Di Persian king Darius re-dig di canal later ({{reign|521|486}} BC).{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=2}} Di last person wey restore am be Roman emperor Trajan,{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}} wey move where di canal join Nile go more south to wetin today be Old Cairo, and e give am di name {{Lang|lt|Amnis Traianus}} or {{Transliteration|grc|Traianos potamos}} ({{lit.|Trajan's River}}) after ein own name.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Dem find remains of di big stone walls wey form di entrance to Trajan ein canal under present-day Coptic [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church|Church of Saint Sergius]] and di Coptic Church of Saint George.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=38–39}}&lt;!-- Do not confuse this with the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, which is a different building. --&gt; For where di canal join Nile River, Trajan build one harbour plus fortifications. For third century AD, Diocletian expand di fortifications and build Babylon Fortress for di mouth of di canal.{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Di canal hard to maintain, and by di time Arab conquest happen for Egypt for 641 AD, nobody dey use am again and e don spoil.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}}

Shortly afta di conquest, di commander of di Muslim force, Amr ibn al-As, order make dem dig di canal again because e don full with silt. E fit be say Caliph Umar ({{reign|634|644}} AD) request am so dem fit transport grain from Egypt go Medina (di capital of di new Islamic caliphate) more easily.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=15–16}} Di new canal wey Amr dig join Nile River more to di north, close to wetin today be Sayyida Zaynab neighbourhood for Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Instead, di mouth of Trajan ein canal become covered by di new Islamic city of Fustat,{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|p=40}} where di Arabs fit don already settle before dem start di canal project.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} To honour Umar, dem call di new canal {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij Amir al-Mu'minin}} (&quot;Canal of di {{Transliteration|ar|Leader of the Faithful}}&quot;).{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem build one bridge over di canal for 688 for one of di two main north–south roads for Fustat, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Tariq}} (&quot;the Way&quot;).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=21}}
=== For medieval Cairo ===
[[File:The_story_of_Cairo_(1906)_(14782234955).jpg|thumb|Plan of Cairo before 1200 CE, as reconstructed by Stanley Lane-Poole (1906), wey show di approximate location of Fatimid Cairo plus di Khalij canal]]

Di new canal no really succeed for long time.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem later close am, either around 750 during di Abbasid Revolution wey remove di Umayyad Caliphate, or for 767–768 by order of di Abbasid caliph al-Mansur, wey no want make supplies reach di rebellion for Medina.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}} Di water wey remain for di end of di closed canal gather form {{Transliteration|ar|Birkat al-Hajj}} (&quot;Pond of the Pilgrimage&quot;), one body of water for northeast of Cairo. Di name come because e become di first stop for people wey dey travel from Egypt go Mecca for pilgrimage (Hajj).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Later, di canal itself become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Misri}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC |encyclopedia=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |volume=1 |location= |pages=321–335 |language=en |title=Cairo |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}&lt;/ref&gt; or {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Masri}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Abdel Barr |first=Omniya |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT75 |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |page=56 |language=en |chapter=Building Mamluk Cairo: The Capital of a Sultanate}}&lt;/ref&gt; From dat time, ein main work be say e dey supply water to Cairo plus e dey irrigate di area wey dey north of di city.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Al-Askar plus al-Qata'i, di two administrative capitals wey dem establish north of Fustat for di 8th plus 9th centuries, all build dem along di banks of di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Swelim |first=Tarek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=25 |language=en |chapter=Al-Qata'i': A Lost City in Cairo – Revisited}}&lt;/ref&gt; During di Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969), gardens plus one big polo field dey along ein banks.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=19}} When di Fatimids establish dia new capital, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Qahira}} (Cairo), for 969, di Khalij mark di western boundary of di new city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=36–37}} Most of di main north–south streets for historic Cairo, including di main road wey today people know as al-Mu'izz Street, dem align am make e run parallel to di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rabbat |first=Nasser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=69 |language=en |chapter=Coopting the Street: The Urban Character of Mamluk Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di place wey di canal enter from di Nile become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}} (&quot;mouth of the canal&quot;).&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=9789774168550 |edition=7th |location=Cairo |pages=51 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

E become normal practice say every year dem go close plus open di canal again.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Paula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fnBFANHMn4C&amp;pg=PA102 |title=Ritual, Politics, and the City in Fatimid Cairo |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1781-2 |page=102 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; For di early period of di Khalij, when di Nile water level dey high, people fit travel through di canal all year round, plus dem build one dike during di yearly Nile floods make e control di water. For later centuries, after di area become drier, di process change; dem build di dike for most part of di year den open am only during flood season.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} By di Ottoman period, di canal dey bring water enter di city for about three months every year.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=246}}

[[File:Environs_du_Kaire_(Cairo)._1._Vue_de_la_prise_d'eau_du_canal_du_Kaire,_et_de_la_fête_qu'on_célèbre_annuellement_à_l'ouverture_de_la_digue_(NYPL_b14212718-1268730).jpg|thumb|Picture wey show di yearly opening of di canal for Cairo at {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}}, from di ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809). You fit also see, for di right side, di water intake tower of one Mamluk aqueduct.]]

Di yearly opening of di canal be one practice wey, according to some modern scholars, resemble rituals from pre-Islamic or even Pharaonic times.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Dem know am as di Festival of the Opening of the Canal ({{Transliteration|ar|fath al-khalij}}), plus e become one big event wey di Fatimid caliphs dey attend with plenty ceremony.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=48–49}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=64–67}} Before di Fatimids, dem dey celebrate am further north for Ayn Shams, plus e likely say dem move am come di Khalij as part of making Cairo di new capital.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Di ceremony happen two or three days after di ceremonial 'anointing of di Nilometer' ({{Transliteration|ar|Takhliq al-Miqyas}}) for nearby Roda Island,{{efn|This Nilometer ceremony was introduced during the tenure of al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi as Fatimid vizier in the 1120s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sayyid |first=Ayman Fouad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=41 |language=en |chapter=Cairo as a palace: Rituals of the Fatimid Caliphate}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} wey happen when di Nile water reach 16 cubits high,{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=54–64}} wey show say harvest go be enough.{{efn|Fifteen cubits (1 Arab cubit, subdivided into 24 fingers, equalled {{convert|46.2|cm|in}}) be di minimum flood level wey dey needed for early Middle Ages to get full harvest and avoid famine; sixteen mean full harvest but still small hardship; seventeen mean bumper harvest; while if di river pass eighteen cubits, e cause disastrous flooding.{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=58–60, 68–70}}}} Dis celebrations, wey mark di coming of di Nile floods, continue to be very important for many centuries.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=176 |language=en |chapter=The Earliest Images of Cairo’s Islamic Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be one of di biggest plus most spectacular events for di yearly calendar of pre-modern Cairo, plus plenty historical accounts wey travelers write about di city mention am. Di ceremonies continue under later sultans of Egypt or dia top officials. &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Di small land wey dey between di western city wall of Cairo plus di Khalij, people use am for gardens or leisure activities, especially during di Nile floods when di canal dey carry water. Di Fatimid caliph al-Aziz ({{reign|975|996}}) build one pleasure pavilion wey dem call al-Lu'lu'a ('the pearl'), from where e fit watch boat races plus oda water sports.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=26}} Ein successor, al-Hakim ({{reign|996|1025}}), dig di canal again, at least for di part close to Cairo, plus name am after einself as {{Transliteration|ar|al-khalij al-Hakimi}}.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}} As time dey go, di course of di Nile shift further west, wey open more land for development on dis side of di city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125 (and others)}} During di reign of di Ayyubid sultan Salah ad-Din ({{Reign|1174|1193}}), dem build di Muski Bridge across di canal sometime before 1188 as part of road improvements.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=97}} More bridges come during di Mamluk period (13th to early 16th centuries). Sultan Baybars ({{Reign|1260|1277}}) build di Bridge of the Lions ({{Transliteration|ar|Qanatir al-Siba'}}), wey Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad restore for 1331. Dem build di Amir Husayn Bridge around 1319, di Aqsunqur Bridge before 1339, plus di Tuquzdamur Bridge before 1345.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}}</text>
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[[File:Khalij Cairo circa 1873 FB IMG 1612522858783.jpg|thumb|Khalij for 19th century]]

'''Khalij''' ({{Langx|ar|الخلیج|translit=al-khalīj}} or ''al-khalīg'' for Egyptian Arabic pronunciation), wey dem dey also call '''''Khalij al-Misri''''' or '''''Khalij al-Masri''''' ({{Langx|ar|الخليج المصري|links=no}}), be one canal for Cairo, Egypt. E start for 7th century afta di new Arab people wey conquer Egypt rebuild one old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea from Pharaonic and Roman times. Di connection to Red Sea close for 8th century, but di canal still remain one important part of Cairo ein geography plus water supply. Traditionally, dem dey close am for part of every year den open am again during Nile floods. Every year, when dem reopen di canal, e be one big festival.

For 14th century, di Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad make second canal more to di west, wey dem call '''''Khalij al-Nasiri''''', and dem connect am to di main canal. For 1890s, as di canal no dey serve plenty purpose again, dem fill am up den turn am into wetin today be Port Said Street for central Cairo.

== History ==

=== Origins ===
{{See also|Canal of the Pharaohs}}

One old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea bin dey for di area from Pharaonic period, and e fit be say dem start am during di reign of Necho II ({{reign|610|595}} BC). Di Persian king Darius re-dig di canal later ({{reign|521|486}} BC).{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=2}} Di last person wey restore am be Roman emperor Trajan,{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}} wey move where di canal join Nile go more south to wetin today be Old Cairo, and e give am di name {{Lang|lt|Amnis Traianus}} or {{Transliteration|grc|Traianos potamos}} ({{lit.|Trajan's River}}) after ein own name.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Dem find remains of di big stone walls wey form di entrance to Trajan ein canal under present-day Coptic [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church|Church of Saint Sergius]] and di Coptic Church of Saint George.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=38–39}}&lt;!-- Do not confuse this with the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, which is a different building. --&gt; For where di canal join Nile River, Trajan build one harbour plus fortifications. For third century AD, Diocletian expand di fortifications and build Babylon Fortress for di mouth of di canal.{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Di canal hard to maintain, and by di time Arab conquest happen for Egypt for 641 AD, nobody dey use am again and e don spoil.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}}

Shortly afta di conquest, di commander of di Muslim force, Amr ibn al-As, order make dem dig di canal again because e don full with silt. E fit be say Caliph Umar ({{reign|634|644}} AD) request am so dem fit transport grain from Egypt go Medina (di capital of di new Islamic caliphate) more easily.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=15–16}} Di new canal wey Amr dig join Nile River more to di north, close to wetin today be Sayyida Zaynab neighbourhood for Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Instead, di mouth of Trajan ein canal become covered by di new Islamic city of Fustat,{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|p=40}} where di Arabs fit don already settle before dem start di canal project.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} To honour Umar, dem call di new canal {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij Amir al-Mu'minin}} (&quot;Canal of di {{Transliteration|ar|Leader of the Faithful}}&quot;).{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem build one bridge over di canal for 688 for one of di two main north–south roads for Fustat, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Tariq}} (&quot;the Way&quot;).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=21}}
=== For medieval Cairo ===
[[File:The_story_of_Cairo_(1906)_(14782234955).jpg|thumb|Plan of Cairo before 1200 CE, as reconstructed by Stanley Lane-Poole (1906), wey show di approximate location of Fatimid Cairo plus di Khalij canal]]

Di new canal no really succeed for long time.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem later close am, either around 750 during di Abbasid Revolution wey remove di Umayyad Caliphate, or for 767–768 by order of di Abbasid caliph al-Mansur, wey no want make supplies reach di rebellion for Medina.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}} Di water wey remain for di end of di closed canal gather form {{Transliteration|ar|Birkat al-Hajj}} (&quot;Pond of the Pilgrimage&quot;), one body of water for northeast of Cairo. Di name come because e become di first stop for people wey dey travel from Egypt go Mecca for pilgrimage (Hajj).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Later, di canal itself become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Misri}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC |encyclopedia=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |volume=1 |location= |pages=321–335 |language=en |title=Cairo |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}&lt;/ref&gt; or {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Masri}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Abdel Barr |first=Omniya |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT75 |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |page=56 |language=en |chapter=Building Mamluk Cairo: The Capital of a Sultanate}}&lt;/ref&gt; From dat time, ein main work be say e dey supply water to Cairo plus e dey irrigate di area wey dey north of di city.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Al-Askar plus al-Qata'i, di two administrative capitals wey dem establish north of Fustat for di 8th plus 9th centuries, all build dem along di banks of di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Swelim |first=Tarek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=25 |language=en |chapter=Al-Qata'i': A Lost City in Cairo – Revisited}}&lt;/ref&gt; During di Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969), gardens plus one big polo field dey along ein banks.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=19}} When di Fatimids establish dia new capital, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Qahira}} (Cairo), for 969, di Khalij mark di western boundary of di new city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=36–37}} Most of di main north–south streets for historic Cairo, including di main road wey today people know as al-Mu'izz Street, dem align am make e run parallel to di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rabbat |first=Nasser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=69 |language=en |chapter=Coopting the Street: The Urban Character of Mamluk Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di place wey di canal enter from di Nile become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}} (&quot;mouth of the canal&quot;).&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=9789774168550 |edition=7th |location=Cairo |pages=51 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

E become normal practice say every year dem go close plus open di canal again.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Paula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fnBFANHMn4C&amp;pg=PA102 |title=Ritual, Politics, and the City in Fatimid Cairo |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1781-2 |page=102 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; For di early period of di Khalij, when di Nile water level dey high, people fit travel through di canal all year round, plus dem build one dike during di yearly Nile floods make e control di water. For later centuries, after di area become drier, di process change; dem build di dike for most part of di year den open am only during flood season.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} By di Ottoman period, di canal dey bring water enter di city for about three months every year.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=246}}

[[File:Environs_du_Kaire_(Cairo)._1._Vue_de_la_prise_d'eau_du_canal_du_Kaire,_et_de_la_fête_qu'on_célèbre_annuellement_à_l'ouverture_de_la_digue_(NYPL_b14212718-1268730).jpg|thumb|Picture wey show di yearly opening of di canal for Cairo at {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}}, from di ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809). You fit also see, for di right side, di water intake tower of one Mamluk aqueduct.]]

Di yearly opening of di canal be one practice wey, according to some modern scholars, resemble rituals from pre-Islamic or even Pharaonic times.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Dem know am as di Festival of the Opening of the Canal ({{Transliteration|ar|fath al-khalij}}), plus e become one big event wey di Fatimid caliphs dey attend with plenty ceremony.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=48–49}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=64–67}} Before di Fatimids, dem dey celebrate am further north for Ayn Shams, plus e likely say dem move am come di Khalij as part of making Cairo di new capital.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Di ceremony happen two or three days after di ceremonial 'anointing of di Nilometer' ({{Transliteration|ar|Takhliq al-Miqyas}}) for nearby Roda Island,{{efn|This Nilometer ceremony was introduced during the tenure of al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi as Fatimid vizier in the 1120s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sayyid |first=Ayman Fouad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=41 |language=en |chapter=Cairo as a palace: Rituals of the Fatimid Caliphate}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} wey happen when di Nile water reach 16 cubits high,{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=54–64}} wey show say harvest go be enough.{{efn|Fifteen cubits (1 Arab cubit, subdivided into 24 fingers, equalled {{convert|46.2|cm|in}}) be di minimum flood level wey dey needed for early Middle Ages to get full harvest and avoid famine; sixteen mean full harvest but still small hardship; seventeen mean bumper harvest; while if di river pass eighteen cubits, e cause disastrous flooding.{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=58–60, 68–70}}}} Dis celebrations, wey mark di coming of di Nile floods, continue to be very important for many centuries.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=176 |language=en |chapter=The Earliest Images of Cairo’s Islamic Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be one of di biggest plus most spectacular events for di yearly calendar of pre-modern Cairo, plus plenty historical accounts wey travelers write about di city mention am. Di ceremonies continue under later sultans of Egypt or dia top officials. &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Di small land wey dey between di western city wall of Cairo plus di Khalij, people use am for gardens or leisure activities, especially during di Nile floods when di canal dey carry water. Di Fatimid caliph al-Aziz ({{reign|975|996}}) build one pleasure pavilion wey dem call al-Lu'lu'a ('the pearl'), from where e fit watch boat races plus oda water sports.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=26}} Ein successor, al-Hakim ({{reign|996|1025}}), dig di canal again, at least for di part close to Cairo, plus name am after einself as {{Transliteration|ar|al-khalij al-Hakimi}}.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}} As time dey go, di course of di Nile shift further west, wey open more land for development on dis side of di city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125 (and others)}} During di reign of di Ayyubid sultan Salah ad-Din ({{Reign|1174|1193}}), dem build di Muski Bridge across di canal sometime before 1188 as part of road improvements.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=97}} More bridges come during di Mamluk period (13th to early 16th centuries). Sultan Baybars ({{Reign|1260|1277}}) build di Bridge of the Lions ({{Transliteration|ar|Qanatir al-Siba'}}), wey Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad restore for 1331. Dem build di Amir Husayn Bridge around 1319, di Aqsunqur Bridge before 1339, plus di Tuquzdamur Bridge before 1345.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}}
=== Addition of the ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' ===
Wetin dey more important be say, al-Nasir Muhammad start build one new canal for 1325.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem first call am ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' (&quot;Canal of al-Nasir&quot;) but later e come get another name too, ''Khalij al-Maghribi'' (&quot;Western Canal&quot;).{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem dig am about 1200 metres northwest from the old canal, branching from the Nile for Mawridat al-Balat, opposite the northern tip of Roda Island. E run go north almost side by side with the old canal before e join the old one near al-Zahir Baybars Mosque for the northern Husayniya district of Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}} Al-Nasir give Amir Arghun the work make e supervise the construction, and the whole work take around two months, from 15 April to 12 June 1325.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem force plenty peasants under [[corvée]] labour make dem provide the manual work wey dem need.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=John Alden |date=1984 |title=Urbanization and Monument Construction in Mamluk Cairo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523054 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.2307/1523054 |jstor=1523054 |issn=0732-2992|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Different reasons fit don make dem build the new canal. Al-Nasir build one new palace and one ''khanqah'' for Siryaqus, one place north of Cairo, and the canal go supply water to these places and also make people fit reach them from the Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}} E likely say the canal too help support the old canal because the old one dey easily fill with silt.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}} Dem build the new canal through low land wey long ago be part of the Nile riverbed before the river shift, so e help drain the area too.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

This project get very important long-term effect on the geography of the city and e encourage Cairo make e grow faster.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; The land west of the old Khalij, wey now become better place to live, quickly turn into orchards, gardens and villas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt; The area too get plenty big ponds (''birka''s).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Al-Nasir Muhammad encourage him amirs (high-ranking officials) make dem develop and settle for the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}} Even with that, only small number of people stay there, and the old Khalij still remain the real western boundary of the city till the end of the Mamluk period.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt;

Among the other water infrastructure wey dem build during Mamluk rule be aqueduct wey supply water to the Cairo Citadel. Dem start the aqueduct under al-Nasir Muhammad and later al-Ghuri ({{Reign|1501|1516}}) expand am. The [[water intake]] tower, one big hexagonal structure, still dey stand today near the mouth of the original Khalij on the Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt;

{{Panorama
| image = Medieval Cairo (Le Kaire, left) and Old Cairo (Vieux Kaire, right) Environs du Kaire (Cairo). Plan général de Boulâq, du Kaire, de l'île de Roudah (el-Rôda), du Vieux Kaire et de Gyzeh (Jîzah) (NYPL b14212718-1268726) (cropped).jpg
| height = 250
| caption = Map of Cairo for the ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809). The Khalij al-Misri (wey dem label &quot;Khalyg el-Soultany&quot;) show as canal wey divide central Cairo. The Khalij al-Nasiri (wey dem label &quot;Khalyg el-Moghrarby&quot;) show below along the outskirts of the city. You fit also see several small lakes.
}}

=== Later history ===
Na only during the Ottoman period (16th to 19th centuries) the west bank of the old Khalij gradually become urban area. During this time, the important people and elites for Cairo build mansions along the canal banks and around the small lake wey dem call ''Birkat al-Fil'', plus the areas further south.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt; Because of this, the western outskirts near the Khalij become the richer districts of the city. This make the canal become one of the main routes inside Cairo. The ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' come serve as the general western boundary of the city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:05222&quot;&gt;{{EI3 |last=Michel |first=Nicolas |year=2018 |title=Cairo, Ottoman | url = https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_25456}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 19th century, the Khalij no dey as important again because year-round irrigation become common. As the area dry more and more with time, the canal turn into unattractive place and possible source of disease.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} People for the city dey use am as place to dump rubbish.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=86}} Every year when the water reduce, e dey turn into stagnant ditch.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; By this time too, the canal no extend pass wetin today be the al-Daher district for northern Cairo. According to old photographs, the canal no pass {{Convert|10|m|ft}} in width.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot; class=&quot;center&quot; caption=&quot;19th-century illustrations of the Khalij&quot;&gt;
File:Khalij bridge Description de l'Egypte 150649.jpg|Picture of one bridge across the Khalij for the ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809)
File:Pascal Coste Cairo Khalij houses 158275 sv.jpg|Drawing of houses along the Khalij for the early 19th century (drawing by Pascal Coste)
File:A Night Scene on the Nile, near the Mouth of the Cairo Canal, during the Festival of Gebr-El-Haleeg, or breaking the Canal - ILN 1862.jpg|Picture of the Festival of the Opening of the Canal (c. 1862)
File:View of the Khalig al-Masri (Canal), Cairo.jpg|19th-century photograph of the Khalij and houses along the canal banks
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[File:Map of Cairo, Shepheard's Hotel above center, marked red, c. 1895.jpg|thumb|Map of Cairo for 1895, shortly before dem fill the Khalij. The narrow canal still dey show across the centre of Cairo. The newer and wider Isma'iliyya Canal too dey show for the northern part of the city.]]

As part of him big expansion project for Cairo during the 1860s, Khedive Isma'il dig one new canal, the Isma'iliyya Canal. This prepare more land further north for development and also supply fresh water for the construction of the Suez Canal.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=103}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=312}} During Isma'il him construction projects, dem completely fill the Khalij al-Nasiri and many of the old ponds (''birka''s) for the area disappear.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=103}}

Between 1896 and 1899,{{Efn|Some of the cited sources differ on the exact date, stating that filling occurred or began in either 1896, 1897, or 1898.}} dem fill the main Khalij itself and turn am into one wide boulevard because of sanitation reasons and to create space for one [[tram]] line wey the Cairo Tramway Company build.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QofAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA98 |title=Making Cairo Medieval |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7391-5743-5 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=98 |language=en |chapter=Nineteenth-Century Images of Cairo: From the Real to the Interpretive |editor-last2=Bierman |editor-first2=Irene A. |editor-last3=Rabbat |editor-first3=Nasser}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0522&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Volait |first=Mercedes |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Cairo, modern period |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Humphrey |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2tjEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT68 |title=A Field Guide to the Street Names of Central Cairo |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-61797-915-6 |language=en |chapter=Bur Sa'id, Share'}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem fill the canal in phases: the first phase start for 1897 from the north of Cairo, and the last phase finish near ''Fumm al-Khalig'' (for the Nile shore) in 1899.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; The tram line, wey be Cairo ein first,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; start operate by the summer of 1900.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} Dem name the new road after the canal as Khalij al-Masri Street ({{Transliteration|ar|Shari'a el-Khalig el-Masri}}) until 1957, when dem rename am Port Said Street ({{Transliteration|ar|Shari'a Bur Sa'id}}), to honour the city's resistance against British and French forces during the 1956 Suez Crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; For 1912, dem also fill the Isma'iliyya Canal for Cairo to create space for more expansion of the city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=326}}</text>
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[[File:Khalij Cairo circa 1873 FB IMG 1612522858783.jpg|thumb|Khalij for 19th century]]

'''Khalij''' ({{Langx|ar|الخلیج|translit=al-khalīj}} or ''al-khalīg'' for Egyptian Arabic pronunciation), wey dem dey also call '''''Khalij al-Misri''''' or '''''Khalij al-Masri''''' ({{Langx|ar|الخليج المصري|links=no}}), be one canal for Cairo, Egypt. E start for 7th century afta di new Arab people wey conquer Egypt rebuild one old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea from Pharaonic and Roman times. Di connection to Red Sea close for 8th century, but di canal still remain one important part of Cairo ein geography plus water supply. Traditionally, dem dey close am for part of every year den open am again during Nile floods. Every year, when dem reopen di canal, e be one big festival.

For 14th century, di Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad make second canal more to di west, wey dem call '''''Khalij al-Nasiri''''', and dem connect am to di main canal. For 1890s, as di canal no dey serve plenty purpose again, dem fill am up den turn am into wetin today be Port Said Street for central Cairo.

== History ==

=== Origins ===
{{See also|Canal of the Pharaohs}}

One old canal wey join Nile River plus Red Sea bin dey for di area from Pharaonic period, and e fit be say dem start am during di reign of Necho II ({{reign|610|595}} BC). Di Persian king Darius re-dig di canal later ({{reign|521|486}} BC).{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=2}} Di last person wey restore am be Roman emperor Trajan,{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}} wey move where di canal join Nile go more south to wetin today be Old Cairo, and e give am di name {{Lang|lt|Amnis Traianus}} or {{Transliteration|grc|Traianos potamos}} ({{lit.|Trajan's River}}) after ein own name.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Dem find remains of di big stone walls wey form di entrance to Trajan ein canal under present-day Coptic [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church|Church of Saint Sergius]] and di Coptic Church of Saint George.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=38–39}}&lt;!-- Do not confuse this with the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, which is a different building. --&gt; For where di canal join Nile River, Trajan build one harbour plus fortifications. For third century AD, Diocletian expand di fortifications and build Babylon Fortress for di mouth of di canal.{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|pp=35–38}} Di canal hard to maintain, and by di time Arab conquest happen for Egypt for 641 AD, nobody dey use am again and e don spoil.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=2, 15–16}}

Shortly afta di conquest, di commander of di Muslim force, Amr ibn al-As, order make dem dig di canal again because e don full with silt. E fit be say Caliph Umar ({{reign|634|644}} AD) request am so dem fit transport grain from Egypt go Medina (di capital of di new Islamic caliphate) more easily.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=15–16}} Di new canal wey Amr dig join Nile River more to di north, close to wetin today be Sayyida Zaynab neighbourhood for Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Instead, di mouth of Trajan ein canal become covered by di new Islamic city of Fustat,{{Sfn|Sheehan|2010|p=40}} where di Arabs fit don already settle before dem start di canal project.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} To honour Umar, dem call di new canal {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij Amir al-Mu'minin}} (&quot;Canal of di {{Transliteration|ar|Leader of the Faithful}}&quot;).{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem build one bridge over di canal for 688 for one of di two main north–south roads for Fustat, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Tariq}} (&quot;the Way&quot;).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=21}}
=== For medieval Cairo ===
[[File:The_story_of_Cairo_(1906)_(14782234955).jpg|thumb|Plan of Cairo before 1200 CE, as reconstructed by Stanley Lane-Poole (1906), wey show di approximate location of Fatimid Cairo plus di Khalij canal]]

Di new canal no really succeed for long time.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Dem later close am, either around 750 during di Abbasid Revolution wey remove di Umayyad Caliphate, or for 767–768 by order of di Abbasid caliph al-Mansur, wey no want make supplies reach di rebellion for Medina.{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}} Di water wey remain for di end of di closed canal gather form {{Transliteration|ar|Birkat al-Hajj}} (&quot;Pond of the Pilgrimage&quot;), one body of water for northeast of Cairo. Di name come because e become di first stop for people wey dey travel from Egypt go Mecca for pilgrimage (Hajj).{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=16}} Later, di canal itself become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Misri}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC |encyclopedia=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |volume=1 |location= |pages=321–335 |language=en |title=Cairo |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}&lt;/ref&gt; or {{Transliteration|ar|Khalij al-Masri}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Abdel Barr |first=Omniya |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT75 |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |page=56 |language=en |chapter=Building Mamluk Cairo: The Capital of a Sultanate}}&lt;/ref&gt; From dat time, ein main work be say e dey supply water to Cairo plus e dey irrigate di area wey dey north of di city.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Al-Askar plus al-Qata'i, di two administrative capitals wey dem establish north of Fustat for di 8th plus 9th centuries, all build dem along di banks of di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Swelim |first=Tarek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=25 |language=en |chapter=Al-Qata'i': A Lost City in Cairo – Revisited}}&lt;/ref&gt; During di Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969), gardens plus one big polo field dey along ein banks.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=19}} When di Fatimids establish dia new capital, {{Transliteration|ar|al-Qahira}} (Cairo), for 969, di Khalij mark di western boundary of di new city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=36–37}} Most of di main north–south streets for historic Cairo, including di main road wey today people know as al-Mu'izz Street, dem align am make e run parallel to di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rabbat |first=Nasser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=69 |language=en |chapter=Coopting the Street: The Urban Character of Mamluk Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di place wey di canal enter from di Nile become known as {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}} (&quot;mouth of the canal&quot;).&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=9789774168550 |edition=7th |location=Cairo |pages=51 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

E become normal practice say every year dem go close plus open di canal again.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Paula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fnBFANHMn4C&amp;pg=PA102 |title=Ritual, Politics, and the City in Fatimid Cairo |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1781-2 |page=102 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; For di early period of di Khalij, when di Nile water level dey high, people fit travel through di canal all year round, plus dem build one dike during di yearly Nile floods make e control di water. For later centuries, after di area become drier, di process change; dem build di dike for most part of di year den open am only during flood season.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} By di Ottoman period, di canal dey bring water enter di city for about three months every year.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=246}}

[[File:Environs_du_Kaire_(Cairo)._1._Vue_de_la_prise_d'eau_du_canal_du_Kaire,_et_de_la_fête_qu'on_célèbre_annuellement_à_l'ouverture_de_la_digue_(NYPL_b14212718-1268730).jpg|thumb|Picture wey show di yearly opening of di canal for Cairo at {{Transliteration|ar|Fumm al-Khalij}}, from di ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809). You fit also see, for di right side, di water intake tower of one Mamluk aqueduct.]]

Di yearly opening of di canal be one practice wey, according to some modern scholars, resemble rituals from pre-Islamic or even Pharaonic times.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Dem know am as di Festival of the Opening of the Canal ({{Transliteration|ar|fath al-khalij}}), plus e become one big event wey di Fatimid caliphs dey attend with plenty ceremony.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=48–49}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=64–67}} Before di Fatimids, dem dey celebrate am further north for Ayn Shams, plus e likely say dem move am come di Khalij as part of making Cairo di new capital.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=67}} Di ceremony happen two or three days after di ceremonial 'anointing of di Nilometer' ({{Transliteration|ar|Takhliq al-Miqyas}}) for nearby Roda Island,{{efn|This Nilometer ceremony was introduced during the tenure of al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi as Fatimid vizier in the 1120s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sayyid |first=Ayman Fouad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=41 |language=en |chapter=Cairo as a palace: Rituals of the Fatimid Caliphate}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} wey happen when di Nile water reach 16 cubits high,{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=54–64}} wey show say harvest go be enough.{{efn|Fifteen cubits (1 Arab cubit, subdivided into 24 fingers, equalled {{convert|46.2|cm|in}}) be di minimum flood level wey dey needed for early Middle Ages to get full harvest and avoid famine; sixteen mean full harvest but still small hardship; seventeen mean bumper harvest; while if di river pass eighteen cubits, e cause disastrous flooding.{{sfn|Halm|2003|pp=58–60, 68–70}}}} Dis celebrations, wey mark di coming of di Nile floods, continue to be very important for many centuries.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpGZEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook on Cairo: Histories, Representations and Discourses |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-78789-4 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=176 |language=en |chapter=The Earliest Images of Cairo’s Islamic Architecture}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be one of di biggest plus most spectacular events for di yearly calendar of pre-modern Cairo, plus plenty historical accounts wey travelers write about di city mention am. Di ceremonies continue under later sultans of Egypt or dia top officials. &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Di small land wey dey between di western city wall of Cairo plus di Khalij, people use am for gardens or leisure activities, especially during di Nile floods when di canal dey carry water. Di Fatimid caliph al-Aziz ({{reign|975|996}}) build one pleasure pavilion wey dem call al-Lu'lu'a ('the pearl'), from where e fit watch boat races plus oda water sports.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=26}} Ein successor, al-Hakim ({{reign|996|1025}}), dig di canal again, at least for di part close to Cairo, plus name am after einself as {{Transliteration|ar|al-khalij al-Hakimi}}.{{sfn|Halm|2003|p=25}} As time dey go, di course of di Nile shift further west, wey open more land for development on dis side of di city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125 (and others)}} During di reign of di Ayyubid sultan Salah ad-Din ({{Reign|1174|1193}}), dem build di Muski Bridge across di canal sometime before 1188 as part of road improvements.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=97}} More bridges come during di Mamluk period (13th to early 16th centuries). Sultan Baybars ({{Reign|1260|1277}}) build di Bridge of the Lions ({{Transliteration|ar|Qanatir al-Siba'}}), wey Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad restore for 1331. Dem build di Amir Husayn Bridge around 1319, di Aqsunqur Bridge before 1339, plus di Tuquzdamur Bridge before 1345.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}}
=== Addition of the ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' ===
Wetin dey more important be say, al-Nasir Muhammad start build one new canal for 1325.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem first call am ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' (&quot;Canal of al-Nasir&quot;) but later e come get another name too, ''Khalij al-Maghribi'' (&quot;Western Canal&quot;).{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem dig am about 1200 metres northwest from the old canal, branching from the Nile for Mawridat al-Balat, opposite the northern tip of Roda Island. E run go north almost side by side with the old canal before e join the old one near al-Zahir Baybars Mosque for the northern Husayniya district of Cairo.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}} Al-Nasir give Amir Arghun the work make e supervise the construction, and the whole work take around two months, from 15 April to 12 June 1325.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=|pp=123–125}}{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}} Dem force plenty peasants under [[corvée]] labour make dem provide the manual work wey dem need.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=John Alden |date=1984 |title=Urbanization and Monument Construction in Mamluk Cairo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523054 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=2 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.2307/1523054 |jstor=1523054 |issn=0732-2992|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Different reasons fit don make dem build the new canal. Al-Nasir build one new palace and one ''khanqah'' for Siryaqus, one place north of Cairo, and the canal go supply water to these places and also make people fit reach them from the Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}} E likely say the canal too help support the old canal because the old one dey easily fill with silt.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=125}} Dem build the new canal through low land wey long ago be part of the Nile riverbed before the river shift, so e help drain the area too.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

This project get very important long-term effect on the geography of the city and e encourage Cairo make e grow faster.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|pp=35–36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; The land west of the old Khalij, wey now become better place to live, quickly turn into orchards, gardens and villas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt; The area too get plenty big ponds (''birka''s).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Al-Nasir Muhammad encourage him amirs (high-ranking officials) make dem develop and settle for the area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt;{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=36}} Even with that, only small number of people stay there, and the old Khalij still remain the real western boundary of the city till the end of the Mamluk period.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt;

Among the other water infrastructure wey dem build during Mamluk rule be aqueduct wey supply water to the Cairo Citadel. Dem start the aqueduct under al-Nasir Muhammad and later al-Ghuri ({{Reign|1501|1516}}) expand am. The [[water intake]] tower, one big hexagonal structure, still dey stand today near the mouth of the original Khalij on the Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt;

{{Panorama
| image = Medieval Cairo (Le Kaire, left) and Old Cairo (Vieux Kaire, right) Environs du Kaire (Cairo). Plan général de Boulâq, du Kaire, de l'île de Roudah (el-Rôda), du Vieux Kaire et de Gyzeh (Jîzah) (NYPL b14212718-1268726) (cropped).jpg
| height = 250
| caption = Map of Cairo for the ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809). The Khalij al-Misri (wey dem label &quot;Khalyg el-Soultany&quot;) show as canal wey divide central Cairo. The Khalij al-Nasiri (wey dem label &quot;Khalyg el-Moghrarby&quot;) show below along the outskirts of the city. You fit also see several small lakes.
}}

=== Later history ===
Na only during the Ottoman period (16th to 19th centuries) the west bank of the old Khalij gradually become urban area. During this time, the important people and elites for Cairo build mansions along the canal banks and around the small lake wey dem call ''Birkat al-Fil'', plus the areas further south.&lt;ref name=&quot;:242&quot; /&gt; Because of this, the western outskirts near the Khalij become the richer districts of the city. This make the canal become one of the main routes inside Cairo. The ''Khalij al-Nasiri'' come serve as the general western boundary of the city.&lt;ref name=&quot;:05222&quot;&gt;{{EI3 |last=Michel |first=Nicolas |year=2018 |title=Cairo, Ottoman | url = https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_25456}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 19th century, the Khalij no dey as important again because year-round irrigation become common. As the area dry more and more with time, the canal turn into unattractive place and possible source of disease.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} People for the city dey use am as place to dump rubbish.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=86}} Every year when the water reduce, e dey turn into stagnant ditch.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; By this time too, the canal no extend pass wetin today be the al-Daher district for northern Cairo. According to old photographs, the canal no pass {{Convert|10|m|ft}} in width.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot; class=&quot;center&quot; caption=&quot;19th-century illustrations of the Khalij&quot;&gt;
File:Khalij bridge Description de l'Egypte 150649.jpg|Picture of one bridge across the Khalij for the ''Description de l'Égypte'' (c. 1809)
File:Pascal Coste Cairo Khalij houses 158275 sv.jpg|Drawing of houses along the Khalij for the early 19th century (drawing by Pascal Coste)
File:A Night Scene on the Nile, near the Mouth of the Cairo Canal, during the Festival of Gebr-El-Haleeg, or breaking the Canal - ILN 1862.jpg|Picture of the Festival of the Opening of the Canal (c. 1862)
File:View of the Khalig al-Masri (Canal), Cairo.jpg|19th-century photograph of the Khalij and houses along the canal banks
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[File:Map of Cairo, Shepheard's Hotel above center, marked red, c. 1895.jpg|thumb|Map of Cairo for 1895, shortly before dem fill the Khalij. The narrow canal still dey show across the centre of Cairo. The newer and wider Isma'iliyya Canal too dey show for the northern part of the city.]]

As part of him big expansion project for Cairo during the 1860s, Khedive Isma'il dig one new canal, the Isma'iliyya Canal. This prepare more land further north for development and also supply fresh water for the construction of the Suez Canal.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=103}}{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=312}} During Isma'il him construction projects, dem completely fill the Khalij al-Nasiri and many of the old ponds (''birka''s) for the area disappear.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=103}}

Between 1896 and 1899,{{Efn|Some of the cited sources differ on the exact date, stating that filling occurred or began in either 1896, 1897, or 1898.}} dem fill the main Khalij itself and turn am into one wide boulevard because of sanitation reasons and to create space for one [[tram]] line wey the Cairo Tramway Company build.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QofAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA98 |title=Making Cairo Medieval |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7391-5743-5 |editor-last=AlSayyad |editor-first=Nezar |pages=98 |language=en |chapter=Nineteenth-Century Images of Cairo: From the Real to the Interpretive |editor-last2=Bierman |editor-first2=Irene A. |editor-last3=Rabbat |editor-first3=Nasser}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gabra|van Loon|Reif|Swelim|2013|p=21}}&lt;ref name=&quot;:0522&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Volait |first=Mercedes |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Cairo, modern period |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Humphrey |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2tjEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT68 |title=A Field Guide to the Street Names of Central Cairo |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-61797-915-6 |language=en |chapter=Bur Sa'id, Share'}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem fill the canal in phases: the first phase start for 1897 from the north of Cairo, and the last phase finish near ''Fumm al-Khalig'' (for the Nile shore) in 1899.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; The tram line, wey be Cairo ein first,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; start operate by the summer of 1900.{{Sfn|Abu-Lughod|1971|p=134}} Dem name the new road after the canal as Khalij al-Masri Street ({{Transliteration|ar|Shari'a el-Khalig el-Masri}}) until 1957, when dem rename am Port Said Street ({{Transliteration|ar|Shari'a Bur Sa'id}}), to honour the city's resistance against British and French forces during the 1956 Suez Crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; For 1912, dem also fill the Isma'iliyya Canal for Cairo to create space for more expansion of the city.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=326}}
Here be the rewritten version in natural Ghanaian Pidgin, with all references, templates, formatting, and categories preserved exactly as requested:

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{Cite book |last=Abu-Lughod |first=Janet L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVmYDwAAQBAJ |title=Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-691-65660-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gabra |first1=Gawdat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOxcBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA21 |title=The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque |last2=van Loon |first2=Gertrud J.M. |last3=Reif |first3=Stefan |last4=Swelim |first4=Tarek |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2013 |isbn=9789774167690 |editor-last=Ludwig |editor-first=Carolyn |language=en |editor-last2=Jackson |editor-first2=Morris}}
* {{Die Kalifen von Kairo}}
* {{Cite book |last=Raymond |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdLALt9AbQQC |title=Cairo |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-674-00316-3 |language=en |translator-last=Wood |translator-first=Willard |orig-date=1993}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sheehan |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9ZjDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA35 |title=Babylon of Egypt: The Archaeology of Old Cairo and the Origins of the City |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-977-416-731-7 |pages= |language=en}}

{{Islamic Cairo|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|30|1|21|N|31|13|49|E|region:EG_type:river|display=title}}
&lt;!-- Coordinates dey show where Nile river entrance for the canal (Fumm al-Khalig) bin dey before --&gt;

[[Category:Canals in Egypt]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez</title>
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    <id>27921</id>
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      <id>105891</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T21:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
      <origin>105891</origin>
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      <text bytes="4186" sha1="6jj8dzwz4dk8dz4zfytzyb2sl3mfqte" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
De '''International Commission for the Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez''' (''Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez'') na be commission wey different European experts form for 1855. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] gather dem as [[viceroy]] of Egypt [[Sa'id of Egypt|Muhammad Sa'id]] instruct am make dem check whether e go possible to dig canal between the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]], plus make dem decide which canal route go be the best.

Na only Europeans dey inside the commission. No Egyptian person dey inside the commission.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eijking |first1=Jan |title=Historical Claims to the International: The Case of the Suez Canal Experts |journal=International Studies Quarterly |date=14 June 2023 |volume=67 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqad041 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Preliminary events ==
For early 19th century, the idea say make dem dig canal through the isthmus of Suez begin attract plenty attention across Europe. People begin show more interest because European empires dey expand go Asia for the 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Napoleon surveyors for im Campaign in Egypt find say about 9 m difference dey between the water levels of the two seas. But the surveys wey [[Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue]] do for 1847 during expedition by the [[Société d'Études du Canal de Suez]] be the first evidence wey people generally accept say actually no level difference dey between the two seas. During the same expedition, [[Alois Negrelli]], wey be Austrian railroad pioneer, explore the bay of Pelusium for the northern end of the canal wey dem plan. But because of the political troubles for 1848, dem no continue with the project. On 30 November 1854, De Lesseps get the first concession from Muhammad Sa'id for the [[Suez Canal]], and based on De Lesseps im request, Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey ([[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds|Linant de Bellefonds]] and [[Eugène Mougel]]), two senior French engineers for the Egyptian canal administration, prepare the first canal draft. Right from the beginning, De Lesseps im main goal be say make the canal project get as much international political support as possible. Because of that, for the second and more detailed [[firman (decree)|firman]] of 19 May 1855, the viceroy order make dem improve the first draft and submit am to one international commission of experts make dem discuss and evaluate am.

== Commission ==
[[File:Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land (1859), page 186.jpg|thumb|Map of the Nile delta and the designed canal (from the book of Conrad)]]

The Commission first meet for Paris on 30 October 1855.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; E consist of these people:
* Frederik Willem Conrad Jr{{efn|He is often confused with his nephew Jan Frederik Willem Conrad, who in 1888 became member of the supervision committee of the Convention of Constantinople to oversee the free access to the Suez Canal}} (Chairman), one Dutch engineer
* Captain Edward Harris, one British naval commander
* Benjamin Jaurès (Paris)
* Carl Lentze, one Prussian engineer
* Jean-Pierre Lieussou, one French scientist
* John Robinson McClean, one British engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
* Charles Manby, one British engineer
* Cipriano Segundo Montesino, one Spanish engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Segundo Montesino |first=C. |date=1858 |title=Canal del istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=630&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=21 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=21 |access-date= 14 December 2023 |pages=249–250 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Alois Negrelli, one Tyrolean engineer
* Pietro Paleocapa, one Italian engineer
* Louis Auguste Renaud (Paris)
* James Meadows Rendel, one British surveyor
* Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one French military officer

The members already check the first draft wey Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey prepare, and dem decide say dem go inspect the conditions themselves for Egypt. Apart from that, dem also plan make dem draw new map of the bay of Pelusium to complete the soundings wey Negrelli do for 1847.</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105892</id>
      <parentid>105891</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-29T21:42:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added more content</comment>
      <origin>105892</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6013" sha1="jgwi5x5f440kghhrevjc40qhaqpzeif" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
De '''International Commission for the Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez''' (''Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez'') na be commission wey different European experts form for 1855. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] gather dem as [[viceroy]] of Egypt [[Sa'id of Egypt|Muhammad Sa'id]] instruct am make dem check whether e go possible to dig canal between the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]], plus make dem decide which canal route go be the best.

Na only Europeans dey inside the commission. No Egyptian person dey inside the commission.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eijking |first1=Jan |title=Historical Claims to the International: The Case of the Suez Canal Experts |journal=International Studies Quarterly |date=14 June 2023 |volume=67 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqad041 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Preliminary events ==
For early 19th century, the idea say make dem dig canal through the isthmus of Suez begin attract plenty attention across Europe. People begin show more interest because European empires dey expand go Asia for the 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Napoleon surveyors for im Campaign in Egypt find say about 9 m difference dey between the water levels of the two seas. But the surveys wey [[Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue]] do for 1847 during expedition by the [[Société d'Études du Canal de Suez]] be the first evidence wey people generally accept say actually no level difference dey between the two seas. During the same expedition, [[Alois Negrelli]], wey be Austrian railroad pioneer, explore the bay of Pelusium for the northern end of the canal wey dem plan. But because of the political troubles for 1848, dem no continue with the project. On 30 November 1854, De Lesseps get the first concession from Muhammad Sa'id for the [[Suez Canal]], and based on De Lesseps im request, Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey ([[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds|Linant de Bellefonds]] and [[Eugène Mougel]]), two senior French engineers for the Egyptian canal administration, prepare the first canal draft. Right from the beginning, De Lesseps im main goal be say make the canal project get as much international political support as possible. Because of that, for the second and more detailed [[firman (decree)|firman]] of 19 May 1855, the viceroy order make dem improve the first draft and submit am to one international commission of experts make dem discuss and evaluate am.

== Commission ==
[[File:Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land (1859), page 186.jpg|thumb|Map of the Nile delta and the designed canal (from the book of Conrad)]]

The Commission first meet for Paris on 30 October 1855.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; E consist of these people:
* Frederik Willem Conrad Jr{{efn|He is often confused with his nephew Jan Frederik Willem Conrad, who in 1888 became member of the supervision committee of the Convention of Constantinople to oversee the free access to the Suez Canal}} (Chairman), one Dutch engineer
* Captain Edward Harris, one British naval commander
* Benjamin Jaurès (Paris)
* Carl Lentze, one Prussian engineer
* Jean-Pierre Lieussou, one French scientist
* John Robinson McClean, one British engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
* Charles Manby, one British engineer
* Cipriano Segundo Montesino, one Spanish engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Segundo Montesino |first=C. |date=1858 |title=Canal del istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=630&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=21 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=21 |access-date= 14 December 2023 |pages=249–250 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Alois Negrelli, one Tyrolean engineer
* Pietro Paleocapa, one Italian engineer
* Louis Auguste Renaud (Paris)
* James Meadows Rendel, one British surveyor
* Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one French military officer

The members already check the first draft wey Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey prepare, and dem decide say dem go inspect the conditions themselves for Egypt. Apart from that, dem also plan make dem draw new map of the bay of Pelusium to complete the soundings wey Negrelli do for 1847.
== Investigations for Egypt ==
Five out of di thirteen members meet on 18 November 1855 for Alexandria, namely Messrs. Conrad, Renaud, Negrelli, McClean and Lieussou. Negrelli bring di soundings plus di alignment of di canal wey e draw during ein visit for 1847, and e match to large extent with di draft wey Linant and Mougel make. For di next two days, di group inspect Alexandria harbour plus roads, before dem continue go explore di bay of Suez for four days.

After dat, dem go north to Lake Timsah plus Wadi Tumilat make dem do boreholes plus subsoil investigations and check di line of one canal across di Nile delta to Alexandria wey Jacques-Marie Le Père plus Paulin Talabot propose. Di members of di group no take long before dem agree say dis proposal no go work because of plenty technical plus economic reasons. After dat, dem continue go towards di Mediterranean, dey do more boreholes plus investigations. On 31 December 1855, dem carry di group enter di Egyptian frigate ''Le Nil'', and dem reach Alexandria on 2 January 1856. Di discussion about more soundings wey Mr. Larousse, one French navy hydrologist wey dem assign to di commission, do during dat time, end with di conclusion say di entrance of di canal suppose shift go more west (for where Port Said dey now) because di water deep pass, even though e go add 6&amp;nbsp;km to di length of di canal. Dem also propose say make dem protect di entrance with one 3.5&amp;nbsp;km long northern jetty plus one 2.5&amp;nbsp;km long southern jetty, and make dem build one lighthouse.

On 2 January 1856, dem submit one preliminary report to di Viceroy wey talk say one direct canal across di isthmus be di only sensible alternative, but di full details go come for di final report after more investigations. After dat, di viceroy issue di second concession to De Lesseps.</text>
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      <id>105893</id>
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      <text bytes="13575" sha1="cfv1z1hplwwc0p6jvai6kvtw2ttfc99" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
De '''International Commission for the Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez''' (''Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez'') na be commission wey different European experts form for 1855. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] gather dem as [[viceroy]] of Egypt [[Sa'id of Egypt|Muhammad Sa'id]] instruct am make dem check whether e go possible to dig canal between the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]], plus make dem decide which canal route go be the best.

Na only Europeans dey inside the commission. No Egyptian person dey inside the commission.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eijking |first1=Jan |title=Historical Claims to the International: The Case of the Suez Canal Experts |journal=International Studies Quarterly |date=14 June 2023 |volume=67 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqad041 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Preliminary events ==
For early 19th century, the idea say make dem dig canal through the isthmus of Suez begin attract plenty attention across Europe. People begin show more interest because European empires dey expand go Asia for the 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Napoleon surveyors for im Campaign in Egypt find say about 9 m difference dey between the water levels of the two seas. But the surveys wey [[Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue]] do for 1847 during expedition by the [[Société d'Études du Canal de Suez]] be the first evidence wey people generally accept say actually no level difference dey between the two seas. During the same expedition, [[Alois Negrelli]], wey be Austrian railroad pioneer, explore the bay of Pelusium for the northern end of the canal wey dem plan. But because of the political troubles for 1848, dem no continue with the project. On 30 November 1854, De Lesseps get the first concession from Muhammad Sa'id for the [[Suez Canal]], and based on De Lesseps im request, Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey ([[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds|Linant de Bellefonds]] and [[Eugène Mougel]]), two senior French engineers for the Egyptian canal administration, prepare the first canal draft. Right from the beginning, De Lesseps im main goal be say make the canal project get as much international political support as possible. Because of that, for the second and more detailed [[firman (decree)|firman]] of 19 May 1855, the viceroy order make dem improve the first draft and submit am to one international commission of experts make dem discuss and evaluate am.

== Commission ==
[[File:Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land (1859), page 186.jpg|thumb|Map of the Nile delta and the designed canal (from the book of Conrad)]]

The Commission first meet for Paris on 30 October 1855.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; E consist of these people:
* Frederik Willem Conrad Jr{{efn|He is often confused with his nephew Jan Frederik Willem Conrad, who in 1888 became member of the supervision committee of the Convention of Constantinople to oversee the free access to the Suez Canal}} (Chairman), one Dutch engineer
* Captain Edward Harris, one British naval commander
* Benjamin Jaurès (Paris)
* Carl Lentze, one Prussian engineer
* Jean-Pierre Lieussou, one French scientist
* John Robinson McClean, one British engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
* Charles Manby, one British engineer
* Cipriano Segundo Montesino, one Spanish engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Segundo Montesino |first=C. |date=1858 |title=Canal del istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=630&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=21 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=21 |access-date= 14 December 2023 |pages=249–250 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Alois Negrelli, one Tyrolean engineer
* Pietro Paleocapa, one Italian engineer
* Louis Auguste Renaud (Paris)
* James Meadows Rendel, one British surveyor
* Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one French military officer

The members already check the first draft wey Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey prepare, and dem decide say dem go inspect the conditions themselves for Egypt. Apart from that, dem also plan make dem draw new map of the bay of Pelusium to complete the soundings wey Negrelli do for 1847.
== Investigations for Egypt ==
Five out of di thirteen members meet on 18 November 1855 for Alexandria, namely Messrs. Conrad, Renaud, Negrelli, McClean and Lieussou. Negrelli bring di soundings plus di alignment of di canal wey e draw during ein visit for 1847, and e match to large extent with di draft wey Linant and Mougel make. For di next two days, di group inspect Alexandria harbour plus roads, before dem continue go explore di bay of Suez for four days.

After dat, dem go north to Lake Timsah plus Wadi Tumilat make dem do boreholes plus subsoil investigations and check di line of one canal across di Nile delta to Alexandria wey Jacques-Marie Le Père plus Paulin Talabot propose. Di members of di group no take long before dem agree say dis proposal no go work because of plenty technical plus economic reasons. After dat, dem continue go towards di Mediterranean, dey do more boreholes plus investigations. On 31 December 1855, dem carry di group enter di Egyptian frigate ''Le Nil'', and dem reach Alexandria on 2 January 1856. Di discussion about more soundings wey Mr. Larousse, one French navy hydrologist wey dem assign to di commission, do during dat time, end with di conclusion say di entrance of di canal suppose shift go more west (for where Port Said dey now) because di water deep pass, even though e go add 6&amp;nbsp;km to di length of di canal. Dem also propose say make dem protect di entrance with one 3.5&amp;nbsp;km long northern jetty plus one 2.5&amp;nbsp;km long southern jetty, and make dem build one lighthouse.

On 2 January 1856, dem submit one preliminary report to di Viceroy wey talk say one direct canal across di isthmus be di only sensible alternative, but di full details go come for di final report after more investigations. After dat, di viceroy issue di second concession to De Lesseps.
== The commission's deliberations ==
Di whole commission meet again for 23 June 1856 for Paris (Rendel no fit attend, Negrelli and Montesino come di next day).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Obituary. John Robinson Mcclean, Former President and Vice-President, M.p., F.r.s., 1813-1873 |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1874 |volume=38 |issue=1874 |pages=287–291 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1874.22770 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; For three days, di members discuss di results of di investigations for Egypt plus all di details about di future canal. Everybody agree say make dem build di canal just as Negrelli first propose, wey be canal wey no go get locks, go pass di lower level Bitter Lakes (wey di canal go flood) without any dams or dikes. Di canal suppose get depth of 8 m and width of 100 metres for water level plus 64 metres for bottom. But for one particular section, e go get width of only 80 m for water level and 44 m for bottom.

=== Options Proposed by John Robinson McClean and Charles Manby ===
For im presidential address for 1864 to di Institution of Civil Engineers, John Robinson McClean explain im view about di two different systems wey dem propose for di construction of di Canal. McClean and Manby no agree with di conclusion of di majority of di commissioners about di type of project. Instead, dem propose canal wey go dey twenty-five feet above sea level, plus locks wey be like di ones for Caledonian Canal. Dis one different from di majority decision wey support sea-level canal wey no get locks. Di comparison of di two systems dey inside appendix of McClean im 1864 address, and e explain wetin e think about both proposals as dem summarize below.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mcclean |first1=J R |title=Presidential Address of John Robinson M'clean, January 12, 1864 (Including Appendix) |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1864 |volume=23 |issue=1864 |pages=151–167 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1864.23280 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1688794 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== First System (Adopted by Majority of Commissioners) ====
* Di canal level go match di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea for Said.
* Dem estimate say di total excavation wey dem go need be 130 million cubic metres, and half of am go need dredging.
* Dem expect say e go hard well-well to build di harbour for Suez because coral reefs and hard sands fit dey there.
* E need plenty money plus dredging work before dem fit establish port for Lake Timsah.

==== Second System (Proposed by McClean and Manby) ====
* Di water level for di canal go dey 7 metres above di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea.
* Di total embankment wey dem go need no go pass 70 million cubic metres because dem carefully choose di canal route.
* All di excavation go happen above natural drainage, wey go make construction fast through railways plus locomotive engines.
* Di construction of Suez Harbour no go need dredging because dem go use locks for deep water.
* Di higher canal level for Port Timsah mean say no need locks for there, wey go reduce construction cost.
* Dem also propose new irrigation method wey go use di canal draw water direct from di Nile, so no need separate conduit, plus di canal fit serve as reservoir during Nile floods.
* Di high-level system no go get water supply problems like salt deposits and dependence on tides, wey dey happen for di low-level system.

===British opposition to the canal===
British proposals still insist say difference dey between di water level of di Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea of about 7 metres, even though survey work since 1847 don already show say dat no be true.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Dan F |title=A decade of British opposition to the Suez Canal project, 1854–1864 |date=1973 |id={{ProQuest|287954768}} {{OCLC|24708427|1035380473}} |hdl=11244/3693 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=K. |title=British Policy Towards the Construction of the Suez Canal |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |date=December 1965 |volume=15 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.2307/3678819 |jstor=3678819 |s2cid=154157309 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Opposition against di canal from British engineers, including McClean, Manby, and Robert Stephenson, show for different engineering publications for Britain and other places too.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephenson |first=R. |author-link=Robert Stephenson |date=1858 |title=Canal del Istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=624&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=20 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=20 |pages=237–241 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Stephenson talk against any possible involvement for Suez canal scheme for Parliament during 1857 and 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rolt |first=L.T.C. |title=George and Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution |date=1978 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-007646-2 |series=Pelican biographies |location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite hansard|title=Resolution|jurisdiction=Parliament of the United Kingdom|house=Commons|date=1 June 1858|volume=150|url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1858-06-01/debates/7f149b90-d827-4d48-ad5e-0bd5e8c7e5e7/Resolution?highlight=suez#contribution-93a47ee8-74c6-457a-9a55-f17188d4a095|column=|speaker=Robert Stephenson}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from di opposition from British engineers, di bigger British establishment, especially Lord Palmerston, strongly oppose di construction of di canal because dem fear say if seagoing vessels from all nations fit use am, e go threaten Britain's commercial interests, like dia control over di Cape Route, di overland routes to India and di Far East, plus British naval supremacy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kyle |first1=Keith |title=Suez: Britain's End of Empire in the Middle East |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85771-967-6 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bissett |first1=Alice M. |title=Lord Palmerston's policy of opposition to the project and to the construction of the Suez Canal |date=1927 |id={{OCLC|957343681|964513065}} |url=https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/4x51hn005 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Max E. |title=The Suez Canal and World Shipping, 1869-1914 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=December 1958 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=556–573 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700107740 |s2cid=153427820 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=Damian |title=The Suez Crisis 1876–82 |journal=The RUSI Journal |date=June 2006 |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=74–78 |doi=10.1080/03071840609442023 |s2cid=153827725 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hoskins |first1=Halford L. |title=The Suez Canal |journal=Current History |date=November 1957 |volume=33 |issue=195 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1525/curh.1957.33.195.257 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kinross |first1=Patrick Balfour Baron |title=Between Two Seas: The Creation of the Suez Canal |date=1969 |publisher=Morrow |isbn=978-0-7195-1813-3 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later, di British Government publicly object to di use of forced labour for di construction of di canal, even though dem sef use forced labour build railway between Alexandria and Cairo wey open for 1854, before dem extend am go Suez for 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-29T21:49:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <text bytes="19269" sha1="f3px7hzi51kxto56g1v9ixhgotq8dsi" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
De '''International Commission for the Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez''' (''Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez'') na be commission wey different European experts form for 1855. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] gather dem as [[viceroy]] of Egypt [[Sa'id of Egypt|Muhammad Sa'id]] instruct am make dem check whether e go possible to dig canal between the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]], plus make dem decide which canal route go be the best.

Na only Europeans dey inside the commission. No Egyptian person dey inside the commission.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eijking |first1=Jan |title=Historical Claims to the International: The Case of the Suez Canal Experts |journal=International Studies Quarterly |date=14 June 2023 |volume=67 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqad041 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Preliminary events ==
For early 19th century, the idea say make dem dig canal through the isthmus of Suez begin attract plenty attention across Europe. People begin show more interest because European empires dey expand go Asia for the 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Napoleon surveyors for im Campaign in Egypt find say about 9 m difference dey between the water levels of the two seas. But the surveys wey [[Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue]] do for 1847 during expedition by the [[Société d'Études du Canal de Suez]] be the first evidence wey people generally accept say actually no level difference dey between the two seas. During the same expedition, [[Alois Negrelli]], wey be Austrian railroad pioneer, explore the bay of Pelusium for the northern end of the canal wey dem plan. But because of the political troubles for 1848, dem no continue with the project. On 30 November 1854, De Lesseps get the first concession from Muhammad Sa'id for the [[Suez Canal]], and based on De Lesseps im request, Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey ([[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds|Linant de Bellefonds]] and [[Eugène Mougel]]), two senior French engineers for the Egyptian canal administration, prepare the first canal draft. Right from the beginning, De Lesseps im main goal be say make the canal project get as much international political support as possible. Because of that, for the second and more detailed [[firman (decree)|firman]] of 19 May 1855, the viceroy order make dem improve the first draft and submit am to one international commission of experts make dem discuss and evaluate am.

== Commission ==
[[File:Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land (1859), page 186.jpg|thumb|Map of the Nile delta and the designed canal (from the book of Conrad)]]

The Commission first meet for Paris on 30 October 1855.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; E consist of these people:
* Frederik Willem Conrad Jr{{efn|He is often confused with his nephew Jan Frederik Willem Conrad, who in 1888 became member of the supervision committee of the Convention of Constantinople to oversee the free access to the Suez Canal}} (Chairman), one Dutch engineer
* Captain Edward Harris, one British naval commander
* Benjamin Jaurès (Paris)
* Carl Lentze, one Prussian engineer
* Jean-Pierre Lieussou, one French scientist
* John Robinson McClean, one British engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
* Charles Manby, one British engineer
* Cipriano Segundo Montesino, one Spanish engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Segundo Montesino |first=C. |date=1858 |title=Canal del istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=630&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=21 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=21 |access-date= 14 December 2023 |pages=249–250 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Alois Negrelli, one Tyrolean engineer
* Pietro Paleocapa, one Italian engineer
* Louis Auguste Renaud (Paris)
* James Meadows Rendel, one British surveyor
* Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one French military officer

The members already check the first draft wey Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey prepare, and dem decide say dem go inspect the conditions themselves for Egypt. Apart from that, dem also plan make dem draw new map of the bay of Pelusium to complete the soundings wey Negrelli do for 1847.
== Investigations for Egypt ==
Five out of di thirteen members meet on 18 November 1855 for Alexandria, namely Messrs. Conrad, Renaud, Negrelli, McClean and Lieussou. Negrelli bring di soundings plus di alignment of di canal wey e draw during ein visit for 1847, and e match to large extent with di draft wey Linant and Mougel make. For di next two days, di group inspect Alexandria harbour plus roads, before dem continue go explore di bay of Suez for four days.

After dat, dem go north to Lake Timsah plus Wadi Tumilat make dem do boreholes plus subsoil investigations and check di line of one canal across di Nile delta to Alexandria wey Jacques-Marie Le Père plus Paulin Talabot propose. Di members of di group no take long before dem agree say dis proposal no go work because of plenty technical plus economic reasons. After dat, dem continue go towards di Mediterranean, dey do more boreholes plus investigations. On 31 December 1855, dem carry di group enter di Egyptian frigate ''Le Nil'', and dem reach Alexandria on 2 January 1856. Di discussion about more soundings wey Mr. Larousse, one French navy hydrologist wey dem assign to di commission, do during dat time, end with di conclusion say di entrance of di canal suppose shift go more west (for where Port Said dey now) because di water deep pass, even though e go add 6&amp;nbsp;km to di length of di canal. Dem also propose say make dem protect di entrance with one 3.5&amp;nbsp;km long northern jetty plus one 2.5&amp;nbsp;km long southern jetty, and make dem build one lighthouse.

On 2 January 1856, dem submit one preliminary report to di Viceroy wey talk say one direct canal across di isthmus be di only sensible alternative, but di full details go come for di final report after more investigations. After dat, di viceroy issue di second concession to De Lesseps.
== The commission's deliberations ==
Di whole commission meet again for 23 June 1856 for Paris (Rendel no fit attend, Negrelli and Montesino come di next day).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Obituary. John Robinson Mcclean, Former President and Vice-President, M.p., F.r.s., 1813-1873 |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1874 |volume=38 |issue=1874 |pages=287–291 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1874.22770 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; For three days, di members discuss di results of di investigations for Egypt plus all di details about di future canal. Everybody agree say make dem build di canal just as Negrelli first propose, wey be canal wey no go get locks, go pass di lower level Bitter Lakes (wey di canal go flood) without any dams or dikes. Di canal suppose get depth of 8 m and width of 100 metres for water level plus 64 metres for bottom. But for one particular section, e go get width of only 80 m for water level and 44 m for bottom.

=== Options Proposed by John Robinson McClean and Charles Manby ===
For im presidential address for 1864 to di Institution of Civil Engineers, John Robinson McClean explain im view about di two different systems wey dem propose for di construction of di Canal. McClean and Manby no agree with di conclusion of di majority of di commissioners about di type of project. Instead, dem propose canal wey go dey twenty-five feet above sea level, plus locks wey be like di ones for Caledonian Canal. Dis one different from di majority decision wey support sea-level canal wey no get locks. Di comparison of di two systems dey inside appendix of McClean im 1864 address, and e explain wetin e think about both proposals as dem summarize below.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mcclean |first1=J R |title=Presidential Address of John Robinson M'clean, January 12, 1864 (Including Appendix) |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1864 |volume=23 |issue=1864 |pages=151–167 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1864.23280 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1688794 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== First System (Adopted by Majority of Commissioners) ====
* Di canal level go match di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea for Said.
* Dem estimate say di total excavation wey dem go need be 130 million cubic metres, and half of am go need dredging.
* Dem expect say e go hard well-well to build di harbour for Suez because coral reefs and hard sands fit dey there.
* E need plenty money plus dredging work before dem fit establish port for Lake Timsah.

==== Second System (Proposed by McClean and Manby) ====
* Di water level for di canal go dey 7 metres above di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea.
* Di total embankment wey dem go need no go pass 70 million cubic metres because dem carefully choose di canal route.
* All di excavation go happen above natural drainage, wey go make construction fast through railways plus locomotive engines.
* Di construction of Suez Harbour no go need dredging because dem go use locks for deep water.
* Di higher canal level for Port Timsah mean say no need locks for there, wey go reduce construction cost.
* Dem also propose new irrigation method wey go use di canal draw water direct from di Nile, so no need separate conduit, plus di canal fit serve as reservoir during Nile floods.
* Di high-level system no go get water supply problems like salt deposits and dependence on tides, wey dey happen for di low-level system.

===British opposition to the canal===
British proposals still insist say difference dey between di water level of di Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea of about 7 metres, even though survey work since 1847 don already show say dat no be true.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Dan F |title=A decade of British opposition to the Suez Canal project, 1854–1864 |date=1973 |id={{ProQuest|287954768}} {{OCLC|24708427|1035380473}} |hdl=11244/3693 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=K. |title=British Policy Towards the Construction of the Suez Canal |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |date=December 1965 |volume=15 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.2307/3678819 |jstor=3678819 |s2cid=154157309 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Opposition against di canal from British engineers, including McClean, Manby, and Robert Stephenson, show for different engineering publications for Britain and other places too.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephenson |first=R. |author-link=Robert Stephenson |date=1858 |title=Canal del Istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=624&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=20 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=20 |pages=237–241 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Stephenson talk against any possible involvement for Suez canal scheme for Parliament during 1857 and 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rolt |first=L.T.C. |title=George and Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution |date=1978 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-007646-2 |series=Pelican biographies |location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite hansard|title=Resolution|jurisdiction=Parliament of the United Kingdom|house=Commons|date=1 June 1858|volume=150|url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1858-06-01/debates/7f149b90-d827-4d48-ad5e-0bd5e8c7e5e7/Resolution?highlight=suez#contribution-93a47ee8-74c6-457a-9a55-f17188d4a095|column=|speaker=Robert Stephenson}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from di opposition from British engineers, di bigger British establishment, especially Lord Palmerston, strongly oppose di construction of di canal because dem fear say if seagoing vessels from all nations fit use am, e go threaten Britain's commercial interests, like dia control over di Cape Route, di overland routes to India and di Far East, plus British naval supremacy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kyle |first1=Keith |title=Suez: Britain's End of Empire in the Middle East |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85771-967-6 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bissett |first1=Alice M. |title=Lord Palmerston's policy of opposition to the project and to the construction of the Suez Canal |date=1927 |id={{OCLC|957343681|964513065}} |url=https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/4x51hn005 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Max E. |title=The Suez Canal and World Shipping, 1869-1914 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=December 1958 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=556–573 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700107740 |s2cid=153427820 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=Damian |title=The Suez Crisis 1876–82 |journal=The RUSI Journal |date=June 2006 |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=74–78 |doi=10.1080/03071840609442023 |s2cid=153827725 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hoskins |first1=Halford L. |title=The Suez Canal |journal=Current History |date=November 1957 |volume=33 |issue=195 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1525/curh.1957.33.195.257 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kinross |first1=Patrick Balfour Baron |title=Between Two Seas: The Creation of the Suez Canal |date=1969 |publisher=Morrow |isbn=978-0-7195-1813-3 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later, di British Government publicly object to di use of forced labour for di construction of di canal, even though dem sef use forced labour build railway between Alexandria and Cairo wey open for 1854, before dem extend am go Suez for 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;
== Final report ==
[[File:CONRAD%281859%29_p251_PROFIL_VAN_DE_HAVEN_VAN_SAID.jpg|thumb|Design of the breakwaters of Port Said]]

Di final report get 195 pages plus plans, technical tables, anaa oda tinz. Dem publish am for December 1856, den di Khedive for Egypt accept am. Di report explain why e be important make dem connect di two seas direct, plus all di technical details about di canal, including di ports wey dem go build, telegraph lines wey dem go install along di canal, ferries wey dem go introduce, plus lighting for di Mediterranean coast and di whole Red Sea, including lighthouses, buoys and oda navigation equipment. Like dem already talk for di preliminary report, dem suggest say ''Port Said'' go be di name of di port for di northern entrance.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hartley |first1=Sir C |title=A short history of the engineering works of the Suez Canal |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1900 |volume=141 |issue=1900 |pages=157–194 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1900.18688 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1882936 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One of di main decisions be say dem no go build continuous embankments for places wey di canal pass through di Bitter Lakes because dem see say e no be necessary. Di report still decide say locks for both ends of di canal no go be needed because di lakes go reduce tidal currents. E also specify di dimensions of di canal and recommend say di depth make e be 8 metres (approximately 26.4 feet), plus enough width wey go allow two ships pass each oda while one extra ship fit still stand for one side.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=D |last2=Barry |first2=J W |last3=Harcourt |first3=L F V |last4=Dawes |first4=E |last5=Appleby |first5=C J |last6=Bell |first6=J R |last7=Corthell |first7=E L |last8=Wells |first8=L B |last9=Hartley |first9=C |title=Discussion: A short history of the engineering works of the Suez Canal |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1900 |volume=141 |issue=1900 |pages=195–212 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1900.18689 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Di proposed width be approximately 64 metres (210 feet) for di bottom and 97.5 metres (320 feet) for di top between di Red Sea and di Bitter Lakes. Between di Bitter Lakes and di Mediterranean, di proposed width be approximately 43.9 metres (144 feet) for di bottom and 79.9 metres (262 feet) for di top.

Di Commission prefer make dem build di jetties direct into di sea from Port Said instead of di earlier proposal near di Gulf of Pelusium. Dem take dis decision based on di recommendation of Mr. Larousse, one French Navy hydrographer. E show say enough depth of 8 metres dey nearer to Port Said than di eastern entrance wey dem first propose. After dem consider di cost of building di jetties and di advantage of di steep sea-bed slope, dem conclude say Port Said be di best choice.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

For Port Said, di final design of di jetties, including dia length and di way dem go construct dem, later follow advice from Mr. Pascal, Inspector-General of Roads and Bridges. For Port Tewfik, dem decide say one jetty alone go do. Everybody agree on di arrangement of di inner harbour works wey dem need for both ends of di canal. Dem recommend say di western and eastern jetties for Port Said make dem be approximately 2987 metres (9,800 feet) and 1829 metres (6,000 feet) long. Di starting width go be approximately 1280 metres (4,200 feet), while di ending separation go be approximately 701 metres (2,300 feet). Di channel wey go pass along di western jetty go be approximately 100.6 metres (330 feet) wide and 9.1 metres (30 feet) deep, with direction northeast by 2 degrees north.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Denison |first1=Sir W T |title=THE SUEZ CANAL |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1867 |volume=26 |issue=1867 |pages=442–448 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1867.23168 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

For di report, di commission clearly talk say dem finish all di duties wey dem get and complete all dia work. Dem also talk say dem hope say dem go build di canal very soon, but dem no comment in any way about how di future construction work go happen or who go manage am.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Sources ==

Lesseps publish one complete final report together with di investigation journal and di minutes of all di commission dia discussions. Negrelli give details about di proposed canal to di ''K.K. Geographische Gesellschaft'' (Imperial Royal Geographical Society) for Vienna and also give dem one copy of di commission dia final report. Di society later publish di material inside dia own proceedings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lesseps |first1=Ferdinand de |title=Percement de l'isthme de Suez |date=1856 |publisher=H. Plon |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVoGEq7EwxMC&amp;pg=PA377 |language=fr }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Kaiserlich-Königliche Geographische Gesellschaft in Wien |title=Mittheilungen der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien |date=1857 |publisher=Lechner |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0NUAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=RA1-PA71 |language=de }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Frederik Willem |title=Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land |date=1859 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STRCAAAAcAAJ |language=nl }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=Reizen+naar+de+landengte+van+Suez%2C+Egypte%2C+het+Heilige+Land+%281859%29&amp;title=Special:MediaSearch&amp;go=OK&amp;type=image Wikimedia]

[[Category:Suez Canal]]</text>
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De '''International Commission for the Piercing of the Isthmus of Suez''' (''Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez'') na be commission wey different European experts form for 1855. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] gather dem as [[viceroy]] of Egypt [[Sa'id of Egypt|Muhammad Sa'id]] instruct am make dem check whether e go possible to dig canal between the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]], plus make dem decide which canal route go be the best.

Na only Europeans dey inside the commission. No Egyptian person dey inside the commission.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eijking |first1=Jan |title=Historical Claims to the International: The Case of the Suez Canal Experts |journal=International Studies Quarterly |date=14 June 2023 |volume=67 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqad041 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Preliminary events ==
For early 19th century, the idea say make dem dig canal through the isthmus of Suez begin attract plenty attention across Europe. People begin show more interest because European empires dey expand go Asia for the 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Napoleon surveyors for im Campaign in Egypt find say about 9 m difference dey between the water levels of the two seas. But the surveys wey [[Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue]] do for 1847 during expedition by the [[Société d'Études du Canal de Suez]] be the first evidence wey people generally accept say actually no level difference dey between the two seas. During the same expedition, [[Alois Negrelli]], wey be Austrian railroad pioneer, explore the bay of Pelusium for the northern end of the canal wey dem plan. But because of the political troubles for 1848, dem no continue with the project. On 30 November 1854, De Lesseps get the first concession from Muhammad Sa'id for the [[Suez Canal]], and based on De Lesseps im request, Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey ([[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds|Linant de Bellefonds]] and [[Eugène Mougel]]), two senior French engineers for the Egyptian canal administration, prepare the first canal draft. Right from the beginning, De Lesseps im main goal be say make the canal project get as much international political support as possible. Because of that, for the second and more detailed [[firman (decree)|firman]] of 19 May 1855, the viceroy order make dem improve the first draft and submit am to one international commission of experts make dem discuss and evaluate am.

== Commission ==
[[File:Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land (1859), page 186.jpg|thumb|Map of the Nile delta and the designed canal (from the book of Conrad)]]

The Commission first meet for Paris on 30 October 1855.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; E consist of these people:
* Frederik Willem Conrad Jr{{efn|He is often confused with his nephew Jan Frederik Willem Conrad, who in 1888 became member of the supervision committee of the Convention of Constantinople to oversee the free access to the Suez Canal}} (Chairman), one Dutch engineer
* Captain Edward Harris, one British naval commander
* Benjamin Jaurès (Paris)
* Carl Lentze, one Prussian engineer
* Jean-Pierre Lieussou, one French scientist
* John Robinson McClean, one British engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
* Charles Manby, one British engineer
* Cipriano Segundo Montesino, one Spanish engineer&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Segundo Montesino |first=C. |date=1858 |title=Canal del istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=630&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=21 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=21 |access-date= 14 December 2023 |pages=249–250 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Alois Negrelli, one Tyrolean engineer
* Pietro Paleocapa, one Italian engineer
* Louis Auguste Renaud (Paris)
* James Meadows Rendel, one British surveyor
* Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one French military officer

The members already check the first draft wey Linant-Bey and Mougel-Bey prepare, and dem decide say dem go inspect the conditions themselves for Egypt. Apart from that, dem also plan make dem draw new map of the bay of Pelusium to complete the soundings wey Negrelli do for 1847.
== Investigations for Egypt ==
Five out of di thirteen members meet on 18 November 1855 for Alexandria, namely Messrs. Conrad, Renaud, Negrelli, McClean and Lieussou. Negrelli bring di soundings plus di alignment of di canal wey e draw during ein visit for 1847, and e match to large extent with di draft wey Linant and Mougel make. For di next two days, di group inspect Alexandria harbour plus roads, before dem continue go explore di bay of Suez for four days.

After dat, dem go north to Lake Timsah plus Wadi Tumilat make dem do boreholes plus subsoil investigations and check di line of one canal across di Nile delta to Alexandria wey Jacques-Marie Le Père plus Paulin Talabot propose. Di members of di group no take long before dem agree say dis proposal no go work because of plenty technical plus economic reasons. After dat, dem continue go towards di Mediterranean, dey do more boreholes plus investigations. On 31 December 1855, dem carry di group enter di Egyptian frigate ''Le Nil'', and dem reach Alexandria on 2 January 1856. Di discussion about more soundings wey Mr. Larousse, one French navy hydrologist wey dem assign to di commission, do during dat time, end with di conclusion say di entrance of di canal suppose shift go more west (for where Port Said dey now) because di water deep pass, even though e go add 6&amp;nbsp;km to di length of di canal. Dem also propose say make dem protect di entrance with one 3.5&amp;nbsp;km long northern jetty plus one 2.5&amp;nbsp;km long southern jetty, and make dem build one lighthouse.

On 2 January 1856, dem submit one preliminary report to di Viceroy wey talk say one direct canal across di isthmus be di only sensible alternative, but di full details go come for di final report after more investigations. After dat, di viceroy issue di second concession to De Lesseps.
== The commission's deliberations ==
Di whole commission meet again for 23 June 1856 for Paris (Rendel no fit attend, Negrelli and Montesino come di next day).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Obituary. John Robinson Mcclean, Former President and Vice-President, M.p., F.r.s., 1813-1873 |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1874 |volume=38 |issue=1874 |pages=287–291 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1874.22770 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; For three days, di members discuss di results of di investigations for Egypt plus all di details about di future canal. Everybody agree say make dem build di canal just as Negrelli first propose, wey be canal wey no go get locks, go pass di lower level Bitter Lakes (wey di canal go flood) without any dams or dikes. Di canal suppose get depth of 8 m and width of 100 metres for water level plus 64 metres for bottom. But for one particular section, e go get width of only 80 m for water level and 44 m for bottom.

=== Options Proposed by John Robinson McClean and Charles Manby ===
For im presidential address for 1864 to di Institution of Civil Engineers, John Robinson McClean explain im view about di two different systems wey dem propose for di construction of di Canal. McClean and Manby no agree with di conclusion of di majority of di commissioners about di type of project. Instead, dem propose canal wey go dey twenty-five feet above sea level, plus locks wey be like di ones for Caledonian Canal. Dis one different from di majority decision wey support sea-level canal wey no get locks. Di comparison of di two systems dey inside appendix of McClean im 1864 address, and e explain wetin e think about both proposals as dem summarize below.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mcclean |first1=J R |title=Presidential Address of John Robinson M'clean, January 12, 1864 (Including Appendix) |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1864 |volume=23 |issue=1864 |pages=151–167 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1864.23280 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1688794 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== First System (Adopted by Majority of Commissioners) ====
* Di canal level go match di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea for Said.
* Dem estimate say di total excavation wey dem go need be 130 million cubic metres, and half of am go need dredging.
* Dem expect say e go hard well-well to build di harbour for Suez because coral reefs and hard sands fit dey there.
* E need plenty money plus dredging work before dem fit establish port for Lake Timsah.

==== Second System (Proposed by McClean and Manby) ====
* Di water level for di canal go dey 7 metres above di low water level of di Mediterranean Sea.
* Di total embankment wey dem go need no go pass 70 million cubic metres because dem carefully choose di canal route.
* All di excavation go happen above natural drainage, wey go make construction fast through railways plus locomotive engines.
* Di construction of Suez Harbour no go need dredging because dem go use locks for deep water.
* Di higher canal level for Port Timsah mean say no need locks for there, wey go reduce construction cost.
* Dem also propose new irrigation method wey go use di canal draw water direct from di Nile, so no need separate conduit, plus di canal fit serve as reservoir during Nile floods.
* Di high-level system no go get water supply problems like salt deposits and dependence on tides, wey dey happen for di low-level system.

===British opposition to the canal===
British proposals still insist say difference dey between di water level of di Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea of about 7 metres, even though survey work since 1847 don already show say dat no be true.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Dan F |title=A decade of British opposition to the Suez Canal project, 1854–1864 |date=1973 |id={{ProQuest|287954768}} {{OCLC|24708427|1035380473}} |hdl=11244/3693 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=K. |title=British Policy Towards the Construction of the Suez Canal |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |date=December 1965 |volume=15 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.2307/3678819 |jstor=3678819 |s2cid=154157309 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Opposition against di canal from British engineers, including McClean, Manby, and Robert Stephenson, show for different engineering publications for Britain and other places too.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stephenson |first=R. |author-link=Robert Stephenson |date=1858 |title=Canal del Istmo de Suez |trans-title=Isthmus of Suez Canal |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/detalle_articulo.php?registro=624&amp;anio=1858&amp;numero_revista=20 |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |volume=6, tomo I |issue=20 |pages=237–241 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Stephenson talk against any possible involvement for Suez canal scheme for Parliament during 1857 and 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Rolt |first=L.T.C. |title=George and Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution |date=1978 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-007646-2 |series=Pelican biographies |location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite hansard|title=Resolution|jurisdiction=Parliament of the United Kingdom|house=Commons|date=1 June 1858|volume=150|url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1858-06-01/debates/7f149b90-d827-4d48-ad5e-0bd5e8c7e5e7/Resolution?highlight=suez#contribution-93a47ee8-74c6-457a-9a55-f17188d4a095|column=|speaker=Robert Stephenson}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from di opposition from British engineers, di bigger British establishment, especially Lord Palmerston, strongly oppose di construction of di canal because dem fear say if seagoing vessels from all nations fit use am, e go threaten Britain's commercial interests, like dia control over di Cape Route, di overland routes to India and di Far East, plus British naval supremacy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kyle |first1=Keith |title=Suez: Britain's End of Empire in the Middle East |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85771-967-6 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite thesis |last1=Bissett |first1=Alice M. |title=Lord Palmerston's policy of opposition to the project and to the construction of the Suez Canal |date=1927 |id={{OCLC|957343681|964513065}} |url=https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/4x51hn005 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Max E. |title=The Suez Canal and World Shipping, 1869-1914 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=December 1958 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=556–573 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700107740 |s2cid=153427820 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=Damian |title=The Suez Crisis 1876–82 |journal=The RUSI Journal |date=June 2006 |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=74–78 |doi=10.1080/03071840609442023 |s2cid=153827725 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hoskins |first1=Halford L. |title=The Suez Canal |journal=Current History |date=November 1957 |volume=33 |issue=195 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1525/curh.1957.33.195.257 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kinross |first1=Patrick Balfour Baron |title=Between Two Seas: The Creation of the Suez Canal |date=1969 |publisher=Morrow |isbn=978-0-7195-1813-3 }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later, di British Government publicly object to di use of forced labour for di construction of di canal, even though dem sef use forced labour build railway between Alexandria and Cairo wey open for 1854, before dem extend am go Suez for 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;
== Final report ==
[[File:CONRAD%281859%29_p251_PROFIL_VAN_DE_HAVEN_VAN_SAID.jpg|thumb|Design of the breakwaters of Port Said]]

Di final report get 195 pages plus plans, technical tables, anaa oda tinz. Dem publish am for December 1856, den di Khedive for Egypt accept am. Di report explain why e be important make dem connect di two seas direct, plus all di technical details about di canal, including di ports wey dem go build, telegraph lines wey dem go install along di canal, ferries wey dem go introduce, plus lighting for di Mediterranean coast and di whole Red Sea, including lighthouses, buoys and oda navigation equipment. Like dem already talk for di preliminary report, dem suggest say ''Port Said'' go be di name of di port for di northern entrance.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hartley |first1=Sir C |title=A short history of the engineering works of the Suez Canal |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1900 |volume=141 |issue=1900 |pages=157–194 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1900.18688 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1882936 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One of di main decisions be say dem no go build continuous embankments for places wey di canal pass through di Bitter Lakes because dem see say e no be necessary. Di report still decide say locks for both ends of di canal no go be needed because di lakes go reduce tidal currents. E also specify di dimensions of di canal and recommend say di depth make e be 8 metres (approximately 26.4 feet), plus enough width wey go allow two ships pass each oda while one extra ship fit still stand for one side.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=D |last2=Barry |first2=J W |last3=Harcourt |first3=L F V |last4=Dawes |first4=E |last5=Appleby |first5=C J |last6=Bell |first6=J R |last7=Corthell |first7=E L |last8=Wells |first8=L B |last9=Hartley |first9=C |title=Discussion: A short history of the engineering works of the Suez Canal |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1900 |volume=141 |issue=1900 |pages=195–212 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1900.18689 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Di proposed width be approximately 64 metres (210 feet) for di bottom and 97.5 metres (320 feet) for di top between di Red Sea and di Bitter Lakes. Between di Bitter Lakes and di Mediterranean, di proposed width be approximately 43.9 metres (144 feet) for di bottom and 79.9 metres (262 feet) for di top.

Di Commission prefer make dem build di jetties direct into di sea from Port Said instead of di earlier proposal near di Gulf of Pelusium. Dem take dis decision based on di recommendation of Mr. Larousse, one French Navy hydrographer. E show say enough depth of 8 metres dey nearer to Port Said than di eastern entrance wey dem first propose. After dem consider di cost of building di jetties and di advantage of di steep sea-bed slope, dem conclude say Port Said be di best choice.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

For Port Said, di final design of di jetties, including dia length and di way dem go construct dem, later follow advice from Mr. Pascal, Inspector-General of Roads and Bridges. For Port Tewfik, dem decide say one jetty alone go do. Everybody agree on di arrangement of di inner harbour works wey dem need for both ends of di canal. Dem recommend say di western and eastern jetties for Port Said make dem be approximately 2987 metres (9,800 feet) and 1829 metres (6,000 feet) long. Di starting width go be approximately 1280 metres (4,200 feet), while di ending separation go be approximately 701 metres (2,300 feet). Di channel wey go pass along di western jetty go be approximately 100.6 metres (330 feet) wide and 9.1 metres (30 feet) deep, with direction northeast by 2 degrees north.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Denison |first1=Sir W T |title=THE SUEZ CANAL |journal=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=January 1867 |volume=26 |issue=1867 |pages=442–448 |doi=10.1680/imotp.1867.23168 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

For di report, di commission clearly talk say dem finish all di duties wey dem get and complete all dia work. Dem also talk say dem hope say dem go build di canal very soon, but dem no comment in any way about how di future construction work go happen or who go manage am.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Sources ==

Lesseps publish one complete final report together with di investigation journal and di minutes of all di commission dia discussions. Negrelli give details about di proposed canal to di ''K.K. Geographische Gesellschaft'' (Imperial Royal Geographical Society) for Vienna and also give dem one copy of di commission dia final report. Di society later publish di material inside dia own proceedings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lesseps |first1=Ferdinand de |title=Percement de l'isthme de Suez |date=1856 |publisher=H. Plon |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVoGEq7EwxMC&amp;pg=PA377 |language=fr }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Kaiserlich-Königliche Geographische Gesellschaft in Wien |title=Mittheilungen der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien |date=1857 |publisher=Lechner |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0NUAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=RA1-PA71 |language=de }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Frederik Willem |title=Reizen naar de landengte van Suez, Egypte, het Heilige Land |date=1859 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STRCAAAAcAAJ |language=nl }}{{pn|date=December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=Reizen+naar+de+landengte+van+Suez%2C+Egypte%2C+het+Heilige+Land+%281859%29&amp;title=Special:MediaSearch&amp;go=OK&amp;type=image Wikimedia]

[[Category:Suez Canal]]</text>
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    <title>Baht River</title>
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[[File:Sebou_Bassin_OSM.png|right|thumb|250x250px|De Sebou River watershed plus de oued baht (lower left center)]]
De '''Baht River''' be a watercourse insyd [[Morocco]] wey be a tributary to de [[Sebou River]]. Dem sanso know as de '''Oued Beht''', dis river dey rise insyd de Middle Atlas mountain range. De Baht be impounded by de El Kansera irrigation dam about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Sidi Slimane.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=El Kansera |url=http://www.water.gov.ma/index.cfm?gen=true&amp;Id=80&amp;ID_PAGE=192 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205043102/http://www.water.gov.ma/index.cfm?gen=true&amp;Id=80&amp;ID_PAGE=192 |archive-date=2013-12-05 |access-date=2013-07-05 |publisher=Ministère de l'Energie, des Mines, de l'Eau et de l'Environnement- Département de l'Eau |ref={{harvid|El Kansera: Ministère}}}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Insyd de upper parts of de watershed within de Middle Atlas be de prehistoric range of de endangered primate Barbary macaque, wich prehistorically get a much larger range insyd North Africa.

== References ==</text>
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    <title>Mahmudiyya Canal</title>
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[[File:Mahmoudiyah Canal.jpg|thumb|Mahmoudiyah Canal for 1893]]
'''Maḥmūdiyya Canal''' ({{Langx|el|Ἀγαθὸς Δαίμων}} ''Agathos Daimon'' or {{Langx|el|Μέγας ποταμός}} ''Megas potamos'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.trismegistos.org/place/60|title=TM Places|website=www.trismegistos.org|access-date=2020-04-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; na {{convert|45|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}} sub-canal wey branch from Nile River. E start from Nile port for Mahmoudia and e pass through Alexandria go reach Mediterranean Sea. Dem build am make e supply Alexandria with food plus fresh water from River Nile.

==History==

===Before 1817===
Di first freshwater canal wey connect River Nile to Alexandria, dem build am under di rule of Ptolemy I. Ibn Batuta (1304–1369), di Moroccan traveller, for ein book ''Rihla: My Travels'', talk say ein pass through Alexandria for 1326, and e mention one canal wey connect Alexandria to River Nile wey dem finish some few years before ein reach. Dis one fit contradict di claim say Wali Muhammad Ali build am almost four hundred years later. But if person look di geographical location plus di fact say dat area, wey dem reclaim not too long before, be plain desert for dat time, e fit be say sand cover di old canal before dem later restore am. E no mean say dem follow exactly di same route when Muhammed Ali of Egypt rebuild am.

===Di digging process===
For 8 May 1817, Viceroy Mohamed Ali order make dem dig one canal from River Nile near Alatf village make e carry water from River Nile go Alexandria through Beheira and also serve as route for cargo ships. E gather workers plus all di tools wey dem need make dem start di digging work. During di digging, dem discover some old houses wey sand cover, and inside dem find some ancient boxes. Dem open some of di boxes while dem send di others go give Mohamed Ali without anybody knowing wetin dey inside. For April 1819, di work stop because plague break out. For January 1820, dem finish di canal and name am after Sultan Mahmud II, di Sultan of Istanbul, because Egypt be province under di Ottoman Empire for dat time.

===After 1820===
Within twenty years after dem dig di canal, sand fill am and e almost no fit pass again. Na only after Muhammad Sa'id Pasha become ruler before dem clear di canal and make boats fit use am again.

[[File:Mahmoudieh Canal, Near Alexandria.png|thumb|Postcard wey show Mahmoudiyah Canal]]

Agreement between di Prussian Baron de Pentz and di Pasha to use di canal for supplying Alexandria during di first half of di nineteenth century end because dem disagree over hoisting di Prussian flag.&lt;ref name=&quot;thenewmonthly&quot;&gt;William Harrison Ainsworth, ''The New Monthly Magazine'', London: Chapman and Hall, 1853, pp. 3-4
[https://books.google.com/books?id=8joFAAAAQAAJ&amp;dq=%22Jules+Pastr%C3%A9%22&amp;pg=PA3]&lt;/ref&gt; For di 1850s, dem form one new steam-tug company with approval from di pasha make e use di canal. Di board of directors include Jules Pastré, Alexander G. Cassavetti, Ange Adolphe Levi, Alexander Tod, and Moise Valensin. Di pasha order di new company make dem replace di old locks with newer and bigger gates and also make dem clean plus maintain di canal well.&lt;ref name=&quot;thenewmonthly&quot; /&gt;

==Map from di time wey dem build am==
For di French ''Carte Topographique de l'Egypte'',&lt;ref&gt;[http://rumsey.geogarage.com/maps/mosaicegypt29_48.html Nile delta in early 19th century, compilation of 18 from the 45 leaves of Carte topographique de l'Egypte (French), 1818]&lt;/ref&gt; wey dem survey while dem dey build di canal and publish for 1818, dem call di canal Canal of Alexandria (خليج الإسكندرية — Khalīg al-Iskandariyya). For dat map, di place wey di canal branch from River Nile dey about 20{{clarify |date=December 2019 |reason=Distance in miles or kilometers?}} upstream from di modern branching point, but no part of di canal be completely straight.

== Crime for Mahmudiyya ==
Because di canal big well well and e dey close to di centre of Alexandria, plenty murderers dey use am dump dead bodies. For 1904, The Egyptian Gazette report say some butcher and shoemaker brutally kill one Egyptian woman and throw ein body inside di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=April 6, 1904 |title=Egyptian Gazette |pages=3 |work=Egyptian Gazette}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two years later, for 1906, dem report say one fisherman discover di remains of one young Egyptian girl inside one big canvas bag along di canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=September 27, 1906 |title=Egyptian Gazette |pages=3 |work=Egyptian Gazette}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==See also==
* Suez Canal
* Ibrahimiya Canal

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Egypt}}

[[Category:Canals in Egypt]]
[[Category:Canals opened in 1820]]</text>
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    <title>Ibrahimiya Canal</title>
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{{Short description|Canal for Egypt}}

The '''Ibrahimiyah Canal''' na irrigation canal for Egypt wey dem build for 1873.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Drylands |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |year=1993 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-09663-8|pages=249}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hatim&gt;{{cite book|author=Muḥammad ʻAbd al-Qādir Ḥātim|title=Land of the Arabs|publisher=Longman|date=1977|isbn=9780582780378|pages=32, 49}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem build am during Ismail Pasha ein rule as Khedive for Egypt. E be de most important public work wey dem do under de new Ministry of Public Works. Bahgat Pasha, wey be minister for public works, order make dem build am. E design am mainly make e give permanent irrigation to de Khedivial sugar estates for Middle Egypt. De canal dey supply permanent irrigation to {{convert|580000|acre|km2}} land plus flood irrigation to another {{convert|420000|acre|km2}}. De amount of water wey dey pass inside de canal dey range from 30 to 80 cubic metres per second for summer, den between 500 den 900 cubic metres per second during flood season. E head dey de left bank of de Nile for Assiut. From there e dey flow go north for 60 kilometres before e divide for Dairut into two main branches. One branch be de Bahr Yussef Canal, while de other one be de Ibrahimiyah Canal proper.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=William Willcocks|title=Egyptian Irrigation|url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianirrigati02willuoft|edition=Third|location=London|publisher=E &amp; F. N. Spon. Ltd|date=1913}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dis 350-kilometre long canal, wey plenty people agree say e be one of de biggest man-made canals for de world, first dey take water direct from de Nile without any weirs or inlet works for de river, so de river water dey enter am freely. Sir William Willcocks, de famous British civil engineer, later build de Assiut Barrage for 1901 make dem fit control de amount of water wey dey flow inside de canal better.

Although dem build locks through de southern third of de canal, Ibrahimiyah Canal no dey fit for navigation after Dairut because dem design am only for irrigation. Apart from small places wey e dey follow parts of old canals, de Ibrahimiyah Canal dey flow parallel to de Nile, and de distance between de canal den de river no pass 4 to 5 kilometres.

== Dairut Distribution Works==
For de 60th kilometre for Dairut, Ibrahimiyah Canal start dey share ein water. For dis place, de canal dey become wide like one basin, den dem build six distribution structures along am. Dem be:
# Inlet for de Sahelieh Canal, wey get two arches, each one be 3 metres wide.
# Inlet for de Dairoutieh Canal, wey get three arches, each one be 3 metres wide.
# Inlet for Bahr Yussef (de main irrigation canal for Faiyum), wey get five arches, each one be 3 metres wide. Bahr Yussef normally dey receive one-third of all de water from Ibrahimiyah Canal. E dey irrigate lands west of Minya, Beni Suef den Faiyum provinces.
# Distribution structure for Ibrahimiyah Canal itself, wey get seven arches, each one be 3 metres wide, plus one navigation lock wey be 8.5 metres wide.
# One reservoir wey dey carry extra water from de canal back go de Nile. Dis structure get five openings, each one be 3 metres wide, plus one navigation lock wey be 8.5 metres wide.
# One inlet wey get two arches, each one be 3 metres wide, for filling different basins on de left bank of Bahr Yussef Canal, for places wey dey too high make Bahr Yussef ein own water no fit reach dem.&lt;ref&gt;J. Barois, (1887). ''Irrigation in Egypt'', Paris, 39&lt;/ref&gt;

After Ibrahimiyah leave Dairut, different distribution structures dey control de amount of water wey dey flow along de canal. Dem be:
# '''Hafez Regulator''': for kilometre 90 for Mallawi. Dem abandon de original regulator, den dem build one new one for 1989 as part of de US-funded Irrigation Improvements Project (IIP). Before dis regulator, for de left side, de intake for Serry Canal dey, wey be one major branch from Ibrahimiyah wey dey irrigate more than {{convert|140000|acre|km2}} west of Minya.
# '''Minya Regulator''': for kilometre 120 for Minya. De old regulator, wey people still dey use as bridge, get three arches, each one be 3 metres wide. Dem build one new regulator 2 kilometres downstream from de old one for 1993, also as part of de IIP project.
# '''Matay Regulator''': for kilometre 160. E too get three arches, each one be 3 metres wide.
# '''Maghagha Regulator''': for kilometre 188. Another structure wey get three arches, each one be 3 metres wide. E get one weir too.
# '''Al Sharahnah Regulator''': for kilometre 210. For dis place, one regulator wey get three arches plus one siphon dey allow drainage water make e pass under de Ibrahimiyah Canal.

After de canal leave Al Sharahnah, e continue for about 140 kilometres. But by de time e reach Al Ayat for Giza, e no be major canal again. Instead, e turn small irrigation canal wey get bottom width of only 5 metres.

==See also==
* List of cities and towns in Egypt

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Canals in Egypt]]</text>
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{{Short description|Canal for Egypt}}
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{{more citations needed|date=February 2022}}

'''El Salam Canal''' ({{langx|ar|ترعة السلام}}) na canal wey dem build as part of di Sinai Project. E start from di Damietta branch of di Nile and e stretch go southwest towards Lake Manzala, den e turn south make e drain enter El Sarow drainage. Afta dat, e move go east and den south again go Hadoos drainage. From dia, e pass under di Suez Canal thru four tunnels. E continue for di oda side of di Suez Canal as di El-Sheikh Jaber canal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sallam |first=Osama |last2=Dawoud |first2=M. A. |date=October 2014 |title=New Reclamation Mega Projects and Increasing the Pressure on Water System in the Nile Valley and Delta in Egypt |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Osama-Sallam-2/publication/274512763_New_Reclamation_Mega_Projects_and_Increasing_the_Pressure_on_Water_System_in_the_Nile_Valley_and_Delta_in_Egypt/links/552228af0cf2f9c130529d21/New-Reclamation-Mega-Projects-and-Increasing-the-Pressure-on-Water-System-in-the-Nile-Valley-and-Delta-in-Egypt.pdf |access-date=2 Nov 2025 |website=researchgate.net}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Canals in Egypt]]</text>
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    <title>Bahr Yussef</title>
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{{Short description|Canal wey connect Nile River plus Fayyum for Egypt}}
[[File:بحر يوسف بمدينة المنيا.jpg|thumb|312x312px|Bahr Yussef near di town of Minya]]

'''Bahr Yussef''' ({{langx|ar|بحر يوسف}}; &quot;Joseph ein waterway&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''Bahr'' literally means &quot;sea&quot;, not &quot;river&quot;, which would be &quot;Nahr&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;) na canal wey dey connect Nile River plus Faiyum Oasis for Egypt.

For ancient times, di Greeks bin dey call am '''Tomis''' ({{Langx|grc|Τωμις}}), wey dem derive from ein Egyptian name ''Tm.t'' (&quot;ending canal&quot;). Dat name still dey in use after di Arab conquest, den dem translate am go Arabic as '''al-Manhi''' ({{Langx|ar|المنهى}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Peust |first=Carsten |title=Die Toponyme vorarabischen Ursprungs im modernen Ägypten |year=2010 |location=Göttingen |pages=103}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem still bin dey call am &quot;di Great canal&quot; ({{Langx|grc|διῶρυξ Μεγάλη}}) anaa &quot;di canal of Moeris&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=TM Places|url=https://www.trismegistos.org/place/572|access-date=2020-12-06|website=www.trismegistos.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di modern Arabic name dey refer to di prophet Yusuf, wey be di Quran ein version of di biblical Joseph.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

For prehistoric times, di canal bin be natural distributary of di Nile wey create lake for di west side during big floods. From di Twelfth Dynasty, dem enlarge di waterway den develop Fayyum to make Lake Moeris (now Birket Qarun) bigger. Dem build di canal follow di natural slope of di valley, wey create channel wey be 15&amp;nbsp;km long plus 5 m deep wey slope enter di Fayyum depression. Di Ha-Uar Dam control di canal, wey actually be two dams wey regulate how water dey flow enter di lake den flow back go di Nile. As di surrounding area change around 230 BC, dem neglect Bahr Yussef gradually, wey make most of Lake Moeris dry finish, create di depression wey dey today plus di modern Faiyum Oasis.

For medieval period, di canal still be important communication route wey connect Fayyum plus Cairo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Tillier |first1=Mathieu |last2=Vanthieghem |first2=Naïm |title=Un voyageur témoin de manoeuvres militaires dans le Fayoum (IIIe-IVe/IXe-Xe siècle) |journal=Chronique d'Égypte |date=July 2020 |volume=95 |issue=190 |pages=347–367 |doi=10.1484/J.CDE.5.124771|s2cid=238100373 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03214276/file/Tillier-Vanthieghem-Lettre%20voyageur%20Fayoum-Chronique%20Egypte.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bahr Yussef still dey today, an e dey carry water go north enter Faiyum Oasis, wey dey run side by side plus di Nile.

==See also==
* Sakoula DNC

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Coord|29.241473|30.916729|display=title}} &lt;!--ex Wikimapia link --&gt;
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Canals in Egypt]]
[[Category:Faiyum]]
[[Category:Faiyum Governorate]]
[[Category:River bifurcations]]
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{{Redirect|Canals|the surname|Canals (surname)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2025}}

[[File:Alter Strom.jpg|thumb|The Alter Strom, for the sea resort of Warnemünde, Germany]]
[[File:IMG RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg|thumb|The Royal Canal for Ireland]]
[[File:Basingstoke Canal - Lock.JPG|thumb|Small boat canals like the Basingstoke Canal help fuel the Industrial Revolution for plenty parts of Europe and the United States.]]
[[File:Ponte_sul_Naviglio.jpg|thumb|right|Bridge on top the Naviglio Grande, for the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, Italy]]
[[File:Broek in Waterland, woonhuis aan het Ee.jpg|thumb|Canal for Broek in Waterland, Netherlands]]
[[File:Wenecja, kanał wodny (Aw58TF).jpg|thumb|Canal for Venice]]

'''Canals''' or '''artificial waterways''' be waterways wey human beings build for drainage management (like flood control and irrigation) or to carry water transport vehicles (like water taxis). Dem dey carry free, calm surface water flow under atmospheric pressure, and you fit see dem as artificial rivers.

For most cases, canal get series of dams and locks wey create reservoirs with slow-moving water. People dey call these reservoirs ''slack water levels'', or just ''levels''. Canal fit also be called '''navigation canal''' if e dey run side by side with natural river and share part of the river ein water discharge and drainage basin. E dey use the river ein resources by building dams and locks to increase and extend the stretches of calm water while e still dey inside the same valley.

Canal fit cut across drainage divide on top of ridge, but e normally need another water source wey dey above the highest elevation. The most popular example of this kind canal be the Panama Canal.

People build plenty canals for high places above valleys and other waterways. Canals wey get water source from higher ground fit carry water go places like cities wey need water. The Roman Empire ein aqueducts be examples of these water supply canals.

Long time ago, people use this term describe certain straight-line features for the surface of Mars, but modern pictures don show say that name no be correct.

==Types of artificial waterways==
[[File:Saimaa canal at Lappeenranta Finland.jpg|thumb|Saimaa Canal, transport canal wey connect Finland and Russia, for Lappeenranta]]

A ''navigation'' be series of channels wey dey run almost side by side with the valley and stream bed of natural river wey nobody improve. Navigation always dey share the same drainage basin with the river. Ships dey use the calm parts of the river plus the engineered improvements as dem travel through the same changes in height.

True ''canal'' be channel wey cut across drainage divide to create navigable channel wey connect two different drainage basins.

[[File:Canal, Westbury Court Garden - geograph.org.uk - 1416966.jpg|thumb|Westbury Court Garden: the garden &quot;Canal&quot;]]

==Structures used in artificial waterways==

Both navigations and canals dey use engineered structures make navigation easy:

* weirs and dams to raise river water level reach usable depth;
* looping descents to create longer and gentler channel around rapids or waterfalls;
* locks to help ships and barges move go up and come down.

Because true canals dey cut across drainage divides instead of following the natural water level, dem dey harder to build and plenty times dem need extra structures like viaducts and aqueducts.

==Types of canals==
There be two main types of canal:

* Waterways: canals and navigations wey people dey use carry goods and passengers. You fit divide dem into two kinds:
:* Those wey connect existing lakes, rivers, other canals, seas and oceans.
:* Those wey be part of city water networks, like the ''Canal Grande'' and other canals for Venice; the ''grachten'' for Amsterdam or Utrecht; plus the waterways for Bangkok.

* Aqueducts: water supply canals wey people dey use transport and supply drinking water, municipal water, hydro power canals and agricultural irrigation.

[[File:Chutes Loading the Canal Boats on the Lehigh Canal.jpg|thumb|Loading Anthracite on the Lehigh Canal to support the early industries for the United States during the pioneer era]]

[[File:River Levee Cross Section Figure.svg|thumb|
1. Design High Water Level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone]]

[[File:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG|thumb|The Danube-Black Sea Canal for Romania]]

[[File:AmsterdamRijnkanaal.air.jpg|thumb|The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal near Rijswijk, Netherlands]]</text>
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      <text bytes="15436" sha1="pxnx8m16ixjsbr5fwaqlpzro8kj6i9t" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Artificial channel for water}}
{{Redirect|Canals|the surname|Canals (surname)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2025}}

[[File:Alter Strom.jpg|thumb|The Alter Strom, for the sea resort of Warnemünde, Germany]]
[[File:IMG RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg|thumb|The Royal Canal for Ireland]]
[[File:Basingstoke Canal - Lock.JPG|thumb|Small boat canals like the Basingstoke Canal help fuel the Industrial Revolution for plenty parts of Europe and the United States.]]
[[File:Ponte_sul_Naviglio.jpg|thumb|right|Bridge on top the Naviglio Grande, for the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, Italy]]
[[File:Broek in Waterland, woonhuis aan het Ee.jpg|thumb|Canal for Broek in Waterland, Netherlands]]
[[File:Wenecja, kanał wodny (Aw58TF).jpg|thumb|Canal for Venice]]

'''Canals''' or '''artificial waterways''' be waterways wey human beings build for drainage management (like flood control and irrigation) or to carry water transport vehicles (like water taxis). Dem dey carry free, calm surface water flow under atmospheric pressure, and you fit see dem as artificial rivers.

For most cases, canal get series of dams and locks wey create reservoirs with slow-moving water. People dey call these reservoirs ''slack water levels'', or just ''levels''. Canal fit also be called '''navigation canal''' if e dey run side by side with natural river and share part of the river ein water discharge and drainage basin. E dey use the river ein resources by building dams and locks to increase and extend the stretches of calm water while e still dey inside the same valley.

Canal fit cut across drainage divide on top of ridge, but e normally need another water source wey dey above the highest elevation. The most popular example of this kind canal be the Panama Canal.

People build plenty canals for high places above valleys and other waterways. Canals wey get water source from higher ground fit carry water go places like cities wey need water. The Roman Empire ein aqueducts be examples of these water supply canals.

Long time ago, people use this term describe certain straight-line features for the surface of Mars, but modern pictures don show say that name no be correct.

==Types of artificial waterways==
[[File:Saimaa canal at Lappeenranta Finland.jpg|thumb|Saimaa Canal, transport canal wey connect Finland and Russia, for Lappeenranta]]

A ''navigation'' be series of channels wey dey run almost side by side with the valley and stream bed of natural river wey nobody improve. Navigation always dey share the same drainage basin with the river. Ships dey use the calm parts of the river plus the engineered improvements as dem travel through the same changes in height.

True ''canal'' be channel wey cut across drainage divide to create navigable channel wey connect two different drainage basins.

[[File:Canal, Westbury Court Garden - geograph.org.uk - 1416966.jpg|thumb|Westbury Court Garden: the garden &quot;Canal&quot;]]

==Structures used in artificial waterways==

Both navigations and canals dey use engineered structures make navigation easy:

* weirs and dams to raise river water level reach usable depth;
* looping descents to create longer and gentler channel around rapids or waterfalls;
* locks to help ships and barges move go up and come down.

Because true canals dey cut across drainage divides instead of following the natural water level, dem dey harder to build and plenty times dem need extra structures like viaducts and aqueducts.

==Types of canals==
There be two main types of canal:

* Waterways: canals and navigations wey people dey use carry goods and passengers. You fit divide dem into two kinds:
:* Those wey connect existing lakes, rivers, other canals, seas and oceans.
:* Those wey be part of city water networks, like the ''Canal Grande'' and other canals for Venice; the ''grachten'' for Amsterdam or Utrecht; plus the waterways for Bangkok.

* Aqueducts: water supply canals wey people dey use transport and supply drinking water, municipal water, hydro power canals and agricultural irrigation.

[[File:Chutes Loading the Canal Boats on the Lehigh Canal.jpg|thumb|Loading Anthracite on the Lehigh Canal to support the early industries for the United States during the pioneer era]]

[[File:River Levee Cross Section Figure.svg|thumb|
1. Design High Water Level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone]]

[[File:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG|thumb|The Danube-Black Sea Canal for Romania]]

[[File:AmsterdamRijnkanaal.air.jpg|thumb|The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal near Rijswijk, Netherlands]]
==Importance==
&lt;!-- This section needs information on irrigation canals. --&gt;
Historically, canals bin get very big importance for commerce, development, growth plus the strength of civilization. E make moving plenty raw materials like coal and ores easy, because without water transport, e be very difficult and expensive to move dem. The movement of these raw materials through canals help fuel the Industrial Revolution, bring new research fields, new industries, economies of scale, and improve the standard of living for industrialized societies.

The few canals wey still dey operate for the 21st century be just small part of the plenty canals wey people maintain during the early Industrial Revolution. Dem begin replace them gradually, first for the United Kingdom during the 1840s, where railway system first support canal transport and later replace am because trains dey faster, no get plenty geographical limits, and cheaper to maintain.

By the early 1880s, plenty canals no fit compete with railway transport, so dem abandon them. During the 20th century, oil become the main fuel for heating, and coal shipments begin reduce. After the First World War, improvements for motor trucks plus expansion of road networks make more freight move by road, and the last small barge canals for the United States gradually lose cargo traffic.

The smaller inland waterways wey engineers originally build for boats and barges largely disappear today. Some dem fill up, some abandon make dem spoil, while others still dey under park services where government workers maintain dams and locks for flood control or pleasure boating. Today, most ship canals (wey bigger ocean-going ships dey use) mainly serve bulk cargo and large shipping industries.

The longest canal wey still dey exist today, the Grand Canal for northern China, still dey heavily used, especially the part south of the Yellow River. E stretch from Beijing to Hangzhou for 1,794 kilometres (1,115 miles).

==Construction==
Canals fit be built in one of three ways, or by combining all three methods, depending on available water plus the route available.

;Human made streams
* Dem fit create canal where no stream dey already. Either dem dig the canal body or build the canal sides with dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, concrete or other building materials. The finished cross-sectional shape of the canal be known as the ''canal prism''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Thompson|first1=Kristi|title=Glossary|url=https://www.usbr.gov/library/glossary/#C|website=www.usbr.gov|publisher=US Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=15 September 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The canal water must come from another source like streams or reservoirs. Where the waterway must change elevation, engineers build structures like locks, lifts or elevators to raise and lower vessels. Examples include Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal.
* Dem fit also build canal by dredging one channel inside the bottom of an existing lake. After the channel finish, dem drain the lake and the channel become new canal wey also drain the surrounding polder and provide transport. Examples include the {{Interlanguage link multi|Lage Vaart|nl}}. Another method be to build two parallel dikes inside an existing lake, leave the canal between them, then drain the remaining lake. The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal take this method. For both methods, pumping stations be necessary to keep the surrounding land dry by pumping water either from the canal to nearby waters or from the land into the canal.

;Canalization and navigations
{{anchor|Canalization|Navigation|Navigations}}
* Dem fit canalize one stream to make navigation easier, safer and more predictable. Canalization change the stream by dredging, building dams and modifying the route. This usually include locks and spillways to turn the river into a navigation. Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania's coal Region, Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and canal Aisne. Riparian zone restoration fit also be necessary.

{{anchor|Bypass canal|lateral canal}}
;Lateral canals
* If one stream too difficult to canalize, dem fit create another stream beside or close to the existing one. This be called a ''lateral canal''. E fit follow plenty bends to reduce the slope by making the route longer. The original stream usually provide the water while the land beside am provide the route for the new canal. Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne Lateral Canal, Welland Canal and Juliana Canal.

Smaller transportation canals fit carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow ocean-going ships to travel to inland ports (for example, Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (for example, Caledonian Canal and Panama Canal).

==Features==
At the simplest level, canal be just trench wey water fill. Depending on the stratum wey the canal pass through, e fit be necessary to line the cut with waterproof material like clay or concrete. When dem use clay, dem call am puddling.

Canals need to stay level. Small changes in the land fit be handled with cuttings and embankments, but bigger elevation changes need other engineering methods. The commonest one be the pound lock, wey get chamber where water level fit rise or fall to connect two canal sections at different heights or connect canal to river or sea. Where hill dey, dem fit use flights of many locks one after another.

Before the double-gated pound lock develop for 10th-century China&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 15th-century Europe, vessels dey use flash locks or ramps, sometimes with rollers, to move up and down. Flash locks be difficult to use and only work where plenty water dey.

Every time lock operate, e use plenty water. Because of this, engineers develop other methods for places where water scarce. These include boat lifts like the Falkirk Wheel, wey use caisson of water where boats float while dem move between different levels, and canal inclined planes where dem pull the caisson along steep railway.

If canal need cross stream, road or valley, and plenty locks go waste time, dem fit build navigable aqueduct like the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (now UNESCO World Heritage Site) across the River Dee valley for Wales.

Another way to cross hills be to dig tunnel through them. One example be the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels mostly dey practical only for smaller canals.

Some canals try reduce level changes as much as possible. These canals, called contour canals, follow longer winding routes where the land stay at almost the same height. Other later canals choose more direct routes and use different engineering methods to deal with height changes.

Canals get different features to solve water supply problems. For places like the Suez Canal, the canal open directly to the sea. Where canal no dey sea level, engineers use different methods. Taking water from rivers or springs be one option, sometimes with extra systems to manage seasonal flow changes. Where these sources no dey, dem use reservoirs—either separate from the canal or built into am—and back pumping to provide water. For some places, water pumped from mines feed the canal. In other cases, engineers build long feeder canals to bring water from places far away from the canal.

Where plenty goods dey loaded or unloaded, like canal end, dem fit build canal basin. This usually be wider than the normal canal. Some canal basins also get wharfs and cranes to help move goods.

When one part of canal need close so workers fit drain am for maintenance, dem usually use stop planks. These be wooden planks wey dem place across the canal to form temporary dam. Dem normally fit inside grooves already made for the canal bank. For more modern canals, engineers sometimes install guard locks or gates to quickly close one section either for maintenance or to stop major water loss if canal break.

===Canal falls===
A ''canal fall'', or canal drop, be vertical drop for the canal bed.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; Dem build am where the natural ground slope too steep compared with the canal gradient.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; The design make the falling water lose its kinetic energy so e no go scour the canal bed and sides.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=S. K. |title=Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures |date=2016 |publisher=S Chand and Company |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-93-525-3377-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkRxDwAAQBAJ |access-date=31 July 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|643}}

Dem construct canal fall through cut and fill.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; E fit combine with regulator, bridge or another structure to reduce construction costs.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|643–4}}

Different types of canal falls dey according to their shape.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; One type be the ogee fall, where the drop follow S-shaped curve to create smooth transition and reduce turbulence.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; However, this smooth transition no reduce enough kinetic energy, so heavy scouring fit happen.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; Because of that, engineers reinforce the canal with concrete or masonry to prevent erosion.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|644}}

Another type be the vertical fall, wey be &quot;simple and economical&quot;.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; These get &quot;cistern&quot;, or depressed area, just after the fall to cushion the water by providing deep pool where the kinetic energy fit diffuse.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; Vertical falls fit work for drops up to {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|0}} high and discharge up to {{convert|15|m3/s}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt;{{rp|646}}

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;135&quot;&gt;
File:Caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg|alt=A series of approximately 20 black lock gates with white ends to the paddle arms and wooden railings, each slightly higher than the one below. On the right is a path and on both side's grass and vegetation.|The flight of 16 consecutive locks for Caen Hill on the Kennet and Avon Canal, Wiltshire
File:Pontcysyllte aqueduct arp.jpg|The Llangollen Canal cross the longest and highest aqueduct for Wrexham, Wales, United Kingdom
File:Canal of korinth greece.jpg|The Corinth Canal as e dey look from air
File:Miami and Erie Canal Lock photographs - DPLA - 02d6f9c193ca64978e408b5e50a34a5d (page 1).jpg|Miami and Erie Canal Lock for Ohio, United States
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="39091" sha1="mx6w8t7g6hd4eir8gsypwgbiogpoksa" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Artificial channel for water}}
{{Redirect|Canals|the surname|Canals (surname)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2025}}

[[File:Alter Strom.jpg|thumb|The Alter Strom, for the sea resort of Warnemünde, Germany]]
[[File:IMG RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg|thumb|The Royal Canal for Ireland]]
[[File:Basingstoke Canal - Lock.JPG|thumb|Small boat canals like the Basingstoke Canal help fuel the Industrial Revolution for plenty parts of Europe and the United States.]]
[[File:Ponte_sul_Naviglio.jpg|thumb|right|Bridge on top the Naviglio Grande, for the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, Italy]]
[[File:Broek in Waterland, woonhuis aan het Ee.jpg|thumb|Canal for Broek in Waterland, Netherlands]]
[[File:Wenecja, kanał wodny (Aw58TF).jpg|thumb|Canal for Venice]]

'''Canals''' or '''artificial waterways''' be waterways wey human beings build for drainage management (like flood control and irrigation) or to carry water transport vehicles (like water taxis). Dem dey carry free, calm surface water flow under atmospheric pressure, and you fit see dem as artificial rivers.

For most cases, canal get series of dams and locks wey create reservoirs with slow-moving water. People dey call these reservoirs ''slack water levels'', or just ''levels''. Canal fit also be called '''navigation canal''' if e dey run side by side with natural river and share part of the river ein water discharge and drainage basin. E dey use the river ein resources by building dams and locks to increase and extend the stretches of calm water while e still dey inside the same valley.

Canal fit cut across drainage divide on top of ridge, but e normally need another water source wey dey above the highest elevation. The most popular example of this kind canal be the Panama Canal.

People build plenty canals for high places above valleys and other waterways. Canals wey get water source from higher ground fit carry water go places like cities wey need water. The Roman Empire ein aqueducts be examples of these water supply canals.

Long time ago, people use this term describe certain straight-line features for the surface of Mars, but modern pictures don show say that name no be correct.

==Types of artificial waterways==
[[File:Saimaa canal at Lappeenranta Finland.jpg|thumb|Saimaa Canal, transport canal wey connect Finland and Russia, for Lappeenranta]]

A ''navigation'' be series of channels wey dey run almost side by side with the valley and stream bed of natural river wey nobody improve. Navigation always dey share the same drainage basin with the river. Ships dey use the calm parts of the river plus the engineered improvements as dem travel through the same changes in height.

True ''canal'' be channel wey cut across drainage divide to create navigable channel wey connect two different drainage basins.

[[File:Canal, Westbury Court Garden - geograph.org.uk - 1416966.jpg|thumb|Westbury Court Garden: the garden &quot;Canal&quot;]]

==Structures used in artificial waterways==

Both navigations and canals dey use engineered structures make navigation easy:

* weirs and dams to raise river water level reach usable depth;
* looping descents to create longer and gentler channel around rapids or waterfalls;
* locks to help ships and barges move go up and come down.

Because true canals dey cut across drainage divides instead of following the natural water level, dem dey harder to build and plenty times dem need extra structures like viaducts and aqueducts.

==Types of canals==
There be two main types of canal:

* Waterways: canals and navigations wey people dey use carry goods and passengers. You fit divide dem into two kinds:
:* Those wey connect existing lakes, rivers, other canals, seas and oceans.
:* Those wey be part of city water networks, like the ''Canal Grande'' and other canals for Venice; the ''grachten'' for Amsterdam or Utrecht; plus the waterways for Bangkok.

* Aqueducts: water supply canals wey people dey use transport and supply drinking water, municipal water, hydro power canals and agricultural irrigation.

[[File:Chutes Loading the Canal Boats on the Lehigh Canal.jpg|thumb|Loading Anthracite on the Lehigh Canal to support the early industries for the United States during the pioneer era]]

[[File:River Levee Cross Section Figure.svg|thumb|
1. Design High Water Level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone]]

[[File:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG|thumb|The Danube-Black Sea Canal for Romania]]

[[File:AmsterdamRijnkanaal.air.jpg|thumb|The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal near Rijswijk, Netherlands]]
==Importance==
&lt;!-- This section needs information on irrigation canals. --&gt;
Historically, canals bin get very big importance for commerce, development, growth plus the strength of civilization. E make moving plenty raw materials like coal and ores easy, because without water transport, e be very difficult and expensive to move dem. The movement of these raw materials through canals help fuel the Industrial Revolution, bring new research fields, new industries, economies of scale, and improve the standard of living for industrialized societies.

The few canals wey still dey operate for the 21st century be just small part of the plenty canals wey people maintain during the early Industrial Revolution. Dem begin replace them gradually, first for the United Kingdom during the 1840s, where railway system first support canal transport and later replace am because trains dey faster, no get plenty geographical limits, and cheaper to maintain.

By the early 1880s, plenty canals no fit compete with railway transport, so dem abandon them. During the 20th century, oil become the main fuel for heating, and coal shipments begin reduce. After the First World War, improvements for motor trucks plus expansion of road networks make more freight move by road, and the last small barge canals for the United States gradually lose cargo traffic.

The smaller inland waterways wey engineers originally build for boats and barges largely disappear today. Some dem fill up, some abandon make dem spoil, while others still dey under park services where government workers maintain dams and locks for flood control or pleasure boating. Today, most ship canals (wey bigger ocean-going ships dey use) mainly serve bulk cargo and large shipping industries.

The longest canal wey still dey exist today, the Grand Canal for northern China, still dey heavily used, especially the part south of the Yellow River. E stretch from Beijing to Hangzhou for 1,794 kilometres (1,115 miles).

==Construction==
Canals fit be built in one of three ways, or by combining all three methods, depending on available water plus the route available.

;Human made streams
* Dem fit create canal where no stream dey already. Either dem dig the canal body or build the canal sides with dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, concrete or other building materials. The finished cross-sectional shape of the canal be known as the ''canal prism''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Thompson|first1=Kristi|title=Glossary|url=https://www.usbr.gov/library/glossary/#C|website=www.usbr.gov|publisher=US Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=15 September 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The canal water must come from another source like streams or reservoirs. Where the waterway must change elevation, engineers build structures like locks, lifts or elevators to raise and lower vessels. Examples include Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal.
* Dem fit also build canal by dredging one channel inside the bottom of an existing lake. After the channel finish, dem drain the lake and the channel become new canal wey also drain the surrounding polder and provide transport. Examples include the {{Interlanguage link multi|Lage Vaart|nl}}. Another method be to build two parallel dikes inside an existing lake, leave the canal between them, then drain the remaining lake. The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal take this method. For both methods, pumping stations be necessary to keep the surrounding land dry by pumping water either from the canal to nearby waters or from the land into the canal.

;Canalization and navigations
{{anchor|Canalization|Navigation|Navigations}}
* Dem fit canalize one stream to make navigation easier, safer and more predictable. Canalization change the stream by dredging, building dams and modifying the route. This usually include locks and spillways to turn the river into a navigation. Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania's coal Region, Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and canal Aisne. Riparian zone restoration fit also be necessary.

{{anchor|Bypass canal|lateral canal}}
;Lateral canals
* If one stream too difficult to canalize, dem fit create another stream beside or close to the existing one. This be called a ''lateral canal''. E fit follow plenty bends to reduce the slope by making the route longer. The original stream usually provide the water while the land beside am provide the route for the new canal. Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne Lateral Canal, Welland Canal and Juliana Canal.

Smaller transportation canals fit carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow ocean-going ships to travel to inland ports (for example, Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (for example, Caledonian Canal and Panama Canal).

==Features==
At the simplest level, canal be just trench wey water fill. Depending on the stratum wey the canal pass through, e fit be necessary to line the cut with waterproof material like clay or concrete. When dem use clay, dem call am puddling.

Canals need to stay level. Small changes in the land fit be handled with cuttings and embankments, but bigger elevation changes need other engineering methods. The commonest one be the pound lock, wey get chamber where water level fit rise or fall to connect two canal sections at different heights or connect canal to river or sea. Where hill dey, dem fit use flights of many locks one after another.

Before the double-gated pound lock develop for 10th-century China&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 15th-century Europe, vessels dey use flash locks or ramps, sometimes with rollers, to move up and down. Flash locks be difficult to use and only work where plenty water dey.

Every time lock operate, e use plenty water. Because of this, engineers develop other methods for places where water scarce. These include boat lifts like the Falkirk Wheel, wey use caisson of water where boats float while dem move between different levels, and canal inclined planes where dem pull the caisson along steep railway.

If canal need cross stream, road or valley, and plenty locks go waste time, dem fit build navigable aqueduct like the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (now UNESCO World Heritage Site) across the River Dee valley for Wales.

Another way to cross hills be to dig tunnel through them. One example be the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels mostly dey practical only for smaller canals.

Some canals try reduce level changes as much as possible. These canals, called contour canals, follow longer winding routes where the land stay at almost the same height. Other later canals choose more direct routes and use different engineering methods to deal with height changes.

Canals get different features to solve water supply problems. For places like the Suez Canal, the canal open directly to the sea. Where canal no dey sea level, engineers use different methods. Taking water from rivers or springs be one option, sometimes with extra systems to manage seasonal flow changes. Where these sources no dey, dem use reservoirs—either separate from the canal or built into am—and back pumping to provide water. For some places, water pumped from mines feed the canal. In other cases, engineers build long feeder canals to bring water from places far away from the canal.

Where plenty goods dey loaded or unloaded, like canal end, dem fit build canal basin. This usually be wider than the normal canal. Some canal basins also get wharfs and cranes to help move goods.

When one part of canal need close so workers fit drain am for maintenance, dem usually use stop planks. These be wooden planks wey dem place across the canal to form temporary dam. Dem normally fit inside grooves already made for the canal bank. For more modern canals, engineers sometimes install guard locks or gates to quickly close one section either for maintenance or to stop major water loss if canal break.

===Canal falls===
A ''canal fall'', or canal drop, be vertical drop for the canal bed.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; Dem build am where the natural ground slope too steep compared with the canal gradient.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; The design make the falling water lose its kinetic energy so e no go scour the canal bed and sides.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=S. K. |title=Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures |date=2016 |publisher=S Chand and Company |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-93-525-3377-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkRxDwAAQBAJ |access-date=31 July 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|643}}

Dem construct canal fall through cut and fill.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; E fit combine with regulator, bridge or another structure to reduce construction costs.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|643–4}}

Different types of canal falls dey according to their shape.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; One type be the ogee fall, where the drop follow S-shaped curve to create smooth transition and reduce turbulence.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; However, this smooth transition no reduce enough kinetic energy, so heavy scouring fit happen.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; Because of that, engineers reinforce the canal with concrete or masonry to prevent erosion.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|644}}

Another type be the vertical fall, wey be &quot;simple and economical&quot;.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; These get &quot;cistern&quot;, or depressed area, just after the fall to cushion the water by providing deep pool where the kinetic energy fit diffuse.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; Vertical falls fit work for drops up to {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|0}} high and discharge up to {{convert|15|m3/s}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt;{{rp|646}}

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;135&quot;&gt;
File:Caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg|alt=A series of approximately 20 black lock gates with white ends to the paddle arms and wooden railings, each slightly higher than the one below. On the right is a path and on both side's grass and vegetation.|The flight of 16 consecutive locks for Caen Hill on the Kennet and Avon Canal, Wiltshire
File:Pontcysyllte aqueduct arp.jpg|The Llangollen Canal cross the longest and highest aqueduct for Wrexham, Wales, United Kingdom
File:Canal of korinth greece.jpg|The Corinth Canal as e dey look from air
File:Miami and Erie Canal Lock photographs - DPLA - 02d6f9c193ca64978e408b5e50a34a5d (page 1).jpg|Miami and Erie Canal Lock for Ohio, United States
&lt;/gallery&gt;
==History==
[[File:Canal de la Peyrade, Sète, Hérault 01.jpg|thumb|Canal in Sète, France]]

Di transport capacity of [[pack animal]]s and [[cart]]s get limit. A mule fit carry {{convert|250|lb|kg|adj=on|order=flip|sigfig=1}}&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; maximum load for journey wey fit last several days or weeks,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; although e fit carry more if di distance short and dem give am proper rest.&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; Aside dat one, carts need roads. Transport for water dey much more efficient and e dey cost less for large cargoes.

===Ancient canals===
{{See also|List of Roman canals|Qanat}}

Di oldest known canals be irrigation canals, wey dem build for Mesopotamia {{circa|4000 BC}}, for wetin today be Iraq. Di Indus Valley civilization for wetin today be Pakistan and Northwestern India (c.&amp;nbsp;3000&amp;nbsp;BC) get advanced irrigation and storage systems wey dem develop, including di reservoirs wey dem build for Girnar for 3000&amp;nbsp;BC.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Rodda|2004|p=161.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis na di first time wey dem do planned civil project like dat for ancient world. For Egypt, canals date back reach time of Pepi I Meryre (wey reign 2332–2283&amp;nbsp;BC), wey order make dem build canal to bypass di cataract for Nile near Aswan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=16.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Xu Yang - Junks on the canal.jpg|thumb|right|Di Grand Canal of China for Suzhou]]

For ancient China, big canals for river transport start as far back as di Spring and Autumn period (8th–5th centuries BC), and di longest for dat time na Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), wey according to historian Sima Qian connect di old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Needham|1971|p=269.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di Caoyun System of canals dey very important for imperial taxation, because dem dey collect am mostly in kind and e involve plenty shipment of rice and grain. Di longest canal by far na Grand Canal of China, wey still remain di longest canal for world today and di oldest wey still dey exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;Langmead&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Donald Langmead|title=Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang|url-access=registration|access-date=15 February 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-112-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang/page/37 37]|quote=the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence|year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be {{convert|1794|km|mi}} long and dem build am to carry Emperor Yang Guang between Zhuodu (Beijing) and Yuhang (Hangzhou). Di project start for 605 and dem complete am for 609, although plenty parts of am join older canals, and di oldest section dey since at least 486&amp;nbsp;BC. Even for di narrow urban parts, e rarely less than {{convert|30|m|ft}} wide.

For di 5th century BC, Achaemenid king Xerxes I of Persia order build di Xerxes Canal through base of Mount Athos peninsula, Chalkidiki, northern Greece.&lt;ref name=&quot;VII, 22&quot;&gt;Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.22 VII, 22]&lt;/ref&gt; Dem build am as part of preparation for Second Persian invasion of Greece, inside Greco-Persian Wars. Na one of di few remaining monuments of di Persian Empire for Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;BSA98&quot;&gt;B. S. J. Isserlin, R. E. Jones, V. Karastathis, S. P. Papamarinopoulos, G. E. Syrides and J. Uren &quot;The Canal of Xerxes: Summary of Investigations 1991-2001&quot; The Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 98 (2003), pp. 369–385 {{JSTOR|30073214}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Greek engineers also be among di first people wey use canal locks, wey dem use regulate water flow for Ancient Suez Canal as early as 3rd century BC.&lt;ref&gt;Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): &quot;Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine&quot;, ''[[American Journal of Archaeology]]'', Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Froriep 1986, 46&quot;&gt;Froriep, Siegfried (1986): &quot;Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen&quot;, ''Antike Welt'', 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): &quot;Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal&quot;, ''Skyllis'', Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35)&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a pack-horse would [i.e. 'could'] carry only an eighth of a ton. On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton. But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.&lt;br /&gt;— technology historian Ronald W. Clark referring to transport realities before the industrial revolution and the Canal age.&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;&gt;''&quot;Works of Man&quot;'', Ronald W. Clark, {{ISBN|0-670-80483-5}} (1985) 352 pages, Viking Penguin, Inc, New York, &lt;br /&gt;quotation p. 87: &quot;There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a packhorse would [sic, meaning 'could' or 'can only'] carry only an eighth of a ton. On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton. But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[Hohokam]] na society for [[Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest|North American Southwest]] for wetin today be part of Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico. Dia irrigation systems support di biggest population for di Southwest by 1300 AD.&lt;ref name=&quot;AZMNH&quot; /&gt; Archaeologists wey dey work for major dig for 1990s for Tucson Basin, along Santa Cruz River, identify culture and people wey fit be ancestors of di Hohokam.&lt;ref&gt;2007-036 General COP Treatment Plan; Pueblo Grande Museum Project 2007–95; City of Phoenix Project No. ST87350010; [http://phoenix.gov/webcms/groups/internet/@inter/@rec/@arts/@mus/@pueblo/documents/web_content/gentrtment.pdf#page=17 '''p. 9''' ''Cultural Context''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324215827/http://phoenix.gov/webcms/groups/internet/@inter/@rec/@arts/@mus/@pueblo/documents/web_content/gentrtment.pdf#page=17 |date=March 24, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis prehistoric group occupy southern Arizona as early as 2000 BC, and for Early Agricultural period dem grow corn, live for permanent villages, and develop advanced irrigation canals.&lt;ref name=&quot;AZMNH&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=The Hohokam|url=http://www.azmnh.org/arch/hohokam.aspx|publisher=Arizona Museum of Natural History, City of Mesa|access-date=November 30, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130091322/http://www.azmnh.org/arch/hohokam.aspx|archive-date=November 30, 2012|df=mdy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Di large-scale Hohokam irrigation network for Phoenix metropolitan area na di most complex for ancient North America. Dem don renovate part of di old canals for Salt River Project and e still dey help supply di city water.

[[File:Yodha Ela.jpg|thumb|Yodha Ela, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka]]

Di Sinhalese people construct di {{cvt|87|km|mi}} Yodha Ela for 459 AD as part of dia large irrigation network for Sri Lanka, wey function like moving reservoir because of di single banking system wey dey control canal pressure with water flow. Dem also design am as long reservoir wey pass through traps wey create 66 mini catchments as e flow from Kala Wewa reach Thissa Wawa. Di canal no be just to move water fast from Kala Wewa go Thissa Wawa, but to store large body of water between di two reservoirs, wey go support agriculture and both human and animal use.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://srilanka.travel/yoda-ela |title=Yoda Ela – An Ancient Engineering Marvel}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Outlines of Ceylon History|isbn = 9788120613638|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&amp;q=yodha+ela&amp;pg=PA77|last1 = Obeyesekere|first1 = Donald|year = 1999| publisher=Asian Educational Services }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem also achieve very low gradient for dat time. Di canal still dey work today after renovation.

===Middle Ages===

[[File:Thal Canal.JPG|thumb|Thal Canal, Punjab, Pakistan]]

For Middle Ages, water transport dey many times cheaper and faster pass land transport. Overland transport with animal-drawn vehicles dey serve only around settled areas, but roads wey no improve need pack animals train, usually mules, to carry heavy load. Even though mule fit carry one-eighth ton,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; e still need handlers to manage am, and one person fit handle maybe five mules,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; meaning overland bulk transport still expensive because labour and upkeep cost money.

Roads for dat time no be paved, dem narrow pass for carts, and most times dem dey bad condition, passing through forests, swamp or muddy areas. Like today, big cargo and raw materials still dey move cheaper by ship pass land. Before railway era of industrial revolution, water transport na di main fast transport system.

Di first artificial canal for Western Europe na Fossa Carolina wey dem build near end of 8th century under Charlemagne.

For Britain, Glastonbury Canal dey believed to be di first post-Roman canal, built for 10th century to connect River Brue at Northover with Glastonbury Abbey, about {{convert|1.75|km|yd|-2}}.&lt;ref&gt;Details text and data with cites from Glastonbury Canal (medieval).&lt;/ref&gt; Initially, dem build am to carry building stone go di abbey, but later e serve to carry food, grain, wine and fish from abbey lands. E remain in use till at least 14th century, maybe even reach mid-16th century.&lt;ref name=Gathercole&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gathercole |first=Clare |title=An archaeological assessment of Glastonbury |publisher=Somerset County Council |location=Taunton |year=2003 |series=English Heritage Extensive Urban Survey |pages=19–20 |url=http://www1.somerset.gov.uk/archives/hes/downloads/EUS_GlastonburyText.pdf |access-date=2 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715230717/http://www1.somerset.gov.uk/archives/hes/downloads/EUS_GlastonburyText.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

More important ones wey really change economy be canals like Naviglio Grande wey dem build between 1127 and 1257 to connect Milan with River Ticino. Naviglio Grande na di most important of Lombard navigli&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Calvert|1963|p=.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and na one of di oldest working canals for Europe.

Later, dem build canals for Netherlands and Flanders to drain polder land and help transport goods and people.

Canal building come rise again because trade expand from 12th century. Rivers dem improve with flash locks, but dem use plenty water and e cause problem with watermill owners. To solve am, pound or chamber lock appear first for China for 10th century and later for Europe in 1373 for Vreeswijk, Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | title = The International Canal Monuments List | url = http://www.icomos.org/studies/canals.pdf| access-date = 8 October 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130810162849/http://www.icomos.org/studies/canals.pdf | archive-date = 10 August 2013 | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important development na mitre gate, wey dem believe say Bertola da Novate introduce for Italy for 16th century. E allow wider gates and remove height limit of guillotine locks.

To escape river valley limits, summit level canals start with Grand Canal of China (581–617 AD). For Europe, first one wey use single locks na Stecknitz Canal for Germany in 1398.

====Africa====
For Songhai Empire of West Africa, dem build several canals under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad I between Kabara and Timbuktu for 15th century. Dem use am mainly for irrigation and transport. Sunni Ali even try build canal from Niger River go Walata to help conquest, but war with Mossi Kingdoms stop am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/general_history_africa_iv.pdf | title=General History of Africa | publisher=Heinemann Educational Books, University of California Press, UNESCO | date=2000 | orig-date=1984 | volume=IV | pages=193–194 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611080711/https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/general_history_africa_iv.pdf | archive-date=2020-06-11 | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Early modern period===

[[File:SL Negombo asv2020-01 img02 Dutch canal.jpg|thumb|Dutch canal in Negombo, Sri Lanka]]

Between around 1500–1800, di first summit level canal for Europe wey use pound locks na Briare Canal wey connect Loire and Seine (1642), followed by more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) wey connect Atlantic reach Mediterranean. Dis one include staircase of 8 locks for Béziers, {{convert|157|m|ft|adj=on}} tunnel, and three big aqueducts.

Canal building continue steady for Germany during 17th and 18th centuries, with three major rivers — Elbe, Oder and Weser — dem connect through canals. For post-Roman Britain, first early modern canal wey dem build na Exeter Canal, wey dem survey for 1563 and open for 1566.&lt;ref name=&quot;exMems&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ExGovPDF&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Di oldest canal for European settlement of North America, technically na mill race built for industrial use, na Mother Brook between Boston, Massachusetts neighbourhoods of Dedham and Hyde Park, wey connect Charles River and Neponset River go sea. Dem build am for 1639 to provide water power for mills.

For Russia, Volga–Baltic Waterway, nationwide canal system wey connect Baltic Sea and Caspian Sea through Neva and Volga rivers, open for 1718.

===Industrial Revolution===
{{seealso|History of the British canal system|History of turnpikes and canals in the United States}}

[[File:1975 map of canal system in Lowell, Massachusetts.png|thumb|Lowell's power canal system]]

Modern canal system mainly come as product of 18th century and early 19th century. E come because Industrial Revolution wey start for Britain mid-18th century need cheap and reliable way to move big cargo and goods.

By early 18th century, river navigations like Aire and Calder Navigation don become advanced, with pound locks and long artificial cuts to avoid difficult river parts. From there, experience of building long canals with locks lead to idea of “pure canal” — waterway wey dem design based on where goods need go, not where river dey pass.

First pure canal for Great Britain still get debate between “Sankey” and “Bridgewater” supporters.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; First true canal for UK na Newry Canal for Northern Ireland wey Thomas Steers build in 1741.

Sankey Brook Navigation, wey connect St Helens with River Mersey, dey often called first modern artificial canal because e include new artificial channel along valley.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; But Bridgewater supporters argue say last part still follow river and say Bridgewater Canal na wetin really popularize canal system and inspire others.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Pickering's Bridge, Bridgewater Canal.jpg|thumb|Bridgewater Canal in England]]

For mid-18th century, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, wey own coal mines for northern England, want cheap way to carry coal go Manchester. E hire engineer James Brindley. Brindley design include aqueduct wey carry canal pass River Irwell, something wey shock people and attract tourists.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Bridgewater Canal open for 1761 and na first major British canal.&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Di canal succeed well well. Boats dey pull by horse wey dey walk along towpath. Dis system become standard for British canals. Even till 1950s, horse-drawn boats still dey operate small small before diesel boats take over.

One horse fit carry boat wey get 30 tons&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;/&gt; — more than ten times road cart capacity. Because of dis efficiency, coal price for Manchester drop nearly two-thirds within one year. Bridgewater Canal also make plenty profit and recover construction cost quickly.

Success of di canal encourage more projects. Industrialists for different places start build canals. Josiah Wedgwood see chance to move clay and finished goods cheap by water. After Bridgewater Canal, national canal network begin grow with Oxford Canal and Trent and Mersey Canal.&lt;ref name=CanalAge&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Erie Canal, Lockport New York, c.1855.jpg|thumb|Erie Canal, Lockport, New York, c. 1855]]

Between 1770s and 1830s na “Golden Age” of British canals. Parliament act needed for each canal, and investors start see canal as way to make profit through tolls and dividends.

Canal mania come, where people dey speculate on shares even before canals finish or sometimes before dem start. About {{convert|4000|mi|km|order=flip}} of canals build during dis time.&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Competition strong between canal companies. For Birmingham, Worcester Bar become conflict point between Worcester and Birmingham Canal and BCN Main Line, wey cause goods to dey transfer manually between boats for years.&lt;ref name=WestMidlands&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:NYmohawk-ErieCanalRexford.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Aqueduct over Mohawk River at Rexford, New York]]

For United States, canal companies first start as private joint-stock companies. Four canals finish before War of 1812: South Hadley Canal (1795), Santee Canal (1800), Middlesex Canal (1802), and Dismal Swamp Canal (1805).

Erie Canal open for 1825, connect Hudson River go Lake Erie, creating water route from Atlantic Ocean reach Great Lakes. E get 36 locks and elevation difference of about {{cvt|565|ft|m|order=flip}}. E reduce transport cost and boost trade, helping settlement of Midwest. Later canal boom continue until railroads start compete around 1850.

[[File:Gabčíkovo sluice Slovakia.jpg|thumb|Sluice in canal of Gabčíkovo Dam (Slovakia) – canal carry water to hydroelectric power station.]]

===Power canals===
{{main|Power canal}}

Power canal na canal wey dem use for hydroelectric or hydraulic power instead of transport. Many of dem now dey inside hydroelectric power stations. For Northeastern US, water power from rivers drive textile mills before Civil War. Lowell, Massachusetts get about {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip|0}} of canals built between 1790–1850, generating about {{convert|10000|hp|kW|order=flip}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/lowe/loweweb/Lowell%20History/prologue.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070507043834/http://www.nps.gov/archive/lowe/loweweb/Lowell%20History/prologue.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 7 May 2007 | title = Lowell National Historical Park – Lowell History Prologue | access-date = 8 October 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other cities like Lawrence, Holyoke, Manchester, and Augusta also get power canal systems. Biggest one build for Niagara Falls for Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.

===19th century===
[[File:Canals USA 1825.png|thumb|American canals {{circa|1825}}]]

Railways and roads begin replace canals from 1830s, make many British canals fall into decline, except Manchester Ship Canal and Aire and Calder Canal. But for other countries, canals still grow as engineering improve.

For US, canal length grow from {{convert|100|mi|km|order=flip}} reach over {{convert|4000|mi|km|order=flip}} during 19th century. Great Lakes become navigable network with Canada. Some canals later turn into rail routes.

Canals help connect remote areas and reduce price differences between regions. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois develop canal systems linking Great Lakes to Mississippi River system.

[[File:Amsterdam - Herengracht - 0206.jpg|thumb|Canal in Amsterdam]]

Canada build three important canals: Welland Canal (1829), Lachine Canal (1825), and Rideau Canal (1832). Dem build am for commerce and military movement after War of 1812.

France connect major river systems and introduce Freycinet gauge in 1879, increasing canal traffic.

Big sea canals like Suez Canal (1869), Kiel Canal (1897), and later Panama Canal (1914) also appear.

Japan also build canals like Biwako and Tone canals with help from Dutch engineers.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=191.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Central America canal idea include Nicaragua Canal (never completed) and later Panama Canal, which US finally complete after political and engineering struggles.

[[File:Jungle and abandoned equipment (3607563265).jpg|thumb|Abandoned DeLesseps equipment, Panama jungle]]

Panama Canal project start by French company but fail due to terrain and disease. Later US revive am after Spanish–American War, support Panama independence from Colombia in 1903, and complete canal, opening Atlantic–Pacific route. Canal Zone remain US-controlled until 1979.

[[File:Canals and Navigable Rivers of the United States and Canada.jpg|thumb|Map of canals and navigable rivers of North America, 1905]]

===Modern uses===

Canals like Panama and Suez still important for global trade. Panama Canal expansion complete in 2016 to allow bigger ships.&lt;ref name=NYT062016&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Some old canals no longer used for trade, but dem still dey serve water supply or recreation. Some railways even follow old canal routes.

In UK and France, some canals don turn tourist routes for pleasure boats and hotel barges. Abandoned canals like Kennet and Avon don restore.

Seine–Nord Europe Canal dey develop to connect France, Belgium, Germany, and Netherlands.

Modern canals also serve as routes for fibre optic cables for telecommunications.

Some canals still dey support irrigation, like Imperial Valley canal system for agriculture in Southern California desert.
Modern canals like di Panama Canal and Suez Canal still dey very important for global cargo transport. Dem dey move huge volume of shipping and dem remain key routes for international trade. Because of globalization, dem importance still dey increase, so dem do expansion projects like Panama Canal expansion project. Di expanded canal start commercial operation on 26 June 2016. Di new locks allow bigger ships wey dem call Post-Panamax and New Panamax ships.&lt;ref name=NYT062016&gt;{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/06/26/world/americas/ap-lt-panama-canal-expansion.html?ref=world&amp;_r=0 | title=Panama Canal Opens $5B Locks, Bullish Despite Shipping Woes | agency=Associated Press | work=[[The New York Times]] | date=26 June 2016 | access-date=26 June 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Small industrial canals wey dey early time no dey carry serious cargo again, and many don abandon for navigation, but some still dey serve as water transport system for untreated water. For some cases, railways even dey follow canal routes, example na Croydon Canal.

Movement wey start for Britain and France don encourage make people convert old canals into pleasure boating routes, like hotel barges and tourism canals. Some abandoned canals like Kennet and Avon Canal don restore and now pleasure boats dey use am again. For Britain, canal-side houses also become very popular.

Seine–Nord Europe Canal dey under development to become major transport waterway wey go connect France with Belgium, Germany, and Netherlands.

Canals also get new role for 21st century as corridor for laying fibre optic cables for telecommunications networks. Instead of digging roads, companies dey use canal routes to reduce cost and avoid damage risk from excavation.

Canals still dey very important for agriculture water supply. For example, Imperial Valley for Southern California desert get large canal system wey dey provide irrigation water for farming.
==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Harvnb|Calvert|1963}}
* {{Harvnb|Edwards-May|2008}}
* {{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986}}
* {{Harvnb|Rodda|2004}}
* {{Harvnb|Needham|1971}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Canals}}</text>
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{{Short description|Artificial channel for water}}
{{Redirect|Canals|the surname|Canals (surname)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2025}}

[[File:Alter Strom.jpg|thumb|The Alter Strom, for the sea resort of Warnemünde, Germany]]
[[File:IMG RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg|thumb|The Royal Canal for Ireland]]
[[File:Basingstoke Canal - Lock.JPG|thumb|Small boat canals like the Basingstoke Canal help fuel the Industrial Revolution for plenty parts of Europe and the United States.]]
[[File:Ponte_sul_Naviglio.jpg|thumb|right|Bridge on top the Naviglio Grande, for the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, Italy]]
[[File:Broek in Waterland, woonhuis aan het Ee.jpg|thumb|Canal for Broek in Waterland, Netherlands]]
[[File:Wenecja, kanał wodny (Aw58TF).jpg|thumb|Canal for Venice]]

'''Canals''' or '''artificial waterways''' be waterways wey human beings build for drainage management (like flood control and irrigation) or to carry water transport vehicles (like water taxis). Dem dey carry free, calm surface water flow under atmospheric pressure, and you fit see dem as artificial rivers.

For most cases, canal get series of dams and locks wey create reservoirs with slow-moving water. People dey call these reservoirs ''slack water levels'', or just ''levels''. Canal fit also be called '''navigation canal''' if e dey run side by side with natural river and share part of the river ein water discharge and drainage basin. E dey use the river ein resources by building dams and locks to increase and extend the stretches of calm water while e still dey inside the same valley.

Canal fit cut across drainage divide on top of ridge, but e normally need another water source wey dey above the highest elevation. The most popular example of this kind canal be the Panama Canal.

People build plenty canals for high places above valleys and other waterways. Canals wey get water source from higher ground fit carry water go places like cities wey need water. The Roman Empire ein aqueducts be examples of these water supply canals.

Long time ago, people use this term describe certain straight-line features for the surface of Mars, but modern pictures don show say that name no be correct.

==Types of artificial waterways==
[[File:Saimaa canal at Lappeenranta Finland.jpg|thumb|Saimaa Canal, transport canal wey connect Finland and Russia, for Lappeenranta]]

A ''navigation'' be series of channels wey dey run almost side by side with the valley and stream bed of natural river wey nobody improve. Navigation always dey share the same drainage basin with the river. Ships dey use the calm parts of the river plus the engineered improvements as dem travel through the same changes in height.

True ''canal'' be channel wey cut across drainage divide to create navigable channel wey connect two different drainage basins.

[[File:Canal, Westbury Court Garden - geograph.org.uk - 1416966.jpg|thumb|Westbury Court Garden: the garden &quot;Canal&quot;]]

==Structures used in artificial waterways==

Both navigations and canals dey use engineered structures make navigation easy:

* weirs and dams to raise river water level reach usable depth;
* looping descents to create longer and gentler channel around rapids or waterfalls;
* locks to help ships and barges move go up and come down.

Because true canals dey cut across drainage divides instead of following the natural water level, dem dey harder to build and plenty times dem need extra structures like viaducts and aqueducts.

==Types of canals==
There be two main types of canal:

* Waterways: canals and navigations wey people dey use carry goods and passengers. You fit divide dem into two kinds:
:* Those wey connect existing lakes, rivers, other canals, seas and oceans.
:* Those wey be part of city water networks, like the ''Canal Grande'' and other canals for Venice; the ''grachten'' for Amsterdam or Utrecht; plus the waterways for Bangkok.

* Aqueducts: water supply canals wey people dey use transport and supply drinking water, municipal water, hydro power canals and agricultural irrigation.

[[File:Chutes Loading the Canal Boats on the Lehigh Canal.jpg|thumb|Loading Anthracite on the Lehigh Canal to support the early industries for the United States during the pioneer era]]

[[File:River Levee Cross Section Figure.svg|thumb|
1. Design High Water Level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone]]

[[File:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG|thumb|The Danube-Black Sea Canal for Romania]]

[[File:AmsterdamRijnkanaal.air.jpg|thumb|The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal near Rijswijk, Netherlands]]
==Importance==
&lt;!-- This section needs information on irrigation canals. --&gt;
Historically, canals bin get very big importance for commerce, development, growth plus the strength of civilization. E make moving plenty raw materials like coal and ores easy, because without water transport, e be very difficult and expensive to move dem. The movement of these raw materials through canals help fuel the Industrial Revolution, bring new research fields, new industries, economies of scale, and improve the standard of living for industrialized societies.

The few canals wey still dey operate for the 21st century be just small part of the plenty canals wey people maintain during the early Industrial Revolution. Dem begin replace them gradually, first for the United Kingdom during the 1840s, where railway system first support canal transport and later replace am because trains dey faster, no get plenty geographical limits, and cheaper to maintain.

By the early 1880s, plenty canals no fit compete with railway transport, so dem abandon them. During the 20th century, oil become the main fuel for heating, and coal shipments begin reduce. After the First World War, improvements for motor trucks plus expansion of road networks make more freight move by road, and the last small barge canals for the United States gradually lose cargo traffic.

The smaller inland waterways wey engineers originally build for boats and barges largely disappear today. Some dem fill up, some abandon make dem spoil, while others still dey under park services where government workers maintain dams and locks for flood control or pleasure boating. Today, most ship canals (wey bigger ocean-going ships dey use) mainly serve bulk cargo and large shipping industries.

The longest canal wey still dey exist today, the Grand Canal for northern China, still dey heavily used, especially the part south of the Yellow River. E stretch from Beijing to Hangzhou for 1,794 kilometres (1,115 miles).

==Construction==
Canals fit be built in one of three ways, or by combining all three methods, depending on available water plus the route available.

;Human made streams
* Dem fit create canal where no stream dey already. Either dem dig the canal body or build the canal sides with dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, concrete or other building materials. The finished cross-sectional shape of the canal be known as the ''canal prism''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Thompson|first1=Kristi|title=Glossary|url=https://www.usbr.gov/library/glossary/#C|website=www.usbr.gov|publisher=US Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=15 September 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The canal water must come from another source like streams or reservoirs. Where the waterway must change elevation, engineers build structures like locks, lifts or elevators to raise and lower vessels. Examples include Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal.
* Dem fit also build canal by dredging one channel inside the bottom of an existing lake. After the channel finish, dem drain the lake and the channel become new canal wey also drain the surrounding polder and provide transport. Examples include the {{Interlanguage link multi|Lage Vaart|nl}}. Another method be to build two parallel dikes inside an existing lake, leave the canal between them, then drain the remaining lake. The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal take this method. For both methods, pumping stations be necessary to keep the surrounding land dry by pumping water either from the canal to nearby waters or from the land into the canal.

;Canalization and navigations
{{anchor|Canalization|Navigation|Navigations}}
* Dem fit canalize one stream to make navigation easier, safer and more predictable. Canalization change the stream by dredging, building dams and modifying the route. This usually include locks and spillways to turn the river into a navigation. Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania's coal Region, Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and canal Aisne. Riparian zone restoration fit also be necessary.

{{anchor|Bypass canal|lateral canal}}
;Lateral canals
* If one stream too difficult to canalize, dem fit create another stream beside or close to the existing one. This be called a ''lateral canal''. E fit follow plenty bends to reduce the slope by making the route longer. The original stream usually provide the water while the land beside am provide the route for the new canal. Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne Lateral Canal, Welland Canal and Juliana Canal.

Smaller transportation canals fit carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow ocean-going ships to travel to inland ports (for example, Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (for example, Caledonian Canal and Panama Canal).

==Features==
At the simplest level, canal be just trench wey water fill. Depending on the stratum wey the canal pass through, e fit be necessary to line the cut with waterproof material like clay or concrete. When dem use clay, dem call am puddling.

Canals need to stay level. Small changes in the land fit be handled with cuttings and embankments, but bigger elevation changes need other engineering methods. The commonest one be the pound lock, wey get chamber where water level fit rise or fall to connect two canal sections at different heights or connect canal to river or sea. Where hill dey, dem fit use flights of many locks one after another.

Before the double-gated pound lock develop for 10th-century China&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=22.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 15th-century Europe, vessels dey use flash locks or ramps, sometimes with rollers, to move up and down. Flash locks be difficult to use and only work where plenty water dey.

Every time lock operate, e use plenty water. Because of this, engineers develop other methods for places where water scarce. These include boat lifts like the Falkirk Wheel, wey use caisson of water where boats float while dem move between different levels, and canal inclined planes where dem pull the caisson along steep railway.

If canal need cross stream, road or valley, and plenty locks go waste time, dem fit build navigable aqueduct like the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (now UNESCO World Heritage Site) across the River Dee valley for Wales.

Another way to cross hills be to dig tunnel through them. One example be the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels mostly dey practical only for smaller canals.

Some canals try reduce level changes as much as possible. These canals, called contour canals, follow longer winding routes where the land stay at almost the same height. Other later canals choose more direct routes and use different engineering methods to deal with height changes.

Canals get different features to solve water supply problems. For places like the Suez Canal, the canal open directly to the sea. Where canal no dey sea level, engineers use different methods. Taking water from rivers or springs be one option, sometimes with extra systems to manage seasonal flow changes. Where these sources no dey, dem use reservoirs—either separate from the canal or built into am—and back pumping to provide water. For some places, water pumped from mines feed the canal. In other cases, engineers build long feeder canals to bring water from places far away from the canal.

Where plenty goods dey loaded or unloaded, like canal end, dem fit build canal basin. This usually be wider than the normal canal. Some canal basins also get wharfs and cranes to help move goods.

When one part of canal need close so workers fit drain am for maintenance, dem usually use stop planks. These be wooden planks wey dem place across the canal to form temporary dam. Dem normally fit inside grooves already made for the canal bank. For more modern canals, engineers sometimes install guard locks or gates to quickly close one section either for maintenance or to stop major water loss if canal break.

===Canal falls===
A ''canal fall'', or canal drop, be vertical drop for the canal bed.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; Dem build am where the natural ground slope too steep compared with the canal gradient.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; The design make the falling water lose its kinetic energy so e no go scour the canal bed and sides.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=S. K. |title=Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures |date=2016 |publisher=S Chand and Company |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-93-525-3377-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkRxDwAAQBAJ |access-date=31 July 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|643}}

Dem construct canal fall through cut and fill.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --&gt; E fit combine with regulator, bridge or another structure to reduce construction costs.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|643–4}}

Different types of canal falls dey according to their shape.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; One type be the ogee fall, where the drop follow S-shaped curve to create smooth transition and reduce turbulence.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; However, this smooth transition no reduce enough kinetic energy, so heavy scouring fit happen.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt; Because of that, engineers reinforce the canal with concrete or masonry to prevent erosion.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;{{rp|644}}

Another type be the vertical fall, wey be &quot;simple and economical&quot;.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; These get &quot;cistern&quot;, or depressed area, just after the fall to cushion the water by providing deep pool where the kinetic energy fit diffuse.&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt; Vertical falls fit work for drops up to {{cvt|1.5|m|ft|0}} high and discharge up to {{convert|15|m3/s}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sharma 2016&quot;/&gt;&lt;!-- Sharma 2016, p. 646 --&gt;{{rp|646}}

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;135&quot;&gt;
File:Caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg|alt=A series of approximately 20 black lock gates with white ends to the paddle arms and wooden railings, each slightly higher than the one below. On the right is a path and on both side's grass and vegetation.|The flight of 16 consecutive locks for Caen Hill on the Kennet and Avon Canal, Wiltshire
File:Pontcysyllte aqueduct arp.jpg|The Llangollen Canal cross the longest and highest aqueduct for Wrexham, Wales, United Kingdom
File:Canal of korinth greece.jpg|The Corinth Canal as e dey look from air
File:Miami and Erie Canal Lock photographs - DPLA - 02d6f9c193ca64978e408b5e50a34a5d (page 1).jpg|Miami and Erie Canal Lock for Ohio, United States
&lt;/gallery&gt;
==History==
[[File:Canal de la Peyrade, Sète, Hérault 01.jpg|thumb|Canal in Sète, France]]

Di transport capacity of [[pack animal]]s and [[cart]]s get limit. A mule fit carry {{convert|250|lb|kg|adj=on|order=flip|sigfig=1}}&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; maximum load for journey wey fit last several days or weeks,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; although e fit carry more if di distance short and dem give am proper rest.&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; Aside dat one, carts need roads. Transport for water dey much more efficient and e dey cost less for large cargoes.

===Ancient canals===
{{See also|List of Roman canals|Qanat}}

Di oldest known canals be irrigation canals, wey dem build for Mesopotamia {{circa|4000 BC}}, for wetin today be Iraq. Di Indus Valley civilization for wetin today be Pakistan and Northwestern India (c.&amp;nbsp;3000&amp;nbsp;BC) get advanced irrigation and storage systems wey dem develop, including di reservoirs wey dem build for Girnar for 3000&amp;nbsp;BC.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Rodda|2004|p=161.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis na di first time wey dem do planned civil project like dat for ancient world. For Egypt, canals date back reach time of Pepi I Meryre (wey reign 2332–2283&amp;nbsp;BC), wey order make dem build canal to bypass di cataract for Nile near Aswan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=16.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Xu Yang - Junks on the canal.jpg|thumb|right|Di Grand Canal of China for Suzhou]]

For ancient China, big canals for river transport start as far back as di Spring and Autumn period (8th–5th centuries BC), and di longest for dat time na Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), wey according to historian Sima Qian connect di old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Needham|1971|p=269.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Di Caoyun System of canals dey very important for imperial taxation, because dem dey collect am mostly in kind and e involve plenty shipment of rice and grain. Di longest canal by far na Grand Canal of China, wey still remain di longest canal for world today and di oldest wey still dey exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;Langmead&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Donald Langmead|title=Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang|url-access=registration|access-date=15 February 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-112-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang/page/37 37]|quote=the world's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence|year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be {{convert|1794|km|mi}} long and dem build am to carry Emperor Yang Guang between Zhuodu (Beijing) and Yuhang (Hangzhou). Di project start for 605 and dem complete am for 609, although plenty parts of am join older canals, and di oldest section dey since at least 486&amp;nbsp;BC. Even for di narrow urban parts, e rarely less than {{convert|30|m|ft}} wide.

For di 5th century BC, Achaemenid king Xerxes I of Persia order build di Xerxes Canal through base of Mount Athos peninsula, Chalkidiki, northern Greece.&lt;ref name=&quot;VII, 22&quot;&gt;Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.22 VII, 22]&lt;/ref&gt; Dem build am as part of preparation for Second Persian invasion of Greece, inside Greco-Persian Wars. Na one of di few remaining monuments of di Persian Empire for Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;BSA98&quot;&gt;B. S. J. Isserlin, R. E. Jones, V. Karastathis, S. P. Papamarinopoulos, G. E. Syrides and J. Uren &quot;The Canal of Xerxes: Summary of Investigations 1991-2001&quot; The Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 98 (2003), pp. 369–385 {{JSTOR|30073214}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Greek engineers also be among di first people wey use canal locks, wey dem use regulate water flow for Ancient Suez Canal as early as 3rd century BC.&lt;ref&gt;Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): &quot;Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine&quot;, ''[[American Journal of Archaeology]]'', Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Froriep 1986, 46&quot;&gt;Froriep, Siegfried (1986): &quot;Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen&quot;, ''Antike Welt'', 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): &quot;Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal&quot;, ''Skyllis'', Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35)&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a pack-horse would [i.e. 'could'] carry only an eighth of a ton. On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton. But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.&lt;br /&gt;— technology historian Ronald W. Clark referring to transport realities before the industrial revolution and the Canal age.&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;&gt;''&quot;Works of Man&quot;'', Ronald W. Clark, {{ISBN|0-670-80483-5}} (1985) 352 pages, Viking Penguin, Inc, New York, &lt;br /&gt;quotation p. 87: &quot;There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a packhorse would [sic, meaning 'could' or 'can only'] carry only an eighth of a ton. On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton. But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[Hohokam]] na society for [[Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest|North American Southwest]] for wetin today be part of Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico. Dia irrigation systems support di biggest population for di Southwest by 1300 AD.&lt;ref name=&quot;AZMNH&quot; /&gt; Archaeologists wey dey work for major dig for 1990s for Tucson Basin, along Santa Cruz River, identify culture and people wey fit be ancestors of di Hohokam.&lt;ref&gt;2007-036 General COP Treatment Plan; Pueblo Grande Museum Project 2007–95; City of Phoenix Project No. ST87350010; [http://phoenix.gov/webcms/groups/internet/@inter/@rec/@arts/@mus/@pueblo/documents/web_content/gentrtment.pdf#page=17 '''p. 9''' ''Cultural Context''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324215827/http://phoenix.gov/webcms/groups/internet/@inter/@rec/@arts/@mus/@pueblo/documents/web_content/gentrtment.pdf#page=17 |date=March 24, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis prehistoric group occupy southern Arizona as early as 2000 BC, and for Early Agricultural period dem grow corn, live for permanent villages, and develop advanced irrigation canals.&lt;ref name=&quot;AZMNH&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=The Hohokam|url=http://www.azmnh.org/arch/hohokam.aspx|publisher=Arizona Museum of Natural History, City of Mesa|access-date=November 30, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130091322/http://www.azmnh.org/arch/hohokam.aspx|archive-date=November 30, 2012|df=mdy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Di large-scale Hohokam irrigation network for Phoenix metropolitan area na di most complex for ancient North America. Dem don renovate part of di old canals for Salt River Project and e still dey help supply di city water.

[[File:Yodha Ela.jpg|thumb|Yodha Ela, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka]]

Di Sinhalese people construct di {{cvt|87|km|mi}} Yodha Ela for 459 AD as part of dia large irrigation network for Sri Lanka, wey function like moving reservoir because of di single banking system wey dey control canal pressure with water flow. Dem also design am as long reservoir wey pass through traps wey create 66 mini catchments as e flow from Kala Wewa reach Thissa Wawa. Di canal no be just to move water fast from Kala Wewa go Thissa Wawa, but to store large body of water between di two reservoirs, wey go support agriculture and both human and animal use.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://srilanka.travel/yoda-ela |title=Yoda Ela – An Ancient Engineering Marvel}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Outlines of Ceylon History|isbn = 9788120613638|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDwvQF_OgvMC&amp;q=yodha+ela&amp;pg=PA77|last1 = Obeyesekere|first1 = Donald|year = 1999| publisher=Asian Educational Services }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem also achieve very low gradient for dat time. Di canal still dey work today after renovation.

===Middle Ages===

[[File:Thal Canal.JPG|thumb|Thal Canal, Punjab, Pakistan]]

For Middle Ages, water transport dey many times cheaper and faster pass land transport. Overland transport with animal-drawn vehicles dey serve only around settled areas, but roads wey no improve need pack animals train, usually mules, to carry heavy load. Even though mule fit carry one-eighth ton,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; e still need handlers to manage am, and one person fit handle maybe five mules,&lt;ref name=&quot;WorksOfMan&quot;/&gt; meaning overland bulk transport still expensive because labour and upkeep cost money.

Roads for dat time no be paved, dem narrow pass for carts, and most times dem dey bad condition, passing through forests, swamp or muddy areas. Like today, big cargo and raw materials still dey move cheaper by ship pass land. Before railway era of industrial revolution, water transport na di main fast transport system.

Di first artificial canal for Western Europe na Fossa Carolina wey dem build near end of 8th century under Charlemagne.

For Britain, Glastonbury Canal dey believed to be di first post-Roman canal, built for 10th century to connect River Brue at Northover with Glastonbury Abbey, about {{convert|1.75|km|yd|-2}}.&lt;ref&gt;Details text and data with cites from Glastonbury Canal (medieval).&lt;/ref&gt; Initially, dem build am to carry building stone go di abbey, but later e serve to carry food, grain, wine and fish from abbey lands. E remain in use till at least 14th century, maybe even reach mid-16th century.&lt;ref name=Gathercole&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gathercole |first=Clare |title=An archaeological assessment of Glastonbury |publisher=Somerset County Council |location=Taunton |year=2003 |series=English Heritage Extensive Urban Survey |pages=19–20 |url=http://www1.somerset.gov.uk/archives/hes/downloads/EUS_GlastonburyText.pdf |access-date=2 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715230717/http://www1.somerset.gov.uk/archives/hes/downloads/EUS_GlastonburyText.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

More important ones wey really change economy be canals like Naviglio Grande wey dem build between 1127 and 1257 to connect Milan with River Ticino. Naviglio Grande na di most important of Lombard navigli&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Calvert|1963|p=.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and na one of di oldest working canals for Europe.

Later, dem build canals for Netherlands and Flanders to drain polder land and help transport goods and people.

Canal building come rise again because trade expand from 12th century. Rivers dem improve with flash locks, but dem use plenty water and e cause problem with watermill owners. To solve am, pound or chamber lock appear first for China for 10th century and later for Europe in 1373 for Vreeswijk, Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | title = The International Canal Monuments List | url = http://www.icomos.org/studies/canals.pdf| access-date = 8 October 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130810162849/http://www.icomos.org/studies/canals.pdf | archive-date = 10 August 2013 | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Another important development na mitre gate, wey dem believe say Bertola da Novate introduce for Italy for 16th century. E allow wider gates and remove height limit of guillotine locks.

To escape river valley limits, summit level canals start with Grand Canal of China (581–617 AD). For Europe, first one wey use single locks na Stecknitz Canal for Germany in 1398.

====Africa====
For Songhai Empire of West Africa, dem build several canals under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad I between Kabara and Timbuktu for 15th century. Dem use am mainly for irrigation and transport. Sunni Ali even try build canal from Niger River go Walata to help conquest, but war with Mossi Kingdoms stop am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/general_history_africa_iv.pdf | title=General History of Africa | publisher=Heinemann Educational Books, University of California Press, UNESCO | date=2000 | orig-date=1984 | volume=IV | pages=193–194 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611080711/https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/general_history_africa_iv.pdf | archive-date=2020-06-11 | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Early modern period===

[[File:SL Negombo asv2020-01 img02 Dutch canal.jpg|thumb|Dutch canal in Negombo, Sri Lanka]]

Between around 1500–1800, di first summit level canal for Europe wey use pound locks na Briare Canal wey connect Loire and Seine (1642), followed by more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) wey connect Atlantic reach Mediterranean. Dis one include staircase of 8 locks for Béziers, {{convert|157|m|ft|adj=on}} tunnel, and three big aqueducts.

Canal building continue steady for Germany during 17th and 18th centuries, with three major rivers — Elbe, Oder and Weser — dem connect through canals. For post-Roman Britain, first early modern canal wey dem build na Exeter Canal, wey dem survey for 1563 and open for 1566.&lt;ref name=&quot;exMems&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ExGovPDF&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Di oldest canal for European settlement of North America, technically na mill race built for industrial use, na Mother Brook between Boston, Massachusetts neighbourhoods of Dedham and Hyde Park, wey connect Charles River and Neponset River go sea. Dem build am for 1639 to provide water power for mills.

For Russia, Volga–Baltic Waterway, nationwide canal system wey connect Baltic Sea and Caspian Sea through Neva and Volga rivers, open for 1718.

===Industrial Revolution===
{{seealso|History of the British canal system|History of turnpikes and canals in the United States}}

[[File:1975 map of canal system in Lowell, Massachusetts.png|thumb|Lowell's power canal system]]

Modern canal system mainly come as product of 18th century and early 19th century. E come because Industrial Revolution wey start for Britain mid-18th century need cheap and reliable way to move big cargo and goods.

By early 18th century, river navigations like Aire and Calder Navigation don become advanced, with pound locks and long artificial cuts to avoid difficult river parts. From there, experience of building long canals with locks lead to idea of “pure canal” — waterway wey dem design based on where goods need go, not where river dey pass.

First pure canal for Great Britain still get debate between “Sankey” and “Bridgewater” supporters.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; First true canal for UK na Newry Canal for Northern Ireland wey Thomas Steers build in 1741.

Sankey Brook Navigation, wey connect St Helens with River Mersey, dey often called first modern artificial canal because e include new artificial channel along valley.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; But Bridgewater supporters argue say last part still follow river and say Bridgewater Canal na wetin really popularize canal system and inspire others.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Pickering's Bridge, Bridgewater Canal.jpg|thumb|Bridgewater Canal in England]]

For mid-18th century, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, wey own coal mines for northern England, want cheap way to carry coal go Manchester. E hire engineer James Brindley. Brindley design include aqueduct wey carry canal pass River Irwell, something wey shock people and attract tourists.&lt;ref name = burton-canals-3/&gt;&lt;ref name = rolt-inland&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Bridgewater Canal open for 1761 and na first major British canal.&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Di canal succeed well well. Boats dey pull by horse wey dey walk along towpath. Dis system become standard for British canals. Even till 1950s, horse-drawn boats still dey operate small small before diesel boats take over.

One horse fit carry boat wey get 30 tons&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;/&gt; — more than ten times road cart capacity. Because of dis efficiency, coal price for Manchester drop nearly two-thirds within one year. Bridgewater Canal also make plenty profit and recover construction cost quickly.

Success of di canal encourage more projects. Industrialists for different places start build canals. Josiah Wedgwood see chance to move clay and finished goods cheap by water. After Bridgewater Canal, national canal network begin grow with Oxford Canal and Trent and Mersey Canal.&lt;ref name=CanalAge&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Erie Canal, Lockport New York, c.1855.jpg|thumb|Erie Canal, Lockport, New York, c. 1855]]

Between 1770s and 1830s na “Golden Age” of British canals. Parliament act needed for each canal, and investors start see canal as way to make profit through tolls and dividends.

Canal mania come, where people dey speculate on shares even before canals finish or sometimes before dem start. About {{convert|4000|mi|km|order=flip}} of canals build during dis time.&lt;ref name=&quot;N/A 1978 990&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Competition strong between canal companies. For Birmingham, Worcester Bar become conflict point between Worcester and Birmingham Canal and BCN Main Line, wey cause goods to dey transfer manually between boats for years.&lt;ref name=WestMidlands&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:NYmohawk-ErieCanalRexford.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Aqueduct over Mohawk River at Rexford, New York]]

For United States, canal companies first start as private joint-stock companies. Four canals finish before War of 1812: South Hadley Canal (1795), Santee Canal (1800), Middlesex Canal (1802), and Dismal Swamp Canal (1805).

Erie Canal open for 1825, connect Hudson River go Lake Erie, creating water route from Atlantic Ocean reach Great Lakes. E get 36 locks and elevation difference of about {{cvt|565|ft|m|order=flip}}. E reduce transport cost and boost trade, helping settlement of Midwest. Later canal boom continue until railroads start compete around 1850.

[[File:Gabčíkovo sluice Slovakia.jpg|thumb|Sluice in canal of Gabčíkovo Dam (Slovakia) – canal carry water to hydroelectric power station.]]

===Power canals===
{{main|Power canal}}

Power canal na canal wey dem use for hydroelectric or hydraulic power instead of transport. Many of dem now dey inside hydroelectric power stations. For Northeastern US, water power from rivers drive textile mills before Civil War. Lowell, Massachusetts get about {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip|0}} of canals built between 1790–1850, generating about {{convert|10000|hp|kW|order=flip}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/lowe/loweweb/Lowell%20History/prologue.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070507043834/http://www.nps.gov/archive/lowe/loweweb/Lowell%20History/prologue.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 7 May 2007 | title = Lowell National Historical Park – Lowell History Prologue | access-date = 8 October 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other cities like Lawrence, Holyoke, Manchester, and Augusta also get power canal systems. Biggest one build for Niagara Falls for Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.

===19th century===
[[File:Canals USA 1825.png|thumb|American canals {{circa|1825}}]]

Railways and roads begin replace canals from 1830s, make many British canals fall into decline, except Manchester Ship Canal and Aire and Calder Canal. But for other countries, canals still grow as engineering improve.

For US, canal length grow from {{convert|100|mi|km|order=flip}} reach over {{convert|4000|mi|km|order=flip}} during 19th century. Great Lakes become navigable network with Canada. Some canals later turn into rail routes.

Canals help connect remote areas and reduce price differences between regions. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois develop canal systems linking Great Lakes to Mississippi River system.

[[File:Amsterdam - Herengracht - 0206.jpg|thumb|Canal in Amsterdam]]

Canada build three important canals: Welland Canal (1829), Lachine Canal (1825), and Rideau Canal (1832). Dem build am for commerce and military movement after War of 1812.

France connect major river systems and introduce Freycinet gauge in 1879, increasing canal traffic.

Big sea canals like Suez Canal (1869), Kiel Canal (1897), and later Panama Canal (1914) also appear.

Japan also build canals like Biwako and Tone canals with help from Dutch engineers.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986|p=191.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Central America canal idea include Nicaragua Canal (never completed) and later Panama Canal, which US finally complete after political and engineering struggles.

[[File:Jungle and abandoned equipment (3607563265).jpg|thumb|Abandoned DeLesseps equipment, Panama jungle]]

Panama Canal project start by French company but fail due to terrain and disease. Later US revive am after Spanish–American War, support Panama independence from Colombia in 1903, and complete canal, opening Atlantic–Pacific route. Canal Zone remain US-controlled until 1979.

[[File:Canals and Navigable Rivers of the United States and Canada.jpg|thumb|Map of canals and navigable rivers of North America, 1905]]

===Modern uses===

Canals like Panama and Suez still important for global trade. Panama Canal expansion complete in 2016 to allow bigger ships.&lt;ref name=NYT062016&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Some old canals no longer used for trade, but dem still dey serve water supply or recreation. Some railways even follow old canal routes.

In UK and France, some canals don turn tourist routes for pleasure boats and hotel barges. Abandoned canals like Kennet and Avon don restore.

Seine–Nord Europe Canal dey develop to connect France, Belgium, Germany, and Netherlands.

Modern canals also serve as routes for fibre optic cables for telecommunications.

Some canals still dey support irrigation, like Imperial Valley canal system for agriculture in Southern California desert.
Modern canals like di Panama Canal and Suez Canal still dey very important for global cargo transport. Dem dey move huge volume of shipping and dem remain key routes for international trade. Because of globalization, dem importance still dey increase, so dem do expansion projects like Panama Canal expansion project. Di expanded canal start commercial operation on 26 June 2016. Di new locks allow bigger ships wey dem call Post-Panamax and New Panamax ships.&lt;ref name=NYT062016&gt;{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/06/26/world/americas/ap-lt-panama-canal-expansion.html?ref=world&amp;_r=0 | title=Panama Canal Opens $5B Locks, Bullish Despite Shipping Woes | agency=Associated Press | work=[[The New York Times]] | date=26 June 2016 | access-date=26 June 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Small industrial canals wey dey early time no dey carry serious cargo again, and many don abandon for navigation, but some still dey serve as water transport system for untreated water. For some cases, railways even dey follow canal routes, example na Croydon Canal.

Movement wey start for Britain and France don encourage make people convert old canals into pleasure boating routes, like hotel barges and tourism canals. Some abandoned canals like Kennet and Avon Canal don restore and now pleasure boats dey use am again. For Britain, canal-side houses also become very popular.

Seine–Nord Europe Canal dey under development to become major transport waterway wey go connect France with Belgium, Germany, and Netherlands.

Canals also get new role for 21st century as corridor for laying fibre optic cables for telecommunications networks. Instead of digging roads, companies dey use canal routes to reduce cost and avoid damage risk from excavation.

Canals still dey very important for agriculture water supply. For example, Imperial Valley for Southern California desert get large canal system wey dey provide irrigation water for farming.
==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Harvnb|Calvert|1963}}
* {{Harvnb|Edwards-May|2008}}
* {{Harvnb|Hadfield|1986}}
* {{Harvnb|Rodda|2004}}
* {{Harvnb|Needham|1971}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Canals}}</text>
      <sha1>rjauon0iuen5w32hh8nll1c4by7es9d</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freshwater acidification</title>
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      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
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{{Short description|Acidification of freshwater by rain}}
{{Expert needed|Limnology and Oceanography
| talk = 
| reason = Major revisions and clarifications needed
| date = March 2022
}}

[[File:Origins of acid rain.svg|thumb|Diagram wey show sources and cycles of acid rain precipitation.|297x297px]]

'''Freshwater acidification''' dey happen when acidic inputs enter body of fresh water through weathering of rocks, invasion of acidifying gas (e.g. carbon dioxide), or by reduction of acid anions like sulfate and nitrate inside lake, pond, or reservoir.&lt;ref name=&quot;Psenner-1994&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Psenner|first=Roland|date=March 1994|title=Environmental impacts on freshwaters: acidification as a global problem|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=143|issue=1|pages=53–61|bibcode=1994ScTEn.143...53P|doi=10.1016/0048-9697(94)90532-0|issn=0048-9697}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Freshwater acidification mainly dey caused by sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) wey dey enter water through atmospheric deposition and soil leaching.&lt;ref name=&quot;Psenner-1994&quot; /&gt; Carbonic acid and dissolved carbon dioxide fit also enter freshwater in similar way through runoff from carbon dioxide-rich soils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Psenner-1994&quot; /&gt;

Runoff wey carry these compounds fit bring hydrogen ions and inorganic aluminum inside water, wey fit toxic to aquatic organisms.&lt;ref name=&quot;Psenner-1994&quot; /&gt; Acid rain sef dey contribute to freshwater acidification.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Irwin|first1=J.G.|last2=Williams|first2=M.L.|author2-link=Martin Williams (environmental scientist)|date=1988|title=Acid rain: Chemistry and transport|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=50|issue=1–2|pages=29–59|doi=10.1016/0269-7491(88)90184-4|issn=0269-7491|pmid=15092652}}&lt;/ref&gt;

One well-known case of freshwater acidification be Adirondack Lakes for New York wey show up for 1970s, caused by acid rain from industrial sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Driscoll |first=C. T |last2=Postek |first2=K. M |last3=Mateti |first3=D |last4=Sequeira |first4=K |last5=Aber |first5=J. D |last6=Kretser |first6=W. J |last7=Mitchell |first7=M. J |last8=Raynal |first8=D. J |date=1998-08-01 |title=The response of lake water in the Adirondack region of New York to changes in acidic deposition |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1462901198000288 |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=185–198 |doi=10.1016/S1462-9011(98)00028-8 |issn=1462-9011 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Causes ==

=== Natural ===
CO2 from atmosphere or decomposition of organic matter fit affect freshwater acidity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Ocean acidification |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-959108-4 |editor=Jean-Pierre Gattuso |oclc=975179973 |editor2=Lina Hansson}}&lt;/ref&gt;

CO2 wey dissolve inside water form carbonic acid. This carbonic acid go break into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) wey go increase H+ ions and reduce pH level.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Wurts |first=William A. |last2=Durborow |first2=Robert M. |title=Interactions of pH, Carbon Dioxide, Alkalinity and Hardness in Fish Ponds |url=https://lee-phillips.org/Backyard/cache/464fs.pdf |journal=SRAC Publication |publication-date=1992 |issue=464 |pages=1–4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3; H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-

Microbial activity wey dey break down organic matter release organic acids like humic and fulvic acids. These acids fit collect inside water bodies, especially forest and wetland areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Berner |first1=Robert A. |last2=Lasaga |first2=Antonio C. |date=1989 |title=Modeling the Geochemical Carbon Cycle |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24987179 |journal=Scientific American |volume=260 |issue=3 |pages=74–81 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0389-74 |jstor=24987179 |issn=0036-8733|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Peatlands and wetlands dey often produce acidic water because of high organic matter decomposition.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nordstrom |first=D. K. |date=2011 |title=Mine waters: Acidic to circumneutral |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/elements/article/7/6/393/137913/Mine-Waters-Acidic-to-Circmneutral |journal=Elements |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=393–398 |doi=10.2113/gselements.7.6.393|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Volcanic activity fit release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other acidic oxides enter atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Schindler |first=D. W. |date=1988-01-08 |title=Effects of Acid Rain on Freshwater Ecosystems |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.239.4836.149 |journal=Science |volume=239 |issue=4836 |pages=149–157 |doi=10.1126/science.239.4836.149 |pmid=17732976 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Inside air, sulfur dioxide convert to sulfuric acid:&lt;ref name=&quot;Henriksen-1992&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Henriksen |first1=Arne |last2=Kämäri |first2=Juha |last3=Posch |first3=Maximilian |last4=Wilander |first4=Anders |date=1992 |title=Critical Loads of Acidity: Nordic Surface Waters |journal=Ambio |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=356–363 |issn=0044-7447 |jstor=4313961}}&lt;/ref&gt;

SO2 + 1/2 O2 + H2O → H2SO4; H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO4^2-

=== Anthropogenic ===
[[File:Rio tinto river CarolStoker NASA Ames Research Center.jpg|thumb|Rio Tinto river for Spain show acid drainage from natural and mining origin]]

Human activities dey increase freshwater acidification plenty. Burning of fossil fuels release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These gases react with water and air form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Likens |first1=Gene E. |last2=Bormann |first2=F. Herbert |date=1974-06-14 |title=Acid Rain: A Serious Regional Environmental Problem |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.184.4142.1176 |journal=Science |volume=184 |issue=4142 |pages=1176–1179 |doi=10.1126/science.184.4142.1176 |pmid=17756304 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nitric acid sef go dissociate into hydrogen ions (H+) and nitrate ions (NO3-), wey reduce pH.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cardoso-2009&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Inland Waters |publisher=Elsevier |last1=Cardoso |first1=A.C. |date=2009 |pages=310–331 |doi=10.1016/b978-012370626-3.00244-1 |isbn=978-0-12-370626-3 |last2=Free |first2=G. |last3=Nõges |first3=P. |last4=Kaste |first4=Ø. |last5=Poikane |first5=S. |last6=Solheim |first6=A. Lyche |chapter=Lake Management, Criteria}}&lt;/ref&gt;

NOx + H2O + 1/2 O2 → HNO3; HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

This process worse for areas where water buffering capacity low.

Mining too dey contribute through acid mine drainage. When pyrite (FeS2) meet air and water, e form sulfuric acid.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nordstrom 393–398&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Nordstrom |first=D. K. |date=2011-12-01 |title=Mine Waters: Acidic to Circmneutral |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/elements/article/7/6/393-398/137913 |journal=Elements |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=393–398 |doi=10.2113/gselements.7.6.393 |issn=1811-5209|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Buffering Capacity ==
[[File:Atlantic Canada - Natural Earth.jpg|thumb|Map of Atlantic Canada]]

Buffering capacity of ecosystem dey help resist pH change. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3^2-) ions fit neutralize hydrogen ions (H+).

HCO3- + H+ → CO2 + H2O

But areas with low alkalinity (like silicate bedrock regions) no get strong buffering system, so pH fit drop fast.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Schindler |first=D. W. |date=1988-01-08 |title=Effects of Acid Rain on Freshwater Ecosystems |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.239.4836.149 |journal=Science |volume=239 |issue=4836 |pages=149–157 |doi=10.1126/science.239.4836.149 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

For example, Atlantic region of Canada get low acid deposition but still get very acidic water because buffering capacity low and natural organic acids from wetlands dey add more acidity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clair-2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Clair|first1=Thomas A.|last2=Dennis|first2=Ian F.|last3=Scruton|first3=David A.|last4=Gilliss|first4=Mallory|date=December 2007|title=Freshwater acidification research in Atlantic Canada: a review of results and predictions for the future|journal=Environmental Reviews|volume=15|issue=NA|pages=153–167|doi=10.1139/a07-004|issn=1181-8700}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Effects on ecosystems ==
[[File:Nationaal Park Drents-Friese Wold. Locatie Fochteloërveen. Waterveenmos (Sphagnum cuspidatum), Veenpluis (Eriophorum angustifolium) 03.JPG|thumb|Pond with plenty Sphagnum]]

Freshwater acidification fit reduce biodiversity and change ecosystem structure and function.&lt;ref name=&quot;Henriksen-1992&quot; /&gt;

Macro-invertebrates and big vertebrates suffer higher death rate and lower reproduction under acidic conditions. Some algae and moss like Sphagnum fit even thrive and dominate, push other species out.

Sphagnum fit exchange H+ for basic cations inside freshwater, and e fit reduce nutrient cycling by blocking water-sediment exchange.&lt;ref name=&quot;Henriksen-1992&quot; /&gt;

Aquatic biomonitoring dey used to check ecosystem health.

Acid soil fit affect agriculture too.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chen-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Changan |last2=Lin |first2=Juntong |last3=Liu |first3=Yuhang |last4=Ren |first4=Xiangru |date=2022 |title=Effects of freshwater acidification and countermeasures |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=1011 |issue=1 |article-number=012035 |bibcode=2022E&amp;ES.1011a2035C |s2cid=248122033 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1011/1/012035 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some animals like frogs and perch fit survive pH 4.&lt;ref name=&quot;Landuse.alberta.ca&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Effects of Acid Rain - Surface Waters and Aquatic Animals |url=https://landuse.alberta.ca/Forms%20and%20Applications/RFR_ACFN%20Reply%20to%20Crown%20Submission%205%20-%20TabD9%20AcidRain_2014-08_PUBLIC.pdf |access-date=19 April 2022 |website=Landuse.alberta.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt;

But many organisms like clams and snails no fit survive low pH; their shells dey weaken and protection reduce.&lt;ref name=&quot;Landuse.alberta.ca&quot; /&gt;

== Minimizing acidification ==
Agricultural runoff (nitrogen and phosphorus) dey major cause. Best management practices like reduce fertilizer use, improve manure management, and precision agriculture fit reduce pollution.&lt;ref name=jac&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Camargo |first1=Julio A. |last2=Alonso |first2=Álvaro |date=August 2006 |title=Ecological and toxicological effects of inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global assessment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0160412006000602 |journal=Environment International |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=831–849 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2006.05.002|pmid=16781774 |hdl=10261/294824 |url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Riparian buffer zones (vegetation strips near water) fit filter pollutants before dem enter freshwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Mayer |first1=Paul M. |last2=Jr. Reynolds |first2=Steven K. |last3=Canfield |first3=Timothy J. |last4=McCutchen |first4=Marshall D. |date=2005 |title=Riparian Buffer Width, Vegetative Cover, and Nitrogen Removal Effectiveness: A Review of Current Science and Regulations |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-02/documents/riparian-buffer-width-2005.pdf |journal=Journal of the American Water Resources Association |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=311–324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wetlands and peatlands dey absorb pollutants and control water flow, so dem help buffer systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Gorham |first=Eville |date=May 1991 |title=Northern Peatlands: Role in the Carbon Cycle and Probable Responses to Climatic Warming |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1941811 |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=182–195 |doi=10.2307/1941811 |jstor=1941811 |pmid=27755660 |issn=1051-0761}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Liming (adding calcium carbonate CaCO3) dey raise pH and restore habitat condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mant-2013&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Mant |first1=Rebecca C. |last2=Jones |first2=David L. |last3=Reynolds |first3=Brian |last4=Ormerod |first4=Steve J. |last5=Pullin |first5=Andrew S. |date=2013-08-01 |title=A systematic review of the effectiveness of liming to mitigate impacts of river acidification on fish and macro-invertebrates |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=179 |pages=285–293 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2013.04.019 |pmid=23707951 |issn=0269-7491|doi-access=free |bibcode=2013EPoll.179..285M }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mining acid drainage fit treat through biological processes and alkaline materials.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nordstrom 393–398&quot;/&gt;

Circular economy approach (reduce, reuse, recycle) too fit reduce pollution overall.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Morseletto |first=Piero |date=2020-02-01 |title=Targets for a circular economy |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344919304598 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=153 |article-number=104553 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104553 |issn=0921-3449|hdl=1871.1/c4c1f149-0a90-46fb-9105-cbf7157cf3f8 |hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Regulations ==
Control of SOx and NOx emissions fit reduce acid rain and acid water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Menz |first1=Fredric C. |last2=Seip |first2=Hans M. |date=2004-08-01 |title=Acid rain in Europe and the United States: an update |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901104000590 |journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=253–265 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2004.05.005 |issn=1462-9011|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement reduce acid rain by 78% for Canada and 92% for US as of 2020.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Environment and Climate Change |date=2005-01-25 |title=Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement: overview |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/air-pollution/issues/transboundary/canada-united-states-air-quality-agreement-overview.html |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.canada.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Research investment and monitoring help build policy solutions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Grennfelt-2020&quot; /&gt;

Government also fit support companies to reduce pollution and use better production methods.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chen-2022&quot;/&gt;

Examples include Acid Rain Program in US (1995) and Gothenburg Protocol by UNECE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone {{!}} UNECE |url=https://unece.org/environment-policy/air/protocol-abate-acidification-eutrophication-and-ground-level-ozone |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=unece.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Case Study: Freshwater Acidification in the Adirondack Lakes, New York ==
[[File:Adirondack Lake - 2055193932.jpg|thumb|Adirondack Lake, USA]]

Adirondack Lakes na one major case study of freshwater acidification. From 1970s, lakes show acidification due to low Acid Neutralizing Capacity and industrial emissions of SO2 and NOx causing acid rain.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Pollutants move from Midwest US go Adirondack region, reduce pH of water and soil.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=DRISCOLL |first=CHARLES T. |last2=LAWRENCE |first2=GREGORY B. |last3=BULGER |first3=ARTHUR J. |last4=BUTLER |first4=THOMAS J. |last5=CRONAN |first5=CHRISTOPHER S. |last6=EAGAR |first6=CHRISTOPHER |last7=LAMBERT |first7=KATHLEEN F. |last8=LIKENS |first8=GENE E. |last9=STODDARD |first9=JOHN L. |last10=WEATHERS |first10=KATHLEEN C. |date=2001 |title=Acidic Deposition in the Northeastern United States: Sources and Inputs, Ecosystem Effects, and Management Strategies |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/51/3/180/256122 |journal=BioScience |volume=51 |issue=3 |page=180 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0180:aditnu]2.0.co;2 |issn=0006-3568}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This cause decline in biodiversity, including fish and crustacean disappearance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6173689 |title=Adirondack lakes survey: An interpretive analysis of fish communities and water chemistry, 1984--1987 |last=Baker |first=J. P. |last2=Gherini |first2=S. A. |date=1990-01-01 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Lab. (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States); Adirondack Lakes Survey Corp., Ray Brook, NY (USA) |issue=ORNL/M-1148 |doi=10.2172/6173689 |osti=6173689 |language=English |last3=Munson |first3=R. K. |last4=Christensen |first4=S. W. |last5=Driscoll |first5=C. T. |last6=Gallagher |first6=J. |last7=Newton |first7=R. M. |last8=Reckhow |first8=K. H. |last9=Schofield |first9=C. L.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Clean Air Act of 1990 help reduce SO2 and NOx emissions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Water quality improve, but ecosystem recovery still slow because soil still hold acid effect.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Stoddard |first=J. L. |last2=Jeffries |first2=D. S. |last3=Lükewille |first3=A. |last4=Clair |first4=T. A. |last5=Dillon |first5=P. J. |last6=Driscoll |first6=C. T. |last7=Forsius |first7=M. |last8=Johannessen |first8=M. |last9=Kahl |first9=J. S. |last10=Kellogg |first10=J. H. |last11=Kemp |first11=A. |last12=Mannio |first12=J. |last13=Monteith |first13=D. T. |last14=Murdoch |first14=P. S. |last15=Patrick |first15=S. |date=1999 |title=Regional trends in aquatic recovery from acidification in North America and Europe |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/44114 |journal=Nature |volume=401 |issue=6753 |pages=575–578 |doi=10.1038/44114 |issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Further reading ==
*{{Cite web|title=Measurements and observations: OCB-OA|url=http://www.whoi.edu/OCB-OA/page.do?pid=112157|access-date=2019-03-24|website=Whoi.edu|language=en-US}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gas emissions]]
[[Category:Water chemistry]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Water testing</title>
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      <id>105931</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-30T07:21:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>I don start an article</comment>
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      <text bytes="12590" sha1="qfdrrhepbgq6deyd09a4z9ad66xsycb" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Procedures used to analyze water quality}}
[[File:Broken Bow Water Treatment Facility water testing.jpg|thumb|Water testing wey dem dey carry out for treatment facility for Broken Bow, Oklahoma]]

'''Water testing''' na general description for different procedures wey dem dey use check water quality. Millions of water quality tests dey happen every day to meet regulatory requirements and to maintain safety.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Water testing – pass or fail?|url=http://www.globalwaterintel.com/archive/10/6/market-insight/water-testing-pass-or-fail.html|publisher=Global Water Intelligence|accessdate=21 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem fit carry out testing to check:
* '''ambient or environmental water quality''' – how surface water body fit support aquatic life as ecosystem. ''See'' Environmental monitoring, Freshwater environmental quality parameters and Bioindicator.
* '''wastewater''' – how polluted water be (domestic sewage or industrial waste) before treatment or after treatment. ''See'' Environmental chemistry and Wastewater quality indicators.
* '''&quot;raw water&quot; quality''' – how water source be before treatment for domestic use (drinking water). ''See'' Bacteriological water analysis and specific tests like turbidity and hard water.
* '''&quot;finished&quot; water quality''' – water wey dem don treat for municipal water purification plant. ''See'' Bacteriological water analysis and Category:Water quality indicators.
* whether water fit serve for industrial uses like laboratory work, manufacturing or equipment cooling. ''See'' purified water.

==Government regulation==
Government rules wey relate to water testing and water quality for some major countries dey below.

===China===

====Ministry of Environmental Protection====
Ministry of Environmental Protection of People's Republic of China na the country environmental protection department wey dey handle protection of air, water and land from pollution. E dey under State Council, and by law e get power to enforce environmental policies and regulations. E also dey support research and development.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=MEP Mission|url=http://english.mep.gov.cn/About_SEPA/Mission/200803/t20080318_119444.htm|accessdate=20 March 2013|archive-date=26 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126120712/http://english.mep.gov.cn/About_SEPA/Mission/200803/t20080318_119444.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Regulatory challenges and debates====
For late 2009, survey wey China Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development do show say water quality of urban supply for cities no meet standard for at least 1,000 water treatment plants out of over 4,000 wey dem check. The result no release officially, but later Century Weekly publish am for 2012. Government official later talk say 80% of urban tap water dey okay based on pilot data from 2011.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

China new drinking water standard get 106 indicators. But only 40% of 35 major cities fit test all 106 indicators. Some agencies dey negotiate results for over 60 indicators, so dem no dey test everything strictly. Water quality grading dey based on average 95% compliance. Inspection dey happen twice every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Gong|first=Jing|title=What's coming out of China's taps?|date=7 June 2012 |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4962-What-s-coming-out-of-China-s-taps-|publisher=China Dialogue|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Pakistan===

====Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources====
{{Main|Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources}}
This organization start for 1964. E dey conduct, organize and promote research for all water resources areas. E dey focus on applied and basic research for water sector development.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About PCRWR|url=http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/About.aspx|publisher=PCRWR|accessdate=25 March 2013|archive-date=16 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416000532/http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/About.aspx|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Recent developments====
For March 2013, minister for Science and Technology talk say only 15–18% groundwater samples for Pakistan dey safe for drinking. Government don set up 24 water testing labs, produce water test kits, filters and treatment sachets, and train over 2,660 professionals. Dem also don survey 10,000 out of 12,000 water supply systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=24 water quality testing laboratories set up in country: NA told|date=13 March 2013 |url=http://www.brecorder.com/pakistan/industries-a-sectors/110480-24-water-quality-testing-laboratories-set-up-in-country-na-told.html|publisher=Business Recorder|accessdate=25 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===United Kingdom===

====Drinking Water Inspectorate====
Drinking Water Inspectorate na department under Environment, Food and Rural Affairs wey dey regulate public water supply companies for England and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Drinking Water Inspectorate Home Page|url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local environmental health offices also fit carry out water testing.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Drinking water quality|url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/drinking-water-quality/index.htm|publisher=DWI|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===United States===

====Environmental Protection Agency====
[[File:A scientist inspects a water sample. (15011059180).jpg|thumb|U.S. EPA scientist dey inspect water sample]]

Main federal laws wey control water testing na Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and Clean Water Act. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) dey set rules and test methods under these laws.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Regulatory Agendas and Regulatory Plans |url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/regulatory-agendas-and-regulatory-plans |date=2025-08-11 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;Drinking water analysis
Under SDWA, public water systems must regularly test treated water for contaminants using EPA-approved methods. Only certified labs fit do the testing.&lt;ref name=&quot;EPA DW methods&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwanalyticalmethods/learn-about-drinking-water-analytical-methods |title=Learn about Drinking Water Analytical Methods |date=2025-06-30 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Revised Total Coliform Rule (2013) and 1989 version apply to all public water systems. Dem control microbial contamination and require reporting of Escherichia coli when e exceed safe level.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Revised Total Coliform And Total Coliform Rule |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/revised-total-coliform-rule-and-total-coliform-rule |date=2025-02-19 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Acute toxicity testing fit take 24–96 hours to detect contamination.&lt;ref name=&quot;Performance Verification Testing&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Performance Verification Testing |date=6 August 2014 |url=http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf |publisher=EPA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121916/http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;Wastewater analysis
All facilities wey dey discharge wastewater into rivers, lakes or sea must get permit under National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Dem must test wastewater regularly and report results.&lt;ref name=&quot;NPDES basics&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-permit-basics |title=NPDES Permit Basics |date=2025-06-03 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Private wells====
Private wells no get federal regulation. Owners na dem responsible for testing their water. Some states fit require testing for bacteria like coliform and E. coli and other contaminants like nitrates or arsenic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells |title=Private Drinking Water Wells |date=2025-08-11 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Publication of test methods====
Test methods dey published by government agencies, research organizations and international bodies. Approved methods must be used for regulatory compliance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Clean Water Act Analytical Methods |url=https://www.epa.gov/cwa-methods |date=2025-09-09 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Homeland security====
EPA dey responsible for water sector security under U.S. homeland security policies. Threats fit include chemical contamination or physical attack on water systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Water and Wastewater Systems Sector Cybersecurity |url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-change-water-sector/water-and-wastewater-systems-sector-cybersecurity |date=2025-06-17 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Regulatory challenges====
=====Hydraulic fracturing=====
Some oil and gas companies no dey fully disclose chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing due to legal exemptions. This dey raise concerns about water safety.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing Under the Safe Drinking Water Act |date=15 January 2013 |url=http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_hydroreg.cfm |publisher=EPA |accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Studies later link some groundwater contamination to fracking activities in some regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Lustgarten |first=Abrahm |title=Feds Link Water Contamination to Fracking for the First Time |date=8 December 2011 |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/feds-link-water-contamination-to-fracking-for-first-time |publisher=Pro Publica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=====Pharmaceuticals and personal care products=====
Small traces of pharmaceuticals dey inside drinking water, but most treatment systems no fully remove am. No strong federal limits exist yet for most of these chemicals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=McNabb|first=John|title=Testimony to Oversight Hearing|url=http://www.cleanwateraction.org/files/publications/ma/testimony-drugsinwater-mcnabb.pdf|publisher=Clean Water Action}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====International organizations====
International Maritime Organization dey handle water-related environmental issues like ballast water management to prevent spread of invasive species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About IMO|url=http://www.imo.org/|publisher=IMO}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water test initiatives==

===EarthEcho Water Challenge===
EarthEcho Water Challenge na global program wey dey encourage people test local water bodies and report results like pH, temperature, turbidity and dissolved oxygen.&lt;ref name=&quot;monitoring challenge&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwatermonitoringday.org |title=EarthEcho Water Challenge |publisher=EarthEcho International}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water test market==

===Market size and structure===
Global water testing market around 2009 worth about US$3.6 billion, including labs, instruments and monitoring systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Something in the water|url=http://www.globalwaterintel.com/archive/10/6/market-insight/something-water.html|publisher=Global Water Intelligence}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Product offering===
Market include analytical systems, instruments and chemical reagents used for testing water quality.

Equipment include field devices and advanced lab machines like mass spectrometry, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;/&gt;

===New developments===
Digital sensors and improved dissolved oxygen meters dey replace older technologies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water Sector Primer&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Water Sector Primer|url=http://www.fullermoney.com/content/2005-07-01/IainLittleGoldmanSachsWaterPrimer61505.pdf|publisher=Goldman Sachs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===&quot;Razor and Razor-blade&quot; business model===
Companies dey make money from both equipment and consumables like reagents, which people dey use repeatedly for testing.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water Sector Primer&quot;/&gt;

===Suppliers===
Major suppliers include Lovibond, Merck, LaMotte, Siemens, Hach and Thermo Scientific.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;/&gt;

==Water testing facilities==
Two main types of labs dey: commercial labs and in-house labs.

===In-house laboratories===
These dey inside water plants, breweries and industries. Dem handle about half of all tests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;/&gt;

===Commercial laboratories===
Small private labs dey do testing for clients. Big groups also exist and handle large share of tests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;/&gt;

==See also==
* List of chemical analysis methods
* Water chemistry analysis
* Water quality: measurement

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Drinking water]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Water chemistry]]
[[Category:Water treatment]]</text>
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      <id>105932</id>
      <parentid>105931</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-30T07:24:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achiri Bitamsimli</username>
        <id>64</id>
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      <comment>Added databox</comment>
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{{Short description|Procedures used to analyze water quality}}
[[File:Broken Bow Water Treatment Facility water testing.jpg|thumb|Water testing wey dem dey carry out for treatment facility for Broken Bow, Oklahoma]]

'''Water testing''' na general description for different procedures wey dem dey use check water quality. Millions of water quality tests dey happen every day to meet regulatory requirements and to maintain safety.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Water testing – pass or fail?|url=http://www.globalwaterintel.com/archive/10/6/market-insight/water-testing-pass-or-fail.html|publisher=Global Water Intelligence|accessdate=21 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem fit carry out testing to check:
* '''ambient or environmental water quality''' – how surface water body fit support aquatic life as ecosystem. ''See'' Environmental monitoring, Freshwater environmental quality parameters and Bioindicator.
* '''wastewater''' – how polluted water be (domestic sewage or industrial waste) before treatment or after treatment. ''See'' Environmental chemistry and Wastewater quality indicators.
* '''&quot;raw water&quot; quality''' – how water source be before treatment for domestic use (drinking water). ''See'' Bacteriological water analysis and specific tests like turbidity and hard water.
* '''&quot;finished&quot; water quality''' – water wey dem don treat for municipal water purification plant. ''See'' Bacteriological water analysis and Category:Water quality indicators.
* whether water fit serve for industrial uses like laboratory work, manufacturing or equipment cooling. ''See'' purified water.

==Government regulation==
Government rules wey relate to water testing and water quality for some major countries dey below.

===China===

====Ministry of Environmental Protection====
Ministry of Environmental Protection of People's Republic of China na the country environmental protection department wey dey handle protection of air, water and land from pollution. E dey under State Council, and by law e get power to enforce environmental policies and regulations. E also dey support research and development.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=MEP Mission|url=http://english.mep.gov.cn/About_SEPA/Mission/200803/t20080318_119444.htm|accessdate=20 March 2013|archive-date=26 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126120712/http://english.mep.gov.cn/About_SEPA/Mission/200803/t20080318_119444.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Regulatory challenges and debates====
For late 2009, survey wey China Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development do show say water quality of urban supply for cities no meet standard for at least 1,000 water treatment plants out of over 4,000 wey dem check. The result no release officially, but later Century Weekly publish am for 2012. Government official later talk say 80% of urban tap water dey okay based on pilot data from 2011.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

China new drinking water standard get 106 indicators. But only 40% of 35 major cities fit test all 106 indicators. Some agencies dey negotiate results for over 60 indicators, so dem no dey test everything strictly. Water quality grading dey based on average 95% compliance. Inspection dey happen twice every year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Gong|first=Jing|title=What's coming out of China's taps?|date=7 June 2012 |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4962-What-s-coming-out-of-China-s-taps-|publisher=China Dialogue|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Pakistan===

====Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources====
{{Main|Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources}}
This organization start for 1964. E dey conduct, organize and promote research for all water resources areas. E dey focus on applied and basic research for water sector development.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About PCRWR|url=http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/About.aspx|publisher=PCRWR|accessdate=25 March 2013|archive-date=16 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416000532/http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/About.aspx|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Recent developments====
For March 2013, minister for Science and Technology talk say only 15–18% groundwater samples for Pakistan dey safe for drinking. Government don set up 24 water testing labs, produce water test kits, filters and treatment sachets, and train over 2,660 professionals. Dem also don survey 10,000 out of 12,000 water supply systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=24 water quality testing laboratories set up in country: NA told|date=13 March 2013 |url=http://www.brecorder.com/pakistan/industries-a-sectors/110480-24-water-quality-testing-laboratories-set-up-in-country-na-told.html|publisher=Business Recorder|accessdate=25 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===United Kingdom===

====Drinking Water Inspectorate====
Drinking Water Inspectorate na department under Environment, Food and Rural Affairs wey dey regulate public water supply companies for England and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Drinking Water Inspectorate Home Page|url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local environmental health offices also fit carry out water testing.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Drinking water quality|url=http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/drinking-water-quality/index.htm|publisher=DWI|accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===United States===

====Environmental Protection Agency====
[[File:A scientist inspects a water sample. (15011059180).jpg|thumb|U.S. EPA scientist dey inspect water sample]]

Main federal laws wey control water testing na Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and Clean Water Act. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) dey set rules and test methods under these laws.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Regulatory Agendas and Regulatory Plans |url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/regulatory-agendas-and-regulatory-plans |date=2025-08-11 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;Drinking water analysis
Under SDWA, public water systems must regularly test treated water for contaminants using EPA-approved methods. Only certified labs fit do the testing.&lt;ref name=&quot;EPA DW methods&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwanalyticalmethods/learn-about-drinking-water-analytical-methods |title=Learn about Drinking Water Analytical Methods |date=2025-06-30 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Revised Total Coliform Rule (2013) and 1989 version apply to all public water systems. Dem control microbial contamination and require reporting of Escherichia coli when e exceed safe level.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Revised Total Coliform And Total Coliform Rule |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/revised-total-coliform-rule-and-total-coliform-rule |date=2025-02-19 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Acute toxicity testing fit take 24–96 hours to detect contamination.&lt;ref name=&quot;Performance Verification Testing&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Performance Verification Testing |date=6 August 2014 |url=http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf |publisher=EPA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906121916/http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_04_01_watersecurity_fs_security_rapid-tox.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;Wastewater analysis
All facilities wey dey discharge wastewater into rivers, lakes or sea must get permit under National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Dem must test wastewater regularly and report results.&lt;ref name=&quot;NPDES basics&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes-permit-basics |title=NPDES Permit Basics |date=2025-06-03 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Private wells====
Private wells no get federal regulation. Owners na dem responsible for testing their water. Some states fit require testing for bacteria like coliform and E. coli and other contaminants like nitrates or arsenic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells |title=Private Drinking Water Wells |date=2025-08-11 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Publication of test methods====
Test methods dey published by government agencies, research organizations and international bodies. Approved methods must be used for regulatory compliance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Clean Water Act Analytical Methods |url=https://www.epa.gov/cwa-methods |date=2025-09-09 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Homeland security====
EPA dey responsible for water sector security under U.S. homeland security policies. Threats fit include chemical contamination or physical attack on water systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Water and Wastewater Systems Sector Cybersecurity |url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-change-water-sector/water-and-wastewater-systems-sector-cybersecurity |date=2025-06-17 |publisher=EPA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Regulatory challenges====
=====Hydraulic fracturing=====
Some oil and gas companies no dey fully disclose chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing due to legal exemptions. This dey raise concerns about water safety.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing Under the Safe Drinking Water Act |date=15 January 2013 |url=http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_hydroreg.cfm |publisher=EPA |accessdate=20 March 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Studies later link some groundwater contamination to fracking activities in some regions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Lustgarten |first=Abrahm |title=Feds Link Water Contamination to Fracking for the First Time |date=8 December 2011 |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/feds-link-water-contamination-to-fracking-for-first-time |publisher=Pro Publica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=====Pharmaceuticals and personal care products=====
Small traces of pharmaceuticals dey inside drinking water, but most treatment systems no fully remove am. No strong federal limits exist yet for most of these chemicals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=McNabb|first=John|title=Testimony to Oversight Hearing|url=http://www.cleanwateraction.org/files/publications/ma/testimony-drugsinwater-mcnabb.pdf|publisher=Clean Water Action}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====International organizations====
International Maritime Organization dey handle water-related environmental issues like ballast water management to prevent spread of invasive species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About IMO|url=http://www.imo.org/|publisher=IMO}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water test initiatives==

===EarthEcho Water Challenge===
EarthEcho Water Challenge na global program wey dey encourage people test local water bodies and report results like pH, temperature, turbidity and dissolved oxygen.&lt;ref name=&quot;monitoring challenge&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwatermonitoringday.org |title=EarthEcho Water Challenge |publisher=EarthEcho International}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Water test market==

===Market size and structure===
Global water testing market around 2009 worth about US$3.6 billion, including labs, instruments and monitoring systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Something in the water|url=http://www.globalwaterintel.com/archive/10/6/market-insight/something-water.html|publisher=Global Water Intelligence}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Product offering===
Market include analytical systems, instruments and chemical reagents used for testing water quality.

Equipment include field devices and advanced lab machines like mass spectrometry, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;/&gt;

===New developments===
Digital sensors and improved dissolved oxygen meters dey replace older technologies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water Sector Primer&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Water Sector Primer|url=http://www.fullermoney.com/content/2005-07-01/IainLittleGoldmanSachsWaterPrimer61505.pdf|publisher=Goldman Sachs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===&quot;Razor and Razor-blade&quot; business model===
Companies dey make money from both equipment and consumables like reagents, which people dey use repeatedly for testing.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water Sector Primer&quot;/&gt;

===Suppliers===
Major suppliers include Lovibond, Merck, LaMotte, Siemens, Hach and Thermo Scientific.&lt;ref name=&quot;Something in the water&quot;/&gt;

==Water testing facilities==
Two main types of labs dey: commercial labs and in-house labs.

===In-house laboratories===
These dey inside water plants, breweries and industries. Dem handle about half of all tests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;/&gt;

===Commercial laboratories===
Small private labs dey do testing for clients. Big groups also exist and handle large share of tests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Water testing – pass or fail&quot;/&gt;

==See also==
* List of chemical analysis methods
* Water chemistry analysis
* Water quality: measurement

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Drinking water]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Water chemistry]]
[[Category:Water treatment]]</text>
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    <title>Onilahy River</title>
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! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-above&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;&quot; |'''Onilahy River'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-image&quot; |[[File:JNB-MRU_22.08.2009_13-16-31.jpg|frameless]]&lt;div class=&quot;infobox-caption&quot;&gt;Onilahy River estuary&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-image&quot; |[[File:Onilahy_watershed.png|thumb]]&lt;div class=&quot;infobox-caption&quot;&gt;Map of the Onilahy River watershed&lt;/div&gt;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-header&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;&quot; |Location
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Country
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |[[Madagascar]]
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |region
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |[[Atsimo-Andrefana]], [[Anosy]]
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Cities
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |[[Mandrofify]], [[Ambolofoty]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-header&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;&quot; |Physical&amp;nbsp;characteristics
|- class=&quot;infobox-hiddenrow&quot; style=&quot;display:none;&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-full-data&quot; |&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Module:Infobox/styles.css&quot;&gt;&lt;/templatestyles&gt;
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Source
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; | 
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2022;&amp;nbsp;location&lt;/span&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |near Betroka
|- style=&quot;display:none&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Mouth
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Bay of Saint-Augustin
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display:inline;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2022;&amp;nbsp;location&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Saint Augustin, Mozambique Channel
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display:inline;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2022;&amp;nbsp;elevation&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |0m
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Length
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |525&amp;nbsp;km (326&amp;nbsp;mi)
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; &quot;&gt;Basin size&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |31,600&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (12,200&amp;nbsp;mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|- class=&quot;infobox-hiddenrow&quot; style=&quot;display:none;&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-full-data&quot; |&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Module:Infobox/styles.css&quot;&gt;&lt;/templatestyles&gt;
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Discharge
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; | 
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2022;&amp;nbsp;location&lt;/span&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Near mouth
|- style=&quot;padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2022;&amp;nbsp;average&lt;/span&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |(Period: 1971–2000)183&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (6,500&amp;nbsp;cu&amp;nbsp;ft/s)
|- style=&quot;display:none&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-header&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;&quot; |Basin&amp;nbsp;features
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Protection status
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Module:Infobox/styles.css&quot;&gt;&lt;/templatestyles&gt;
|- class=&quot;mergedrow&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-header&quot; |&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Module:Infobox/styles.css&quot;&gt;&lt;/templatestyles&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;line-height:1.5;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:4px;border-color:#8DE3D2&quot;&gt;Ramsar Wetland&lt;/div&gt;
|- class=&quot;mergedrow&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; &quot;&gt;Official name&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Zones humides de l'Onilahy
|- class=&quot;mergedrow&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Designated
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |22 May 2017
|- class=&quot;mergedrow&quot;
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Reference&amp;nbsp;no.
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |2304
|- style=&quot;display:none&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- style=&quot;display:none&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|}
'''Onilahy''' be a river insyd Atsimo-Andrefana den Anosy (Toliara Province), southern [[Madagascar]]. E dey flow down from de hills near Betroka to de Mozambique Channel. E dey empty at St. Augustin (23°34′00″S 43°45′00″E﻿ / ﻿23.5666667°S 43.75°E﻿ / -23.5666667; 43.75), den into de [[Bay of Saint-Augustin]].

Two species of cichlids be endemic to de river basin, buh ''Ptychochromis onilahy'' be probably already extinct&lt;ref&gt;Stiassny, M., and Sparks, J. S. (2006).&lt;/ref&gt; den de remaining range of ''Ptychochromoides betsileanus'' dey cover less than 10 square kilometres (3.9 mi2).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite iucn|author=Ravelomanana, T.|author2=Sparks, J.S.|date=2020|title=''Ptychochromoides betsileanus''|volume=2020|article-number=e.T18832A177066640|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T18832A177066640.en|access-date=12 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Walaszczyk |first=I. |last2=Marcinowski |first2=R. |last3=Praszkier |first3=T. |last4=Dembicz |first4=K. |last5=Bieńkowska |first5=M. |date=August 2004 |title=Biogeographical and stratigraphical significance of the latest Turonian and Early Coniacian inoceramid/ammonite succession of the Manasoa section on the Onilahy River, south-west Madagascar |journal=Cretaceous Research |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=543–576 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2004.05.001 |issn=0195-6671}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Onilahy_Basin_OSM.png|thumb|Onilahy Basin]]

== Geography ==
Sources of de Onilahy river be near Beadabo. E dey flow thru Ankilimary, to Benenitra, Ehara, Bezaha den Antanimena. E be crossed by de RN 10 near Tameantsoa. De mouth of de Onilahy river dey situate insyd de Indian Ocean at Saint Augustin, Madagascar, 35 km south of Toliara (Tuléar).

Ein main affluentes from ein south be Sakamena river, Evasy River, Ianapera River, Isoanala river den de Ihazofotsy River. From de north dese be Sakondry, Taheza, Sakamare den de Imatoto rivers.

== References ==

[[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]</text>
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    <title>Swakop River</title>
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[[File:Swakop_20_km_before_Swakopmund.jpg|right|thumb|De Swakop River dey flood 20 km outsyd Swakopmund on 15 February 2008.]]
[[File:Muendung_des_Swakop.jpg|thumb|Wer de Swakop dey meet de [[Atlantic Ocean]] (2017). Poles of de old railway bridge dem see insyd de foreground.]]
[[File:Swakop_Vogelperspektive.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Swakop River (2017).]]
De '''Swakop River''' (Khoekhoe: ''Tsoaxaub'')&lt;ref name=&quot;Malan&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Malan |first=Johan S |title=Die Völker Namibias |publisher=Klaus Hess |year=1998 |location=Windhoek, Göttingen |pages=134–135 |language=German |trans-title=The Tribes of Namibia}}&lt;/ref&gt; be a major river insyd western central [[Namibia]]. Ein source be insyd de Khomas Highland. From der e dey flow westwards thru de town of Okahandja, de historic mission station at Gross Barmen, den de settlement of Otjimbingwe. E then dey cross de Namib desert den dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] at Swakopmund ('Mouth of the Swakop'). De Swakop be an ephemeral river; ein run-off roughly be 40 million cubic metres per annum. E reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]] most recently insyd 2011, 2022,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Cindy van Wyk, Ellanie Smit |date=17 Feb 2022 |title=Swakop River reaches ocean after more than a decade |url=https://www.namibiansun.com/news/swakop-river-reaches-ocean-after-more-than-a-decade2022-02-17 |access-date=2 Apr 2025 |website=Namibian Sun |publisher=Namibia Media Holdings |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; den 2025.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Braune |first=Laura |date=1 Apr 2025 |title= |url=https://www.instagram.com/laura_braune/reel/DH6te0WtqeV/ |access-date=2 Apr 2025 |website=Instagram |publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Swakop River, along plus ein main tributary Khan, be one of de largest temporary water-bearing rivers insyd de dry western part of Namibia. E be 460 km (290 mi) long wey e get a 30,100 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (11,600 sq mi) large catchment area (wey dey include ein tributaries).&lt;ref name=&quot;Jacobson&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Peter J. |url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf |title=Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia |last2=Jacobson |first2=Kathryn M. |last3=Seely |first3=Mary K. |date=1995 |publisher=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |isbn=9991670947 |location=[[Windhoek]] |pages=138–139 |format=PDF 8.7MB}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De area around de river mouth den de surrounding dunes sanso be known for rich bird life den sam unusual plant species (like de Welwitschia) wey dey use de regular fog drifting in from de sea to sustain demaselves in de absence of oda moisture.

Groundwater levels insyd de area drop about 0.3 m further secof de presence of two big dams dem build for de Swakop River top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Namibian2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Fillemon |first=Nampa |title=MTC investigated over disappearing data complaints |url=https://www.namibian.com.na/mtc-investigated-over-disappearing-data-complaints/ |access-date=2026-06-30 |website=The Namibian |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Notwithstanding de river ein irregular flow, sam agriculture dey undertake insyd de Swakop River valley. Thus, de region be well known for ein fresh produce, especially tomatoes, asparagus den olives. Der be sam fears of salt den uranium (possibly natural, possibly from de Rössing uranium mine) wey dey endanger dis farming industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;Namibian2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''Rössing in the Erongo Region'' |url=http://www.rossing.com/erongo.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230060907/http://www.rossing.com/erongo.htm |archive-date=2006-12-30 |access-date=2007-01-06 |publisher=Rössing Uranium Limited}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Etymology ==
De name dey cam from de Khoekhoe phrase ''Tsoa-xaub'', from ''tsoa'' (&quot;anus&quot;) den ''xaub'' (&quot;excrement&quot;). De name dey derive from de observation of de flow of large amounts of brownish sludge wey dey discharge into de Atlantic Ocean plus de rains.&lt;ref&gt;Raper, Peter (1987) ''Dictionary of Southern African Place Names''. Johannesburg: Lowry Publishers.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydrology ==
De Swakop dey drain a catchment area of 30,100&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; wey dey extend from de mouth into de Atlantic Ocean at Swakopmund over Otjimbingwe den insyd de east to about 50&amp;nbsp;km from Okahandja, den insyd de south to Khomas Highlands outsyd Windhoek. De highest point of de watershed dey locate at 2,480 m. Annual rainfall dey vary from 0&amp;nbsp;mm insyd de lower dey reach up to 475&amp;nbsp;mm insyd de eastern Khomas Highlands. Rainfall dey exceed 300&amp;nbsp;mm per year insyd 39% of de catchment area, den up to 80% of de catchment dey experience annual rainfall above 100&amp;nbsp;mm.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jacobson&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Peter J. |url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf |title=Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia |last2=Jacobson |first2=Kathryn M. |last3=Seely |first3=Mary K. |date=1995 |publisher=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |isbn=9991670947 |location=[[Windhoek]] |pages=138–139 |format=PDF 8.7MB}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFJacobsonJacobsonSeely1995&quot;&gt;Jacobson, Peter J.; Jacobson, Kathryn M.; Seely, Mary K. (1995). [http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf ''Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia''] &lt;span class=&quot;cs1-format&quot;&gt;(PDF 8.7MB)&lt;/span&gt;. [[Windhoek]]: Desert Research Foundation of Namibia. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;138–&lt;/span&gt;139. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9991670947|&lt;bdi&gt;9991670947&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Clifford |first=T. N. |date=2008-03-01 |title=The geology of the Neoproterozoic Swakop-Otavi transition zone in the Outjo District, northern Damara Orogen, Namibia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gssajg.111.1.117 |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=117–140 |bibcode=2008SAJG..111..117C |doi=10.2113/gssajg.111.1.117 |issn=1012-0750 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Vegetation den fauna ==
Secof ein size den scope, de Swakop get a very diverse catchment area. 29% of de area dey insyd highveld savanna, 28% insyd thornveld savanna, 34% insyd semidesert den savanna transition zone, den 9% insyd de central Namib Desert.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jacobson&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Peter J. |url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf |title=Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia |last2=Jacobson |first2=Kathryn M. |last3=Seely |first3=Mary K. |date=1995 |publisher=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |isbn=9991670947 |location=[[Windhoek]] |pages=138–139 |format=PDF 8.7MB}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFJacobsonJacobsonSeely1995&quot;&gt;Jacobson, Peter J.; Jacobson, Kathryn M.; Seely, Mary K. (1995). [http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf ''Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia''] &lt;span class=&quot;cs1-format&quot;&gt;(PDF 8.7MB)&lt;/span&gt;. [[Windhoek]]: Desert Research Foundation of Namibia. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;138–&lt;/span&gt;139. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9991670947|&lt;bdi&gt;9991670947&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Insyd de Highlands a more anaa less dense bush vegetation dey prevail. Insyd de arid lower reaches der be a more limited flora insyd de Swakop River valley einself, plus de typical gallery vegetation from ana trees (''Faidherbia albida''), tamarisk (''Tamarix''), camel thorn (''Acacia erioloba''), Salvadora, various fig species, Euclea den sanso tobacco (''Nicotiana'' spp.), Jimsonweed (''Datura'') den mesquite (''Prosopis'' spp.) as invasive species.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cowlishaw |first=Guy |last2=Davies |first2=Jonathan G. |date=June 1997 |title=Flora of the Pro-Namib Desert Swakop River Catchment, Namibia: community classification and implications for desert vegetation sampling |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0203 |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=271–290 |bibcode=1997JArEn..36..271C |doi=10.1006/jare.1996.0203 |issn=0140-1963 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Usage den colonisation ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DSWA0116,_Deutsch-Süd-Westafrika,_Farm_Gonikontes.jpg|thumb|De farm of Goanikontes insyd Swakop River, circa 1906.]]
Unlike de rest of de dry rivers insyd western Namibia, der be large human settlements insyd de basin of de Swakop River, such as de towns of Usakos, Karibib, Otjimbingwe, Okahandja den Namibia ein capital, Windhoek, so dat de population insyd de catchment area be more dan 200,000 persons.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jacobson&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Peter J. |url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf |title=Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia |last2=Jacobson |first2=Kathryn M. |last3=Seely |first3=Mary K. |date=1995 |publisher=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |isbn=9991670947 |location=[[Windhoek]] |pages=138–139 |format=PDF 8.7MB}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFJacobsonJacobsonSeely1995&quot;&gt;Jacobson, Peter J.; Jacobson, Kathryn M.; Seely, Mary K. (1995). [http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf ''Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia''] &lt;span class=&quot;cs1-format&quot;&gt;(PDF 8.7MB)&lt;/span&gt;. [[Windhoek]]: Desert Research Foundation of Namibia. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;138–&lt;/span&gt;139. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9991670947|&lt;bdi&gt;9991670947&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

De Swakop Bridge insyd Swakopmund be a notable man-made sight near de place wer de river dey empty into de ocean.

== References ==</text>
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