Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.9 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1290 106322 56500 2026-07-06T00:58:30Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ayensuano District''' be one of de thirty-three districts wey dey [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]] for [[Ghana]] insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130305161824/http://ghanadistricts.com/pdfs/newcreateddistricts.pdf "New Districts & Nominated DCEs"] (PDF). ''ghanadistricts''. Archived from [http://ghanadistricts.com/pdfs/newcreateddistricts.pdf the original] (PDF) on 5 March 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.ghanadistricts.com/Home/AllDistricts "All Districts"]. ''ghanadistricts''. Retrieved 8 June 2018.</ref><ref>[http://www.statoids.com/ygh.html "Districts of Ghana".] ''statoids''. Retrieved 8 June 2018.</ref> Na ebe originally den formerly part of de den-larger '''Suhum-Kraboa-[[Coaltar]] District''' for 1988 insyd, wey dem create am from de former '''Suhum-Kraboa-[[Coaltar]] District Council''', till dem split off de southern part of de district wey dem create de Ayensuano (district) for 28 June 2012 insyd; dat be say dem rename de remaining part as '''Suhum Municipal District''', wey dem elevate am go municipal district assembly status for dat same year. De district assembly dey de southern part of [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]] wey [[Coaltar]] be ein capital town. == Dema Political representation == De district get one constituency by de same name, Ayensuano wey get forty electoral areas. Dem divide district go three zones insyd, Obesua Zone, Anum Apapam Zone den Kraboa-Coaltar Zone.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230322175554/http://www.easternregion.gov.gh/index.php/ayensuano/ "Ayensuano – Eastern Regional Official Website"]. ''easternregion.gov.gh''. Retrieved 14 November 2021.</ref> == References == [[Category:Districts insyd Eastern Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Districts insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] hy1o2by4xolglszm6mqnv4kxeji1mg4 0 1400 106323 25969 2026-07-06T03:33:36Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q21002129}} '''Coaltar''' be de capital of de Ayensuano wey dey [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]] for [[Ghana]] insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230322175554/http://www.easternregion.gov.gh/index.php/ayensuano/ "Ayensuano"]. ''easternregion.gov.gh''. Retrieved 14 November 2021.</ref> Na Coaltar dey de Suhum/Kraboa/Coaltar District insyd till 2012 wey dem split de district go Suhum Municipal District den de Ayensuano districts. Following dis, Coaltar cam turn de district capital.<ref>[https://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/ayensuano-dce-unanimously-confirmed/ "Ayensuano DCE unanimously confirmed"]. ''Ghanaian Times''. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021.</ref> As at 2021, de District Chief Executive be Josephine Inkoom.<ref name="ghtimes">[https://allafrica.com/stories/202110150515.html "Ghana: Ayensuano DCE Unanimously Confirmed"]. ''allAfrica.com''. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021.</ref> == Dema Location == Coaltar dey northwest of Nsawam, capital of de Nsawam Adoagyire District. Edey de west of Asamankese, capital of de West Akim Municipal District wey edey de south of Adeiso, capital of de Upper West Akim District. == Make you see dis one too == * Ayensuano (district) * Ayensuano (Ghana parliament constituency) == References == [[Category:Populated places for Eastern Region (Ghana) insyd]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Towns insyd Eastern Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Towns insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] fnbty4vh0jii6w7s0zs4y3ia5qgxs7s 0 1473 106325 28379 2026-07-06T05:44:36Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q5375419}} '''Enchi''' be town wey dey insyd [[Western North Region]] for [[Ghana]]. Ebe de capital for Aowin Municipality. Oda main towns wey dey insyd de Aowin District dey include Old den New Yakasi, Achimfo, Boinso, Jema, Omanpe, Sewum, Jensue, Yiwabra, Yiwabra Nkwanta, Nyankomam, Kwawu, Abochia, den Jomoro.<ref>GNA (February 16, 2022). [https://www.modernghana.com/news/1139439/enchi-is-not-a-hard-to-reach-area-as-people-may.html "'Enchi is not a hard-to-reach area as people may think'—Tufohene"]. ''Modern Ghana''. Retrieved 4 April 2023.</ref> De largest river insyd de district be de Tano ein tributary, de Desue (Disue),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160802034946/http://wrc-gh.org/basins/tano/ "Tano » Water Resources Commission Of Ghana"]. ''www.wrc-gh.org''. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</ref> wey flow insyd de middle of Enchi.<ref>[http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tano-anwia-forest-reserve-iba-ghana "BirdLife Data Zone"]. ''datazone.birdlife.org''. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</ref> De current leaders for de town dey include de Paramount chief Nana (Beyeman) Benbu I,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230405055136/https://skyypowerfm.com/we-urge-ghanaians-to-visit-beautiful-enchi-paramount-chief/ "We urge Ghanaians to visit 'beautiful' Enchi – Paramount Chief"]. ''Skyy Power FM''. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</ref> of Aowin. De incumbent Municipal Chief Executive be Samuel Adu Gyamfi, wey de member of Parliament Oscar Ofori Larbi. == Religions == De area dey include Christian, Muslim, den traditional religions. Christian denominations dey include Catholic, Methodist, Presbyterian, Anglican, Seventh Day Adventist, Church of Pentecost, Assemblies of God, New Covenant Family Church (West Africa), Higher Grounds Chapel, den de Apostolic Church of Ghana. == Notable natives == * John Kwekucher Ackah, Former Member of Parliament, Richard Cudjoe and * Ackah Essuman of the University of Cape Coast, * Joseph Quainoo, first to be consecrated to the episcopate, * Susana Esi Quainoo, Assistant Director I (G.E.S); * Cobbinah, Rtd., Commissioner of Police; * Mercy Nuamah, * Victoria Aidoo-Afo, Principal of Enchi College of Education; * Alex Quainoo, Assistant Commissioner of Police A I/C Budget, * S. B. Arthur == Education == Higher education schools dey include Brentu Senior High/Tech. den Enchi College of Education.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230331221427/https://www.enchicoe.edu.gh/ "Enchi College of Education – Light Expels Darkness"]. Archived from [https://www.enchicoe.edu.gh/ the original] on 2023-03-31. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</ref> == Health == Enchi be de home for de district hospital, Enchi Government Hospital. Dem san gey sizable Presbyterian Health Center. == Economy == Cocoa bean farming be demma large contributor to de local economy.<ref>Tigo, Joshua (2020-09-07). [https://www.adomonline.com/mass-cocoa-production-enchi-cocoa-farmers-to-get-free-irrigation-from-pbc/ "Mass cocoa production: Enchi cocoa farmers to get free irrigation from PBC"]. ''Adomonline.com''. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</ref> == References == [[Category:Towns insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Towns insyd Western North Region]] [[Category:Populated places for Western North Region insyd]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] [[Category:Ghana]] 8jnsdc4iuineulnszvt21maws8w5grb 0 1525 106326 82816 2026-07-06T06:44:57Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q20119890}} '''Francisca Oteng-Mensah''' (dem born am 14 February 1993)<ref name=":0">[https://www.ghanastar.com/stories/meet-youngest-mp-ms-oteng-mensah/ "Meet Youngest MP, Ms. Oteng-Mensah"]. ''GhanaStar''. 2017-02-17. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230714055855/https://www.parliament.gh/mps?mp=153 "Parliament of Ghana"]. ''www.parliament.gh''. Retrieved 2024-05-20.</ref> be member of parliament of New Patriotic Party give Kwabre East Constituency wey na she be known as youngest parliamentarian of de fourth republic of Ghana for 2016 election insyd.<ref>[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=362590 "Sir John attacks 22-year-old Francisca Oteng-Mensah"]. ''GhanaWeb''. Retrieved 2015-06-16.</ref><ref>Allotey, Godwin Akweiteh. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230425181436/https://citifmonline.com/2015/06/i-won-because-of-my-message-not-money-francisca-mensah/ "I won because of my message, not money – Francisca Mensah"]. ''citifmonline''. Retrieved 2015-06-16.</ref><ref>Acquah, Edward. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044147/https://kasapafmonline.com/2016/12/photos-meet-youngest-member-parliament-francisca-oteng-mensah/ "PHOTOS: Meet the youngest Member of Parliament Francisca Oteng Mensah | Kasapa102.5FM"]. ''kasapa Fm Online''. Archived from [https://kasapafmonline.com/2016/12/photos-meet-youngest-member-parliament-francisca-oteng-mensah/ the original] on 2019-03-06. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210526112709/https://www.thestandpoint.com.gh/ "Glitz top 100 inspirational women – Page 100 – Glitz Africa Magazine"]. Retrieved 2022-05-28.</ref> == Ein early life == Dem born Francisca for Aboaso Hospital for Mamponteng,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20221127095639/https://coverghana.com.gh/francisca-oteng-mensah-biography-age-net-worth-children-education-husband/ "Meet Youngest MP, Ms. Oteng-Mensah"]. ''GhanaStar''. 2017-02-17. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref> Ashanti Region<ref name=":0" /> for 14 February 1993. She be Mrs. Joyce Oteng<ref name=":0" /> den Dr Kwaku Oteng<ref>[http://ghana.mom-gmr.org/en/owners/individual-owners/detail/owner/owner/show/dr-kwaku-oteng/ "Dr. Kwaku Oteng"]. ''Ghana mom-rsf''. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref> wey be doctor den businessman wey he san de C.E.O for de Angel Group of Companies dema daughter. == Ein education == Francisca attend three different schools during ein basic den primary education. She first attend de Mamponteng Roman Catholic School, wey she go Revival Preparatory School for Breman wey finally she go Supreme Saviour International wey she plete ein Primary Six. She plete ein Junior High education for Angel Educational Complex. She then continue go St. Roses Senior High School wey she plete ein Senior High Education.<ref>[https://www.ghanaweb.com/person/Francisca-Oteng-Mensah-2803 "Francisca Oteng-Mensah, Biography"]. ''GhanaWeb''. Retrieved 2022-11-27.</ref><ref>Cover Ghana (2022-08-04). [https://web.archive.org/web/20221127095639/https://coverghana.com.gh/francisca-oteng-mensah-biography-age-net-worth-children-education-husband/ "Francisca Oteng Mensah Biography, Age, Net worth, Children, Education, Husband"]. ''Cover Ghana''. Retrieved 2022-11-27.</ref> Ein insatiable quest for more academic laurels compel am make she enroll for de Faculty of Law for de Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) wey she read law.<ref name=":0" /> Na Francisca be second year Law student for de Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology for de tym she contest de elections for 2016 insyd.<ref>Boateng, Michael. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150721113256/http://elections.peacefmonline.com/pages/politics/201506/244899.php "Francisca Oteng-Mensah: I Had Wanted To Be A Politician Since Infancy"]. Archived from [http://elections.peacefmonline.com/pages/politics/201506/244899.php the original] on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-06-16.</ref> == Ein career == Before ein appointment as member of parliament, na dem employ am as Secretary for de Angel Group of Companies for Kumasi insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210617053529/https://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php/?id=5334 "Ghana MPs - MP Details - Oteng Mensah, Francisca"]. ''Ghana MPs''. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref> For December 2017 insyd, dem appoint am as de chairperson for de National Youth Authority.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230506142123/http://ww38.ghananewsagency.org/sports/francisca-oteng-mensah-heads-nya-governing-board-126639 "Francisca Oteng Mensah heads NYA Governing Board"]. ''Ghana news online''. Retrieved 2019-03-09.</ref><ref>[https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/lariba-abudu-oteng-mensah-sworn-into-office-to-take-full-charge-at-gender-ministry.html "Lariba Abudu, Oteng Mensah sworn into office to take full charge at Gender Ministry"]. ''Graphic Online''. 2022-12-29.</ref> == Politics == She chop ein parliamentary seat give de Kwabre East Constituency for de Ashanti Region for Ghana insyd, after de 2016 Ghanaian general elections.<ref>davidmawuligh (2016-12-10). [https://ghanafuo.com/meet-francisca-oteng-mensah-younges "Meet Francisca Oteng Mensah, the youngest parliamentarian in Ghana"]. ''Ghanafuo''. Retrieved 2019-03-09.</ref> Now nu she be de youngest person wey go dey parliament for de age of 23. Nana Akuffo-Addo nominate am as de Deputy-Minister for Gender, Children and Social Protection.<ref>Boakye, Edna Agnes (2022-08-02). [https://citinewsroom.com/2022/08/nana-addo-nominates-walewale-mp-as-gender-minister-designate-francisca-oteng-as-deputy/ "Nana Addo nominates Lariba Zuweira as Gender Minister-designate, Francisca Oteng as Deputy"]. ''Citinewsroom - Comprehensive News in Ghana''. Retrieved 2022-08-04.</ref> == Ein life matter == Francisca be Christian wey she dey fellowship plus Assemblies of God Church.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210617053529/https://ghanamps.com/mps/details.php/?id=5334 "Ghana MPs - MP Details - Oteng Mensah, Francisca"]. ''Ghana MPs''. Retrieved 2019-03-02.</ref> Francisca marry Kwadwo Adade Amponsah.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231105162530/https://thedistin.com/2021/02/23/video-showing-the-clear-face-of-francisca-oteng-mensahs-handsome-husband-finally-pops-up/ "Video Showing The Clear Face Of Francisca Oteng Mensah's Handsome Husband Finally Pops Up"]. ''Thedistin''. 2021-02-23. Retrieved 2023-10-10.</ref> == References == [[Category:Ghanaians]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Ghanaian politicians]] [[Category:1993 births]] [[Category:People wey komot Ashanti Region]] [[Category:Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology alumni]] [[Category:New Patriotic Party politicians]] [[Category:Ghanaian MPs 2017–2021]] [[Category:Ghanaian MPs 2021–2025]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women]] [[Category:Ghanaian Christians]] gj930ecgxv1a04nqkrfbcgq2tvpg98v 0 4629 106324 82167 2026-07-06T04:54:35Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {| class="infobox" |+ class="infobox-title" id="4" |Education in Ghana | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Flag_of_Ghana.svg|frameless]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ccccff" |Ministry of Education (Ghana) <br /><br /> Ministry of Higher Education |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ccccff" |National education budget (2018) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Budget | class="infobox-data" |18% of government expenditure<ref name="World Bank">[https://web.archive.org/web/20241130163409/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GB.ZS?locations=GH=GHdisplay=graph "Public spending on education, total (% of government expenditure)"]. ''worldbank.org''. World Bank. Retrieved 16 June 2023.</ref> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ccccff" |General details |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Primary languages | class="infobox-data" |English |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |System type | class="infobox-data" |National |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ccccff" |Literacy (2018) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Total | class="infobox-data" |79.04% |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Male | class="infobox-data" |78.3% |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Female | class="infobox-data" |65.3% |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ccccff" |Enrollment (2012/2013<ref name="FOOTNOTEMinistry of Education2013pages 9–12; table 46 (p. 78)">[[Education in Ghana#CITEREFMinistry of Education2013|Ministry of Education 2013]], pages 9–12; table 46 (p. 78).</ref>) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Total | class="infobox-data" |8,329,177 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Primary | class="infobox-data" |Pre-primary: 1,604,505, Primary: 4,105,913, Junior High School (JHS): 1,452,585 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Secondary | class="infobox-data" |Senior High School (SHS) den Technical den Vocational Institute (TVI): 904,212 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Post secondary | class="infobox-data" |261,962 (wey dey include universities: 109,278)^‡ |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align: left;background:#e6e6ff;" |‡: statistics for 2011/2012 |} Na Education for Ghana dey use dualistic approach wey na edey encompass both formal plus informal learning systems. Dem introduce de current formal educational system for de European colonisation tym. However, na learning systems dey exist prior to that. De University of Moliyili be one of de earliest learning centers for Ghana insyd wey na dem establish am for de 1700s.<ref name=":0">[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323228777_Science_and_Technology_in_18th_Century_Moliyili_Dagomba_and_the_Timbuktiu_Intellectual_Tradition "Science and Technology in 18th Century Moliyili ) Dagomba) and the Timbuktiu Intellectual Tradition"].</ref><ref name=":3">[https://dagbonkingdom.com/moliyili-golden-age-of-dagbon-kingdom/ "Exploring the Golden Era Of Dagbon Kingdom: The Impact of Moliyili Scholars and Its Fall"].</ref><ref name=":4">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41406716 "CAUSE AND EFFECT BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE TRADITIONS: ANALYZING STATEMENTS THAT ADDRESS THE REGRESSION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN GHANA"].</ref> During colonisation, na European settlers initially introduce formal education system wey dem address to de elites,<ref>[https://www.graphic.com.gh/daily-graphic-editorials/schools-under-trees-deserve-national-priority.html "Schools under trees deserve national priority"]. ''Graphic Online''. 3 October 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2020.</ref><ref>Glavin, Chris (6 February 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20250812183527/https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/Education%20in%20Ghana/history-education-ghana "History of Education in Ghana | K12 Academics"]. ''www.k12academics.com''. Retrieved 10 February 2020.</ref> while na de average citizen ein education be mainly informal, plus na e base on apprenticeship. Na de Pre-colonial Ghana ein economic activities dey mainly based on farm produce wey dem share within households plus na members wey dey each household come dey specialize for providing necessities such as cooking utilities, shelter, clothing, plus furniture so sey dem go trade am with other households give very small scale.<ref name=":1">Hymer, Stephen (Spring 2018). "Economic Forms in Pre-Colonial Ghana". ''Economic History Association''. '''30''' (1): 33–50. doi:[[doi:10.1017/S0022050700078578|10.1017/S0022050700078578]]. hdl:[[hdl:10419/160011|10419/160011]]. JSTOR [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116722 2116722]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154689928 154689928].</ref> Secof dat na need no dey sey one for go outside ein household dey search employment. Na dis practice dey call for discipline,value plus skills through formal education system.<ref name=":03">Akurang, Kwabena-Parry (2002). ""The Loads Are Heavier than Usual": Forced Labor by Women and Children in the central province, Gold Coast (Colonial Ghana), CA. 1900–1940". ''African Economic History''. '''30''' (30): 31–35. doi:[[doi:10.2307/3601601|10.2307/3601601]]. JSTOR [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3601601 3601601].</ref> After colonization, Ghana ein economy come turn hybrid of subsistence plus formal economy.<ref name=":03" /> Education indicators<ref>[https://uis.unesco.org/country/GH "Ghana"]. ''uis.unesco.org''. 27 November 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2018.</ref> for Ghana dey reflect disparities for gender, rural plus urban areas, plus Southern den Northern parts of de country ein middle. Dese disparities dey drive public action against illiteracy plus inequities give access to education. Eliminating illiteracy come turn key objective give Ghanaian education policy pass 40 years now, wey de difficulty wey go ensure equitable access give education likewise acknowledged by authorities.<ref>Glavin, Chris (6 February 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20241009012044/https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/education-ghana "Education in Ghana | K12 Academics"]. ''www.k12academics.com''. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref> Public action give both domains come yield results wey judge significant but eno dey sufficient give de national experts plus de international organizations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200114055559/http://www.aaeafrica.org/home/forum/ "Forum"]. ''Association of African Entrepreneurs''. 17 August 2019. Archived from [https://www.aaeafrica.org/home/forum/ the original] on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref> Increasing vocational education plus training for ICT for de education system insyd asan dey emphasize for Ghanaian education policy insyd. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI)<ref>[https://humanrightsmeasurement.org/ "Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries"]. ''humanrightsmeasurement.org''. Retrieved 13 March 2022.</ref> see sey if dem dey take into consideration Ghana ein income level, de nation dey achieve 76.2% give wat for be possible based on ein resources (income) give primary education but only 65.1% give secondary education.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220324233849/https://rightstracker.org/ "Ghana - HRMI Rights Tracker"]. ''rightstracker.org''. Retrieved 13 March 2022.</ref> == History == [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-46-19.jpg|thumb|January 1957: students plus senior tutor outside Legon Hall, one of de Halls of Residence for de University College of de Gold Coast (now de [[University of Ghana]]) near Accra]] Ghana get ein independence for 1957 insyd. Nkrumah ein government describe education as de key give de future wey dem announce high-level university wey dey provide <nowiki>''</nowiki>African point of view<nowiki>''</nowiki> , wey dem back am up by free universal basic education.<ref name="kwame">Kwame Akyeampong. [http://www.create-rpc.org/pdf_documents/50%20Years%20of%20Educational_Progress_%20in_Ghana.pdf "Educational Expansion and Access in Ghana: A Review of 50 Years of Challenge and Progress"] (PDF). Centre for International Education, University of Sussex. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> for 1961 insyd, na de Education Act introduce de principle give free plus compulsory primary education, plus na dem establish de [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]].<ref name="IBE2">Ghana Education Service (GES) (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20230731203731/https://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2004/ghana.pdf "The development of Education, National report of Ghana"] (PDF). UNESCO-IBE. p. 2. Archived from [http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2004/ghana.pdf the original] (PDF) on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref><ref>Daniel, G. F. (1997–1998). [http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~univghana/ghanahed.htm "The universities in Ghana"]. The Commonwealth Universities Year Book. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> As a result, na de enrollment  almost double dema next year.<ref name="CEPA">Abena D. Oduro (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033605/http://cepa.org.gh/researchpapers/BASIC%20EDUCATION%20IN%20GHANA%20IN%20THE%20POST1.pdf "Basic Education in Ghana in the post-reform period"] (PDF). Center for Policy Analysis (CEPA).</ref> Na e make hard sey dem go handle the expansion. Ghana come short trained teachers<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001329/132959eo.pdf "International Year Book of Education"] (PDF). UNESCO-IBE. 1969. p. 79. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> plus na dem mention de quality wey dey de curriculum insyd (specifically for English den Mathematics insyd).<ref name="CEPA" /> Na Stronger criticisms come towards de expansion give education at de cost give ein quality as na Nkrumah fall for 1966 insyd.<ref name="kwame" /> Despite de rapid increase of school infrastructure, na enrollment slowly come decline til 1973 insyd.<ref name="CEPA" /> Na de year 1974 see attempt for reforms. Following de Dozbo committee dema report, dem follow two goals: reducing de length give pre-tertiary education (wey lead to de creation of primary/junior/senior school system)<ref name="cambridge">Nii Moi Thompson; Leslie Casely-Hayford. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140728160520/http://ceid.educ.cam.ac.uk/publications/WP16.pdf "The financing and outcomes of Education in Ghana"] (PDF). University of Cambridge. pp. 9–14. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> plus na dem modify programmes wey dem go use promote more practical lessons for school.<ref name="CEPA" /><ref name="qualityed">Abena D. Oduro (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140714151355/http://ojms.cloudapp.net/index.php/ijird/article/view/35804/28986 "Basic Education in Ghana in the post-reform period"] (PDF). Center for Policy Analysis (CEPA).</ref> Dem implement dis reforms partially secof de financial limitations plus political instability.<ref name="CEPA" /><ref name="cambridge" /><ref name="qualityed" /> For de beginning of 1980s, na de country ein economic situation worsen.<ref name="kwame" /><ref name="cambridge" /> As na de country dey suffer economic downturn,na de country dey fail at solving de deficit give teachers, maintaining school infrastructure, plus how na dem go convince parents make dem send dema kiddis go school rather than de workforce.<ref name="CEPA" /> De Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) come drop sharper in response, falling below 70% for 1985 insyd.<ref name="CEPA" /> 1987 be de beginning give new series of reforms: de military coup of [[Jerry Rawlings]] for 1981 insyd come follow period of relative political stability wey come open de way make dem broaden international support. Rawlings ein government come gather enough fund comot chaw countries plus international organizational organizations(Wey dey include de world bank) so sey dem go change de education system. Na de 1987 education act aim make e turn de 1974 Dozbo committe's ein ,measures to reality.<ref name="cambridge" /> Dem launch a national literacy campaign Dem able reduce pre-tertiary education komot 12 go 12 years plus na dem include vocational education for junior high school dema curriculum.<ref name="cambridge" /> dem make education compulsory give kiddies wey 6 go 14 years.De reform come succeed as de impose de new education structure wey dem sana increase enrollment plus de school ein numbers. Na dem no fulfil de universal access give basic education yet.<ref>Joshua J.K. Baku, ERNWACA (2003). [https://resources.norrag.org/resource/view/40/162 "Critical Perspectives on Education and skills in eastern Africa on basic and post-basic Levels"]. NORRAG. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> Dem sana consider vocational education a failure.<ref>Nii Moi Thompson; Leslie Casely-Hayford. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140728160520/http://ceid.educ.cam.ac.uk/publications/WP16.pdf "The financing and outcomes of Education in Ghana"] (PDF). University of Cambridge. p. 26. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> As dem return to de contitution rule for 1992 insyd for Rawling ein government under. De local government Act of 1993 come transfer power go district assemblies as dem initiate de decentralization for education administration insyd. Na de free compulsory plus universal basic education provide action plan give de period 1996-2005 wey dey focus for de bridging of gender gap for primary schools,so sey ego improve teaching materials den sanso improve teachers dema living condition.<ref name="cambridge" /> Dem later complete am through acts like de creation of de council give technical plus vocational education den training for 2006(so sey dem go promote vocational education),plus na dem sana found de national accreditation board for 2007 insyd wey dem introduce national accreditation give all tertiary level institutions.<ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20230314095728/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Ghana.pdf "World Data on Education"] (PDF). UNESCO-IBE. September 2010. p. 3. Archived from [http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Ghana.pdf the original] (PDF) on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2014.</ref> For 2007–08 insyd, dem add de two years wey dey kindergarten to de FCUBE (wey now be ages of 4 to 14).<ref name=":2" /> {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+Evolution of enrollment den infrastructures for compulsory education insyd since 1968 ! !1968 (public sector per)<ref name="CEPA" /><ref name=":5">D. K. Mereku (2000). [http://wikieducator.org/images/4/4f/DEMAND_SUPPLY_present.pdf "Demand and supply of basic school teachers in Ghana"] (PDF). University College of Education of Winneba. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> !1988<ref name=":5" /> !2001<ref>"National Profile – 2001 / 2002 School Year Data" (PDF). Ministry of Education, Ghana. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> !2007<ref>"National Profile – 2007 / 2008 School Year Data" (PDF). Ministry of Education, Ghana. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> !2012<ref>"National Profile – 2012 / 2013 School Year Data" (PDF). Ministry of Education, Ghana. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</ref> |- !Pupils |1,397,026 |x |4,154,374 |5,024,944 |7,465,208 |- !Teachers |47,880 |97,920 |155,879 |229,144 |268,619 |- !Schools |x |x |32,501 |46,610 |56,919 |} == Statistics == {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+Enrollment and GER in pre-tertiary(2012/2013)[62] ! !KG !Prim !JHS !SHS !TVET |- !Enrollment |1,604,505 |4,105,913 |1,452,585 |842,587 |61,496 |- |GER in % |113.8 |105.0 |82.2 |36.8 |2.7 |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+Number of structures in pre-tertiary education (2012/2013)[63] ! !KG !Prim !JHS !SHS !TVET |- !Public |13,305 |14,112 |8,818 |535 |107 |- !Private |5,972 |5,742 |3,618 |293 |74 |- !Total |19,277 |19,854 |12,436 |828 |181 |} == Structure of formal education == === Overview === [[File:Ghana_Education_Structure.gif|right|thumb|550x550px]] === ICT in education === [[File:Wikimedia_Outreach_in_Ghana_6.jpeg|thumb|[[University of Ghana]] students engaged in a Wikipedia outreach]] For de past decade insyd, government ein attention shift go de use of computer technology for teaching and learning.De ICT (Information communication technology) standard for de education policy for Ghana dey require de use of ICT for teaching and learning give all levels for de education system. De Ministry of Education attempt make dem support institutions for de teaching of ICT literacy. Most secondary plus some primary schools get computer laboratories. Despite de federal interest give ICT, computer access dey very limited plus staff wey dey carry electronic devices around to ensure sey no body steal am.<ref name="Ghana's School Systems: Around the World L">Marshall, Lillie (24 February 2010). [http://www.aroundtheworldl.com/2010/02/23/fun-facts-about-ghanas-school-system/ "Fun Facts about Ghana's School Systems"]. ''Around the World L''. Retrieved 17 May 2016.</ref> Recent study for de pedagogical integration of ICTs for de year 2009 go 2011 for 10 Ghanaian schools dey indicate sey gap dey between policy directives plus actual practices for schools insyd. de emphasis wey dey de official curricula dey on de development of students’ skills for operating ICT equipment, but not necessarily sey dem using technology aas means make dem learn subjects other than sey dem dey use de devices. de study sanso see sey de Ministry of Education currently dey attempt deploy sufficient ICT resources to develop de needed ICT literacy wey dem require for computer skills make dem integrate am teaching/learning. == References == <references /> == External links == * Ministry of Education (July 2013). "Education Sector Performance Report" (PDF). Ministry of Education, Republic of Ghana. Retrieved 27 May 2014. * Atuahene, Ansah (23 July 2013). [http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/3/3/2158244013497725 "A Descriptive Assessment of Higher Education Access, Participation, Equity, and Disparity in Ghana"]. SageOpen. Retrieved 23 May 2014. * NUFFIC (January 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140525232310/http://www.nuffic.nl/en/library/country-module-ghana.pdf "Country Module: Ghana"] (PDF). Netherlands Organisation for International Cooperation in Higher Education. Archived from [http://www.nuffic.nl/en/library/country-module-ghana.pdf the original] (PDF) on 25 May 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2014. * Nyarko, J. & Serwornoo (19 May 2022). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/09732586221096346 "COVID-19 and Mass Media Education: An Evaluation of the Transition from Brick-and-Mortar Learning to Virtual Space"]. ''Journal of Creative Communications''. '''17''' (3). SageOpen: 251–269. doi:[[doi:10.1177/09732586221096346|10.1177/09732586221096346]]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248953692 248953692]. Retrieved 7 September 2022. '''State-Institutions''' * [http://www.moe.gov.gh/ Ministry of Education]- Responsible for initiating, formulating, coordinating and reviewing all education policies in Ghana * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140730053526/http://www.moe.gov.gh/site/agencies/ List of the "Agencies" attached to the Ministry of Education] – includes the Ghana Education Service (GES), the National Accreditation Board (NAB), the National Council for Tertiary Education(NCTE)... '''Data den reports from external institutions''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140525232310/http://www.nuffic.nl/en/library/country-module-ghana.pdf "Country Module: Ghana", NUFFIC(2013)] – Overview of the Educational system by the Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education. * [http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=GHA "Vocational Education" in Ghana, UNESCO-UNEVOC (2012)] – Overview of the vocational Education system * [http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/EDUCATION_IN_GHANA_A_FACT_SHEET.pdf "Education in Ghana: A fact sheet", UNICEF(2012)] – A 2-page analysis backed by numerous data. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140527212803/http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/publications/wgesa/en/doc/ghana/contents.htm Review of Education Sector Analysis in Ghana 1987–1998, WGESA] [[Category:Education for Ghana insyd]] c2xubfmao2a2qmwutxon2g1wrlyviaw 0 18418 106319 106224 2026-07-05T22:58:31Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Add sister link 106319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Slavery in Egypt''' dey go on till early 20th century. E no be like de slavery wey dey happen for ancient Egypt. From de time wey de Caliphate conquer Egypt for 7th century, dem dey manage slavery based on Islamic law. Dis system continue till slavery end for early 20th century. Dem gradually stop am after dem ban de slave trade for late 19th century. During de Islamic history insyd Egypt, slaves dey mainly fall insyd three categories: male slaves wey dem use as soldiers den bureaucrats, female slaves wey dem use for sexual slavery as concubines, den female slaves plus eunuchs wey dem use for domestic service insyd harems den private households. Toward de end of dat period, agricultural slavery too start grow. De people wey dem enslave insyd Egypt during Islamic times mostly come from Europe den Caucasus, wey dem dey call “white”, or from Sudan den Africa wey dey south of de Sahara, through de Trans-Saharan slave trade—wey dem dey call “black”. British pressure make dem stop de slave trade between 1877 den 1884. Slavery itself no get abolished straight, but e gradually die out after dem cancel de slave trade, since nobody fit legally get new slaves again, den de ones wey dey already get right to apply for freedom. Even up to de 1930s, some people still dey as slaves. Up till now, Egypt still be source, transit, plus destination country for human trafficking—especially forced labor den forced prostitution—even though de government dey take steps for 21st century to suppress such activities. == Abbasid Egypt: 750–935 == Egypt dey under de Abbasid Caliphate from 750 go 935. So de slavery wey dem dey practice for there, follow de same pattern as de one wey dey inside de Abbasid Caliphate. But still, e get ein own local style wey make am different small from de main one. === Slave trade === One slave route come from people wey Egypt get treaty plus dem. Egypt den Nubia keep peace based on de popular Baqt treaty. For dis agreement, Nubia dey supply slaves to Egypt every year, den Egypt too dey give textiles plus wheat to Nubia. De Baqt no allow make Egypt go do direct slave raids to Nubia, but Egypt dey buy Nubian slaves wey de Buja tribes—wey dey live for de Eastern Desert of Nubia—capture. Dem too dey buy Buja slaves wey Nubians capture. Anytime Nubia or Buja break de treaty rules, Egypt dey enter dem area go do slave raids. Some private Egyptian slave traders too dey go Egypt ein African hinterland go do slave raids, dem dey use small-small breach of peace agreement as reason.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Bruning |first=Jelle |date=2020-11-11 |title=Slave Trade Dynamics in Abbasid Egypt: The Papyrological Evidence |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/63/5-6/article-p682_2.xml |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=63 |issue=5-6 |pages=682–742 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341524 |issn=1568-5209}}</ref> For de slave market, dem Egyptian traders plenty times dey give fake origin of de people dem carry, so e hard to know if dem people come from place wey Egypt get peace agreement plus dem.<ref name=":0" /> Anoda slave route come from areas wey Egypt no get any treaty plus dem. Based on Islamic law, dis make slave raids for such places legal. Slave merchants too dey trade people wey dem capture from nations wey Muslim authorities no get peace agreement plus dem. De ''History of de Patriarchs'' talk say slave raids dey happen against de coasts of Byzantine Asia Minor plus Europe, wey Muslims carry Byzantines from demma lands come Egypt (or Fusṭāṭ [Miṣr]) plenty times. De 10th-century ''Ḥudūd al-ʿālam'' talk say Egyptian merchants dey kidnap children from de “Blacks” wey dey south of Nubia, dem dey castrate de boys before dem traffic dem enter Egypt.<ref name=":0" /> De third route be when slave merchant illegally capture other Egyptians, wey de law no dey allow. Mostly de captured Egyptians be either non-Muslim Egyptians—like Coptic Christians—or children of black people wey dem be former slaves.<ref name=":0" /> === Slave market === Insyd dis period, de biggest slave market place insyd Egypt be Fusṭāṭ. Slave merchants from de Near East, Byzantium, Europe, North Africa plus de Mediterranean islands dey traffic den sell slaves insyd Egypt. According to one Egyptian jurist, Aṣbagh b. al-Faraj (wey die for 839), “people dey desire imported slaves pass any other.” Among de slaves wey dem traffic be people from Slavic, European or Anatolian, Berber, plus Sudanic African background. De merchants dey sell eunuchs, “slave women (jawārī)” plus “female servants (waṣāʾif)”. De slaves dey do work wey dey go beyond house matter—dem dey run errands, deliver or collect messages or goods, assist demma masters for business journeys, manage demma masters ein affairs when dem no dey, plus dem too be used as sex slaves (concubines). During dis period, slaves insyd Egypt be either people wey dem born insyd slavery, or captives wey slavers carry come from outside de Realm of Islam. De preserved documents show say na de imported slaves wey dominate Egypt ein slave market. Islam dey encourage make people free slaves, den children wey slave plus ein master born normally dey get free status—especially as most of dem children dey get free poppie. Dis mean say Egypt need steady supply of new slaves to keep de slave population up, because few slaves born to slaves turn slaves themselves—unless dem born from two slaves, not from slave woman plus free man. == Fatimid Caliphate: 909–1171 == During de Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), slaves dey trafficked enter Egypt through plenty routes wey come from non-Islamic lands for South, North, West plus East. For dis period, de system of military slavery expand well, wey increase de demand for male slaves to serve for de military. Female slaves too dey used for sexual slavery as concubines, or dem dey work as domestic servants. === Slave trade === De Trans-Saharan slave trade still dey go on during de Mamluk Sultanate. Egypt dey receive Black African slaves from Sudan through demma Baqt treaty wey dey last for centuries, till around de 14th century. De closest relationship happen during de Fatimid period for Egypt. De Shi'ite Fatimids no get plenty allies for de Sunni-dominated Islamic world, so Nubia turn strong ally. De slaves wey Nubia send form de main backbone of de Fatimid army. European saqaliba slaves too reach Egypt through different routes. De Venetian Balkan slave trade grow well during dis period. De al-Andalus slave trade too dey bring European slaves, wey originally pass through de Prague slave trade before dem reach Egypt. === Slave market === ==== Female slaves ==== Female slaves be primarily used as either domestic servants, or as concubines (sex slaves). De slave market classify slaves based on racial stereotypes. Dem see Berber slave women as best for housework, sexual services plus childbearing. Black slave women dem see as humble, strong, den good wet nurses. Byzantine (Greek) slaves be ones dem trust to keep valuables. Persian women be known as good caretakers for children. Arab slave women dem praise as skilled singers. But Indian plus Armenian girls dem describe as hard to handle or control. For de market, de younger de girl, de more attractive she be.<ref>Cortese, D., Calderini, S. (2006). Women And the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press., p. 204</ref> '''Male slaves''' Male slaves dey used for both hard labor, eunuch service, plus military slavery. During dis time, de military slave system grow more important. Insyd de Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs play big roles for de politics insyd de caliphate ein court under de slavery system wey dey run there. Normally, dem dey buy dis eunuchs from slave auctions, den dem dey come from different Arab plus non-Arab minority ethnic groups. Sometimes, dem buy dem from noble families inside de empire, wey make those families connect close to de caliph. But most times, dem prefer foreign slaves, wey dem describe as “ideal servants.”<ref>El Cheikh, N. M. (2017). Guarding the harem, protecting the state: Eunuchs in a fourth/tenth-century Abbasid court. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 65–78). Routledge.</ref> After dem enslave dem, de eunuchs dey placed for top positions inside four main areas: service to de male members of de court; service to de Fatimid harem or female court members; administrative plus clerical work; den military service.<ref>Gul, R., Zafar, N., & Naznin, S. (2021). Legal and Social Status of Eunuchs Islam and Pakistan. sjesr, 4(2), 515–523.</ref> For example, during de Fatimid occupation of Cairo, some Egyptian eunuchs dey control military garrisons (shurta) plus marketplaces (hisba)—two positions wey na just de city magistrate dey higher. But de most powerful eunuchs na de ones wey serve de caliph den ein household direct—like chamberlains, treasurers, governors, den attendants.<ref>{{cite book|title=Celibate and Childless Men in Power: Ruling Eunuchs and Bishops in the Pre-Modern World|date=15 August 2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781315566658|editor-last1=Höfert|editor-first1=A.|edition=1st|language=English|editor-last2=Mesley|editor-first2=M. M.|editor-last3=Tolino|editor-first3=S}}</ref> Because dem dey close to de caliph, dem get plenty political power. One eunuch, Jawdhar, turn hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im—a sacred position for Shia Islam wey de imam dey use choose who go succeed am after ein death.<ref>Marmon, S. E. (1995). Eunuchs and sacred boundaries in Islamic society. Oxford University Press on Demand.</ref> For Fatimid history, some other eunuchs wey people hold in high esteem be Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim plus Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh.<ref>Tolino, S. (2017). Eunuchs in the Fatimid empire: Ambiguities, gender and sacredness. In Celibate and Childless Men in Power (pp. 246–267). Routledge.</ref> Rifq be African eunuch general wey serve as governor of Damascus until he lead army of 30,000 men go campaign to expand Fatimid control reach northeast side, go de city of Aleppo, Syria. People recognize am say he fit unite different people—Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, plus Turks—into one strong fight force wey fit face de Mirdasids, Bedouins, plus Byzantines successfully. Barjawan be European eunuch wey rise during late Fatimid time. E take ein military sense plus political sharpness bring peace between dem plus de Byzantine Empire. E still crush rebellions for Libya plus de Levant. Because of de respect den power wey he get for court plus military, he take over control of de caliphate from ein student, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, then rule as de de facto Regent for 997 CE. But as he take de power from de caliph, dem kill am for 1000 CE under de orders of al-Hakim. ==== Fatimid harem ==== De Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) build upon de established model of de Abbasid harem. De Abbasid harem system later turn example for harems of future Islamic rulers, den de same model appear for other Islamic nations during de Middle Ages—including de harem of de Fatimid Caliphate for Egypt. De Fatimid harem follow de same pattern as de Abbasid harem, arranged in a way where de mother hold first rank, followed by slave concubines wey turn umm walad after dem born, enslaved female entertainers wey dem dey call Jawaris, enslaved female stewardesses wey dem call qahramana, plus eunuchs.<ref>El-Azhari, Taef. Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661–1257. Edinburgh University Press, 2019. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvnjbg3q. Accessed 27 Mar. 2021.</ref> De woman wey get highest rank inside de Fatimid harem mostly be de caliph ein mommie, or de heir ein mommie, or sometimes anoda female relative. Dis woman dey called ''sayyida'' anaa ''al-sayyida al-malika'' (“queen”).<ref name="Cortese, D. 2006 p. 75">Cortese, D., Calderini, S. (2006). Women And the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press. p. 75</ref> De Caliph ein consorts originally be slave-girls wey he either marry or use as concubines (sex slaves). For both cases, de consort dey called ''jiha'' anaa ''al-jiha al-aliya'' (“Her Highness”). Most of de Fatimid Caliphs ein concubines be Christian by origin. People describe dem as beautiful singers, dancers, plus musicians. Plenty love poems dey about dem, but dem too get accused plenty times of manipulating de Caliph.<ref>Cortese, D., Calderini, S. (2006). Women And the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press. p. 76</ref> De third rank harem women be slave-girls wey dem train in singing, dancing, plus playing music—dem dey perform as entertainers. Sometimes, male leaders dey dash dem as diplomatic gifts. De lowest rank of harem women be de slave-girls wey dem choose to be servants. Dem dey do different tasks inside de harem plus de royal house. Dem call dis women shadadat, den dem get small connection to de outside world, as dem dey move goods from outside enter de harem through underground tunnels wey dem dey call saradib.<ref>Cortese, D., Calderini, S. (2006). Women And the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press. p. 82</ref> All de slave women wey dem employ for court be called ''mustakhdimat'' or ''qusuriyyat''. Women wey work for inside de royal household be ''muqimat'', and those wey dem employ for de royal workshops wey dey Fustat or Qarafa be ''munqaqitat''. Slave women dey work for royal workshops called ''arbab al-san'i min al-qusuriyyat'', wey dey produce clothes plus food. If dem dey work for public workshops, dem dey called ''zahir''; but if dem dey work for workshops wey dey produce only for de royal household, dem be called ''khassa''. Normally, each workshop get about thirty slave women, wey dey work under one female slave supervisor called ''zayn al-khuzzan'', a role wey dem mostly give Greek slave women. De enslaved eunuchs dey manage de women for de harem—dem dey guard dem, pass information to dem, report back to de Caliph, plus serve as demma link to de outside world. Both de Caliph ein harem den de harems of other male high-class people fit get thousands of slaves. For example, de vizier Ibn get household wey include 800 concubines plus 4,000 male bodyguards. == Ayyubid Sultanate: 1171–1250 == De Ayyubid Sultanate (1171–1250) include both Egypt plus Syria, so de institution of slavery for dis places get shared history during de time of de Ayyubid dynasty. === Slave trade === African slaves dey transported enter Egypt through de slave trade wey come from Sudan. During dis time, de Baqt treaty still dey function well-known. But de relationship between Egypt plus Nubia no good under de Ayyubids, so e start affect how dem dey enforce de Baqt agreement. De Trans-Saharan slave trade bring African slaves from de West enter Egypt. De Red Sea slave trade provide slaves to de East coast of Egypt. Majority of dem be Africans. But e get records wey show say some Indians too dey wey dem transport enter Egypt through de Red Sea slave trade. De Venetian slave trade export slaves to Egypt mainly through de Balkan slave trade during dis time. Turkish plus other Asian slaves dey come enter Egypt from Central Asia through de Bukhara slave trade. Dem value Turkish men high as slave soldiers. === War captives === Christian captives from de Crusader states dey known say dem get enslaved during de two hundred years of Christian Crusader rule. Dis one include not only male warriors but civilians too—like women plus children. One popular example be de Siege of Jerusalem (1187). For dat time, 15,000 people wey no fit pay ransom dem sell into slavery. According to Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, 7,000 be men plus 8,000 be women den children. Some Muslim sources wey dey dat time describe how non-Muslim women plus girls dey raped den enslaved after Jerusalem fall: Women plus children reach 8,000, den dem share dem quickly among dem, wey bring smile for Muslim faces as dem cry. Plenty of de well-guarded women lose demma dignity, hidden women lose demma modesty, virgins get dishonoured, proud ones deflowered, red lips of lovely women kissed, den happy ones begin cry. Noblemen take some as concubines, passionate men desire some, celibates find satisfaction, thirsty men quench dem thirst, den turbulent men release dem passion. '''Slave market''' Female slaves pass male slaves in number for Egypt. Most of de female slaves dem dey use either as domestic maids or as concubines (sex slaves). One of de most popular former slave concubines of de Royal Ayyubid harem be Shajar al-Durr. For male slaves, one of de main markets be de institution of mamluk military slavery, wey get big importance inside de Ayyubid Sultanate. Plenty of de slave soldiers come from Turkish or Circassian background. '''Ayyubid harem''' De Royal harem insyd de Ayyubid dynasty for Egypt plus de Levant (1171–1250) be similar to demma predecessor, de Fatimid harem. De wives, mommies, female relatives plus poppies of de Ayyubid sultans no really get more detail insyd record. For some cases, de Ayyubid sultans marry free Muslim women: Sultan Saladin dey married to several wives, de most known one be Ismat ad-Din Khatun, den Sultan dey married to Sitti Sawda. But for plenty cases, e show say de Sultans prefer to use slave concubines for procreation. Non-Muslim female slaves dey come insyd as kafirs (infidels) from dar al-harb (de non-Muslim world), den dem dey force dem to convert to Islam once dem reach. For de harem, female slaves dey work as servants or dem dey choose some for sexual slavery as concubines. Some slave-girls dem train dem for de arts wey dem go use perform as qiyan-entertainers. Some of de most favored royal Ayyubid concubines be qiyan-artists, like Surur (qiyan) plus Adschība (qiyan). Sultan no dey need marry, den some of dem no dey marry. Instead, dem dey procreate through concubines. Any concubine wey give birth to pikin wey Sultan acknowledge say na ein pikin, dey get status of Umm Walad, den as de mommie of royal pikin, people dey see am as full member of de royal dynasty. Sultan fit free den marry ein concubine, but no be by force say e go do am, because Islamic law no dey call pikin from concubine illegitimate if ein poppie recognize am. De most popular person insyd de Ayyubid harem be Shajar al-Durr, wey come insyd as slave concubine, later get free after she born acknowledged pikin, den in one rare case, she take over de throne after de death of de man wey enslave am before. De wife or concubine wey born de chosen heir to de throne, get de highest rank for de harem. Apart from female slaves, de women wey dey harem get help from eunuchs. == Mamluk Sultanate: 1250–1517 == During de era of de Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), society insyd Egypt dey rest on top system of military slavery. Male slaves wey dem traffic for military service as mamluk, turn dominant social class insyd Egypt. At first, demma origin mostly be Turks from Central Asia, but around 1400, e shift go Circassian plus European side. Female slaves dey used for sexual slavery plus housemaid work. Dem dey import slaves from different directions. Turkic plus Circassian slaves from Central Asia plus de Black Sea dey come for military duty plus concubinage. African slaves dey come from de South for labor; Europeans dey come from de North. Greek slaves dey come from religious border zone insyd Anatolia. === Slave trade === De Trans-Saharan slave trade dey continue during de Mamluk Sultanate era. Egypt dey receive Black African slaves through demma Baqt treaty wey dey exist for centuries until de 14th century. Na during de Mamluk Sultanate time wey de supply of slaves under de Baqt treaty dey end. Relations insyd dat period be worse under de Ayyubids plus very poor under de Mamluks, wey later lead to full-scale war. Even after Makuria collapse insyd de thirteenth century, Egyptians still dey insist make de Muslim successor kingdoms for dat region pay de Baqt. De Baqt finally dey end insyd de middle of de fourteenth century, as de organized government insyd de region collapse complete. Greek slaves dey come from de Genoese plus Muslim Turks insyd Anatolia, wey be one religious border zone between Dar al-islam plus Dar al-harb. According to Islamic law, dat place be legit source for slave supply. Greek slaves mostly dey sold as luxury slaves for household work plus sophisticated tasks. Sultan al-Malik al-Nasir (r. 1299–1340), dey expand de import of Greek slaves from Rum (Anatolia) plus Turkish slaves from Central Asia. Two main routes from Europe dey provide Egypt plus European slaves. De Balkan slave trade plus de Black Sea slave trade, managed through de Venetian slave traders plus de Genoese slave traders, dey supply Egypt with plenty male slaves wey dem use as mamluk slave soldiers. Until late insyd de 14th-century, future Turkish Mamluks dey regularly get imported from Central Asia. But dis matter change around 1400. De Balkan slave trade, plus de Black Sea slave trade, be de two main sources wey dem dey use supply future Mamluk soldiers to de Mamluk Sultanate insyd Egypt. While de majority of slaves wey dem traffic through de Black Sea slave trade to South Europe (Italy plus Spain) be girls, since dem dey destined to become ancillae maid servants, de majority of de slaves wey dem send to Egypt—about 2,000 every year—be boys, since de Mamluk Sultanate always need fresh supply of slave soldiers. From at least 1382 go forward, majority of de mamluks wey dey Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate plus slave origin dey come from de Black Sea slave trade. Around hundred Circassian males wey dem plan make mamluks, dey traffic through de Black Sea slave trade up until de 19th century. During de 13th-century, Indian boys, women plus girls wey dem plan for sexual slavery, dey traffic from India go Arabia plus Egypt across de Red Sea slave trade through Aden. '''Slave market''' De slave market dey famously dominated by de most significant plus influential category, wey be military slavery. Other categories be de common type for slavery insyd Muslim lands, where dem dey use women as sex slaves (harem concubines) plus domestic slave maids. Slavery die out insyd Western Europe after de 12th century, but de demand for laborers after de Black Death cause revival of slavery insyd Southern Europe, insyd Italy plus Spain, plus increase de demand for slaves insyd Egypt. De Italian (Genoese plus Venetian) slave trade from de Black Sea get two main routes; from de Crimea go Byzantine Constantinople, plus via Crete plus de Balearic Islands go Italy plus Spain; or go de Mamluk Sultanate insyd Egypt, wey receive majority of de slaves. For late insyd de 14th century, de normal price for one African slave-girl from Ethiopia be 300 dirham, while de highest-valued slave-girls (normally Greek) dey sell for 550 dirham. ==== Female slaves ==== As dem dey import slave boys for military slavery, dem dey import slave girls too for usage as concubines (sex slaves) or domestic servants. But de information wey dey about dem no plenty. De normal sex segregation wey dey insyd society make am hard for free Muslim women to work as domestic maidservants, so e make de Muslim world rely on slaves for dem kind house work. Even though female slaves no get plenty documentation like male Mamluk slaves insyd de Mamluk Sultanate, truth be say female slaves always plenty pass male ones. Especially insyd elite household, female slaves always dey outnumber male, den slavery insyd de Mamluk Sultanate dey get name as female phenomenon. If enslaver wey be man choose to acknowledge de pikin wey ein get plus female slave—which be voluntary—then de pikin go turn free den de mommie go become Umm Walad. Dat mean say dem no go fit sell am again den she go get freedom after ein enslaver die. But as long as de man still dey alive, she go still dey as slave den he fit still sexually exploit am, rent am out for work, or free am plus marry am. '''Harem slavery''' De harem of de Mamluk sultans dey insyd de Cairo Citadel al-Hawsh insyd de capital of Cairo (1250–1517). De Mamluk Sultanate build upon de system wey de Abbasid harem lay down already, just like de predecessor wey be de Fatimid harem. De mommie of de sultan be de highest ranked woman for de harem. De consorts of de Sultans for de Bahri dynasty (1250–1382) start originally as slave girls. Dem dey supply female slaves to de harem through slave trade as children; dem fit train dem to perform as singers den dancers insyd de harem, plus some of dem dey selected to serve as concubines (sex slaves) of de Sultan, wey sometimes dey choose to marry dem. Other slave girls dey serve de consorts of de Sultan for domestic tasks as harem servants, wey dem dey call qahramana or qahramaniyya. De harem dey guarded by enslaved eunuchs, wey until de 15th-century dey come from de Balkan slave trade, then later from de Black Sea slave trade, serve as officials for de harem. De harem of de Bahri Mamluk sultans start as small plus moderate, but Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1293–1341) expand de harem to major institution, wey come dey use as much luxury plus slaves like de heavily luxurious harem of de Fatimid dynasty wey come before. De harem of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad expand pass any harem wey any Mamluk sultan before am get, den when he die, he lef harem wey get 1,200 female slaves, 505 out of dem be qiyan singing girls. He free plus marry ein slave Tughay (d. 1348), wey when she die, she lef 1,000 slave girls plus 80 eunuchs. De harem play influential role: de emir Arghun Al-alai, regent for Sultan Al-Salih Ismail, marry de sultan ein mommie to secure ein power. Sultan As-Salih Salih (wey die insyd 1354) give ein mommie big influence: he arrange royal banquet insyd de royal harem, where he serve am by ein own self den organize royal procession, mawkib sultani, wey be ceremony wey normally dem dey give only sultans. Sultan Abu Bakr free plus marry two of ein slave girls, plus Sultan Al-Salih Ismail free plus marry ein slave concubine Ittifaq, wey later turn wife of ein brother den successor Al-Kamil Sha'ban, then finally marry Sultan Al-Muzaffar. During de Burji dynasty (1382–1517), de Mamluk Sultanate no dey as inherited monarchy again, den de Burji Mamluk sultans dey succeeded by demma emirs. But still, one kind dynastic continuity dey exist, where de Sultans dey marry de widow, concubine or female relative of ein predecessor. De Burji Mamluk often dey marry free Muslim women from de Mamluk nobility. But de Burji harem, just like de one before am, continue de custom of slave concubinage, with Circassian slave girls popular as concubines—some of dem turn favorites den even wives of de Sultan. Sultan Qaitbay (r. 1468–1496) get one favorite Circassian slave concubine, Aṣalbāy, wey become de mommie of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1496–1498) den later marry Sultan Al-Ashraf Janbalat (r. 1500–1501). Ein daughter-in-law, Miṣirbāy (wey die insyd 1522), wey be former Circassian slave concubine, marry Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1496–1498), Sultan Abu Sa'id Qansuh (r. 1498–1500), den in 1517 marry de Ottoman Governor Khā’ir Bek. '''Male slaves''' De most famous category of male slaves wey dey under de Mamluk Sultanate be de mamluk slave soldiers. But de mamluk soldiers be elite slaves. No be all male slaves wey be mamluk soldiers, den de condition of non-Mamluk male slaves dey very different. African male slaves no dey used as slave soldiers, because people dey consider dem only suitable for low-level domestic tasks. Turkish plus Circassian mamluk slave soldiers dey use African male slaves to take care of demma horses plus do menial duties for dem, like carry demma food plus serve am. De condition of male slave fit change under certain conditions. If some terms dey met, de male slave fit get permission to enter manumission contract. For dat case, he go fit work plus keep de money wey he earn from ein labor. But still, he no go fit do things like testify or marry without de permission of ein owner. ==== Military slavery ==== From 935 go 1250, Egypt dey under dynastic rulers, especially de Ikhshidids, Fatimids plus Ayyubids. Throughout demma rule, thousands of Mamluk servants plus guards still dey used, den some even climb reach high offices. De Mamluks be enslaved mercenaries. Originally, dem be slaves wey come from Turkic origin insyd de Eurasian Steppe, but de system of military slavery later spread go include Circassians, Abkhazians, Georgians, Armenians, Russians, plus people wey come from de Balkans like Albanians, Greeks plus South Slavs (check Saqaliba, Balkan slave trade plus Black Sea slave trade). De level of influence wey de Mamluk dey gather come dey worry de Ayyubids particularly. Because Egyptian Mamluks be enslaved Christians, Islamic rulers no dey believe say dem be true Muslims—even though dem dey fight wars for Islam as slave soldiers. Insyd 1250, one Mamluk rise take become Sultan. De Mamluk Sultanate survive insyd Egypt from 1250 till 1517, wey Selim capture Cairo on 20 January. Even though e no be de same structure like under de Sultanate, de Ottoman Empire still retain de Mamluks as Egyptian ruling class, den de Mamluks plus de Burji family succeed get back much of demma influence—but now as vassals under de Ottomans. De ruling Mamluks no be slaves, but ex-slaves. Dem be sons of kafir (non-Muslim) parents wey come from Dar al-harb (non-Muslim lands); dem buy dem as children, convert dem to Islam plus raise dem inside military barracks where dem train dem to become Muslim soldiers. As slave children wey no get families, dem dey grow to see de Sultan as demma poppie den de other Mamluks as demma brothers. Demma education end with de kharj ceremony, where dem free dem plus give dem post insyd either courtly administration or de army, wey allow dem start life as free ex-slave Mamluk. Mamluk slave soldiers dey preferred pass freeborn soldiers because dem dey raised to see de army plus de Sultan as demma family, so people believe say dem loyal pass freeborn soldiers wey get biological family wey dem go put first. Insyd late 14th century, de ethnicity of de Mamluks change from Turkish go Circassian. As de Golden Horde believe say de Islamization of Turkish Central Asia don reach, Jani Beg ban de import of Turkish slaves to Egypt because dem no dey defined again as kafir, so Islamic law no fit allow Muslims enslave dem. From around 1400, Mamluks mostly come from Circassian origin instead of Turkish, since Circassians wey be Pagans plus Christians dey recognized as kafirs, so dem fit enslave dem under Islamic law. ==== Racial dimension of slavery ==== According to slavery under Islamic law, non-Muslim people wey come from non-Muslim lands dey legit for Muslims to enslave. So e no target any particular ethnicity, but e involve slaves from different ethnic backgrounds. Still, dat no mean say racism no dey. Slaves dey regarded to get different abilities based on demma ethnicity, plus people dey see dem fit for certain tasks because of de stereotypes, wey manuals plus handbooks for slave traders den slave buyers describe during dat time. Skin color dey linked to specific abilities, plus people classify races through one system wey dey attribute different traits based on de color of demma skin. For de Arab world, skin color wey middle dey preferred, since e close to Arab skin tone, but both darker plus lighter colors dey seen negative. Slaves wey get very light skin dey described as vicious, evil, disloyal den untruthful. Dem wey get reddish-white skin color dey praised as clever, intelligent, knowledgeable, plus wise. People wey get brownish skin tone dey seen as brave, determined plus fearless. But people wey get full Black African skin color dey seen as fearful, coward, rash, plus more inclined toward evil than good. De author al-Amshati describe racial stereotypes based on race deeply for ein work. De most appreciated slave races for de market be Turkic people plus Circassians—dem be de top two races wey dem dey acquire for Mamluk soldiers. al-Amshati describe Turks as people wey get moderate temperament, strong body, nice balanced physique plus gloomy look. Turkish children dey considered clean, healthy, clever, skillful plus attractive. Among dem, Turks from Khurasan be de best for de market. De next best race be Circassians, wey people stereotype as braver pass Turks—“always ready strike first blow”—plus get strong group unity, suitable for soldier work. But if dem no train dem well, dem dey haughty, dem no get strong work ethic, den dem lack patience plus perseverance for long military campaigns. Still, if dem receive tough training, dem fit become top-class soldiers plus even religious scholars. Black Africans dey considered excellent slaves, suitable for lowly domestic labor. al-Amshati describe “Abyssinians” (Africans) as physically weak slaves wey dey fall sick often; still, dem get plenty traits wey make dem fit for slavery—like strong character, righteousness, patience, obedience, intelligence, shrewdness den prudence. African women dey seen as especially calm plus obedient. But Black children dey described as sly, deceitful, malicious plus thief-minded. African slaves no dey considered fit for arts like singing den dancing, plus dem no dey used for Mamluk elite slavery, but mainly for low-level work den domestic duties. By de 14th century, big number of slaves dey come from sub-Saharan Africa, den racist attitudes begin show—for example, Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) write say “[i]t is said dat when de [black] slave chop well, he go fornicate; when he dey hungry, he go steal.” Greek (rumi) male slaves dey seen as obedient, serious, loyal, trustworthy, intelligent plus careful with money. Dem get good manners plus excellent understanding of de sciences. Greek female slaves dey described as bold plus troublesome, but still fit for housework. De least popular slave races be Armenians plus Europeans. Dem no dey regarded as loyal plus obedient slaves, but rather as people wey dey unwilling, defiant plus get plenty traits wey make dem hard to control for slavery use. Armenian slaves dey described as strong plus get good health den fine body, but dem dey also seen as dishonest, lazy, greedy, unreliable, moody plus dey neglect demma personal hygiene. People talk say dem no good for anytin except hard physical labor, plus dem need constant punishment before dem go obey. Light-skinned Franks (we mean Europeans) wey be men dey described as rough, courageous, stingy, stupid plus uneducated. Dem dey strongly religious, dem get skills for manual work, but people no trust dem as slaves. Female Frankish (European) slaves dey referred to as harsh, cruel plus heartless if dem dey under slavery. But Frankish (European) children dey popular den people dey describe dem as excellent slaves: courageous, slim den rosy-cheeked. == Ottoman Egypt: 1517–1805 == De Mamluk Sultanate dey conquered by de Ottoman Empire insyd 1517. Ottoman Egypt dey ruled directly by de Ottoman Empire through Ottoman governors until 1805. Slavery insyd Ottoman Egypt mainly continue de same system wey dem establish during de Mamluk Sultanate. White slaves turn Mamluk soldiers plus demma concubines plus wives, while Black African slaves dey used for domestic service plus hard labor. === Slave trade === De slave trade wey reach Ottoman Egypt follow de established routes wey already dey ground. African slaves dey come through de old slave trade from Sudan plus de Trans-Saharan slave trade. De Balkan slave trade dey shut down, but de Black Sea slave trade continue. E no dey managed by Italian slave merchants again, but now dey under de Crimean Khanate plus de Ottoman Empire, wey people dey call de Crimean slave trade. Slaves wey dem traffic through de Crimean slave trade fit even reach far places inside de Mediterranean plus de Middle East. For example, one Convent insyd Sinai for Egypt record say dem buy male slave wey come from Kozlov insyd Russia. === Slave market === Egypt during de Ottoman period still dey under heavy control of Mamluk military slavery. Mamluk soldiers for dis time still be mostly white slaves. Although de old supply route of de Balkan slave trade dey shut down, male Mamluk slaves often come from Circassia or Georgia, trafficked through de Crimean slave trade. De Mamluk aristocrats, wey themselves dey come from Circassia or Georgia (through de Black Sea slave trade), like to marry women wey be from similar ethnic background. Black slave women mostly dey used as domestic maids, den majority of de Mamluk ein wives plus concubines dey referred to as “white slaves”. De white slave women wey dem buy to become concubines plus wives of de Mamluks dey mostly come from de Caucasus (Circassians or Georgians), wey poor parents sell to slave traders. E be common practice among de Egyptian Mamluk upper class men to marry woman wey before be slave concubine of either themselves or anoda Mamluk. Dis tradition of marrying de concubine or widow of anoda Mamluk be part of regular Mamluk alliance arrangement. De marriage between Murad Bey plus Nafisa al-Bayda, widow of Ali Bey al-Kabir, be one example of dis alliance style, same as Shawikar Qadin, concubine of Uthman Katkhuda (wey die insyd 1736), wey Abd al-Rahman Jawish give in marriage to Ibrahum Katkhuda (wey die insyd 1754) after Uthman Katkhuda ein death. People dey give common excuse say slavery be act of kindness, especially when e concern women wey dem buy as slaves for sexual reasons—like concubines den wives inside de sex-segregated harems of rich men. Dis excuse dey base on say de women come from poverty den dem dey exploited by rich men wey dey live inside wealth. One lawyer for Ottoman Egypt insyd de 17th-century talk something about de sexual slavery of women: “Wetin be de guilt of de man wey carry person wey dem kidnap from misery go happiness, from hunger go better life, change demma torn clothes to fine robes, support dem plus money, treat dem based on wetin ein religion plus ein humanity show am? He no buy dem for trade or profit.” Racial hierarchy dey among slaves. Male laborers, eunuchs plus female domestic maids dey provided through de Trans-Saharan slave trade plus de Sudanese slave trade reach Egypt. == Muhammad Ali dynasty: 1805–1953 == Egypt turn de facto independent insyd de Muhammad Ali dynasty (1805–1914). Slavery still get strong presence insyd Egypt throughout de 19th century. Dem estimate say de number of slaves insyd Egypt during dat period reach at least 30,000 at any given time. For Egypt, de slave concubines wey dey insyd de harems of rich Egyptian men mostly be Circassian women, while for middle-class Egyptians, demma concubines mostly be Abyssinians. Male plus female domestic slaves wey serve almost all social classes insyd Egyptian society mostly consist of Black Africans. Black Africans dey used too as slave soldiers den for enslaved agricultural labor. De slave trade wey dey reach Egypt dey abolished in two stages between 1877 plus 1884. Slavery itself no get formal abolition, but after dem ban de slave trade, e start dey phase out gradually. By de 1930s, slavery appear say e dey completely die out. ==== Slave trade ==== De slave dealers wey dey operate insyd Egypt mostly come from de Oases plus Upper Egypt. Dem dey organized inside one guild wey get one shaykh, den de dealers divide into two groups—one for black slaves, de other for white slaves. Cairo be de main center for slaves plus serve as de base of de slave trade, but de yearly mawlid festival for Ṭanṭā also be one key moment where slave trading dey happen. African slaves dey traffic go Egypt through several routes: from Darfur go Asyūṭ; from Sennar go Isnā; from de White Nile area; from Bornu plus Wadāy through Libya; and finally, from Abyssinia den East Africa through de Red Sea. Johann Burckhardt, wey be Swiss explorer, describe de slave trade wey move from Sudan go Egypt plus de Arabian Peninsula during ein travel go Egypt plus Nubia insyd 1814: “E no true say de caravan traders for Egypt dey respect de chastity of de finest female slaves; instead, dem no dey observe any small respect for de way dem dey relate plus de slave girls. During our journey go Souakin, where de caravan dey camp plenty times because of fear of danger, dem dey arrange dem tent inside big circle, I witness plenty scenes of shameless indecency, wey de traders—wey be main actors—just laugh over. I fit talk boldly, no matter wetin people think for Cairo, say very few female slaves wey dey pass demma tenth year dey reach Egypt or Arabia still dey virgin.” White slaves dey traffic go Egypt from de Black Sea area through Istanbul, as de old Circassian slave trade still continue from dat side. De Islamic custom wey dey allow Muslims enslave war prisoners wey be kafirs (non-Muslims) from Dar al-Harb still dey practiced. After de Alexandria expedition insyd 1807, 400 British war prisoners wey Egyptian forces under Muhammad Ali Pasha capture, dey marched go Cairo. From there, some dey condemned to hard labor, while others dey sold into slavery. Colonel Dravetti, wey dey advise Muhammad Ali for Cairo, persuade de ruler make he release de British war prisoners as gesture of goodwill, wey spare dem from de usual Islamic cultural practice wey make captured prisoners turn slaves to demma captors. ==== Slave market ==== Military slavery, wey for centuries be major use for male slaves, still remain one key category for de Egyptian slave market until mid-19th century. De domestic or harem sector still dey serve as main destination for female slaves plus eunuchs. One market for agricultural slaves grow significantly during de 19th century. During de 19th century, de supply sources for slaves wey dey reach Egypt begin reduce, so de ethnicity of slaves mostly turn African slaves, except small luxury import of Circassian slave girls. '''Agricultural slavery''' De use of Sudanese people for agriculture turn fairly common under Muhammad Ali of Egypt plus ein successors. Before dat time, agricultural slavery no dey really exist insyd Egypt, but de sharp expansion of large-scale farming under Muhammad Ali—and later, de global increase for cotton price wey de American Civil War cause—come create better condition for using unfree labour. De slaves dey mainly work for estates wey belong to Muhammad Ali plus members of ein family. By 1869, people estimate say Khedive Isma'il plus ein family get around 2,000 to 3,000 slaves on demma main estates, plus hundreds more for demma sugar plantations insyd Upper Egypt. '''Harem slavery''' De royal harem of de Muhammad Ali dynasty insyd de Khedivate of Egypt (1805–1914) dey follow de Ottoman example, as de khedives be Egyptian viceroys wey dey represent de Ottoman sultans. Muhammad Ali get appointment as vice roy of Egypt insyd 1805, den based on de Imperial Ottoman tradition, he build harem of slave concubines insyd de Palace Citadel of Cairo. According to one traditional story, when ein legal wife Amina Hanim come join am insyd Egypt insyd 1808 and see de sex slaves, she declare say from dat moment, she go be wife only by name. Just like de Ottoman Imperial harem, de harem of de khedive use system of polygyny wey base on slave concubinage, where every wife or concubine fit born only one son. De women wey dem dey use as harem slaves mostly come from de Caucasus through de Circassian slave trade, den people dey refer to dem as “white”. De harem of de khedive consist of between several hundreds to over one thousand enslaved women, wey de khedive ein mommie, walida pasha, dey supervise—plus ein four official wives (hanim) den recognized concubines (qadin). But majority of de slave women dey serve as house workers for ein mommie den ein wives, plus dem fit hold servant positions like bash qalfa, wey be chief servant slave woman for walida pasha. De female slave servants inside de khedivate harem dey freed den married with full wedding gifts inside strategic marriage plan to male freedmen or slaves (kul or mamluk), wey dem dey train to become officers den civil servants after dem gain freedom. Dis setup be meant to make sure say de husbands dey loyal to de khedive as dem start demma military or government work. Small number of de slave women dey selected to become personal servants (concubines) of de khedive, mostly picked by ein mommie. Dem fit later turn ein wives, plus if dem born pikin with de enslaver, dem go turn umm walad (or mustawlada)—we mean say dem go free, but only if de enslaver die. Muhammad Ali of Egypt reportedly get at least 25 consorts (wives plus concubines), plus Khedive Ismail get fourteen consorts wey be of slave origin, out of which four be ein wives. De Egyptian elite bureaucrat families wey dey follow de khedive ein example also get similar harem customs. E be noted say e dey common for upper-class Egyptian families to get slave women inside demma harems, wey dem go free later den marry off to male protégés. Dis system start dey slowly change after 1873, wey Tewfik Pasha marry Emina Ilhamy as ein only consort, wey come make monogamy turn fashionable lifestyle among de elite, after dem change throne succession go primogeniture, wey support monogamy. De wedding between Tewfik Pasha den Emina Ilhamy be de first time wey prince ein wedding dey celebrated, since before dat time de princes just dey take slave concubines, wey dem dey sometimes marry afterward. De end of de Circassian slave trade plus de stop of slave concubinage after de Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention also help stop de practice of polygyny among Egyptian plus Ottoman upper classes from de 1870s. Insyd mid-19th century, de Ottoman Tanzimat reforms abolish de tradition wey make male slaves train to become military men den civil servants, plus dem replace dem with free students. ==== Military slavery ==== To prepare for de training of ein Sudanese slave army, Muhammad Ali send one corps of Mamluks go Aswan, wey for 1820, he build new barracks make dem house dem. De head wey dey in charge of de military academy for Aswan be one French officer wey serve under Napoleon, Colonel Octave-Joseph Anthelme Sève, wey later become Muslim den for Egyptian history dem dey call am Sulayman Pasha al-Faransawi. When dem Sudanese reach Aswan, every one of dem dey vaccinated, receive one calico vest, plus dem dey instructed in Islam. De exact number of Sudanese wey dem bring go Aswan plus Muhammad Ali ein other military training centre for Manfalut no dey clearly known, but e dey confirmed say plenty die on de road. Out of estimated 30,000 Sudanese wey dem bring come Aswan for 1822 den 1823, only 3,000 survive. Plenty of dem die from fever, chills, plus dryness of de weather. After 1823, Muhammad Ali ein main priority be to reduce de cost for garrison wey dey hold Sudan, where dem commit 10,000 Egyptian infantry plus 9,000 cavalry. Egyptians start rely heavily on enslaved Sudanese soldiers to maintain demma rule. One kind official ratio come up: Sudan suppose provide 3,000 slaves for every 1,000 soldiers wey Egypt send to subjugate am. But dem no fit reach dat ratio because de death rate of slaves wey dem deliver go Aswan too high. Muhammad Ali ein Turkish plus Albanian troops wey follow go de Sudan campaign no get used to de weather for dat area, so plenty of dem catch fever den dysentery, wey cause tensions make dem dey demand return to Egypt. Plus, de challenges of capturing den training Sudanese male slaves during de campaign be some of de reasons wey make Muhammad Ali start recruit local Egyptians for ein armed forces. === Abolition den aftermath === De Ottoman Empire grant Egypt autonomous vassal status as Khedivate insyd 1867. Isma'il Pasha (Khedive from 1863 to 1879) plus Tewfik Pasha (Khedive from 1879 to 1892) govern Egypt as semi-independent state under Ottoman control until de British occupation wey happen insyd 1882, wey then Egypt come under British influence. De British people start anti-slavery campaign plus push policy changes about slavery inside Egypt. De Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention or Anglo-Egyptian Convention for de Abolition of Slavery wey happen insyd 1877 officially ban slave trade from Sudan, wey be main source of male slaves for Egypt by dat time. After dat, insyd 1884 dem ban de import of white women—especially Circassians from Caucasus through de Circassian slave trade—wey Egyptian upper-class people dey prefer for demma harems. De import of male slaves from Sudan for soldier, civil servant plus eunuch roles, plus de import of female slaves from Caucasus for harem service be de two major sources of slave supply reach Egypt, so dis two bans deal heavy blow to slavery, at least on paper. Slavery itself no get full ban, but dem stop new import of slaves. Side by side, dem introduce ban on sale of existing slaves plus new law wey allow slaves apply for freedom (manumission) at de British Consulate or four Manumission Bureaus inside different parts of de country—plenty slaves grab dat chance. British abolitionists wey dey Egypt open home for former female slaves to support dem plus save dem from prostitution, and dis home operate from 1884 go 1908. De abolition of slave trade enter Egypt help spark de Mahdist war for Sudan (1881–1899), because slave trade go Egypt be one of de biggest income source wey Sudan dey rely on dat time. Even though slavery itself no ban proper, de reforms wey dem introduce gradually phase slavery out over de next decades. By early 20th century, slavery for Egypt no dey common reach make e visible or even attract Western criticism. For 1901, one French observer talk say slavery for Egypt don end “in fact and in law”; de Egyptian census wey dem do insyd 1907 no list any slaves again, plus by 1911 dem close down de Repression of Slave Trade Departments wey dem transfer go Sudan. De anti-slavery reforms slowly reduce de size of de Khedive ein harem. But de harem of de Khedive plus elite families still keep small number of male eunuchs and slave women until at least World War I. Khedive Abbas II of Egypt reportedly buy six “white female slaves” for ein harem insyd 1894, ten years after dem formally ban dat practice, plus ein mommie still hold sixty slaves as late as 1931. Insyd 1922, Rashid Rida, editor of de progressive Egyptian newspaper ''al-Manar'', condemn de purchase of Chinese slave girls for concubinage den talk say people no for see am as legit. Insyd de 1930s, Egypt respond de Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE) wey dey under de League of Nations, as dem conduct global investigation about slavery from 1934 go 1939. Egypt talk say slavery no dey again for de country, plus say new slaves no fit enter through de Red Sea slave trade wey still dey happen elsewhere, because dem dey guard de Red Sea waters outside Egypt to stop any slave import from de Red Sea coast. == Gallery == <gallery> File:Map of the route of the Soudan Caravan from Assiut to Darfur.jpg|Englishman William George Browne ride plus de Darb Al Arbain caravan insyd de 1790s; na e deliver "Slaves, male den female" to Egypt<ref>{{Cite web|title=DARB EL ARBA'IN. THE FORTY DAYS' ROAD {{!}} W. B. K. Shaw {{!}} download|url=https://ur.booksc.me/book/51463083/09c5c1|access-date=2022-09-28|website=ur.booksc.me}}</ref> File:A long line of men are marching with their hands thrust thro Wellcome V0041263.jpg|A depiction of slaves dem dey transport across de Sahara Desert File:Modern Slave Boat on the Nile (1884) - TIMEA.jpg|Modern Slave Boat on de Nile (1884) File:The slave market in Cairo. Wellcome V0050649.jpg|De slave market insyd Cairo. Wellcome V0050649 File:A slave market in Cairo-David Roberts.jpg|A slave market insyd Cairo. Drawing by David Roberts, circa 1848. File:Group of Soudanese slave-girls, recently captured at Cairo.jpg|Group of Soudanese slave-girls, dem recently capture at Cairo File:Gérôme - the life and works of Jean Léon Gérôme (1892) (14740175136).jpg|Gérôme - de life den works of Jean Léon Gérôme (1892) (14740175136) File:Negress waiting to be sold in the Slave Bazaar, Cairo - Curzon Robert - 1849.jpg|Negress waiting to be sold insyd de Slave Bazaar, Cairo - Curzon Robert - 1849 File:Abu Nabut and Negro Slaves in Cairo MET DP138840.jpg|Abu Nabut den Negro Slaves insyd Cairo File:Abyssinian Female Slave (1878) - TIMEA.jpg|Abyssinian Female Slave (1878) - TIMEA </gallery> == References == <references /> == Sources == {{Commons}} * {{cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |title=All the Pasha's men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt|year=2002|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&q=dysentery|pages=89 |isbn=978-9774246968}} * {{cite book |first=John E. |last=Flint |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |volume=5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1977-01-28 |df=dmy-all |isbn=978-0521207010}} * {{cite book |first=Reda |last=Mowafi |title=Slavery, Slave Trade and Abolition Attempts in Egypt and the Sudan 1820-1882 |publisher=Humanities Press |date=1985-03-01 |df=dmy-all |isbn=978-9124313494}} [[Category:Slavery insyd Egypt| ]] [[Category:Human rights abuses insyd Egypt]] [[Category:Islam den slavery]] [[Category:Anti-black racism insyd Africa]] [[Category:Racism insyd Egypt]] 6rj9ut7yqba1nr3brxld7jxwzkfzyhe 0 27823 106270 106269 2026-07-05T13:04:23Z DaSupremo 9 /* Birds */ Improve article 106270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Manyara''' dem sanso know as '''Lake Moya''' among de Iraqw people be a lake wey dey locate insyd Monduli District of Arusha Region, [[Tanzania]] wey e be de seventh-largest lake of Tanzania by surface area, at {{convert|470|km2|sqmi|adj=mid}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Source book for the inland fishery resources of Africa Vol. 1 |url=https://www.fao.org/4/t0473e/T0473E09.htm |access-date=2026-07-04 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> E be a shallow, alkaline lake insyd de Natron-Manyara-Balangida branch of de East African Rift.<ref name=FosterEtAl1997>{{cite journal|author=Foster, A. and C. Ebinger and E. Mbede and D. Rex|date=August 1997|title=Tectonic development of the northern Tanzanian sector of the East African Rift System|volume=154|number=4|pages=689–700|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|doi=10.1144/gsjgs.154.4.0689|s2cid=128697181}}</ref> De northwest quadrant of de lake (about 200 sq, km.) <ref name=tanz>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tanzaniatourism.go.tz/en/destination/manyara-national-park|title=Lake Manyara National Park — - Tanzania Tourism|access-date=2019-04-24|archive-date=2022-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127152350/https://tanzaniatourism.go.tz/en/destination/manyara-national-park}}</ref> be included within Lake Manyara National Park wey e be part of de Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve, dem establish insyd 1981 by [[UNESCO]] as part of ein Man and the Biosphere Programme.<ref>"Lake Manyara". UNESCO. Retrieved 16 June 2016.</ref> Der be differing explanations for how Lake Manyara get ein name. De name Manyara fi cam from de Maasai word "emanyara", wich be de spiky, protective enclosure around a family homestead (boma). Possibly de 600 m high rift escarpment hems insyd de lake, like de enclosure around a Maasai boma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tanzania.eu/showpage-tanzania-lake_manyara_national_park.html|title=Tanzania, Lake Manyara National Park}}</ref> Anoda theory be say de Mbugwe tribe, wey dey live insyd de Lake Manyara area, fi given de lake ein name based on de Mbugwe word manyero, wey dey mean a trough anaa place wer animals dey suck water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jamiiforums.com/threads/maana-ya-manyara.60552/|title = Maana ya Manyara}}</ref> == Fish == De main fish species wey dey inhabit de lake be catfish den tilapia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Manyara, Manyara, Tanzania Vacation Info: LakeLubbers |url=https://lakelubbers.com/lake/lake-manyara-tanzania/ |access-date=2026-07-04 |website=Lakes for Vacation, Recreation and Rentals - LakeLubbers |language=en-US}}</ref> Der be a small fishery, buh fish only tend to be found near de inflow areas, wer salt concentrations be lower.<ref name=":0" /> Lake Manyara be de type locality give de endangered fish ''Oreochromis amphimelas'', a species of fish insyd de cichlid family, endemic to Tanzania, dem find insyd Lake Manyara den a number of oda saline lakes plus closed basins. Exploitation be prohibited insyd de parts of Lake Manyara within de National Park den de protected park areas dey provide important seed stock give de replenishment of fished populations.<ref>Bayona, J.D.R. 2006. Oreochromis amphimelas. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2006: e.T60629A12388607. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60629A12388607.en. Downloaded on 24 April 2019.</ref> == Birds == De following table dey summarize de most numerous species, according to de Important Bird Areas factsheet: Lake Manyara.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-29 |title=BirdLife International |url=https://www.birdlife.org/ |access-date=2026-07-05 |website=BirdLife International |language=en-GB}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Species !! Current IUCN Red List Category !! Season !! Year(s) of estimate !! Population estimate !! |- | Northern Shoveler (''Spatula clypeata'')|| LC || winter || 1995 || 4,650 individuals |- | Greater Flamingo (''Phoenicopterus roseus'') || ELC || non-breeding || - || 40,000 individuals |- | Lesser Flamingo (''Phoeniconaias minor'')|| NT || non-breeding || 1991|| 1,900,000 individuals |- | Yellow-billed Stork (''Mycteria ibis'')|| LC || non-breeding|| 1995 || 1,020 individuals |- | Great White Pelican (''Pelecanus onocrotalus'')|| LC || non-breeding || 1991 || 200,000 individuals |- | Black-winged stilt (''Himantopus himantopus'') || NR || non-breeding || 1995 || 8,367 individuals |- | Pied Avocet (''Recurvirostra avosetta'')|| LC || non-breeding || 1995 || 4,940 individuals |- | Chestnut-banded Plover (''Charadrius pallidus'') || NT || non-breeding || 1995 || 619 individuals |- | Caspian Plover (''Charadrius asiaticus'') || LC || winter || 1995 || 3,302 individuals |- | Ruff (''Calidris pugnax'') || LC || winter || 1995 || 45,486 individuals |- | Little Stint ''(Calidris minuta)''|| LC || winter || 1995 || 78,675 individuals |- | Marsh Sandpiper ''(Tringa stagnatilis)''|| LC || winter || 1995 || 2,441 individuals |- | Common Gull-billed Tern (''Sterna nilotica'') || NR || winter || 1995 || 1,566 individuals |- | White-winged Tern (''Chlidonias leucopterus'')|| LC || winter || 1995 || 3,283 individuals |- | Species group - waterbirds || n/a|| non-breeding || 1991–1995 || 1,000,000–2,499,999 individuals |- |} == References == <references /> == External links == lbgl7lt8ws4h91pkgbgc1bk6h2ctkm2 106271 106270 2026-07-05T13:05:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Manyara''' dem sanso know as '''Lake Moya''' among de Iraqw people be a lake wey dey locate insyd Monduli District of Arusha Region, [[Tanzania]] wey e be de seventh-largest lake of Tanzania by surface area, at {{convert|470|km2|sqmi|adj=mid}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Source book for the inland fishery resources of Africa Vol. 1 |url=https://www.fao.org/4/t0473e/T0473E09.htm |access-date=2026-07-04 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> E be a shallow, alkaline lake insyd de Natron-Manyara-Balangida branch of de East African Rift.<ref name=FosterEtAl1997>{{cite journal|author=Foster, A. and C. Ebinger and E. Mbede and D. Rex|date=August 1997|title=Tectonic development of the northern Tanzanian sector of the East African Rift System|volume=154|number=4|pages=689–700|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|doi=10.1144/gsjgs.154.4.0689|s2cid=128697181}}</ref> De northwest quadrant of de lake (about 200 sq, km.) <ref name=tanz>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tanzaniatourism.go.tz/en/destination/manyara-national-park|title=Lake Manyara National Park — - Tanzania Tourism|access-date=2019-04-24|archive-date=2022-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127152350/https://tanzaniatourism.go.tz/en/destination/manyara-national-park}}</ref> be included within Lake Manyara National Park wey e be part of de Lake Manyara Biosphere Reserve, dem establish insyd 1981 by [[UNESCO]] as part of ein Man and the Biosphere Programme.<ref>"Lake Manyara". UNESCO. Retrieved 16 June 2016.</ref> Der be differing explanations for how Lake Manyara get ein name. De name Manyara fi cam from de Maasai word "emanyara", wich be de spiky, protective enclosure around a family homestead (boma). Possibly de 600 m high rift escarpment hems insyd de lake, like de enclosure around a Maasai boma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tanzania.eu/showpage-tanzania-lake_manyara_national_park.html|title=Tanzania, Lake Manyara National Park}}</ref> Anoda theory be say de Mbugwe tribe, wey dey live insyd de Lake Manyara area, fi given de lake ein name based on de Mbugwe word manyero, wey dey mean a trough anaa place wer animals dey suck water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jamiiforums.com/threads/maana-ya-manyara.60552/|title = Maana ya Manyara}}</ref> == Fish == De main fish species wey dey inhabit de lake be catfish den tilapia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Manyara, Manyara, Tanzania Vacation Info: LakeLubbers |url=https://lakelubbers.com/lake/lake-manyara-tanzania/ |access-date=2026-07-04 |website=Lakes for Vacation, Recreation and Rentals - LakeLubbers |language=en-US}}</ref> Der be a small fishery, buh fish only tend to be found near de inflow areas, wer salt concentrations be lower.<ref name=":0" /> Lake Manyara be de type locality give de endangered fish ''Oreochromis amphimelas'', a species of fish insyd de cichlid family, endemic to Tanzania, dem find insyd Lake Manyara den a number of oda saline lakes plus closed basins. Exploitation be prohibited insyd de parts of Lake Manyara within de National Park den de protected park areas dey provide important seed stock give de replenishment of fished populations.<ref>Bayona, J.D.R. 2006. Oreochromis amphimelas. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2006: e.T60629A12388607. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60629A12388607.en. Downloaded on 24 April 2019.</ref> == Birds == De following table dey summarize de most numerous species, according to de Important Bird Areas factsheet: Lake Manyara.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-29 |title=BirdLife International |url=https://www.birdlife.org/ |access-date=2026-07-05 |website=BirdLife International |language=en-GB}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Species !! Current IUCN Red List Category !! Season !! Year(s) of estimate !! Population estimate !! |- | Northern Shoveler (''Spatula clypeata'')|| LC || winter || 1995 || 4,650 individuals |- | Greater Flamingo (''Phoenicopterus roseus'') || ELC || non-breeding || - || 40,000 individuals |- | Lesser Flamingo (''Phoeniconaias minor'')|| NT || non-breeding || 1991|| 1,900,000 individuals |- | Yellow-billed Stork (''Mycteria ibis'')|| LC || non-breeding|| 1995 || 1,020 individuals |- | Great White Pelican (''Pelecanus onocrotalus'')|| LC || non-breeding || 1991 || 200,000 individuals |- | Black-winged stilt (''Himantopus himantopus'') || NR || non-breeding || 1995 || 8,367 individuals |- | Pied Avocet (''Recurvirostra avosetta'')|| LC || non-breeding || 1995 || 4,940 individuals |- | Chestnut-banded Plover (''Charadrius pallidus'') || NT || non-breeding || 1995 || 619 individuals |- | Caspian Plover (''Charadrius asiaticus'') || LC || winter || 1995 || 3,302 individuals |- | Ruff (''Calidris pugnax'') || LC || winter || 1995 || 45,486 individuals |- | Little Stint ''(Calidris minuta)''|| LC || winter || 1995 || 78,675 individuals |- | Marsh Sandpiper ''(Tringa stagnatilis)''|| LC || winter || 1995 || 2,441 individuals |- | Common Gull-billed Tern (''Sterna nilotica'') || NR || winter || 1995 || 1,566 individuals |- | White-winged Tern (''Chlidonias leucopterus'')|| LC || winter || 1995 || 3,283 individuals |- | Species group - waterbirds || n/a|| non-breeding || 1991–1995 || 1,000,000–2,499,999 individuals |- |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090123235557/http://tanzaniatouristboard.com/places_to_go/national_parks_and_reserves/lake_manyara Lake Manyara at Tanzania Tourist Board (a government tourism agency)] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Lake Manyara| ]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania|Manyara]] [[Category:Saline lakes of de Great Rift Valley|Manyara]] [[Category:Endorheic lakes of Africa|Manyara]] [[Category:Geography of Manyara Region]] [[Category:Babati Rural District]] [[Category:Biosphere reserves of Tanzania]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Tanzania]] kfzn11et7c3xg3sib15dqrbp173kg5p 0 27836 106276 106143 2026-07-05T13:11:51Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&#x20;m high roller-compacted concrete dam plus an associated hydroelectric power plant for de Omo River for Ethiopia insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of Sodo for de South Ethiopia Regional State insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.<ref name="Gibe">Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012</ref><ref>[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009</ref> De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing Gibe I dam (184 MW) den Gibe II power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned Ethiopian Electric Power own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam. De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power & Dam Construction}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}</ref> De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}</ref> De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.<ref>Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012</ref> Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn for 17 December 2016 top.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref> Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,<ref name="BBC">BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de African Development Bank delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from NGOs give such a review.<ref>Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi vow to complete de dam "at any cost", wey e say de dam ein critics "no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum."<ref>News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&catid=13:regional-politics&Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> == Design == De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high roller-compacted concrete dam. E dey withhold a reservoir capacity of 14.7 km³ (3.5 mi³) den a surface area of 210 km² (81 mi²), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km² (13,190 mi²). De reservoir ein live (active anaa "useful") storage be 11.75 km³ (2.82 mi³) den dead storage of 2.95 km³ (0.71 mi³). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein spillway be 108 m (354 ft) long den floodgate-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m³/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two penstocks dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW generators wey Francis turbines support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}</ref> De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete. == Benefits == De main benefit of de dam be electricity generation dat be both renewable den dispatchable. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to Kenya (500 MW), Sudan (200 MW) den Djibouti (200 MW).<ref>[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html "Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project"] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006</ref> Howeva, der dey long delays for making Power Purchase Agreements insyd. Only Kenya sign a Memorandum of Understanding to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd. Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de World Bank de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.<ref>Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.<ref name="IRN">[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den brownouts. According to de International Rivers Network drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.<ref name="IRN" /> Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.<ref>[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.<ref name="IRN" /> A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,<ref>Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012</ref> wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.<ref name="Oakland Institute">{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}</ref> == Controversy == De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.<ref name="BBC" /> De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat "De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam"<ref name="ARWG">African Resources Working Group:[https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go "produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic."<ref name="ARWG" /> Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey wey say dat "de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd".<ref>[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009</ref> For June 2011 insyd UNESCO ein World Heritage Committee, for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for Lake Turkana top, a World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}</ref> == Environmental den social impact == According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: "De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show."<ref>Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10</ref> According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.<ref name="ARWG" /> De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of International Rivers' Africa programme, Gibe III be "de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd." De project go condemn "half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict."<ref>BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010</ref> === Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top === [[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.<ref name="ARWG" /> De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de Southern Nations of Ethiopia, a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de Mursi, Bodi (Mekan), Muguji (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), Hamer, Bashada, Nyangatom den Daasanach.<ref name="IRN" /> Stephen Corry, Director of de indigenous rights organization Survival International say, "De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project." Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.<ref name="ARWG" /> Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.<ref>[[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010</ref> Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.<ref name="Salini">Statement by Salini on Ethiopia News:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/ Gibe III project Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/|date=2010-08-24}}, 1 April 2010, accessed on September 18, 2010</ref> As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Reports about human rights violations === Der sanso be reports about human rights violations by de Ethiopian army against locals wey dey oppose de sugar plantations for de lower Omo Valley insyd dat dem go irrigate am plus water from de dam ein reservoir. According to de reports, "dem expect villagers to voice immediate support, odawise beatings (wey dey include de use of tasers), abuse, den general intimidation dey occurs", (...) "wey e instill a sense of fear wey dey regard any opposition to sugar plantation plans."<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Impact for de ecosystems of de lower Omo River Valley top === De decreased water flow of de Omo River wey dey result from de Gibe III dam go get significant impacts for de ecosystems top wey dey surround de river. De Omo River Basin be home to de only pristine riparian forest wey dey remain for de drylands of sub-Saharan Africa insyd. De survival of dis forest be dependent upon de seasonal flooding of de Omo River, wey go cease plus construction of de dam. Dis go fi cause 290 km² of forest to "dry out" from lack of water. De decreased water flow go sanso negatively impact, if dem no eliminate am, wey dem associate all economic activities plus de Omo River such as farming, fishing, den tourism. De water level of de Omo River be crucial give recharging groundwater supplies for de Omo basin insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> If de water level of de river dey drop once dem build de Gibe III dam, then e go dey no longer be able to refill underground water supplies, wey e lef much of de basin bereft of groundwater, wey negatively dey impact pippoe den ecosystems. As de water level of de Omo River dey drop, de erosion of ein riverbanks go increase, wey e cause increased sediment flows for de river insyd, loss of soil give crop cultivation along de riverbanks, den loss of riparian habitats.<ref name="ARWG" /> A December 2012 study state Ethiopia ein Gibe III dam go cause humanitarian catastrophe den major cross-border armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title=Humanitarian Catastrophe and Regional Armed Conflict Brewing in the Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya and South Sudan: The Proposed Gibe III Dam in Ethiopia |url=http://www.arwg-gibe.org}}</ref> Construction of one of de world ein tallest dams for de Omo River top for southern Ethiopia insyd go lead to mass starvation among a half million indigenous pippoe for an already famine-prone region insyd, wey e spark major armed conflict for de three-nation border region insyd ova ein disappearing natural resources, according to a new report from de African Resources Working Group (ARWG). "Humanitarian Catastrophe den Regional Armed Conflict Brewing for de Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya, den South Sudan insyd: De Proposed Gibe III Dam for Ethiopia insyd wey dem propose" dey analyze de full scale of impacts of de dam den dey charge dat de Ethiopian government anaa international development banks wey dem involve am for de project insyd already carry out no environmental anaa social review of de full cross-border impact area, wey dey include de World Bank. Dem author am by a member of de ARWG den long-term researcher for de region insyd, Claudia J. Carr, an associate professor at de University of California, Berkeley. Dem base de 250-page report for substantial field-based research top wey dey involve de participation of local residents thruout much of de cross-border region. De Gibe III dam already dey under construction by Ethiopia along ein Omo River, plus general recognition dat e go cause a major decrease for river flow downstream insyd den a serious reduction of inflow to Kenya ein Lake Turkana, wey dey receive 90 per cent of ein waters from de river. According to de ARWG report, dem changes go destroy de survival means of at least 200,000 pastoralists, flood-dependent agriculturalists den fishers along de Omo River 300,000 pastoralists den fishers around de shores of Lake Turkana - wey e plunge de region ein ethnic groups into cross-border violent conflict wey dey reach well into South Sudan, as starvation dey confront all of dem. De report dey offer a devastating look a deeply flawed development process wey de special interests of global finance den African governments fuel am. For de process insyd, e dey identify major ovalooked anaa odawise minimized risks, no de least of wey be a U.S. Geological Survey estimation of a high risk give a magnitude 7 anaa 8 earthquake for de Gibe III dam region insyd. Professor Carr for ein new book insyd <ref>Claudia J Carr: River Basin Development and Human Rights in Eastern Africa - A Policy Crossroads, Springer 2017, {{ISBN|9783319504681}}</ref> dey further examine how development processes wey international finance drive am, African governments den de global consulting industry fi lead to such disastrous outcams give de vast nomba of pippoe wey such development affect am. === Impact for Lake Turkana top === De magnitude of de impact dat de dam den possible irrigation projects induced by de dam go get for de water level of Lake Turkana top be controversial. A hydrological study wey dem conduct am give de African Development Bank for November 2010 insyd conclude dat de filling of de dam go reduce de lake ein water level by two metres, if dem go undertake no irrigation. Irrigation go cause a further drop for de lake level insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Avery |first=Sean |date=November 2010 |title=Hydrological Impacts of Ethiopia's Omo Basin on Kenya's Lake Turkana Water Levels & Fisheries. Final report. |url=http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930025421/http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2022 |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=African Development Bank |pages=4–2}}</ref> Friends of Lake Turkana, a Kenyan organization wey dey represent indigenous groups for northwestern Kenya insyd wey dem link dem livelihoods to Lake Turkana, dem already previously estimate dat de dam fi reduce de level of [[Lake Turkana]] by up to 10 meter wey dey affect up to 300,000 pippoe.<ref>Bank_Information_Center:[https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx Kenyan indigenous groups file complaint with AfDB on Ethiopian dam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx|date=2009-05-26}}, March 2, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> Dis fi cause de brackish water to increase for salinity insyd to where e go fi dey no longer be drinkable by de indigenous groups wey dey around de lake. Currently, de salinity of de water dey about 2332&#x20;mg/L, den dem estimate am dat a 10-meter decrease for de water level of Lake Turkana insyd fi cause de salinity to rise to 3.397&#x20;g/L.<ref name="ARWG" /> Raising salinity fi sanso drastically reduce de nomba of fish for de lake insyd, wey de pippoe wey dey around Lake Turkana dey depend for top give sustenance den demma livelihoods. According to critics, dis "go condemn de lake to a not-so-slow death."<ref name="BBC" /> According to dam proponents, de impact for Lake Turkana top go dey limited to de temporary reduction for flows insyd during de filling of de reservoir. Various sources state dat de filling fi take between one den three wet seasons.<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="Salini" /> De total storage volume of de reservoir of Gibe III dam go dey between 11.75 den 14 billion cubic metres, wey dey depend for sources top. According to de company dat dey build de dam, dis go reduce de water level for de lake insyd by "less dan 50 cm per year give three years" den dat salinity "no go change for any way insyd".<ref name="Salini" /> According to de International Lake Environment Committee, de Omo River deliver 90% of Lake Turkana ein water for wey dem go build de Dam.<ref name="ILEC">{{cite web |title=Lake Turkana |url=http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024125746/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |archive-date=24 October 2014 |accessdate=18 October 2014 |website=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation}}</ref> Plus no outlet, Lake Turkana dey lose 2.3 meters of water every year to evaporation, den ein level dey sensitive to climatic den seasonal fluctuations. For purposes of comparison, de historic level of Lake Turkana decline from a high of 20&#x20;m above today ein level for de 1890s insyd to de same level as today for de 1940s den 1950s insyd. E then increase again gradually by 7 metres to reach a peak around 1980, den subsequently decrease again.<ref name="ILEC" /> De Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) summary of de project no assess de impact of de dam for de water level den water quality of Lake Turkana top.<ref>Gibe III Hydroelectric Project:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Summary for Gibe III hydroelectric project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm|date=2011-07-20}}, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> De director of Kenya ein Water Services Regulatory Board, John Nyaoro, argue say de dam go get no negative impact for Lake Turkana top.<ref name="IWA">Water 21, Magazine of the [[International Water Association]]:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam funding under review after protests against its impact, p. 5, October 2009</ref> === Oda impacts === Dem predict am dat der dey about a 50-75% leakage of waters from de reservoir sekof multiple fractures for de basalt insyd at de planned reservoir site.<ref name="IRN" /> Sekof de loss of water for reservoir insyd, de dam no go dey able to produce as much electricity den less hydro power go dey available to export to oda nearby countries. Sanso, de dam den reservoir dey vulnerable to seismic activity sekof earthquakes den massive landslides for de Gibe III project region insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Earthquakes fi cause even larger fractures to de dam den dey susceptible to more water leakage as well as decreasing de economic inputs. Moreova, de landslides go fill up de reservoir den dem fi store less water. Dis sanso go mean say dem go produce less hydro power.<ref name="IRN" /> === Environmental den social impact assessment === Controversy sanso arise sekof de environmental den social impact assessment den dem no do preceding environmental impact study (EIS) until two years after dem dey begin construction for de dam top.<ref name="BBC" /> De Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority dey require dat dem for do an environmental impact assessment give any project "likely to entail significant adverse environmental impacts" den dat "dem suppose submit de EIS before commencing any construction anaa any oda implementation of de project."<ref name="Permit Requirement">Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14 Permit Requirement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14|date=2007-08-20}} Published 2006. Accessed 8 June 2010.</ref> ==== Official environmental den social impact assessment ==== Dem already carry out an Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) by Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano (CESI) den Agriconsulting of Italy, for association insyd plus MDI Consulting Engineers from Ethiopia. According to Anthony Mitchell, an engineer wey submit an independent feasibility study of de dam to de African Development Bank, CESI ein owners dey include vendors wey fi benefit from de project den dem no disclose dis conflict of interest for de impact statement insyd.<ref name="Mitchell">[http://anthonymitchell.com/ Anthony Mitchell]:[https://www.slideshare.net/anthony_mitchell/gilgel-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-dam-ethiopia-technical-engineering-and-economic-feasibility-study-report Gilgel Gibe III dam Ethiopia: technical, engineering and economic feasibility study report], April 15, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> As part of de assessment, according to de Project Company, dem carry out public consultations plus "officials den institutions, pippoe wey de project affect am den non-governmental organizations".<ref name="Gibe" /> According to critics, dem already minimal dem consultations. Most importantly, dem only complete de assessment for July 2008 insyd, nearly two years after dem begin construction, for violation of Ethiopian law insyd den for contrast insyd to global good practice of environmental assessments.<ref name="IRN" /> Sanso, dem already establish an independent environmental advisory panel only as late as July 2009,<ref name="Gibe" /> apparently for a belated effort insyd to appease criticism of de project. ==== Alternative environmental impact statement ==== De Africa Resources Working Group (ARWG), a collaborative of eight consultants from around de world, conduct an independent environmental impact statement of demma own give de Gibe III dam. Dem perform de alternative impact statement sekof de alleged corruption den inaccuracy of de official impact assessment.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG dey criticize many of de statements wey dem make for de official Gibe III ESIA insyd. Regarding de flow of water into Lake Turkana, dem dey state dat de Gibe III dam go result for a 57-60% decrease of river flow volume insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG sanso dey note dat e no be necessarily de volume of water dat be important to de Omo River den Turkana ecosystems, but dat de seasonality den timing of de water flow dey crucial, sekof dem adapt certain biota to feeding, reproducing, growing, etc. for response insyd to seasonal changes for water flow insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Artificially releasing water from de Gibe III dam into de Omo River no go dey sufficient to meet de needs of dem biota. Additionally, de ARWG dey state dat der dey "no precedent of successful den sustained implementation" of an artificial flood simulation program for sub-Saharan Africa, so dem no guarantee am dat dem go maintain such a program at de Gibe III dam.<ref name="ARWG" /> == Award of construction contract == Dem award de contract give de construction of de dam for 2006 insyd to Salini Costruttori of Italy. Dem award de engineering design to Studio Pietrangeli<ref>{{cite web |last=www.pietrangeli.com |title=Gibe III dam project on Studio Pietrangeli Website |url=http://www.pietrangeli.com/gibe-3-rcc-dam-ethiopia-africa |accessdate=28 Oct 2014}}</ref> den supervision of ELC-COB (ELC Electroconsult, Italy - Coyne et Bellier, France) as representative of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. Dem award de contract to Salini Construttori after direct negotiation rada dan allowing bidding for de contract top from oda qualified companies. Public international financial institutions dey require competitive bidding of construction contracts, wey e make am difficult give de Ethiopian government to get a loan from dem.<ref name="BBC" /> General manager of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, Mihert Debeba, defend de bypassing of de standard process, as skipping a set of "luxurious preconditions" dat Ethiopia no fi meet, one wey go completely halt any development of hydroelectric power.<ref name="BBC" /> For 2010 insyd, dem sign a construction contract plus a Chinese hydropower company Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, wey complete de work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III dam Ethiopia |url=https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113064310/https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-date=2022-11-13}}</ref> == Cost den financing == Dem estimate de financial costs of de dam den hydroelectric power plant to be 1.55 billion Euro. Dem estimate de cost of a transmission line from de power plant to de nearby Wolayta Sodo Substation at 35 million Euro. Dem costs no dey include de costs of constructing anaa upgrading power transmission lines to Addis Abeba den onwards to Djibouti to de Northeast of de dam, to Sudan for de West insyd den to Kenya for de South insyd, dem all locate am at a distance between 500 den 1000&#x20;km from de dam. De cost estimate no dey include de costs of extending de electricity distribution network to effectively increase access to electricity. As of 2009, electricity access for de prospective beneficiary countries insyd still dey low at 16% for Kenya insyd den 36% for Sudan insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=Access to electricity (% of population) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS |accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> According to de official website of Gibe III, dem finance most of de construction cost of de dam einself by de Ethiopian government plus ein own funds.<ref name="Gibe" /> Howeva, dem finance part of de project thru a corporate bond wey dem bell am "Millennium Bond" wey de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO) issue am den dem market am plus de Ethiopian diaspora.<ref>Genet Mersha, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331 Abugida Information Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331|date=2010-08-23}}:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524 LET THERE BE LIGHT!—THE GILGEL GIBE SAGA, THE BOND & DILEMMA OF ETHIOPIAN DIASPORA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524|date=2011-07-07}}, April 6, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> De Ethiopian government sanso request financing of US$250 million from de Italian government give civil works. For 2008 insyd, JPMorgan Chase den de Italian export credit agency SACE refuse to provide financing. For May 2010 insyd EEPCo den Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, sign a memorandum of understanding to provide electrical den mechanical equipment give de project. Dem back de agreement by a loan from de Industrial den Commercial Bank of China reportedly dey cover 85% of de US$495 million cost.<ref name="International Rivers">[[International Rivers]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/2010513/china’s-biggest-bank-support-africa’s-most-destructive-dam China’s Biggest Bank to Support Africa’s Most Destructive Dam] Published 13 May 2010. Accessed 8 June 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.bankwatch.org/about/ CEE Bankwatch Network]:[http://www.bankwatch.org/newsroom/releases.shtml?x=2237651#two European bank rightly withdraws from controversial Ethiopian dam but decision brings more questions than answers], 21 July 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hydroworld.com |title=Ethiopia, China sign agreement for Gibe III hydro project construction |url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2010/05/ethiopia--china-sign.html |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> International environmental groups criticize de loan as "hypocritical" den a violation of ICBC ein commitment to China ein Green Credit Policy. Previously dem already dey consider de European Investment Bank (EIB) financing of de dam ein electrical dem mechanical equipment plus a loan of US$341 million. E finance economic, financial den technical studies give de dam.<ref name="Gibe" /><ref name="IRN" /> For July 2010 insyd de EIB stop financing environmental den social studies give de dam, wey e state say dem already find "alternative financing".<ref>Bloomberg:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/ EIB Halts Funding of Gibe III Dam Studies in Ethiopia 19 July 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/|date=24 August 2010}}, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> De African Development Bank sanso already dey consider a US$250 million loan give de electro-mechanical equipment of de plant. De World Bank sanso already consider funding de project. For 2008 insyd de World Bank no decide to pursue a full feasibility study give de dam, sekof de absence of competitive bidding give de prime contractor.<ref name="Mitchell" /> De Exim Bank of China finance de transmission line to de Addis Ababa. Dem award de contract to de Chinese Company Tebian Electric Apparatus Stock Co., Ltd. (TBEA) for July 24, 2009 top.<ref name="Gibe" /> For July 2012 insyd de World Bank approve a US$684 million loan give an Eastern Electricity Highway Project dat go finance a 500 Kilovolt High Voltage Direct Current transmission line between de Wolayta/Sodo substation for Ethiopia insyd den de Suswa substation for Kenya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=The Eastern Electricity Highway Project under the First Phase of the Eastern Africa Power Integration Program |url=http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P126579/regional-eastern-africa-power-pool-project-apl1?lang=en |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> Environmental groups already criticize de loan as funding give de Gilgel Gibe III Dam thru de backdoor.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bosshard |first=Peter |date=22 May 2012 |title=Ethiopia: World Bank to Fund Destructive Dam through the Backdoor? |url=http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103040130/http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |accessdate=2 September 2012 |work=International Policy Digest}}</ref> == Gilgel Gibe IV dam == A $1.9 billion deal between China ein Sino Hydro Corporation den de Ethiopian Electric Power Authority to construct de Gibe IV den ''De Shanghai Daily'' report Halele Werabesa hydroelectric dams for 15 July 2009 top. Both dams dey "expected to be completed for five years insyd", den go get a combined capacity of ova 2,000 megawatts.<ref>[http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/general-news/green-politics/green-policies/africa-a-the-middle-east/3390 "China, Ethiopia strike $ 1.9-B hydroelectric deal"], Ecoseed Portal website, published 17 July 2009 (accessed 19 August 2009)</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055936/http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7303 De "white oil" of Ethiopia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Commentary for Gibe III Dam top] * [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7959444.stm De dam dat dey divide Ethiopians] March 2009 BBC News report 1x03ji865ldd8t6k59kskky1tk2qoz0 106277 106276 2026-07-05T13:14:05Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&#x20;m high roller-compacted concrete dam plus an associated hydroelectric power plant for de Omo River for Ethiopia insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of Sodo for de South Ethiopia Regional State insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.<ref name="Gibe">Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012</ref><ref>[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009</ref> De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing Gibe I dam (184 MW) den Gibe II power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned Ethiopian Electric Power own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam. De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power & Dam Construction}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}</ref> De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}</ref> De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.<ref>Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012</ref> Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn for 17 December 2016 top.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref> Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,<ref name="BBC">BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de African Development Bank delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from NGOs give such a review.<ref>Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi vow to complete de dam "at any cost", wey e say de dam ein critics "no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum."<ref>News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&catid=13:regional-politics&Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> == Design == De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high roller-compacted concrete dam. E dey withhold a reservoir capacity of 14.7 km³ (3.5 mi³) den a surface area of 210 km² (81 mi²), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km² (13,190 mi²). De reservoir ein live (active anaa "useful") storage be 11.75 km³ (2.82 mi³) den dead storage of 2.95 km³ (0.71 mi³). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein spillway be 108 m (354 ft) long den floodgate-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m³/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two penstocks dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW generators wey Francis turbines support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}</ref> De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete. == Benefits == De main benefit of de dam be electricity generation dat be both renewable den dispatchable. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to Kenya (500 MW), Sudan (200 MW) den Djibouti (200 MW).<ref>[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html "Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project"] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006</ref> Howeva, der dey long delays for making Power Purchase Agreements insyd. Only Kenya sign a Memorandum of Understanding to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd. Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de World Bank de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.<ref>Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.<ref name="IRN">[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den brownouts. According to de International Rivers Network drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.<ref name="IRN" /> Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.<ref>[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.<ref name="IRN" /> A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,<ref>Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012</ref> wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.<ref name="Oakland Institute">{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}</ref> == Controversy == De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.<ref name="BBC" /> De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat "De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam"<ref name="ARWG">African Resources Working Group:[https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go "produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic."<ref name="ARWG" /> Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey wey say dat "de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd".<ref>[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009</ref> For June 2011 insyd UNESCO ein World Heritage Committee, for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for Lake Turkana top, a World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}</ref> == Environmental den social impact == According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: "De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show."<ref>Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10</ref> According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.<ref name="ARWG" /> De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of International Rivers' Africa programme, Gibe III be "de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd." De project go condemn "half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict."<ref>BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010</ref> === Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top === [[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.<ref name="ARWG" /> De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de Southern Nations of Ethiopia, a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de Mursi, Bodi (Mekan), Muguji (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), Hamer, Bashada, Nyangatom den Daasanach.<ref name="IRN" /> Stephen Corry, Director of de indigenous rights organization Survival International say, "De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project." Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.<ref name="ARWG" /> Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.<ref>[[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010</ref> Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.<ref name="Salini">Statement by Salini on Ethiopia News:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/ Gibe III project Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/|date=2010-08-24}}, 1 April 2010, accessed on September 18, 2010</ref> As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Reports about human rights violations === Der sanso be reports about human rights violations by de Ethiopian army against locals wey dey oppose de sugar plantations for de lower Omo Valley insyd dat dem go irrigate am plus water from de dam ein reservoir. According to de reports, "dem expect villagers to voice immediate support, odawise beatings (wey dey include de use of tasers), abuse, den general intimidation dey occurs", (...) "wey e instill a sense of fear wey dey regard any opposition to sugar plantation plans."<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Impact for de ecosystems of de lower Omo River Valley top === De decreased water flow of de Omo River wey dey result from de Gibe III dam go get significant impacts for de ecosystems top wey dey surround de river. De Omo River Basin be home to de only pristine riparian forest wey dey remain for de drylands of sub-Saharan Africa insyd. De survival of dis forest be dependent upon de seasonal flooding of de Omo River, wey go cease plus construction of de dam. Dis go fi cause 290 km² of forest to "dry out" from lack of water. De decreased water flow go sanso negatively impact, if dem no eliminate am, wey dem associate all economic activities plus de Omo River such as farming, fishing, den tourism. De water level of de Omo River be crucial give recharging groundwater supplies for de Omo basin insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> If de water level of de river dey drop once dem build de Gibe III dam, then e go dey no longer be able to refill underground water supplies, wey e lef much of de basin bereft of groundwater, wey negatively dey impact pippoe den ecosystems. As de water level of de Omo River dey drop, de erosion of ein riverbanks go increase, wey e cause increased sediment flows for de river insyd, loss of soil give crop cultivation along de riverbanks, den loss of riparian habitats.<ref name="ARWG" /> A December 2012 study state Ethiopia ein Gibe III dam go cause humanitarian catastrophe den major cross-border armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title=Humanitarian Catastrophe and Regional Armed Conflict Brewing in the Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya and South Sudan: The Proposed Gibe III Dam in Ethiopia |url=http://www.arwg-gibe.org}}</ref> Construction of one of de world ein tallest dams for de Omo River top for southern Ethiopia insyd go lead to mass starvation among a half million indigenous pippoe for an already famine-prone region insyd, wey e spark major armed conflict for de three-nation border region insyd ova ein disappearing natural resources, according to a new report from de African Resources Working Group (ARWG). "Humanitarian Catastrophe den Regional Armed Conflict Brewing for de Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya, den South Sudan insyd: De Proposed Gibe III Dam for Ethiopia insyd wey dem propose" dey analyze de full scale of impacts of de dam den dey charge dat de Ethiopian government anaa international development banks wey dem involve am for de project insyd already carry out no environmental anaa social review of de full cross-border impact area, wey dey include de World Bank. Dem author am by a member of de ARWG den long-term researcher for de region insyd, Claudia J. Carr, an associate professor at de University of California, Berkeley. Dem base de 250-page report for substantial field-based research top wey dey involve de participation of local residents thruout much of de cross-border region. De Gibe III dam already dey under construction by Ethiopia along ein Omo River, plus general recognition dat e go cause a major decrease for river flow downstream insyd den a serious reduction of inflow to Kenya ein Lake Turkana, wey dey receive 90 per cent of ein waters from de river. According to de ARWG report, dem changes go destroy de survival means of at least 200,000 pastoralists, flood-dependent agriculturalists den fishers along de Omo River 300,000 pastoralists den fishers around de shores of Lake Turkana - wey e plunge de region ein ethnic groups into cross-border violent conflict wey dey reach well into South Sudan, as starvation dey confront all of dem. De report dey offer a devastating look a deeply flawed development process wey de special interests of global finance den African governments fuel am. For de process insyd, e dey identify major ovalooked anaa odawise minimized risks, no de least of wey be a U.S. Geological Survey estimation of a high risk give a magnitude 7 anaa 8 earthquake for de Gibe III dam region insyd. Professor Carr for ein new book insyd <ref>Claudia J Carr: River Basin Development and Human Rights in Eastern Africa - A Policy Crossroads, Springer 2017, {{ISBN|9783319504681}}</ref> dey further examine how development processes wey international finance drive am, African governments den de global consulting industry fi lead to such disastrous outcams give de vast nomba of pippoe wey such development affect am. === Impact for Lake Turkana top === De magnitude of de impact dat de dam den possible irrigation projects induced by de dam go get for de water level of Lake Turkana top be controversial. A hydrological study wey dem conduct am give de African Development Bank for November 2010 insyd conclude dat de filling of de dam go reduce de lake ein water level by two metres, if dem go undertake no irrigation. Irrigation go cause a further drop for de lake level insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Avery |first=Sean |date=November 2010 |title=Hydrological Impacts of Ethiopia's Omo Basin on Kenya's Lake Turkana Water Levels & Fisheries. Final report. |url=http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930025421/http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2022 |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=African Development Bank |pages=4–2}}</ref> Friends of Lake Turkana, a Kenyan organization wey dey represent indigenous groups for northwestern Kenya insyd wey dem link dem livelihoods to Lake Turkana, dem already previously estimate dat de dam fi reduce de level of [[Lake Turkana]] by up to 10 meter wey dey affect up to 300,000 pippoe.<ref>Bank_Information_Center:[https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx Kenyan indigenous groups file complaint with AfDB on Ethiopian dam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx|date=2009-05-26}}, March 2, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> Dis fi cause de brackish water to increase for salinity insyd to where e go fi dey no longer be drinkable by de indigenous groups wey dey around de lake. Currently, de salinity of de water dey about 2332&#x20;mg/L, den dem estimate am dat a 10-meter decrease for de water level of Lake Turkana insyd fi cause de salinity to rise to 3.397&#x20;g/L.<ref name="ARWG" /> Raising salinity fi sanso drastically reduce de nomba of fish for de lake insyd, wey de pippoe wey dey around Lake Turkana dey depend for top give sustenance den demma livelihoods. According to critics, dis "go condemn de lake to a not-so-slow death."<ref name="BBC" /> According to dam proponents, de impact for Lake Turkana top go dey limited to de temporary reduction for flows insyd during de filling of de reservoir. Various sources state dat de filling fi take between one den three wet seasons.<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="Salini" /> De total storage volume of de reservoir of Gibe III dam go dey between 11.75 den 14 billion cubic metres, wey dey depend for sources top. According to de company dat dey build de dam, dis go reduce de water level for de lake insyd by "less dan 50 cm per year give three years" den dat salinity "no go change for any way insyd".<ref name="Salini" /> According to de International Lake Environment Committee, de Omo River deliver 90% of Lake Turkana ein water for wey dem go build de Dam.<ref name="ILEC">{{cite web |title=Lake Turkana |url=http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024125746/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |archive-date=24 October 2014 |accessdate=18 October 2014 |website=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation}}</ref> Plus no outlet, Lake Turkana dey lose 2.3 meters of water every year to evaporation, den ein level dey sensitive to climatic den seasonal fluctuations. For purposes of comparison, de historic level of Lake Turkana decline from a high of 20&#x20;m above today ein level for de 1890s insyd to de same level as today for de 1940s den 1950s insyd. E then increase again gradually by 7 metres to reach a peak around 1980, den subsequently decrease again.<ref name="ILEC" /> De Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) summary of de project no assess de impact of de dam for de water level den water quality of Lake Turkana top.<ref>Gibe III Hydroelectric Project:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Summary for Gibe III hydroelectric project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm|date=2011-07-20}}, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> De director of Kenya ein Water Services Regulatory Board, John Nyaoro, argue say de dam go get no negative impact for Lake Turkana top.<ref name="IWA">Water 21, Magazine of the [[International Water Association]]:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam funding under review after protests against its impact, p. 5, October 2009</ref> === Oda impacts === Dem predict am dat der dey about a 50-75% leakage of waters from de reservoir sekof multiple fractures for de basalt insyd at de planned reservoir site.<ref name="IRN" /> Sekof de loss of water for reservoir insyd, de dam no go dey able to produce as much electricity den less hydro power go dey available to export to oda nearby countries. Sanso, de dam den reservoir dey vulnerable to seismic activity sekof earthquakes den massive landslides for de Gibe III project region insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Earthquakes fi cause even larger fractures to de dam den dey susceptible to more water leakage as well as decreasing de economic inputs. Moreova, de landslides go fill up de reservoir den dem fi store less water. Dis sanso go mean say dem go produce less hydro power.<ref name="IRN" /> === Environmental den social impact assessment === Controversy sanso arise sekof de environmental den social impact assessment den dem no do preceding environmental impact study (EIS) until two years after dem dey begin construction for de dam top.<ref name="BBC" /> De Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority dey require dat dem for do an environmental impact assessment give any project "likely to entail significant adverse environmental impacts" den dat "dem suppose submit de EIS before commencing any construction anaa any oda implementation of de project."<ref name="Permit Requirement">Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14 Permit Requirement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14|date=2007-08-20}} Published 2006. Accessed 8 June 2010.</ref> ==== Official environmental den social impact assessment ==== Dem already carry out an Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) by Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano (CESI) den Agriconsulting of Italy, for association insyd plus MDI Consulting Engineers from Ethiopia. According to Anthony Mitchell, an engineer wey submit an independent feasibility study of de dam to de African Development Bank, CESI ein owners dey include vendors wey fi benefit from de project den dem no disclose dis conflict of interest for de impact statement insyd.<ref name="Mitchell">[http://anthonymitchell.com/ Anthony Mitchell]:[https://www.slideshare.net/anthony_mitchell/gilgel-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-dam-ethiopia-technical-engineering-and-economic-feasibility-study-report Gilgel Gibe III dam Ethiopia: technical, engineering and economic feasibility study report], April 15, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> As part of de assessment, according to de Project Company, dem carry out public consultations plus "officials den institutions, pippoe wey de project affect am den non-governmental organizations".<ref name="Gibe" /> According to critics, dem already minimal dem consultations. Most importantly, dem only complete de assessment for July 2008 insyd, nearly two years after dem begin construction, for violation of Ethiopian law insyd den for contrast insyd to global good practice of environmental assessments.<ref name="IRN" /> Sanso, dem already establish an independent environmental advisory panel only as late as July 2009,<ref name="Gibe" /> apparently for a belated effort insyd to appease criticism of de project. ==== Alternative environmental impact statement ==== De Africa Resources Working Group (ARWG), a collaborative of eight consultants from around de world, conduct an independent environmental impact statement of demma own give de Gibe III dam. Dem perform de alternative impact statement sekof de alleged corruption den inaccuracy of de official impact assessment.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG dey criticize many of de statements wey dem make for de official Gibe III ESIA insyd. Regarding de flow of water into Lake Turkana, dem dey state dat de Gibe III dam go result for a 57-60% decrease of river flow volume insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG sanso dey note dat e no be necessarily de volume of water dat be important to de Omo River den Turkana ecosystems, but dat de seasonality den timing of de water flow dey crucial, sekof dem adapt certain biota to feeding, reproducing, growing, etc. for response insyd to seasonal changes for water flow insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Artificially releasing water from de Gibe III dam into de Omo River no go dey sufficient to meet de needs of dem biota. Additionally, de ARWG dey state dat der dey "no precedent of successful den sustained implementation" of an artificial flood simulation program for sub-Saharan Africa, so dem no guarantee am dat dem go maintain such a program at de Gibe III dam.<ref name="ARWG" /> == Award of construction contract == Dem award de contract give de construction of de dam for 2006 insyd to Salini Costruttori of Italy. Dem award de engineering design to Studio Pietrangeli<ref>{{cite web |last=www.pietrangeli.com |title=Gibe III dam project on Studio Pietrangeli Website |url=http://www.pietrangeli.com/gibe-3-rcc-dam-ethiopia-africa |accessdate=28 Oct 2014}}</ref> den supervision of ELC-COB (ELC Electroconsult, Italy - Coyne et Bellier, France) as representative of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. Dem award de contract to Salini Construttori after direct negotiation rada dan allowing bidding for de contract top from oda qualified companies. Public international financial institutions dey require competitive bidding of construction contracts, wey e make am difficult give de Ethiopian government to get a loan from dem.<ref name="BBC" /> General manager of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, Mihert Debeba, defend de bypassing of de standard process, as skipping a set of "luxurious preconditions" dat Ethiopia no fi meet, one wey go completely halt any development of hydroelectric power.<ref name="BBC" /> For 2010 insyd, dem sign a construction contract plus a Chinese hydropower company Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, wey complete de work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III dam Ethiopia |url=https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113064310/https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-date=2022-11-13}}</ref> == Cost den financing == Dem estimate de financial costs of de dam den hydroelectric power plant to be 1.55 billion Euro. Dem estimate de cost of a transmission line from de power plant to de nearby Wolayta Sodo Substation at 35 million Euro. Dem costs no dey include de costs of constructing anaa upgrading power transmission lines to Addis Abeba den onwards to Djibouti to de Northeast of de dam, to Sudan for de West insyd den to Kenya for de South insyd, dem all locate am at a distance between 500 den 1000&#x20;km from de dam. De cost estimate no dey include de costs of extending de electricity distribution network to effectively increase access to electricity. As of 2009, electricity access for de prospective beneficiary countries insyd still dey low at 16% for Kenya insyd den 36% for Sudan insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=Access to electricity (% of population) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS |accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> According to de official website of Gibe III, dem finance most of de construction cost of de dam einself by de Ethiopian government plus ein own funds.<ref name="Gibe" /> Howeva, dem finance part of de project thru a corporate bond wey dem bell am "Millennium Bond" wey de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO) issue am den dem market am plus de Ethiopian diaspora.<ref>Genet Mersha, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331 Abugida Information Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331|date=2010-08-23}}:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524 LET THERE BE LIGHT!—THE GILGEL GIBE SAGA, THE BOND & DILEMMA OF ETHIOPIAN DIASPORA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524|date=2011-07-07}}, April 6, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> De Ethiopian government sanso request financing of US$250 million from de Italian government give civil works. For 2008 insyd, JPMorgan Chase den de Italian export credit agency SACE refuse to provide financing. For May 2010 insyd EEPCo den Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, sign a memorandum of understanding to provide electrical den mechanical equipment give de project. Dem back de agreement by a loan from de Industrial den Commercial Bank of China reportedly dey cover 85% of de US$495 million cost.<ref name="International Rivers">[[International Rivers]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/2010513/china’s-biggest-bank-support-africa’s-most-destructive-dam China’s Biggest Bank to Support Africa’s Most Destructive Dam] Published 13 May 2010. Accessed 8 June 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.bankwatch.org/about/ CEE Bankwatch Network]:[http://www.bankwatch.org/newsroom/releases.shtml?x=2237651#two European bank rightly withdraws from controversial Ethiopian dam but decision brings more questions than answers], 21 July 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hydroworld.com |title=Ethiopia, China sign agreement for Gibe III hydro project construction |url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2010/05/ethiopia--china-sign.html |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> International environmental groups criticize de loan as "hypocritical" den a violation of ICBC ein commitment to China ein Green Credit Policy. Previously dem already dey consider de European Investment Bank (EIB) financing of de dam ein electrical dem mechanical equipment plus a loan of US$341 million. E finance economic, financial den technical studies give de dam.<ref name="Gibe" /><ref name="IRN" /> For July 2010 insyd de EIB stop financing environmental den social studies give de dam, wey e state say dem already find "alternative financing".<ref>Bloomberg:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/ EIB Halts Funding of Gibe III Dam Studies in Ethiopia 19 July 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/|date=24 August 2010}}, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> De African Development Bank sanso already dey consider a US$250 million loan give de electro-mechanical equipment of de plant. De World Bank sanso already consider funding de project. For 2008 insyd de World Bank no decide to pursue a full feasibility study give de dam, sekof de absence of competitive bidding give de prime contractor.<ref name="Mitchell" /> De Exim Bank of China finance de transmission line to de Addis Ababa. Dem award de contract to de Chinese Company Tebian Electric Apparatus Stock Co., Ltd. (TBEA) for July 24, 2009 top.<ref name="Gibe" /> For July 2012 insyd de World Bank approve a US$684 million loan give an Eastern Electricity Highway Project dat go finance a 500 Kilovolt High Voltage Direct Current transmission line between de Wolayta/Sodo substation for Ethiopia insyd den de Suswa substation for Kenya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=The Eastern Electricity Highway Project under the First Phase of the Eastern Africa Power Integration Program |url=http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P126579/regional-eastern-africa-power-pool-project-apl1?lang=en |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> Environmental groups already criticize de loan as funding give de Gilgel Gibe III Dam thru de backdoor.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bosshard |first=Peter |date=22 May 2012 |title=Ethiopia: World Bank to Fund Destructive Dam through the Backdoor? |url=http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103040130/http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |accessdate=2 September 2012 |work=International Policy Digest}}</ref> == Gilgel Gibe IV dam == A $1.9 billion deal between China ein Sino Hydro Corporation den de Ethiopian Electric Power Authority to construct de Gibe IV den ''De Shanghai Daily'' report Halele Werabesa hydroelectric dams for 15 July 2009 top. Both dams dey "expected to be completed for five years insyd", den go get a combined capacity of ova 2,000 megawatts.<ref>[http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/general-news/green-politics/green-policies/africa-a-the-middle-east/3390 "China, Ethiopia strike $ 1.9-B hydroelectric deal"], Ecoseed Portal website, published 17 July 2009 (accessed 19 August 2009)</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055936/http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7303 The "white oil" of Ethiopia] * [http://www.arwg-gibe.org Africa Resources Working Group Commentary on Gibe III Dam] * [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7959444.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians] March 2009 BBC News report {{DEFAULTSORT:Gibe Iii Dam}} [[Category:Dams insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)]] [[Category:Gravity dams]] [[Category:Roller-compacted concrete dams]] [[Category:Dam controversies]] [[Category:Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region]] [[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 2015]] [[Category:2015 establishments insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Water conflicts]] 7g7dv0ofk6sk1843jr55uo4syy35og7 106327 106277 2026-07-06T07:42:01Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 106327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&#x20;m high roller-compacted concrete dam plus an associated hydroelectric power plant for de Omo River for Ethiopia insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of Sodo for de South Ethiopia Regional State insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.<ref name="Gibe">Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012</ref><ref>[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009</ref> De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing Gibe I dam (184 MW) den Gibe II power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned Ethiopian Electric Power own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam. De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power & Dam Construction}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}</ref> De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}</ref> De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.<ref>Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012</ref> Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn for 17 December 2016 top.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}</ref> Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,<ref name="BBC">BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de African Development Bank delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from NGOs give such a review.<ref>Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi vow to complete de dam "at any cost", wey e say de dam ein critics "no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum."<ref>News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&catid=13:regional-politics&Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> == Design == De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high roller-compacted concrete dam. E dey withhold a reservoir capacity of 14.7 km³ (3.5 mi³) den a surface area of 210 km² (81 mi²), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km² (13,190 mi²). De reservoir ein live (active anaa "useful") storage be 11.75 km³ (2.82 mi³) den dead storage of 2.95 km³ (0.71 mi³). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein spillway be 108 m (354 ft) long den floodgate-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m³/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two penstocks dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW generators wey Francis turbines support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}</ref> De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete. == Benefits == De main benefit of de dam be electricity generation dat be both renewable den dispatchable. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to Kenya (500 MW), Sudan (200 MW) den Djibouti (200 MW).<ref>[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html "Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project"] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006</ref> Howeva, der dey long delays for making Power Purchase Agreements insyd. Only Kenya sign a Memorandum of Understanding to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd. Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de World Bank de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.<ref>Ethiopia Electric Agency:[https://web.archive.org/web/20220119233251/http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.<ref name="IRN">[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den brownouts. According to de International Rivers Network drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.<ref name="IRN" /> Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.<ref>[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009</ref> Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.<ref name="IRN" /> A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,<ref>Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012</ref> wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.<ref name="Oakland Institute">{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}</ref> == Controversy == De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.<ref name="BBC" /> De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat "De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam"<ref name="ARWG">African Resources Working Group:[https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go "produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic."<ref name="ARWG" /> Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey wey say dat "de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd".<ref>[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[https://web.archive.org/web/20151017104837/http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009</ref> For June 2011 insyd UNESCO ein World Heritage Committee, for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for Lake Turkana top, a World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}</ref> == Environmental den social impact == According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: "De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show."<ref>Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10</ref> According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.<ref name="ARWG" /> De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of International Rivers' Africa programme, Gibe III be "de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd." De project go condemn "half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict."<ref>BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010</ref> === Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top === [[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.<ref name="ARWG" /> De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de Southern Nations of Ethiopia, a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de Mursi, Bodi (Mekan), Muguji (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), Hamer, Bashada, Nyangatom den Daasanach.<ref name="IRN" /> Stephen Corry, Director of de indigenous rights organization Survival International say, "De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project." Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.<ref name="ARWG" /> Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.<ref>[[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010</ref> Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.<ref name="Salini">Statement by Salini on Ethiopia News:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/ Gibe III project Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/|date=2010-08-24}}, 1 April 2010, accessed on September 18, 2010</ref> As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Reports about human rights violations === Der sanso be reports about human rights violations by de Ethiopian army against locals wey dey oppose de sugar plantations for de lower Omo Valley insyd dat dem go irrigate am plus water from de dam ein reservoir. According to de reports, "dem expect villagers to voice immediate support, odawise beatings (wey dey include de use of tasers), abuse, den general intimidation dey occurs", (...) "wey e instill a sense of fear wey dey regard any opposition to sugar plantation plans."<ref name="Oakland Institute" /> === Impact for de ecosystems of de lower Omo River Valley top === De decreased water flow of de Omo River wey dey result from de Gibe III dam go get significant impacts for de ecosystems top wey dey surround de river. De Omo River Basin be home to de only pristine riparian forest wey dey remain for de drylands of sub-Saharan Africa insyd. De survival of dis forest be dependent upon de seasonal flooding of de Omo River, wey go cease plus construction of de dam. Dis go fi cause 290 km² of forest to "dry out" from lack of water. De decreased water flow go sanso negatively impact, if dem no eliminate am, wey dem associate all economic activities plus de Omo River such as farming, fishing, den tourism. De water level of de Omo River be crucial give recharging groundwater supplies for de Omo basin insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> If de water level of de river dey drop once dem build de Gibe III dam, then e go dey no longer be able to refill underground water supplies, wey e lef much of de basin bereft of groundwater, wey negatively dey impact pippoe den ecosystems. As de water level of de Omo River dey drop, de erosion of ein riverbanks go increase, wey e cause increased sediment flows for de river insyd, loss of soil give crop cultivation along de riverbanks, den loss of riparian habitats.<ref name="ARWG" /> A December 2012 study state Ethiopia ein Gibe III dam go cause humanitarian catastrophe den major cross-border armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title=Humanitarian Catastrophe and Regional Armed Conflict Brewing in the Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya and South Sudan: The Proposed Gibe III Dam in Ethiopia |url=http://www.arwg-gibe.org}}</ref> Construction of one of de world ein tallest dams for de Omo River top for southern Ethiopia insyd go lead to mass starvation among a half million indigenous pippoe for an already famine-prone region insyd, wey e spark major armed conflict for de three-nation border region insyd ova ein disappearing natural resources, according to a new report from de African Resources Working Group (ARWG). "Humanitarian Catastrophe den Regional Armed Conflict Brewing for de Transborder Region of Ethiopia, Kenya, den South Sudan insyd: De Proposed Gibe III Dam for Ethiopia insyd wey dem propose" dey analyze de full scale of impacts of de dam den dey charge dat de Ethiopian government anaa international development banks wey dem involve am for de project insyd already carry out no environmental anaa social review of de full cross-border impact area, wey dey include de World Bank. Dem author am by a member of de ARWG den long-term researcher for de region insyd, Claudia J. Carr, an associate professor at de University of California, Berkeley. Dem base de 250-page report for substantial field-based research top wey dey involve de participation of local residents thruout much of de cross-border region. De Gibe III dam already dey under construction by Ethiopia along ein Omo River, plus general recognition dat e go cause a major decrease for river flow downstream insyd den a serious reduction of inflow to Kenya ein Lake Turkana, wey dey receive 90 per cent of ein waters from de river. According to de ARWG report, dem changes go destroy de survival means of at least 200,000 pastoralists, flood-dependent agriculturalists den fishers along de Omo River 300,000 pastoralists den fishers around de shores of Lake Turkana - wey e plunge de region ein ethnic groups into cross-border violent conflict wey dey reach well into South Sudan, as starvation dey confront all of dem. De report dey offer a devastating look a deeply flawed development process wey de special interests of global finance den African governments fuel am. For de process insyd, e dey identify major ovalooked anaa odawise minimized risks, no de least of wey be a U.S. Geological Survey estimation of a high risk give a magnitude 7 anaa 8 earthquake for de Gibe III dam region insyd. Professor Carr for ein new book insyd <ref>Claudia J Carr: River Basin Development and Human Rights in Eastern Africa - A Policy Crossroads, Springer 2017, {{ISBN|9783319504681}}</ref> dey further examine how development processes wey international finance drive am, African governments den de global consulting industry fi lead to such disastrous outcams give de vast nomba of pippoe wey such development affect am. === Impact for Lake Turkana top === De magnitude of de impact dat de dam den possible irrigation projects induced by de dam go get for de water level of Lake Turkana top be controversial. A hydrological study wey dem conduct am give de African Development Bank for November 2010 insyd conclude dat de filling of de dam go reduce de lake ein water level by two metres, if dem go undertake no irrigation. Irrigation go cause a further drop for de lake level insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Avery |first=Sean |date=November 2010 |title=Hydrological Impacts of Ethiopia's Omo Basin on Kenya's Lake Turkana Water Levels & Fisheries. Final report. |url=http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930025421/http://www.friendsoflaketurkana.org/images/docs/report_nov_2010_s_avery_turkana_small_file.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2022 |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=African Development Bank |pages=4–2}}</ref> Friends of Lake Turkana, a Kenyan organization wey dey represent indigenous groups for northwestern Kenya insyd wey dem link dem livelihoods to Lake Turkana, dem already previously estimate dat de dam fi reduce de level of [[Lake Turkana]] by up to 10 meter wey dey affect up to 300,000 pippoe.<ref>Bank_Information_Center:[https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx Kenyan indigenous groups file complaint with AfDB on Ethiopian dam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526043332/http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.11057.aspx|date=2009-05-26}}, March 2, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> Dis fi cause de brackish water to increase for salinity insyd to where e go fi dey no longer be drinkable by de indigenous groups wey dey around de lake. Currently, de salinity of de water dey about 2332&#x20;mg/L, den dem estimate am dat a 10-meter decrease for de water level of Lake Turkana insyd fi cause de salinity to rise to 3.397&#x20;g/L.<ref name="ARWG" /> Raising salinity fi sanso drastically reduce de nomba of fish for de lake insyd, wey de pippoe wey dey around Lake Turkana dey depend for top give sustenance den demma livelihoods. According to critics, dis "go condemn de lake to a not-so-slow death."<ref name="BBC" /> According to dam proponents, de impact for Lake Turkana top go dey limited to de temporary reduction for flows insyd during de filling of de reservoir. Various sources state dat de filling fi take between one den three wet seasons.<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="Salini" /> De total storage volume of de reservoir of Gibe III dam go dey between 11.75 den 14 billion cubic metres, wey dey depend for sources top. According to de company dat dey build de dam, dis go reduce de water level for de lake insyd by "less dan 50 cm per year give three years" den dat salinity "no go change for any way insyd".<ref name="Salini" /> According to de International Lake Environment Committee, de Omo River deliver 90% of Lake Turkana ein water for wey dem go build de Dam.<ref name="ILEC">{{cite web |title=Lake Turkana |url=http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024125746/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/data/databook_html/afr/afr-20.html |archive-date=24 October 2014 |accessdate=18 October 2014 |website=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation}}</ref> Plus no outlet, Lake Turkana dey lose 2.3 meters of water every year to evaporation, den ein level dey sensitive to climatic den seasonal fluctuations. For purposes of comparison, de historic level of Lake Turkana decline from a high of 20&#x20;m above today ein level for de 1890s insyd to de same level as today for de 1940s den 1950s insyd. E then increase again gradually by 7 metres to reach a peak around 1980, den subsequently decrease again.<ref name="ILEC" /> De Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) summary of de project no assess de impact of de dam for de water level den water quality of Lake Turkana top.<ref>Gibe III Hydroelectric Project:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Summary for Gibe III hydroelectric project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720153201/http://www.gibe3.com.et/ESIA%20SUMMARY.htm|date=2011-07-20}}, accessed on October 17, 2009</ref> De director of Kenya ein Water Services Regulatory Board, John Nyaoro, argue say de dam go get no negative impact for Lake Turkana top.<ref name="IWA">Water 21, Magazine of the [[International Water Association]]:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam funding under review after protests against its impact, p. 5, October 2009</ref> === Oda impacts === Dem predict am dat der dey about a 50-75% leakage of waters from de reservoir sekof multiple fractures for de basalt insyd at de planned reservoir site.<ref name="IRN" /> Sekof de loss of water for reservoir insyd, de dam no go dey able to produce as much electricity den less hydro power go dey available to export to oda nearby countries. Sanso, de dam den reservoir dey vulnerable to seismic activity sekof earthquakes den massive landslides for de Gibe III project region insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Earthquakes fi cause even larger fractures to de dam den dey susceptible to more water leakage as well as decreasing de economic inputs. Moreova, de landslides go fill up de reservoir den dem fi store less water. Dis sanso go mean say dem go produce less hydro power.<ref name="IRN" /> === Environmental den social impact assessment === Controversy sanso arise sekof de environmental den social impact assessment den dem no do preceding environmental impact study (EIS) until two years after dem dey begin construction for de dam top.<ref name="BBC" /> De Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority dey require dat dem for do an environmental impact assessment give any project "likely to entail significant adverse environmental impacts" den dat "dem suppose submit de EIS before commencing any construction anaa any oda implementation of de project."<ref name="Permit Requirement">Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14 Permit Requirement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820025525/http://www.epa.gov.et/epa/departments/eia_services/eia_services.asp?dep_Id=4&sub_depId=14|date=2007-08-20}} Published 2006. Accessed 8 June 2010.</ref> ==== Official environmental den social impact assessment ==== Dem already carry out an Environmental den Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) by Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano (CESI) den Agriconsulting of Italy, for association insyd plus MDI Consulting Engineers from Ethiopia. According to Anthony Mitchell, an engineer wey submit an independent feasibility study of de dam to de African Development Bank, CESI ein owners dey include vendors wey fi benefit from de project den dem no disclose dis conflict of interest for de impact statement insyd.<ref name="Mitchell">[http://anthonymitchell.com/ Anthony Mitchell]:[https://www.slideshare.net/anthony_mitchell/gilgel-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-dam-ethiopia-technical-engineering-and-economic-feasibility-study-report Gilgel Gibe III dam Ethiopia: technical, engineering and economic feasibility study report], April 15, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> As part of de assessment, according to de Project Company, dem carry out public consultations plus "officials den institutions, pippoe wey de project affect am den non-governmental organizations".<ref name="Gibe" /> According to critics, dem already minimal dem consultations. Most importantly, dem only complete de assessment for July 2008 insyd, nearly two years after dem begin construction, for violation of Ethiopian law insyd den for contrast insyd to global good practice of environmental assessments.<ref name="IRN" /> Sanso, dem already establish an independent environmental advisory panel only as late as July 2009,<ref name="Gibe" /> apparently for a belated effort insyd to appease criticism of de project. ==== Alternative environmental impact statement ==== De Africa Resources Working Group (ARWG), a collaborative of eight consultants from around de world, conduct an independent environmental impact statement of demma own give de Gibe III dam. Dem perform de alternative impact statement sekof de alleged corruption den inaccuracy of de official impact assessment.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG dey criticize many of de statements wey dem make for de official Gibe III ESIA insyd. Regarding de flow of water into Lake Turkana, dem dey state dat de Gibe III dam go result for a 57-60% decrease of river flow volume insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> De ARWG sanso dey note dat e no be necessarily de volume of water dat be important to de Omo River den Turkana ecosystems, but dat de seasonality den timing of de water flow dey crucial, sekof dem adapt certain biota to feeding, reproducing, growing, etc. for response insyd to seasonal changes for water flow insyd.<ref name="ARWG" /> Artificially releasing water from de Gibe III dam into de Omo River no go dey sufficient to meet de needs of dem biota. Additionally, de ARWG dey state dat der dey "no precedent of successful den sustained implementation" of an artificial flood simulation program for sub-Saharan Africa, so dem no guarantee am dat dem go maintain such a program at de Gibe III dam.<ref name="ARWG" /> == Award of construction contract == Dem award de contract give de construction of de dam for 2006 insyd to Salini Costruttori of Italy. Dem award de engineering design to Studio Pietrangeli<ref>{{cite web |last=www.pietrangeli.com |title=Gibe III dam project on Studio Pietrangeli Website |url=http://www.pietrangeli.com/gibe-3-rcc-dam-ethiopia-africa |accessdate=28 Oct 2014}}</ref> den supervision of ELC-COB (ELC Electroconsult, Italy - Coyne et Bellier, France) as representative of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. Dem award de contract to Salini Construttori after direct negotiation rada dan allowing bidding for de contract top from oda qualified companies. Public international financial institutions dey require competitive bidding of construction contracts, wey e make am difficult give de Ethiopian government to get a loan from dem.<ref name="BBC" /> General manager of de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, Mihert Debeba, defend de bypassing of de standard process, as skipping a set of "luxurious preconditions" dat Ethiopia no fi meet, one wey go completely halt any development of hydroelectric power.<ref name="BBC" /> For 2010 insyd, dem sign a construction contract plus a Chinese hydropower company Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, wey complete de work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gibe III dam Ethiopia |url=https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113064310/https://www.banktrack.org/project/gibe_iii_dam/pdf |archive-date=2022-11-13}}</ref> == Cost den financing == Dem estimate de financial costs of de dam den hydroelectric power plant to be 1.55 billion Euro. Dem estimate de cost of a transmission line from de power plant to de nearby Wolayta Sodo Substation at 35 million Euro. Dem costs no dey include de costs of constructing anaa upgrading power transmission lines to Addis Abeba den onwards to Djibouti to de Northeast of de dam, to Sudan for de West insyd den to Kenya for de South insyd, dem all locate am at a distance between 500 den 1000&#x20;km from de dam. De cost estimate no dey include de costs of extending de electricity distribution network to effectively increase access to electricity. As of 2009, electricity access for de prospective beneficiary countries insyd still dey low at 16% for Kenya insyd den 36% for Sudan insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=Access to electricity (% of population) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS |accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> According to de official website of Gibe III, dem finance most of de construction cost of de dam einself by de Ethiopian government plus ein own funds.<ref name="Gibe" /> Howeva, dem finance part of de project thru a corporate bond wey dem bell am "Millennium Bond" wey de Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO) issue am den dem market am plus de Ethiopian diaspora.<ref>Genet Mersha, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331 Abugida Information Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823115806/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?page_id=7331|date=2010-08-23}}:[https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524 LET THERE BE LIGHT!—THE GILGEL GIBE SAGA, THE BOND & DILEMMA OF ETHIOPIAN DIASPORA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080306/http://www.abugidainfo.com/?p=8524|date=2011-07-07}}, April 6, 2009, accessed on March 24, 2010</ref> De Ethiopian government sanso request financing of US$250 million from de Italian government give civil works. For 2008 insyd, JPMorgan Chase den de Italian export credit agency SACE refuse to provide financing. For May 2010 insyd EEPCo den Dongfang Electric Machinery Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, sign a memorandum of understanding to provide electrical den mechanical equipment give de project. Dem back de agreement by a loan from de Industrial den Commercial Bank of China reportedly dey cover 85% of de US$495 million cost.<ref name="International Rivers">[[International Rivers]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/2010513/china’s-biggest-bank-support-africa’s-most-destructive-dam China’s Biggest Bank to Support Africa’s Most Destructive Dam] Published 13 May 2010. Accessed 8 June 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.bankwatch.org/about/ CEE Bankwatch Network]:[http://www.bankwatch.org/newsroom/releases.shtml?x=2237651#two European bank rightly withdraws from controversial Ethiopian dam but decision brings more questions than answers], 21 July 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hydroworld.com |title=Ethiopia, China sign agreement for Gibe III hydro project construction |url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2010/05/ethiopia--china-sign.html |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> International environmental groups criticize de loan as "hypocritical" den a violation of ICBC ein commitment to China ein Green Credit Policy. Previously dem already dey consider de European Investment Bank (EIB) financing of de dam ein electrical dem mechanical equipment plus a loan of US$341 million. E finance economic, financial den technical studies give de dam.<ref name="Gibe" /><ref name="IRN" /> For July 2010 insyd de EIB stop financing environmental den social studies give de dam, wey e state say dem already find "alternative financing".<ref>Bloomberg:[https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/ EIB Halts Funding of Gibe III Dam Studies in Ethiopia 19 July 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074926/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/eib-halts-funding-of-gibe-iii-dam-studies-in-ethiopia/|date=24 August 2010}}, accessed on 18 September 2010</ref> De African Development Bank sanso already dey consider a US$250 million loan give de electro-mechanical equipment of de plant. De World Bank sanso already consider funding de project. For 2008 insyd de World Bank no decide to pursue a full feasibility study give de dam, sekof de absence of competitive bidding give de prime contractor.<ref name="Mitchell" /> De Exim Bank of China finance de transmission line to de Addis Ababa. Dem award de contract to de Chinese Company Tebian Electric Apparatus Stock Co., Ltd. (TBEA) for July 24, 2009 top.<ref name="Gibe" /> For July 2012 insyd de World Bank approve a US$684 million loan give an Eastern Electricity Highway Project dat go finance a 500 Kilovolt High Voltage Direct Current transmission line between de Wolayta/Sodo substation for Ethiopia insyd den de Suswa substation for Kenya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=The Eastern Electricity Highway Project under the First Phase of the Eastern Africa Power Integration Program |url=http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P126579/regional-eastern-africa-power-pool-project-apl1?lang=en |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> Environmental groups already criticize de loan as funding give de Gilgel Gibe III Dam thru de backdoor.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bosshard |first=Peter |date=22 May 2012 |title=Ethiopia: World Bank to Fund Destructive Dam through the Backdoor? |url=http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103040130/http://www.internationalpolicydigest.org/2012/05/22/ethiopia-world-bank-to-fund-destructive-dam-through-the-backdoor/ |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |accessdate=2 September 2012 |work=International Policy Digest}}</ref> == Gilgel Gibe IV dam == A $1.9 billion deal between China ein Sino Hydro Corporation den de Ethiopian Electric Power Authority to construct de Gibe IV den ''De Shanghai Daily'' report Halele Werabesa hydroelectric dams for 15 July 2009 top. Both dams dey "expected to be completed for five years insyd", den go get a combined capacity of ova 2,000 megawatts.<ref>[http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/general-news/green-politics/green-policies/africa-a-the-middle-east/3390 "China, Ethiopia strike $ 1.9-B hydroelectric deal"], Ecoseed Portal website, published 17 July 2009 (accessed 19 August 2009)</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055936/http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7303 The "white oil" of Ethiopia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Commentary on Gibe III Dam] * [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7959444.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians] March 2009 BBC News report {{DEFAULTSORT:Gibe Iii Dam}} [[Category:Dams insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)]] [[Category:Gravity dams]] [[Category:Roller-compacted concrete dams]] [[Category:Dam controversies]] [[Category:Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region]] [[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 2015]] [[Category:2015 establishments insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Water conflicts]] holah831t8ycqew1mfpc3v5l9m7b1zw 0 27837 106283 106048 2026-07-05T13:35:39Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106283 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Mataheko Drainage Channel''' be a major urban stormwater drainage channel wey dey locate insyd de Mataheko area of western [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. E dey form part of de wider drainage infrastructure within de '''Odaw River Basin''', one of de principal drainage systems insyd de Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. De channel dey play an important role in conveying stormwater runoff from densely populated communities insyd western Accra den dey contribute to flood mitigation efforts within de metropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana Districts: A repository of all Local Assemblies in Ghana |url=https://ghanadistricts.com/Home/LinkDataDistrict/2672 |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=ghanadistricts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-17 |title=Zoomlion, NADMO and Dredge Masters intensify flood prevention efforts across Accra - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/zoomlion-nadmo-and-dredge-masters-intensify-flood-prevention-efforts-across-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Hydrological significance den location == Di Mataheko Drainage Channel dey inside di catchment area of Odaw River Basin, wey cover about 270–272 km² in the Greater Accra Region. Di Odaw River plus em tributaries na di main drainage network for Accra, and dem dey carry water go Korle Lagoon before e finally enter Gulf of Guinea. Di Mataheko channel na one of di engineered smaller drains wey dey feed into di bigger Odaw drainage system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=T. |first=Balstrøm |last2=B. |first2=Hasholt |last3=A.M.N. |first3=Allotey |last4=P.M. |first4=Gyekye |date=2024-07-22 |title=The Identification of Flood-Prone Areas in Accra, Ghana Using a Hydrological Screening Method. |url=https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/items/ed89cef0-7edd-4b63-93a6-756eaee53c48 |language=en}}</ref> Di channel dey serve communities around Mataheko, South Kaneshie, and other nearby urban settlements, dey carry rainwater wey dey run off during heavy rainfall periods. Because Accra dey develop fast, plenty concrete surfaces don increase and settlements don spread inside di basin, so di drainage channel don become important part of Accra flood-control system. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin1 |date=2026-06-03 |title=Outdated drainage systems expose cities to flooding — GhIE |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/outdated-drainage-systems-expose-cities-to-flooding-ghie/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Development den Infrastructure == Improvement works for Mataheko Drainage Channel be part of di bigger '''Accra Storm Drainage Improvement Works – Phase I,''' wey di Accra Metropolitan Assembly dey supervise. Engineering consultancy company Watertech Company Limited report say dem involve for di detailed design, environmental impact assessment, and construction supervision of di Mataheko drain, as part of drainage improvement projects wey dem carry out for Accra during late 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WATERTECH Company Limited |url=https://www.watertechgh.com/projects/drainage-and-environment.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.watertechgh.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=CSci |first=Philip Kyeremanteng, MSc |title=Re-Engineering the Whole Drainage System of Accra |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1500076/re-engineering-the-whole-drainage-system-of-accra.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == References == exihvpb49sve9rx4omsieo05bn2uu07 106284 106283 2026-07-05T13:40:13Z DaSupremo 9 /* Hydrological significance den location */ Make sum corrections 106284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Mataheko Drainage Channel''' be a major urban stormwater drainage channel wey dey locate insyd de Mataheko area of western [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. E dey form part of de wider drainage infrastructure within de '''Odaw River Basin''', one of de principal drainage systems insyd de Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. De channel dey play an important role in conveying stormwater runoff from densely populated communities insyd western Accra den dey contribute to flood mitigation efforts within de metropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana Districts: A repository of all Local Assemblies in Ghana |url=https://ghanadistricts.com/Home/LinkDataDistrict/2672 |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=ghanadistricts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-17 |title=Zoomlion, NADMO and Dredge Masters intensify flood prevention efforts across Accra - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/zoomlion-nadmo-and-dredge-masters-intensify-flood-prevention-efforts-across-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Hydrological significance den location == De Mataheko Drainage Channel dey situate within de catchment of de Odaw River Basin, wey dey cover approximately 270–272 km² insyd de Greater Accra Region. De Odaw River den ein tributaries dey constitute de primary drainage network for Accra den discharge into de Korle Lagoon before reaching de Gulf of Guinea. De Mataheko channel dey among several engineered tributary drains wey dey feed into de larger Odaw drainage system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=T. |first1=Balstrøm |last2=B. |first2=Hasholt |last3=A.M.N. |first3=Allotey |last4=P.M. |first4=Gyekye |date=2024-07-22 |title=The Identification of Flood-Prone Areas in Accra, Ghana Using a Hydrological Screening Method. |url=https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/items/ed89cef0-7edd-4b63-93a6-756eaee53c48 |language=en|journal=UGSpace}}</ref> De channel dey serve communities around Mataheko, South Kaneshie den adjoining urban settlements, conveying runoffs generated during periods of heavy rainfall. Secof rapid urbanisation, increased impervious surfaces den settlement expansion within de basin, de drainage channel cam be an important component of Accra ein flood-control infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=2026-06-03 |title=Outdated drainage systems expose cities to flooding — GhIE |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/outdated-drainage-systems-expose-cities-to-flooding-ghie/ |location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2026-06-25 |newspaper=Ghanaian Times|language=en-US}}</ref> == Development den Infrastructure == Improvement works for Mataheko Drainage Channel be part of di bigger '''Accra Storm Drainage Improvement Works – Phase I,''' wey di Accra Metropolitan Assembly dey supervise. Engineering consultancy company Watertech Company Limited report say dem involve for di detailed design, environmental impact assessment, and construction supervision of di Mataheko drain, as part of drainage improvement projects wey dem carry out for Accra during late 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WATERTECH Company Limited |url=https://www.watertechgh.com/projects/drainage-and-environment.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.watertechgh.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=CSci |first=Philip Kyeremanteng, MSc |title=Re-Engineering the Whole Drainage System of Accra |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1500076/re-engineering-the-whole-drainage-system-of-accra.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == References == c7rqfizejcv4l02e5mdm0lill1d2yez 106285 106284 2026-07-05T13:42:44Z DaSupremo 9 /* Development den Infrastructure */ Make sum corrections 106285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Mataheko Drainage Channel''' be a major urban stormwater drainage channel wey dey locate insyd de Mataheko area of western [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. E dey form part of de wider drainage infrastructure within de '''Odaw River Basin''', one of de principal drainage systems insyd de Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. De channel dey play an important role in conveying stormwater runoff from densely populated communities insyd western Accra den dey contribute to flood mitigation efforts within de metropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana Districts: A repository of all Local Assemblies in Ghana |url=https://ghanadistricts.com/Home/LinkDataDistrict/2672 |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=ghanadistricts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-17 |title=Zoomlion, NADMO and Dredge Masters intensify flood prevention efforts across Accra - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/zoomlion-nadmo-and-dredge-masters-intensify-flood-prevention-efforts-across-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Hydrological significance den location == De Mataheko Drainage Channel dey situate within de catchment of de Odaw River Basin, wey dey cover approximately 270–272 km² insyd de Greater Accra Region. De Odaw River den ein tributaries dey constitute de primary drainage network for Accra den discharge into de Korle Lagoon before reaching de Gulf of Guinea. De Mataheko channel dey among several engineered tributary drains wey dey feed into de larger Odaw drainage system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=T. |first1=Balstrøm |last2=B. |first2=Hasholt |last3=A.M.N. |first3=Allotey |last4=P.M. |first4=Gyekye |date=2024-07-22 |title=The Identification of Flood-Prone Areas in Accra, Ghana Using a Hydrological Screening Method. |url=https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/items/ed89cef0-7edd-4b63-93a6-756eaee53c48 |language=en|journal=UGSpace}}</ref> De channel dey serve communities around Mataheko, South Kaneshie den adjoining urban settlements, conveying runoffs generated during periods of heavy rainfall. Secof rapid urbanisation, increased impervious surfaces den settlement expansion within de basin, de drainage channel cam be an important component of Accra ein flood-control infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=2026-06-03 |title=Outdated drainage systems expose cities to flooding — GhIE |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/outdated-drainage-systems-expose-cities-to-flooding-ghie/ |location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2026-06-25 |newspaper=Ghanaian Times|language=en-US}}</ref> == Development den Infrastructure == Improvement works on de Mataheko Drainage Channel form part of de broader '''Accra Storm Drainage Improvement Works – Phase I''', undertaken under de supervision of de Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Engineering consultancy firm Watertech Company Limited report involvement insyd de detailed design, environmental impact assessment den construction supervision of de Mataheko drain as part of drainage enhancement projects dem implement insyd Accra during de late 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WATERTECH Company Limited |url=https://www.watertechgh.com/projects/drainage-and-environment.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.watertechgh.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kyeremanteng |first=Philip |title=Re-Engineering the Whole Drainage System of Accra |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1500076/re-engineering-the-whole-drainage-system-of-accra.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en|date=2026}}</ref> == References == g1bh85asskox0go7dh0a325d96f4vbe 106286 106285 2026-07-05T13:44:34Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 106286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Mataheko Drainage Channel''' be a major urban stormwater drainage channel wey dey locate insyd de Mataheko area of western [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. E dey form part of de wider drainage infrastructure within de '''Odaw River Basin''', one of de principal drainage systems insyd de Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. De channel dey play an important role in conveying stormwater runoff from densely populated communities insyd western Accra den dey contribute to flood mitigation efforts within de metropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana Districts: A repository of all Local Assemblies in Ghana |url=https://ghanadistricts.com/Home/LinkDataDistrict/2672 |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=ghanadistricts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-17 |title=Zoomlion, NADMO and Dredge Masters intensify flood prevention efforts across Accra - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/zoomlion-nadmo-and-dredge-masters-intensify-flood-prevention-efforts-across-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-23 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Hydrological significance den location == De Mataheko Drainage Channel dey situate within de catchment of de Odaw River Basin, wey dey cover approximately 270–272 km² insyd de Greater Accra Region. De Odaw River den ein tributaries dey constitute de primary drainage network for Accra den discharge into de Korle Lagoon before reaching de Gulf of Guinea. De Mataheko channel dey among several engineered tributary drains wey dey feed into de larger Odaw drainage system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=T. |first1=Balstrøm |last2=B. |first2=Hasholt |last3=A.M.N. |first3=Allotey |last4=P.M. |first4=Gyekye |date=2024-07-22 |title=The Identification of Flood-Prone Areas in Accra, Ghana Using a Hydrological Screening Method. |url=https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/items/ed89cef0-7edd-4b63-93a6-756eaee53c48 |language=en|journal=UGSpace}}</ref> De channel dey serve communities around Mataheko, South Kaneshie den adjoining urban settlements, conveying runoffs generated during periods of heavy rainfall. Secof rapid urbanisation, increased impervious surfaces den settlement expansion within de basin, de drainage channel cam be an important component of Accra ein flood-control infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=2026-06-03 |title=Outdated drainage systems expose cities to flooding — GhIE |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/outdated-drainage-systems-expose-cities-to-flooding-ghie/ |location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=2026-06-25 |newspaper=Ghanaian Times|language=en-US}}</ref> == Development den Infrastructure == Improvement works on de Mataheko Drainage Channel form part of de broader '''Accra Storm Drainage Improvement Works – Phase I''', undertaken under de supervision of de Accra Metropolitan Assembly. Engineering consultancy firm Watertech Company Limited report involvement insyd de detailed design, environmental impact assessment den construction supervision of de Mataheko drain as part of drainage enhancement projects dem implement insyd Accra during de late 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WATERTECH Company Limited |url=https://www.watertechgh.com/projects/drainage-and-environment.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.watertechgh.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kyeremanteng |first=Philip |title=Re-Engineering the Whole Drainage System of Accra |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1500076/re-engineering-the-whole-drainage-system-of-accra.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en|date=2026}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Accra]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Drainage canals]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] [[Category:Stormwater management]] hau8iwahui3yc31stz8k27o6qud4zns 0 27845 106287 105918 2026-07-05T14:13:54Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]] De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region dem know as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E dey contain sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}</ref> De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.<ref name="FAO 2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> Secof ein size den diversity de basin ein forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd ein role as a carbon sink.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org">{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}</ref> However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change fi increase stress on de forest ecosystem, in turn dey make de hydrology of de basin more variable.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org" /> A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change go negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.<ref name=":2" /> Eight sites of de Congo Basin be inscribed on de World Heritage List, five sanso be on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> == Geology == De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, wey dey make am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic & onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. De deformation of de Craton begin as early as de late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, buh de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, wey dey create a large unconformity. Sediment start to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), wey dey cause am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Chaw of de formations deposited by dese freshwater den marine habitats be rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes wey dem think to form during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, be de source of de region ein famous diamonds.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale block any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occur plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.<ref name=":3" /> De following sedimentary geological formations be deposited insyd de basin:<ref name=":3" /> * Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo) * Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo) * Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation * Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series * Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group) * Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series * Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series == Description == {{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River plus countries dem mark]] Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin dey begin insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Secof de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river ein yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of ein area.<ref name="McDonald2005">{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits & Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}</ref> E be delineated largely by swells wey dey include de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]] De basin ends wey de river dey empty into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands. Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}} *[[Angola]] *[[Gabon]] *[[Burundi]] *[[Cameroon]] *[[Central African Republic]] *[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] *[[Republic of the Congo]] *[[Rwanda]] *[[Tanzania]] *[[Zambia]] {{Div col end}} == History == De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area be believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of dema culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrate der wey dem found de Kingdom of Kongo. Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later establish [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de "conventional basin" of de Congo, wich include de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound ein signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis no be respected during de First World War. [[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]] De World Resources Institute estimate dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|Pygmy hunter-gatherers insyd de Central African Republic.]] == Climate == De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two be over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. Dese three regions togeda drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin get de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1|journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De high rainfall dey support de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink<ref>Dargie, Greta C., et al. "Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex." Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.</ref> den an important component of de global carbon cycle. Averaged across de whole basin, der be two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (<80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (<80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription |journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De systems last over 11 hours on average wey dem get a mean size wey dey exceed 500 km² insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.<ref name="doi.org" /> [[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of de Lukenie River as e dey meander thru de Central Congolian lowland forests]] Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) be lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (De Sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa. Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.<ref>IPCC AR6 2022</ref> Der be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region go change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) dey disagree on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}</ref> E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fi cam be more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere. Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e be suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest fi act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.<ref>Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Congo drainage basin]] [[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]] [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] [[Category:Congolian forests]] [[Category:Landforms of Angola]] reepnob7fkjuuplfu4fmt81mpea1z58 106288 106287 2026-07-05T14:20:02Z DaSupremo 9 /* National parks */ Improve article 106288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]] De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region dem know as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E dey contain sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}</ref> De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.<ref name="FAO 2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> Secof ein size den diversity de basin ein forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd ein role as a carbon sink.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org">{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}</ref> However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change fi increase stress on de forest ecosystem, in turn dey make de hydrology of de basin more variable.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org" /> A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change go negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.<ref name=":2" /> Eight sites of de Congo Basin be inscribed on de World Heritage List, five sanso be on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> == Geology == De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, wey dey make am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic & onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. De deformation of de Craton begin as early as de late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, buh de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, wey dey create a large unconformity. Sediment start to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), wey dey cause am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Chaw of de formations deposited by dese freshwater den marine habitats be rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes wey dem think to form during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, be de source of de region ein famous diamonds.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale block any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occur plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.<ref name=":3" /> De following sedimentary geological formations be deposited insyd de basin:<ref name=":3" /> * Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo) * Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo) * Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation * Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series * Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group) * Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series * Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series == Description == {{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River plus countries dem mark]] Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin dey begin insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Secof de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river ein yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of ein area.<ref name="McDonald2005">{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits & Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}</ref> E be delineated largely by swells wey dey include de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]] De basin ends wey de river dey empty into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands. Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}} *[[Angola]] *[[Gabon]] *[[Burundi]] *[[Cameroon]] *[[Central African Republic]] *[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] *[[Republic of the Congo]] *[[Rwanda]] *[[Tanzania]] *[[Zambia]] {{Div col end}} == History == De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area be believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of dema culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrate der wey dem found de Kingdom of Kongo. Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later establish [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de "conventional basin" of de Congo, wich include de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound ein signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis no be respected during de First World War. [[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]] De World Resources Institute estimate dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|Pygmy hunter-gatherers insyd de Central African Republic.]] == Climate == De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two be over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. Dese three regions togeda drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin get de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1|journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De high rainfall dey support de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink<ref>Dargie, Greta C., et al. "Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex." Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.</ref> den an important component of de global carbon cycle. Averaged across de whole basin, der be two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (<80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (<80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription |journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De systems last over 11 hours on average wey dem get a mean size wey dey exceed 500 km² insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.<ref name="doi.org" /> [[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of de Lukenie River as e dey meander thru de Central Congolian lowland forests]] Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) be lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (De Sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa. Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.<ref>IPCC AR6 2022</ref> Der be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region go change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) dey disagree on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}</ref> E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fi cam be more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere. Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e be suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest fi act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.<ref>Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3</ref> == National parks == {{Div col|small=yes}} * Lobéké National Park * Lomami National Park * Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park * Ntokou-Pikounda National Park * Odzala-Kokoua National Park * Salonga National Park * Virunga National Park * Garamba National Park * Kundelungu National Park * Kahuzi-Biega National Park * Upemba National Park * Maiko National Park {{Div col end}} == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Congo drainage basin]] [[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]] [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] [[Category:Congolian forests]] [[Category:Landforms of Angola]] ipuapqfp2cqagc304q0svhrx0j13zob 106289 106288 2026-07-05T14:37:28Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]] De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region dem know as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E dey contain sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}</ref> De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.<ref name="FAO 2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> Secof ein size den diversity de basin ein forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd ein role as a carbon sink.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org">{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}</ref> However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change fi increase stress on de forest ecosystem, in turn dey make de hydrology of de basin more variable.<ref name="pulitzercenter.org" /> A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change go negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.<ref name=":2" /> Eight sites of de Congo Basin be inscribed on de World Heritage List, five sanso be on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> == Geology == De Congo Basin be a large depression within de Congo Craton, wey dey make am a patch of relatively recent (Phanerozoic-aged, den mostly Mesozoic & onwards) sedimentary rock within a large, otherwise extremely ancient (Archean-aged) piece of exposed continental crust. De deformation of de Craton begin as early as de late Cambrian anaa early Ordovician den continued over de Paleozoic, buh de deformation over dis period dey lead to rapid erosion of much of dis Paleozoic rock, wey dey create a large unconformity. Sediment start to rapidly accumulate insyd de basin from de Mesozoic (Triassic) up to de present day.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giresse |first=Pierre |date=2005-10-01 |title=Mesozoic–Cenozoic history of the Congo Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X05001226 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |series=Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.009 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Deposits throughout de Jurassic suggest de presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat insyd de basin, den dis continued into de Early Cretaceous. By de start of de Late Cretaceous, a connection plus de Trans-Saharan seaway wey lead to a significant marine incursion into de basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion be disputed), wey dey cause am to serve as a connection between de southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] den de Tethys Ocean. Chaw of de formations deposited by dese freshwater den marine habitats be rich insyd pollen, invertebrate, den vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils. Kimberlite pipes wey dem think to form during de Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease insyd de rate of seafloor spreading of de southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, be de source of de region ein famous diamonds.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caillaud |first=Alexis |last2=Blanpied |first2=Christian |last3=Delvaux |first3=Damien |date=2017-08-01 |title=The Upper Jurassic Stanleyville Group of the eastern Congo Basin: An example of perennial lacustrine system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X17301838 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=132 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.002 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nkere |first=Buliba J. |last2=Griffin |first2=William L. |last3=Janney |first3=Philip E. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Emplacement age of the Tshibwe kimberlite, Democratic Republic of Congo, by in-situ LAM-ICPMS U/Pb dating of groundmass perovskite |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464343X19301414 |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=157 |pages=103502 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.05.010 |issn=1464-343X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> By de Cenozoic, an uplift insyd de borders of de Cuvette Centrale block any further marine connections. During de Paleogene, high rainfall turned de basin into a series of marshy ponds den swamps. A shift to more arid conditions plus seasonal droughts occur plus de start of de Neogene. Later insyd de Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests a dramatic return to wetter conditions.<ref name=":3" /> De following sedimentary geological formations be deposited insyd de basin:<ref name=":3" /> * Late Carboniferous /Permian - Lukuga Formation (part of de Lower Karoo) * Early Triassic to Early Jurassic - Haute Lueki Formation (part of Upper karoo) * Late Jurassic - Stanleyville Formation * Early Cretaceous - Loia Formation, Kamina Series * Late Cretaceous - Bokungu Formation, Kwango Series (Nsele Group, Inzia Group) * Paleogene - Kwango Formation, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series * Neogene - Limons Series, Kalahari System, Sables Bateke Series == Description == {{See also|Congo River}}[[File:CongoLualaba watershed plain political.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River plus countries dem mark]] Congo be a traditional name for de equatorial Middle Africa dat lies between de [[Gulf of Guinea]] den de [[African Great Lakes]]. De basin dey begin insyd de highlands of de East African Rift system plus input from de Chambeshi, de [[Uele River|Uele]] den [[Ubangi River|Ubangi river]]s insyd de upper reaches den de [[Lualaba River]] draining wetlands insyd de middle reaches. Secof de young age den active uplift of de East African Rift at de headwaters, de river ein yearly sediment load be very large, but de drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of ein area.<ref name="McDonald2005">{{cite book|title=Mineral deposits & Earth evolution|publisher=Geological Society|year= 2005|isbn=978-1-86239-182-6}}</ref> E be delineated largely by swells wey dey include de Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nile-Congo, East African, den Zambian Swells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kadima|first1=E.|last2=Delvaux|first2=D.|last3=Sebagenzi|first3=S. N.|last4=Tack|first4=L.|last5=Kabeya|first5=S. M.|date=2011|title=Structure and geological history of the Congo Basin: an integrated interpretation of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|journal=Basin Research|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=499–527|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2011.00500.x|bibcode=2011BasR...23..499K |s2cid=53587215 |issn=1365-2117|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:Isangi people living off the river.jpg|thumb|Isangi people living on de [[Congo River]]]] De basin ends wey de river dey empty into de Gulf of Guinea on de Atlantic Ocean. De basin be a total of 3.7 million square kilometres den be home to some of de largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on de planet, insyd addition to large wetlands. Countries wholly anaa partially insyd de Congo region:{{Div col|small=no}} *[[Angola]] *[[Gabon]] *[[Burundi]] *[[Cameroon]] *[[Central African Republic]] *[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] *[[Republic of the Congo]] *[[Rwanda]] *[[Tanzania]] *[[Zambia]] {{Div col end}} == History == De first inhabitants of de Congo Basin area be believed to be pygmies, den at dat time, de dense forests den wet climate kept de population of de region low, plus de prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of dema culture survive to de present day. Eventually Bantub peoples migrate der wey dem found de Kingdom of Kongo. Belgium, [[French colonial empire|France]], den Portugal later establish [[Colonisation of Africa|colonial control]] over de entire region by de late 19th century. De General Act of de [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 give a precise definition to de "conventional basin" of de Congo, wich include de entire actual basin plus sum oda areas. De General Act bound ein signatories to neutrality within de conventional basin, but dis no be respected during de First World War. [[File:Conventional Congo Basin - DPLA - 5dbb94c071822e720e92ec7bb62fad5f.jpg|thumb|Map of de Conventional Congo Basin]] De World Resources Institute estimate dat 80 million people live insyd den around de Congo Basin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=You can't spell Congo without NGO |url=http://africa-reports.com/2021/02/28/you-cant-spell-congo-without-ngo/ |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Africa Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Living on the rainforest.jpg|thumb|Pygmy hunter-gatherers insyd de Central African Republic.]] == Climate == De Congo Basin be a globally important climatic region plus annual rainfall of between 1500 den 2000mm. E be one of three hotspots of deep convection (thunderstorms) insyd de tropics, de oda two be over de Maritime continent den de Amazon. Dese three regions togeda drive de climate circulation of de tropics den beyond. De Congo Basin get de highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on de planet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Rachel I. |last2=Goodman |first2=Steven J. |last3=Buechler |first3=Dennis E. |last4=Blakeslee |first4=Richard J. |last5=Christian |first5=Hugh J. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/11/bams-d-14-00193.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1|journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De high rainfall dey support de second largest rainforest on Earth, wich be a globally significant carbon sink<ref>Dargie, Greta C., et al. "Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex." Nature 542.7639 (2017): 86-90.</ref> den an important component of de global carbon cycle. Averaged across de whole basin, der be two major rainfall seasons insyd March to May den September to November. Insyd both hemispheres de rainfall maximises insyd September to November, at above 210mm per month. Insyd northern hemisphere winter, rainfall be relatively low to de north of de equator (<80mm per month). Insyd southern hemisphere winter, rainfall be instead lower to de south of de equator (<80mm per month). De annual rhythm of de wind systems wich carry water vapour account for de rainfall seasonality. Much of de rainfall be derived from large Mesoscale convective systems.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Brian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Sharon E. |last3=Klotter |first3=Douglas |date=2009-04-01 |title=Mesoscale Convective Systems over Western Equatorial Africa and Their Relationship to Large-Scale Circulation |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/137/4/2008mwr2525.1.xml |language=en |doi=10.1175/2008MWR2525.1|url-access=subscription |journal=American Meteorological Society}}</ref> De systems last over 11 hours on average wey dem get a mean size wey dey exceed 500 km² insyd some parts of de Congo Basin.<ref name="doi.org" /> [[File:LukenieRiver.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of de Lukenie River as e dey meander thru de Central Congolian lowland forests]] Temperatures insyd de Congo Basin (usually between 20 den 30°C) be lower dan insyd de African desert regions to de north (De Sahara) den to de south (Kalahari). De differences insyd temperature between de deserts den de Congo Basin be important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thorncroft |first=C. D. |last2=Blackburn |first2=M. |date=April 1999 |title=Maintenance of the African easterly jet |url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49712555502 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=125 |issue=555 |pages=763–786 |doi=10.1002/qj.49712555502 |issn=0035-9009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> wich affect climate den weather insyd de Sahel den Southern Africa. Future climate projections indicate dat de region fit get hotter insyd response to global climate change.<ref>IPCC AR6 2022</ref> Der be more uncertainty over how average rainfall insyd de region go change, plus de climate models used by de Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) dey disagree on core elements of de rainfall distribution insyd de region. While de average rainfall change be uncertain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Creese |first=A. |last2=Washington |first2=R. |last3=Munday |first3=C. |date=2019-06-16 |title=The Plausibility of September–November Congo Basin Rainfall Change in Coupled Climate Models |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JD029847 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=5822–5846 |doi=10.1029/2018JD029847 |issn=2169-897X}}</ref> E be likely dat extreme rainfall events fi cam be more extreme owing to de increases insyd water vapour insyd de atmosphere. Owing to de global climatic importance of de Congo Basin, e be suggested dat, along plus de Amazon, severe changes insyd de rainfall anaa climate of de Congo Rainforest fi act as a 'tipping point', plus widespread impacts on de Earth System.<ref>Garcin, Y. et al. (2022) Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin, Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05389-3</ref> == National parks == {{Div col|small=yes}} * Lobéké National Park * Lomami National Park * Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park * Ntokou-Pikounda National Park * Odzala-Kokoua National Park * Salonga National Park * Virunga National Park * Garamba National Park * Kundelungu National Park * Kahuzi-Biega National Park * Upemba National Park * Maiko National Park {{Div col end}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://www.pygmies.org/ Pygmies.org: African Pygmies website] — ''first inhabitants of the Congo Basin rainforests''. {{DEFAULTSORT:Congo Basin}} [[Category:Congo drainage basin| 01]] [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:Drainage basins of Africa]] [[Category:Sedimentary basins of Africa]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] [[Category:Congolian forests]] [[Category:Landforms of Angola]] [[Category:Landforms of Cameroon]] [[Category:Geography of Central Africa]] [[Category:Landforms of Burundi]] [[Category:Landforms of Rwanda]] [[Category:Landforms of Tanzania]] [[Category:Landforms of de Central African Republic]] [[Category:Landforms of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Landforms of de Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Landforms of Zambia]] [[Category:Basins of Africa]] 951a9m9risbij0g96lz4je8cetjkrn4 0 27853 106301 105041 2026-07-05T17:13:36Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pangani River''' (''Mto Pangani'', insyd Swahili), (dem sanso call '''Luffu''' den '''Jipe Ruvu''', especially insyd older sources, wey dem probably once call '''Rhaptus''') be a major river of northeastern [[Tanzania]]. E get two main sources:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |title=Entry "Pangani" in the German Koloniallexikon |access-date=2011-12-10 |archive-date=2014-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011083932/http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |url-status=dead }}</ref> de Ruvu, wich dey rise as Lumi at Kilimanjaro, dey pass thru [[Lake Jipe]], den dey empty into de Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir, den de Kikuletwa River, wey dey cam from de west den mainly feed by rivers of Mount Meru insyd Arusha Region, wich sanso dey enter into de Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir insyd Kilimanjaro Region. Just after leaving de reservoir de stream cam be de main Pangani, wich dey empty into de Indian Ocean insyd Tanga Region at de Tangan port town of Pangani.<ref name="INTELLIGENCER1852">{{cite book|title=THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY INTELLIGENCER|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhYFAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA93|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1852|pages=93–}}</ref> For much of ein length de river dey flow along de regional borders of Kilimanjaro Region den Manyara Region, before e dey flow into Tanga Region, wich dey contain de 68&nbsp;MW Pangani Power Station den de Pangani Falls Dam. Der be several inhabited islands within de river. De river be full of crocodiles; hippopotami be scarcer insyd ein lower parts. ==Etymology== A main source of Pangani dey originate on Kilimanjaro, wer be be River Lumi. Lake Jipe fi be considered a backwater of de Lumi.<ref name="Meyer1891">{{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Hans|title=Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro|url=https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog|access-date=11 October 2011 |year=1891|publisher=G. Philip & son|pages=[https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog/page/n431 321]–}}</ref> Below Lake Jipe den above de falls, de river be referred to as "Ruvu".<ref name="BritainShaw1875">{{cite journal |last=New |first=Charles |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London |title=Journey from the Pangani, via Wadigo, to Mombasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nQMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318 |year=1875 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=317–323|doi=10.2307/1799979|jstor=1799979 }}</ref> Formerly de main course towards de sea alternatively be called "Ruvu" den "Pangani".<ref>cf the map [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/east_africa_500k/txu-pclmaps-oclc-6590061-mombasa-sb-37-2.jpg Sheet SB 37/2, Series Y401, by War Office 1946] of 1946 and this map from 1960 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/east_africa_250k/txu-pclmaps-oclc-6595692-lushoto-sb-37-2.jpg Sheet SB-37-2 Series Y503, Edition 1-TSD, Published by the Survey Division, Ministry of Lands, Survey and Water, Tanganyika 1960], both showing "Pangani or Ruvu River" as name</ref> Nowadays dat be settled as "Pangani" from de Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir to de Ocean. While de Swahili call am "''Pangani''" (wey dey mean distribute anaa arrange),<ref name="Hodd2002" /> e be called "''Luffu''" by de Wasambara (indigenous to de Nderema area, on de three ridges nearer de coast) den de Zigua (wey dey live on de river ein islands).<ref name="INTELLIGENCER1852" /><ref name="BritainShaw1875" /> Almost all authorities agree say de river "Rhaptus" of Ptolemy ein topographical maps be de Pangani of modern maps.<ref name="Proceedings1891">{{cite book|author=Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain)|title=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and monthly record of geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zv4QAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA524|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1891|publisher=Edward Stanford|pages=524–}}</ref> ==Geography== De Pangani be {{convert|500|km}} in length.<ref name="iwmnet.eu">{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin|title=Pangani Basin|publisher=IWMNet|access-date=12 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218024206/http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin|archive-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> ;Source One source of de river dey rise insyd Kilimanjaro, about {{convert|120|mi}} from de sea. Known as de Lumi insyd dis area, ein course dey run thru Lake Jipe. De other be at Mount Meru insyd de west wey e be known as de Kikuletwa. Like all African rivers, ein depth dey vary plus de season. De river be highest around May den lowest around October. Anoda source be de Saunyi River insyd Kilindi District. [[File:Bushiri Pangani District.jpg|thumb|Pangani River thru Bushiri ward of Pangani District]] ;Midsection E be navigable for small craft between de lake den de Höhnel Cataracts, a series of rapids.<ref name="Lewin1924">{{cite book|last=Lewin|first=Evans|title=Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajWmBSO_vH8C|access-date=11 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1924|publisher=Clarendon press|page=108}}</ref> Below de Höhnel Cataracts, e get numerous tributaries, den chaw islands plus villages on dem. De stream be strongest above Koleni, within 5 miles of de Pangani Falls, wer de river be narrow. Dis section no be navigable for any considerable distance on account of de falls, wich be about {{convert|30|mi}} from de mouth. Approximately {{convert|4|mi}} from de mouth, dense mangrove swamp dey cover de flatland between de hills on either side. Insyd dis area, near Teufelsfelsen, be higher land, a fertile area, den de arid Masai Steppe.<ref name="iwmnet.eu" /> On dis bank be Mount Kovu Kovu, {{convert|360|ft}} in height, while on de south bank be a ridge {{convert|400|ft}} high. Pombwe, one of de principal settlements on de river, dey situate about {{convert|1|mi}} west of Kovu Kovu. Above Pombwe, de West African oil palm dey grow, while below Pombwe, de trees be chiefly areca den coconut palms.<ref name="AfricaPilot1916">{{cite book|author=United States. Hydrographic Office|title=Africa Pilot: South and east coasts of Africa from Cape of Good Hope to Ras Hafun|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1916|publisher=Hydrographic office under the authority of the secretary of the navy|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ/page/n402 392]–}}</ref> De village of Lemkuna den de hamlet of Ngage be on de river ein west bank, while Mvungwe den Meserani be on ein eastern bank.<ref name="Catchment ">{{cite book|title=Catchment ecosystems and downstream water : the value of water resources in the Pangani basin, Tanzania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmHvdkVNLEgC&pg=PA34|access-date=11 October 2011|publisher=IUCN|isbn=978-955-8177-49-5|pages=34–}}</ref> ;Mouth De mouth dey locate {{convert|52|km}} south of Tanga.<ref name="Hodd2002">{{cite book|last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East Africa handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCFrdRKB8hYC&pg=PA383|access-date=11 October 2011|date=22 March 2002|isbn=978-1-900949-65-1|pages=383–}}</ref> De river be tidal for a distance of {{convert|22|mi}} from de entrance.<ref name="AfricaPilot1916" /> De southern side of de entrance be marked by a perpendicular bluff dem name Bweni, about {{convert|200|ft}} high; der be a village of de same name, Bweni, situate hie. De northern side of de entrance be a flat sandy beach wey dey extend from de head of de bay. Der be several settlements at de entrance, two on de northern den two on de southern bank. Historically, de town of Pangani, on de river ein left bank, get a reputation for fevers.<ref name="Africapilot1878" /> At ein estuary, by Pangani town, de river be about {{convert|600|ft}} in breadth, den {{convert|12|-|15|ft}} deep. ;Tributaries Several tributaries wey dey cam from de Pare Mountains, de Usambara Mountains den de Wasegiia wilderness join de Pangani insyd ein course. Dese dey include de Kibaya, Komkuza, Kwachigulu, Kwamwadyau den Mnyusi.<ref name="Journal1959">{{cite book|title=Journal of tropical medicine and hygiene|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6xLAQAAIAAJ|access-date=8 October 2011|year=1959|publisher=Staples and Staples, Ltd.|page=40}}</ref> ==Hydrometry== Average monthly flow of Pangani dem measure at de hydrological station insyd Korogwe Estate, about 110&nbsp;km above de mouth insyd m³ / s (1959–77).<ref name="GRDC">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1289200.html GRDC - The Pangani in Korogwe]</ref> De Pangani dey flow stimulate time-dependent, like most rivers insyd de region. <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.8) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.3) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.6,0.8,0.9) ImageSize = width:600 height:280 PlotArea = left:40 bottom:40 top:20 right:20 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:40 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = justify ScaleMajor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:10 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:5 start:0 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:Jan text:January bar:Fév text:February bar:Mar text:March bar:Avr text:April bar:Mai text:May bar:Jun text:June bar:Jul text:July bar:Aoû text:August bar:Sep text:Sept. bar:Oct text:Oct. bar:Nov text:Nov. bar:Déc text:Dec. PlotData= color:barra width:30 align:left bar:Jan from:0 till: 29 bar:Fév from:0 till: 22 bar:Mar from:0 till: 23 bar:Avr from:0 till: 33 bar:Mai from:0 till: 39 bar:Jun from:0 till: 33 bar:Jul from:0 till: 28 bar:Aoû from:0 till: 25 bar:Sep from:0 till: 21 bar:Oct from:0 till: 21 bar:Nov from:0 till: 25 bar:Déc from:0 till: 23 PlotData= bar:Jan at: 29 fontsize:S text: 29 shift:(-10,5) bar:Fév at: 22 fontsize:S text: 22 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mar at: 23 fontsize:S text: 23 shift:(-10,5) bar:Avr at: 33 fontsize:S text: 33 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mai at: 39 fontsize:S text: 39 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jun at: 33 fontsize:S text: 33 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jul at: 28 fontsize:S text: 28 shift:(-10,5) bar:Aoû at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Sep at: 21 fontsize:S text: 21 shift:(-10,5) bar:Oct at: 21 fontsize:S text: 21 shift:(-10,5) bar:Nov at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Déc at: 23 fontsize:S text: 23 shift:(-10,5) </timeline> ==Pangani Basin== De Pangani Basin (PB) be one of Tanzania ein nine drainage basins. E dey extend from de northern highlands to Tanzania ein north-eastern coastline, de PB be approximately {{convert|56300|km2}} in size, of wich {{convert|4880|km2}} be within Kenya.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Bhatt | first1=Yogesh Chandra | last2=Bossio | first2=Deborah | last3=Enfors | first3=E. | last4=Gordon | first4=L. | last5=Kongo | first5=V. | last6=Kosgei | first6=J. R. | last7=Makurira | first7=H. | last8=Masuki | first8=K. | last9=Mul | first9=M. | last10=Tumbo | first10=S. D. | title=Smallholder system innovations in integrated watershed management (SSI): Strategies of water for food and environmental security in drought-prone tropical and subtropical agro-ecosystems | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9qZIXK-XtIC&pg=PA10 | access-date=8 October 2011 | year=2006 | publisher=[[International Water Management Institute]] | isbn=978-92-9090-634-6 | page=10}}</ref> Five sub-basins dey comprise de basin: de Pangani River ({{convert|43650|km2}}), de Umba River ({{convert|8070|km2}}), de Msangazi River ({{convert|5030|km2}}), de Zigi River, den de Mkulumuzi River plus oda coastal rivers ({{convert|2080|km2}}).<ref name="MiniGrids">{{cite web | url=http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 | title=Pangani Basin Water Board | publisher=Mini Grids Information Portal | access-date=1 July 2018 | archive-date=27 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327112041/http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 | url-status=dead }}</ref> All of dese empty into de Indian Ocean.<ref name="PBWB"/> De Pangani Basin Water Board (PBWB) na dem establish insyd July 1991 under de Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974. Ein headquarters dey insyd de Moshi municipality insyd de Kilimanjaro Region. Ein oda two offices be insyd Arusha den Tanga.<ref name="PBWB">{{cite web | url=http://www.panganibasin.com/ | title=Pangani Basin | publisher=Pangani Basin Water Board | access-date=9 October 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021212915/http://www.panganibasin.com/# | archive-date=2011-10-21 | url-status=dead }}</ref> De PBWB dey consist of ten professionals from public institutions den private sector LGAs, UWSAs, den oda committees. De river system dey under pressure secof conflicting water uses den major overallocations of ein water. Chaw farmers dey rely on de river for irrigation. Damming projects along de river reduce de river ein flow from several hundred cubic metres per second to less dan {{convert|40|m3/s}}. Dis affect coastal communities, wich see large reductions insyd fish populations den saltwater intrusion<ref name="IUCN">{{cite web | url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/water/wp_where_we_work/wp_our_work_projects/wp_our_work_pan/ | title=Pangani River Basin | publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] | access-date=1 July 2018}}</ref> Insyd 2002, de Pangani River Basin Management Project be established to manage de basin ein water resources. E dey receive technical assistance from de International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), de SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, de GIZ German Development Organisation den de local non-governmental organization PAMOJA.<ref name="IUCN"/> De project sanso receive funds from de government of Tanzania, IUCN, de European Commission, den de Global Environment Facility thru de United Nations Development Programme.<ref name="IUCN"/> ==Commerce== Der be a good deal of trade hie, dhows loading den unloading on de river. Dem dey bring produce down de river, principally on rafts dem make of de Moale palm, wich then be broken up den cam be articles of commerce. Insyd 1878, de most common crop dem cultivate on de river ein banks dem report to be sugar.<ref name="Africapilot1878">{{cite book|author=Great Britain. Hydrographic Office|title=Africa pilot: South and east coasts of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Guardafui, including the islands in Mozambique Channel|url=https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain|year=1878|publisher=Printed for the Hydrographic Office, Admiralty|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog/page/n339 327], 328–}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == dls1dyo2cyoreustt9mcxl8abnanw8r 106302 106301 2026-07-05T17:16:08Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pangani River''' (''Mto Pangani'', insyd Swahili), (dem sanso call '''Luffu''' den '''Jipe Ruvu''', especially insyd older sources, wey dem probably once call '''Rhaptus''') be a major river of northeastern [[Tanzania]]. E get two main sources:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |title=Entry "Pangani" in the German Koloniallexikon |access-date=2011-12-10 |archive-date=2014-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011083932/http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |url-status=dead }}</ref> de Ruvu, wich dey rise as Lumi at Kilimanjaro, dey pass thru [[Lake Jipe]], den dey empty into de Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir, den de Kikuletwa River, wey dey cam from de west den mainly feed by rivers of Mount Meru insyd Arusha Region, wich sanso dey enter into de Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir insyd Kilimanjaro Region. Just after leaving de reservoir de stream cam be de main Pangani, wich dey empty into de Indian Ocean insyd Tanga Region at de Tangan port town of Pangani.<ref name="INTELLIGENCER1852">{{cite book|title=THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY INTELLIGENCER|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhYFAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA93|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1852|pages=93–}}</ref> For much of ein length de river dey flow along de regional borders of Kilimanjaro Region den Manyara Region, before e dey flow into Tanga Region, wich dey contain de 68&nbsp;MW Pangani Power Station den de Pangani Falls Dam. Der be several inhabited islands within de river. De river be full of crocodiles; hippopotami be scarcer insyd ein lower parts. ==Etymology== A main source of Pangani dey originate on Kilimanjaro, wer be be River Lumi. Lake Jipe fi be considered a backwater of de Lumi.<ref name="Meyer1891">{{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Hans|title=Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro|url=https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog|access-date=11 October 2011 |year=1891|publisher=G. Philip & son|pages=[https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog/page/n431 321]–}}</ref> Below Lake Jipe den above de falls, de river be referred to as "Ruvu".<ref name="BritainShaw1875">{{cite journal |last=New |first=Charles |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London |title=Journey from the Pangani, via Wadigo, to Mombasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nQMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA318 |year=1875 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=317–323|doi=10.2307/1799979|jstor=1799979 }}</ref> Formerly de main course towards de sea alternatively be called "Ruvu" den "Pangani".<ref>cf the map [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/east_africa_500k/txu-pclmaps-oclc-6590061-mombasa-sb-37-2.jpg Sheet SB 37/2, Series Y401, by War Office 1946] of 1946 and this map from 1960 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/east_africa_250k/txu-pclmaps-oclc-6595692-lushoto-sb-37-2.jpg Sheet SB-37-2 Series Y503, Edition 1-TSD, Published by the Survey Division, Ministry of Lands, Survey and Water, Tanganyika 1960], both showing "Pangani or Ruvu River" as name</ref> Nowadays dat be settled as "Pangani" from de Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir to de Ocean. While de Swahili call am "''Pangani''" (wey dey mean distribute anaa arrange),<ref name="Hodd2002" /> e be called "''Luffu''" by de Wasambara (indigenous to de Nderema area, on de three ridges nearer de coast) den de Zigua (wey dey live on de river ein islands).<ref name="INTELLIGENCER1852" /><ref name="BritainShaw1875" /> Almost all authorities agree say de river "Rhaptus" of Ptolemy ein topographical maps be de Pangani of modern maps.<ref name="Proceedings1891">{{cite book|author=Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain)|title=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and monthly record of geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zv4QAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA524|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1891|publisher=Edward Stanford|pages=524–}}</ref> ==Geography== De Pangani be {{convert|500|km}} in length.<ref name="iwmnet.eu">{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin|title=Pangani Basin|publisher=IWMNet|access-date=12 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218024206/http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin|archive-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> ;Source One source of de river dey rise insyd Kilimanjaro, about {{convert|120|mi}} from de sea. Known as de Lumi insyd dis area, ein course dey run thru Lake Jipe. De other be at Mount Meru insyd de west wey e be known as de Kikuletwa. Like all African rivers, ein depth dey vary plus de season. De river be highest around May den lowest around October. Anoda source be de Saunyi River insyd Kilindi District. [[File:Bushiri Pangani District.jpg|thumb|Pangani River thru Bushiri ward of Pangani District]] ;Midsection E be navigable for small craft between de lake den de Höhnel Cataracts, a series of rapids.<ref name="Lewin1924">{{cite book|last=Lewin|first=Evans|title=Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajWmBSO_vH8C|access-date=11 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1924|publisher=Clarendon press|page=108}}</ref> Below de Höhnel Cataracts, e get numerous tributaries, den chaw islands plus villages on dem. De stream be strongest above Koleni, within 5 miles of de Pangani Falls, wer de river be narrow. Dis section no be navigable for any considerable distance on account of de falls, wich be about {{convert|30|mi}} from de mouth. Approximately {{convert|4|mi}} from de mouth, dense mangrove swamp dey cover de flatland between de hills on either side. Insyd dis area, near Teufelsfelsen, be higher land, a fertile area, den de arid Masai Steppe.<ref name="iwmnet.eu" /> On dis bank be Mount Kovu Kovu, {{convert|360|ft}} in height, while on de south bank be a ridge {{convert|400|ft}} high. Pombwe, one of de principal settlements on de river, dey situate about {{convert|1|mi}} west of Kovu Kovu. Above Pombwe, de West African oil palm dey grow, while below Pombwe, de trees be chiefly areca den coconut palms.<ref name="AfricaPilot1916">{{cite book|author=United States. Hydrographic Office|title=Africa Pilot: South and east coasts of Africa from Cape of Good Hope to Ras Hafun|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain.|year=1916|publisher=Hydrographic office under the authority of the secretary of the navy|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ/page/n402 392]–}}</ref> De village of Lemkuna den de hamlet of Ngage be on de river ein west bank, while Mvungwe den Meserani be on ein eastern bank.<ref name="Catchment ">{{cite book|title=Catchment ecosystems and downstream water : the value of water resources in the Pangani basin, Tanzania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmHvdkVNLEgC&pg=PA34|access-date=11 October 2011|publisher=IUCN|isbn=978-955-8177-49-5|pages=34–}}</ref> ;Mouth De mouth dey locate {{convert|52|km}} south of Tanga.<ref name="Hodd2002">{{cite book|last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East Africa handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCFrdRKB8hYC&pg=PA383|access-date=11 October 2011|date=22 March 2002|isbn=978-1-900949-65-1|pages=383–}}</ref> De river be tidal for a distance of {{convert|22|mi}} from de entrance.<ref name="AfricaPilot1916" /> De southern side of de entrance be marked by a perpendicular bluff dem name Bweni, about {{convert|200|ft}} high; der be a village of de same name, Bweni, situate hie. De northern side of de entrance be a flat sandy beach wey dey extend from de head of de bay. Der be several settlements at de entrance, two on de northern den two on de southern bank. Historically, de town of Pangani, on de river ein left bank, get a reputation for fevers.<ref name="Africapilot1878" /> At ein estuary, by Pangani town, de river be about {{convert|600|ft}} in breadth, den {{convert|12|-|15|ft}} deep. ;Tributaries Several tributaries wey dey cam from de Pare Mountains, de Usambara Mountains den de Wasegiia wilderness join de Pangani insyd ein course. Dese dey include de Kibaya, Komkuza, Kwachigulu, Kwamwadyau den Mnyusi.<ref name="Journal1959">{{cite book|title=Journal of tropical medicine and hygiene|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6xLAQAAIAAJ|access-date=8 October 2011|year=1959|publisher=Staples and Staples, Ltd.|page=40}}</ref> ==Hydrometry== Average monthly flow of Pangani dem measure at de hydrological station insyd Korogwe Estate, about 110&nbsp;km above de mouth insyd m³ / s (1959–77).<ref name="GRDC">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1289200.html GRDC - The Pangani in Korogwe]</ref> De Pangani dey flow stimulate time-dependent, like most rivers insyd de region. <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.8) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.3) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.6,0.8,0.9) ImageSize = width:600 height:280 PlotArea = left:40 bottom:40 top:20 right:20 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:40 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = justify ScaleMajor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:10 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:5 start:0 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:Jan text:January bar:Fév text:February bar:Mar text:March bar:Avr text:April bar:Mai text:May bar:Jun text:June bar:Jul text:July bar:Aoû text:August bar:Sep text:Sept. bar:Oct text:Oct. bar:Nov text:Nov. bar:Déc text:Dec. PlotData= color:barra width:30 align:left bar:Jan from:0 till: 29 bar:Fév from:0 till: 22 bar:Mar from:0 till: 23 bar:Avr from:0 till: 33 bar:Mai from:0 till: 39 bar:Jun from:0 till: 33 bar:Jul from:0 till: 28 bar:Aoû from:0 till: 25 bar:Sep from:0 till: 21 bar:Oct from:0 till: 21 bar:Nov from:0 till: 25 bar:Déc from:0 till: 23 PlotData= bar:Jan at: 29 fontsize:S text: 29 shift:(-10,5) bar:Fév at: 22 fontsize:S text: 22 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mar at: 23 fontsize:S text: 23 shift:(-10,5) bar:Avr at: 33 fontsize:S text: 33 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mai at: 39 fontsize:S text: 39 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jun at: 33 fontsize:S text: 33 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jul at: 28 fontsize:S text: 28 shift:(-10,5) bar:Aoû at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Sep at: 21 fontsize:S text: 21 shift:(-10,5) bar:Oct at: 21 fontsize:S text: 21 shift:(-10,5) bar:Nov at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Déc at: 23 fontsize:S text: 23 shift:(-10,5) </timeline> ==Pangani Basin== De Pangani Basin (PB) be one of Tanzania ein nine drainage basins. E dey extend from de northern highlands to Tanzania ein north-eastern coastline, de PB be approximately {{convert|56300|km2}} in size, of wich {{convert|4880|km2}} be within Kenya.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Bhatt | first1=Yogesh Chandra | last2=Bossio | first2=Deborah | last3=Enfors | first3=E. | last4=Gordon | first4=L. | last5=Kongo | first5=V. | last6=Kosgei | first6=J. R. | last7=Makurira | first7=H. | last8=Masuki | first8=K. | last9=Mul | first9=M. | last10=Tumbo | first10=S. D. | title=Smallholder system innovations in integrated watershed management (SSI): Strategies of water for food and environmental security in drought-prone tropical and subtropical agro-ecosystems | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9qZIXK-XtIC&pg=PA10 | access-date=8 October 2011 | year=2006 | publisher=[[International Water Management Institute]] | isbn=978-92-9090-634-6 | page=10}}</ref> Five sub-basins dey comprise de basin: de Pangani River ({{convert|43650|km2}}), de Umba River ({{convert|8070|km2}}), de Msangazi River ({{convert|5030|km2}}), de Zigi River, den de Mkulumuzi River plus oda coastal rivers ({{convert|2080|km2}}).<ref name="MiniGrids">{{cite web | url=http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 | title=Pangani Basin Water Board | publisher=Mini Grids Information Portal | access-date=1 July 2018 | archive-date=27 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327112041/http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 | url-status=dead }}</ref> All of dese empty into de Indian Ocean.<ref name="PBWB"/> De Pangani Basin Water Board (PBWB) na dem establish insyd July 1991 under de Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974. Ein headquarters dey insyd de Moshi municipality insyd de Kilimanjaro Region. Ein oda two offices be insyd Arusha den Tanga.<ref name="PBWB">{{cite web | url=http://www.panganibasin.com/ | title=Pangani Basin | publisher=Pangani Basin Water Board | access-date=9 October 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021212915/http://www.panganibasin.com/# | archive-date=2011-10-21 | url-status=dead }}</ref> De PBWB dey consist of ten professionals from public institutions den private sector LGAs, UWSAs, den oda committees. De river system dey under pressure secof conflicting water uses den major overallocations of ein water. Chaw farmers dey rely on de river for irrigation. Damming projects along de river reduce de river ein flow from several hundred cubic metres per second to less dan {{convert|40|m3/s}}. Dis affect coastal communities, wich see large reductions insyd fish populations den saltwater intrusion<ref name="IUCN">{{cite web | url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/water/wp_where_we_work/wp_our_work_projects/wp_our_work_pan/ | title=Pangani River Basin | publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] | access-date=1 July 2018}}</ref> Insyd 2002, de Pangani River Basin Management Project be established to manage de basin ein water resources. E dey receive technical assistance from de International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), de SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, de GIZ German Development Organisation den de local non-governmental organization PAMOJA.<ref name="IUCN"/> De project sanso receive funds from de government of Tanzania, IUCN, de European Commission, den de Global Environment Facility thru de United Nations Development Programme.<ref name="IUCN"/> ==Commerce== Der be a good deal of trade hie, dhows loading den unloading on de river. Dem dey bring produce down de river, principally on rafts dem make of de Moale palm, wich then be broken up den cam be articles of commerce. Insyd 1878, de most common crop dem cultivate on de river ein banks dem report to be sugar.<ref name="Africapilot1878">{{cite book|author=Great Britain. Hydrographic Office|title=Africa pilot: South and east coasts of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Guardafui, including the islands in Mozambique Channel|url=https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog|access-date=8 October 2011|edition=Now in the public domain|year=1878|publisher=Printed for the Hydrographic Office, Admiralty|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog/page/n339 327], 328–}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://1.bp.blogspot.com/_HlrMnhN16wo/TJpJQSLfKTI/AAAAAAAAAaQ/B093LT_qbUs/s1600/eamap.jpg Map showing the river] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120405214734/http://www.svt.ntnu.no/geo/Forskning/Pangani/Bilder/Pang_medium_ok.gif Map showing river basin] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Kilimanjaro Region]] [[Category:Pangani basin|*]] gmg994w87pb90g6ze50fkjty0r9ds2i 0 27870 106304 105114 2026-07-05T17:22:38Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Cacheu''' (Portuguese: ''Rio Cacheu'') be a river of [[Guinea-Bissau]] dem sanso know as de '''Farim''' along ein upper course. Ein total length be about 257&nbsp;km. One of ein major tributaries be de Canjambari River. == Course == Ein headwaters be near de northern border of de country, north of Contuboel den close to a bend of de [[Geba River]]. E dey run west, by de town of Farim den close to Bigenè, den dey broaden into an estuary on whose south shore de town of Cacheu fi be found. Elia Island be a fairly large island dem locate on de right bank of de river close to ein mouth. De island ein western end dey lie east of de confluence plus de Elia River plus Ongueringao Island on de oda bank.<ref>[https://mapcarta.com/17091238 Ilha de Elia - Mapcarta]</ref> [[File:Admiralty_Chart_No_1722_Cacheo_River,_Published_1845,_Revisons_to_1899._(composite).jpg|thumb|380x380px|1845 nautical chart of de Cacheo River from Farim to de coast]] De Cacheu be navigable to large (2,000-ton) ships for about 97&nbsp;km, den to smaller vessels much further; na e formerly be an important route for commerce. == History == During de Portuguese Colonial War, de Guinea-Bissau War of Independence, na de river serve several military operations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grants on the History of the Colonial War: Cacheu |url=http://www.ensp.unl.pt/lgraca/guine_guerracolonial8_barro.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622005846/http://www.ensp.unl.pt/lgraca/guine_guerracolonial8_barro.html |archive-date=2010-06-22 |access-date=2018-05-12}}</ref> Insyd December 2000, a large part of de estuary of de river be designated as part of de Cacheu River Natural Park.<ref>[http://www.bissau.net/Word_files/DUOTA.PROGRAMA%5B1%5D2007.2008.doc Faculty of Law of Bissau, References on Legal Diploma on the Creation of Cacheu River Mangrove Natural Park]</ref> 68% of de park dey feature mango trees, wich dey form a part of a large block of de trees insyd West Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *Salif Diop, ''[https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_2/etudes_theses/40109.pdf La côte ouest-africaine. Du Saloum (Sénégal) à la Mellacorée (Rép. de Guinée)]'', ORSTOM, Paris, 1990, 380 pages [[Category:Rivers of Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Geba River]] rw1t49vwuytqc7z4gorzskqxrzumr4l 0 27871 106305 105115 2026-07-05T17:28:02Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Casamance River''' (French: ''Fleuve Casamance'') insyd [[Senegal]] dey flow westward for de most part into de [[Atlantic Ocean]] along a path about 200 miles (320 km) in length. However, 80 miles (130 km) per be navigable. De Casamance be de principal river of de Kolda, Sédhiou, den Ziguinchor Regions insyd de southern portion of Senegal. E dey locate between de [[Gambia River]] to de north den de Cacheu den [[Geba River|Geba]] rivers to de south. Der be a bridge at Ziguinchor, one of de most important towns on de river, wey dey connect am to Bignona on de north bank. Oda important settlements on ein banks dey include Goudomp, Sedhiou, Diattakounda, Tanaff, den Kolda. Dem name de river after de ''Kasa Mansa'', anaa king of de precolonial Kasa kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lobban |first=Richard Andrew Jr. |title=Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau |last2=Mendy |first2=Peter Karibe |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8108-5310-2 |edition=4th |location=Lanham |page=244}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}}{{Authority control}} [[Category:Casamance River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Casamance]] ta312kh6or5nemgr7r2df4p6904iq61 0 27872 106312 105116 2026-07-05T22:01:49Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Tensift_Basin_OSM.png|right|thumb|250x250px|De catchment area of de Oued Tensift ]] '''Tensift''' (Berber: '''Tansift''', Arabic: '''تانسيفت''') be a river insyd central [[Morocco]]. E dey originate insyd de eastern High Atlas, wey dey receive water from chaw tributaries insyd de region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tanouti |first=Oumaima |last2=Molle |first2=François |date=2013 |title=The Reappropriation of Water in Overexploited Basins: The Case of the Tensift Basin (Morocco) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283795410 |journal=Études rurales |volume=192 |issue=2 |pages=79–96 |doi=10.4000/etudesrurales.9902 |via=}}</ref> E dey pass close to de city of Marrakesh wey e get ein outlet into de [[Atlantic Ocean]] at de ancient fortress of Souira Qedima (Aguz), around 40&nbsp;km south from Safi. Ein water discharge dey change according to rainfall; e be one of de ten major rivers of Morocco, buh frequently fi be waded thru even close to ein outlet. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Morocco]] j3bks6tjgsxmt5zuv0pec483vu5f7wf 0 27873 106313 105120 2026-07-05T22:14:06Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Un-cotedivoire.png|thumb|Map of Ivory Coast wey dey show de main rivers den tributeries.]] Four major river systems dey follow meandering courses from north to south, wey dey drain into de [[Gulf of Guinea]].<ref name=":03">{{cite encyclopedia|year=|title=Cote d'Ivoire: a country study|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90005878/|last=Byrnes|first=Rita M.|date=1988|editor-last=Handloff|editor-first=Robert Earl|pages=44–45|isbn=|oclc=44238009|postscript=|entry=Rivers}}</ref> From west to east dese be de [[Cavalla River|Cavally]], [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]], [[Bandama River|Bandama]], den [[Komoé River|Comoé]]—all relatively untamed rivers navigable only short distances inland from de coast.<ref name=":03" /> Insyd de north, chaw smaller tributaries dey change to dry streambeds between rains.<ref name=":03" /> == Major rivers == De Cavally River get ein headwaters insyd de Nimba Mountains insyd Guinea wey dey form de border between Ivory Coast den Liberia for over half ein length.<ref name=":03" /> E dey cross rolling land den rapids wey e be navigable for about fifty kilometers inland from ein exit to de sea near Cape Palmas.<ref name=":03" /> De Sassandra River Basin get ein source insyd de high ground of de north, wer de Tiemba River dey join de Férédougouba River, wich dey flow from de Guinea highlands.<ref name=":03" /> E be joined by de Bagbé, Bafing, Nzo, Lobo, den Davo rivers den winds thru shifting sandbars to form a narrow estuary, wich be navigable for about eighty kilometers inland from de port of Sassandra.<ref name=":03" /> De Bandama River, dem often refer to as de Bandama Blanc, be de longest insyd de country, wey dey join de Bandama Rouge (dem sanso know as de Marahoué), Solomougou, Kan, den Nzi rivers over ein 800-kilometer course.<ref name=":03" /> Dis large river system dey drain chaw of central Ivory Coast before e dey flow into de Tagba Lagoon opposite Grand-Lahou.<ref name=":03" /> During rainy seasons, small craft navigate de Bandama for fifty anaa sixty kilometers inland.<ref name=":03" /> Easternmost of de main rivers, de Comoé, wey de Leraba den Gomonaba form, get ein sources insyd de Sikasso Plateau of Burkina Faso.<ref name=":03" /> E dey flow within a narrow 700-kilometer basin den dey receive de Kongo, den Iringou tributaries before winding among de coastal sandbars den dey empty into de Ebrié Lagoon near Grand-Bassam.<ref name=":03" /> De Comoé be navigable for vessels of light draft for about fifty kilometers to Alépé.<ref name=":03" /> Dem build large dams insyd de 1960s den 1970s to control de flow of major rivers to de south.<ref name=":03" /> Dese projects create reservoirs, dem now refer to as lakes wey dey bear de names of de dams- -Buyo for de Sassandra top, Kossou den Taabo for de Bandama top, den Ayamé for de small Bia River top insyd de southeast corner of de country.<ref name=":03" /> Lake Kossou be de largest of dese, wey dey occupy more dan 1,600 square kilometers insyd de center of de country.<ref name=":03" /> == By drainage basin == Dis list be arranged by drainage basin, plus respective tributaries indented under each larger stream ein name. * [[Cestos River]] (Nuoun River) * [[Cavalla River]] * Nono River * San-Pédro River * [[Sassandra River]] ** Davo River ** Lobo River ** Nzo River ** Bafing River (Gouan River) ** Boa River ** Férédougouba River (Bagbé River) ** Tienba River * Boubo River * [[Bandama River]] ** Nzi River ** Marahoué River (Bandama Rouge) ** Kan River ** Bou River ** Solomougou River * Ira River * Agnéby River * [[Komoé River]] ** Ba River (Bayakokoré River) ** Kongo River ** Iringou River ** Léraba River * Bia River * Tano River * [[Black Volta]] * ''Niger River (Mali)'' ** ''Bani River (Mali)'' *** Bagoé River **** Kankélaba River (Mahandiani River) *** [[Baoulé River]] **** Dégou River ** Sankarani River == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/cote_divoire_rel04.jpg Central Intelligence Agency, 2004] * [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html GEOnet Names Server] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast|*]] [[Category:Lists of landforms of Ivory Coast|Rivers]] [[Category:Lists of rivers by country|Ivory Coast]] gi1vvirp1mocq39apb98uxxblw23fx4 0 27874 106316 105121 2026-07-05T22:34:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Wami River''' be a river wey locate insyd Pwani Region, Tanzania. De headwaters of de Wami den ein tributaries dey originate insyd de Eastern Arc Mountains of Morogoro Region. De river then dey flow northeastward thru of Pwani Region to empty into de Indian Ocean west of Zanzibar Island. De Wami dey drain a catchment of 43,946&nbsp;km².<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wami/ruvu basin water office-Location map |url=http://wamiruvubasin.com/location.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322201351/http://wamiruvubasin.com/location.html |archive-date=2012-03-22 |website=wamiruvubasin.com}}</ref> De catchment dey extend thru four ecological regions. Coastal forests dey extend along de Indian Ocean coast. Further inland, woodlands den seasonally-flooded grasslands dey cover de plains of de central catchment. Dese plains be bounded on de northwest by de Rubeho, Ukakuru, Nguru, den Nguu mountains, sam of de Eastern Arc ranges. De Eastern Arc Mountains dey intercept moisture-laden winds from de Indian Ocean, den dey receive more rainfall dan de surrounding lowlands. Chaw of de rainfall dey occur insyd de November-to-May wet season, although mist den light rain dey occur at higher elevations during de dry season months. De mountains dema windward eastern den southern faces dey receive more rainfall de northern den western slopes. Dese rains dey sustain montane forests as well as de Wami ein tributary rivers den streams.<ref>"Eastern Arc forests". ''World Wildlife Fund'' ecoregion profile. Accessed 10 September 2019.</ref> De Eastern Arc forests be important to both sustaining den moderating de rivers dema flow.<ref>Ngana, James, Florence Mahay, and Katharine Cross (2010). ''The Wami Basin: A Situation Analysis.'' IUCN Eastern and Southern Africa Programme, 2010. xviii + 92 pp.</ref> De seasonal Kinyasangwe River dey extend west of de Eastern Arc mountains to Dodoma, wey dey drain de southern portion of de semi-arid Maasai Steppe, wich dey insyd de rain shadow of de Eastern Arc Mountains.<ref>Ngana, James, Florence Mahay, and Katharine Cross (2010). ''The Wami Basin: A Situation Analysis.'' IUCN Eastern and Southern Africa Programme, 2010. xviii + 92 pp.</ref> Only after leaving de Mkata River basin on de northern edge of de Mikumi National Park be ein name Wami.<ref>{{Google books|id=VLjafeXa3gMC|page=247|title=A Directory of African Wetlands}}</ref> Secof deforestation den climatic changes insyd de region de runoff decrease.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kalugendo |first=Praxeda Paul |title=Impact of Climate Variability on Groundwater in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania |url=http://www.gwclim.org/presentations/session5/kalugendo.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322201351/http://www.gwclim.org/presentations/session5/kalugendo.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-22}}</ref> Near ein mouth de Wami River dey form de southern border of de Saadani National Park, de only coastal national park insyd Tanzania. == Hydrometry == De river flow observe over 30 years (1954–84) insyd Mandera a town about 50&nbsp;km above de mouth. Na de river at Mandera observe average annual flow during dis period be 60.6 m³ / s wey an area of about 82% of de total catchment area of de river feed.<div class="center"> '''De average monthly flow of de river Wami hydrological station of Mandera (in m³/s)''' (Dem calculate dey use de data for a period of 30 years, 1954–84)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=A profile of the Wami River Sub-Basin |url=https://www.crc.uri.edu/download/wami_profile_tagged_final_Nov08.pdf |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=crc.uri.edu}}</ref> <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.8) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.3) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.6,0.8,0.9) ImageSize = width:600 height:250 PlotArea = left:40 bottom:40 top:20 right:20 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:220 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = justify ScaleMajor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:20 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:10 start:0 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:Jan text:January bar:Fév text:February bar:Mar text:Marz bar:Avr text:April bar:Mai text:May bar:Jun text:June bar:Jul text:July bar:Aoû text:August bar:Sep text:Sept. bar:Oct text:Oct. bar:Nov text:Nov. bar:Déc text:Dec. PlotData= color:barra width:30 align:left bar:Jan from:0 till: 60 bar:Fév from:0 till: 52 bar:Mar from:0 till: 70 bar:Avr from:0 till: 210 bar:Mai from:0 till: 150 bar:Jun from:0 till: 50 bar:Jul from:0 till: 25 bar:Aoû from:0 till: 20 bar:Sep from:0 till: 18 bar:Oct from:0 till: 15 bar:Nov from:0 till: 25 bar:Déc from:0 till: 50 PlotData= bar:Jan at: 60 fontsize:S text: 60 shift:(-10,5) bar:Fév at: 52 fontsize:S text: 52 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mar at: 70 fontsize:S text: 70 shift:(-10,5) bar:Avr at: 210 fontsize:S text: 210 shift:(-10,5) bar:Mai at: 150 fontsize:S text: 150 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jun at: 50 fontsize:S text: 50 shift:(-10,5) bar:Jul at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Aoû at: 20 fontsize:S text: 20 shift:(-10,5) bar:Sep at: 18 fontsize:S text: 18 shift:(-10,5) bar:Oct at: 15 fontsize:S text: 15 shift:(-10,5) bar:Nov at: 25 fontsize:S text: 25 shift:(-10,5) bar:Déc at: 50 fontsize:S text: 50 shift:(-10,5) </timeline> </div> == Gallery == <gallery class="center" widths="145px"> File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-164-22.jpg|Opening of Mandera Bridge File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_105-DOA0596,_Deutsch-Ostafrika,_Kissanke,_Wami-Fluss.jpg|Wami River between 1906 den 1918 at Kissanke File:Wami_River_2012.jpg|2012 File:Река_Вами_(Танзания).jpg|Hippopotamus amphibius </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] 9z2whz6zs79nujz3z1uvp3azq1hf5z5 0 27875 106317 105456 2026-07-05T22:43:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Gourits River''' (Afrikaans: ''Gouritsrivier''), dem sam times spell 'Gouritz River', be situated insyd de Western Cape, [[South Africa]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20241010062834/https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532009000100019 Water resources in the Klein Karoo: the challenge of sustainable development in a water-scarce area]</ref> De Gourits River dey flow from de confluence of de Gamka River den [[Olifants River (Southern Cape)|Olifants River]] wey e be joined by de [[Groot River (Southern Cape)|Groot River]], before e dey flow thru de Langeberg Mountains den coastal plain. E eventually dey drain into de sea thru de Gourits Estuary near Gouritsmond.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA16Gouritz.jpg Gouritz WMA 16]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] 1nqsh63d35zulbjg7bxwbcabtjp635w 0 27876 106318 105123 2026-07-05T22:49:03Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 106318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kowie River''' (Coyi insyd Xhosa) be a river insyd de Eastern Cape, [[South Africa]]. E get ein source insyd de hills of de "Grahamstown Heights" from wer e dey flow insyd a south-easterly direction wey dey drain de major part of de Bathurst region, wey dey reach de Indian Ocean thru an estuary at Port Alfred. Ein major tributaries be de Bloukrans River, de Bak River den de Lushington River (anaa Torrens). De Little Kowie River be a smaller tributary wich dey enter de estuarine portion of de river 14&nbsp;km from de mouth. Der sanso be a number of smaller unnamed streams wey dey enter de river along ein course. De Kowie river be part of de Fish to Tsitsikama Water Management Area.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg Fish to Tsitsikama WMA 15]</ref> == Ecology == Der be a small population of de endangered Eastern Province rocky ''(Sandelia bainsii)'' insyd de Bloukrans River section of de Blaauwkrantz Nature Reserve.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all IUCN Sandelia bainsii]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] co8428e23y9wd1szls0eo7prwmhddsn 0 27877 106308 105125 2026-07-05T17:50:40Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kuiseb River''' be an ephemeral river insyd western-central [[Namibia]]. Ein source dey insyd de Khomas Highland west of Windhoek. From der e dey flow westwards thru de Namib-Naukluft National Park den de Namib desert to Walvis Bay. Several settlements of de Topnaar people be on de banks of de lower Kuiseb, for instance Homeb, Sandfontein, Rooibank, den Utuseb.{{sfn|Malan|1998|p=120–125}}{{sfn|Moritz|1997|pp=4-5}} Inflows of de Kuiseb be Gomab, Ojab, Chausib, Gaub, Koam, Nausgomab den Goagos.<ref name="Jacobson2">{{Cite book |last1=Jacobson |first1=Peter J. |url=http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/Ephemeral%20rivers%20and%20their%20catchments_1995.pdf |title=Ephemeral rivers and their catchments: Sustaining people and development in western Namibia |last2=Jacobson |first2=Kathryn M. |last3=Seely |first3=Mary K. |date=1995 |publisher=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |isbn=9991670947 |place=[[Windhoek]] |pages=140–141 |format=PDF 8.7MB}}</ref> De Kuiseb ein catchment area (wey dey include ein tributaries) be estimated to be between 15,500<ref name="Jacobson2" /> den 16,692 km2 (6,445 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Strohbach, B.J. |date=2008 |title=Mapping the Major Catchments of Namibia |url=http://www.nbri.org.na/sites/default/files/Mapping%20the%20Major%20Catchments%20of%20Namibia_draft.pdf |format=PDF 1.0MB |journal=Agricola |volume=2008 |pages=63–73 |isbn=9780353358164 |issn=1015-2334 |oclc=940637734}}</ref> E get a mean run-off of roughly 20 million cubic metres per annum (710×10^6 cu ft/a). Friedenau Dam, dem build insyd 1972, dey for de river top. Insyd January 2005, for de first time insyd years, de Kuiseb flow go de ocean. Between Naukluft den Namib de Kuiseb carve out a canyon insyd a barren den inaccessible area. During World War II de area around de Kuiseb Canyon serve as a shelter give Henno Martin den Hermann Korn wey move der to wait de war out.<ref name="TSD">{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Henno |title=The Sheltering Desert |publisher=Two Books |year=2006 |isbn=9783935453035 |location=Hamburg}}</ref> Na dem subsequently publish two books den a film about dis 2-year stay; de ruins of dema shelter fi be visited. On ein course thru de Namib de Kuiseb be bordered on one side by sam of de tallest sand dunes insyd de world, den on de oda by barren rock.<ref name="Jacobson2" /> De red sand dunes south of de river reach heights over 150 meters. De prevailing winds blow de dunes northward, buh dema movement be blocked by de river. In de process, so much sand den silt be deposited insyd de Kuiseb wey e only dey reach de sea while e dey insyd flood. Insyd 1907, de area between de Swakop River den de Kuiseb be designated by de German colonial administration as a game reserve. De area currently be part of de Namib-Naukluft National Park. De ''Desert Research Foundation of Namibia'' (DRFN) dey locate at Gobabeb on de banks of de river.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Desert Research Foundation of Namibia |url=https://www.namibweb.com/drfn.htm |access-date=3 October 2019 |publisher=namibweb.com}}</ref><gallery> File:Kuiseb_River_Nears_the_Ocean.jpg|Natural-colour satellite image of de Kuiseb River. File:Kuiseb_bird_eye_view.jpg|Aerial view of Kuiseb River (2017) File:Kuiseb_River_Sand_and_Rock_(2018).jpg|Kuiseb River (2018) File:Gobabeb_from_air.jpg|Aerial view of de Gobabeb Training and Research Centre File:Henno_Martin_Shelter.jpg|Ruins of de Shelter of Korn and Martin File:Kuiseb.1.JPG|C14 bridge over de Kuiseb Canyon </gallery> == References == <references /> ===Literature=== * {{cite book |last=Malan |first=Johan S |title=Die Völker Namibias |trans-title=The Tribes of Namibia |year=1998 |publisher=Klaus Hess |location=Windhoek, Göttingen |language=German }} * {{cite book |last=Moritz |first=Walter |title=Verwehte Spuren in der Namibwüste - Alte Ansiedlungen am Kuiseb |trans-title=Withered Traces in the Namib - Old Settlements on the river Kuiseb |language=German |year=1997 |publisher=Typoprint |location=Windhoek |isbn=99916-750-0-0 }} *''The original entry was from the NASA Earth Observatory [https://web.archive.org/web/20031230142225/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4087]'' ===Videos=== *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymyhjQ50M2A 'HURININ People of the Sea' - The Topnaar people’s search for human rights and recognition] on YouTube ==External links== {{Commons}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20031230142225/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4087 NASA Earth Explorer page] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20140417085156/http://www.ufz.de/export/data/global/29151_ufzdiss5_2010_.pdf PhD Dissertation at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Namibia]] [[Category:Geography of Khomas Region]] [[Category:Geography of Erongo Region]] [[Category:Namib-Naukluft National Park]] rlu2nownv3v561qanve3ts470ers92y 0 27886 106329 105315 2026-07-06T10:38:18Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Afram River''' be a {{convert|100|km|mi|adj=on}} river insyd [[Ghana]]. Prior to de construction of de [[Akosombo Dam]] insyd de 1960s, de Afram be a principal tributary of de [[Volta River]] den today e be an equally important tributary of [[Lake Volta]]. De river dey run roughly insyd a southwesterly direction. E dey collect all de drainage of de Kwahu Plateau.<ref name="Afram Kwawu">[http://www.scn.org/rdi/kw-fram.htm Afram Kwawu]. Accessed August 3, 2012.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] dklgxyte4we68k7pflb6ylowhzqdgum 0 27888 106328 105361 2026-07-06T10:28:40Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Daka River.jpg|thumb|Daka River]] De '''Daka River''' be a river of [[Ghana]]. E dey flow thru de northeastern part of de country wey e be one of de tributaries of de [[Lake Volta]].<ref name="USAPublications2002">{{cite book|title=Ghana Country Study Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPDvuEeI4BMC&pg=PA40|date=1 February 2002|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-0-7397-4323-2|page=40|archive-date=20 July 2017|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170720191530/https://www.sagharborpartnership.org/permanent-residents-of-oakland-cemetery.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> De land between de Daka den [[Oti River|Oti]] rivers be known as de Oti-Daka corridor.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nyame Akuma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iEtAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary|page=36}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] htcuytp4hjwd3lsesm0najb0c1a2nj7 0 27889 106321 105356 2026-07-05T23:42:42Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Agrumatue''' be river wey dey insyd [[Upper East Region]], [[Ghana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marloes |first=Mul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfQnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |title=Evaluation des ressources en eau du bassin de la Volta. In French |last2=E |first2=Obuobie |last3=R |first3=Appoh |last4=K |first4=Kankam-Yeboah |last5=E |first5=Bekoe-Obeng |last6=B |first6=Amisigo |last7=Y |first7=Logah, F. |last8=B |first8=Ghansah |last9=Matthew |first9=McCartney |date=2015-05-01 |publisher=International Water Management Institute (IWMI) |isbn=978-92-9090-832-6 |language=fr}}</ref> E dey flow between de cities [[Bolgatanga]] den Zuarungu, wey e sanso dey serve as border between Bolgatanga Municipal District den Bolgatanga East District. De river be crossed by N11 road.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Obuobie |first=Marloes Mul, Emmanuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jH19CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |title=Water Resources Assessment of the Volta River Basin |last2=Appoh |first2=Richard |last3=Yeboah |first3=Kwabena Kankam- |last4=Bekoe-Obeng |first4=Emmanuel |last5=Amisigo |first5=Barnabas |last6=Logah |first6=Frederick Yaw |last7=Ghansah |first7=Benjamin |last8=McCartney |first8=Matthew |date=2015-02-01 |publisher=International Water Management Institute (IWMI) |isbn=978-92-9090-829-6 |language=en}}</ref> During de dry season de river be dry. However near Bolgatanga der be a dam wich dey hold back sam water. Due to dis dam agricultural activities even be possible during de dry season. == References == [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] imwkckwwst4tbmc4hkq4j76iz5z62c3 0 27890 106320 105409 2026-07-05T23:30:26Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 106320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Kulpawn River''' be one of de major rivers for northwestern Ghana, together plus de [[Black Volta]] den Sisili Rivers. E dey flow thru Wa Municipal District.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilks |first=Ivor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6Yyzg-R8ikC&pg=PA10 |title=Wa and the Wala: Islam and Polity in Northwestern Ghana |date=2002-07-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89434-0 |language=en}}</ref> De riparian woodland around de bank of de Kulpawn for Wahabu dey popular waa plus ornithologists, secof de rich variety of birds wey dey der.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Briggs |first=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShVTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA474 |title=Ghana |date=2014 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-478-5 |language=en}}</ref> De river dey flow thru de [[:en:Gbele_Resource_Centre|Gbele Resource Centre]] from west to southeast.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BirdLife DataZone |url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/24264-gbele-resource-reserve |access-date=2026-06-28 |website=datazone.birdlife.org |language=en}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] luw4zk7v0ibwxn706nc18f64vbdpjzi 14 28033 106272 2026-07-05T13:06:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106272 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28034 106273 2026-07-05T13:06:25Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106273 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28035 106274 2026-07-05T13:06:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106274 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28036 106275 2026-07-05T13:06:47Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106275 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28037 106278 2026-07-05T13:16:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106278 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28038 106279 2026-07-05T13:16:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106279 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28039 106280 2026-07-05T13:17:02Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106280 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28040 106281 2026-07-05T13:17:19Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106281 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28041 106282 2026-07-05T13:17:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106282 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28042 106290 2026-07-05T14:39:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106290 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28043 106291 2026-07-05T14:39:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106291 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28044 106292 2026-07-05T14:41:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106292 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28045 106293 2026-07-05T14:45:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106293 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28046 106294 2026-07-05T14:46:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106294 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28047 106295 2026-07-05T14:48:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106295 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28048 106296 2026-07-05T14:50:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106296 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28049 106297 2026-07-05T14:54:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106297 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28050 106298 2026-07-05T14:54:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106298 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28051 106299 2026-07-05T14:55:07Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106299 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28052 106300 2026-07-05T14:55:22Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106300 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28053 106303 2026-07-05T17:16:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106303 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28054 106306 2026-07-05T17:29:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106306 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28055 106307 2026-07-05T17:29:28Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106307 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28056 106309 2026-07-05T17:51:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106309 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28057 106310 2026-07-05T17:51:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106310 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28058 106311 2026-07-05T17:51:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106311 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28059 106314 2026-07-05T22:17:57Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106314 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 28060 106315 2026-07-05T22:18:19Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 106315 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1