Wikipedia iawiki https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagina_principal MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.23 first-letter Multimedia Special Discussion Usator Discussion Usator Wikipedia Discussion Wikipedia File Discussion File MediaWiki Discussion MediaWiki Patrono Discussion Patrono Adjuta Discussion Adjuta Categoria Discussion Categoria Portal Discussion Portal Appendice Discussion Appendice TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 0 2249 645759 645692 2022-08-13T22:05:24Z 107.171.161.145 /* IALA, Interlingua e cambio del nomine a Interlingue */Contento addite wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox lingua |colores=#ADA |nomine=Interlingue |nominenative=Occidental |creator=[[Edgar de Wahl]] |data=1922 |contexto= |statos=paises e regiones in cinque continentes <small>(como secunde lingua)</small> |personas=sin datos |position= |fam1 = [[Lingua artificial]] |fam2 = [[Lingua auxiliar international|Lingua auxiliar]] |fam3 = '''''Interlingue''''' |agentia=[[Interlingue-Union]] |scriptura = [[Alphabeto latin]] |typologia= |iso1=ie |iso2=ile |iso3=ile |sil= |extracto=Omni homes nasce líber e egal in dignitá e jures. Ili es dotat de rasone conscientie e deve acter vers unaltru in un spíritu de fraternitá. |translitteration= |codice=ie |mappa= |textomappa= }} '''Interlingue,''' etiam cognoscite como ''Occidental,'' es un [[lingua auxiliar international]] de typo semi-naturalistic publicate primarimente in [[1922]] per [[Edgar de Wahl]]. Sub le [[codice]] '''ie,''' Interlingue es un del cinque linguas auxiliar international, con [[Interlingua]] ('''ia'''), [[Esperanto]] ('''eo'''), [[Ido]] ('''io''') e [[Volapük]] ('''vo'''), includite in le standard [[ISO 639]] basic (de duo litteras, il ha anque un abbreviation de tres litteras).<!--¿Cual is?--> == Origine del nomine de Interlingue == A su publication original in [[1922]], le lingua esseva nominate '''Occidental''', sed in [[1949]], le vice-presidente del Occidental-Union [[Ric Berger]] convinceva le Union a cambiar le nomine a Interlingue pro ration de objectiones politic contra le nomine veniente ab Europa oriental. In addition ille sperava que le lingua poterea al fin fusionar se con le [[Interlingua de IALA]] que a ille tempore esseva ancora in disveloppamento. Clarmente isto non ha evenite; plus tosto le cambiamento facilitava le transition del parlantes de Occidental al Interlingua de IALA. == Historia == === Comenciamento === Edgar de Wahl annunciava le creation de Occidental in 1922 con le prime emission del magazin ''Cosmoglotta'', publicate in [[Tallinn]], Estonia, sub le nomine de ''Kosmoglott''. Occidental esseva un producto de annios de experimentation personal sub le nomine ''Auli'' (''auxiliary language''), que il usava ab 1906 usque 1921 e que depost ganiat le supernomine proto-Occidental. De Wahl, originalmente un defensor de Volapük e depost de Esperanto, comenciava crear Occidental depost le fiasco del votation por reformar Esperanto in 1894. De Wahl correspondeva con altere creatores de linguas, inter illos le mathematico italian [[Giuseppe Peano]] (creator de [[Latino sine flexione]]), de qui obteniva un appreciation pro su selection de vocabulario international, et [[Waldemar Rosenberger]] le creator de [[Idiom Neutral]]. Post su annuncio in 1922, Occidental esseva quasi complete. De Wahl intendeva non annunciar le lingua dum alicun annos, sed decideva accelerar su publication post audir que le Liga de Nationes habeva comenciate un inquesta super le question de un lingua international. Le prime publication cognoscite in Occidental, titulate Transcendent Algebra per Jacob Linzbach, appareva pauc ante que Kosmoglott comenciava. Occidental comenciava a reunir adherentes a causa de su legibilitate, in despecto de un complete manco de grammaticas e dictionarios. Duo annos plus tarde in 1924, de Wahl scribeva que ille correspondeva con circa 30 personas "in bon Occidental" malgrado le manco de material de apprentissage, e usatores de altere linguas comenciava adherer ad Occidental. Le prime dictionario, le Radicarum Directiv, un collection de parolas radices de Occidental e lor equivalentes in octo linguas, esseva publicate in le anno sequente. Kosmoglott etiam esseva un foro pro diverse altere linguas planate, mesmo si illo era scripte principalmente in occidental. Le nomine esseva cambiate a "Cosmoglotta" in 1927 quando illo comenciava promover officialmente occidental in loco de altere linguas e, in januario, le sede editorial e administrative del magazin era translocate al quartiero Mauer de Vienna, nunc parte de Liesing. Multe del succeso initial de occidental in iste periodo esseva debite al nove sede central, insimul con le effortios de Engelbert Pigal, etiam ab Austria, cuje articulo "Li Ovre de Edgar de Wahl" attraheva interesse ad occidental ab usatores de ido. In Francia, su uso comenciava in 1928, e al initio del decennio sequente le communitate occidentalistic esseva establite in Germania, Austria, Svedia, Tchecoslovachia, e Suissa. === Le periodo de Vienna e le Secunde Guerra Mundial === Le periodo de Vienna etiam esseva marcate per le stabilitate financiari. Con le adjuta de duo importante sustentores, Hans Hörbiger, etiam ab Vienna e G.A. Moore ab London, Cosmoglotta prosperava in despecto del crise economic. Quando ambes moriva in 1941, Cosmoglotta era de novo fortiate depender de abonamentos e republicationes. Le crescente movimento comenciava facer campanias plus assertive pro Occidental in le initio del decennio de 1930, utilisante su legibilitate immediate, contactante organisationes como interprisas, ambassadas, casas editorial e le Liga del nationes per litteras integralmente in Occidental, le quales era multe vices comprendite e respondite. Registrationes de Occidental parlate pro distribution e reproduction in grammophonos era facte pro le prime vice in celle periodo. Le annos inter 1935 e 1939 esseva particularmente active pro Cosmoglotta e un secunde edition del periodico era publicate. Originalmente intitulate Cosmoglotta-Informationes, illo bentosto esseva renominate Cosmoglotta B, concentrate re themas de natura plus interne, como questiones linguistic, reportos de Occidental in le novas e actualisationes financiari. In le initio de 1936, sin contar le 110 editiones de Cosmoglotta e altere periodicos e bulletins, un total de 80 publicationes existeva in Occidental e re le lingua ipse. Sed le annos ante le Secunde Guerra Mundial presentava difficultates pro Occidental e altere linguas planificate. Illos era prohibite in Germania, Austria e Tchecoslovachia, fortiate dissolver se, e surveliate per le Gestapo, le qual etiam destrueva material educative. Le prohibition del uso de linguas auxiliar in Germania esseva particularmente damnose, nam celle pais esseva ubi le majoritate del occidentalistas viveva al tempore. Le incapacitate acceptar pagamentos pro subscriptiones esseva un colpo financial que continueva post le guerra, insimul con le division de Germania in zonas de influentia, qualque non permitteva pagamentos. De Wahl, in Tallinn, era incapace communicar con le Occidental-Union in Suissa desde 1939 usque octobre 1947, primo a causa del bello e postea a causa del interception de correo inter Suissa e le Union sovietic. Non essente consciente re isto, de Wahl esseva disconcertate coram le manco de responsa ad su continue litteras; mesmo un grande collection de poesia traducite ad in Occidental nunquam era livrate. Le unic littera recipite de su parte in Suissa arrivava in 1947, demandante al Occidental-Union quare illo non respondeva ad ulle de su correspondentia. Interea, le casa de de Wahl e su integre bibliotheca era destruite dum le bombardamento de Tallinn. De Wahl ipse era incarcerate dum un periodo post haber refusate quitar Estonia verso Germania, e postea se refugiava plus tarde in un hospital psychiatric ubi ille passava le fin de su vita. Le initio del guerra in 1939 interrumpeva le publication de ambe Cosmoglottas usque 1940, sed in 1941 le Cosmoglotta B recomenciava esser publicate e continuava usque 1950. Un edition de Cosmoglotta A o B esseva publicate cata mense inter januario 1937 e septembre 1939, e postea (post le choc initial del guerra) cata mense desde septembre 1941 usque junio 1951. Dum le guerra, solmente illi del neutral Suissa e Svedia poteva dedicar se totalmente al lingua, organisante activitates semi-official. Dum le bello, le occidentalistas notava que le lingua esseva frequentemente permittite in le uso de telegrammas intro e foras de Suissa, (specialmente verso e desde Svedia) mesmo sin recognoscimento official, e on pote supponer que le censores comprendeva lo e forsan pensava que illos esseva scribite in espaniol o romancio (un parve sed tamen official lingua de Suissa). Isto permitteva alicun communication inter le occidentalistas suisse e svedese. Le altere centros de activitates pro Occidental in Europa non cognosceva le mesme fato, le stocks de materiales de studio in Vienna e Talinn habeva essite destruite per le bombadamentos e numerose occidentalistas era inviate ad campos de concentration in Germania e Tchecoslovachia. Le contactos era re-establite pauco post le bello per celles qui remaneva, per litteras ab paises tal como Francia, Tchecoslovachia, Finlandia e Grande Britannia, le quales arrivava ad Cosmoglotta. Le scriptores se monstrava preste de novo recomenciar le activitates pro le lingua. Cosmoglotta habeva abonatos in 58 citates de Suissa pauc menses ante le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial in Europa, e Cosmoglotta A recomenciava esser publicate de novo in 1946. === Standardisation del lingua === Dum le bello, multe occidentalistas se dedicava standardisar le lingua. De Wahl habeva create le idioma Occidental con un serie de characteristicas immutabile, sed credeva que, como illo sequeva le "regulas del vita", isto dava ad illo un base assatis solide pro sequer un "evolution natural" con flexibilitate que permitterea al tempore e al practica se occupar re qualcunque modificationes que se averarea esser necesse. Como resultato, alicun parolas habeva plus quam un forma admissibile, lo que non poterea esser resolvite per decreto solmente, tunc lassante le decision final al communitate con le inclusion de ambe formas possibile in le prime dictionarios de Occidental. [54] Un pertinente exemplo es le verbo scrir (scriber) e un altere forma possibile, scripter, ambes creante derivationes internationalmente recogniscibile: scritura e scritor ab scrir, o scriptura e scriptor ab scripter. De Wahl exprimeva un preferentia pro scrir, trovante scripter aliquanto pesante, sed commentava que le ultime certo era permissibile e que Occidental poterea sequer un similar evolution como le natural linguas in le quales ambe formas entra in commun uso, le forma plus longe habente un plus ponderose e formal character e le plus curte forma un plus legier e plus quotidian tono (como in le parolas anglese pro historia, story e history).[55] Orthographia era un altere area ubi plure possibilitates existeva, a saper etymologic orthographia (adtractiv, obpression), historic orthographia (attractiv, oppression), o simplificate orthographia (atractiv, opression).[56] Le simplificate orthographia eventualmente deveniva le standard desde 1939.[57] Con questiones ancora remanente re le official forma de alicun parolas e un manco de general materiales destinate pro le grande publico,[58] multe tempore dum le Secunde Bello Mundial era passate re le standardisation del lingua e elaboration de cursos, e a causa del continue guerra, in augusto 1943, le decision esseva prendite crear un academia interime pro officialisar iste processo.[51] Iste processo justo comenciava non multe tempore ante le bello e le occidentalistas suisse, isolate ab le ceterum del continente, optava concentrar se in preparar materiales instructional ante le fin del guerra. === IALA, Interlingua e cambio del nomine a Interlingue === Le International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), fundate in 1924 pro studer e determinar le melior lingua planate pro communication international, esseva, in le prime momento, viste con suspicion per le communitate de Occidental. Su co-fundatrice Alice Vanderbilt Morris esseva un esperantista, como multe de su personal, e multe occidentalistas includente de Wahl ipse credeva que le direction sub le esperantista William Edward Collinson significava que illo habeva essite fundate con un personal de linguistas professional sub un pretexto neutral e scientific pro sustener un final recommendation pro Esperanto. Relationes bentosto se meliorava, tamen, quando deveniva clar que IALA intendeva esser tanto impartial como possibile, in familiarisar se con omne linguas planificate existente. Ric Berger, un eminente occidentalista qui plus tarde se jungeva ad Interlingua in le annos 1950s, faceva un visita personal a Morris in 1935, in le qual illa e su marito demonstrava curiositate pro Occidental e invitava le parlar super le lingua, lo que meliorava multo le opinion de Berger super le organisation. In 1945, le IALA annunciava que illo planificava crear su proprie lingua e quatro possibile versiones sub consideration, omnes essente naturalistic e non schematic. Occidentalistas gaudeva que le IALA decideva crear un lingua tanto similar in aspecto ad Occidental, vidente isto como un credibile association que poneva peso pro lor argumento que un lingua auxiliar debe proceder ab le studio de natural linguas in vice de essayar incorporar los intra un artificial systema. Ric Berger esseva particularmente positive in su description del veniente lingua qua un victoria pro schola naturalistic[64] e "quasi le mesme lingua" in 1948.[65] Berger tamen alicun reservas, dubitante an un projecto con un aspecto e un structura tanto similar poterea "subito causar prejudicios [contra linguas planificate a faller e crear unitate inter le partisanos de planificate international linguas". === Stagnation e renascentia === In annos recente nove libres esseva publicate in Interlingue como ''Le parve principe'', le ''Evangelio de Sancte Marco'', ''Salute, Jonathan!'', e obras de [[Vicente Costalago]]: ''Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas'', ''Antologie hispan'', ''Fabules, racontas e mites'' e ''Li tresor de Fluvglant''. == Grammatica == === Alphabeto === Interlingue usa 26 litteras del alphabeto latin: [[a]], [[b]], [[c]], [[d]], [[e]], [[f]], [[g]], [[h]], [[i]], [[j]], [[k]], [[l]], [[m]], [[n]], [[o]], [[p]], [[q]], [[r]], [[s]], [[t]], [[u]], [[v]], [[w]], [[x]], [[y]], e [[z]]. Le nomines del litteras es ''a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, jot, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu, er, es, te, u, ve, duplic ve, ix, ypsilon'', e ''zet''.<ref name="pbgrammar">[http://interlingue.pbworks.com/w/page/4887780/Grammatica%20de%20Interlingue%20%28English%29#alfabet Grammatica de Interlingue in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102212130/http://interlingue.pbworks.com/w/page/4887780/Grammatica%20de%20Interlingue%20%28English%29#alfabet|date=2013-11-02}}, F. Haas 1956. Read 31 October 2013.</ref> Le accentos es scribite sur le cinque vocales por indicar un accento irregular, con un accento acute (á é í ó ú) preferite, ma alteres (è, ê, etc.) es permittite.<ref name="pbgrammar" /> === Pronunciation === === Accento === === Articulos === === Verbos === === Adverbios === === Correlativos === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | colspan="1" rowspan="1" | !Por interrogar !Por monstrar !Indeterminate !Negation !Nulle indication !Total |- !Quantitate |quant |tant |alquant |nequant |quantcunc |totmen |- !Tempore |quande |tande |alquande |nequande |quandecunc |sempre |- !Loco |u? |ta, ci |alcú |necú |úcunc |partú |- !Personas |qui |ti |alqui |nequi |quicunc |omni |- !Cosas |quo |to |alquo |nequo |quocunc |omno |- !Personas e cosas |quel |tel |alquel |nequel |quelcunc |chascun |- !Qualitate |qual |tal |alqual |nequal |qualcunc |- !Modo |quam |tam |alquam |nequam |quamcunc |} === Derivation === === Affixos === == Litteratura == Le majoritate del textos litterari in Interlingue ha essite publicate in Cosmoglotta. Altere textos ha essite publicate in li magazine Helvetia, e altere, in un minor quantitate, como libros. === Ultime obras === * ''Li Romance de Photogen e Nycteris'' de George MacDonald, e translatate per David MacLeod in 2019<ref>[https://occidental-lang.com/photogen-e-nycteris/ Li Romance de Photogen e Nycteris]</ref>. * ''Kinderseele'', de Hermann Hesse, traductet per Dave MacLeod in januario 2021. * ''Li últim rendevú o esque rendevús es dangerosi?'', de Dorlota Burdon e publicate in martio 2021<ref>[https://archive.org/details/final_rendeveu_libre archive.org]</ref>. * ''Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/li-sercha-in-li-castelle-dewahl-e-altri-racontas/paperback/product-4gj9w8.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas]</ref> e publicate li 26 martio 2021. * ''Antologie hispan'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/antologie-hispan/paperback/product-pmknpz.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Antologie hispan]</ref> e publicate le 9 augusto 2021. * ''Fabules, racontas e mites'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]] <ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/fabules-contes-e-mites/paperback/product-4g6ezk.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Fabules, racontas e mites]</ref> e publicate le 20 decembre 2021. * ''Li tresor de Fluvglant'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/li-tresor-de-fluvglant/paperback/product-8grj8y.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Li tresor de Fluvglant]</ref> e publicate le 22 februario 2022. == Opiniones super Interlingue == === [[Alexander Gode]] === <blockquote>A prime vista Occidental, postea appellate Interlingue, es multo similar a [[Interlingua]]. In illo on recognosce le vocabulario international a grande mesura. Regrettabilemente su autor, [[Edgar de Wahl]], non toto se disintricava de certe principios dominante durante le pasate decennios in le campo del construite linguas auxiliar. In Occidental on observa tractos que rememora al regularismo de Esperanto e Ido e al simplice conception de internationalitate de istos e Novial. Isto on vide in le duplication de qualque suffixos ''(-age/-agie, -ario/-arium, -ería/-eríe, -essa/-esse, -it /-it),'' e le introduction de finales distinctive pro le substantivos ''(-e)'' e le adjectivos ''(-i)'' pro responder a un exigentia de monosemia. Multe parolas esseva prendite extra le latinitate europee ab germano, anglese e svedese. On ha laudate Occidental pro su famose [[regula de Wahl]]. Sed non es iste ingeniose regula un tentativa de incorporar un grande serie de derivationes verbal in un simplification, requirite pro satisfacer al desiro axiomatic a combinar regularitate absolute con un maximo de internationalitate? Le internationalitate debeva ceder al regularismo.</blockquote> === [[Ingvar Stenström]] === <blockquote>Occidental (post 1949 nominate Interlingue) esseva ante Interlingua le melior utilisation del vocabulario international de facto existente como lingua auxiliar. Mi prime contacto con Occidental via ''[[Cosmoglotta]]'' inspirava in me un [[ira]] contra le propagandistas esperantistic a causa de lor horrificante e grotesc misrepresentation de ille lingua. Certe cosas me choccava: ''strax, flicca, til,'' sed in le grande lineas illo esseva un revelation a me. Sed adherer a illo? No. Nulle litteratura, nulle cursos, congressos, o "coidealistas" a contactar. Le fiasco de ille bon solution se trova sur le plano promotional: le ex-volapükistas, ex-esperantistas e ex-idistas continuava a discuter in lor Turre de Ebore. Poc e povre manuales e dictionarios restringeva efficacemente le circulos de homines que haberea volite studiar e usar lo. Un certe "attitude de Couturat" remaneva. De Wahl, linguista genial, pareva in su scriptos esser un poco orgoliose e non multo democratic. Le cognite interlinguistico [[Erik Berggren]], [[Svedia]], qui ha incontrate de Wahl personalmente, ha un toto altere impression de ille, sed ille certo non inspirava le [[sympathia]] a su personalitate como lo face [[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof|Dr. Zamenhof]] quasi universalmente. Appellar a su adjuta le [[emotion]]es e le [[sentimento]]s semblava tanto lontan de Occidental como de Ido durante su prime periodo. Isto es secundo mi conviction – post haber studiate ben le historia del linguas universal, un error grave. Le transition ''en bloc'' del occidentalistas a Interlingua haberea essite un passo natural. Nos les saluta un post le altere ancora hodie cordialmente benvenite. Imagina a vos qual experientias utilissime illes pote apportar – e al mesme tempore influentiar Interlingua per lo que esseva bon in Occidental – "regularitate quando possibile"!<ref>Discurso al Conferentia International de Interlingua, Nederland 1989, imprimite in ''Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Que pote nos apprender ab le alteres e ab lor experientias de un seculo?'' p. 39-40, per Ingvar Stenström. Redigite pro orthographia e abbreviationes.</ref></blockquote> == Specimines == === Patre nor === <blockquote>Patre nor, qui es in li cieles. Mey tui nómine esser sanctificat, mey tui regnia venir. Mey tui vole esser fat qualmen in li cieles talmen anc sur li terre. Da nos hodie nor pan omnidial, e pardona nor débites, qualmen anc noi pardona nor debitores. E ne inducte nos in tentation, ma libera nos de lu mal.</blockquote> === Voltaire === <blockquote>In su "Histoire d'un bon brahmin" Voltaire narra li vicissitúdines de un old sagi brahmane qui cadet in desesperantie, constatante que su long-annual studies hat finalmen ductet le a nequó. Plu il profundat se in li cosas, plu il sentit acrescer li póndere de su ignorantie. Su deve esset inseniar li altres, ma on posit le questiones a queles il self ne savet dar un just response. Omni to rendit le profundmen infelici.</blockquote> === Occidental === <blockquote>Mi constata ancor un vez, que Occidental es un lingue occidental, e pro to usar anc un occidental historic heredat transcription, e li usationes del Arab Japanes etc, por nos ne es obligativ.<ref>E. Von WAHL in Kosmoglott. DELPHOS: The future of International Language, by E. Sylvia Pankhurst, London.</ref></blockquote> === Erra === <blockquote>It es un erra creder que li multitá de systemas ha impedit li solution del problema.<ref>"Samples of Constructed Languages", ''One Language for the World,'' Mario Pei. 1958.</ref></blockquote> === Visita de un amíco === <blockquote>Li 2 may noi havet li plesura del visita de Dr. F. Schmolinsky, ex Germania, con su marita. Du semanes antey nor excellent propagandist, sr. Lienhard de [[Zurico]], passat che nos pos un viage a Munchen. Ex li raportes de nor visitatores noi aprendet con joya que hay un renascentie interlinguistic in Germania. Noi posse expectar tre bon resultates in ti land por li proxim tempor.<ref>Pei, 1958 (como un exemplo de "Cosmoglotta").</ref></blockquote> === Conosset sur li tot terra === <blockquote>Interlingue, li modern lingue international, es basat sur li vocabules international, conosset sur li tot terra. Su pronunciation es natural, su grammatic es simplic e regular.</blockquote> == Referentias == <references/> == Ligamines externe == {{Interwiki|nomine=Interlingue|codice=ie}} * [https://occidental-lang.com/ Occidental, li lingue comun del occidente] * Ab le sito de Sergey Belitzky ** [http://interlingue.narod.ru/Haas.htm Grammatica de Interlingue in Interlingue] ** [http://interlingue.narod.ru/vocabulariums.htm''Occidental - Vocabulariums'' (Dictionarios de Interlingue)]. Dictionarios interlingue-anglese, interlingue-russe, interlingue-esperanto * [http://interlingue.pbworks.com/ interlingue.pbworks.com Interlingue Occidental] * [https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1555770152943513600.html Information pri Occidental/Interlingue por li usatores de Interlingua] [[Categoria:Interlingue| ]] 96uv1jyjz248q2k5u2ds7yertqi9lzv 645760 645759 2022-08-13T22:17:23Z 107.171.161.145 /* IALA, Interlingua e cambio del nomine a Interlingue */Minor modification wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox lingua |colores=#ADA |nomine=Interlingue |nominenative=Occidental |creator=[[Edgar de Wahl]] |data=1922 |contexto= |statos=paises e regiones in cinque continentes <small>(como secunde lingua)</small> |personas=sin datos |position= |fam1 = [[Lingua artificial]] |fam2 = [[Lingua auxiliar international|Lingua auxiliar]] |fam3 = '''''Interlingue''''' |agentia=[[Interlingue-Union]] |scriptura = [[Alphabeto latin]] |typologia= |iso1=ie |iso2=ile |iso3=ile |sil= |extracto=Omni homes nasce líber e egal in dignitá e jures. Ili es dotat de rasone conscientie e deve acter vers unaltru in un spíritu de fraternitá. |translitteration= |codice=ie |mappa= |textomappa= }} '''Interlingue,''' etiam cognoscite como ''Occidental,'' es un [[lingua auxiliar international]] de typo semi-naturalistic publicate primarimente in [[1922]] per [[Edgar de Wahl]]. Sub le [[codice]] '''ie,''' Interlingue es un del cinque linguas auxiliar international, con [[Interlingua]] ('''ia'''), [[Esperanto]] ('''eo'''), [[Ido]] ('''io''') e [[Volapük]] ('''vo'''), includite in le standard [[ISO 639]] basic (de duo litteras, il ha anque un abbreviation de tres litteras).<!--¿Cual is?--> == Origine del nomine de Interlingue == A su publication original in [[1922]], le lingua esseva nominate '''Occidental''', sed in [[1949]], le vice-presidente del Occidental-Union [[Ric Berger]] convinceva le Union a cambiar le nomine a Interlingue pro ration de objectiones politic contra le nomine veniente ab Europa oriental. In addition ille sperava que le lingua poterea al fin fusionar se con le [[Interlingua de IALA]] que a ille tempore esseva ancora in disveloppamento. Clarmente isto non ha evenite; plus tosto le cambiamento facilitava le transition del parlantes de Occidental al Interlingua de IALA. == Historia == === Comenciamento === Edgar de Wahl annunciava le creation de Occidental in 1922 con le prime emission del magazin ''Cosmoglotta'', publicate in [[Tallinn]], Estonia, sub le nomine de ''Kosmoglott''. Occidental esseva un producto de annios de experimentation personal sub le nomine ''Auli'' (''auxiliary language''), que il usava ab 1906 usque 1921 e que depost ganiat le supernomine proto-Occidental. De Wahl, originalmente un defensor de Volapük e depost de Esperanto, comenciava crear Occidental depost le fiasco del votation por reformar Esperanto in 1894. De Wahl correspondeva con altere creatores de linguas, inter illos le mathematico italian [[Giuseppe Peano]] (creator de [[Latino sine flexione]]), de qui obteniva un appreciation pro su selection de vocabulario international, et [[Waldemar Rosenberger]] le creator de [[Idiom Neutral]]. Post su annuncio in 1922, Occidental esseva quasi complete. De Wahl intendeva non annunciar le lingua dum alicun annos, sed decideva accelerar su publication post audir que le Liga de Nationes habeva comenciate un inquesta super le question de un lingua international. Le prime publication cognoscite in Occidental, titulate Transcendent Algebra per Jacob Linzbach, appareva pauc ante que Kosmoglott comenciava. Occidental comenciava a reunir adherentes a causa de su legibilitate, in despecto de un complete manco de grammaticas e dictionarios. Duo annos plus tarde in 1924, de Wahl scribeva que ille correspondeva con circa 30 personas "in bon Occidental" malgrado le manco de material de apprentissage, e usatores de altere linguas comenciava adherer ad Occidental. Le prime dictionario, le Radicarum Directiv, un collection de parolas radices de Occidental e lor equivalentes in octo linguas, esseva publicate in le anno sequente. Kosmoglott etiam esseva un foro pro diverse altere linguas planate, mesmo si illo era scripte principalmente in occidental. Le nomine esseva cambiate a "Cosmoglotta" in 1927 quando illo comenciava promover officialmente occidental in loco de altere linguas e, in januario, le sede editorial e administrative del magazin era translocate al quartiero Mauer de Vienna, nunc parte de Liesing. Multe del succeso initial de occidental in iste periodo esseva debite al nove sede central, insimul con le effortios de Engelbert Pigal, etiam ab Austria, cuje articulo "Li Ovre de Edgar de Wahl" attraheva interesse ad occidental ab usatores de ido. In Francia, su uso comenciava in 1928, e al initio del decennio sequente le communitate occidentalistic esseva establite in Germania, Austria, Svedia, Tchecoslovachia, e Suissa. === Le periodo de Vienna e le Secunde Guerra Mundial === Le periodo de Vienna etiam esseva marcate per le stabilitate financiari. Con le adjuta de duo importante sustentores, Hans Hörbiger, etiam ab Vienna e G.A. Moore ab London, Cosmoglotta prosperava in despecto del crise economic. Quando ambes moriva in 1941, Cosmoglotta era de novo fortiate depender de abonamentos e republicationes. Le crescente movimento comenciava facer campanias plus assertive pro Occidental in le initio del decennio de 1930, utilisante su legibilitate immediate, contactante organisationes como interprisas, ambassadas, casas editorial e le Liga del nationes per litteras integralmente in Occidental, le quales era multe vices comprendite e respondite. Registrationes de Occidental parlate pro distribution e reproduction in grammophonos era facte pro le prime vice in celle periodo. Le annos inter 1935 e 1939 esseva particularmente active pro Cosmoglotta e un secunde edition del periodico era publicate. Originalmente intitulate Cosmoglotta-Informationes, illo bentosto esseva renominate Cosmoglotta B, concentrate re themas de natura plus interne, como questiones linguistic, reportos de Occidental in le novas e actualisationes financiari. In le initio de 1936, sin contar le 110 editiones de Cosmoglotta e altere periodicos e bulletins, un total de 80 publicationes existeva in Occidental e re le lingua ipse. Sed le annos ante le Secunde Guerra Mundial presentava difficultates pro Occidental e altere linguas planificate. Illos era prohibite in Germania, Austria e Tchecoslovachia, fortiate dissolver se, e surveliate per le Gestapo, le qual etiam destrueva material educative. Le prohibition del uso de linguas auxiliar in Germania esseva particularmente damnose, nam celle pais esseva ubi le majoritate del occidentalistas viveva al tempore. Le incapacitate acceptar pagamentos pro subscriptiones esseva un colpo financial que continueva post le guerra, insimul con le division de Germania in zonas de influentia, qualque non permitteva pagamentos. De Wahl, in Tallinn, era incapace communicar con le Occidental-Union in Suissa desde 1939 usque octobre 1947, primo a causa del bello e postea a causa del interception de correo inter Suissa e le Union sovietic. Non essente consciente re isto, de Wahl esseva disconcertate coram le manco de responsa ad su continue litteras; mesmo un grande collection de poesia traducite ad in Occidental nunquam era livrate. Le unic littera recipite de su parte in Suissa arrivava in 1947, demandante al Occidental-Union quare illo non respondeva ad ulle de su correspondentia. Interea, le casa de de Wahl e su integre bibliotheca era destruite dum le bombardamento de Tallinn. De Wahl ipse era incarcerate dum un periodo post haber refusate quitar Estonia verso Germania, e postea se refugiava plus tarde in un hospital psychiatric ubi ille passava le fin de su vita. Le initio del guerra in 1939 interrumpeva le publication de ambe Cosmoglottas usque 1940, sed in 1941 le Cosmoglotta B recomenciava esser publicate e continuava usque 1950. Un edition de Cosmoglotta A o B esseva publicate cata mense inter januario 1937 e septembre 1939, e postea (post le choc initial del guerra) cata mense desde septembre 1941 usque junio 1951. Dum le guerra, solmente illi del neutral Suissa e Svedia poteva dedicar se totalmente al lingua, organisante activitates semi-official. Dum le bello, le occidentalistas notava que le lingua esseva frequentemente permittite in le uso de telegrammas intro e foras de Suissa, (specialmente verso e desde Svedia) mesmo sin recognoscimento official, e on pote supponer que le censores comprendeva lo e forsan pensava que illos esseva scribite in espaniol o romancio (un parve sed tamen official lingua de Suissa). Isto permitteva alicun communication inter le occidentalistas suisse e svedese. Le altere centros de activitates pro Occidental in Europa non cognosceva le mesme fato, le stocks de materiales de studio in Vienna e Talinn habeva essite destruite per le bombadamentos e numerose occidentalistas era inviate ad campos de concentration in Germania e Tchecoslovachia. Le contactos era re-establite pauco post le bello per celles qui remaneva, per litteras ab paises tal como Francia, Tchecoslovachia, Finlandia e Grande Britannia, le quales arrivava ad Cosmoglotta. Le scriptores se monstrava preste de novo recomenciar le activitates pro le lingua. Cosmoglotta habeva abonatos in 58 citates de Suissa pauc menses ante le fin del Secunde Guerra Mundial in Europa, e Cosmoglotta A recomenciava esser publicate de novo in 1946. === Standardisation del lingua === Dum le bello, multe occidentalistas se dedicava standardisar le lingua. De Wahl habeva create le idioma Occidental con un serie de characteristicas immutabile, sed credeva que, como illo sequeva le "regulas del vita", isto dava ad illo un base assatis solide pro sequer un "evolution natural" con flexibilitate que permitterea al tempore e al practica se occupar re qualcunque modificationes que se averarea esser necesse. Como resultato, alicun parolas habeva plus quam un forma admissibile, lo que non poterea esser resolvite per decreto solmente, tunc lassante le decision final al communitate con le inclusion de ambe formas possibile in le prime dictionarios de Occidental. [54] Un pertinente exemplo es le verbo scrir (scriber) e un altere forma possibile, scripter, ambes creante derivationes internationalmente recogniscibile: scritura e scritor ab scrir, o scriptura e scriptor ab scripter. De Wahl exprimeva un preferentia pro scrir, trovante scripter aliquanto pesante, sed commentava que le ultime certo era permissibile e que Occidental poterea sequer un similar evolution como le natural linguas in le quales ambe formas entra in commun uso, le forma plus longe habente un plus ponderose e formal character e le plus curte forma un plus legier e plus quotidian tono (como in le parolas anglese pro historia, story e history).[55] Orthographia era un altere area ubi plure possibilitates existeva, a saper etymologic orthographia (adtractiv, obpression), historic orthographia (attractiv, oppression), o simplificate orthographia (atractiv, opression).[56] Le simplificate orthographia eventualmente deveniva le standard desde 1939.[57] Con questiones ancora remanente re le official forma de alicun parolas e un manco de general materiales destinate pro le grande publico,[58] multe tempore dum le Secunde Bello Mundial era passate re le standardisation del lingua e elaboration de cursos, e a causa del continue guerra, in augusto 1943, le decision esseva prendite crear un academia interime pro officialisar iste processo.[51] Iste processo justo comenciava non multe tempore ante le bello e le occidentalistas suisse, isolate ab le ceterum del continente, optava concentrar se in preparar materiales instructional ante le fin del guerra. === IALA, Interlingua e cambio del nomine a Interlingue === Le International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), fundate in 1924 pro studer e determinar le melior lingua planate pro communication international, esseva, in le prime momento, viste con suspicion per le communitate de Occidental. Su co-fundatrice Alice Vanderbilt Morris esseva un esperantista, como multe de su personal, e multe occidentalistas includente de Wahl ipse credeva que le direction sub le esperantista William Edward Collinson significava que illo habeva essite fundate con un personal de linguistas professional sub un pretexto neutral e scientific pro sustener un final recommendation pro Esperanto. Relationes bentosto se meliorava, tamen, quando deveniva clar que IALA intendeva esser tanto impartial como possibile, in familiarisar se con omne linguas planificate existente. Ric Berger, un eminente occidentalista qui plus tarde se jungeva ad Interlingua in le annos 1950s, faceva un visita personal a Morris in 1935, in le qual illa e su marito demonstrava curiositate pro Occidental e invitava le parlar super le lingua, lo que meliorava multo le opinion de Berger super le organisation. In 1945, le IALA annunciava que illo planificava crear su proprie lingua e quatro possibile versiones sub consideration, omnes essente naturalistic e non schematic. Occidentalistas gaudeva que le IALA decideva crear un lingua tanto similar in aspecto ad Occidental, vidente isto como un credibile association que poneva peso pro lor argumento que un lingua auxiliar debe proceder ab le studio de natural linguas in vice de essayar incorporar los intra un artificial systema. Ric Berger esseva particularmente positive in su description del veniente lingua qua un victoria pro schola naturalistic[64] e "quasi le mesme lingua" in 1948.[65] Berger tamen alicun reservas, dubitante an un projecto con un aspecto e un structura tanto similar poterea "subito causar prejudicios [contra linguas planificate in faller e crear unitate inter le partisanos de planificate international linguas". === Stagnation e renascentia === In annos recente nove libres esseva publicate in Interlingue como ''Le parve principe'', le ''Evangelio de Sancte Marco'', ''Salute, Jonathan!'', e obras de [[Vicente Costalago]]: ''Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas'', ''Antologie hispan'', ''Fabules, racontas e mites'' e ''Li tresor de Fluvglant''. == Grammatica == === Alphabeto === Interlingue usa 26 litteras del alphabeto latin: [[a]], [[b]], [[c]], [[d]], [[e]], [[f]], [[g]], [[h]], [[i]], [[j]], [[k]], [[l]], [[m]], [[n]], [[o]], [[p]], [[q]], [[r]], [[s]], [[t]], [[u]], [[v]], [[w]], [[x]], [[y]], e [[z]]. Le nomines del litteras es ''a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, jot, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu, er, es, te, u, ve, duplic ve, ix, ypsilon'', e ''zet''.<ref name="pbgrammar">[http://interlingue.pbworks.com/w/page/4887780/Grammatica%20de%20Interlingue%20%28English%29#alfabet Grammatica de Interlingue in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102212130/http://interlingue.pbworks.com/w/page/4887780/Grammatica%20de%20Interlingue%20%28English%29#alfabet|date=2013-11-02}}, F. Haas 1956. Read 31 October 2013.</ref> Le accentos es scribite sur le cinque vocales por indicar un accento irregular, con un accento acute (á é í ó ú) preferite, ma alteres (è, ê, etc.) es permittite.<ref name="pbgrammar" /> === Pronunciation === === Accento === === Articulos === === Verbos === === Adverbios === === Correlativos === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | colspan="1" rowspan="1" | !Por interrogar !Por monstrar !Indeterminate !Negation !Nulle indication !Total |- !Quantitate |quant |tant |alquant |nequant |quantcunc |totmen |- !Tempore |quande |tande |alquande |nequande |quandecunc |sempre |- !Loco |u? |ta, ci |alcú |necú |úcunc |partú |- !Personas |qui |ti |alqui |nequi |quicunc |omni |- !Cosas |quo |to |alquo |nequo |quocunc |omno |- !Personas e cosas |quel |tel |alquel |nequel |quelcunc |chascun |- !Qualitate |qual |tal |alqual |nequal |qualcunc |- !Modo |quam |tam |alquam |nequam |quamcunc |} === Derivation === === Affixos === == Litteratura == Le majoritate del textos litterari in Interlingue ha essite publicate in Cosmoglotta. Altere textos ha essite publicate in li magazine Helvetia, e altere, in un minor quantitate, como libros. === Ultime obras === * ''Li Romance de Photogen e Nycteris'' de George MacDonald, e translatate per David MacLeod in 2019<ref>[https://occidental-lang.com/photogen-e-nycteris/ Li Romance de Photogen e Nycteris]</ref>. * ''Kinderseele'', de Hermann Hesse, traductet per Dave MacLeod in januario 2021. * ''Li últim rendevú o esque rendevús es dangerosi?'', de Dorlota Burdon e publicate in martio 2021<ref>[https://archive.org/details/final_rendeveu_libre archive.org]</ref>. * ''Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/li-sercha-in-li-castelle-dewahl-e-altri-racontas/paperback/product-4gj9w8.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Li sercha in li castelle Dewahl e altri racontas]</ref> e publicate li 26 martio 2021. * ''Antologie hispan'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/antologie-hispan/paperback/product-pmknpz.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Antologie hispan]</ref> e publicate le 9 augusto 2021. * ''Fabules, racontas e mites'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]] <ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/fabules-contes-e-mites/paperback/product-4g6ezk.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Fabules, racontas e mites]</ref> e publicate le 20 decembre 2021. * ''Li tresor de Fluvglant'', scripte per [[Vicente Costalago]]<ref>[https://www.lulu.com/en/en/shop/vicente-costalago-v%C3%A1zquez/li-tresor-de-fluvglant/paperback/product-8grj8y.html?page=1&pageSize=4 Li tresor de Fluvglant]</ref> e publicate le 22 februario 2022. == Opiniones super Interlingue == === [[Alexander Gode]] === <blockquote>A prime vista Occidental, postea appellate Interlingue, es multo similar a [[Interlingua]]. In illo on recognosce le vocabulario international a grande mesura. Regrettabilemente su autor, [[Edgar de Wahl]], non toto se disintricava de certe principios dominante durante le pasate decennios in le campo del construite linguas auxiliar. In Occidental on observa tractos que rememora al regularismo de Esperanto e Ido e al simplice conception de internationalitate de istos e Novial. Isto on vide in le duplication de qualque suffixos ''(-age/-agie, -ario/-arium, -ería/-eríe, -essa/-esse, -it /-it),'' e le introduction de finales distinctive pro le substantivos ''(-e)'' e le adjectivos ''(-i)'' pro responder a un exigentia de monosemia. Multe parolas esseva prendite extra le latinitate europee ab germano, anglese e svedese. On ha laudate Occidental pro su famose [[regula de Wahl]]. Sed non es iste ingeniose regula un tentativa de incorporar un grande serie de derivationes verbal in un simplification, requirite pro satisfacer al desiro axiomatic a combinar regularitate absolute con un maximo de internationalitate? Le internationalitate debeva ceder al regularismo.</blockquote> === [[Ingvar Stenström]] === <blockquote>Occidental (post 1949 nominate Interlingue) esseva ante Interlingua le melior utilisation del vocabulario international de facto existente como lingua auxiliar. Mi prime contacto con Occidental via ''[[Cosmoglotta]]'' inspirava in me un [[ira]] contra le propagandistas esperantistic a causa de lor horrificante e grotesc misrepresentation de ille lingua. Certe cosas me choccava: ''strax, flicca, til,'' sed in le grande lineas illo esseva un revelation a me. Sed adherer a illo? No. Nulle litteratura, nulle cursos, congressos, o "coidealistas" a contactar. Le fiasco de ille bon solution se trova sur le plano promotional: le ex-volapükistas, ex-esperantistas e ex-idistas continuava a discuter in lor Turre de Ebore. Poc e povre manuales e dictionarios restringeva efficacemente le circulos de homines que haberea volite studiar e usar lo. Un certe "attitude de Couturat" remaneva. De Wahl, linguista genial, pareva in su scriptos esser un poco orgoliose e non multo democratic. Le cognite interlinguistico [[Erik Berggren]], [[Svedia]], qui ha incontrate de Wahl personalmente, ha un toto altere impression de ille, sed ille certo non inspirava le [[sympathia]] a su personalitate como lo face [[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof|Dr. Zamenhof]] quasi universalmente. Appellar a su adjuta le [[emotion]]es e le [[sentimento]]s semblava tanto lontan de Occidental como de Ido durante su prime periodo. Isto es secundo mi conviction – post haber studiate ben le historia del linguas universal, un error grave. Le transition ''en bloc'' del occidentalistas a Interlingua haberea essite un passo natural. Nos les saluta un post le altere ancora hodie cordialmente benvenite. Imagina a vos qual experientias utilissime illes pote apportar – e al mesme tempore influentiar Interlingua per lo que esseva bon in Occidental – "regularitate quando possibile"!<ref>Discurso al Conferentia International de Interlingua, Nederland 1989, imprimite in ''Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Que pote nos apprender ab le alteres e ab lor experientias de un seculo?'' p. 39-40, per Ingvar Stenström. Redigite pro orthographia e abbreviationes.</ref></blockquote> == Specimines == === Patre nor === <blockquote>Patre nor, qui es in li cieles. Mey tui nómine esser sanctificat, mey tui regnia venir. Mey tui vole esser fat qualmen in li cieles talmen anc sur li terre. Da nos hodie nor pan omnidial, e pardona nor débites, qualmen anc noi pardona nor debitores. E ne inducte nos in tentation, ma libera nos de lu mal.</blockquote> === Voltaire === <blockquote>In su "Histoire d'un bon brahmin" Voltaire narra li vicissitúdines de un old sagi brahmane qui cadet in desesperantie, constatante que su long-annual studies hat finalmen ductet le a nequó. Plu il profundat se in li cosas, plu il sentit acrescer li póndere de su ignorantie. Su deve esset inseniar li altres, ma on posit le questiones a queles il self ne savet dar un just response. Omni to rendit le profundmen infelici.</blockquote> === Occidental === <blockquote>Mi constata ancor un vez, que Occidental es un lingue occidental, e pro to usar anc un occidental historic heredat transcription, e li usationes del Arab Japanes etc, por nos ne es obligativ.<ref>E. Von WAHL in Kosmoglott. DELPHOS: The future of International Language, by E. Sylvia Pankhurst, London.</ref></blockquote> === Erra === <blockquote>It es un erra creder que li multitá de systemas ha impedit li solution del problema.<ref>"Samples of Constructed Languages", ''One Language for the World,'' Mario Pei. 1958.</ref></blockquote> === Visita de un amíco === <blockquote>Li 2 may noi havet li plesura del visita de Dr. F. Schmolinsky, ex Germania, con su marita. Du semanes antey nor excellent propagandist, sr. Lienhard de [[Zurico]], passat che nos pos un viage a Munchen. Ex li raportes de nor visitatores noi aprendet con joya que hay un renascentie interlinguistic in Germania. Noi posse expectar tre bon resultates in ti land por li proxim tempor.<ref>Pei, 1958 (como un exemplo de "Cosmoglotta").</ref></blockquote> === Conosset sur li tot terra === <blockquote>Interlingue, li modern lingue international, es basat sur li vocabules international, conosset sur li tot terra. Su pronunciation es natural, su grammatic es simplic e regular.</blockquote> == Referentias == <references/> == Ligamines externe == {{Interwiki|nomine=Interlingue|codice=ie}} * [https://occidental-lang.com/ Occidental, li lingue comun del occidente] * Ab le sito de Sergey Belitzky ** [http://interlingue.narod.ru/Haas.htm Grammatica de Interlingue in Interlingue] ** [http://interlingue.narod.ru/vocabulariums.htm''Occidental - Vocabulariums'' (Dictionarios de Interlingue)]. Dictionarios interlingue-anglese, interlingue-russe, interlingue-esperanto * [http://interlingue.pbworks.com/ interlingue.pbworks.com Interlingue Occidental] * [https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1555770152943513600.html Information pri Occidental/Interlingue por li usatores de Interlingua] [[Categoria:Interlingue| ]] r96mvh61655sbvqqpi8m8ujen0n4vt7 0 4689 645764 621775 2022-08-14T01:03:47Z Tortoise0308 17411 rv v: infobox inutile, commons, ligamines de navigation. wikitext text/x-wiki {{die del anno tx|02|02}} == Eventos == == Nascentias == * [[1882]] — [[James Joyce]], scriptor irlandese == Mortes == == Dies festive == {{commonscat|2 February}} * Die mundial de [[Zona humide|zonas humide]] {{clear}} ---- [[1 de februario]] - [[3 de februario]] - [[2 de januario]] - [[2 de martio]] -- [[Appendice:Lista de anniversarios historic|lista de omne datas]] [[januario]], [[februario]], [[martio]], [[april]], [[maio]], [[junio]], [[julio]], [[augusto]], [[septembre]], [[octobre]], [[novembre]], [[decembre]] [[Categoria:Februario|02]] fb9e6bvum3u51utidg8oankzngmpnj4 0 6263 645766 575100 2022-08-14T01:33:39Z Tortoise0308 17411 rv v: infobox inutile, commons, ligamines de navigation. wikitext text/x-wiki {{die del anno tx|02|03}} == Eventos == == Nascentias == == Mortes == == Dies festive == {{commonscat|3 February}} {{clear}} ---- [[2 de februario]] - [[4 de februario]] - [[3 de januario]] - [[3 de martio]] -- [[Appendice:Lista de anniversarios historic|lista de omne datas]] [[januario]], [[februario]], [[martio]], [[april]], [[maio]], [[junio]], [[julio]], [[augusto]], [[septembre]], [[octobre]], [[novembre]], [[decembre]] [[Categoria:Februario|03]] 75r2o61rq7n47e2w7fqhiprlewnoxzy 0 31869 645761 613921 2022-08-13T22:20:40Z 107.171.161.145 /* Autorato */Minor correction: maxim -> maxime wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} [[File:Stamp Soviet Union 1948 CPA 1246.jpg|thumb|upright|]] '''''Le Manifesto communista''''' (''Das Kommunistische Manifest''), originalmente titulate '''''Manifesto del partito communista''''' (in lingua german ''Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei''), es un curte publication ab 1848 componite per le theoristas politic [[Karl Marx]] e [[Friedrich Engels]]. Illo era recognoscite como un del maxime influential manuscriptos del mundo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Seymour-Smith|first=Maerin|title=The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written: The History of Thought from Ancient Times to Today|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, NJ|year=1998}}</ref> Commissionate per le [[Liga communista]], illo establi le scopos e programma del Liga. Illo presenta un approche analytic al [[bello del classes]] (historic e presente) e le problemas del capitalismo, in vice de un prediction del formas potential del communismo.<ref>The Great Philosophers, by Jeremy Stangroom and James Garvey, Arcturus 2005/ 2008 ISBN 978-1-84837-018-0, pp160 UKP9.99</ref> Le libro contine theorias per Marx Engels re le natura de societate e politica, que secundo lor proprie parolas: "Le historia del tote adhuc existente societates es le historia del guerra del classes".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo etiam brevemente tracta lor ideas re como le societate capitalista del epocha eventualmente sera reimplaciate per socialismo, e postea eventualmente communismo. ==Autorato== Friedrich Engels era subinde creditate in componer le prime minutas que duceva al ''Manifesto communista''. In julio 1847, Engels era eligite in le Liga communista, ubi ille era assignate schizzar catechismo. Isto deveniva le ''Minuta de un confession communista de fide.'' Le minuta contineva quasi duo dozenas de questiones que exprimeva le ideas de ambe Engels e Karl Marx in iste tempore. In octobre 1847, Engels componeva su secunde minuta pro le Liga communista titulate ''Le principios de communismo.'' Le texto remaneva non publicate usque 1914, in despecto de su base pro ''Le Manifesto.'' Ab le minutas per Engels, Marx era capace scriber, semel commissionate per le Liga communista, ''Le Manifesto communista,'' ubi ille combinava plus ab su ideas ensemble con le minutas e opera per Engels, ''Le condition del classe laborante in Anglaterra.''<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 142-44</ref> Quanquam ambe nomines de Engels e Karl Marx appare super le pagina titulo al latere del "persistente assumption de co-autorato", Engels, in le prefacio del introduction al edition german de 1883 del Manifesto, assereva que le ''Manifesto'' era "essentialmente le opera per Marx" e que "le pensata de base... pertine solo e exclusivemente a Marx."<ref>Marx and Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', introduction by Martin Malia (New York: Penguin group, 1998), pg. 35 ISBN 0-451-52710-0</ref> Engels scribeva post le morte de Marx, {{quote|Io non pote negar que, e ante e dum mi collaboration de quaranta annos con Marx, io habeva un certe portion independente in establir le fundationes del theoria, sed le maxime grande parte de su major principios de base pertine ad Marx... Marx era genio; nos alteres al plus talentate. Sin ille le theoria non serea tanto disveloppate como illo es nunc. Illo tunc con ration porta su nomine.<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 117</ref>}} In despecto del modestia de Engels in iste duo citationes, in facto ille faceva major contributiones al Manifesto, incipente con le suggestion derelinquer «le forma de un catechismo e titular lo le Manifesto communista». Preterea, Engels jungeva Marx in Brussel pro le composition del Manifesto. Il non ha prova de qual contributiones sue al final scripto era, ma le Manifesto porta le marca del stylo plus rhetoric de Marx. Tamen, il sembla clar que le contributiones de Engels justifica le apparition de su nomine super le pagina titulo apud iste de Marx.<ref>''The Life and Thought of Friedrich Engels: A Reinterpretation'', by J.D. Hunley, Yale University Press 1991 ISBN 0-300-04923-4,pg. 65–79 (quotation pg. 66) pro un extendite discussion del contributiones de ambe viros.</ref> == Historia textual == ''Le Manifesto communista'' era primo publicate in lingua german in London per un gruppo de refugiatos politic german in 1848. Illo era etiam episodiate circum le mesme tempore in un jornal londonian in lingua german, le ''Deutsche Londoner Zeitung''.<ref>Kuczynski, Thomas, ''Das kommunistische Manifest (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) von Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels: von der Erstausgabe zur Leseausgabe, mit einer Editionsbericht'' (Trier, 1995).</ref> Le prime traduction in lingua anglese era producite per [[Helen Macfarlane]] in 1850, e le libro era primo publicate in le Statos unite de America per [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]].<ref>Riggenbach, Jeff (1 April 2011) [http://mises.org/daily/5161/Stephen-Pearl-Andrewss-Fleeting-Contribution-to-Anarchist-Thought Stephen Pearl Andrews's Fleeting Contribution to Anarchist Thought], [[Mises Institute]]</ref> Le ''Manifesto'' passava tra multe editiones ab 1872 usque 1890; notabile nove prefacios era scribite per Marx e Engels pro le edition german de 1872, le edition russe de 1882, le edition francese de 1883 e le edition anglese de 1888. Le [[s:Manifesto of the Communist Party|edition de 1910]], traducite per Samuel Moore con le auxilio de Engels, es le maxim communmente usate texto anglese depost tunc.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ; ed. and intro. by Jeffrey C. Isaac et al.|title=The Communist manifesto|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=9780300123029|url=http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/excerpts/marx_communist.pdf|author=Professor Jeffrey C. Isaac (Editor)|accessdate=20 January 2013|page=2|chapter=Introduction|date=8 June 2012}}</ref> Tamen, alicun recente editiones anglese, como iste del annotate "road map" (carta de itinere) per Phil Gasper ([[Haymarket Books]], 2006), usava un texto tenuemente modificate in responsa al criticas contra le traduction per Moore enunciate per [[Hal Draper]] in su historia del ''Manifesto'' publicate in 1994, ''The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto"''(Le aventuras del Manifesto communista), (Center for Socialist History, 1994). In le fin del anno 2010, [http://www.redquillbooks.com/ Red Quill Books] annunciava le publication de un moderne, illustrate version [http://www.redquillbooks.com/Communist_Manifesto.html "comic book" (banda designate)] del Manifesto communista in quatro partes.<ref>Susan Polo. 20 December 2010. "The Communist Manifesto: The Comic Book" http://www.geekosystem.com/the-communist-manifesto-the-comic-book/ Accessed 20 February 2012</ref><ref>Jamie Long. 29 December 2010. "Communist Manifesto to get Comic Books Treatment" Toronto Sun. http://www.torontosun.com/news/weird/2010/12/29/16703416.html</ref> == Contento == Le ''Manifesto'' es dividite per un introduction, tres substantial sectiones, e un conclusion. === Introduction === Le preambulo al texto principal del Manifesto assere que le continente de Europa time le «spectro del communismo» e que le poteres del vetere Europa uni se in un «sancte alliantia [lequal intende] exorcisar iste spectro». Marx hic refere non solo al domos de poter e aristocratias terren - le burgesia - sed etiam ad diverse factiones como le papato e le emergente mundo corporative.<ref name="Manifesto_intro">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Introduction}}.</ref> Marx declara que «Il es grande tempore que le communistas debe coram, al facie del integre mundo, publicar lor vistas, lor scopos, lor tendentias e concurrer iste conto infantin del spectro del communismo per manifesto del partito ipse».<ref name="Manifesto_intro" /> === I. Burgeses e proletarios === Le prime capitulo del ''Manifesto'', «Burgeses e proletarios», examina le conception marxista del historia, con le idea initial asserente que «Le historia de omne adhuc existente societate es le historia del bello del classes.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter One}}.</ref> Illo continua dicente que in capitalismo, le classe operose, [[proletariato]], contende in le bello del classes contra le dominos del instrumentos de production, le [[burgesia]], e que iste passate bello del classes claudeva sia per revolution lequal restructurava societate, sia per «commun ruina del contendente classes»".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo continua adjungente que le burgesia exploita le proletariato per le «constante revolutionisamento de production [e] ininterrumpite turbation de omne conditiones social.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Le Manifesto explica que le ration pro lequal le burgesia existe e exploita le proletariato per su basse salarios es le [[proprietate private]], «le accumulation de opulentia in manos private, le formation e accrescimento de capital»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> e que competition inter le proletariato crea bello de labor, lequal es appoiate integremente super le competition inter le laboratores.<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Iste section explica in plus que le proletarios eventualmente elevara se al poter tra bello del classes: le [[burgesia]] constantemente exploita le proletariato pro su labor manual e vil salarios, ultimemente pro crear profito pro le burgeses; le proletariato eleva se al poter tra revolution contra le burgesia como tumultos o creation de uniones. Le Manifesto communista affirma que dum il ha adhuc bello de classes in le societate, capitalismo sera subvertite per proletariato solo pro itero inciper in le proxime futuro; ultimemente communismo es le clave pro equalitate del classes inter le cives de Europa. === II. Proletarios e communistas === Le secunde section, «Proletarios e communistas», incipe asserente que le relation de conscie communistas con le ceterum del classe operose, declarante que illi non formara un partito separate lequal oppone altere partitos del classe operose, exprimera le interesses e general voluntate del proletariato qua ensemble, e distinguera se ab altere partitos del classe operose per semper exprimente le commun interesse del integre proletariato independentemente de omne [[nationalitate|nationalitates]] e representante le interesses del movimento qua collectivo.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Two}}.</ref> Le section continua defendente communismo ab varie objectiones, como le pretension que communistas favorea «[[amor libere]]», e le pretension que homines non volera operar in un societate communista nam ili non habera incentivo pro laborar.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Le section claude delineante exigentias a termino curte: {{div col|colwidth=40em}} # Abolition del [[proprietate de terra|proprietates de terra]] e application de omne [[location|locationes]] de terra pro scopos public. # Un pesante [[imposto progressive|progressive]] o graduate imposto sur le receptas. # Abolition de omne derectos de [[hereditage]]. # [[Confiscation]] del proprietate de omne [[Emigration|emigratos]] e [[Rebellion|rebellos]]. # Centralisation del [[Credito (finance)|credito]] intra le manos del [[Soveran stato|Stato]], per medio de un [[banca national]] con [[Capital (economia)|capital]] de stato e un exclusive [[monopolio]]. # Centralisation del medios de communication e transporto intra le manos del Stato. # Extension del manufacturas e [[medios de production|instrumentos de production]] pertinente al Stato; le [[cultivation|cultivation]] del [[wikt:terras inculte|terras inculte]], e le melioration del [[solo]] generalmente in conformitate con un [[Scientia agricole|plano commun]]. # Equal [[Responsabilitate legal|responsabilitate]] pro omnes al labor. Establimento de [[armea|armeas]] industrial, specialmente pro agricultura. # Combination de agricultura con [[Industria|industrias]] de fabrication; gradual abolition del distinction inter burgo e campania, per plus equitabile [[densitate de population|distribution del population]] tra le pais. # [[Education gratuite]] pro omne infantes in [[Schola public school (financiate per le governamento)|scholas public]]. Abolition del [[Labor del infantes|labor del infantes in manufacturas]] in su forma presente e combination del education con production industrial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/61|title=The Communist Manifesto at Project Gutenberg |accessdate=24 January 2007 }}</ref> {{div col end}} Le implementation de iste politicas serea, secundo Marx e Engels, precursor del [[societate sin classe]]<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> e sin stato (apatride). In un controversial passage illi suggere que le "proletariato" poterea in competition con le burgesia esser obligate organisar se qua classe, formar un revolution, facer se un classe dirigente, scopar le vetere conditiones de production, e in iste scalon haber abolite su proprie suprematia qua classe.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Iste conto del transition ab socialismo ad communismo era criticate particularmente dum e post le era sovietic. === III. Litteratura socialista e communista === Le tertie section, «Litteratura socialista e communista», distingue communismo ab altere doctrinas socialista prevalente in iste tempore dum lequal le ''Manifesto'' era componite.<ref name="Manifesto_ch3">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Three}}.</ref> Dum le grado de reproche de Marx e Engels verso perspectivas rival varia, omnes son dimittite pro favorar [[reformismo]] e fiascar in recognoscer le rolo preeminente del classe operose. === IV. Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition === The concludente section, «Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition», brevemente discute le position communista re bellos in paises specific in le dece-none seculo como Francia, Suissia, Polonia e Germania, e declara que Germania es «in le die ante un revolution burgese»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> e predice que un revolution mundial tosto sequera.<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> Illo tunc claude declarante un alliantia con le [[Democratia social|socio-democratas]], harditemente supportante altere revolutiones communista, e vocante le proletarios al action, finiente per le crito de rejunction del communismo: «[[Laboratores del mundo, uni vos!]]".<ref name="Manifesto_ch4">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Four}}.</ref> ==Reception== ===Laudation=== Le [[unda revolutionari]] [[Revolutiones european de 1848|tra Europa in 1848]], lequales incipeva in [[Revolution francese de 1848|Francia in februario]] e mox diffundeva se in le majoritate de Europa e partes de America latin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Merriman |first=John M. |authorlink=John M. Merriman |title=A History of Modern Europe. Volume 2: From the French Revolution to the Present |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year=1996 |page=715 |isbn=0-393-96928-2 |oclc=152762820 }}</ref> debeva nihil al ''Manifesto communista'', sed intra un anno le revolutiones collabeva.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Eyck |first1=Frank |last2=Evans |first2=Robert John Weston |authorlink2=Robert John Weston Evans |last3=von Strandmann |first3=Hartmut Pogge |title=The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000 |volume=4 |isbn=0-19-820840-5 |oclc=4669489521 }}</ref> Posteriormente, autoritates traditional trovava in le ''Manifesto communista'' e su contento bon excusa pro ager contra su scriptores. Consequentemente, Marx e su uxor era arrestate e expellite ab [[Belgia]], le jornal quotidian german publicate per Marx in [[Colonia]] inter 1 junio 1848 e 19 maio 1849, ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung|Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Organ der Demokratie]]'', era supprimite,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marx |first=Karl |authorlink=Karl Marx |title=The Summary Suppression of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung |journal=Neue Rheinische Zeitung |issue=301 |date=19 May 1849 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |authorlink1=Karl Marx |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |authorlink2=Friedrich Engels |title=Marx-Engels Collected Works |volume=Volume 9 |chapter=The Summary Suppression of the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' |location=New York |publisher=[[International Publishers]] |year=1977 |pages=451–453 }}</ref> e Marx ipse era expellite ab Germania e Francia, e, in augusto 1849 ille refugiava se in London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |authorlink=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx: A Life |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year =2001 |origyear=1999 |edition=1st American ed. |pages=147–148 |isbn=978-0-393-32157-9 |oclc=48001599 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Watson (intellectual historian) |title=The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century |date=22 June 2010 |location="New York |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-076022-2 |oclc=456179681 |pages=250–... }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carter |first1=John |authorlink1=John Carter (author) |last2=Muir |first2=Percy H. |title=[[Printing and the Mind of Man|Printing and the Mind of Man: A Descriptive Catalogue Illustrating the Impact of Print on the Evolution of Western Civilization During Five Centuries]] |publisher=London: [[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]]; New York: [[Holt McDougal|Holt, Rinehart & Winston]] |year=1967 |page=236 |oclc=576854 }}</ref> Un certe numero de scriptores del 21me seculo commentava re le continue pertinentia del ''Manifesto communista'''. Le docto John Raines, scribente in 2002, notava que "In nostre die, iste Revolution capitalista attingeva le maxim remote angulos del terra. Le instrumento del pecunia produceva le miraculo del nove mercato global e le omnipresente centro de compras. Lege le ''Manifesto communista'', scribite ante plus que cento-cinquanta annos, e vos discoperira que Marx prevideva lo integremente."<ref>Raines, John. 2002. "Introduction". ''Marx on Religion'' (Marx, Karl). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Page 05.</ref> Scribente in 2003, le marxista anglese [[Chris Harman]] describeva le obra, affirmante: {{quote|Il ha itero un qualitate compulsive in su prosa como illo provide perspicacia post perspicacia intra le societate in lequal nos vive, ubi illo era e ubi illo va. Illo es itero capace explicar, dum economistas e sociologos del pensata majoritari non lo pote, le hodierne mundo de today's world of recurrente bellos e repetite crises economic, de fame pro centos de milliones in un mano e "superproduction" in le altere. Il ha passages lequales haberea potite exhaurite ab le maxim recente scripturas re globalisation.<ref>Harman, Chris. 2010. "The Manifesto and the World of 1848". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 03.</ref>}} Le continue pertinentia del theorias marxista trovate intra le texto era etiam supportate per le docto marxista Alex Callinicos, editor del jornal ''[[International Socialism (magazine)|International Socialism (Socialismo international)]]'', lequal assereva que "Isto es quidem manifesto pro le 21me seculo."<ref>Callinicos, Alex. 2010. "The Manifesto and the Crisis Today". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 08.</ref> Scribente in ''[[The London Evening Standard]]'' le 23 april, Andrew Neather citava le re-edition del Manifesto communista per Verso Books de 2012, con introduction per [[Eric Hobsbawm]], como parte de resurgentia de ideas levorso lequales include le publication del optime venditor Chavs per [[Owen Jones (scriptor)|Owen Jones]]: The Demonization of the Working Class, e le documentario per [[Jason Barker]]: Marx Reloaded.<ref name="The London Evening Standard">{{cite web | url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-marx-effect-7669766.html | title=The Marx effect | work=[[The London Evening Standard]] | date=23 April 2012 | accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> In junio 2013, le manuscripto del Manifesto communista insimul con Das Kapital, Volumine I es registrate in Memory of the World Programme.<ref>[http://www.unesco.de/8005.html Schriften von Karl Marx: "Das Manifest der Kommunistischer Partei" (1848) und "Das Kapital" ernster Band (1867)]</ref> ===Criticas=== Le [[Revisionismo (Marxismo)|revisionista marxista]] e [[Reformismo|reformista]] socialista [[Eduard Bernstein]] distingueva inter prime marxismo qua su forma «immatur»: como lo attesta le ''Manifesto communista'' componite per Marx e Engels in lor juventute, quem ille opponeva a lo quem ille considerava como su violente [[Blanquism|blanquista]] tendentias; e plus tarde marxismo qua su forma «matur» quem ille susteneva.<ref name="Steger, Manfred B. 1997. pg. 236-237">Steger, Manfred B. ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein And Social Democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pg. 236-237.</ref> Iste «matur» forma de marxismo refere ad Marx in su vita ulterior recognoscente que socialismo poterea esser attingite per medios pacific tra reforma legislative in societates democratic.<ref>Micheline R. Ishay. The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. Berkeley and Lose Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 2008. P. 148.</ref> Bernstein declarava que le massive [[homogenee]] classe operose revindicate in le ''Manifesto communista'' non existeva, e que contrarimente ad pretensiones de un majoritate proletari que emergerea, le classe medie cresceva sub capitalismo e non dispareva como Marx lo prescribeva. Bernstein notava que le classe operose non era homogenee sed heterogenee, con divisiones e factiones intra illo, includente syndicatos socialista e non-socialista. Marx ipse ulteriormente in su vita recognosceva que le classe medie non dispareva, in su obra ''[[Theorias del plusvalor]]'' (1863). Tamen, a causa del popularitate del ''Manifesto communista'' e le obscuritate del ''Theorias del plusvalor'', le recognition de Marx re iste error non es ben cognite.<ref>Michael Harrington. ''Socialism: Past and Future''. Reprint edition of original published in 1989. New York, New York, USA: Arcade Publishing, 2011. Pp. 249-250.</ref> [[George Boyer]] describeva le ''Manifesto'' qua "permulto un film de epocha, very much a period piece, un documentari de lo quem on nominava le 'famelic' annos 1840."<ref name = "Boyer 1998 151">{{Harvnb|Boyer|1998|p=151}}.</ref> ==Etiam consulta== * [[Anti-capitalismo]] * [[Erwin Schulhoff]] (creaava un version musical del ''Manifesto communista'') * [[Lista del currente communista statos]] * [[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]] * [[Sclavitude del salario]] * ''[[Spectros de Marx]]'' (obra per Jacques Derrida inspirate del ''Manifesto communista'') ==Referentias== <references/> mnom4tgxf86ihppg3tb6ml54189j03s 645762 645761 2022-08-13T22:21:51Z 107.171.161.145 /* Laudation */Maxime wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} [[File:Stamp Soviet Union 1948 CPA 1246.jpg|thumb|upright|]] '''''Le Manifesto communista''''' (''Das Kommunistische Manifest''), originalmente titulate '''''Manifesto del partito communista''''' (in lingua german ''Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei''), es un curte publication ab 1848 componite per le theoristas politic [[Karl Marx]] e [[Friedrich Engels]]. Illo era recognoscite como un del maxime influential manuscriptos del mundo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Seymour-Smith|first=Maerin|title=The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written: The History of Thought from Ancient Times to Today|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, NJ|year=1998}}</ref> Commissionate per le [[Liga communista]], illo establi le scopos e programma del Liga. Illo presenta un approche analytic al [[bello del classes]] (historic e presente) e le problemas del capitalismo, in vice de un prediction del formas potential del communismo.<ref>The Great Philosophers, by Jeremy Stangroom and James Garvey, Arcturus 2005/ 2008 ISBN 978-1-84837-018-0, pp160 UKP9.99</ref> Le libro contine theorias per Marx Engels re le natura de societate e politica, que secundo lor proprie parolas: "Le historia del tote adhuc existente societates es le historia del guerra del classes".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo etiam brevemente tracta lor ideas re como le societate capitalista del epocha eventualmente sera reimplaciate per socialismo, e postea eventualmente communismo. ==Autorato== Friedrich Engels era subinde creditate in componer le prime minutas que duceva al ''Manifesto communista''. In julio 1847, Engels era eligite in le Liga communista, ubi ille era assignate schizzar catechismo. Isto deveniva le ''Minuta de un confession communista de fide.'' Le minuta contineva quasi duo dozenas de questiones que exprimeva le ideas de ambe Engels e Karl Marx in iste tempore. In octobre 1847, Engels componeva su secunde minuta pro le Liga communista titulate ''Le principios de communismo.'' Le texto remaneva non publicate usque 1914, in despecto de su base pro ''Le Manifesto.'' Ab le minutas per Engels, Marx era capace scriber, semel commissionate per le Liga communista, ''Le Manifesto communista,'' ubi ille combinava plus ab su ideas ensemble con le minutas e opera per Engels, ''Le condition del classe laborante in Anglaterra.''<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 142-44</ref> Quanquam ambe nomines de Engels e Karl Marx appare super le pagina titulo al latere del "persistente assumption de co-autorato", Engels, in le prefacio del introduction al edition german de 1883 del Manifesto, assereva que le ''Manifesto'' era "essentialmente le opera per Marx" e que "le pensata de base... pertine solo e exclusivemente a Marx."<ref>Marx and Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', introduction by Martin Malia (New York: Penguin group, 1998), pg. 35 ISBN 0-451-52710-0</ref> Engels scribeva post le morte de Marx, {{quote|Io non pote negar que, e ante e dum mi collaboration de quaranta annos con Marx, io habeva un certe portion independente in establir le fundationes del theoria, sed le maxime grande parte de su major principios de base pertine ad Marx... Marx era genio; nos alteres al plus talentate. Sin ille le theoria non serea tanto disveloppate como illo es nunc. Illo tunc con ration porta su nomine.<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 117</ref>}} In despecto del modestia de Engels in iste duo citationes, in facto ille faceva major contributiones al Manifesto, incipente con le suggestion derelinquer «le forma de un catechismo e titular lo le Manifesto communista». Preterea, Engels jungeva Marx in Brussel pro le composition del Manifesto. Il non ha prova de qual contributiones sue al final scripto era, ma le Manifesto porta le marca del stylo plus rhetoric de Marx. Tamen, il sembla clar que le contributiones de Engels justifica le apparition de su nomine super le pagina titulo apud iste de Marx.<ref>''The Life and Thought of Friedrich Engels: A Reinterpretation'', by J.D. Hunley, Yale University Press 1991 ISBN 0-300-04923-4,pg. 65–79 (quotation pg. 66) pro un extendite discussion del contributiones de ambe viros.</ref> == Historia textual == ''Le Manifesto communista'' era primo publicate in lingua german in London per un gruppo de refugiatos politic german in 1848. Illo era etiam episodiate circum le mesme tempore in un jornal londonian in lingua german, le ''Deutsche Londoner Zeitung''.<ref>Kuczynski, Thomas, ''Das kommunistische Manifest (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) von Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels: von der Erstausgabe zur Leseausgabe, mit einer Editionsbericht'' (Trier, 1995).</ref> Le prime traduction in lingua anglese era producite per [[Helen Macfarlane]] in 1850, e le libro era primo publicate in le Statos unite de America per [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]].<ref>Riggenbach, Jeff (1 April 2011) [http://mises.org/daily/5161/Stephen-Pearl-Andrewss-Fleeting-Contribution-to-Anarchist-Thought Stephen Pearl Andrews's Fleeting Contribution to Anarchist Thought], [[Mises Institute]]</ref> Le ''Manifesto'' passava tra multe editiones ab 1872 usque 1890; notabile nove prefacios era scribite per Marx e Engels pro le edition german de 1872, le edition russe de 1882, le edition francese de 1883 e le edition anglese de 1888. Le [[s:Manifesto of the Communist Party|edition de 1910]], traducite per Samuel Moore con le auxilio de Engels, es le maxim communmente usate texto anglese depost tunc.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ; ed. and intro. by Jeffrey C. Isaac et al.|title=The Communist manifesto|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=9780300123029|url=http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/excerpts/marx_communist.pdf|author=Professor Jeffrey C. Isaac (Editor)|accessdate=20 January 2013|page=2|chapter=Introduction|date=8 June 2012}}</ref> Tamen, alicun recente editiones anglese, como iste del annotate "road map" (carta de itinere) per Phil Gasper ([[Haymarket Books]], 2006), usava un texto tenuemente modificate in responsa al criticas contra le traduction per Moore enunciate per [[Hal Draper]] in su historia del ''Manifesto'' publicate in 1994, ''The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto"''(Le aventuras del Manifesto communista), (Center for Socialist History, 1994). In le fin del anno 2010, [http://www.redquillbooks.com/ Red Quill Books] annunciava le publication de un moderne, illustrate version [http://www.redquillbooks.com/Communist_Manifesto.html "comic book" (banda designate)] del Manifesto communista in quatro partes.<ref>Susan Polo. 20 December 2010. "The Communist Manifesto: The Comic Book" http://www.geekosystem.com/the-communist-manifesto-the-comic-book/ Accessed 20 February 2012</ref><ref>Jamie Long. 29 December 2010. "Communist Manifesto to get Comic Books Treatment" Toronto Sun. http://www.torontosun.com/news/weird/2010/12/29/16703416.html</ref> == Contento == Le ''Manifesto'' es dividite per un introduction, tres substantial sectiones, e un conclusion. === Introduction === Le preambulo al texto principal del Manifesto assere que le continente de Europa time le «spectro del communismo» e que le poteres del vetere Europa uni se in un «sancte alliantia [lequal intende] exorcisar iste spectro». Marx hic refere non solo al domos de poter e aristocratias terren - le burgesia - sed etiam ad diverse factiones como le papato e le emergente mundo corporative.<ref name="Manifesto_intro">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Introduction}}.</ref> Marx declara que «Il es grande tempore que le communistas debe coram, al facie del integre mundo, publicar lor vistas, lor scopos, lor tendentias e concurrer iste conto infantin del spectro del communismo per manifesto del partito ipse».<ref name="Manifesto_intro" /> === I. Burgeses e proletarios === Le prime capitulo del ''Manifesto'', «Burgeses e proletarios», examina le conception marxista del historia, con le idea initial asserente que «Le historia de omne adhuc existente societate es le historia del bello del classes.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter One}}.</ref> Illo continua dicente que in capitalismo, le classe operose, [[proletariato]], contende in le bello del classes contra le dominos del instrumentos de production, le [[burgesia]], e que iste passate bello del classes claudeva sia per revolution lequal restructurava societate, sia per «commun ruina del contendente classes»".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo continua adjungente que le burgesia exploita le proletariato per le «constante revolutionisamento de production [e] ininterrumpite turbation de omne conditiones social.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Le Manifesto explica que le ration pro lequal le burgesia existe e exploita le proletariato per su basse salarios es le [[proprietate private]], «le accumulation de opulentia in manos private, le formation e accrescimento de capital»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> e que competition inter le proletariato crea bello de labor, lequal es appoiate integremente super le competition inter le laboratores.<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Iste section explica in plus que le proletarios eventualmente elevara se al poter tra bello del classes: le [[burgesia]] constantemente exploita le proletariato pro su labor manual e vil salarios, ultimemente pro crear profito pro le burgeses; le proletariato eleva se al poter tra revolution contra le burgesia como tumultos o creation de uniones. Le Manifesto communista affirma que dum il ha adhuc bello de classes in le societate, capitalismo sera subvertite per proletariato solo pro itero inciper in le proxime futuro; ultimemente communismo es le clave pro equalitate del classes inter le cives de Europa. === II. Proletarios e communistas === Le secunde section, «Proletarios e communistas», incipe asserente que le relation de conscie communistas con le ceterum del classe operose, declarante que illi non formara un partito separate lequal oppone altere partitos del classe operose, exprimera le interesses e general voluntate del proletariato qua ensemble, e distinguera se ab altere partitos del classe operose per semper exprimente le commun interesse del integre proletariato independentemente de omne [[nationalitate|nationalitates]] e representante le interesses del movimento qua collectivo.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Two}}.</ref> Le section continua defendente communismo ab varie objectiones, como le pretension que communistas favorea «[[amor libere]]», e le pretension que homines non volera operar in un societate communista nam ili non habera incentivo pro laborar.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Le section claude delineante exigentias a termino curte: {{div col|colwidth=40em}} # Abolition del [[proprietate de terra|proprietates de terra]] e application de omne [[location|locationes]] de terra pro scopos public. # Un pesante [[imposto progressive|progressive]] o graduate imposto sur le receptas. # Abolition de omne derectos de [[hereditage]]. # [[Confiscation]] del proprietate de omne [[Emigration|emigratos]] e [[Rebellion|rebellos]]. # Centralisation del [[Credito (finance)|credito]] intra le manos del [[Soveran stato|Stato]], per medio de un [[banca national]] con [[Capital (economia)|capital]] de stato e un exclusive [[monopolio]]. # Centralisation del medios de communication e transporto intra le manos del Stato. # Extension del manufacturas e [[medios de production|instrumentos de production]] pertinente al Stato; le [[cultivation|cultivation]] del [[wikt:terras inculte|terras inculte]], e le melioration del [[solo]] generalmente in conformitate con un [[Scientia agricole|plano commun]]. # Equal [[Responsabilitate legal|responsabilitate]] pro omnes al labor. Establimento de [[armea|armeas]] industrial, specialmente pro agricultura. # Combination de agricultura con [[Industria|industrias]] de fabrication; gradual abolition del distinction inter burgo e campania, per plus equitabile [[densitate de population|distribution del population]] tra le pais. # [[Education gratuite]] pro omne infantes in [[Schola public school (financiate per le governamento)|scholas public]]. Abolition del [[Labor del infantes|labor del infantes in manufacturas]] in su forma presente e combination del education con production industrial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/61|title=The Communist Manifesto at Project Gutenberg |accessdate=24 January 2007 }}</ref> {{div col end}} Le implementation de iste politicas serea, secundo Marx e Engels, precursor del [[societate sin classe]]<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> e sin stato (apatride). In un controversial passage illi suggere que le "proletariato" poterea in competition con le burgesia esser obligate organisar se qua classe, formar un revolution, facer se un classe dirigente, scopar le vetere conditiones de production, e in iste scalon haber abolite su proprie suprematia qua classe.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Iste conto del transition ab socialismo ad communismo era criticate particularmente dum e post le era sovietic. === III. Litteratura socialista e communista === Le tertie section, «Litteratura socialista e communista», distingue communismo ab altere doctrinas socialista prevalente in iste tempore dum lequal le ''Manifesto'' era componite.<ref name="Manifesto_ch3">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Three}}.</ref> Dum le grado de reproche de Marx e Engels verso perspectivas rival varia, omnes son dimittite pro favorar [[reformismo]] e fiascar in recognoscer le rolo preeminente del classe operose. === IV. Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition === The concludente section, «Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition», brevemente discute le position communista re bellos in paises specific in le dece-none seculo como Francia, Suissia, Polonia e Germania, e declara que Germania es «in le die ante un revolution burgese»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> e predice que un revolution mundial tosto sequera.<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> Illo tunc claude declarante un alliantia con le [[Democratia social|socio-democratas]], harditemente supportante altere revolutiones communista, e vocante le proletarios al action, finiente per le crito de rejunction del communismo: «[[Laboratores del mundo, uni vos!]]".<ref name="Manifesto_ch4">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Four}}.</ref> ==Reception== ===Laudation=== Le [[unda revolutionari]] [[Revolutiones european de 1848|tra Europa in 1848]], lequales incipeva in [[Revolution francese de 1848|Francia in februario]] e mox diffundeva se in le majoritate de Europa e partes de America latin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Merriman |first=John M. |authorlink=John M. Merriman |title=A History of Modern Europe. Volume 2: From the French Revolution to the Present |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year=1996 |page=715 |isbn=0-393-96928-2 |oclc=152762820 }}</ref> debeva nihil al ''Manifesto communista'', sed intra un anno le revolutiones collabeva.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Eyck |first1=Frank |last2=Evans |first2=Robert John Weston |authorlink2=Robert John Weston Evans |last3=von Strandmann |first3=Hartmut Pogge |title=The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000 |volume=4 |isbn=0-19-820840-5 |oclc=4669489521 }}</ref> Posteriormente, autoritates traditional trovava in le ''Manifesto communista'' e su contento bon excusa pro ager contra su scriptores. Consequentemente, Marx e su uxor era arrestate e expellite ab [[Belgia]], le jornal quotidian german publicate per Marx in [[Colonia]] inter 1 junio 1848 e 19 maio 1849, ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung|Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Organ der Demokratie]]'', era supprimite,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marx |first=Karl |authorlink=Karl Marx |title=The Summary Suppression of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung |journal=Neue Rheinische Zeitung |issue=301 |date=19 May 1849 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |authorlink1=Karl Marx |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |authorlink2=Friedrich Engels |title=Marx-Engels Collected Works |volume=Volume 9 |chapter=The Summary Suppression of the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' |location=New York |publisher=[[International Publishers]] |year=1977 |pages=451–453 }}</ref> e Marx ipse era expellite ab Germania e Francia, e, in augusto 1849 ille refugiava se in London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |authorlink=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx: A Life |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year =2001 |origyear=1999 |edition=1st American ed. |pages=147–148 |isbn=978-0-393-32157-9 |oclc=48001599 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Watson (intellectual historian) |title=The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century |date=22 June 2010 |location="New York |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-076022-2 |oclc=456179681 |pages=250–... }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carter |first1=John |authorlink1=John Carter (author) |last2=Muir |first2=Percy H. |title=[[Printing and the Mind of Man|Printing and the Mind of Man: A Descriptive Catalogue Illustrating the Impact of Print on the Evolution of Western Civilization During Five Centuries]] |publisher=London: [[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]]; New York: [[Holt McDougal|Holt, Rinehart & Winston]] |year=1967 |page=236 |oclc=576854 }}</ref> Un certe numero de scriptores del 21me seculo commentava re le continue pertinentia del ''Manifesto communista'''. Le docto John Raines, scribente in 2002, notava que "In nostre die, iste Revolution capitalista attingeva le maxime remote angulos del terra. Le instrumento del pecunia produceva le miraculo del nove mercato global e le omnipresente centro de compras. Lege le ''Manifesto communista'', scribite ante plus que cento-cinquanta annos, e vos discoperira que Marx prevideva lo integremente."<ref>Raines, John. 2002. "Introduction". ''Marx on Religion'' (Marx, Karl). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Page 05.</ref> Scribente in 2003, le marxista anglese [[Chris Harman]] describeva le obra, affirmante: {{quote|Il ha itero un qualitate compulsive in su prosa como illo provide perspicacia post perspicacia intra le societate in lequal nos vive, ubi illo era e ubi illo va. Illo es itero capace explicar, dum economistas e sociologos del pensata majoritari non lo pote, le hodierne mundo de today's world of recurrente bellos e repetite crises economic, de fame pro centos de milliones in un mano e "superproduction" in le altere. Il ha passages lequales haberea potite exhaurite ab le maxim recente scripturas re globalisation.<ref>Harman, Chris. 2010. "The Manifesto and the World of 1848". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 03.</ref>}} Le continue pertinentia del theorias marxista trovate intra le texto era etiam supportate per le docto marxista Alex Callinicos, editor del jornal ''[[International Socialism (magazine)|International Socialism (Socialismo international)]]'', lequal assereva que "Isto es quidem manifesto pro le 21me seculo."<ref>Callinicos, Alex. 2010. "The Manifesto and the Crisis Today". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 08.</ref> Scribente in ''[[The London Evening Standard]]'' le 23 april, Andrew Neather citava le re-edition del Manifesto communista per Verso Books de 2012, con introduction per [[Eric Hobsbawm]], como parte de resurgentia de ideas levorso lequales include le publication del optime venditor Chavs per [[Owen Jones (scriptor)|Owen Jones]]: The Demonization of the Working Class, e le documentario per [[Jason Barker]]: Marx Reloaded.<ref name="The London Evening Standard">{{cite web | url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-marx-effect-7669766.html | title=The Marx effect | work=[[The London Evening Standard]] | date=23 April 2012 | accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> In junio 2013, le manuscripto del Manifesto communista insimul con Das Kapital, Volumine I es registrate in Memory of the World Programme.<ref>[http://www.unesco.de/8005.html Schriften von Karl Marx: "Das Manifest der Kommunistischer Partei" (1848) und "Das Kapital" ernster Band (1867)]</ref> ===Criticas=== Le [[Revisionismo (Marxismo)|revisionista marxista]] e [[Reformismo|reformista]] socialista [[Eduard Bernstein]] distingueva inter prime marxismo qua su forma «immatur»: como lo attesta le ''Manifesto communista'' componite per Marx e Engels in lor juventute, quem ille opponeva a lo quem ille considerava como su violente [[Blanquism|blanquista]] tendentias; e plus tarde marxismo qua su forma «matur» quem ille susteneva.<ref name="Steger, Manfred B. 1997. pg. 236-237">Steger, Manfred B. ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein And Social Democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pg. 236-237.</ref> Iste «matur» forma de marxismo refere ad Marx in su vita ulterior recognoscente que socialismo poterea esser attingite per medios pacific tra reforma legislative in societates democratic.<ref>Micheline R. Ishay. The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. Berkeley and Lose Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 2008. P. 148.</ref> Bernstein declarava que le massive [[homogenee]] classe operose revindicate in le ''Manifesto communista'' non existeva, e que contrarimente ad pretensiones de un majoritate proletari que emergerea, le classe medie cresceva sub capitalismo e non dispareva como Marx lo prescribeva. Bernstein notava que le classe operose non era homogenee sed heterogenee, con divisiones e factiones intra illo, includente syndicatos socialista e non-socialista. Marx ipse ulteriormente in su vita recognosceva que le classe medie non dispareva, in su obra ''[[Theorias del plusvalor]]'' (1863). Tamen, a causa del popularitate del ''Manifesto communista'' e le obscuritate del ''Theorias del plusvalor'', le recognition de Marx re iste error non es ben cognite.<ref>Michael Harrington. ''Socialism: Past and Future''. Reprint edition of original published in 1989. New York, New York, USA: Arcade Publishing, 2011. Pp. 249-250.</ref> [[George Boyer]] describeva le ''Manifesto'' qua "permulto un film de epocha, very much a period piece, un documentari de lo quem on nominava le 'famelic' annos 1840."<ref name = "Boyer 1998 151">{{Harvnb|Boyer|1998|p=151}}.</ref> ==Etiam consulta== * [[Anti-capitalismo]] * [[Erwin Schulhoff]] (creaava un version musical del ''Manifesto communista'') * [[Lista del currente communista statos]] * [[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]] * [[Sclavitude del salario]] * ''[[Spectros de Marx]]'' (obra per Jacques Derrida inspirate del ''Manifesto communista'') ==Referentias== <references/> hs4b4wliigwl8thxz9l0ir5pot57uf2 645763 645762 2022-08-13T22:22:57Z 107.171.161.145 /* Laudation */Ancora in vice de itero again and again secundo IED wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox/articulo}} [[File:Stamp Soviet Union 1948 CPA 1246.jpg|thumb|upright|]] '''''Le Manifesto communista''''' (''Das Kommunistische Manifest''), originalmente titulate '''''Manifesto del partito communista''''' (in lingua german ''Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei''), es un curte publication ab 1848 componite per le theoristas politic [[Karl Marx]] e [[Friedrich Engels]]. Illo era recognoscite como un del maxime influential manuscriptos del mundo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Seymour-Smith|first=Maerin|title=The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written: The History of Thought from Ancient Times to Today|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, NJ|year=1998}}</ref> Commissionate per le [[Liga communista]], illo establi le scopos e programma del Liga. Illo presenta un approche analytic al [[bello del classes]] (historic e presente) e le problemas del capitalismo, in vice de un prediction del formas potential del communismo.<ref>The Great Philosophers, by Jeremy Stangroom and James Garvey, Arcturus 2005/ 2008 ISBN 978-1-84837-018-0, pp160 UKP9.99</ref> Le libro contine theorias per Marx Engels re le natura de societate e politica, que secundo lor proprie parolas: "Le historia del tote adhuc existente societates es le historia del guerra del classes".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo etiam brevemente tracta lor ideas re como le societate capitalista del epocha eventualmente sera reimplaciate per socialismo, e postea eventualmente communismo. ==Autorato== Friedrich Engels era subinde creditate in componer le prime minutas que duceva al ''Manifesto communista''. In julio 1847, Engels era eligite in le Liga communista, ubi ille era assignate schizzar catechismo. Isto deveniva le ''Minuta de un confession communista de fide.'' Le minuta contineva quasi duo dozenas de questiones que exprimeva le ideas de ambe Engels e Karl Marx in iste tempore. In octobre 1847, Engels componeva su secunde minuta pro le Liga communista titulate ''Le principios de communismo.'' Le texto remaneva non publicate usque 1914, in despecto de su base pro ''Le Manifesto.'' Ab le minutas per Engels, Marx era capace scriber, semel commissionate per le Liga communista, ''Le Manifesto communista,'' ubi ille combinava plus ab su ideas ensemble con le minutas e opera per Engels, ''Le condition del classe laborante in Anglaterra.''<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 142-44</ref> Quanquam ambe nomines de Engels e Karl Marx appare super le pagina titulo al latere del "persistente assumption de co-autorato", Engels, in le prefacio del introduction al edition german de 1883 del Manifesto, assereva que le ''Manifesto'' era "essentialmente le opera per Marx" e que "le pensata de base... pertine solo e exclusivemente a Marx."<ref>Marx and Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', introduction by Martin Malia (New York: Penguin group, 1998), pg. 35 ISBN 0-451-52710-0</ref> Engels scribeva post le morte de Marx, {{quote|Io non pote negar que, e ante e dum mi collaboration de quaranta annos con Marx, io habeva un certe portion independente in establir le fundationes del theoria, sed le maxime grande parte de su major principios de base pertine ad Marx... Marx era genio; nos alteres al plus talentate. Sin ille le theoria non serea tanto disveloppate como illo es nunc. Illo tunc con ration porta su nomine.<ref>Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels, by Tristram Hunt, Metropolitan Books 2009 ISBN 978-0-8050-8025-4,pg. 117</ref>}} In despecto del modestia de Engels in iste duo citationes, in facto ille faceva major contributiones al Manifesto, incipente con le suggestion derelinquer «le forma de un catechismo e titular lo le Manifesto communista». Preterea, Engels jungeva Marx in Brussel pro le composition del Manifesto. Il non ha prova de qual contributiones sue al final scripto era, ma le Manifesto porta le marca del stylo plus rhetoric de Marx. Tamen, il sembla clar que le contributiones de Engels justifica le apparition de su nomine super le pagina titulo apud iste de Marx.<ref>''The Life and Thought of Friedrich Engels: A Reinterpretation'', by J.D. Hunley, Yale University Press 1991 ISBN 0-300-04923-4,pg. 65–79 (quotation pg. 66) pro un extendite discussion del contributiones de ambe viros.</ref> == Historia textual == ''Le Manifesto communista'' era primo publicate in lingua german in London per un gruppo de refugiatos politic german in 1848. Illo era etiam episodiate circum le mesme tempore in un jornal londonian in lingua german, le ''Deutsche Londoner Zeitung''.<ref>Kuczynski, Thomas, ''Das kommunistische Manifest (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) von Karl Marx und Friedrich Engels: von der Erstausgabe zur Leseausgabe, mit einer Editionsbericht'' (Trier, 1995).</ref> Le prime traduction in lingua anglese era producite per [[Helen Macfarlane]] in 1850, e le libro era primo publicate in le Statos unite de America per [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]].<ref>Riggenbach, Jeff (1 April 2011) [http://mises.org/daily/5161/Stephen-Pearl-Andrewss-Fleeting-Contribution-to-Anarchist-Thought Stephen Pearl Andrews's Fleeting Contribution to Anarchist Thought], [[Mises Institute]]</ref> Le ''Manifesto'' passava tra multe editiones ab 1872 usque 1890; notabile nove prefacios era scribite per Marx e Engels pro le edition german de 1872, le edition russe de 1882, le edition francese de 1883 e le edition anglese de 1888. Le [[s:Manifesto of the Communist Party|edition de 1910]], traducite per Samuel Moore con le auxilio de Engels, es le maxim communmente usate texto anglese depost tunc.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ; ed. and intro. by Jeffrey C. Isaac et al.|title=The Communist manifesto|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=9780300123029|url=http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/excerpts/marx_communist.pdf|author=Professor Jeffrey C. Isaac (Editor)|accessdate=20 January 2013|page=2|chapter=Introduction|date=8 June 2012}}</ref> Tamen, alicun recente editiones anglese, como iste del annotate "road map" (carta de itinere) per Phil Gasper ([[Haymarket Books]], 2006), usava un texto tenuemente modificate in responsa al criticas contra le traduction per Moore enunciate per [[Hal Draper]] in su historia del ''Manifesto'' publicate in 1994, ''The Adventures of the "Communist Manifesto"''(Le aventuras del Manifesto communista), (Center for Socialist History, 1994). In le fin del anno 2010, [http://www.redquillbooks.com/ Red Quill Books] annunciava le publication de un moderne, illustrate version [http://www.redquillbooks.com/Communist_Manifesto.html "comic book" (banda designate)] del Manifesto communista in quatro partes.<ref>Susan Polo. 20 December 2010. "The Communist Manifesto: The Comic Book" http://www.geekosystem.com/the-communist-manifesto-the-comic-book/ Accessed 20 February 2012</ref><ref>Jamie Long. 29 December 2010. "Communist Manifesto to get Comic Books Treatment" Toronto Sun. http://www.torontosun.com/news/weird/2010/12/29/16703416.html</ref> == Contento == Le ''Manifesto'' es dividite per un introduction, tres substantial sectiones, e un conclusion. === Introduction === Le preambulo al texto principal del Manifesto assere que le continente de Europa time le «spectro del communismo» e que le poteres del vetere Europa uni se in un «sancte alliantia [lequal intende] exorcisar iste spectro». Marx hic refere non solo al domos de poter e aristocratias terren - le burgesia - sed etiam ad diverse factiones como le papato e le emergente mundo corporative.<ref name="Manifesto_intro">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Introduction}}.</ref> Marx declara que «Il es grande tempore que le communistas debe coram, al facie del integre mundo, publicar lor vistas, lor scopos, lor tendentias e concurrer iste conto infantin del spectro del communismo per manifesto del partito ipse».<ref name="Manifesto_intro" /> === I. Burgeses e proletarios === Le prime capitulo del ''Manifesto'', «Burgeses e proletarios», examina le conception marxista del historia, con le idea initial asserente que «Le historia de omne adhuc existente societate es le historia del bello del classes.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter One}}.</ref> Illo continua dicente que in capitalismo, le classe operose, [[proletariato]], contende in le bello del classes contra le dominos del instrumentos de production, le [[burgesia]], e que iste passate bello del classes claudeva sia per revolution lequal restructurava societate, sia per «commun ruina del contendente classes»".<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Illo continua adjungente que le burgesia exploita le proletariato per le «constante revolutionisamento de production [e] ininterrumpite turbation de omne conditiones social.»<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Le Manifesto explica que le ration pro lequal le burgesia existe e exploita le proletariato per su basse salarios es le [[proprietate private]], «le accumulation de opulentia in manos private, le formation e accrescimento de capital»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> e que competition inter le proletariato crea bello de labor, lequal es appoiate integremente super le competition inter le laboratores.<ref name="Manifesto_ch1" /> Iste section explica in plus que le proletarios eventualmente elevara se al poter tra bello del classes: le [[burgesia]] constantemente exploita le proletariato pro su labor manual e vil salarios, ultimemente pro crear profito pro le burgeses; le proletariato eleva se al poter tra revolution contra le burgesia como tumultos o creation de uniones. Le Manifesto communista affirma que dum il ha adhuc bello de classes in le societate, capitalismo sera subvertite per proletariato solo pro itero inciper in le proxime futuro; ultimemente communismo es le clave pro equalitate del classes inter le cives de Europa. === II. Proletarios e communistas === Le secunde section, «Proletarios e communistas», incipe asserente que le relation de conscie communistas con le ceterum del classe operose, declarante que illi non formara un partito separate lequal oppone altere partitos del classe operose, exprimera le interesses e general voluntate del proletariato qua ensemble, e distinguera se ab altere partitos del classe operose per semper exprimente le commun interesse del integre proletariato independentemente de omne [[nationalitate|nationalitates]] e representante le interesses del movimento qua collectivo.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Two}}.</ref> Le section continua defendente communismo ab varie objectiones, como le pretension que communistas favorea «[[amor libere]]», e le pretension que homines non volera operar in un societate communista nam ili non habera incentivo pro laborar.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Le section claude delineante exigentias a termino curte: {{div col|colwidth=40em}} # Abolition del [[proprietate de terra|proprietates de terra]] e application de omne [[location|locationes]] de terra pro scopos public. # Un pesante [[imposto progressive|progressive]] o graduate imposto sur le receptas. # Abolition de omne derectos de [[hereditage]]. # [[Confiscation]] del proprietate de omne [[Emigration|emigratos]] e [[Rebellion|rebellos]]. # Centralisation del [[Credito (finance)|credito]] intra le manos del [[Soveran stato|Stato]], per medio de un [[banca national]] con [[Capital (economia)|capital]] de stato e un exclusive [[monopolio]]. # Centralisation del medios de communication e transporto intra le manos del Stato. # Extension del manufacturas e [[medios de production|instrumentos de production]] pertinente al Stato; le [[cultivation|cultivation]] del [[wikt:terras inculte|terras inculte]], e le melioration del [[solo]] generalmente in conformitate con un [[Scientia agricole|plano commun]]. # Equal [[Responsabilitate legal|responsabilitate]] pro omnes al labor. Establimento de [[armea|armeas]] industrial, specialmente pro agricultura. # Combination de agricultura con [[Industria|industrias]] de fabrication; gradual abolition del distinction inter burgo e campania, per plus equitabile [[densitate de population|distribution del population]] tra le pais. # [[Education gratuite]] pro omne infantes in [[Schola public school (financiate per le governamento)|scholas public]]. Abolition del [[Labor del infantes|labor del infantes in manufacturas]] in su forma presente e combination del education con production industrial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/61|title=The Communist Manifesto at Project Gutenberg |accessdate=24 January 2007 }}</ref> {{div col end}} Le implementation de iste politicas serea, secundo Marx e Engels, precursor del [[societate sin classe]]<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> e sin stato (apatride). In un controversial passage illi suggere que le "proletariato" poterea in competition con le burgesia esser obligate organisar se qua classe, formar un revolution, facer se un classe dirigente, scopar le vetere conditiones de production, e in iste scalon haber abolite su proprie suprematia qua classe.<ref name="Manifesto_ch2" /> Iste conto del transition ab socialismo ad communismo era criticate particularmente dum e post le era sovietic. === III. Litteratura socialista e communista === Le tertie section, «Litteratura socialista e communista», distingue communismo ab altere doctrinas socialista prevalente in iste tempore dum lequal le ''Manifesto'' era componite.<ref name="Manifesto_ch3">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Three}}.</ref> Dum le grado de reproche de Marx e Engels verso perspectivas rival varia, omnes son dimittite pro favorar [[reformismo]] e fiascar in recognoscer le rolo preeminente del classe operose. === IV. Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition === The concludente section, «Position del communistas in relation con le varie partitos de opposition», brevemente discute le position communista re bellos in paises specific in le dece-none seculo como Francia, Suissia, Polonia e Germania, e declara que Germania es «in le die ante un revolution burgese»,<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> e predice que un revolution mundial tosto sequera.<ref name="Manifesto_ch4" /> Illo tunc claude declarante un alliantia con le [[Democratia social|socio-democratas]], harditemente supportante altere revolutiones communista, e vocante le proletarios al action, finiente per le crito de rejunction del communismo: «[[Laboratores del mundo, uni vos!]]".<ref name="Manifesto_ch4">{{Harvnb|Marx|Engels|1848|loc=Chapter Four}}.</ref> ==Reception== ===Laudation=== Le [[unda revolutionari]] [[Revolutiones european de 1848|tra Europa in 1848]], lequales incipeva in [[Revolution francese de 1848|Francia in februario]] e mox diffundeva se in le majoritate de Europa e partes de America latin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Merriman |first=John M. |authorlink=John M. Merriman |title=A History of Modern Europe. Volume 2: From the French Revolution to the Present |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year=1996 |page=715 |isbn=0-393-96928-2 |oclc=152762820 }}</ref> debeva nihil al ''Manifesto communista'', sed intra un anno le revolutiones collabeva.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Eyck |first1=Frank |last2=Evans |first2=Robert John Weston |authorlink2=Robert John Weston Evans |last3=von Strandmann |first3=Hartmut Pogge |title=The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2000 |volume=4 |isbn=0-19-820840-5 |oclc=4669489521 }}</ref> Posteriormente, autoritates traditional trovava in le ''Manifesto communista'' e su contento bon excusa pro ager contra su scriptores. Consequentemente, Marx e su uxor era arrestate e expellite ab [[Belgia]], le jornal quotidian german publicate per Marx in [[Colonia]] inter 1 junio 1848 e 19 maio 1849, ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung|Neue Rheinische Zeitung: Organ der Demokratie]]'', era supprimite,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marx |first=Karl |authorlink=Karl Marx |title=The Summary Suppression of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung |journal=Neue Rheinische Zeitung |issue=301 |date=19 May 1849 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |authorlink1=Karl Marx |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |authorlink2=Friedrich Engels |title=Marx-Engels Collected Works |volume=Volume 9 |chapter=The Summary Suppression of the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' |location=New York |publisher=[[International Publishers]] |year=1977 |pages=451–453 }}</ref> e Marx ipse era expellite ab Germania e Francia, e, in augusto 1849 ille refugiava se in London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |authorlink=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx: A Life |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company|Norton]] |year =2001 |origyear=1999 |edition=1st American ed. |pages=147–148 |isbn=978-0-393-32157-9 |oclc=48001599 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Watson (intellectual historian) |title=The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century |date=22 June 2010 |location="New York |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=0-06-076022-2 |oclc=456179681 |pages=250–... }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carter |first1=John |authorlink1=John Carter (author) |last2=Muir |first2=Percy H. |title=[[Printing and the Mind of Man|Printing and the Mind of Man: A Descriptive Catalogue Illustrating the Impact of Print on the Evolution of Western Civilization During Five Centuries]] |publisher=London: [[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]]; New York: [[Holt McDougal|Holt, Rinehart & Winston]] |year=1967 |page=236 |oclc=576854 }}</ref> Un certe numero de scriptores del 21me seculo commentava re le continue pertinentia del ''Manifesto communista'''. Le docto John Raines, scribente in 2002, notava que "In nostre die, iste Revolution capitalista attingeva le maxime remote angulos del terra. Le instrumento del pecunia produceva le miraculo del nove mercato global e le omnipresente centro de compras. Lege le ''Manifesto communista'', scribite ante plus que cento-cinquanta annos, e vos discoperira que Marx prevideva lo integremente."<ref>Raines, John. 2002. "Introduction". ''Marx on Religion'' (Marx, Karl). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Page 05.</ref> Scribente in 2003, le marxista anglese [[Chris Harman]] describeva le obra, affirmante: {{quote|Il ha ancora un qualitate compulsive in su prosa como illo provide perspicacia post perspicacia intra le societate in lequal nos vive, ubi illo era e ubi illo va. Illo es itero capace explicar, dum economistas e sociologos del pensata majoritari non lo pote, le hodierne mundo de today's world of recurrente bellos e repetite crises economic, de fame pro centos de milliones in un mano e "superproduction" in le altere. Il ha passages lequales haberea potite exhaurite ab le maxim recente scripturas re globalisation.<ref>Harman, Chris. 2010. "The Manifesto and the World of 1848". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 03.</ref>}} Le continue pertinentia del theorias marxista trovate intra le texto era etiam supportate per le docto marxista Alex Callinicos, editor del jornal ''[[International Socialism (magazine)|International Socialism (Socialismo international)]]'', lequal assereva que "Isto es quidem manifesto pro le 21me seculo."<ref>Callinicos, Alex. 2010. "The Manifesto and the Crisis Today". ''The Communist Manifesto'' (Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich). Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. Page 08.</ref> Scribente in ''[[The London Evening Standard]]'' le 23 april, Andrew Neather citava le re-edition del Manifesto communista per Verso Books de 2012, con introduction per [[Eric Hobsbawm]], como parte de resurgentia de ideas levorso lequales include le publication del optime venditor Chavs per [[Owen Jones (scriptor)|Owen Jones]]: The Demonization of the Working Class, e le documentario per [[Jason Barker]]: Marx Reloaded.<ref name="The London Evening Standard">{{cite web | url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-marx-effect-7669766.html | title=The Marx effect | work=[[The London Evening Standard]] | date=23 April 2012 | accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> In junio 2013, le manuscripto del Manifesto communista insimul con Das Kapital, Volumine I es registrate in Memory of the World Programme.<ref>[http://www.unesco.de/8005.html Schriften von Karl Marx: "Das Manifest der Kommunistischer Partei" (1848) und "Das Kapital" ernster Band (1867)]</ref> ===Criticas=== Le [[Revisionismo (Marxismo)|revisionista marxista]] e [[Reformismo|reformista]] socialista [[Eduard Bernstein]] distingueva inter prime marxismo qua su forma «immatur»: como lo attesta le ''Manifesto communista'' componite per Marx e Engels in lor juventute, quem ille opponeva a lo quem ille considerava como su violente [[Blanquism|blanquista]] tendentias; e plus tarde marxismo qua su forma «matur» quem ille susteneva.<ref name="Steger, Manfred B. 1997. pg. 236-237">Steger, Manfred B. ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein And Social Democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pg. 236-237.</ref> Iste «matur» forma de marxismo refere ad Marx in su vita ulterior recognoscente que socialismo poterea esser attingite per medios pacific tra reforma legislative in societates democratic.<ref>Micheline R. Ishay. The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. Berkeley and Lose Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 2008. P. 148.</ref> Bernstein declarava que le massive [[homogenee]] classe operose revindicate in le ''Manifesto communista'' non existeva, e que contrarimente ad pretensiones de un majoritate proletari que emergerea, le classe medie cresceva sub capitalismo e non dispareva como Marx lo prescribeva. Bernstein notava que le classe operose non era homogenee sed heterogenee, con divisiones e factiones intra illo, includente syndicatos socialista e non-socialista. Marx ipse ulteriormente in su vita recognosceva que le classe medie non dispareva, in su obra ''[[Theorias del plusvalor]]'' (1863). Tamen, a causa del popularitate del ''Manifesto communista'' e le obscuritate del ''Theorias del plusvalor'', le recognition de Marx re iste error non es ben cognite.<ref>Michael Harrington. ''Socialism: Past and Future''. Reprint edition of original published in 1989. New York, New York, USA: Arcade Publishing, 2011. Pp. 249-250.</ref> [[George Boyer]] describeva le ''Manifesto'' qua "permulto un film de epocha, very much a period piece, un documentari de lo quem on nominava le 'famelic' annos 1840."<ref name = "Boyer 1998 151">{{Harvnb|Boyer|1998|p=151}}.</ref> ==Etiam consulta== * [[Anti-capitalismo]] * [[Erwin Schulhoff]] (creaava un version musical del ''Manifesto communista'') * [[Lista del currente communista statos]] * [[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]] * [[Sclavitude del salario]] * ''[[Spectros de Marx]]'' (obra per Jacques Derrida inspirate del ''Manifesto communista'') ==Referentias== <references/> me2mdzbmn9ihclotxmlq33t8vwyvb1r 0 40569 645765 634746 2022-08-14T01:26:54Z ListeriaBot 24326 Wikidata list updated [V2] wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox}} {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT ?item WHERE { ?item wdt:P580 ?dtstart . ?item wdt:P582 ?dtend . FILTER (?dtstart < "1942-03-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) FILTER (?dtstart > "1942-02-01T00:00:00Z"^^xsd:dateTime) } |wdq= |columns=item,P580,P582,label,P31,description |sort=P580 |thumb=48 |links= |references=all }} {| class='wikitable sortable' style='width:100%' ! item ! data de initio ! data de fin ! label ! instantia de ! description |- | [[:d:Q4872083|Q4872083]] | 1942-02-03<ref name='ref_b36afdaf88bc66d87603deb2fc56ba13'>''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | 1943-08-17<ref name='ref_b36afdaf88bc66d87603deb2fc56ba13'>''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q4872083|Battle of Port Moresby]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q79478891|Q79478891]] | 1942-02-03<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-02-17<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478891|Exhibitions for Art Understanding: British War Posters]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478895|Q79478895]] | 1942-02-03<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-02-24<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478895|Fifteen American Sculptors]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478900|Q79478900]] | 1942-02-05<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-02-22<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478900|Art of Latin American Countries: Contemporary Prints of Latin America, Section II]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q76356437|Q76356437]] | 1942-02-06<ref name='ref_3e2c0eae4204cbbed143cf3e7b4cb40a'>https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | 1942-02-10<ref name='ref_3e2c0eae4204cbbed143cf3e7b4cb40a'>https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | ''[[:d:Q76356437|Transport von Wien nach Ghetto Riga am 06.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]''<ref name='ref_3e2c0eae4204cbbed143cf3e7b4cb40a'>https://www.bundesarchiv.de/gedenkbuch/chronicles.html.de?page=1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q100527516|Q100527516]] | 1942-02-07 | 1942-02-07<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100527516|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 07.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q296754|Q296754]] | 1942-02-08 | 1942-02-15 | ''[[:d:Q296754|Battle of Singapore]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q2546643|Q2546643]] | 1942-02-08 | 1942-03-13 | ''[[:d:Q2546643|1942 Swedish Ice Hockey Championship]]'' | ''[[:d:Q27020041|sports season]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q4872320|Q4872320]] | 1942-02-08 | 1942-02-09 | ''[[:d:Q4872320|Battle of Sarimbun Beach]]'' | ''[[:d:Q180684|conflict]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q100527696|Q100527696]] | 1942-02-08 | 1942-02-08<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100527696|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 08.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q632926|Q632926]] | 1942-02-09 | 1942-02-10 | ''[[:d:Q632926|Battle of Kranji]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q79478905|Q79478905]] | 1942-02-09<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-02-22<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478905|William Campbell]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q4870587|Q4870587]] | 1942-02-10 | 1942-02-12 | ''[[:d:Q4870587|Battle of Bukit Timah]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q79478910|Q79478910]] | 1942-02-10<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-10<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478910|Retrospective Exhibition of Eugene Berman]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q3883953|Q3883953]] | 1942-02-11 | 1942-02-12 | ''[[:d:Q3883953|Operation Donnerkeil]]'' | ''[[:d:Q180684|conflict]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q79478913|Q79478913]] | 1942-02-11<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-01<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478913|San Francisco Art Association Exhibition of Drawings and Prints]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q100529562|Q100529562]] | 1942-02-12 | 1942-02-12<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100529562|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 12.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2583233|Q2583233]] | 1942-02-13 | 1942-02-15 | ''[[:d:Q2583233|Battle of Palembang]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q4208426|Q4208426]] | 1942-02-13 | 1942-02-14 | ''[[:d:Q4208426|Battle of Pasir Panjang]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q663277|Q663277]] | 1942-02-14 | 1942-03-28 | ''[[:d:Q663277|Invasion of Sumatra]]'' | ''[[:d:Q180684|conflict]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q79478917|Q79478917]] | 1942-02-14<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-07<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478917|Roxburghe Printing Exhibition: 16th Century Books]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478920|Q79478920]] | 1942-02-15<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-02-28<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478920|Exhibitions for Art Understanding: Line, Drawing, and Perspective]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q716144|Q716144]] | 1942-02-18 | 1942-03-04 | ''[[:d:Q716144|Sook Ching]]'' | ''[[:d:Q135010|war crime]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q3199915|massacre]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q1262732|purge]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q4817637|atrocity]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q2117492|Q2117492]] | 1942-02-18 | 1942-02-20 | ''[[:d:Q2117492|Battle of Badung Strait]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1261499|naval battle]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q16642815|Q16642815]] | 1942-02-18 | 1942-04-14 | ''[[:d:Q16642815|Демянская десантная операция]]'' | ''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q176557|Q176557]] | 1942-02-19 | 1943-11-12 | ''[[:d:Q176557|Air raids on Australia, 1942–43]]'' | | |- | [[:d:Q936604|Q936604]] | 1942-02-19 | 1946-03-20 | ''[[:d:Q936604|Japanese American internment]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1668049|internment]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q1440764|Q1440764]] | 1942-02-19 | 1943-02-10 | ''[[:d:Q1440764|Battle of Timor]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q7057343|Q7057343]] | 1942-02-19<ref name='ref_b36afdaf88bc66d87603deb2fc56ba13'>''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | 1945<ref name='ref_b36afdaf88bc66d87603deb2fc56ba13'>''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | ''[[:d:Q7057343|North Western Area Campaign]]'' | ''[[:d:Q180684|conflict]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q104055171|Q104055171]] | 1942-02-19 | 1942-02-19<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q104055171|Transport Ez-St 04]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q108878050|Q108878050]] | 1942-02-19<ref name='ref_c990c0f60c4fdc96879de2bd7db97d02'>''[[:d:Q2159918|Executive Order 9066]]''</ref> | 1946-03-20<ref name='ref_3e8f62af5ed057e54653834d565ffc4f'>https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/anthropology74/ce3o.htm</ref><ref name='ref_e96bbd5cdb5eb0cd54a008de1397918d'>https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Tule_Lake/</ref><ref name='ref_00da7e08d0b03554253c690f3d3cdd59'>https://catalog.archives.gov/id/198243297</ref> | ''[[:d:Q108878050|Japanese American removal, 1942-1945]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1573035|domestic policy]]''<br/>''[[:d:Q837556|forced displacement]]''<ref name='ref_ea40d709afb18d39fcada6d946a9e867'>https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2017/05/17/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/E649-1</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q79478925|Q79478925]] | 1942-02-21<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-14<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478925|Exhibitions for Art Understanding: Seated Man by Picasso]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q100529627|Q100529627]] | 1942-02-22 | 1942-02-22<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100529627|Transport von Kladno in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 22.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q79478931|Q79478931]] | 1942-02-23<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-08<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478931|Alexander Nepote]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |- | [[:d:Q104632765|Q104632765]] | 1942-02-24 | 1942-03-08 | ''[[:d:Q104632765|Het Duitsche boek van heden]]'' | ''[[:d:Q29023906|temporary exhibition]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q100529761|Q100529761]] | 1942-02-26 | 1942-02-26<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100529761|Transport von Kladno in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 26.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q100529910|Q100529910]] | 1942-02-26 | 1942-02-26<ref name='ref_a791a93ed423598d6e424a258ca12356'>https://www.holocaust.cz/databaze-obeti/help/chronologicky-prehled-transportu/seznam-vsech-transportu-do-terezina-razeno-podle-data-odjezdu/</ref> | ''[[:d:Q100529910|Transport von Prag in das Ghetto Theresienstadt am 26.02.1942]]'' | ''[[:d:Q61927259|Holocaust train journey]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q304403|Q304403]] | 1942-02-27 | 1942-02-28 | ''[[:d:Q304403|Operation Biting]]'' | ''[[:d:Q645883|military operation]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q301300|Q301300]] | 1942-02-28 | 1942-03-12 | ''[[:d:Q301300|Battle of Java]]'' | [[Battalia]] | |- | [[:d:Q1536686|Q1536686]] | 1942-02-28<ref name='ref_b36afdaf88bc66d87603deb2fc56ba13'>''[[:d:Q23038974|Histropedia]]''</ref> | 1942-03-01 | ''[[:d:Q1536686|Battle of Sunda Strait]]'' | ''[[:d:Q1261499|naval battle]]'' | |- | [[:d:Q79478936|Q79478936]] | 1942-02-28<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | 1942-03-08<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | ''[[:d:Q79478936|Children's Symphony Exhibition]]'' | ''[[:d:Q667276|art exhibition]]''<ref name='ref_606fd1b2caad96a0e80474e14c97bd6e'>https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/sfmoma-media-dev/www-media/2019/02/21105602/exhibitionslist1935_1991.pdf</ref> | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 8ldu352njkldf413ic24gnvjuu2gynz