Wikipedia igwiki https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihu_mb%E1%BB%A5 MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.10 first-letter Midia Ọpụrụiche Ńkàtá Ojiarụ Ńkàtá ojiarụ Wikipedia Ńkàtá Wikipedia Faịlụ Ńkàtá faịlụ MidiaWiki Ńkàtá MidiaWiki Templeeti Ńkàtá templeeti Enyemaka Ńkàtá enyemaka Otú Ńkàtá otú Édēchághị́ Ńkàtá Édēchághị́ TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk Wiki 0 1992 688056 645353 2026-07-14T11:55:53Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Wikis nwere ike ịdị na-arụ otu ebumnuche, na n'ọnọdụ ndị dị otú ahụ, ndị ọrụ na-eji ikike nchịkọta akụkọ ha wepụ ihe ndị a na-ewere dị ka "enweghị isiokwu". Nke a bụ ihe gbasara akwụkwọ nkà ihe na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ Wikipedia.<ref name="Britannica"> {{citation|title=wiki|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|volume=1|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|year=2007|location=London|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1192819/wiki|access-date=April 10, 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424074513/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1192819/wiki|archive-date=April 24, 2008}}</ref> N'ụzọ dị iche, ebumnuche mepere emepe wiki na-anabata ọdịnaya na-enweghị iwu siri ike maka otu esi ahazi ọdịnaya. [[Ward Cunningham]], onye mepụtara sọftụwia wiki nke mbụ, [[WikiWikiWeb]], kọwara ya na mbụ dị ka "data data ịntanetị kachasị mfe nke nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ."<ref>{{cite web|url=http:// www.wiki.org/wiki.cgi?WhatIsWiki|title=Gịnị bụ Wiki| nweta =2008-04-10|onye mbipụta =[[WikiWikiWeb]]|ọdee=[[Ward Cunningham|Cunningham, Ward]]|Ụbọchị= 2002-06-27}}</ref> "Wiki" ({{pron|ˈwiki}} ma ọ bụ {{IPA-all|ˈviki|}}) bụ okwu [[Hawaiian | Hawaii]] maka "ngwa ngwa". <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mauimapp.com/moolelo/hwnwdshw.htm|title= Okwu Hawaii; Hawaiian ka Bekee ">{{Cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6794228|title=Ụkpụrụ wiki|Economist.com| nweta=2008-08-11}}</ ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme {{Isi|Akụkọ nke wiki}} [[Usòrò:HNL Wiki Wiki Bus.jpg|thumb|[[Wiki Wiki Shuttle]] na [[Ọdụ Ụgbọelu Mba Nile nke Honolulu]].] [[WikiWikiWeb]] bụ wiki izizi.<ref name="ebersbach10">{{harv|Ebersbach|2008|p=10}}</ref> [[Ward Cunningham]] malitere imepe WikiWikiWeb na 1994, wee tinye ya. na [[Domain name|Internet domain]] [http://c2.com/ c2.com] na 25 Maach 1995. Ọ bụ Cunningham kpọrọ ya, bụ onye chetara [[Honolulu International Airport]] onye ọrụ na-arụ ọrụ na-agwa ya ka ọ gaa. Were ụgbọ ala ụgbọ ala "[[Wiki Wiki Shuttle|Wiki Wiki]]" nke na-aga n'etiti ọdụ ụgbọ elu. Dị ka Cunningham si kwuo, "Ahọọrọ m wiki-wiki ka ọ bụrụ ihe ngbanwe maka 'ngwa ngwa' wee si otú ahụ zere ịkpọ aha ihe a ngwa-web."<ref name="cunningham" />{{cite web | ode akwụkwọ = [[Ward Cunningham|Cunningham, Ward]]|url=http://c2.com/doc/etymology.html |title=Nkwekọrịta na Etymology nke Wiki|ụbọchị= 2003-11-01|onye mbipụta =[[ WikiWikiWeb]] |accessdate=2007-03-09 }}</ref><ref name="history">{{cite web|author=[[Ward Cunningham|Cunningham, Ward]] |url=http://c2 .com/cgi/wiki?WikiHistory |title=Akụkọ Wiki|onye mbipụta =[[WikiWikiWeb]]|ụbọchị=2008-02-25| nweta = 2007-03-09}}</ref> Cunningham bụ akụkụ nke Apple [[HyperCard] sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ. Apple emebela sistemu na-enye ndị ọrụ ohere ịmepụta “kaadị stacks” na-akwado njikọ n'etiti kaadị dị iche iche. Cunningham mepụtara echiche [[Vannevar Bush|Vannevar Bush]] site n'ikwe ka ndị ọrụ "na-ekwu okwu ma gbanwee ederede ibe ha"<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="hypercard">{{cite web| odee= [[Ward Cunningham|Cunningham, Ward]] | url=http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWikiHyperCard |title=Wiki Wiki Hyper Card|onye nkwusa=[[WikiWikiWeb]]|Ụbọchị=2007-07-26 | ohere = 2007-03-09}}</ref> Cunningham bụ akụkụ nke Apple [[HyperCard] sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ. Apple emebela sistemu na-enye ndị ọrụ ohere ịmepụta “kaadị stacks” na-akwado njikọ n'etiti kaadị dị iche iche. Cunningham mepụtara echiche [[Vannevar Bush|Vannevar Bush]] site n'ikwe ka ndị ọrụ "na-ekwu okwu ma gbanwee ederede ibe ha"<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="hypercard"/> N'agbanyeghị ojiji Cunningham ji okwu ahụ, mmalite nke aha wiki na azụmaahịa nwere ike ị nweta na US mbụ. Akara ahia na aha "wiki", nke etinyere otu afọ tupu Ward Cunningham amalite imepe WikiWikiWeb na 1994 site n'aka otu ụlọ ọrụ a na-akpọ WikiDigs na Van Nuys, [[California]] na 12 Julaị 1993.<ref>http://www.trademarkia .com/company-wiki-digs-inc-1343866-page-1-2</ref> Akara ụghalaahịa izizi maka "wiki" ka ejiri kọwaa ụdị mkpuchi na-abụghị igwe eji achịkọta na ịzụ ahịa.<ref name= "trademarkia.com">http://www.trademarkia.com/wiki-74413416.html</ref> Otú ọ dị, December 1994 gbahapụrụ akara ahụ n'ihi enweghị ike iji akara ahụ na azụmahịa, na-emeghe ụzọ maka mgbasawanye. nnabata nke okwu na ụlọ ọrụ kọmputa.<ref name="trademarkia.com"/> Na mbido 2000s, wiki na-abawanye na ụlọ ọrụ dị ka ngwanrọ na-emekọ ihe ọnụ. Ojiji ndị a na-ejikarị gụnyere nzikọrịta ozi oru ngo, intranets, na akwụkwọ, na mbụ maka ndị ọrụ nka. Taa ụfọdụ [[corporate wiki|ụlọ ọrụ na-eji wiki]] dị ka sọftụwia ha na-emekọrịta ihe yana dị ka nnọchi static [[intranet]], ụfọdụ ụlọ akwụkwọ na mahadum na-eji wiki kwalite [[mmụta otu]]. Enwere ike inwe nnukwu ojiji wiki n'azụ [firewall]] karịa na ịntanetị ọha. Na 15 Maachị 2007, ''wiki'' banyere na ịntanetị ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref name="OED1">{{cite web| url=http://dictionary.oed.com/| title=Ma ọchịchị 2007 okwu ọhụrụ, OED| onye nkwusa=[[Oxford University Press]]| ụbọchị=2007-03-01| ode akwụkwọ=Diamond, Graeme| nweta=2007-03-16| accessdate=2022-03-06| archivedate=2006-06-25| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625103623/http://dictionary.oed.com/}}</ref> ==Ụdị njirimara {{Refimprovesect|date=Disemba 2009}} Ward Cunningham, na onye na-ede akwụkwọ [[Bo Leuf]], n'akwụkwọ ha ''[[The Wiki Way|The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web]]'' kọwara isi okwu nke echiche Wiki dị ka ndị a: * Wiki na-akpọ ndị ọrụ niile ka ha dezie ibe ọ bụla ma ọ bụ mepụta ibe ọhụrụ n'ime webụsaịtị wiki, na-eji naanị [[vanilla software|plain-vanilla]] ihe nchọgharị webụ na-enweghị mgbakwunye ọ bụla [[browser extension | add-ons]]. * Wiki na-akwalite mkpakọrịta isiokwu bara uru n'etiti ibe dị iche iche site n'ime ka imepụta njikọ ibe ọ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ dị mfe ma gosi ma ibe ebumnuche ezubere dị ma ọ bụ na ọ nweghị. * Wiki abụghị saịtị ejiri nlezianya hazie maka ndị ọbịa nkịtị. Kama, ọ na-achọ itinye onye ọbịa ahụ n'usoro ihe okike na imekọ ihe ọnụ na-aga n'ihu nke na-agbanwe ọdịdị ebe nrụọrụ weebụ mgbe niile. Wiki na-enyere aka ijikọ aka dee akwụkwọ, na s[[asusu akara]] site na iji [[ihe nchọgharị weebụ]]. A na-akpọ otu ibe dị na webụsaịtị wiki dị ka “ibe wiki”, ebe mkpokọta ibe niile nke [[hyperlink]] na-ejikọ nke ọma bụ “wiki”. Wiki bụ n'ezie nchekwa data .<ref name="ebersbach10">|}} {{harvnb|Ebersbach|2008|p=10}}.</ref> Ward Cunningham started developing it in 1994, and installed it on the [[Domain name|Internet domain]] [[c2.com]] on March 25, 1995. Cunningham gave it the name after remembering a [[Daniel K. Inouye International Airport|Honolulu International Airport]] counter employee telling him to take the "[[Wiki Wiki Shuttle]]" bus that runs between the airport's terminals, later observing that "I chose wiki-wiki as an alliterative substitute for 'quick' and thereby avoided naming this stuff quick-web."<ref name="cunningham">{{cite web |last=Cunningham |first=Ward |url=https://c2.com/doc/etymology.html |title=Correspondence on the Etymology of Wiki |date=November 1, 2003 |publisher=WikiWikiWeb |access-date=March 9, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317120823/https://c2.com/doc/etymology.html |archive-date=March 17, 2007 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> ===Security=== The open philosophy of most wikis, allowing anyone to edit content, does not ensure that every editor is well-meaning. Vandalism can be a major problem. In larger wiki sites, such as those run by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], [[vandalism]] can go unnoticed for a period of time. Wikis by their very nature are susceptible to intentional disruption, known as "[[troll (Internet)|trolling]]". Wikis tend to take a ''[[soft security]]''<ref name="soft sỌnụ ego mmebi nke wiki na-enweta dabere n'otú e si emeghe wiki. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ụfọdụ wiki na-ekwe ka ndị ọrụ na-edebanyeghị aha, nke [[IP address]] na-akọwa, ka ha dezie ọdịnaya, ebe ndị ọzọ na-ejedebe naanị ndị ọrụ debanyere aha. Ọtụtụ wiki na-enye ohere edezi aha na-enweghị akaụntụ,<ref>{{harv|Ebersbach|2008|p=108}}</ref> mana na-enye ndị ọrụ edebanyere aha ọrụ ndezi ọzọ; n'ọtụtụ wiki, ịghọ onye ọrụ edebanyere aha bụ usoro dị mkpụmkpụ ma dị mfe. Ụfọdụ wiki chọrọ oge echere agbakwunyere tupu ịnweta ụfọdụ ngwaọrụ. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, na [[Wikipedia Bekee]], ndị ọrụ debanyere aha nwere ike ịnyegharị ibe ha aha ma ọ bụrụ na akaụntụ ha dị opekata mpe ụbọchị anọ. Wiki ndị ọzọ dị ka [[Portuguese Wikipedia]] na-eji ihe ndezi chọrọ karịa oge achọrọ, na-enye mgbakwunye ngwaọrụ mgbe onye ọrụ mezichara ọnụọgụ ndezi iji gosipụta ntụkwasị obi na uru ha dị ka onye ndezi. N'ụzọ bụ isi, wiki "mechiri emechi" na-adịkwa nchebe ma bụrụ ndị a pụrụ ịdabere na ya mana ha na-eto nwayọọ nwayọọ, ebe ọtụtụ wikis na-emeghe na-eto n'ike n'ike mana na-ebute ịbụ ihe mgbaru ọsọ dị mfe maka imebi ihe. Ihe atụ doro anya nke a ga-abụ nke Wikipedia na [[Citizendium]]. Nke mbụ mepere emepe nke ukwuu, na-enye onye ọ bụla nwere kọmputa na ịntanetị ohere dezie ya, na-eme ka ọ na-eto ngwa ngwa, ebe nke ikpeazụ chọrọ ezigbo aha ndị ọrụ na [[biography] nke onwe ha, na-emetụta uto nke wiki mana imepụta ya. ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ "ihe mebiri emebi" ambiance. Otu ụzọ e si achọta wiki na otu isiokwu bụ ịgbaso netwọk wiki-node site na wiki gaa na wiki; nke ọzọ bụ ịga Wiki "njegharị ụgbọ ala", dịka ọmụmaatụ: {{srlink|Wikipedia:TourBusStop|Stop bọs nlegharị anya Wikipedia}}. [[Ngalaba aha|Aha ngalaba]] nwere "wiki" na-eto eto na ewu ewu iji kwado niche ndị akọwapụtara. ==Obodo== ==Ogbe ndị ọrụ === Ọtụtụ wiki [[obodo]] bụ nke nzuzo, ọkachasị n'ime [[Company|ụlọ ọrụ]]. A na-ejikarị ha dị ka [[internal documentation]] maka sistemu na ngwa n'ime ụlọ. Enwekwara WikiNodes nke bụ ibe na wiki na-akọwa wiki nwere njikọ. A na-ahazikarị ha dị ka ndị agbata obi na ndị nnọchiteanya. Wiki ''onye agbata obi'' bụ naanị wiki nwere ike kparịta ọdịnaya yiri ya ma ọ bụ nwee mmasị ọzọ. Wiki ''onye nnọchiteanya'' bụ wiki nke kwetara ka enyefe ụfọdụ ọdịnaya na wiki ahụ. Maka ndị nwere mmasị ịmepụta wiki nke ha, enwere "[[wiki farm]]s" dị n'ihu ọha, ụfọdụ n'ime ha nwekwara ike ime wiki nke nzuzo, nke echekwara paswọọdụ. [[PBwiki]], [[Socialtext]], [[Wetpaint]], na [[Wikia]] bụ ihe atụ ama ama nke ọrụ dị otú ahụ. Maka ozi ndị ọzọ, lee [[ndepụta nke ugbo wiki]]. Rịba ama na ugbo wiki efu na-enwekarị mgbasa ozi na ibe ọ bụla. ===Ogbe nyocha === Wiki bụ isiokwu na-arụsi ọrụ ike nke nyocha. Nzukọ wiki abụọ ama ama bụ * [[WikiSym|Mgbakọ Mgbakọ Mba Nile na Wikis (WikiSym)]], [[ọgbakọ agụmakwụkwọ|ọgbakọ]] nke raara nye wiki [[nyocha]] na ime n'ozuzu ya. * [[Wikimania]], ọgbakọ raara nye nyocha na omume [[Wikimedia Foundation]] dị ka Wikipedia. N'ime edemede nke 2009 maka akwụkwọ akụkọ agụmakwụkwọ London Times Higher, onye ọkà ihe ọmụma Martin Cohen buru amụma na ihe nlereanya 'n'okpuru' a ga-emesịa karịa "ọbá akwụkwọ nke Ọmụma Niile" dị ka Wikipedia na Citizendium.<ref name="timeshighereducation" .co.uk"/> ==Leekwa== * [[ntụnyere wiki software]] * [[Sistemụ njikwa ọdịnaya]] * [[Wikipedia#Learning resources|Ndepụta akụrụngwa mmụta]] - nkuzi, vidiyo nkuzi, ihe nkiri slide, akwụkwọ ederede, ajụjụ ajụjụ, wdg, metụtara Wikipedia na Wiki ndị ọzọ. * [[ndepụta nke wiki]] * [[mmekọrịta na-ekesa nke ukwuu]] * [[bọtịnụ ndezi zuru ụwa ọnụ]] ==Akwụkwọ ntụaka== {{reflist|2}} {{refbegin}} * {{Citation|title=Wiki: Web Collaboration|last=Ebersbach|first= Anja|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|year=2008|isbn=3540351507}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book|title=Wikipatterns|author=Mader, Stewart|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|date=2007-12-10|isbn=0470223626}} * {{Cite book|title=Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything|author=Tapscott, Don|publisher=Portfolio Hardcover|date=2008-04-17|isbn=1591841933}} * {{Cite book|title=The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web|author=Leuf, Bo|publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]]|date=2001-04-13|isbn=020171499X}} ==External links== {{Commons|wiki}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Wiki2.ogg|2007-03-14}} * [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/wiki.htm Wikis] at [[HowStuffWorks]]. * [http://www.artima.com/intv/wiki.html Exploring with Wiki] An interview with [[Ward Cunningham]], by Bill Verners. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160131033544/http://www.wikimatrix.org/ WikiMatrix] website for comparing wikis. {{Wiki topics}} {{Computer-mediated communication}} <!-- INFOBOX: OFF --> <!-- PLURALITY: OFF --> [[Òtù:Self-organization]] [[Òtù:Social information processing]] [[Òtù:Hypertext]] [[Òtù:Human-computer interaction]] [[Òtù:Wikipedia]] [[Òtù:Intanet]] 9e3hb5jop2uopk59ugeotyjqotgm8qv Ńkàtá:Ndị Ìgbò 1 2992 688018 61846 2026-07-14T05:12:00Z Nuance007 64614 /* Proposed Nkpokiti addition to Nka Ìgbò */ nkeji ohúrù 688018 wikitext text/x-wiki kelu n'ke bu "bekee"? kelu mgbe a kwusi a sili "oyibo"? na nke gbasari igbo anwa unu edesiri, anyi nwe igbo nke ndi Anambra, nwere nke ndi Imo mana ifaa unu dee bu nke ndi Imo. A si na ihe ndi Anambra na asu aburo Igbo? Biko, ka unu nyere ndi Anambra nsopuru. == Proposed Nkpokiti addition to Nka Ìgbò == '''Disclosure:''' I have a personal and ancestral connection to [[Umunze]]. I am requesting independent review rather than editing the article directly. '''Proposed addition to the Nka Ìgbò section:''' <blockquote>Nkpokiti bụ egwu ọdịnala ndị Igbo a na-ejikọta na [[Umunze]].<ref>Elochukwu A. Nwankwo, Matthias U. Agboeze and Anthonia U. Nwobi, “[https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018781202 Community Heritage Resources and Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria]”, ''SAGE Open'', 8(2), 2018.</ref><ref>Chidi Obijiaku, “[https://doi.org/10.21504/amj.v11i4.2456 Hybridity in Modern Nigerian Music: The Case of Igbo Choral Art Music]”, ''African Music: Journal of the International Library of African Music'', 11(4), pp. 25–42, 2023.</ref> E sere ndị na-agba egwu Nkpokiti n’azụ akwụkwọ ego ₦5 nke Naijiria.<ref>Central Bank of Nigeria, “[https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Currency/gallery/N5.html ₦5 Note]”, accessed 14 July 2026.</ref></blockquote> '''English source wording:''' “Nkpokiti is an Igbo cultural dance associated with Umunze. The reverse of Nigeria's ₦5 note depicts Nkpokiti dancers.” '''Reason:''' This is a faithful Standard Igbo translation of the source-verified [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Igbo_people&oldid=1364049479 English request]. It adds no unsupported status, history or award claims. [[Ojiarụ:Nuance007|Nuance007]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:Nuance007|ṅkátá]]) 05:12, 14 Julaị 2026 (UTC) a88d8mly095xk4xzztjmmbij5yplv8p Tessy Okoli 0 10087 688008 186558 2026-07-14T01:14:08Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Tessy Okoli {{Audio|Ig-Theresa Obumneme Okoli.ogg|Audio}} 4 Provostu nke anọ nke Federal College of Education (Teknụzụ), Umunze Ọ nọ kịta Mgbe ọ gbanyere 17 Mee, 2018 Onye ọ nọchiri Dr. Cicilia N. Ibekwe Ihe Gbasara ya Aha Theresa Obumneme Okoli Di Dr. H. I. Okoli Ebe ọ gụrụ Akwụkwọ University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State University of Science and Technology '''Theresa Ọbụmneme Okoli''' bụ onye nke anọ bụrụgoro onye isi na Federal College of Education (Teknụzụ), Ụmụnze . Na 17 Mee 2018, Onyeisiala [[Ishi ochíchì Naigeria|Naịjirịa]], [[Muhammadu Buhari|Muhammadu Buhari họpụtara ya]] ka ọ nọchie onye nnọchiri anya onye isi kọleji ahụ, bụ Dọkịta Cicilia Nonye Ibekwe. <ref name="TO">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fcetumunze.edu.ng/news/fg-appoints-colleges-first-internal-provost|title=FG APPOINTS COLLEGE’S FIRST INTERNAL PROVOST|accessdate=19 October 2019|archivedate=19 October 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019001128/https://www.fcetumunze.edu.ng/news/fg-appoints-colleges-first-internal-provost/}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=Adeyeye|url=https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/buhari-president-appoints-new-heads-of-agencies-for-hospital-college-of-education/gpm56xp|title=President appoints new heads of agencies for Hospital, College of Education|date=24 May 2019|accessdate=18 October 2019|work=Pulse NG|archivedate=19 October 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019001113/https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/buhari-president-appoints-new-heads-of-agencies-for-hospital-college-of-education/gpm56xp}}</ref> == Mmalite ndụ na mmụta == A mụrụ Tessy n’ezinaụlọ Aniagbọsọ n’obodo Okpuifite, Agulu, nke dị okpuru ọchịchị Anaọcha, [[Ọ̀hà Ọmambala|Anambara Steeti]] . Ọ malitere agụmakwụkwọ ya na St. Augustine's Praịmarị Sukulu, [[Ȯra Ogun|Ogun Steeti.]] O were gaa n'ihu gụọ na Girls Sekọndịrị Sukulu, Awgbu, Anambra Steeti, site na 1971–1984, ebe ọ nwetara asambodo nke West Afrịkan Senior School (WASSCE). Ọ gawara mahadum Anambra Steeti Koleji of Education (ugbu a, Nwafọr Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra Steeti), ebe ọ gwụchara dịka nwata akwụkwọ kacha mma na Ngalaba nke Mmụta Agịrịki na 1988. O nwetara asambodo B.sc na Mmụta Agịriki na 1990 na Mahadum nke Naịjirịa, Nsụka ya na kwa nzere nke Masịta na 1995 na otu mahadum. N’afọ 2011, o nwetara akara ugo mmụta Doctorate na Mahadum Sayensị na Nkà nke Enugwu Steeti . <ref name="TO"/> == Ọrụ == Na 3 Machị 1992, Tessy bidoro ọrụ ya na Federal Kolejil of Education (Teknụzụ), Umunze dịka osote onye nkuzi na ngalaba Mmụta Agịriki.Ọ bụ onye nkuzi na 2007, emesịa bụrụ onye isi nkuzi na 1 Oktoba 2011 .wee bụrụ onye isi nkuzi na 1 October 2011. O jere ozi dị ka Diinụ, Ụlọakwụkọ nke Ugbo na Mmụta Nlekọta Ụlọ, Diinụ, Mmụta Affairs, Nchịkọba, Sanwichi Mmemme, Onye Nchịkọba, Na-aga n'ihu Mmụta Mmemme (CEP), Isi nke Ngalaba, Mmụta Ọrụ Ugbo. Ọ bụ onye otu ọtụtụ ndị ọkachamara, dịka Science Teachers Association of Naịjirịa (STAN), Naịjirịa Association of Teacher of Technology (NATT), Teacher Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN), Women in Colleges of Education (WICE) na Naijirịa Institute of Management (NIM). <ref name="TO"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/07/24/unn-honours-fcet-umunze-provost-for-promoting-tvet|title=UNN Honours FCET Umunze Provost for Promoting TVET|accessdate=7 December 2019}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye odeakwụkwọ nke Association nke Women in Colleges of Education (WICE). <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fidesnigeria.org/news/1566402981/dr-tessy-okoli-to-elovas-foundation%2C-thank--you-for-promoting-women%27s-betterment|title=Dr Tessy Okoli to ELOVAS Foundation, Thank You for Promoting Women's Betterment|accessdate=7 December 2019|archivedate=7 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207080423/https://www.fidesnigeria.org/news/1566402981/dr-tessy-okoli-to-elovas-foundation,-thank--you-for-promoting-women%27s-betterment}}</ref> Ọ bụkwa onye isi oche, Forum for African Women Educationalist of Nigeria (FAWEN), FCET nke Ụmụnze . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://magazine.lucubrates.com/the-tvet-expert-of-the-week-dr-tessy-okoli-nigeria|title=The TVET Expert of the Week; Dr Tessy Okoli, Nigeria|accessdate=7 December 2019|archivedate=7 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207082127/https://magazine.lucubrates.com/the-tvet-expert-of-the-week-dr-tessy-okoli-nigeria/}}</ref> == Nhọpụta ya dịka provostu == Na 17 Mee 2018, Onye isi ala nke Naịjirịa, Muhammadu Buhari, họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ onye isi nke anọ nke Federal College of Education (Teknụzụ), Umunze iji nnọchie onye isi kọleji ahụ, bụ Dr.Cicilia Nonye Ibekwe, otú a, mere ya onye mbụ. ndị ụlọ ọrụ kọleji ha rigoro dịka Provostu. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2018/05/24/buhari-makes-new-appointments-four-federal-agencies|title=Buhari makes new appointments for four federal agencies|date=24 May 2019|accessdate=7 December 2019}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sunnewsonline.com/day-umunze-college-celebrated-first-internal-provost|title=Day Umunze College celebrated first internal provost|date=16 April 2019|accessdate=18 October 2019}}</ref> == Nrite na nkwanye ugwu == Na 2019, ndị ụlọ akwụkwọ kọleji nke Education Academic Staff Union, (COEASU) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/eight-get-coeasu-labour-friendly-awards|title=Eight get COEASU labour-friendly awards|date=24 May 2019|accessdate=18 October 2019}}</ref> nyere ya nkwanye ugwu dịka onye nwere ugwu gụrụ na Mahadum nke Naịjirịa, Nsụka. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/fcet-umunze-provost-bags-unn-alumni-award.html|title=FCET Umunze provost bags UNN alumni award|date=26 July 2019|accessdate=18 October 2019|archivedate=19 October 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019001111/https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/fcet-umunze-provost-bags-unn-alumni-award.html}}</ref> Ndị otu Orumba Traditional Rulers Council, Anambra Steeti chiri ya echichi nke aha o ritere bụ Mma Chinyereugo na Orumba. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fcetumunze.edu.ng/news/community-honours-provost-for-advocating-women-education|title=COMMUNITY HONOURS PROVOST FOR ADVOCATING WOMEN EDUCATION|accessdate=18 October 2019|archivedate=19 October 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019001126/https://www.fcetumunze.edu.ng/news/community-honours-provost-for-advocating-women-education/}}</ref> == Nsidee == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 4uojj8vxui2x2da9vxo8itrvxgio04v Stan Nze 0 11158 687971 197390 2026-07-13T19:14:25Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[Category:Articles with hCards]] '''Stanley Ebuka Nzediegwu''' (amuru 16 Mee 1989) nke amara dika '''Stan Nze''' bu onye omere Naijiria amara maka oru ya na mmeghari 2020 nke Amaka Igwe's ''[[Rattlesnake (ihe nkiri 1995)|Rattlesnake]] .'' <ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=Two popular Nollywood stars don marry each oda|work=BBC News Pidgin|url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/world-58535059|accessdate=2021-09-16}}</ref> == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ Stan Nze na 16 Mee 1989 na [[Lagos]], [[Naijiria|Nigeria]], nye nna onye ọchụnta ego na nne na-emepụta ejiji dị ka nwa mbụ n'ime ụmụ ise. O nwetara nzere bachelọ na sayensị kọmputa na mahadum Nnamdị Azikiwe dị [[Óká|n'Awka]] . <ref>{{Cite web|author=Oguntayo|first=Femi|date=2021-01-30|title=9 showbiz stars to watch out for in 2021|url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/9-showbiz-stars-to-watch-out-for-in-2021/|accessdate=2021-11-14|work=Tribune Online|language=en-GB}}</ref> O nwekwara ọzụzụ ime ihe nkiri na [[Stella Damasus]] Arts Foundation. <ref name=":0"/> Ọ mere ihe ngosi mpụta mbụ ya na usoro TV nke 2009 aha ya bụ ''Private Sector'' na ọrụ mbụ ya na ihe nkiri bụ na ihe nkiri 2013 aha ya bụ ''Murder At Prime Suites'' ebe ọ rụrụ ọrụ nke onye na-egbu mmadụ oghere usoro nwere ọrịa bipolar . <ref name=":0"/> Ọ lụrụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri, Blessing Jessica Obasi na Satọde iri na otu Septemba 2021 na Lagos. <ref name=":0"/> N'ajụjụ ọnụ Stan kwuru na ọtụtụ ndị na-akwa ya emo maka ịlụ nwanyị dị afọ iri anọ na abụọ. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-16|title=People made fun of me for marrying a 42-year-old woman - Actor Stan Nze|url=https://www.lindaikejisblog.com/2021/10/people-made-fun-of-me-for-marrying-a-42-year-old-woman-actor-stan-nze.html|accessdate=2021-11-23|work=Linda Ikeji's Blog|language=en}}</ref> == Ihe nkiri ọmere == === Ihe nkiri === {| class="wikitable" !Afọ ! Aha ! Ọrụ ! Ihe ndetu ! Nsidee |- | 2013 | ''[[Murder at Prime Suites]]'' | Adolf | Ọrụ ihe nkiri mbụ | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-05-26|title=Movie 'Murder at Prime Suites' Out On DVD|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/new-movie-alert-movie-murder-at-prime-suites-out-on-dvd/j1fvsrx|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en|archivedate=2021-09-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917121134/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/new-movie-alert-movie-murder-at-prime-suites-out-on-dvd/j1fvsrx}}</ref> |- | 2015 |Bad Drop | | Ọ bụkwa onye mmepụta ihe | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-06-19|title=Must watch movie of the year to be premiered this June|url=https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/events/bad-drop-must-watch-movie-of-the-year-to-be-premiered-this-june/0c2rtxw|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en|archivedate=2021-09-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917122633/https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/events/bad-drop-must-watch-movie-of-the-year-to-be-premiered-this-june/0c2rtxw}}</ref> |- | 2016 |JuSt Married | Duke Nyamma | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-04-27|title=Meet cast in new character posters|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/just-not-married-meet-cast-in-new-character-posters/gmjz21b|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> |- | 2017 | ''Omoye'' | Pita | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-10-20|title=Tina Mba, Stan Nze, others return in ‘Omoye’|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/10/tina-mba-stan-nze-others-return-omoye/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref> |- | 2020 |[[Rattlesnake: The Ahanna Story]] | Ahanna | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-02|title=Osas Ighodaro, Efa Iwara, Stan Nze to star in 'Rattle Snake' remake directed by Ramsey Nouah|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/osas-ighodaro-efa-iwara-stan-nze-to-star-in-rattle-snake-directed-by-ramsey-nouah/qmlkcrm|accessdate=2020-12-22|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en-US}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" | 2021 |Prophetess | Buntus | | <ref>{{Cite web|author=editor|date=2021-04-03|title=Niyi Akinmolayan’s Mighty Prophetess|url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/04/03/niyi-akinmolayans-mighty-prophetess/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=THISDAYLIVE|language=en-US}}</ref> |- |Bitter Rain | Ebuka | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-05|title=Watch the official trailer for 'Bitter Rain'|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/watch-the-official-trailer-for-bitter-rain/n17ww1h|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> |- | ''[[Charge and Bail]]'' | Dotun | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-16|title=INKBLOT production releases trailer for high anticipated blockbuster, charge and bail|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/09/inkblot-production-releases-trailer-for-high-anticipated-blockbuster-charge-and-bail/|accessdate=2021-09-16|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref> |} === Ihe ngosi TV === {| class="wikitable" !Afọ ! Aha ! Ọrụ ! Ihe ndetu ! Ref |- | 2009 |Privare Sector | | | <ref name=":0"/> |- | |[[Tinsel (TV series)|''Tinsel'']] | Ohakanu | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-05-16|title=17 actors you may have forgotten were on "Tinsel"|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/pulse-list-17-actors-you-may-have-forgotten-were-on-tinsel/30tyhwb|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> |- | 2016-17 |This is it | Sam | | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-12|title=Top 5 TV and web series of the year|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/pulse-list-2017-top-5-tv-and-web-series-of-the-year/02wqcg3|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> |} == Ihe nrite na nhọpụta == {| class="wikitable" !Afọ ! Ihe nrite ! Udi ! Ọrụ ! Nsonaazụ ! Nsidee |- | 2016 | Zulu African Film Academy Awards (ZAFAA) | Onye ndu kacha mma |Just Married |{{Nom}} | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-11-29|title=ZAFAA 2016: Ini Edo, Eniola Badmus, Stan Nze and more make nomination list|url=https://thenet.ng/zafaa-2016-ini-edo-stan-nze-more-make-nominee-list/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Nigerian Entertainment Today|language=en-US}}</ref> |- | 2019 | [[2019 Best of Nollywood Awards]] | Onye na-akwado ihe nkiri kacha mma - bekee |THiCK Skin |{{Nom}} | <ref>{{Cite web|author=Bada|first=Gbenga|date=2019-12-15|title=BON Awards 2019: 'Gold Statue', Gabriel Afolayan win big at 11th edition|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/movies/bon-awards-2019-gold-statue-gabriel-afolayan-win-big-at-11th-edition/4d0w2n4|accessdate=2021-10-10|work=Pulse Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> |- | 2020 | Best of Nollywood Awards | Best Actor in a Lead role – Igbo | ''Ishi Anyaocha'' |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|author=Augoye|first=Jayne|date=2020-12-02|title=2020 BON: Here are 5 nominees for ‘Best Kiss’ category|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/naija-fashion/429108-2020-bon-here-are-5-nominees-for-best-kiss-category.html|accessdate=2021-10-11|language=en-GB}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" | 2021 | City People Movie Awards | rowspan="2" | Onye na-eme ihe nkiri kacha mma | rowspan="3" | ''Rattlesnake: Akụkọ Ahanna'' |{{Won}} |<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-31|title=OLAIDE ALMAROOF, ANIKE AMI, STAN NZE, others win in grand style at the 2021 City People Movies Award|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/08/olaide-almaroof-anike-ami-stan-nze-others-win-in-grand-style-at-the-2021-city-people-movies-award/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | Ihe nrite Nollywood kacha mma | {{pending}} |<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-11|title=BBNaija Pere bags 'Best Actor' nomination in 2021 BON Awards|url=https://punchng.com/bbnaija-pere-bags-best-actor-nomination-in-2021-bon-awards/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US}}</ref> |- | Kiss kacha mma na ihe nkiri |{{pending}} | <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-12|title=BON Awards unveils 2021 list of nominees -|url=https://theeagleonline.com.ng/bon-awards-unveils-2021-list-of-nominees/|accessdate=2021-09-17|work=The Eagle Online|language=en-US}}</ref> |} == Nsidee ==   == Njikọ mpụga == {{IMDb name|id=7850690}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] ch58u8s60wauc3gdbtnhbb42w12l38y Ursula Burns 0 12058 688036 452708 2026-07-14T07:35:08Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688036 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Ursula M. Burns''' (amuru ya na Septemba 20, 1958), bu nwanyi oma ahia America. Burns bụ onye ama ama maka ịbụ onye isi oche nke Xerox site nafo 2009 ruo n'afọ 2016, onye mbụ n'ime ụmụ nwanyị ojii bụ onye isi oche nke ụlọ ọrụ Fortune 500, na nwanyị mbụ ga-anọchi onye ọzọ dị ka onye isi ụlọ ọrụ Fortune 500. <ref name="kws">{{Cite news|author=Byrnes|first=Nanette|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/09_23/b4134018712853.htm|title=An Historic Succession At Xerox|work=Business Week|date=June 8, 2009}}</ref> <ref name="FortuneMulcahy">{{Cite news|author=Shambora|first=Jessica|url=http://postcards.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2009/05/22/xeroxs-next-ceo-ursula-burns/|title=Xerox'snext CEO: Ursula Burns|date=May 22, 2009|accessdate=January 26, 2011}}</ref> Ọ bụkwa onye isi oche Xerox site nafo 2010 ruo n'afọ 2017. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/money/business/2017/05/23/xerox-ursula-burns-retires-reverse-stock-split/340668001/|title=Xerox's stock price is rising, but it's not what you think|work=democratandchronicle.com|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.blackenterprise.com/career/ursula-burns-to-step-down-as-xerox-ceo-after-company-split/|title=Ursula Burns Steps Down as XEROX CEO After Company Split|author=Johnson|first=Kandia|date=2017-01-06|work=blackenterprise.com|publisher=Black Enterprise Magazine|accessdate=2017-01-10}}</ref> Burns makwaara maka ije ozi na ụlọ ọrụ ndị isi na ọtụtụ nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ America, gụnyere Uber, American Express na ExxonMobil . Ọ bụ onye isi oche na onye isi oche nke VEON site na mbubreyo 2018 ruo mmalite 2020, yana onye ndụmọdụ dị elu na Teneo . N'afọ 2014, ''Forbes'' nyere ya nwanyị nke iri abụọ na abụọ kacha ike n'ụwa. <ref name="Forbes14">{{Cite web|title=The World's 100 Most Powerful Women|url=https://www.forbes.com/power-women/list/|work=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> N'ime ọkwa ndị ọzọ nke obodo, ọ bụ onye ndu nke mmemme [[STIM|STEM]] nke White House site na 2009 ruo 2016, yana onye isi nke Council Export Council nke Onye isi ala site na 2015 ruo 2016. <ref name="USNews">[https://www.usnews.com/news/stem-solutions/articles/2017-05-05/xeroxs-ursula-burns-data-and-information-are-currency-of-the-future], "Xerox's Ursula Burns: U.S. Businesses Must Embrace Globalization ", ''[[US News]]'', Gaby Galvin, May 5, 2017</ref> == Ndụ mmalite na agụmakwụkwọ == Otu nne na-azụ ya zụrụ Burns na Ụlọ Baruk, ọrụ ụlọ obibi nke [[New York City|New York]] . <ref name="kws"/> Ndị mụrụ ya abụọ bụ ndị si Panama kwabatara. Ọ gara ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị Katidral, ụlọ akwụkwọ ụmụ nwanyị Katọlik niile na East 56th Street na New York. Ọ gara n'ihu nweta nzere bachelọ nke sayensị na injinia injinia site na Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute (ugbu a Mahadum New York Tandon School of Engineering ) na 1980 na nna ukwu nke sayensị na injinia injinia na Mahadum Columbia otu afọ ka e mesịrị. <ref name="bep">{{Cite web|url=http://www.blackentrepreneurprofile.com/profile-full/article/ursula-m-burns/|title=Ursula M. Burns|publisher=BlackEntrepreneurProfile.com|accessdate=2022-03-13|archivedate=2018-06-18|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618052602/http://www.blackentrepreneurprofile.com/profile-full/article/ursula-m-burns/}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.xerox.com/about-xerox/executive-leadership/ceo/enus.html|work=Xerox|accessdate=July 28, 2016|title=Ursula Burns, CEO}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://engineering.columbia.edu/xerox-ceo-ursula-burns-ms82-me-speak-class-day|title=Xerox CEO Ursula Burns MS'82 ME to Speak at Class Day|work=engineering.columbia.edu|language=en|accessdate=2018-01-19}}</ref> Ọ nwetala nzere nkwanye ugwu ọzọ na Mahadum New York, <ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2010/may/ursula-m-burns-receives-honorary-doctorate.html] "Ursula M. BurnsReceives Honorary Doctorate from NYU," [[New York University]], May 12, 2010</ref> Williams College, <ref>[https://communications.williams.edu/news-releases/3_18_2015_honorarydegrees/] "Williams College Announces its 2015 Honorary Degree Recipients," [[Williams College]], March 18, 2015</ref> Mahadum Pennsylvania, <ref>[http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/volumes/v59/n24/commencement.html] "Penn's 2013 Commencement Speaker and Honorary Degree Recipients," [[University of Pennsylvania]], March 12, 2013</ref> Mahadum Howard, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.howard.edu/secretary/convocations/recipients-year.htm|title="Recipients of Honorary Degrees and Other University Honors (by year)," Howard University|work=howard.edu|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, <ref>[http://president.rpi.edu/speeches/2013/honorary-degree-recipients-dinner] "Remarks at 2013 Honorary Degree Recipients Dinner," [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]], May 2013</ref> The City College of New York <ref>[https://www.ccny.cuny.edu/news/2015-commencement-honorees] "CCNY Names Top Three for 2015 Commencement Honors," The City College of New York, March 12, 2015</ref> Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rit.edu/news/story.php?id=46854|title=Ursula Burns Inspires RIT Graduates to Strive for the 'Unimaginable'|work=www.rit.edu|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> Mahadum Rochester, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rochester.edu/commencement/2011/honorees.html|title=Commencement :: University of Rochester|work=www.rochester.edu|accessdate=15 August 2018|archivedate=20 November 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120030412/http://www.rochester.edu/commencement/2011/honorees.html}}</ref> Mahadum Xavier, <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nola.com/education/index.ssf/2012/03/xaviers_commencement_speaker_w.html|title=Ursula Burns is Xavier University's commencement speaker|work=nola.com|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> na Mahadum Georgetown . <ref name="georgetown.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://www.georgetown.edu/news/commencement-speakers-2018|title=Georgetown Announces 2018 Commencement Speakers|date=4 May 2018|work=www.georgetown.edu|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> == Ọrụ azụmahịa == === Xerox === Burns buru ụzọ rụọ ọrụ maka Xerox dị ka onye nkuzi n'oge okpomọkụ na 1980, wee sonye na-adịgide adịgide otu afọ ka e mesịrị, mgbe ọ gụsịrị akara ugo mmụta nna ya ukwu. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị iche iche na mmepe ngwaahịa na atụmatụ na ụlọ ọrụ maka ihe fọdụrụ na 1980. <ref name="UB_nyt">{{Cite news|author=Bryant|first=Adam|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/21/business/21xerox.html|title=Xerox's New Chief Tries to Redefine Its Culture|work=The New York Times|date=February 20, 2010}}</ref> Na Jenụwarị 1990, ọrụ ya were mgbanwe na-atụghị anya ya mgbe Wayland Hicks, onye bụbu onye isi n'oge ahụ, nyere Burns ọrụ dị ka onye inyeaka onye isi ya. Ọ nabatara ma rụọrọ ya ọrụ ihe dị ka ọnwa itoolu tupu ya alọta n'ihi na ọ na-achọ ịlụ di. <ref>{{Cite web|work=London Business School|title=Leading the way: Ursula Burns|url=http://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/641/index.html|accessdate=2022-03-13|archivedate=2017-04-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425142640/https://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/641/index.html/}}</ref> Na June 1991, ọ ghọrọ osote onye isi oche na onye isi oche Paul Allaire mgbe ahụ. Na 1999, a họpụtara ya osote onye isi ala maka nrụpụta ụwa. <ref name="UB_nyt" /> Na May 2000, a na-akpọ Burns onye isi osote onye isi oche nke ọrụ atụmatụ ụlọ ọrụ wee malite ịrụkọ ọrụ ọnụ na nso nso a ga-abụ CEO Anne Mulcahy, na ihe ụmụ nwanyị abụọ ahụ kọwara dị ka ezi mmekọrịta. Afọ abụọ ka e mesịrị, Burns ghọrọ onyeisi oche nke otu azụmahịa azụmahịa. <ref name="teamusa.org">{{Cite news|url=http://www.teamusa.org/About-the-USOC/Inside-the-USOC/Leadership/Board-of-Directors/Ursula-Burns|title=Ursula Burns {{!}} USOC Board of Directors|work=Team USA|accessdate=2016-10-07}}</ref> Nafo pụkụ abụọ na asaa, Burns weere ọrụ nke onyeisi oche nke Xerox. <ref name="teamusa.org"/> N'onwa Julaị n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iteghete, akpọrọ ya aha CEO, nọchiri Mulcahy, onye nọgidere dị ka onye isi oche ruo Mee n'afo puku abụọ na iri.<ref name="UB_nyt"/> Nwanyị ojii mbụ onye isi ụlọ ọrụ Fortune 500, <ref name="kws"/> Burns bụkwa nwanyị mbụ ga-anọchi nwanyị ọzọ dịka onye isi ụlọ ọrụ Fortune 500 . <ref name="FortuneMulcahy"/> N'oge na-adịghị mgbe aha ya bụ CEO, Burns duziri nnweta nke Mgbakwunye Ọrụ Kọmputa . <ref name="teneo">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190331204425/https://www.teneo.com/news/ursula_m_burns_joins_teneo_as_senior_advisor], "Ursula M. Burns joins Teneo as Senior Advisor," Teneo, June 28, 2017</ref> Mgbe ọ dị ka CEO, Burns bụ onye otu mba ụwa nke Royal Academy of Engineering n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na atọ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=60 new Fellows elected to the Academy for 2013|url=https://www.raeng.org.uk/news/news-releases/2013/July/60-new-fellows-elected-to-the-academy-for-2013|work=Royal Academy of Engineering|accessdate=24 November 2020|date=24 July 2013|archivedate=26 October 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026043434/https://www.raeng.org.uk/news/news-releases/2013/July/60-new-fellows-elected-to-the-academy-for-2013}}</ref> N'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na isii, duuru Xerox kewara n'ime ụlọ ọrụ abụọ nwere onwe ha: <ref name="WebWire">[https://www.webwire.com/ViewPressRel.asp?aId=211408], "Diageo announces appointment to its Board of Directors," Webwire, July 26, 2017</ref> Xerox Corporation na Conduent Incorporated. <ref name="teneo" /> Ọ nọgidere bụrụ onye isi oche nwanyị na onye isi oche nke Xerox site na usoro ahụ, wee họpụta ya ka ọ bụrụ onye isi oche nke ụlọ ọrụ nkà na ụzụ akwụkwọ kwụ ọtọ. <ref name="XeroxSplitting">[https://www.news.xerox.com/news/Xerox-names-chairman-of-post-separation-Document-Technology-company], "Xerox Names Ursula BurnsChairman of Post-Separation Document Technology Company," Xerox, May 20, 2016</ref> Mgbe ọ kwụsịrị n'ọnọdụ ahụ na December n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na isii, Jeff Jacobson nọchiri Burns. O jigidere aha onye isi oche nke ụlọ ọrụ teknụzụ akwụkwọ e hibere ọhụrụ <ref name="WebWire" /> ruo Mee nafo pụkụ abụọ na iri na asaa, mgbe ọe ọ hapụrụ bọọdụ Xerox na ọrụ ya dị ka onye isi oche. <ref>[http://rbj.net/2017/05/24/robert-keegan-replaces-ursula-burns-as-xerox-chairman/], "Robert Keegan replaces UrsulaBurns as Xerox chairman," ''Rochester Business Journal'', Velvet Spicer, May 24, 2017</ref> === Ọrụ ọrụ ọha === Onye isi ala US [[Barack Obama]] họpụtara Burns ka ọ nyere aka duo mmemme White House National STEM nafo 2009, <ref name="XeroxBiography">{{Cite news|url=https://www.xerox.com/en-us/about/executive-leadership/ceo|title=Ursula M. Burns, Director since: 2007|date=2016-08-01|work=Xerox|accessdate=2016-10-07}}</ref> <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/advisory-boards/jobs-council/members/burns|title=Ursula M. Burns|work=The White House|language=en|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> na ọ nọgidere bụrụ onye ndu nke mmemme STEM ruo 2016. <ref name="USNews" /> Na Maachị n'afọ 2010 President Obama họpụtara Burns ka ọ bụrụ osote onye isi oche nke Council Export Council, <ref name="XeroxBiography" /> <ref name=":1" /> nke o duuru site nafo 2015 ruo nafo 2016. <ref name="USNews" /> === Ọrụ bọọdụ === Burns jere ozi na ọtụtụ bọọdụ, gụnyere nke Boston Scientific, <ref name="bep"/> FIRST, National Association of Manufacturers, Mahadum Rochester, MIT Corporation, Rochester Business Alliance, na RUMP Group. <ref name="bep" /> Ọ ka bụ onye isi oche nke American Express Corporation, <ref name="XeroxBiography"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://quotes.wsj.com/AXP/company-people|title=AXP Company Profile & Executives - American Express Co. - Wall Street Journal|work=quotes.wsj.com|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> Exxon Mobil Corporation, <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.exxonmobil.com/press-release/ursula-m-burns-elected-exxonmobil-board|title=Ursula M. Burns Elected to ExxonMobil Board|work=ExxonMobil News Releases|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> Datto Inc., <ref name="XeroxBiography" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/board.asp?privcapId=171978246|title=Datto, Inc.: Board of Directors - Bloomberg|work=www.bloomberg.com|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> na Nestlé . <ref name="teneo" /> N'onwa July n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asaa, a mara ọkwa na ọ ga-esonye na bọọdụ nke ụlọ ọrụ ihe ọṅụṅụ Diageo na Eprel 2, n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asatọ. <ref name="WebWire" /> Ọ sonyeere Teneo dị ka onye ndụmọdụ dị elu n'onwa June n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asaa. <ref name="teneo" /> Burns sonyeere ndị isi ụlọ ọrụ Uber na ngwụcha Septemba 2017. <ref name="uber">{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/09/29/travis-kalanick-appoints-ursula-burns-john-thain-to-ubers-board/|title=Travis Kalanick appoints Ursula Burns, John Thain to Uber's board|work=techcrunch.com|accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> N'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri abụo, a họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ onye isi oche nke Waystar. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/waystar-appoints-ursula-burns-to-board-of-directors-301093017.html|title=Waystar Appoints Ursula Burns to Board of Directors|work=prnewswire.com|accessdate=29 July 2020}}</ref> N'onwa July n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asaa,a họpụtara Burns dịka onye isi oche nke VEON, ndị na-enye ọrụ telecoms 11 nke ụwa site n'aka ndị debanyere aha, <ref name="VEON">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-veon-management/veon-names-former-xerox-ceo-ursula-burns-as-chairwoman-idUSKBN1A914E], "VEON names former Xerox CEO Ursula Burns as chairwoman," [[Reuters]], Eric Auchard, July 24, 2017</ref> site n'aka ndị isi ya. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180815200740/https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/veon-board-elects-former-xerox-ceo-ursula-burns-as-chairman/59737820], "VEON board elects former Xerox CEO Ursula Burns as chairman," Reuters and The Economic Times, July 24, 2017</ref> Site na ọpụpụ onye isi na mberede na March 2018, e mere ya onye isi oche ka ọ na-eche usoro nhọrọ, na Disemba 2018, a họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ CEO. <ref name="CEO">{{Cite news|author=Bicheno|first=Scott|title=Burns officially made Veon CEO at last|url=http://telecoms.com/494180/ursula-burns-officially-made-veon-ceo-at-last/|accessdate=10 January 2019|work=Telecoms.com|date=13 December 2018}}</ref> N'onwa February 2020, a họpụtara Kaan Terzioğlu na Sergi Herrero ndị isi oche, na-anọchi Burns. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Burkitt-Gray|first=Alan|title=New Co-CEOs for Veon as Ursula Burns Rreverts to Chairmanship|url=https://www.capacitymedia.com/articles/3824914/new-co-ceos-for-veon-as-ursula-burns-reverts-to-chairmanship|accessdate=26 July 2021|work=Capacity Media|date=14 February 2020}}</ref> Na onwa June n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri abụo, Gennady Gazin nọchiri Burns dị ka onye isi oche. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Boyadzhieva|first=Yanitsa|title=Veon Settles on New Chair, Board Members|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/featured-content/top-three/veon-settles-on-new-chair-board-members/|accessdate=26 July 2021|work=Mobile World Live|date=2 June 2020}}</ref> === Diageo === Agbanyeghị na Burns mara ọkwa na ọ ga-esonye na bọọdụ Diageo dị ka onye isi na-abụghị onye isi mana Diageo kwupụtara na Machị n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asatọ, na “Burns agaghị eweghara nhọpụta ya dị ka onye isi na-abụghị onye isi na Diageo Board” ka a họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ onye isi oche nke oge. VEON <ref>{{Cite web|author=GmbH|first=finanzen net|title=Diageo Says Ursula Burns Not To Take Up Non-Executive Director Role On Board|url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/diageo-says-ursula-burns-not-to-take-up-non-executive-director-role-on-board-1027781845|accessdate=2021-07-08|work=markets.businessinsider.com|language=en|archivedate=2021-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185921/https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/diageo-says-ursula-burns-not-to-take-up-non-executive-director-role-on-board-1027781845}}</ref> == Ihe omume obodo == Burns na-enye ndụmọdụ nduzi na obodo, agụmakwụkwọ na òtù na-abaghị uru gụnyere FIRST ( N'ihi na Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology ), National Academy Foundation, MIT, na US Olympic Committee, n'etiti ndị ọzọ. <ref name="XeroxBiography"/>  Ọ bụ onye isi oche ntọala nke Change Equation, nke na-elekwasị anya n'ịkwalite usoro mmụta US na sayensị, teknologi, injinia na mgbakọ na mwepụ (STEM). <ref name="XeroxBiography" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.innov8tiv.com/fem-boss-ursula-burns-chairman-ceo-xerox-corporation/|title=Fem Boss: Ursula Burns – Chairman & CEO of Xerox Corporation - Innov8tiv|date=27 April 2014|work=innov8tiv.com|accessdate=15 August 2018|archivedate=15 August 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815131627/http://innov8tiv.com/fem-boss-ursula-burns-chairman-ceo-xerox-corporation/}}</ref> Ọ jere ozi dị ka osote onye isi oche nke kọmitii ndị isi nke Business Council n'etiti afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na atọ nakwa n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na anọ. <ref name="yahoo">Press Release: The Dow Chemical Company, [https://finance.yahoo.com/news/dow-chairman-ceo-andrew-liveris-174000939.html Dow Chairman and CEO Andrew Liveris Elected Chairman, The Business Council], ''[[Yahoo!]]'', October 19, 2012</ref> O nyela adreesị mmalite na mahadum gụnyere Rochester Institute of Technology, <ref>{{Cite web|title=Xerox President Ursula Burns Selected as RIT's 2009 Commencement Speaker|work=RIT.edu|url=https://www.rit.edu/news/xerox-president-ursula-burns-selected-as-rits-2009-commencement-speaker}}</ref> MIT, <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thetech.com/2010/11/09/burns-v130-n52|title=Xerox CEO Ursula M. Burns to speak at Commencement|first=Elijah Jordan|author=Turner|work=[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]|date=November 9, 2010}}</ref> Mahadum Rochester, <ref>{{Cite web|title=Xerox Corporation CEO UrsulaBurns to Address University of Rochester College Commencement|work=Rochester.edu|url=http://www.rochester.edu/news/show.php?id=3801}}</ref> Xavier University, Howard University, <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210308223644/https://www2.howard.edu/xerox-chairman-ceo-ursula-m-burns-deliver-howard-university-2015-commencement-address] "Xerox Chairman & CEO Ursula M. Burns to Deliver Howard University 2015 Commencement Address," Howard University, April 23, 2015</ref> Williams College, <ref>[https://commencement.williams.edu/commencement-2015/ursula-m-burns-commencement-speech/] "Ursula M. Burns, Commencement Speaker," Williams College, 2015</ref> na Georgetown Mahadum . <ref name="georgetown.edu"/> ''Forbes'' depụtara ya ọtụtụ oge dị ka otu n'ime ụmụ nwanyị narị kachasị ike n'ụwa. N'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na ise, e depụtara ya dị ka onye iri abụo na iteghete. <ref name="Forbes14"/> N'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na asatọ, e gosipụtara ya n'etiti "Ụmụ nwanyị iri ise kacha elu nke America na teknologi". <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/anne-aaron/?list=top-tech-women-america|title=Anne Aaron|work=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> N'afo pụkụ abụọ na iri na isii ozi ịntanetị hacked kpughere na ọ nọ na ndepụta ndị nwere ike ịzọ ọkwa osote onye isi ala Hillary Clinton . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2016-election/hacked-emails-reveal-39-names-clinton-s-first-cut-vp-n668181|title=Hacked emails reveal 39 names on Clinton's "first cut" VP list|first=Alex|author=Seitz-Wald|date=October 18, 2016|work=NBC News}}</ref> == Ndụ onwe onye == Burns lụrụ Lloyd Bean ruo mgbe ọ nwụrụ n'afọ pụkụ abụọ na iri na iteghete; ọ rụkwara ọrụ na Xerox, ha bikwa na Rochester, New York . <ref name="UB_nyt"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://obits.democratandchronicle.com/obituaries/democratandchronicle/obituary.aspx?n=lloyd-fitzgerald-bean&pid=191256991&fhid=11954|title=Lloyd Bean Obituary - Rochester, NY &#124; Rochester Democrat And Chronicle|accessdate=2022-03-13|archivedate=2021-03-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313012714/https://obits.democratandchronicle.com/obituaries/democratandchronicle/obituary.aspx?n=lloyd-fitzgerald-bean&pid=191256991&fhid=11954}}</ref> O nwere nwa nwanyị Melissa (a mụrụ c. 1992) na stepson Malcolm (a mụrụ c. 1989) onye gara MIT. <ref name="UB_nyt" /> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/02/03/technology/american-dream-ursula-burns/index.html|title=Xerox's Ursula Burns: Business is made for men|author=Alesci|first=Cristina|work=CNNMoney|accessdate=2018-01-19}}</ref> Burns abụrụla onye nyere aka na ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị McQuaid Jesuit na New York. <ref>[http://www.catholiccourier.com/articles/major-gifts-make-major-difference], "Major gifts make major difference," Catholic Courier, Mike Latona, August 4, 2014</ref> == Ihe ncheta == Burns bipụtara ihe ndekọ, ''Ebe Ị Na-abụghị Onye Ị bụ: Ihe Memoir'', na 2021. <ref name="UB_memoir">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/54698055-where-you-are-is-not-who-you-are|title=Where You Are Is Not Who You Are: A Memoir|work=[[GoodReads]]}}</ref> == Hụkwa == * Ndepụta nke ndị otu mba ụwa nke Royal Academy of Engineering == Ndensibia == [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 6e0ofafjlvm5848z3cx7bz05x4lre4b Tyra Banks 0 12706 688021 212081 2026-07-14T05:39:32Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688021 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Tyra Lynne Banks''' (amụrụ Disemba 4, 1973), makwaara dị ka '''BanX''', <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://people.com/style/tyra-banks-changes-modeling-name-to-banx/|title=Why Tyra Banks Will Now Go by 'BanX': The Model Explains Her Name Makeover as She Comes Out of Retirement for SI Swim|work=PEOPLE.com|language=en|accessdate=2019-05-14}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/09/entertainment/tyra-banks-banx/index.html|title=Tyra Banks is now 'BanX'|author=Lisa Respers France|work=CNN|date=May 9, 2019|accessdate=2019-05-14}}</ref> bụ agwa telivishọn America, ihe nlereanya, nwanyị ọchụnta ego, onye na-emepụta ihe, onye na-eme ihe nkiri na onye edemede. Amụrụ na Inglewood, California, ọ malitere ọrụ ya dị ka ihe nlereanya mgbe ọ dị afọ 15, ma bụrụ nwanyị mbụ nke Africa-America ka egosipụtara na mkpuchi nke ''GQ'' na ''Egwuregwu Illustrated Swimsuit Issue'', nke ọ pụtara ugboro atọ. Ọ bụ mmụọ ozi nzuzo nke Victoria site na 1997 ruo 2005. Ka ọ na-erule mmalite 2000s, ụlọ akụ bụ otu n'ime ụdị ego kacha akwụ ụgwọ n'ụwa. Ụlọ akụ malitere ime ihe nkiri na telivishọn na sitcom ''The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'' (1993), wee mee ihe nkiri mbụ ya na ihe nkiri ''Higher Learning'' (1995). Na 2000, o nwere nnukwu ọrụ ihe nkiri, dị ka Eve na Disney Channel 's ''Life-Size'' na Zoe na igbe igbe kụrụ ''Coyote Ugly .'' Ụlọ akụ nwere obere ọrụ na ihe nkiri egwuregwu ''ịhụnanya Love &amp;amp; Basketball'' (2000), ihe nkiri egwu ''Halloween: Mbilite n'ọnwụ'' (2002), na usoro telivishọn ''Gossip Girl'' (2009) na ''Glee'' (2013). <ref>{{Cite news|title=Hilary Duff, Tyra Banks appear in same episode of 'Gossip Girl'|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/hilary-duff-tyra-banks-episode-gossip-girl-article-1.382055|accessdate=20 January 2019|work=New York Daily News|date=2 October 2009}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title='Glee': Tyra Banks Is Fierce And Hyper-Critical As A Modeling Agent (VIDEO)|date=November 22, 2013|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/22/glee-tyra-banks-fierce-bichette-modeling-agent-video_n_4321567.html|publisher=huffingtonpost.com|accessdate=20 January 2019}}</ref> == Mmalite ndu na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Tyra Lynne Banks <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/tyra-banks/bio/177758|title=Tyra Banks Biography|work=[[TV Guide Network]]|accessdate=June 23, 2012}}</ref> na Inglewood, California, na Disemba 4, 1973. <ref name="biochannel" /> Nne ya, Carolyn London (ugbu a London-Johnson), bụ onye na-ese foto ahụike, <ref name="biochannel">{{Cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/articles/Tyra-Banks-16242328|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620065801/http://www.biography.com/articles/Tyra-Banks-16242328|archivedate=June 20, 2009|title=Tyra Banks Biography|publisher=[[The Biography Channel]]|accessdate=July 17, 2011}}</ref> na nna ya, Donald Banks, bụ onye na-ahụ maka kọmputa. <ref name="bod">{{Cite web|url=http://movies.msn.com/celebrities/celebrity-biography/tyra-banks/|title=Tyra Banks:Biography on MSN|first=Jason|year=2008|publisher=[[MSN]]|author=Clark|accessdate=July 18, 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080902013801/http://movies.msn.com/celebrities/celebrity-biography/tyra-banks/|archivedate=September 2, 2008}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/26/Tyra-Banks.html|title=Tyra Banks Biography|publisher=FilmReference.com}}</ref> O nwere nwanne nwoke aha ya bụ Devin, onye tọrọ afọ ise. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://movies.yahoo.com/person/tyra-banks/biography.html|title=Tyra Banks|publisher=Movies.yahoo.com|accessdate=June 3, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109011758/http://movies.yahoo.com/person/tyra-banks/biography.html|archivedate=November 9, 2013}}</ref> Na 1979, mgbe Banks dị afọ isii, nne na nna ya gbara alụkwaghịm. Ụlọ akụ gara John Burroughs Middle School, wee gụchaa na 1991 na Immaculate Heart High School na Los Angeles. Ụlọ akụ kwuru na mgbe ọ na-etolite, a na-akwa ya emo maka ọdịdị ya ma weere ya dị ka "nwanyị ọbọgwụ jọrọ njọ"; <ref>{{Cite web|first=Wendy|author=Shanker|title=About Tyra Banks|url=http://www.supermodels.nl/tyrabanks/about|publisher=Supermodels.nl|accessdate=November 9, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109053306/http://www.supermodels.nl/tyrabanks/about|archivedate=November 9, 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Fat Girl's Guide to Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aI-tCMdjklwC&q=tyra+banks+interview+on+being+an+ugly+duckling&pg=PT81|accessdate=November 9, 2014|isbn=9781408806623|author=Shanker|first=Wendy|date=August 17, 2009}}</ref> mgbe Banks dị afọ 11, ọ toro sentimita atọ wee tufuo 30 pound n'ime ọnwa atọ. <ref>{{Cite news|title=Tyra Banks Opens Up About Body and Weight Battles|url=http://www.lifeandstylemag.com/posts/tyra-banks-opens-up-about-body-and-weight-battles-37919|first=Chantal|author=Waldholz|accessdate=November 9, 2014|work=[[Life & Style (magazine)|Life & Style]]|date=May 5, 2014}}</ref> Na ''America's Next Top Model'', Banks tụlere nsonaazụ nke nyocha DNA nke Ancestry.com nke nyere ya "79% African, 14% British, and 6% Native American". <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.ancestry.com/cm/2014/12/29/tyra-banks-gets-surprising-dna-results-on-americas-next-top-model/|title=Tyra Banks Gets Surprising DNA Results on 'America's Next Top Model'|publisher=[[Ancestry.com]]|first=—Sabrina Rojas|author=Weiss|date=n.d.|accessdate=October 3, 2017|archivedate=May 11, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511193717/http://blogs.ancestry.com/cm/2014/12/29/tyra-banks-gets-surprising-dna-results-on-americas-next-top-model}}</ref> N'ajụjụ ọnụ, ọ gbakwụnyere na ya bụkwa "1% Finnish ", na-ekwu, sị: "Abụ m 14% British, 6% Native American, 1% Finnish, na ndị ọzọ niile Africa." <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/entertainment/a33991/tyra-banks-interview-recipe/|title=At Home With Tyra Banks|date=August 20, 2015|work=[[Good Housekeeping]]|accessdate=September 2, 2020}}</ref> N'ọnwa Febụwarị nke afọ 2012, ụlọ akụ gụchara nkuzi izu itoolu na mmemme ndọtị na-abụghị ogo nke Mahadum Harvard. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Anne|first=Sarah|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/tyra-banks-graduates-from-harvards-executive-education-program/2012/02/24/gIQASv0vXR_blog.html|title=Tyra Banks graduates from Harvard's executive education program|work=The Washington Post|date=2012-02-24|accessdate=2022-02-16}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecrimson.com/flyby/article/2012/9/17/tyra-banks-harvard-girl/|title=Tyra Banks: Dropping H-Bombs Like Nobody's Business &#124; Flyby &#124; the Harvard Crimson}}</ref> == Ọrụ ịṅomi == [[Usòrò:Tyra_Banks_2012_Shankbone.JPG|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb| Banks na 2012]] Mgbe Banks dị afọ iri na ise, ọ malitere ịme ihe ngosi mgbe ọ na-aga ụlọ akwụkwọ na Los Angeles. Ụlọ ọrụ anọ jụrụ ya tupu LA Model bịanye aka na ya. Ọ gbanwere na Elite Model Management mgbe ọ dị afọ 16. Mgbe o nwetara ohere ime ihe nlereanya na Europe, ọ kwagara Milan. N'oge ụzọ ụgbọ elu mbụ ya, ọ debere ihe ngosi 25 na 1991 Paris Fashion Week . Ụlọ akụ pụtara na nchịkọta akụkọ maka American, Italian, French, na Spanish ''Vogue'' ; American, French, German, na Spanish ''Elle'' ; American, German, na Malaysian ''Harper's Bazaar'' ; ''V'' ; ''W'' na Vanity Fair . == Ọrụ ihie onyonyo na ihe nkiri == [[Usòrò:Tyra_Banks(Cannes).jpg|alt=|áká_èkpè|thumb| Ụlọ akụ na Cannes Film Festival na 2000]] <ref>{{Cite web|title=Space Ghost Coast to Coast Chinatown|url=http://www.tv.com/shows/space-ghost-coast-to-coast/chinatown-102388/|work=tv.com}}</ref> === Edemede === Na 1998, Banks nwadoro akwụkwọ aha ya bụ ''Tyra's Beauty, Inside and Out'' . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newyorktimesbestsellerlist.org/reviews/tyra-banks|title=Tyra Banks, Supermodel, Talk Show Host, and Actress|work=[[The New York Times]] Bestsellerlist|accessdate=October 2, 2008|archivedate=March 27, 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327223248/http://www.newyorktimesbestsellerlist.org/reviews/tyra-banks}}</ref> O kwuputara na Mee 2010 na ọ ga-ede akwụkwọ akụkọ, akpọrọ ''Modelland'', <ref>Nudd, Tim. [http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20368179,00.html Tyra Banks to Publish Her First Novel]. ''[[People (magazine)|People]]''. May 11, 2010. Retrieved July 23, 2011.</ref> na-adabereghị na ahụmịhe nhazi nke ya. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nyulocal.com/tyra-banks-modelland-a-masterwork-of-modern-literature-978b648ea325|title=Tyra Banks' Modelland: A Masterwork of Modern Literature|work=NYU Local|first=Jocelyn|author=Silver|date=November 30, 2011|accessdate=May 22, 2019|archivedate=January 20, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120131406/https://nyulocal.com/tyra-banks-modelland-a-masterwork-of-modern-literature-978b648ea325}}</ref> E bipụtara ya na Septemba 2011, nke e bu n'obi ka ọ bụrụ nke mbụ n'ime usoro akụkụ atọ a haziri ahazi; <ref>Krupnick, Ellie. [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/21/tyra-banks-book-harvard_n_905779.html?ir=Books Tyra Banks Talks 'Modelland', Harvard Business School (VIDEO)]. ''[[The Huffington Post]]''. July 21, 2011. Retrieved July 23, 2011.</ref> ''Modelland tolitere'' ndepụta kacha ere ahịa <nowiki><i id="mwAak">nke New York Times</i></nowiki> na Ọktoba 2011. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/10/tyra-banks-new-york-times-best-seller_n_1003369.html|title=Tyra Banks Is A New York Times Bestselling Author|date=October 10, 2011|publisher=Huffingtonpost|accessdate=November 9, 2014}}</ref> N'afọ 2018, Banks na nne ya, Carolyn London, dekọtara akwụkwọ nke akpọrọ "Perfect is Boring". <ref>PerfectIsBoring.com</ref> === Nkuzi === N'August 2016, Banks nakweere ọkwá dị ka onye nkuzi ọbịa na-ama akara na Mahadum Stanford . == Ndụ onwe onye == Ndị ụlọ akụ nwere ụbọchị onye na-ese foto Norwegian Erik Asla n'oge 2010, na Jenụwarị 2016, ha nwere nwa nwoke mụrụ site na ịwa ahụ. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Moms & Babies|title=Tyra Banks Welcomes Son York|url=https://people.com/parents/tyra-banks-welcomes-son-york-via-surrogate-erik-asla|accessdate=January 27, 2016|work=[[People (magazine)|People]]|date=January 27, 2016}}</ref> Ụlọ akụ ekwuola na ọ na-ezere ịṅụ ihe ọṅụṅụ na ọ dịghị mgbe ọ na-eji ọgwụ ntụrụndụ ndị ọzọ eme ihe. <ref>{{Cite web|accessdate=April 20, 2017|url=http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/entertainment/Tyra+Banks-35390.html|title=Tyra Banks' sexy drink|date=June 1, 2007|quote=I've never had any drugs and I had a little taste of alcohol when I was 12-years-old, but that's about it|work=www.femalefirst.co.uk|archivedate=June 19, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070619034242/http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/entertainment/Tyra+Banks-35390.html}}</ref> . <ref>{{Cite web|title=Breaking the Dating Violence Cycle|url=http://www.oprah.com/relationships/Tyra-Banks-on-Dating-Abuse/3|work=Oprah.com|accessdate=August 1, 2012|archivedate=July 1, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701175722/https://www.oprah.com/relationships/tyra-banks-on-dating-abuse/3}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=Morrissey|first=Tracie Egan|title=Oprah: Tyra Banks Opens Up About Abusive Ex-Boyfriend|url=http://jezebel.com/5169124/oprah-tyra-banks-opens-up-about-abusive-ex+boyfriend|publisher=Jezebel.com|date=March 12, 2009|accessdate=August 1, 2012|archivedate=March 30, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330063000/http://jezebel.com/5169124/oprah-tyra-banks-opens-up-about-abusive-ex+boyfriend}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|title=Tyra Banks tells Oprah of her own abuse|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2009-03-19/living/o.break.dating.violence.cycle_1_chris-brown-and-rihanna-abuse-tyra-banks-show?_s=PM:LIVING|work=cnn|date=March 19, 2009|accessdate=August 1, 2012}}</ref> === Agụmakwụkwọ === [[Usòrò:Defense.gov_News_Photo_031219-F-0464D-071.jpg|thumb| Ndị ụlọ akụ na-eleta ndị ọrịa na Walter Reed Army Medical Center na [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, DC]] na Disemba 19, 2003]] Na 2011, ụlọ akụ debanyere aha na izu itoolu <ref name="opm">[https://web.archive.org/web/20180814010345/https://www.exed.hbs.edu/programs/opm/Pages/admissions.aspx "Owner/President Management: Program Objectives"]. Executive Education. Harvard Business School. Retrieved 2013-07-30.</ref> Onye nwe / Onye isi oche Management Program (OPM) na Harvard Business School . Ụlọ akụ dechara mmemme ọzụzụ nkuzi ndị isi na February 2012, na-enweta asambodo. <ref>Hughes, Sarah Ann (February 24, 2012). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/tyra-banks-graduates-from-harvards-executive-education-program/2012/02/24/gIQASv0vXR_blog.html?tid=pm_entertainment_pop "Tyra Banks graduates from Harvard's executive education program"]. ''Celebritology'' (blog). Washington Post.</ref> <ref>Sauers, Jenna, {{Cite web|title=Model Behaviors|url=http://jezebel.com/tyra-banks-harvard|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20150407192123/http://jezebel.com/tyra-banks-harvard|archivedate=April 7, 2015|accessdate=August 25, 2011|publisher=Jezebel.com}} </ref> Abara ya mba maka ịsị na ọ bụ onye gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Harvard. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Manuel-Logan|first=Ruth|title=Tyra Banks a Harvard Business School Graduate? Not!|url=http://newsone.com/2033192/tyra-banks-harvard|publisher=NewsOne.com|date=August 30, 2012|accessdate=March 25, 2015}}</ref> Jenna Sauers, na-ede maka ''Jezebel'', zoro aka na nkwupụta ya na Harvard dị ka "ndị na-enweghị isi", ma kpọkuo ya ka ọ "kwụsị ịgha ụgha" banyere Harvard. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Sauers|first=Jenna|title=Tyra Banks Needs to Stop Lying About Going to Harvard Business School|url=http://jezebel.com/5937660/tyra-banks-needs-to-stop-lying-about-going-to-harvard-business-school|work=Jezebel|publisher=Gawker Media|date=August 24, 2012|accessdate=March 25, 2015|archivedate=February 15, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215033315/http://jezebel.com/5937660/tyra-banks-needs-to-stop-lying-about-going-to-harvard-business-school}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|author=Bennett-Smith|first=Meredith|title=Tyra Banks A Harvard Business School Graduate? Well, Not Exactly|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/27/tyra-banks-a-harvard-busi_n_1834728.html|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=August 27, 2012|accessdate=March 25, 2015}}</ref> Dị ka nke 2012, Harvard prọfesọ Rohit Deshpande na-akwadebe ọmụmụ ihe gbasara ụlọ ọrụ Banks, Bankable Productions, maka iji mee ihe n'ọdịnihu na mmemme OPM. <ref>Zhang, Brian C. (February 27, 2012). [https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2012/2/27/tyra-banks-leaves-HBS "Tyra Finishes HBS Program"]. ''The Harvard Crimson''. Retrieved July 30, 2013.</ref> <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220810014643/https://harbus.org/2012/tyra-banks/ "Tyra Banks: Fun, Fierce, and Financially Savvy"]. Features. The Harbus (harbus.org). February 15, 2012. Retrieved July 30, 2013.</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title=Tyra Banks TZone|url=http://tzonefoundation.org/|publisher=tzonefoundation.org|accessdate=September 28, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312224353/http://tzonefoundation.org/|archivedate=March 12, 2018}}</ref> == Ihe nkiri == [[Usòrò:Tyra_Banks_2011.jpg|thumb| Banks na 2011]] === Ihe nkiri === {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ ! Aha ! Ọrụ ! class="unsortable" | Ihe ndetu ! Ref. |- | 1995 | ''Mmụta dị elu'' | Deja | | |- | rowspan="2" | 1999 | ''Lovehụnanya isi ísì'' | Holly Garnett | | |- | ''The Apartment Complex'' | Onwe ya | Ihe nkiri onyonyo | |- | rowspan="3" | 2000 | ''Ịhụnanya &amp;amp; Bọọlụ Nkata'' | Kyra Kessler | | |- | ''Nha ndụ'' | Eve | Ihe nkiri onyonyo | |- | ''Coyote jọrọ njọ'' | Zoe | | |- | 2002 | ''Halloween: Mbilite n'ọnwụ'' | Nora Winston | | |- | 2002 | ''Abalị asatọ dị nzuzu'' | Akwa uwe nzuzo nke Victoria | Olu | |- | 2004 | ''Larceny'' | rowspan="4" | Onwe ya | | |- | 2007 | | Ọdịdị cameo | |- | 2008 | ''Tropic Thunder'' | Ọdịdị cameo | |- | 2009 | ''Hannah Montana: Ihe nkiri'' | Ọdịdị cameo enweghị nzere | <ref>{{Cite web|title=Cast and credits of Hannah Montana: The Movie|url=https://www.listal.com/movie/hannah-montana-the-movie/cast|publisher=Walt Disney Pictures|accessdate=2020-11-10}}</ref> |- | 2018 | ''Nha ndụ 2'' | Eve | Ihe nkiri onyonyo | |} === Igwe onyonyo === {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ ! Aha ! Ọrụ ! class="unsortable" | Ihe ndetu |- | 1993 | ''The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'' | Jackie Ames | Ihe ngosi 7 |- | 1996 | ''Ihe niile'' | Onye ahịa | Ihe omume: "Tyra Banks/Blackstreet" |- | 1997 | ''New York Undercover'' | Natasha Claybourne | Akụkụ 3 |- | 1998 | ''Space Ghost Coast ruo Coast'' | rowspan="2" | Onwe ya | Ihe omume: "Chinatown" |- | rowspan="2" | 1999 | ''Naanị gbaa m!'' | Akụkụ 2 |- | ''The Hughleys'' | Nicole | Ihe omume: "Sap na kpakpando" |- | rowspan="2" | 2000 | ''MADtv'' | Ụdị agwa dị iche iche | Akụkụ 2 |- | ''Mmasị'' | Jane Scott | Akụkụ 3 |- | 2001 | ''Nri mkpụrụ obi'' | Nina Josef | Ihe omume: "Mgbu nkịtị" |- | 2003–2015; 2017 - dị ugbu a | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha nke America'' | Onwe ya | Onye okike, onye ọbịa, onye ọka ikpe na onye ọbịa pụrụ iche (akụkụ 2) |- | rowspan="2" | 2004 | ''Anyị niile'' | Roni | Ihe omume: "Nwanne, olee ebe ị nọ?" |- | ''American Dreams'' | Carolyn Gill | Ihe omume: "Ịchọ ihe gara aga" |- | 2005-2010 | ''The Tyra Banks Show'' | Onwe ya | Onye ọbịa |- | 2009 | ''Nwanyị asịrị'' | Ursula Nyquist | Ihe omume: " Dan de Fleurette " |- | 2011 | ''Ihe Nlereanya kacha elu nke Mexico'' | rowspan="5" | Onwe ya | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 2 ikpeazụ |- | rowspan="2" | 2012 | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha elu nke Vietnam'' | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 2 ikpeazụ |- | ''Top Model po-russki'' | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 3 ikpeazụ |- | 2012-2013 | ''Kwalie Ya elu'' | Akụkụ 2 |- | rowspan="2" | 2013 | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha elu nke Eshia'' | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 1 ikpeazụ |- | ''Glee'' | Bichette | Ihe omume: " Movin' Out " |- | 2014 | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha elu nke Korea'' | rowspan="3" | Onwe ya | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 5 ihe nkedo |- | 2015 | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha mma nke Australia'' | Onye ọka ikpe; okirikiri 9 ikpeazụ |- | 2015 | ''Ndụ FABL'' | Onye ọbịa |- | 2015-2016 | ''Nwa-isi'' | Gigi Franklin | Akụkụ 2 |- | 2017 | ''New Celebrity Apprentice'' | rowspan="5" | Onwe ya | Akụkụ 3 |- | 2017-2018 | ''America nwere Talent'' | Onye ọbịa |- | 2019 | ''Topmodel nke Germany na-esote'' | Onye ọbịa; okirikiri 14 ikpeazụ |- | 2020 | ''Celebrity Watch Party'' | Ihe omume 6 |- | 2020 - dị ugbu a | ''Ịgba egwu na kpakpando'' | Onye ọbịa |} {| class="wikitable" !Afọ ! Vidiyo egwu ! Onye na-ese ihe |- | 1991 | " Oji ma ọ bụ ọcha " | [[Michael Jackson]] |- | 1991 | " Ihe ịhụnanya " | Tina Turner |- | 1992 | " Too Funky " | George Michael |- | 1995 | "Trife Life" | Mobb Deep |- | 1996 | "Achọghị ịhapụ gị" | Lionel Richie |- | 2004 | "Shake Ya Body" | Onwe ya |- | 2015 | "Elu oke" | Onwe ya |- | 2016 | "Egwuregwu ụmụaka" | Drake |} == Akwụkwọ akụkọ == * {{Cite book|author=Vanessa Thomas|first=Bush|title=Tyra's Beauty Inside & Out|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=1998|isbn=978-0060952105}} * {{Cite book|author=Banks|first=Tyra|title=Modelland|publisher=Delacorte Books|year=2011|isbn=978-0385740593}} * {{Cite book|author=Banks|first=Tyra|title=Perfect Is Boring|publisher=Tarcher Perigee|year=2018|isbn=978-0143132301|ref=https://perfectisboring.com/}} == Ihe nrite na nhọpụta == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ ! Ihe nrite ! Otu ! onye nnata ! Nsonaazụ ! Ref. |- | 1999 | rowspan="3" | Teen Choice Awards | Ụdị Nhọrọ | Onwe ya| {{Won}} | <ref>{{Cite web|author=Coleman|first=Kali|title=Can You Remember The Winners From The 1999 Teen Choice Awards?|url=https://bestlifeonline.com/1999-teen-choice-awards-winners/|work=[[Best Life (magazine)|Best Life]]|publisher=Galvanized Media|accessdate=December 12, 2020|date=August 8, 2019}}</ref> |- | 2004 | Nhọrọ Eziokwu/Star TV dị iche iche - Nwanyi | rowspan="2" | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha nke America''| {{Nom}} | <ref name="imdb.com">{{Cite web|title=Tyra Banks|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0004723/awards|work=[[IMDb]]|accessdate=December 1, 2016}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | 2005 | Nhọrọ TV Omume: Nwanyi| {{Nom}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | Ihe nturu ugo ihe nkiri na ihe onyonyo n'ịntanetị | Onye ọbịa kacha mma nke ihe ngosi okwu ma ọ bụ ọrụ | ''Ihe ngosi Tyra Banks''| {{Nom}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | rowspan="3" | 2007 | Teen Choice Awards | Nhọrọ TV: Omume | ''Ihe Nlereanya Na-esote America'' / ''Ihe ngosi ụlọ akụ Tyra''| {{Won}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | Onyinye Emmy kwa ụbọchị | Ihe ngosi Okwu pụtara ìhè | ''Ihe ngosi nke Tyra Banks Show''| {{Nom}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | ASTRA Awards | Mmasị mba ụwa ma ọ bụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri ọkacha mmasị | rowspan="2" | ''Ihe nlere anya kacha nke America''| {{Nom}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | rowspan="2" | 2008 | Teen Choice Awards | Nhọrọ TV: Omume| {{Won}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | rowspan="2" | Onyinye Emmy kwa ụbọchị | Ngosi Okwu/Na-enye nkọwa pụtara ìhè | rowspan="2" | ''Ihe ngosi nke Tyra Banks Show''| {{Won}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | 2009 | Ngosi Okwu/Na-enye nkọwa pụtara ìhè| {{Won}} | <ref name="imdb.com" /> |- | 2017 | Teen Choice Awards | Nhọrọ TV: Omume | rowspan="2" | ''America nwere Talent''| {{Nom}} | <ref>{{Cite web|author=Ceron|first=Ella|title=Teen Choice Awards 2017: See the First Wave of Nominations|url=http://www.teenvogue.com/story/teen-choice-awards-2017-nominees|work=[[Teen Vogue]]|date=June 19, 2017|accessdate=June 19, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2019 | Nhọrọ ụmụaka | Onye ọbịa ihe onyonyo masịrị| {{Nom}} | |} == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} <references /> == Njikọ mpụga == * {{IMDb name|4723}} * Tyra Banks </img> * Tyra Banks * Tyra Banks * [http://tyrashow.warnerbros.com/ ''Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ Tyra Banks Show''] * Profaịlụ/ajụjụ ọnụ ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/01/magazine/01tyra-t.html New York Times]'' [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 3quvzfr8bs54ljnaq5mrexp3nuwruik Stanley Enow 0 13957 687972 596115 2026-07-13T19:17:20Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687972 wikitext text/x-wiki  {{Databox}} [[Usòrò:Stanley Enow.png|thumb|áká_ịkẹngạ]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with hCards]] [[Category:Pages using infobox musical artist with associated acts]] '''Stanley Ebai Enow''' (a mụrụ n'ụbọchị nke abụọ n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ n'afọ 1985) bụ onye Cameroon na-eti egwu, onye na-egosi redio na TV, na onye na-eme ihe nkiri olu. Ọ bụ onye nwe ụlọ ọrụ ndekọ, Motherland Empire .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.auletch.com/web/article/4/stanley-enow-hein-pyire|title=Stanley Enow : Hein Père !|publisher=Auletch.com|language=French|date=5 May 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606231942/http://www.auletch.com/web/article/4/stanley-enow-hein-pyire|archivedate=6 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="culturebene1">{{Cite web|author=La Rédaction|url=http://www.culturebene.com/5122-stanley-enow-soldier-like-ma-papa-est-destine-a-changer-latmosphere-hiphop-kamer.html|title=Stanley ENOW : " Soldier like ma papa " est destiné à changer l'atmosphère Hiphop kamer|language=French|publisher=CulturEbene|date=19 April 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref> A maara Enow nke ọma maka egwu ya nke afọ 2013 "Hein Père". Ọ bụ onye Cameroon mbụ meriri na Best New Act category na 2014 MTV Africa Music Awards .<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web|url=http://mama.mtv.com/vote-best-new-act.html|title=2014 MTV Africa Music Awards Kwazulu-Natal &#124; Vote|publisher=Mama.mtv.com|accessdate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606234415/http://mama.mtv.com/vote-best-new-act.html|archivedate=6 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="newvision1">{{Cite news|author=Newvision|url=http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/656389-lupita-nyong-o-named-mtv-africa-2014-personality.html|title=Lupita Nyong'o named MTV Africa 2014 personality|publisher=Newvision.co.ug|date=8 June 2014|accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref> == Akụkọ ndụ == === Mmalite ndụ === A mụrụ Enow na Bamenda, isi obodo nke mpaghara ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ nke Cameroon. Ọ bụ Bayangi si na mpaghara ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ, na-eme ka aha njirimara ya bụ "Bayangi Boy".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pulse.ng/people_and_places/musicians/stanley-enow-gives-cameroon-music-street-credibility-id2519324.html|title=Stanley Enow: Gives Cameroon Music Street Credibility!&nbsp;– Musicians&nbsp;— Pulse|publisher=Pulse.ng|date=10 September 2013|accessdate=11 June 2014}}</ref> Enow tolitere na Bafoussam, isi obodo nke mpaghara ọdịda anyanwụ, ebe ọ gụsịrị ụlọ akwụkwọ praịmarị ya na ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị ya na Government Bilingual High School. N'afọ 2007, ọ kwagara Douala, isi obodo nke mpaghara Littoral, ebe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na nzere na akụkọ azụmahịa na Mahadum Douala. === Ọrụ === Enow malitere ide egwu rap na ịgba egwu mgbe ọ nọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị. O mechara mee ihe nkiri na ''Groove'' na ''Cocktail Hit Parade'', ihe ngosi abalị abụọ a ma ama na Cameroon. O mekwara ihe nkiri na ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ redio nke onwe ya, ebe ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-eme ihe nkiri na onye nduzi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nexdimempire.com/stanley-enow-have-always-supported-cameroon-hip-hop-movement.html/|title=STANLEY ENOW: "I've always supported Cameroon Hip Hop movement"|publisher=Nexdim Empire|date=4 November 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref> Enow kwadoro ihe ngosi egwu telivishọn ''Mboa'', ma mee mgbasa ozi olu maka ụlọ ọrụ nkwukọrịta Pan African MTN Group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fyG9ZM63T8|title=MTN Hotspot Ad with Stanley Enow's voice over|publisher=YouTube|date=26 June 2011|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref> Enow wepụtara egwu izizi ya "Hein Père" na June 2013, nke mere ka Trace TV kpọọ ya "African music Revelation of the Year".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nexdimempire.com/stanley-enow-man-of-the-year-hein-pere.html/|title=Blog Archive " Stanley Enow : Man of the Year 'Hein Pere'|publisher=Nexdim Empire|date=23 December 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Dymac|url=http://notjustok.com/2014/03/17/stanley-enow-ft-f-a-b-hein-pere-remix-cameroon/|title=Stanley Enow ft. F.A.B&nbsp;– Hein Père (Remix) &#124; Cameroon/South Africa|publisher=Notjustok.com|date=|accessdate=8 June 2014|archivedate=14 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714154911/http://notjustok.com/2014/03/17/stanley-enow-ft-f-a-b-hein-pere-remix-cameroon/}}</ref> Vidio egwu "Hein Pere" meriri ihe nrite maka Best Video of the Year na 2013 Balafon Music Awards .<ref name="ndjoka1">{{Cite web|url=http://ndjoka.com/actualites/les-resultats-balafon-music-awards-2013-connus/|title=Les résultats des Balafon Music Awards 2013 sont connus|publisher=Ndjoka|date=16 December 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606213525/http://ndjoka.com/actualites/les-resultats-balafon-music-awards-2013-connus/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mookeh.blogspot.com/2013/09/on-est-high-pere-stanley-enows-in-house.html|title=Alison's "Let's Talk Fashion": ON EST HIGH PERE!!!! Stanley Enow's in the house. #HeinPere|publisher=Mookeh.blogspot.com|date=10 September 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref> Egwu a nọ n'ọkwa 1 na ndepụta Reverbnation nke Cameroon, na Trace Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.reverbnation.com/stanleyenow|title=Stanley Enow Music, Lyrics, Songs, and Videos|publisher=Reverbnation.com|date=31 August 2013|accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Trace TV">{{Cite web|url=http://www.trace.tv/fr/media/video/trace/stanley-enow-le-lil-wayne-camerounais_18619|title=Vidéo&nbsp;– Stanley Enow le Lil Wayne camerounais|publisher=Trace TV|date=11 January 2014|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606215602/http://www.trace.tv/fr/media/video/trace/stanley-enow-le-lil-wayne-camerounais_18619}}</ref> Remix nke egwu ahụ gosipụtara onye na-ese ihe na South Africa bụ F.A.B. Enow nke abụọ "TumbuBoss" ("Toumbou Boss Deluxe") wepụtara n'ọnwa Eprel afọ 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://afripopmag.com/tag/stanley-enow/|title=AfriPOP! " The new and next in Global African culture " stanley enow|publisher=Afripopmag.com|date=28 April 2014|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606210200/http://afripopmag.com/tag/stanley-enow/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=VRJmusic|url=http://www.vrjmusic.com/one_mixtape.php?id=26|title=Mixtape : Hein Père Remix ft F.A.B de Stanley Enow|publisher=VRJmusic|date=21 March 2014|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=7 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607002821/http://www.vrjmusic.com/one_mixtape.php?id=26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Ernest Kanjo|url=http://www.tiptopstars.com/mtdv/the-news/842-tumbuboss-deluxe-stanley-enows-second-outing-confirms-rap-heros-prowess.html|title=MAGICTOUCHVIDEOS Array TumbuBoss (Deluxe): Stanley Enow's second outing confirms rap hero's prowess|publisher=Tiptopstars|date=17 April 2014|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=6 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606223112/http://www.tiptopstars.com/mtdv/the-news/842-tumbuboss-deluxe-stanley-enows-second-outing-confirms-rap-heros-prowess.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lebledparle.com/actu/culture/1267-exclu-decouvrez-les-premieres-images-du-clip-toumbou-boss-deluxe-de-stanley-enow|title=Exclu : Découvrez les premières images du clip " Toumbou boss deluxe " de Stanley Enow|publisher=Lebledparle.com|date=|accessdate=11 June 2014|archivedate=6 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706051526/http://www.lebledparle.com/actu/culture/1267-exclu-decouvrez-les-premieres-images-du-clip-toumbou-boss-deluxe-de-stanley-enow}}</ref> Na Cameroon Academy Awards nke mbụ n'afọ 2013, Enow weghaara ihe ngosi abụọ: Onye na-ese ihe nke Afọ na Onye na-ese ihe nke Obodo nke Afọ.<ref name="cameroonacademyawards1">{{Cite web|url=http://cameroonacademyawards.com/Nominees.aspx?aid=Music|title=Sonnah Awards|publisher=Cameroonacademyawards.com|date=|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=18 June 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618090429/http://www.cameroonacademyawards.com/Nominees.aspx?aid=Music}}</ref> Enow bụ naanị onye Cameroon a họpụtara maka MTV Africa Music Awards, ebe o meriri ihe nrite Best New Act na 2014.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name="newvision1"/><ref name="premiumtimesng1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/162321-davido-tiwa-savageflavour-win-six-africa-music-awards.html|title=Davido, Tiwa Savage,Flavour win six Africa music awards&nbsp;– Premium Times Nigeria|publisher=Premiumtimesng.com|date=8 June 2014|accessdate=8 June 2014}}</ref> O ritekwara Best New Act ma bụrụ onye a họpụtara maka Best Male Central Africa na 2014 African Muzik Magazine Awards .<ref name="afrimma1">{{Cite web|url=http://afrimma.com/afrimma-nominees/|title=afrimma-nominees &#124;|publisher=Afrimma.com|date=|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=25 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525013311/http://afrimma.com/afrimma-nominees/}}</ref> Enow wepụtara "TumbuBoss" dị ka egwu nke abụọ site na abọm studio mbụ ya, Soldier Like My Papa . Shamack Allharamadji gbara ma duzie vidiyo egwu maka egwu ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.modernghana.com/music/25624/3/tumbuboss-deluxe-video-by-stanley-enow-released.html|title=Tumbuboss (Deluxe) Video By Stanley Enow Released|publisher=Modern Ghana|date=15 April 2014|accessdate=11 June 2014}}</ref> Na Machị 2014, Enow gwara Pulse Nigeria na ya na Nyanda rụkọrọ ọrụ na egwu "In The Middle", nke onye na-emepụta ihe na Jamaica bụ Black Lion mepụtara.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pulse.ng/gist/scoop-cameroon-rapper-stanley-enow-talks-new-song-with-brick-n-laces-nyanda-id2761352.html|title=Cameroon Rapper Stanley Enow Talks New Song With Brick n Lace's Nyanda|publisher=Pulse|date=28 March 2014|accessdate=11 June 2014|author=Ngomba, Joan|archivedate=15 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140615235906/http://pulse.ng/gist/scoop-cameroon-rapper-stanley-enow-talks-new-song-with-brick-n-laces-nyanda-id2761352.html}}</ref> Na 5 Ọktoba 2014, o wepụtara vidiyo egwu maka "Njama Njama Cow", nke Shamack Allharamadji duziri<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewanda-magazine.com/2014/10/clip-njama-njama-cow-de-stanley-enow-on-en-parle.html|title=Njama Njama Cow&nbsp;– On en Parle|publisher=Je Wanda Magazine|date=6 September 2014|accessdate=7 September 2014}}</ref> N'ọnwa Julaị afọ 2015, Enow hapụrụ abọm izizi ya nke akpọrọ Soldier Like My Papa . E wepụtara "Work Hard (Le Père Noël)" dị ka egwu nke ise sitere na abọm ahụ. E wepụtara vidiyo egwu ya na Septemba 11, 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=VIDEO: Stanley Enow&nbsp;– Work Hard (Le Père Noël)|url=http://notjustok.com/2015/09/13/video-stanley-enow-work-hard-le-pere-noel/|publisher=NotJustOk|accessdate=21 June 2016|date=13 September 2015|archivedate=17 August 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817043620/http://notjustok.com/2015/09/13/video-stanley-enow-work-hard-le-pere-noel/}}</ref> == Discography == === Albọm === * Soldier Like Ma Papa (2015) * ''Stanley vs Enow'' (2019) === EPs === * ''Tumbuboss'' (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/tumbuboss-deluxe-version-ep/id887469571|title=Tumbuboss (Deluxe Version)&nbsp;– EP by Stanely Enow|publisher=iTunes|date=10 June 2014|accessdate=12 June 2014}}</ref> === Ndị otu a họọrọ === * "Hein Père" (2013) * "TumbuBoss" (2014) * "Slippery When Wet" (Remix) (<small>Nyanda</small> <small>featuring Stanley Enow</small>) (2014) * "Njama Njama Cow" (2014) * "Black Commando" (<small>Fuse ODG</small> featuring Stanley Enow and <small>Olamide</small>) (2014) * "Njama Njama Cow" (Remix) (<small>gosipụtara</small> <small>Sarkodie</small>) (2014) * "How E Go Be" (<small>2face Idibia</small> <small>featuring Stanley Enow</small>) (2015) * "Black I Am" (<small>Gasha</small> <small>featuring Stanley Enow</small>) (2015) * "King Kong" (<small>gosipụtara</small> <small>[[DJ Neptune]]</small>) (2015) * "Work Hard" ("Le Père Noel") (2015) * "Phoenix" (2016)<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Music Stanley Enow&nbsp;– Phoenix|url=http://pulse.ng/new_music/new-music-stanley-enow-phoenix-id4664436.html|work=Pulse.ng|publisher=Joey Akan|accessdate=9 February 2016|archivedate=22 April 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422170024/http://pulse.ng/new_music/new-music-stanley-enow-phoenix-id4664436.html}}</ref> * "Adore You" (<small>gosipụtara</small> <small>Mr Eazi</small>) (2017) * "Elle est Là" (2018) * "Caramel" (<small>gosipụtara</small> <small>Davido</small>) (2017) * "Casanova" (2018) * "My Way" (nke gosipụtara Tzy Panchak na <small>Locko</small> (2018) == Ihe nrite na nhọpụta == ; Cameroon Academy Awards  ; Balafon Music Awards  ; MTV Africa Music Awards  ; African Muzik Magazine Awards  ; Canal d'or mbipụta nke iri (Canal 2 International Awards) == Leekwa ==   * Ndepụta nke ndị Kamerun * Ndepụta nke ndị egwu Afrịka == Ndetu == <references /> {{Reflist|2}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 7e7ph1pb9ikw8q94xjai829fyq91nlc Sofiane Feghouli 0 14363 687964 644699 2026-07-13T17:38:51Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[Usòrò:Algérie - Arménie - 20140531 - Sofiane Feghouli.jpg|thumb|áká_ịkẹngạ]] '''Sofiane Feghouli''' ( Arabic ; amụrụ ya na 26 Disemba 1989) bụ [[Footbọl|onye egwuregwu bọọlụ]] nke na-agbara otu Süper Lig nke [[Turkéy|Turkey]] Galatasaray na ndị otu mba Algeria. Ọ na -arụ ọrụ dị ka onye etiti aka nri, mana ọ pụkwara igwu egwu dị ka winger na dị ka onye na-awakpo etiti. Feghouli mere egwuregwu izizi ya na mba Algeria na Febụwarị 2012. Ọ nọchitere anya Algeria na 2013, 2015, 2019 na 2021 Africa Cup of Nations (mmeri asọmpi 2019), yana 2014 FIFA World Cup, ebe o nyere goolu mbụ nke Algeria na asọmpi ahụ kemgbe 1986. == Ndụ onwe ya == A mụrụ Feghouli na Levallois-Perret ebe nne na nna ya bụ dị Algeria. Nna ya si Tiaret, ebe nne ya si Ghazaouet. O nwere ụmụnne nwoke anọ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.djazairess.com/fr/lebuteur/45539|title=Exclusif : Sofiane Feghouli|work=Le Buteur|publisher=Nacym Djender|date=5 November 2011|accessdate=8 June 2022|archivedate=8 June 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608184415/https://www.djazairess.com/fr/lebuteur/45539}}</ref> == Ọrụ klọb == === Grenoble === Feghouli malitere ọrụ ya na Grenoble, mgbe ndị otu France Paris Saint-Germain kpebiri ịghara ịbanye ya mgbe ikpe gasịrị.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/footballeurope/news/kind=2/newsid=753534.html|title=Spirited Feghouli rewards Grenoble belief|publisher=UEFA.com|date=26 September 2008|accessdate=17 July 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210093647/http://www.uefa.com/footballeurope/news/kind%3D2/newsid%3D753534.html|archivedate=10 December 2008}}</ref> Maka akụkụ ikpeazụ nke oge 2006–2007 , a kwalitere ya na ndị otu egwuregwu mbụ ma nye ya uwe nọmba 33. O mere egwuregwu izizi ya nke a tụrụ anya ya nke ukwuu, mgbe ọ dị afọ iri na asaa, maka klọb ahụ na 27 Eprel 2007 na egwuregwu Ligue 2 megide Reims, na-apụta dị ka onye nnọchi. Grenoble meriri egwuregwu ahụ 1–0.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espn.co.uk/football/match?gameId=207989|title=Stade de Reims vs. Grenoble|publisher=ESPN|date=27 April 2007|accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref> Ọ pụtara ugboro abụọ ọzọ n'oge ahụ, gụnyere mmalite mbụ ya n'ụbọchị egwuregwu ikpeazụ nke oge ahụ megide Montpellier na 25 Mee 2007. Montpellier meriri egwuregwu ahụ 1–0 na Feghouli na-egwu nkeji iri ise na isii tupu ewepụ ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://racingstub.com/games/20565/|title=Montpellier&nbsp;— Grenoble 1–0|publisher=Racingstub.com|date=25 May 2007|accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref> Na 31 Mee 2007, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta ọkachamara mbụ ya na Grenoble, na-edebe ya n'akụkụ ahụ ruo 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mercato-blog.football.fr/2007/05/31/507-feghouli-signe-pro|title=Grenoble : Feghouli signe pro|date=31 May 2007|accessdate=17 July 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070920072153/http://mercato-blog.football.fr/2007/05/31/507-feghouli-signe-pro|archivedate=20 September 2007}}</ref> N'oge na-esonụ, e nyere ya uwe ọnụ ọgụgụ asatọ ma, n'agbanyeghị na ọ dị afọ iri na asaa, e nyere ya ọrụ dị mkpa na ndị otu egwuregwu mbụ. N'agbanyeghị na enwere nrụgide nke ịbụ onye a kpọrọ "Zidane ọhụrụ", onyinye ya nye ndị otu ahụ gara nke ọma, na-apụta na egwuregwu iri abụọ na asaa ma na-enye goolu atọ, na-enyere Grenoble aka inweta nkwalite na Ligue 1.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unprofessionalfoul.com/2008/10/03/im-the-new-zidane-no-i-am|title=I'm the 'new Zidane'... No I am!|publisher=Unprofessional Foul|date=3 October 2008|accessdate=8 June 2022|archivedate=31 August 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831231410/http://unprofessionalfoul.com/2008/10/03/im-the-new-zidane-no-i-am}}</ref> Ihe mgbaru ọsọ mbụ ya bịara na 18 Jenụwarị 2008 na mmeri 4-3 megide Reims, klọb ọ chere ihu na mbido ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lfp.fr/ligue2/feuilleMatch.asp?saison=2007/2008&code_evt=D2&code_jr_tr=J21&num_ordre=9|title=Reims v. Grenoble Match Report|date=18 January 2008|accessdate=17 July 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429140338/http://www.lfp.fr/ligue2/feuilleMatch.asp?saison=2007%2F2008&code_evt=D2&num_ordre=9&code_jr_tr=J21|archivedate=29 April 2008}}</ref> Feghouli laghachiri maka oge 2009-10, na-eme nke mbụ ya na 29 August 2009 na mmeri 1–0 nke Rhône-Alpes rivals Saint-Étienne . Mgbe ọ pụtara na egwuregwu ise ọzọ, ndị isi Grenoble chọpụtara na Feghouli adọwaala meniscus n'ikpere aka nri ya. A wara ikpere ahụ nke ọma n'ọnwa Ọktoba. Mgbe ịwa ahụ gasịrị, ndị isi Grenoble, ọkachasị onye isi ụlọ ọrụ Pierre Wantiez, katọrọ onye ọkpụkpọ ahụ nke ukwuu. Wantiez jụrụ ogologo oge Feghouli na-egbu oge n'ịlaghachi na otu ahụ na ebumnobi onye ọkpụkpọ ahụ banyere mbugharị dịka Feghouli ga-apụ na nkwekọrịta n'oge ọkọchị ma na-agwa ọtụtụ klọb okwu, ọkachasị klọb Valencia nke Spain. Wantiez kwuru na ọ bụ "ndụmọdụ ọjọọ" sitere n'aka onye ọrụ onye ọkpụkpọ ahụ mere ihe Feghouli mere n'oge na-adịbeghị anya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sport.gentside.com/sofiane-feghouli/grenoble-sofiane-feghouli-et-son-pretendu-agent-dans-le-collimateur_art432.html|title=Sofiane Feghouli et son "prétendu agent" dans le collimateur|publisher=Gentside Sport|date=4 February 2010|language=fr|accessdate=8 June 2022|archivedate=30 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930150329/https://sport.gentside.com/sofiane-feghouli/grenoble-sofiane-feghouli-et-son-pretendu-agent-dans-le-collimateur_art432.html}}</ref> === Valencia === [[Usòrò:Zenit-Valencia_(3).jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb|192x192px|Feghouli na-agbara Valencia CF bọọlụ n'afọ 2015]] Na 20 Mee 2010, Feghouli bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta afọ anọ na Valencia CF. O mere La Liga mbụ ya na 25 Septemba, dochie Juan Mata na mmeri 2–0 megide Sporting de Gijón . N'abalị iri abụọ na asatọ n'ọnwa Jenụwarị afọ 2011, mgbe ọ pụtara obere maka ndị otu Valencian, a gbazinyere Feghouli na otu egwuregwu UD Almería, ruo ọnwa Juun. Ọ na-apụta mgbe niile maka ndị Andalusia, mana ha kwụsịrị na njedebe nke oge ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehardtackle.com/2011/the-spanish-weekend-review-episode-35-the-relegation-battle-gets-interesting/|title=The Spanish Weekend Review&nbsp;– Episode 35: Relegation Battle Gets Interesting|publisher=TheHardTackle.com|date=9 May 2011|accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref> Mgbe o si mba Almería lọta, ma rite uru site na ọpụpụ Mata na Vicente, Feghouli ghọrọ onye mbido, ma nye goolu mbụ ya maka ''Los Che'' na 29 Ọktoba 2011, na-enweta ihe nkedo na mmeri 3-1 n'ụlọ megide Getafe CF . Ngosipụta ya maka Valencia n'afọ 2012 mere ka ọ nweta ihe nrite abụọ nke onye egwuregwu Algeria nke afọ, Le Buteur's Algerian Ballon d'Or na DZFoot d'Or .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sofoot.com/feghouli-ballon-d-or-algerien-164917.html|title=Feghouli Ballon d'or algérien|author=GM|publisher=So Foot|date=18 December 2012|accessdate=26 December 2012|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dzfoot.com/article-2376-dzfoot-d-or-2012-sofiane-feghouli-elu-meilleur-joueur-algerien-par-les-internautes.php|title=DZFOOT D'OR 2012 : Sofiane Feghouli élu meilleur joueur algérien par les internautes|publisher=DZFoot|language=fr|date=25 December 2012|accessdate=26 December 2012|author=Ait-Ouaret, Nabil|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230233423/http://www.dzfoot.com/article-2376-dzfoot-d-or-2012-sofiane-feghouli-elu-meilleur-joueur-algerien-par-les-internautes.php|archivedate=30 December 2012}}</ref> Na 11 Eprel 2016, klọb ahụ kwụsịrị Feghouli n'etiti akụkọ ọ jụrụ isonye na ikpo ọkụ mgbe mmeri 2–1 meriri Sevilla n'ụlọ n'ụbọchị gara aga. A kọkwara na ọ tụfuru ọzụzụ ụbọchị ole na ole gara aga.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/36019030|title=Algerian Sofiane Feghouli suspended by Valencia|publisher=BBC Sport|date=11 April 2016|accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref> Ọ kwụsịrị ọrụ Valencia ya na egwuregwu 202, na-enye goolu ugboro 31 ma na-enye aka 40.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/36729248|title=Premier League transfers: Lowdown on summer signings|publisher=BBC Sport|date=13 July 2016|accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref> [[Usòrò:Feghouli_West_Ham.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|215x215px|Feghouli na West Ham United na 2017]] Na 14 June 2016, a mara ọkwa na Feghouli ga-esonyere West Ham United na 1 July 2016 na nkwekọrịta afọ atọ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.whufc.com/News/Articles/2016/June/13-June/Hammers-catch-winger-Feghouli|title=Hammers catch winger Feghouli|publisher=West Ham United F.C.|date=14 June 2016|accessdate=14 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617111312/http://www.whufc.com/News/Articles/2016/June/13-June/Hammers-catch-winger-Feghouli|archivedate=17 June 2016}}</ref> O mere nke mbụ ya na West Ham na 28 Julaị na mmeri 2–1 na NK Domžale na agba nke atọ nke Europa League .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36898501|title=Nk Domzale 2-1 West Ham|publisher=BBC Sport|accessdate=29 July 2016}}</ref> O nyere goolu asọmpi mbụ ya maka West Ham n'izu sochirinụ na nlọghachi megide Domžale, egwuregwu mbụ West Ham na [[London]] Stadium nke West Ham meriri 3–0, na-aga n'ihu na UEFA Europa League play-offs.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Steinberg|first=Jacob|title=Cheikhou Kouyaté sets West Ham's Olympic record in win over Domzale|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/aug/04/west-ham-domzale-europa-league-match-report|accessdate=20 September 2020|work=The Guardian|date=4 August 2016}}</ref> Feghouli malitere Premier League mbụ ya na egwuregwu mbụ nke West Ham n'afọ 2017, na-anata kaadị uhie siri ike mgbe nkeji iri na ise gasịrị maka ịma aka na onye na-agbachitere Manchester United bụ Phil Jones na mmeri 2–0 n'ụlọ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/38433519|title=West Ham 0-2 Manchester United|publisher=BBC Sport}}</ref> Mgbe West Ham rịọrọ arịrịọ megide kaadị ahụ, a kagburu ya na 4 Jenụwarị.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/38497190|title=Sofiane Feghouli: West Ham midfielder's red card rescinded|date=4 January 2017|publisher=BBC Sport|accessdate=4 January 2017}}</ref> === Galatasaray === N'ọnwa Ọgọstụ afọ 2017, Feghouli bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta afọ ise na Galatasaray. Galatasaray kwụrụ West Ham nde euro 4.25 maka mbufe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.galatasaray.org/haber/gs-sportif-a-s/feghouli-galatasarayda/36188|title=Feghouli Galatasaray'da|work=www.galatasaray.org|accessdate=14 August 2017}}</ref> == Ọrụ mba ụwa == === France === Feghouli tozuru oke maka Algeria na France. Feghouli ekwuola na mmasị ya bụ igwu egwu maka France ma pụta n'ọtụtụ ndị otu ndị ntorobịa France.<ref name="loranaise.com">{{Cite web|url=http://loranaise.com/2008/11/19/sofiane-feghouli-joue-sur-tous-les-tableauxs|title=Sofiane Feghouli joue sur tous les tableaux|publisher=L'Oranaise|date=19 November 2008|accessdate=17 July 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010202930/http://www.loranaise.com/2008/11/19/sofiane-feghouli-joue-sur-tous-les-tableaux/|archivedate=10 October 2009}}</ref> N'abalị iri na abụọ n'ọnwa Nọvemba afọ 2008, onye njikwa otu mba Raymond Domenech depụtara onye ọkpụkpọ ahụ maka ndị otu ya tupu ahọpụtara tupu egwuregwu enyi na enyi megide Uruguay.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2008/11/12/490866-equipe-de-france-douchez-comme-carrasso.html|title=Equipe de France. Douchez comme Carrasso|work=[[La Dépêche du Midi]]|date=12 November 2008|language=fr}}</ref> N'agbanyeghị nke a, onye njikwa otu mba Algeria bụ Rabah Saadane kpọtụrụ Feghouli site na ekwentị iji mee ka ọ gbara mba Algeria bọọlụ na egwuregwu enyi na enyi nke otu ahụ na 19 November megide Mali. Onye isi otu Yazid Mansouri kpọtụkwara onye ọkpụkpọ ahụ.<ref name="loranaise.com" /> === Algeria === N'ụbọchị iri abụọ na ise nke ọnwa Mee afọ 2011, a kọrọ na, mgbe ọ na-agbazinye ego na Almeria, Feghouli zutere Onye isi oche nke Algeria Football Federation Mohamed Raouraoua . Feghouli kwetara igwu egwu maka Algeria ma kpọọ ya ka ọ gaa n'ogige ọzụzụ a na-eme na Spain maka egwuregwu megide Morocco. O nweghị ike ịga nnọkọ ahụ, mana mmegharị ahụ metụrụ ya n'ahụ, na-ekweta na ọ ga-adị maka egwuregwu [[Tanzania]] kama.<ref name="lebuteur.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lebuteur.com/en/actualites/au-cours-dune-rencontre-avec-raouraoua-a-paris-feghouli-dit-oui-a-lalgerie|title=Au cours d'une rencontre avec Raouraoua à Paris : Feghouli dit oui à l'Algérie|accessdate=21 August 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120613075622/http://www.lebuteur.com/en/actualites/au-cours-dune-rencontre-avec-raouraoua-a-paris-feghouli-dit-oui-a-lalgerie|archivedate=13 June 2012}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na atọ n'ọnwa Ọktọba afọ 2011, ndị Algeria Football Federation kwupụtara na FIFA nabatara arịrịọ Feghouli ka ọ gbanwee ntụkwasị obi site na France gaa Algeria, nakwa na o ruru eru ịnọchite anya Algeria na asọmpi mba ụwa na ụbọchị ahụ. Ụbọchị abụọ ka e mesịrị, na 25 Ọktoba, onye nkuzi Algeria Vahid Halilhodžić kpọrọ Feghouli maka egwuregwu enyi na enyi megide Tunisia na Cameroon na Nọvemba.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140201204112/http://www.dzfoot.com/news-10130/en-31-joueurs-pour-le-stage-de-novembre/ EN : 31 joueurs pour le stage de Novembre]; DZFoot.com, 25 October 2011.</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na itoolu n'ọnwa Febụwarị afọ 2012, Feghouli mere nke mbụ ya maka ndị otu mba Algeria na mmeri 2–1 Africa Cup of Nations ruru eru megide Gambia, na-enye goolu mmeri.<ref name="fifa">{{Cite news|url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/players/player=319358/profile-detail.html|title=Sofiane FEGHOULI|accessdate=18 June 2014|work=FIFA}}</ref> N'oge iru eru maka 2014 FIFA World Cup, o nyere goolu atọ na mpụta asaa maka ''Les Fennecs'' .<ref name="fifa" /> N'egwuregwu mmeghe nke otu ahụ na 2014 World Cup, mmeri 2–1 nke Belgium na Belo Horizonte, Feghouli nyere goolu ntaramahụhụ - goolu mbụ nke Algeria na World Cup n'ime afọ 28.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Grohmann|first=Karolos|title=Algeria end 28-year wait for World Cup goal|date=17 June 2014|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-soccer-world-m15-bel-alg-goal-idUKKBN0ES23K20140617|work=Reuters|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref> N'ụzọ dị ịtụnanya, e wepụrụ ya na ndị otu iko mba Afrịka nke afọ 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/soccer-feghouli-surprise-omission-algeria-nations-cup-squad-154206095--sow.html|title=Soccer-Feghouli surprise omission from Algeria Nations Cup squad|accessdate=31 December 2016}}</ref> == Ọnụọgụgụ ọrụ == === Klọb === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+Ọdịdị na ihe mgbaru ọsọ site na klọb, oge na asọmpi ! rowspan="2" |Klọb ! rowspan="2" |Oge ! colspan="3" |Njikọ ! colspan="2" |Iko Mba ! colspan="2" |Iko Njikọ ! colspan="2" |Europe ! colspan="2" |Ndị ọzọ ! colspan="2" |Ngụkọta |- !Nkewa !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ |- | rowspan="5" |Grenoble |2006–07 | rowspan="3" |Ligue 2 |3 |0 |0 |0 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |3 |0 |- |2007–08 |26 |3 |1 |0 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |27 |3 |- |2008–09 |26 |0 |2 |0 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |28 |0 |- |2009–10 |Ligue 1 |5 |0 |0 |0 |1 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |6 |0 |- ! colspan="2" |Ngụkọta !60 !3 !3 !0 !1 !0 ! colspan="2" |- ! colspan="2" |- !64 !3 |- | rowspan="7" |Valencia |2010–11 | rowspan="6" |La Liga |3 |0 |1 |1 | colspan="2" | - |1 |0 | colspan="2" | - |5 |1 |- |2011–12 |30 |6 |6 |0 | colspan="2" | - |13 |0 | colspan="2" | - |49 |6 |- |2012–13 |27 |3 |2 |0 | colspan="2" | - |8 |3 | colspan="2" | - |37 |6 |- |2013–14 |32 |4 |3 |0 | colspan="2" | - |10 |3 | colspan="2" | - |45 |7 |- |2014–15 |33 |6 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |33 |6 |- |2015–16 |21 |1 |2 |0 | colspan="2" | - |10 | colspan="2" | - |33 |5 |- ! colspan="2" |Ngụkọta !146 !20 !14 !1 ! colspan="2" |- !42 !10 ! colspan="2" |- !202 !31 |- |Almería (loan) |2010–11 |La Liga |9 |2 |1 |0 | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - | colspan="2" | - |10 |2 |- |West Ham United |2016–17 |Premier League |21 |3 |1 |0 |3 |0 |2 |1 | colspan="2" | - |27 |4 |- | rowspan="6" |Galatasaray |2017–18 | rowspan="5" |Süper Lig |27 |6 |4 |1 | colspan="2" | - |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - |31 |7 |- |2018–19 |29 |9 |5 |3 | colspan="2" | - |5 |1 |1 |0 |40 |13 |- |2019–20 |27 |6 |3 |1 | colspan="2" | - |5 |0 |1 |0 |36 |7 |- |2020–21 |22 |2 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - |3 |0 | colspan="2" | - |25 |2 |- |2021–22 |16 |2 |0 |0 | colspan="2" | - |8 |3 | colspan="2" | - |24 |5 |- ! colspan="2" |Ngụkọta !121 !25 !12 !5 ! colspan="2" |- !21 !4 !2 !0 !156 !34 |- ! colspan="3" |Ngụkọta ọrụ !357 !53 !31 !6 !4 !0 !66 !15 !2 !0 !458 !74 |}   {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Ngosipụta na ihe mgbaru ọsọ site na otu mba na afọ !Ndị otu mba !Afọ !Ngwaọrụ !Ihe mgbaru ọsọ |- | rowspan="11" |Algeria |2012 |8 |2 |- |2013 |9 |3 |- |2014 |12 |2 |- |2015 |8 |2 |- |2016 |5 |2 |- |2017 |3 |0 |- |2018 |4 |0 |- |2019 |13 |1 |- |2020 |3 |1 |- |2021 |8 |6 |- |2022 |3 |0 |- ! colspan="2" |Ngụkọta !76 !19 |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Ndepụta nke goolu mba ụwa nke Sofiane Feghouli nyere ! scope="col" |Mba. ! scope="col" |Ụbọchị ! scope="col" |Ebe ! scope="col" |Onye mmegide ! scope="col" |Akara ! scope="col" |Nsonaazụ ! scope="col" |Asọmpi |- | align="center" |1 |29 Febụwarị 2012 |Independence Stadium, Bakau, Gambia | Gambia | align="center" |2–1 | align="center" |2–1 |2013 Africa Cup of Nations qualification |- | align="center" |2 |2 June 2012 |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | Rwanda | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |4–0 |2014 FIFA World Cup qualification |- | align="center" |3 |30 Jenụwarị 2013 |Royal Bafokeng Stadium, Phokeng, South Africa | Ivory Coast | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |2–2 |2013 Africa Cup of Nations |- | align="center" |4 |23 Machị 2013 |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | Benin | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |3–1 |2014 FIFA World Cup qualification |- | align="center" |5 |12 Ọktoba 2013 |Stade du 4 Août, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso | Burkina Faso | align="center" |1–1 | align="center" |2–3 |2014 FIFA World Cup qualification |- | align="center" |6 |7 June 2014 |Estádio Mineirão, Belo Horizante, Brazil | Belgium | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |1–2 |2014 FIFA World Cup |- | align="center" |7 |15 Nọvemba 2014 |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | Ethiopia | align="center" |1–1 | align="center" |3–1 |2015 Africa Cup of Nations qualification |- | align="center" |8 | rowspan="2" |30 Machị 2015 | rowspan="2" |Suheim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha, Qatar | rowspan="2" | Oman | align="center" |2–0 | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" |4–1 | rowspan="2" |Enyi |- | align="center" |9 | align="center" |3–0 |- | align="center" |10 | rowspan="2" |25 Machị 2016 | rowspan="2" |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | rowspan="2" | Ethiopia | align="center" |1–0 | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" |7–1 | rowspan="2" |2017 Africa Cup of Nations qualification |- | align="center" |11 | align="center" |3–0 |- | align="center" |12 |11 Julaị 2019 |Suez Stadium, Suez, Egypt | Ivory Coast | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |1 1 (a.e.t.<span>)</span> |2019 Africa Cup of Nations |- | align="center" |13 |12 Nọvemba 2020 |Stade du 5 Juillet, Algiers, Algeria | Zimbabwe | align="center" |2–0 | align="center" |3–1 |2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification |- | align="center" |14 |29 Machị 2021 |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | Botswana | align="center" |2–0 | align="center" |5–0 |2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification |- | align="center" |15 | rowspan="2" |3 Juun 2021 | rowspan="2" |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | rowspan="2" | Mauritania | align="center" |1–0 | rowspan="2" align="center" |4–1 | rowspan="2" |Enyi |- | align="center" |16 | align="center" |2–1 |- | align="center" |17 |7 Septemba 2021 |Stade de Marrakech, Marrakesh, Morocco | Burkina Faso | align="center" |1–0 | align="center" |1–1 |2022 FIFA World Cup qualification |- | align="center" |18 |12 Nọvemba 2021 |Cairo International Stadium, Cairo, Egypt | Djibouti | align="center" |3–0 | align="center" |4–0 |2022 FIFA World Cup qualification |- | align="center" |19 |16 Nọvemba 2021 |Mustapha Tchaker Stadium, Blida, Algeria | Burkina Faso | align="center" |2–1 | align="center" |2–2 |2022 FIFA World Cup qualification |} == Nsọpụrụ == '''Galatasaray''' * Süper Lig: 2017–18, 2018–19<ref name="tgr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tff.org.tr/default.aspx?pageID=438&kulupID=3604|title=TFF Galatasaray Roster|publisher=TFF.org|language=tr|accessdate=20 May 2019|archivedate=5 July 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705151647/http://www.tff.org.tr/default.aspx?pageID=438&kulupID=3604}}</ref><ref name="tgr" /> * Turkish Cup: 2018–19<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tff.org.tr/default.aspx?pageID=267&ftxtID=31305|title=57. Ziraat Türkiye Kupası Galatasaray'ın|date=15 May 2019|publisher=TFF.org|language=tr|accessdate=20 May 2019|archivedate=6 June 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606182256/http://www.tff.org.tr/default.aspx?pageID=267&ftxtID=31305}}</ref> * Turkish Super Cup: 2019 '''Algeria''' * Iko mba Afrịka: 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/live/football/49048899|title=Algeria hold on against Senegal to win Afcon|work=BBC Sport|date=19 July 2019}}</ref> '''Otu Onye''' * LFP Awards Onye egwuregwu Afrịka kacha mma: 2014–15<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/34978065|title=Algerian Feghouli named best African player in Spain|publisher=BBC Sport|date=1 December 2015}}</ref> * DZFoot d'Or: 2012 [citation needed] * Onye egwuregwu bọọlụ Algeria nke afọ: 2012<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lebuteur.com/ballon-d-or/actualites/12e-edition-du-ballon-dor-feghouli-en-or|title=Feghouli :"Le Hollandais volant en guest star à la cérémonie du Ballon d'Or"|publisher=lebuteur.com|accessdate=7 December 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221103410/http://www.lebuteur.com/ballon-d-or/actualites/12e-edition-du-ballon-dor-feghouli-en-or|archivedate=21 December 2012}}</ref> == Edensibia == [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] <references /> mh1hcvzxycmhu7z2g5fmnhopdnsf8td Trix Vivier 0 15424 688017 643984 2026-07-14T04:55:01Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688017 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[Category:Articles with hCards]] '''Trix Vivier''' (a mụrụ na 28 June 1988) bụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri, telivishọn na ihe nkiri South Africa, onye a maara maka igosipụta ọrụ Flea van Jaarsveld na usoro telivisheneng nke 2019 Trackers, nke o nwetara ama ama na nkwado mba, yana maka ọrụ ya dịka Kate Myburgh na kykNet na Showmax na-emepụta Waterfront. Ọrụ mbụ ya bụ nke Vicky Ferreira na usoro ''ndị'' ntorobịa kykNET Sterlopers . Vivier gosipụtara ọrụ a site n'afọ 2014 na 2016 n'ime oge abụọ. Vivier sonyeere ndị isi nke usoro TV Legacy, maka oge mbụ dịka otu n'ime ndị isi nwanyị, Petra Potgieter, n'afọ 2020. == Mmalite ndụ == A mụrụ Vivier na Melkbosstrand, Cape Town, nne ya Adri Vivier, onye nkuzi na nna ya Pieter Vivier, bụ onye ọkàiwu zụlitere ya. Vivier si n'agbụrụ Afrikaans ma nwee ụmụnne atọ. Nwanne ya nwanyị nke obere Lea Vivier bụkwa onye na-eme ihe nkiri. Nne na nna ya chọpụtara ma gbaa ya ume ka ọ na-enwe mmasị n'ihe nkiri site na nwata ma o mere ihe nkiri mbụ ya mgbe ọ dị afọ 15 na Annie Get Your Gun (Gilbert and Sullivan Society, 2004) na mgbe ọ dị dingwaga 16 na Die Ander Marta (KKNK, Baxter Theatre 2005) Vivier Matriculated na Jan van Riebeeck High School wee gaa n'ihu na-amụ ma gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Waterfront Theater School na Cape Town n'afọ 2009. == Ọrụ == [[Usòrò:Trix-Vivier.jpg|thumb|350x350px|Trix Vivier (n'aka ekpe) na ndị na-eme ihe nkiri nke Trackers na onye isi na ihe ngosi ahụ.]] Ọrụ ihe nkiri mbụ Vivier kwụrụ ụgwọ bụ nke Pippi na mmepụta ihe nkiri National Children's Theater nke ''Pippi Longstocking'' (2009) Ọ gara n'ihu na-arụ ọrụ dịka onye na-agba egwu na onye na-eme ihe nkiri site n'afọ 2009 ruo 2013 na-eme n'egwuregwu dịka Reza de Wet's ''MIS'', ihe nkiri ihe nkiri agụmakwụkwọ ma na mpaghara ma na mba ofesi na ọtụtụ Children's Theater Productions tupu ọ banye ọrụ telivishọn mbụ ya na usoro ihe nkiri ''ndị'' ntorobịa nke kykNET Sterlopers (2013 化 2016).<ref>{{Cite web|archiveurl=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/1968249653400794/2016997158526043|archivedate=2022-04-30|url=https://www.facebook.com/andrestolzproductions/photos/mis-deur-reza-de-wet-naledi-theatre-awards-2016-beste-produksie-vir-jeug-nominas/2016997158526043/|title=Andre Stolz Productions on Facebook|work=[[Facebook]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=34782|title=Artslink.co.za - It's Your Life - Aids programme with NCT|accessdate=2022-06-17|archivedate=2021-11-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113143013/https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=34782}}</ref><ref name="apm.co.za">{{Cite web|url=https://www.apm.co.za/artiste/trix-vivier-836/|title=APM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=31147|title=Artslink.co.za - Peter Rabbit enthrals yet another generation|accessdate=2022-06-17|archivedate=2021-11-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113143013/https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=31147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://issuu.com/innercitygazette/docs/gazette13_september2_web|title=Inner City Gazette|accessdate=2022-06-17|archivedate=2021-11-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113143010/https://issuu.com/innercitygazette/docs/gazette13_september2_web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=31100|title=Artslink.co.za - Peter Rabbit and other Tales|accessdate=2022-06-17|archivedate=2021-11-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113143015/https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=31100}}</ref><ref name="apm.co.za" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Nuus/nuwe-sa-ster-bieg-ek-was-n-pynlike-presteerder-20171103|title=Nuwe SA ster bieg: 'Ek was 'n pynlike presteerder'}}</ref> O mechara gaa n'ihu na-egosipụta ọrụ ndu na usoro telivishọn dịka Trackers .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stories.showmax.com/whos-who-in-trackers/|title=Who's who in Trackers|date=22 October 2019|accessdate=17 June 2022|archivedate=28 September 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928015628/https://stories.showmax.com/whos-who-in-trackers/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itmunch.com/warnermedias-latest-streaming-service-hbo-max-appears-youtube-tv-along-hbo-cinemax/|title=WarnerMedia's latest streaming service HBO Max appears on YouTube TV, along with HBO & Cinemax|publisher=iTMunch|date=24 February 2020|accessdate=2022-05-06|archivedate=2021-03-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301154511/https://itmunch.com/warnermedias-latest-streaming-service-hbo-max-appears-youtube-tv-along-hbo-cinemax/}}</ref> == Ihe nkiri == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Aha ya !Ọrụ !Afọ !Ụdị !Ihe edeturu |- |''Fynskrif'' [ihe e dere n'ala] |Bianca |2018 China 2020 |Usoro |Oge 1 na 3 |- |American Monster [ihe e dere n'ala] |Rebecca Fenton |2019 |Usoro |Oge nke 4 |- |''Projek Dina''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.son.co.za/Alles-wat-mal-is/Gossip/nuwe-reeks-projek-dina-beloof-lekker-baie-drama-20191205|title=Archived copy|accessdate=1 March 2021|archivedate=6 December 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206142643/https://www.son.co.za/Alles-wat-mal-is/Gossip/nuwe-reeks-projek-dina-beloof-lekker-baie-drama-20191205}}</ref> |Megan |2019 |Usoro | |- |Die Spreeus [ehota ihe dị mkpa] |Anita Erasmus |2019 |Usoro | |- |''Osimiri'' |Kate Myburgh |2017 |Usoro | |- |''Die Boekklub 2'' [ihe odide dị mkpa] |Jana |2017 |Usoro | |- |''Die Boland Moorde 2'' [ihe odide dị mkpa] |Isabel |2016 |Usoro | |- |''Laan nke asaa''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Vir-die-lekker/TV/hokaai-sorg-trix-vivier-vir-nog-drama-in-7de-laan-20180817|title=Hokaai! Sorg Trix Vivier vir nóg drama in 7de Laan?}}</ref> |Tineke |2018 |Usoro | |- |''Suidooster'' [citation needed] |Yolandi |2018 |Usoro | |- |Cowboy Dan [ihe e dere n'akwụkwọ] |Joline |2018 |Ihe nkiri dị mkpirikpi | |- |Versnel [ihe e dere n'ala] |Nadia |2017 |Ihe nkiri dị mkpirikpi | |- |''Van der Merwe''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlanticsun.co.za/news/sky-is-the-limit-for-vredehoek-actress-10723694|title=Sky is the limit for Vredehoek actress|date=10 August 2017|accessdate=17 June 2022|archivedate=21 February 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221094149/https://www.atlanticsun.co.za/news/sky-is-the-limit-for-vredehoek-actress}}</ref> |Onye na-anabata ndị ọbịa |2017 |Ihe nkiri | |- |The Dating Game Killer [ihe odide dị mkpa] |Enyi Susan |2017 |Ihe nkiri TV | |- |''Ihe Nketa'' |Petra Potgieter |2020-2021 |Usoro | |- |''Ndị na-agba ọsọ'' |Akpịrịkpa |2019 |Usoro | |} == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/rooi-rose/20190101/281775630215840 * https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/huisgenoot/20191121/283893049859680 * https://www.vrouekeur.co.za/bekendes/10-vrae-aan-trix-vivier * https://web.archive.org/web/20191220144231/https://stories.showmax.com/deon-meyers-trackers-is-top-on-showmax/ * [https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Bekendes/lea-trix-en-moeder-adri-ma-en-dogters-bekoor-sa-op-tv-20210219 https://www. Florida24.com/huisgenoot/Bekendes/lea-trix-en-moeder-adri-ma-en-dogters-bekoor-sa-op-tv-20210219] == Edemsibịa == {{Reflist| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news24.com/life/new-local-series-explores-a-dark-side-to-the-waterfront-20171002|title=New local series explores a dark side to the Waterfront|website=Life}}</ref> <ref name="latimes">{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/tv/story/2020-06-11/whats-on-tv-friday-trackers-on-cinemax-coronavirus|title = What's on TV Friday: 'Trackers' on Cinemax; coronavirus|website = [[Los Angeles Times]]|date = 12 June 2020}} <ref name="iol">{{cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/entertainment/tv/local/all-the-glitz-and-glam-at-the-premiere-of-trackers-35271166|title = All the glitz and glam at the premiere of 'Trackers'}}</ref> <ref name="vrouekeur">{{In lang|af}} https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/vrouekeur/20191101/281556587600088</ref> <ref name="m-net">{{cite web|url=https://m-net.dstv.com/show/trackers/characters/cornel-flea-van-jaarsveld/profile|title=M-Net}}</ref> <ref name="netwerk24-20171103">{{In lang|af}} https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Nuus/nuwe-sa-ster-bieg-ek-was-n-pynlike-presteerder-20171103</ref> <!-- paywalled --> <ref name="showmax-waterfront">{{cite web|url = https://stories.showmax.com/va-waterfront-finally-gets-series/|title = The V&A Waterfront finally gets its own series|date = 19 September 2017|accessdate = 17 June 2022|archivedate = 21 February 2024|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20240221094111/https://stories.showmax.com/za/va-waterfront-finally-gets-series}}</ref> <ref name="netwerk24-20171019">{{In lang|af}} https://www.netwerk24.com/Vermaak/Tv/sy-doen-dit-al-van-kleins-af-20171019</ref> <!-- paywalled --> <ref name="tvsa-16646">{{cite web|url=https://www.tvsa.co.za/actors/viewactor.aspx?actorid=16646|title = Trix Vivier &#124; TVSA}}</ref> <ref name="tvsa-2260">{{cite web|url=https://www.tvsa.co.za/shows/viewshowcast.aspx?showid=2260&amp;season=2|title = Sterlopers &#124; Starring Cast &#124; TVSA}}</ref> <ref name="iol-legacy">{{cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/entertainment/tv/local/trix-vivier-is-proud-of-legacy-despite-covid-19-challenges-b63e3710-5e41-41d2-b681-7a14bcfbd466|title = Trix Vivier is proud of 'Legacy' despite Covid-19 challenges}}</ref> <ref name="stageandscreen.co.za">{{cite web|url=https://www.stageandscreen.co.za/legacy-potgieters/|title=Legacy: The Modest Family &#124; Stage and Screen|date=22 June 2020|accessdate=17 June 2022|archivedate=7 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107161148/https://www.stageandscreen.co.za/legacy-potgieters/}}</ref> <ref name="netwerk24-legacy">{{In lang|af}} https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Bekendes/lea-trix-en-moeder-adri-ma-en-dogters-bekoor-sa-op-tv-20210219</ref> <!-- paywalled --> <ref name="pressreader-283347589536278">{{In lang|af}} https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/sarie/20200901/283347589536278</ref> <ref name="netwerk24-20191115">{{In lang|af}} https://www.netwerk24.com/huisgenoot/Bekendes/hg-kuier-by-2-stersussies-fynskrif-se-lea-en-trackers-se-trix-20191115</ref> <!-- paywalled --> <ref name="iol-923460">{{cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/entertainment/whats-on/cape-town/annie-get-your-gun-at-artscape-923460|title = Annie Get Your Gun at Artscape}}</ref> <ref name="iol-927127">{{cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/entertainment/whats-on/cape-town/abused-woman-play-to-preview-at-bat-927127|title = Abused-woman play to preview at BAT}}</ref> <ref name="jvralumni.co.za">https://web.archive.org/web/20180902211524/http://jvralumni.co.za/downloads/JvR%20Alumni%20Nuusbrokkies%202de%20Uigawe%20Oktober%202017%20.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> <ref name="janvanriebeeck.co.za-kultuur">{{cite web|url=https://janvanriebeeck.co.za/kultuur/ |title=Kultuur &#124; Hoërskool Jan van Riebeeck |publisher=Janvanriebeeck.co.za |date= |accessdate=2022-05-06}}</ref> <ref name="wts-prospectus">https://f24c9a80-dbdd-4c88-89be-1182fab6ac8c.filesusr.com/ugd/03b688_ee7efc92aa094fd5a5ba3c88c3a37745.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> <ref name="artlink-7889">[https://www.artlink.co.za/news_article.htm?contentID=7889 ]{{dead link|date=May 2022}}</ref> <ref name="joburg-pippi">{{cite web|url=https://www.joburg.org.za/media_/Newsroom/Pages/2013%20articles/2011%20&%202012%20%20Articles/Pippi-to-delight-children.aspx |title=Pippi to delight children |publisher=Joburg.org.za |date= |accessdate=2022-05-06}}</ref>}} == Njikọ mpụga == * https://www.imdb.com/name/nm6366742/ * https://www.apm.co.za/artiste/trix-vivier-836/ * https://www.instagram.com/trixvivier [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 9u865ht7cvtz68srqchqrkjcoixwn9u Sofia Pernas 0 16055 687963 94894 2026-07-13T17:36:50Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687963 wikitext text/x-wiki   {{Databox}} [[Category:Articles with hCards]] '''Sofia Pernas''' (a mụrụ n'ụbọchị 31, ọnwa Julaị, afọ 1989) bụ onye America na-eme ihe nkiri nke Moroccan-Spanish nke bi na Los Angeles ugbu a.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Mason|first=Aiden|title=Five Things You Didn't Know about Sofia Pernas|url=https://www.tvovermind.com/five-things-didnt-know-sofia-pernas/|work=TVOvermind|date=28 September 2017|accessdate=12 October 2020}}</ref> Ọ pụtara na usoro NBC The Brave ma ugbu a na-apụta na usoro CBS Blood & Treasure . == Mmalite ndụ == Pernas kwagara United States mgbe ọ dị afọ ise ma too na Orange County, California.<ref name="SoapShows">{{Cite web|title=Sofia Pernas|url=https://soapshows.com/young-and-restless/cast-list/sofiapernas/2/|work=Soap Shows|accessdate=13 March 2018|archivedate=4 February 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204121756/http://soapshows.com/young-and-restless/cast-list/sofiapernas/2/}}</ref> Nne ya si [[Morocco]], ebe nna ya si [[Spain]]; ha abụọ na-asụ ọtụtụ asụsụ. N'ihi ya, ọ na-asụ asụsụ anọ: Arabic, English, Spanish na German. Ọ bụ ezie na ọ na-eme atụmatụ na mbụ maka ọrụ n'akwụkwọ akụkọ, a tụgharịrị ya gaa n'ọrụ n'ịme ihe ngosi na ime nkiri mgbe a nyochara ya. == Ọrụ == Pernas mere Marisa Sierras na The Young and the Restless site n'afọ 2015 ruo 2017, wee pụta na telenovela ''Jane'' the Virgin site n'afọ 2016 ruo 2017. Ọ pụtara dịka Hannah Rivera na usoro NBC The Brave site n'afọ 2017 ruo 2018, ma kemgbe afọ 2019 ọ na-eme Lexi Vaziri na usoro CBS Blood & Treasure . == Ndụ onwe == Pernas malitere ịchị ọwị onye ya na ya na-arụkọ ọrụ The Young and the Restless bụ Justin Hartley n'ọnwa Mee 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justin Hartley and Sofia Pernas Have Been Dating for Weeks as Source Says 'They Look Very Happy'|url=https://people.com/tv/justin-hartley-sofia-pernas-dating-for-weeks-very-happy/|work=People.com|date=June 3, 2020|accessdate=October 27, 2021}}</ref> Ha lụrụ n'ọnwa Machị 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=This Is Us' Justin Hartley and Sofia Pernas Are Married|url=https://people.com/tv/justin-hartley-and-sofia-pernas-are-married/|work=People.com|date=May 17, 2021|accessdate=October 27, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-28|title=Justin Hartley Discusses The End Of This Is Us|url=https://hauteliving.com/2021/12/justin-hartley-endings-new-beginnings-this-is-us-final-season/706486/|accessdate=2022-01-05|work=Haute Living|language=en-US}}</ref> == Ihe nkiri == {| class="wikitable" !Afọ !Aha ya !Ọrụ !Ihe edeturu |- |2009 |''Njem Na-adịghị Anwụ Anwụ nke Captain Drake'' |Isabella Drake |Ihe nkiri telivishọn |- |2011 |''Afọ nke Dragọn'' |Rechel |Ihe nkiri |- |2011 |''NCIS'' |Onye isi ndị agha mmiri Gabriela Flores |Ihe omume: "Engaged (Akụkụ nke I & nke Abụọ)" |- |2011 |''Ibuli elu'' |Nwanne nwanyị Lupe |Ihe omume: "Ụmụ nwoke na-arụ ọrụ abalị" |- |2014 |''Ọrụ Rogue nke Roger Corman'' |Jenna Wallace |Ihe nkiri |- |2014 |''Ụmụ amaala'' |Elena |Ihe nkiri |- |20152017 |''Ndị Ntorobịa na Ndị Na-enweghị Nkwụsị'' |Marisa Sierras |Ọrụ a na-arụ ugboro ugboro |- |2016 |''Transylvania'' |Coriander |Ihe nkiri telivishọn |- |20162017 |''Jane Nwa Agbọghọ Na-amaghị Nwoke'' |Katalọn |Ọrụ a na-eme ugboro ugboro (oge 3), 5 episodes |- |2017 2018 |''Ndị Nwere Obi Ike'' |Hannah Rivera |Ọrụ bụ isi |- |2018 |''Mmụọ Na-acha Nri'' |Karina |Ihe nkiri |- |2018 |''Ọ Maara Ihe Ọ bụla Gị Na-aga'' |Ramona |Ihe nkiri TV |- |2019 ugbu a |''Ọbara na Akụ̀ Dị Mma'' |Lexi Vaziri |Ọrụ bụ isi |- |2020 |''Òtù Nzuzo nke Ndị Eze A mụrụ nke Abụọ'' |Princess Anna |Ihe nkiri Disney+ |- |} == Edemsibịa == <references /> [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] kqyp6g5q3v1nz6fb5ys0ly34ctt66w5 Sherif Sonbol 0 16371 687956 687054 2026-07-13T15:29:09Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687956 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[Usòrò:Sherif Sonbol.jpg|thumb]]   '''Sherif Sonbol''' (amụrụ na Disemba 6, 1956 - Disemba 24, 2023) bụ onye [[Egypt]] na-ese foto. Ọ bu ọkachamara n'ihe owuwu, nka mara mma na foto. [[Category:Articles with hCards]] == Oge ọ malitere == A mụrụ Sonbol na Giza, Cairo, Egypt. Ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ mkpuchi ihe onwunwe na Mahadum Cairo wee gaa Chartered Insurance Institute na [[London]]. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ maka ụlọ ọrụ Egypt Reinsurance dị ka onye na-ede akwụkwọ n'ụgbọ mmiri. N'ihe dị ka n'afọ 1988, Sonbol kpebiri ịchụso otu n'ime ihe ndị na-atọ ya ụtọ - foto- ma nwalee ihu ọma ya na Al-Ahram, ebe ọ malitere ịrụ ọrụ n'oge na-adịghị anya dị ka onye na-arụ ọrụ n'onwe ya. == Ọrụ == O were naanị ọnwa ole na ole ka ọ bụrụ onye na-ese foto oge niile na Al-Ahram n'okpuru nkwado nke Antoun Albert. N'agbanyeghị na ọ na-enweta ihe mgbaru ọsọ ọkachamara na ewu ewu na Al-Ahram, otu oge Sonbol hụrụ mkpa ọ dị ịhapụ akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ ka American Embassy wee were ya dịka onye na-ese foto. Ọnọdụ a emesịghị pụta ìhè mana American Embassy tinyere ya na ngalaba kọmputa ya dị ka onye na-ese ihe na onye na-enye ọzụzụ kọmputa maka ndị ọhụrụ.<ref name="EmbassyJob">At that time (early-mid '80s) the use of [[computers]] and [[word processors]] was not as widespread as it is nowadays.</ref> O jisiri ike jikọta ọrụ ndị a na ọrụ ya na New Cairo Opera House, ebe ọ nọ na-ese foto kemgbe o meghere ọnụ ụzọ ya na 1988. N'ikpeazụ, Sonbol gbara arụkwaghịm n'ọkwa ya na American Embassy wee laghachi Al-Ahram; n'oge ọ gara na Al-Ahrama Weekly. Ọ nọrọ afọ isii dị ka onye isi na-ese foto nke Kalam-El-Nass. N'afọ ikpeazụ ya n'ebe ahụ, ọrụ magazin Maraya-El-Nass hụrụ ìhè.<ref name="Maraya">An unsuccessful advertisement strategy resulted in Maraya-El-Nass having to close its doors a few years later.</ref> Nke a bụ magazin ime ụlọ nke otu ahụ dị ka Kalam-El-Nass. Ọrụ nka dị mkpa nke ọrụ ahụ bụ ịbụ onye edemede Moguib Rushdi na onwe ya, n'ihi ya, a kpọfere ya na magazin ọhụrụ ahụ. N'ebe a kwa, o jisiri ike "na-eme ka ntọala nke foto ime ụlọ Ijipt site na iji ìhè okike".<ref name="Editors">Afaaf Abu Zaahr & Ghada Abu Zahr, editors of "Mirrors" and Kalam-El-Nass magazines</ref> Ka ọ dị ugbu a, Sonbol na-ejikọta ọrụ ya dị ka onye isi na-ese foto na Al-Ahram Weekly na Cairo Opera House na ọrụ ndị ọzọ.<ref name="Chief">Besides his regular photojournalism assignments, he is in charge of the main photograph of the ''Pack of Cards'' section of the newspaper (usually providing the image or selecting other relevant photographs) and also occasionally contributing with articles.</ref> Dị ka onye na-arụ ọrụ nọrọ ọnwe ya, ọ na-enye aka mgbe ụfọdụ na mbipụta ndị ọzọ - gụnyere Kalam-El-Nass-. Ọ na-ekere òkè na mkpọsa foto na ọrụ ndị ọzọ. Ọ rụkọkwara ọrụ na ebe ọdịnala dị mkpa dị ka Bibliotheca Alexandrina. E gosipụtara ọrụ ya n'ihe ngosi dị iche iche n'ụwa niile ma bụrụ isiokwu nke thesis doctorate<ref name="NYTimes">[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/01/arts/photographer-s-brilliant-solos-inspired-by-the-dance.html New York Times October 2003], review and interview on occasion of Lincoln Center Exhibit.</ref><ref name="MWNF1">Currently his work is on display, for example, in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20110723213117/http://www.mwnftravels.net/travel_et_trailDetail.php?id=IAM;eg;1;en&fl=its Museum With No Frontiers exhibit "''Mamluk Art: The Splendor of the Sultans''"]</ref><ref name="Pol2">2012 Exhibit in Poland: article from [http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/5/25/44341/Arts--Culture/Visual-Art/The-quiet-passion-of-photographer-Sonbol-graces-Wa.aspx "Ahram Online"], in English</ref><ref name="Thesis1">Eszter Dobay, The Hungarian Moholy-Nagy Academy of Arts. Thesis title: “''On the portrayal of movement/action in photography''”</ref><ref name="Thesis2">Paula van Akkeren, Amsterdam. Thesis titles: “''What is the role of photography in Egypt''” and “''The relation between photography and art''”</ref> O nyela nzukọ ọmụmụ na AFCA (Académie Francophone Cairote des Arts) ma na-akụzi foto na Mahadum Ahram Canadian kemgbe afọ 2008.<ref name="Canadian">[https://web.archive.org/web/20171122195819/http://acu.edu.eg/ Ahram Canadian University´s official website].</ref> Site n'otu n'ime ọrụ onwe ya kachasị ọhụrụ, Sonbol na-anwa ime ka ọdịbendị ọdịda anyanwụ na nke Arab dị nso iji kwalite nghọta na nkwurịta okwu ka mma.<ref name="World books">The project is moving slowly given the difficulty of finding proper sponsors.</ref> == Usoro na ụdị == * Otu n'ime akara ahịa Sonbol bụ ojiji o ji ìhè dịnụ; usoro ọ mepụtara n'okpuru agbamume nke Antoun Albert.<ref name="EgyptToday">[https://web.archive.org/web/20091108160619/http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6341 Egypt Today February 2006], article on the history of Photography in Egypt.</ref> * Mmetụta dị nkọ nke oge bụkwa ihe e ji mara ihe oyiyi ya. Nke a pụtara ìhè karịsịa na ballet shots ya na The New York Times zoro aka na ya dị ka "otu ''anya dị nkọ''" na-agbakwụnye ''na'' "Ọbụna mgbe Sonbol lekwasịrị anya na ịnọ jụụ, ọ na-egosipụta okwu ''Martha Graham'' na nkwụsịtụ abụghị ọnọdụ kama "omume mmezu". "<ref name="NYTimes"/> Sonbol zụlitere anya ya maka ịgba egwu n'okpuru nlekọta nke Erminia Gambarelli Kamel, onye bụbu prima ballerina na onye nduzi nka nke Cairo Opera House Ballet ugbu a.<ref name="NYTimes" /><ref name="EgyptToday" /> == Mmeghachi omume nkatọ == <blockquote>"Ọ dịghị ihe mara mma karịa igosipụta nka site na nka..." -Naguib Mahfouz, Nobel Laureate</blockquote><blockquote>"Ọ dị ụkọ bụ onye na-ese foto nke na-ele ụdị nka a ma ama ma gosipụta ya n'ìhè ọhụrụ. Mana foto egwu Sherif Sonbolī na-adọrọ mmasị ma na-ekpughe anya [na-egosi] anya dị nkọ... nke nwere ike isi n'okporo ámá dị n'elu ikpo okwu ma ọ bụ site na nku, na-ewepụkarị ọdịdị n'ime ụcha na-agbawa agbawa. " -Anna Kisselgoff, New York Times<ref name="NYTimes"/></blockquote><blockquote>"Onye na-ese ihe<ref name="Kenaan">Featured in Sonbol's catalogues, this special message was originally delivered by Mounir Kenaan's wife, author Sanaa El-Beissy.</ref><ref name="Kenaan2">In 2001, Mounir Kenaan wrote: “''A real artist is when you can recognize his work, without seeing his signature. Sonbol’s photos are like that. When I see a photo taken by Sherif Sonbol, I know immediately it’s his, without seeing his name. He surpassed the impossible. Sonbol, whose endless passion and near-obsession for learning, it is no wonder that he is now the “master’ of all photography masters in ballet –'' " [http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/node/422715 Al Masry Al Youm English edition article "The Camera Dancer"]</ref> eruola n'elu ọrụ ya mgbe enwere ike ịmata ọrụ ya n'edeghị mbinye aka ya..." -Mounir Kenaan, onye na-ese foto Ijipt.</blockquote> == Akwụkwọ == <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sherifsonbol.com/books.html|title=Sherif Sonbol Photography|author=Sonbol|first=Sherif|work=www.sherifsonbol.com|accessdate=2018-07-25}}</ref> * Opera 1988-1993, (Cairo ''Opera'' House 1993) * ''Aida'', (Cairo Opera House 1999) * Fero nke Anyanwụ: Akhenaten : Nefertiti : Tutankhamen, (Bullfinch & Boston Museum for Fine Arts 1999, ISBN & ) ''Onye nyere aka''. * Swan Lake maka Ụmụaka, (Cairo Opera House, 2000) * ''Mulid! Ememme Okpukpe'', (AUC, 2001, ISBN & ) * Mamluk Art: The Splendor and Magic of the Sultans (Museum with No Frontiers & Transatlantic, 2001, ISBN & ) * The Pharaohs, (Bompiani Arte & Thames and Hudson, 2002, ) ''Onye isi'' na-enye aka. * ''Der Turmbau Zu Babel'' * ''40 Pyramids nke Ijipt na ndị agbata obi ha'', (Cyperus, 2005, ) * ''40 Pyramids nke Ijipt na ndị agbata obi ha'', Arabic version (Al Hayaa Al Masriya Al-Aama Lel Ketab, 2005, ) * ''Obí Eze na Obodo'' Ijipt, (Abrams Inc & AUC, 2006) * Chọọchị Ijipt: Site na njem nke Ezinụlọ Nsọ ruo n'ụbọchị a, (AUC, 2007, ISBN & ). Mbipụta nke abụọ, AUC, 2012 * Arts of the City Victorious (Yale University, 2008) ''Onye isi'' na-enye aka. * [[Efefe Kraịst|Iso Ụzọ Kraịst]] na Monasticism na Wadi al-Natrun: Essays from the 2002 International Symposium of the Saint Mark Foundation and the Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite Coptic Society, Edited by Maged S.A. Mikhail & Mark Moussa, (AUC, 2009,) Cover image. * ''Opera 1988 2008'' (Cairo Opera House, 2009) * Al-Tahra Palace, A Gem in a Majestic Garden (CULTNAT / Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 2009, ) * The Nile Cruise, an Illustrated Journey (AUC, 2010, ISBN & ) * Ihe ịtụnanya nke Ụlọ Nsọ Horus: Ụda na Ìhè nke Edfu (AUC, 2011, ISBN & 978-977-638 (900-7). Okwu Mmalite nke Zahi Hawass * The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Ebe E wusiri ike ya, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque (AUC, 2013) == Ebensidee == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [http://www.sherifsonbol.com Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ Sherif Sonbol] * [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg Al Ahram Weekly] * [http://english.ahram.org.eg Ahram Online] * [http://www.cairoopera.org Ụlọ Egwuregwu Cairo] [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 98yg86l1psee5ro2520hw4wbfk29act Stacks (rapper) 0 17946 687970 141163 2026-07-13T19:12:15Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687970 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Yannique Barker''' (amụrụ na Jenụwarị 25, 1985), nkè a maara site na áhà egwu ya Stacks na '''YNIQ''', bụ onye America na-eti egwu. == Akụkọ ndụ == Nna ya, Cecile D. Barker, na-elekọta Sly & the Family Stone na Peaches & Herb, Mgbè ya na ónyé mmekọ ya Tony Camillo na-emepụta "Midnight Train to Georgia". Cecile D, Barker bụzi ónyé isi ndekọ SoBe Entertainment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.miaminewtimes.com/riptide/2012/02/pop_star_phyllisia_claims_reco.php|title=Pop Star Phyllisia Ross Claims SoBe Records CEO Cecile Barker Licked Her Foot, Groped Her|author=Michael E. Miller|date=February 27, 2012|work=[[Miami New Times]]|accessdate=April 15, 2016}}</ref> Barker lụrụ ónyé na-eme ''ihe'' nkírí telivishọn na ónyé na-agụ egwu Brooke Hogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tmz.com/2009/04/21/brooke-hogan-stack-up/|title=Brooke Hogan Stack$ Up|date=April 21, 2009|work=[[Tmz.com]]|accessdate=April 15, 2016}}</ref> na July 29, 2009, ha pụtara na The Howard Stern Show .<ref name="WallyChamp">{{Cite web|url=http://wallychamp.com/2009/04/brooke-hogan-is-with-stack/|title=Brooke Hogan is currently with Stack$|accessdate=April 21, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424054002/http://wallychamp.com/2009/04/brooke-hogan-is-with-stack/|archivedate=April 24, 2009}}</ref> Na 2015, na-agbanwe aha ogbo ya site na Stack$ gaa YNIQ, o wepụtara egwu gbasara egwuregwu Ronda Rousey on Soundcloud.com.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mmaweekly.com/this-rap-song-about-ronda-rousey-means-hip-hop-music-just-got-rowdy|title=This Rap Song About Ronda Rousey Means Hip-Hop Music Just Got 'Rowdy'|work=[[MMA Weekly]]|accessdate=April 15, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://heavy.com/entertainment/2015/07/cecile-barker-stacks-yniq-hulk-hogan-racist-video-brooke-dated/|title=Cecile Barker & Stacks: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|author=Paul Farrell|work=[[Heavy.com]]|date=July 24, 2015|accessdate=April 15, 2016|archivedate=April 1, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401233146/http://heavy.com/entertainment/2015/07/cecile-barker-stacks-yniq-hulk-hogan-racist-video-brooke-dated/}}</ref> == Nkọwapụta == === Abọm === * CraZee & ConfuZed (2008), SoBe Entertainment/Cash Money Records === Mixtapes === * Miami's Most Wanted (2012), SoBe Entertainment * I liri Ego m (2011), SoBe Entertainment === Abụ ndị a ma ama === * "Money Ova Here" (feat. Lil Wayne) ** * "Nke ahụ bụ Ụzọ" (feat. Fat Joe & Trina) ** * "M nọ na ya" (feat. Paul Wall, Pitbull na 8Ball & MJG) * "Sittin' In My '64' (feat. Egwuregwu ahụ) * "M.I.A." (feat. Diddy) Nke Stevie J. mepụtara. * "Git It, Git It (feat. Twista) * "Falling" (feat. Brooke Hogan) ** == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:All articles with unsourced statements]] rdsyaphb1nh2o7ymjbptpkau22r9eos Stephanie Dinkins 0 17979 687974 212029 2026-07-13T19:46:30Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687974 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Stephanie Dinkins''' (amụrụ n'afọ 1964) bụ ónyé America na-ese ihe na-eme ihe nkírí na Brooklyn, [[New York City|New York]].<ref>{{Cite news|author=Hellmann|first=Melissa|date=2 August 2019|title=Artist works to merge artificial intelligence and art|work=The Seattle Times|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/business/technology/artist-works-to-merge-artificial-intelligence-and-art/|accessdate=3 May 2020}}</ref> A maara ya maka ịmepụta nka gbasara ọgụgụ isi (AI) ka ọ na-agwakọta agbụrụ, okike, na akụkọ ihe mere eme.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|author=Dinkins|first=Stephanie|date=2018-10-19|title=Five Artificial Intelligence Insiders in Their Own Words|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/19/business/five-artificial-intelligence-insiders-in-their-own-words.html|accessdate=2020-02-21}}</ref> Ebumnuche ya bụ "ịmepụta otu AI pụrụ iche nke nwere ọdịbendị na mmekorita ya na ndị koodu, ndị injinia na mkparịta ụka chiri anya na ọbọdọ ndị na-acha anụnụ anụnụ nke na-egosipụta ma na-enye ya ike ịrụ ọrụ maka ebumnuche nke ọbọdọ ya. "<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet Stephanie Dinkins|url=https://www.eyebeam.org/introducing-stephanie-dinkins/|author=Dinkins|first=Stephanie|date=2017-11-29|work=Eyebeam|accessdate=2019-12-09|archivedate=2020-06-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612095209/https://www.eyebeam.org/introducing-stephanie-dinkins/}}</ref> A maara Dinkins nke ọma màkà ọrụ ya, Conversations with Bina48, usoro ''mkparịta ụka'' n'etiti Dinkins na onye mbụ nwere ọgụgụ isi, robot humanoid BINA48 nke yiri nwanyị ojii na ''Ọ bụghị naanị'' otu, ihe ncheta nwere ọgụgụ isi nke ọtụtụ ọgbọ zụrụ site na ọgbọ atọ nke ezinụlọ Dinkins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://garage.vice.com/en_us/article/43kdnm/stephanie-dinkins-is-turning-memoir-into-ai|title=Stephanie Dinkins Is Turning Memoir Into AI|author=Dooley|first=Tatum|date=2019-08-15|work=VICE|accessdate=2020-02-25|archivedate=2020-05-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523074459/https://garage.vice.com/en_us/article/43kdnm/stephanie-dinkins-is-turning-memoir-into-ai}}</ref> == Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Dinkins na Perth Amboy, New Jersey na nne na nna Black American zụlitere ya na Staten Island, New York.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Conversation With Stephanie Dinkins|url=http://www.conversationprojectnyc.com/blog/2018/12/21/a-conversation-with-stephanie-dinkins|author=Brett|first=Wallace|date=December 21, 2018|work=Conversation Project NYC|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-05-03|archivedate=2019-12-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203005105/http://www.conversationprojectnyc.com/blog/2018/12/21/a-conversation-with-stephanie-dinkins}}</ref> Ọ na-eto nne nne ya maka ịkụziri ya otu esi eche echiche banyere nka dị ka omume mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, na-ekwu na "nne m ochie . . . bụ ónyé na-elekọta ubi na ubi bụ nka ya . . . nke ahụ bụ omume ọbọdọ. " Dinkins gara International Center of Photography School na 1995, ebe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ n'ozuzu na mmemme asambodo foto.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stephanie Dinkins|url=https://abladeofgrass.org/fellows/stephanie-dinkins/|accessdate=2021-03-31|work=A Blade of Grass}}</ref> Dinkins nwetara MFA na foto site na Maryland Institute College of Art na 1997 Ọ gụsịrị Independent Study Program na Whitney Museum of American Art na 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stephanie Dinkins|url=https://datasociety.net/people/dinkins-stephanie/|accessdate=2020-02-21|work=Data & Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-11-20|title=Stephanie Dinkins|url=https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/art/people/faculty-staff/stephanie-dinkins|accessdate=2020-05-02|work=Stony Brook University {{!}} Department of art|language=en-US}}</ref> == Ọrụ == {{Databox}} Dinkins bụ osote prọfesọ na ngalaba nka na Mahadum Stony Brook .<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stephanie Dinkins|url=https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/art/people/faculty-staff/stephanie-dinkins|accessdate=2020-02-21|work=Stonybrook University Department of Art}}</ref> == Ihe osise == Omume Dinkins na-eji teknụzụ gụnyere, ma ọ bụghị nanị, mgbasa ozi ọhụrụ dị ka ọgụgụ isi na mmụta igwe. Dinkins na-eji usoro akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ịgba ajụjụ ọnụ iji mepụta akụkọ na nchekwa data nke ọbọdọ dere nke na-agwa ndị ọrụ ya ma na-eje ozi dị ka omume nke itinye aka na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya ma ọ bụ mkpesa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.stonybrook.edu/magazine/visualizing-equality-in-ai/|title=Visualizing Equality in AI {{!}}|date=2020-03-02|work=SBU News|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> == Onyinye na mmata == Dinkins bụ ónyé natara ọtụtụ onyinye, gụnyere: ónyé na-ese ihe na Berggruen Institute; ónyé na-eme ihe nkiri na Sundance New Frontiers Story Lab; onye na na-eme Soros Equality Fellowship; onye na'eme ihe nkiri Lucas Artists; onyinye Creative Capital; ónyé na onye na-emepụta ihe nkírí Bell Labs; onye na a na-eme Blade of Grass fellowship; na onye na Data & Society fellowsship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/berggruen-institute-announces-inaugural-cohort-of-artist-fellows|title=Berggruen Institute Announces Inaugural Cohort of Artist Fellows|author=Candid|work=Philanthropy News Digest (PND)|accessdate=2020-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sundance.org/blogs/news/2019-new-frontier-future-of-culture|title=Sundance Institute Announces Future of Culture Initiative|author=Tuesday|work=sundance.org|accessdate=2020-02-25|archivedate=2020-02-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225173910/https://www.sundance.org/blogs/news/2019-new-frontier-future-of-culture}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/grants/soros-equality-fellowship?fellow=stephanie-dinkins&current=1|title=Soros Equality Fellowship|work=opensocietyfoundations.org|accessdate=2020-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.montalvoarts.org/1/post/2019/09/montalvo-announces-new-lucas-artists-fellows-in-visual-arts-for-2019-2022.html|title=Montalvo Announces New Lucas Artists Fellows in Visual Arts for 2019–2022|work=Open Access: Inside the Lucas Artists Program|accessdate=2020-02-25}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Not the Only One|url=https://creative-capital.org/projects/not-the-only-one/|work=Creative Capital|accessdate=2020-02-25|archivedate=2020-02-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216181144/https://creative-capital.org/projects/not-the-only-one/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newinc.org/nokia-bell-labs|title=Nokia Bell Labs|work=NEW INC|accessdate=2020-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abladeofgrass.org/lay-of-the-land/blade-grass-announces-2017-abog-fellows-socially-engaged-art/|title=Meet the 2017 ABOG Fellows for Socially Engaged Art|work=A Blade of Grass|accessdate=2020-02-25|archivedate=2020-02-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225173912/http://www.abladeofgrass.org/lay-of-the-land/blade-grass-announces-2017-abog-fellows-socially-engaged-art/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://datasociety.net/announcements/2018/05/15/introducing-the-2018-2019-class-of-data-society-fellows/|title=Data & Society — Introducing the 2018-2019 class of Data & Society Fellows|work=Data & Society|accessdate=2020-02-25|archivedate=2020-02-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225190804/https://datasociety.net/announcements/2018/05/15/introducing-the-2018-2019-class-of-data-society-fellows/}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye 2019 Creative Capital awardee.<ref name=":2" /> == Mgbasa ozi == Dinkins pụtara na ihe ''omume'' nke isii nke usoro ihe nkírí telivishọn HBO Random Acts of Flyness nke Terence Nance duziri, ebe ọ kọwara mkparịta ụka ya na BINA48.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Random Acts of Flyness - They Won't Go When I Go|url=https://www.hbo.com/random-acts-of-flyness/season-1/6-they-wont-go-when-i-go|work=HBO|accessdate=2020-05-04}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] chlmbvf1ogb1rycb73ig7nb0z7sngde Sandra Suubi 0 18480 687821 451636 2026-07-13T12:11:13Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Sandra Suubi''' (amụrụ n'afọ 1990) bụ onye na-agụ egwú gospel na onye na-ese ihe nkiri na Uganda.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ntv.co.ug/features/MORNING-AT-NTV--Christmas-Carols-with-Sandra-Suubi/4545218-5392624-9hhebvz/index.html|title=MORNING AT NTV: Christmas Carols with Sandra Suubi - Features {{!}} NTV|work=www.ntv.co.ug|accessdate=2019-12-30|archivedate=2022-07-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717074926/https://www.ntv.co.ug/features/MORNING-AT-NTV--Christmas-Carols-with-Sandra-Suubi/4545218-5392624-9hhebvz/index.html}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://campusbee.ug/news/award-winning-artiste-sandra-suubi-graduates-masters-degree/|title=Award Winning Artiste, Sandra Suubi Graduates With a Masters Degree|date=2018-01-23|work=Campus Bee|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.africancrossroads.org/team-member/sandra-suubi/|title=Sandra Suubi – African Crossroads|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref><ref name=":2"/><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://observer.ug/lifestyle/50826-sandra-suubi-on-balancing-art-and-music|title=Sandra Suubi on balancing art and music|author=Kaggwa|first=Andrew|work=The Observer - Uganda|language=en-gb|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref> == Afọ ndị mbụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Suubi na Kampala, Uganda na afọ 1990. Ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ praịmarị na Greenhill Academy na agụmakwụkwọ sekọndrị ya na Gayaza High School, ma na Kampala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201805030173.html|title=Uganda: Sandra Suubi Mixes Music and Art|author=Nantaba|first=Agnes E.|date=2018-05-03|work=allAfrica.com|language=en|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref> Ọ gara Mahadum Makerere ebe ọ nwetara nzere bachelọ na Fine Arts site na Margaret Trowell School of Industrial and Fine Art. Na Jenụwarị, na afọ 2018, ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ n'otu Mahadum ahụ na nzere masta na Fine Arts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.at-work.org/en/notebook/sandra-suubi-notebook|title=Sandra Suubi|work=AtWork|language=en-GB|accessdate=2019-12-30|archivedate=2022-06-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627082811/https://www.at-work.org/en/notebook/sandra-suubi-notebook/}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ugchristiannews.com/sandra-suubi-accorded-a-masters-degrees-from-makerere/|title=Sandra Suubi accorded a master's degrees from Makerere|date=2018-01-19|work=UG Christian News|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-30|archivedate=2023-10-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009030019/https://www.ugchristiannews.com/sandra-suubi-accorded-a-masters-degrees-from-makerere/}}</ref><ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> == Ọrụ == Mgbe ọ nọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị, Suubi so n'òtù ukwe ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ. Ọ malitere ọrụ ya dị ka onye na-agụ egwú na afọ 2011 mgbe ọ sonyeere otu ụmụ agbọghọ a na-akpọ Xabu n'okpuru nduzi nke First Love . Ya na otu ahụ, ọ malitere ịrụ ọrụ na ihe omume dị iche iche mgbe ọ nọ na mahadum. N'afọ 2015, otu ahụ kewara, ya mere ọ sonyeere asọmpi Airtel Trace Music wee merie. Ọ gara n'ihu na-anọchite anya Uganda na mpaghara East Africa na ọkwa mba ụwa nke asọmpi ahụ.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://bayimbafestival.com/sandra-suubi/|title=Sandra Suubi|date=2019-07-22|work=Bayimba International Festival|language=en-GB|accessdate=2019-12-30|archivedate=2019-12-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230080802/https://bayimbafestival.com/sandra-suubi/}}</ref> O weputara abọm izizi ya na afo 2016 nke gosipụtara egwu abụọ, ''Togwamu Suubi'' na ''Nsiimye''<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1439093/sandra-suubi-finally-releases-debut-song|title=Sandra Suubi finally releases a debut song|author=|first=|date=2016-11-01|work=New Vision|archiveurl=|archivedate=|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref> . Egwú ya, ''Togwamu Subi'' gosipụtara dị ka egwu egwu maka ihe nkiri Veronica10 Wish na afọ 2018. O weputara abọm nke abuo ya na afo 2018 na abọm a gosipụtara egwu dika ''Onjagande nyo'', Kingdom come, Heaven na ''Jangu Tuzine''<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/sandra-suubi|title=Sandra Suubi|date=2019-05-03|work=Music In Africa|language=en|accessdate=2019-12-30}}</ref>. Ewezuga egwu, Suubi na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ese ihe na gburugburu ebe obibi. Ọ na-emegharị ihe mkpofu plastik iji mepụta nrụnye, ihe ndị na-ada n'azụ ihe nkiri, ọla na ihe ịchọ mma ụlọ. Ọrụ nka ya egosila na mmemme nka Kampala dị iche iche dị ka Bayimba na afọ 2013 back drop, laba na afọ 2014 Headphones, Bodaboda Helmet na echiche nke nnụnụ n'oge nka Kampala.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ugandandiaspora.com/sandra-suubi-a-talented-unique-musician-and-eco-artist|title=Sandra Suubi {{!}} A featured Artist and Performer at the Diaspora 2015 Gala {{!}} Welcome to the Ugandan Diaspora|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-12-30|archivedate=2022-10-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002033343/http://www.ugandandiaspora.com/sandra-suubi-a-talented-unique-musician-and-eco-artist}}</ref><ref name=":5"/> == Nkọwapụta == * ''Abụ'' nke Ndụ (2016) * Anthems of Life, Ep (2018) * Faya == Onyinye == * O meriri Best New Artiste nke afọ 2015 - Victoria Gospel Academy (VIGA) awards<ref name=":6"/> * O meriri na Upcoming Female Artist of the year 2016 - VIGA Awards<ref name=":4"/> * == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 5koa4wr0djbfmrkfq8f03lkniethljl Seyi Shay 0 19633 687946 516052 2026-07-13T14:27:11Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687946 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}   [[Category:Articles with short description]] [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with hCards]] [[Category:Pages using infobox musical artist with associated acts]] '''Deborah Oluwaseyi Joshua''' (onye amụrụ Oluwaseyi Josué; na 21 Disemba 1985), nke a maara dị ka '''Seyi Shay''' (nke a na-akpọ Shay-yee Shay), bụ onye Naijiria na-agụ egwu, onye na-ede egwu na onye na-eme ihe nkiri.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Beyonce's dad 'keeps us grounded'|url=http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/beyonces-dad-keeps-us-grounded-26806577.html|publisher=Independent|accessdate=26 April 2017|date=29 December 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426152628/http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/beyonces-dad-keeps-us-grounded-26806577.html|archivedate=26 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="vanguardngr1">{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/07/seyi-returns-home-with-a-promise/|title=Seyi returns home with a promise – Vanguard NewsShe presently is a bad judge in the bad show Nigerian idol|publisher=Vanguardngr.com|date=28 July 2012|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503041035/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/07/seyi-returns-home-with-a-promise/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> O dere ma mepụta egwu atọ maka ụda egwu nke egwuregwu vidyo Konami Crime Life: Gang Wars (2005).<ref name="nationalmirroronline1">{{Cite web|url=http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/artiste-uncensored-im-very-passionate-about-nigerian-music-seyi/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503021226/http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/artiste-uncensored-im-very-passionate-about-nigerian-music-seyi/|archivedate=3 May 2014|title=ARTISTE UNCENSORED: I'm very passionate about Nigerian music|publisher=Nationalmirroronline.net|date=10 October 2012|accessdate=2 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://uk.games.konami-europe.com/news.do?idNews=70|title=News "Soundtrack to a Crime Life" – Konami|publisher=Uk.games.konami-europe.com|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503061457/http://uk.games.konami-europe.com/news.do?idNews=70|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> O dekwara egwu "You Will See", nke gụnyere na abọm studio nke atọ nke Melanie C Beautiful Intentions (2005). Shay dere "White Lies", egwu sitere na album Chip's Transition.<ref name="nationalmirroronline1" /> N'afọ 2008, ọ ghọrọ onye na-abụ abụ maka otu ụmụ agbọghọ pop nke na-adịghịzi adị ugbu a From Above . Ndị otu ahụ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta ndekọ na Sony's Columbia Records ma ụlọ ọrụ [[Mathew Knowles|Mathew Knowles']] Music World Entertainment na-elekọta ya.<ref name="vanguardngr1" /> N'ọnwa Nọvemba afọ 2013, Shay bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta nkwado ya na onye na-ahụ maka ọrụ nkwukọrịta ndị ekwentị bụ Etisalat.<ref>{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/01/top-returnee-musicians-ruling-nigerian-airwaves/|title=Top 'returnee' musicians ruling Nigerian airwaves – Vanguard News|publisher=Vanguardngr.com|date=25 January 2014|accessdate=1 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501034124/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/01/top-returnee-musicians-ruling-nigerian-airwaves/|archivedate=1 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Osagie|author=Alonge|url=http://thenet.ng/2013/11/seyi-shay-signs-endorsement-deal-with-etisalat/|title=Seyi Shay signs endorsement deal with Etisalat|publisher=Thenet.ng|date=9 February 2014|accessdate=1 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417031426/http://thenet.ng/2013/11/seyi-shay-signs-endorsement-deal-with-etisalat/|archivedate=17 April 2014}}</ref> N'ọnwa Julaị afọ 2015, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta ndekọ na Island Records.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Sanusi|first=Hassan|title=Seyi Shay signs record deal with UK's Island Records|url=http://thenet.ng/2015/06/seyi-shay-signs-record-deal-with-uks-island-records/|publisher=Nigerian Entertainment Today|accessdate=25 April 2017|date=23 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425204915/http://thenet.ng/2015/06/seyi-shay-signs-record-deal-with-uks-island-records/|archivedate=25 April 2017}}</ref> N'afọ 2015, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta nkwado afọ abụọ na Pepsi.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Ade-Unuigbe|first=Adesola|title=Seyi Shay is on Fire! Lands Endorsement Deal with Pepsi|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2015/11/seyi-shay-is-on-fire-lands-endorsement-deal-with-pepsi/|work=BellaNaija|accessdate=27 April 2021|date=11 November 2015}}</ref> Shay wepụtara abọm studio mbụ ya ''Seyi'' or Shay na Nọvemba 2015. Ọ kwadoro site na egwu nkwalite: "Irawo", "Ragga Ragga", "Right Now" na "Murda" na-egosi Patoranking na Shaydee. Na Jenụwarị 2021, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta mbipụta na ngalaba Otu nbipụta egwu nke mba uwa dị na France, na mmekorita ya na egwu mba uwa dị na France.<ref name="Vanguard Nigeria News">{{Cite web|title=Seyi Shay seals deal with Universal Music|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/05/seyi-shay-seals-deal-with-universal-music/|work=Vanguard News|accessdate=25 July 2021|date=2 May 2021}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/05/seyi-shay-seals-deal-with-universal-music/ "Seyi Shay seals deal with Universal Music"]. </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=My Pictures, Expression Of My Confidence As A Woman - Seyi Shay|url=https://leadership.ng/my-pictures-expression-of-my-confidence-as-a-woman-seyi-shay/|work=Leadership Newspaper|accessdate=1 May 2021|date=28 January 2021|archivedate=27 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027184311/https://leadership.ng/my-pictures-expression-of-my-confidence-as-a-woman-seyi-shay/}}</ref> == Ndụ na ọrụ ya == A mụrụ Shay ma zụlite ya na Tottenham, London, England, nne na nna ya bụ ndị Naijiria.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Onibada|first=Ade|title=London To Lagos: British-Nigerian Songstress Seyi Shay|url=http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/london-lagos-british-nigerian-songstress-seyi-shay|publisher=Young Voices|accessdate=25 April 2017|date=16 April 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425115505/http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/london-lagos-british-nigerian-songstress-seyi-shay|archivedate=25 April 2017}}</ref> Nne ya si Ugwuu Naijiria na nna ya bụ nwa afọ Ife. O nwere ụmụnne nwoke abụọ tọrọ ya na nwanne nwanyị tọrọ ya. Ọ bụ nne naanị ha zụlitere ya na ụmụnne ya. Shay tolitere n'ụlọ Ndị nke Kraịst. Ọ na-adịkarị ka ọ bụ naanị nwa n'oge uto ya n'ihi na ọ bụ naanị otu nwa n'etiti nne ya na nna ya. Ọ malitere inata Naijiria mgbe ọ dị afọ abụọ, ma mesịa gaa Command High School na Maryland, Lagos.<ref name="thisdaylive1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/seyi-shay-touring-uk-with-beyonce-was-fantastic/148475/|title=Seyi Shay: Touring Uk With Beyonce Was Fantastic, Articles|publisher=Thisday Live|date=25 May 2013|accessdate=1 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503025112/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/seyi-shay-touring-uk-with-beyonce-was-fantastic/148475/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Ọ laghachiri London iji mezue agụmakwụkwọ ya, ebe ọ gakwara ma gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Mahadum nke East London, na BA Hons na njikwa azụmahịa egwu. Ndị ezinụlọ ya nwere mmetụta n'inwe mmasị n'egwú. Nne ya nwụrụ anwụ bụ onye na-agụ egwú na nwanne ya nwanyị na-ede egwu maka BBC na nwanne ya nwoke bụ onye a ma ama na klọb na redio DJ na London.<ref name="The Sun">{{Cite web|url=http://sunnewsonline.com/new/?p=23279|title=Seyi Shay: Beyonce's dad made me!|work=[[The Sun (Nigeria)|The Sun]]|date=13 April 2013|accessdate=1 May 2014|author=Agadibe, Christian|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503025723/http://sunnewsonline.com/new/?p=23279|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=I wish I didn’t have tattoos -Singer Seyi Shay|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/i-wish-i-didnt-have-tattoos-singer-seyi-shay-2/|work=The Nation|accessdate=27 April 2021|date=18 January 2014}}</ref> Shay sonyeere ndị ukwe ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị ya wee malite ime ihe nkiri mgbe ọ dị afọ 6.<ref name="The Sun" /> Ọ rụrụ ọrụ maka London Community Gospel Choir n'oge njem ụwa ha, nke gụnyere obodo ịrị na ato na Japan.<ref name="The Sun" /> N'ajụjụ ọnụ ya na Lanre Odukoya nke Thisday, Shay kwuru na nne ya abụghị onye na-akwado ihe mgbaru ọsọ egwu ya. Ọzọkwa, nne ya chọrọ ka ọ bụrụ dọkịta ma ọ bụ onye ọka iwu.<ref name="The Sun" /> Tupu ọ pụọ n'ụwa, nne ya gwara ya ka ọ lekwasị anya n'ọrụ egwu ya ma buru Chineke ụzọ.<ref name="thisdaylive1" /> Ọrụ egwu ya nwere ọganihu mgbe ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta ndekọ mbụ ya na No Apologies, ụlọ ọrụ ndekọ nke jikọtara ya na Sir George Martin (nke a na-akpọkarị "Beatle nke Ise").<ref name="The Sun"/> N'afọ 2006, Shay guzobere otu ụmụ nwanyị na UK a na-akpọ Boadicea; Ron Tom, onye guzobere na onye njikwa All Saints na Sugababes, duziri ha. Ìgwè ahụ kewara mgbe afọ abụọ gasịrị, Shay kpebiri isonye na nyocha abụ From Above UK. Mgbe emesịrị nyocha ahụ, ọ pụtara dị ka onye na-eduzi ndị na-agụ egwú maka otu ụmụ agbọghọ na-adịghịzi adị ugbu a From Above. Ndị otu ahụ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta ndekọ na ụlọ ọrụ nchịkwa Mathew Knowles mgbe ha rụchara ya. A kpọgara ha Houston ka ha nweta ọzụzụ olu na ịgba egwu. Ndị otu ahụ kwadoro [[Beyoncé Knowles|Beyoncé]] mgbe ọ nọ na UK maka ya I Am... Njem Ụwa.<ref name="thisdaylive1"/> Ha nyere Bruno Mars ihe nrite Best New Act na 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards ma nwee ihe ngosi MTV nke ha akpọrọ Breaking From Above, nke gosipụtara na mba otu narị na iri isii na isii gburugburu ụwa.<ref name="rhodiesworld1">{{Cite web|url=http://rhodiesworld.com/seyi-shay-my-first-professional-hit-musically-was-a-tour-to-japan-at-age-14/|title=SEYI SHAY: MY FIRST PROFESSIONAL HIT MUSICALLY WAS A TOUR TO JAPAN AT AGE 14.|publisher=Rhodies World|date=22 August 2013|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503010357/http://rhodiesworld.com/seyi-shay-my-first-professional-hit-musically-was-a-tour-to-japan-at-age-14/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/26/mathew-knowles-reality-show-breaking-from-above-america_n_1628336.html|title=Mathew Knowles' Reality Show 'Breaking From Above' Premieres in America|publisher=Huffingtonpost.com|date=29 June 2012|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503021944/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/26/mathew-knowles-reality-show-breaking-from-above-america_n_1628336.html|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Ndị otu ahụ mechara gbasaa ma Shay nwere ohere ịga n'ihu na nkwekọrịta njikwa ya na Mathew Knowles, yana inweta nkwekọrịta ndekọ na Sony. Kama nke ahụ, o mere mkpebi isonyere Fly time Music mgbe ọ natara ihe nrite site n'aka ha. Shay esorowo ọtụtụ ndị egwu rụọ ọrụ, gụnyere Justin Timberlake, Brian Michael Cox, Darey, Bilal, Michelle Williams, Chip, Rob Knoxx, H-Money, na Cameron Wallace.<ref name="vanguardngr1"/> == Oge ụgbọelu Egwú == A kọwaara Shay [[Sound Sultan]] n'oge ọ gara London n'afọ 2011. Mgbe ọ nụsịrị ụfọdụ n'ime ihe ngosi ya, Sultan mere ka o kwenye ịkwaga Naịjirịa ma chụsoo ọrụ egwu ya n'ebe ahụ.<ref name="vanguardngr2" /> Na itinyekwu na izute Sultan,ezụtere Shay ka ọfu Cecil Hammond nke Fly time Promotions. Hammond bịanyere ya aka na akara ndekọ ya Fly time Music wee kpebie ịmalite ọrụ ya na Naịjirịa.<ref name="vanguardngr1"/> N'afọ 2013, Shay hapụrụ Fly time Music wee gwa akwụkwọ akụkọ Vanguard na ọ sonyeere akara ahụ iji kwalite akara ya. O kwukwara na mgbe ọ bịanyere aka na akara ndekọ ahụ, ọ na-achịkwa akara ya nke ukwuu. Ọzọkwa, o kwuru na ya ka nwere mmekọrịta na akara ahụ.<ref name="vanguardngr2">{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/11/dont-read-comments-blogs-seyi-shay/|title=Why I don't read comments on blogs – Seyi Shay|publisher=Vanguardngr.com|date=22 November 2013|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427005057/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/11/dont-read-comments-blogs-seyi-shay/|archivedate=27 April 2014}}</ref> == Ihe osise na ihe nlereanya == Ọ bụ ezie na ụdị egwu ya bụ ngwakọta nke Afropop na R&B, Shay anaghị adaba na otu ụdị egwu. O kwenyere na ike egwu ya na-ekpuchi ụdị egwu dị iche iche, ma kwuo na egwu ya sitere na ihe ndị na-akpali ya. Shay kwuru na nne ya, [[Mathew Knowles]], 2face Idibia, [[Beyoncé Knowles|Beyoncé]], Tina Turner, [[Sound Sultan]], [[Wizkid]], na [[Omawumi]] dị ka ndị nduzi.<ref name="The Sun"/><ref name="rhodiesworld1"/><ref name="vanguardngr2"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2014/03/19/i-admire-2face-idibia-says-singer-seyi-shay/|title=I Admire 2Face Idibia, Says Singer Seyi Shay|publisher=P.M. NEWS Nigeria|date=19 March 2014|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503014446/http://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2014/03/19/i-admire-2face-idibia-says-singer-seyi-shay/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> == Egwuregwu ya ndị a ma ama == [[Usòrò:Seyi_Shay_NdaniTV_seesion_October_2018.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Seyi_Shay_NdaniTV_seesion_October_2018.jpg/170px-Seyi_Shay_NdaniTV_seesion_October_2018.jpg|thumb|Seyi Shay na-eme maka Ndani Sessions na Ọktoba 2018]] Shay rụrụ ọrụ n'afọ 2013 COSON song awards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://championonlinenews.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=10666:coson-song-awards-soon-for-network-tv-broadcast&Itemid=378&lang=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503022858/http://championonlinenews.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=10666:coson-song-awards-soon-for-network-tv-broadcast&Itemid=378&lang=en|archivedate=3 May 2014|title=COSON Song Awards soon for network TV broadcast|publisher=Champion Online News|accessdate=2 May 2014}}</ref> N'ọnwa Julaị afọ 2013, ọ rụrụ ọrụ n'otu n'ime ihe ngosi Big Brother Africa 8 nke na-eme.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://championonlinenews.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=8237:seyi-shay-storms-big-brother&Itemid=243&lang=en|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140502212608/http://championonlinenews.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=8237:seyi-shay-storms-big-brother&Itemid=243&lang=en|archivedate=2 May 2014|title=Seyi Shay storms Big Brother|publisher=Champion Online News|accessdate=2 May 2014}}</ref> Na 20 Julaị 2013, ọ rụrụ ọrụ na [[Asaba]] maka mbipụta 2013 nke Star Music Trek .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2013/07/19/tiwa-savage-seyi-shay-to-rock-asaba-lagos/|title=Tiwa Savage, Seyi Shay To Rock Asaba, Lagos|publisher=P.M. NEWS Nigeria|date=19 July 2013|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503022432/http://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2013/07/19/tiwa-savage-seyi-shay-to-rock-asaba-lagos/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na asaa n'ọnwa Septemba n'afọ 2013, Shay mere ihe nkiri na Sisters with Soul concert, nke Mary J. Blige duziri.<ref>{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/10/mary-j-blige-rocked-lagos/|title=How Mary J. Blige rocked Lagos – Vanguard News|publisher=Vanguardngr.com|date=5 October 2013|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418191954/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/10/mary-j-blige-rocked-lagos/|archivedate=18 April 2014}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ n'ọnwa Nọvemba n'afọ 2013, ya na [[Wale (rapper)|Wale]] mere "Bad" na Johnnie Walker Step Up to VIP Lifestyle Launch event (nke emere na Oriental Hotel, Victoria Island, Lagos).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dailyindependentnig.com/2013/12/wale-dbanj-seyi-shay-headline-johnnie-walkers-step-vip-lifestyle-launch/|title=Wale, D'Banj, Seyi Shay headline Johnnie Walker's step up to vip lifestyle launch – Life, Slider|publisher=Dailyindependentnig.com|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503020221/http://dailyindependentnig.com/2013/12/wale-dbanj-seyi-shay-headline-johnnie-walkers-step-vip-lifestyle-launch/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Shay bụ onye nkwado n'afọ 2013 Hennessy Artistry 2013 Club.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2013/08/28/dbanj-burna-boy-phyno-others-party-hard-at-the-hennessy-artistry-club-tour-2013/|title=Dbanj, Burna Boy, Phyno & Others Party Hard at the Hennessy Artistry Club Tour 2013|publisher=Bella Naija|date=|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716201129/http://www.bellanaija.com/2013/08/28/dbanj-burna-boy-phyno-others-party-hard-at-the-hennessy-artistry-club-tour-2013/|archivedate=16 July 2014}}</ref> N'ọnwa Disemba afọ 2013, ọ rụrụ ọrụ na Harp Rhythm Unplugged concert.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sunnewsonline.com/new/?p=47105|title=Artistes shine at Rhythm Unplugged|work=The Sun|date=25 December 2013|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503024057/http://sunnewsonline.com/new/?p=47105|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Na 15 Febụwarị 2014, Shay so Kelly Rowland, D'banj, [[Tiwa Savage]], Mo' Eazy, Zaina, Timi Dakolo, [[Waje]], [[Mụnachị Nwankwọ|Muna]], JJC na Eva Alordiah rụọ ọrụ na Darey's Love Like A Movie concert.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.ng/article/breaking-news%E2%80%A6-kelly-rowland-perform-darey%E2%80%99s-love-movie-season-2|title=Breaking News… Kelly Rowland to Perform at Darey's Love Like a Movie – Season 2!|publisher=Dailytimes.com.ng|date=27 January 2014|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503022229/http://www.dailytimes.com.ng/article/breaking-news%E2%80%A6-kelly-rowland-perform-darey%E2%80%99s-love-movie-season-2|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> == Site afọ 2011 ruo 2010:Seyi ma ọ bụ Shay, ''Ngwakọta Eletrik'' na ihe ndị ọzọ == Shay wepụtara abọm studio mbụ ya ''Seyi'' or Shay na Nọvemba 2015. Ọrụ na abọm ahụ malitere na mbido afọ 2013. Shay so ọtụtụ ndị na-emepụta ihe na Naijiria rụọ ọrụ, gụnyere Jay Sleek, Tee Y Mix, [[Del B]] na [[Cobhams Asuquo]]. N'abalị iri na otu n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ n'afọ 2011, ọ wepụtara "Loving Your Way" na "No Le Le", egwu abụọ na-akwalite nke nyeere aka ịmalite ọrụ ịbụ abụ ya na Naịjirịa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://notjustok.com/2011/08/11/seyi-shay-loving-your-way-video-no-le-le/|title=Seyi Shay – Loving Your Way + No Le Le|publisher=Notjustok.com|date=|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503023241/http://notjustok.com/2011/08/11/seyi-shay-loving-your-way-video-no-le-le/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2011/08/11/new-video-seyi-shay-loving-your-way/|title=New Video: Seyi Shay – Loving Your Way|publisher=Bella Naija|date=11 August 2011|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503063637/http://www.bellanaija.com/2011/08/11/new-video-seyi-shay-loving-your-way/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na asaa n'ọnwa Julaị n'afọ 2012, Shay wepụtara "Irawo" dị ka onye isi egwu nke abọm ahụ. Ọ bụ [[Del B]] mepụtara abụ ahụ ma kpọọ ya "Erawo".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2012/07/27/seyi-shays-back-with-a-bang-listen-to-seyi-shay-erawo-loving-your-way-watch-her-glam-new-loving-your-way-music-video/|title=Seyi Shay's Back With a Bang! Listen to Seyi Shay – Erawo & Loving Your Way Music Video|publisher=Bella Naija|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503063642/http://www.bellanaija.com/2012/07/27/seyi-shays-back-with-a-bang-listen-to-seyi-shay-erawo-loving-your-way-watch-her-glam-new-loving-your-way-music-video/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'oge mkparịta ụka a kpọtụrụ aha na Ajose, Shay kwuru na o dere "Irawo" iji kpalie ndị ọrụ ibe ya na ndị ọrụ ibe ha ka ha jikọta ọnụ. [[Clarence Peters]] gbara vidyo egwu maka abụ ahụ ma duzie ya na Naịjirịa. E bulite ya na YouTube na 3 June 2013, na ngụkọta nke nkeji 3 na sekọnd 47.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/seyi-shay-set-to-shine-with-irawo-video/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711045700/http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/seyi-shay-set-to-shine-with-irawo-video/|archivedate=11 July 2013|title=Seyi Shay set to shine with Irawo video|publisher=Nationalmirroronline.net|date=25 May 2013|accessdate=30 April 2014}}</ref> Remix nke "Irawo" gosipụtara amaokwu rap nke ya na Vector gụrụ ma wepụta ya na 6 Disemba 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2012/12/10/now-playing-seyi-shay-feat-vector-irawo-remix/|title=Now Playing: Seyi Shay Feat. Vector – Erawo Remix|publisher=Bella Naija|date=10 December 2012|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503063626/http://www.bellanaija.com/2012/12/10/now-playing-seyi-shay-feat-vector-irawo-remix/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'ọnwa Ọgọstụ afọ 2013, Shay wepụtara egwu nke abụọ nke abọm ahụ "Killin' Me Softly", nke gosipụtara onye na-agụ egwu Naijiria bụ [[Timaya]]. Ọ bụ [[Del B]]. Shay soro dee ma mepụta abụ ahụ. Ọ gwara Ajose na ọ hụrụ abụ ahụ n'anya mgbe mbụ ọ nụrụ ya. Ọzọkwa, ọ gakwuuru Timaya maka amaokwu n'ihi na ọ chọrọ ọdịdị egwu dị iche na abụ ahụ.<ref name="vanguardngr2"/> Na 6 Ọktoba 2013, Shay wepụtara "Ragga Ragga" na "Chairman" dị ka nke atọ na nke anọ site na abọm ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Akinloye|first=Dimeji|url=http://hiphopworldmagazine.com/2013/10/07/music-seyi-shayragga-ragga-chairman-ft-kcee/|title=MUSIC: SEYI SHAY – Ragga Ragga + Chairman ft. Kcee|date=7 October 2013|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503014710/http://hiphopworldmagazine.com/2013/10/07/music-seyi-shayragga-ragga-chairman-ft-kcee/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Ọ bụ Del B mepụtara abụ ndị ahụ. Nke ikpeazụ a gosipụtara olu sitere na Kcee, [[Kcee (musician)|onye]] na-edekọ egwu nke nọ n'oge egwu ahụ.<ref name="vanguardngr2" /> Tupu ọ tọhapụ ndị ahụ, Shay bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta mmekọrịta ya na ụlọ ọrụ talent mba ụwa J-Management.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pulse.ng/events/singer-seyi-shay-signs-new-deal-releases-hot-singles-ragga-ragga-chairman-ft-kcee-id2521363.html|title=Singer Seyi Shay Signs New Deal Releases Hot Singles 'Ragga Ragga' & 'Chairman' Ft Kcee|language=de|publisher=Pulse.ng|date=7 October 2013|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503014105/http://pulse.ng/events/singer-seyi-shay-signs-new-deal-releases-hot-singles-ragga-ragga-chairman-ft-kcee-id2521363.html|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> Na 8 Jenụwarị 2014, Shay wepụtara vidiyo egwu maka "Ragga Ragga"; Peters gbara ya ma duzie ya na Lagos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ynaija.com/teen/teen-y-video-review-seyi-shays-ragga-ragga-deserves-an-a-for-audaciousness/|title=Teen Y! Video Review: Seyi Shay's Ragga Ragga deserves an "A" for audaciousness &#124; Teen Y!|publisher=Ynaija.com|date=13 January 2014|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503023406/http://ynaija.com/teen/teen-y-video-review-seyi-shays-ragga-ragga-deserves-an-a-for-audaciousness/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> "Ragga Ragga" rutere n'ọkwa nke 7 na chaatị Naija Top 10 nke MTV Base site na 15 Machị ruo 19 Machị 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rhodiesworld.com/seyi-shay-co-hosts-this-weeks-mtv-base-official-naija-top-10-chart-with-ehiz/|title=Seyi Shay Co-Hosts This Week's MTV Base Official Naija Top 10 Chart|publisher=Rhodies World|date=|accessdate=1 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503014301/http://rhodiesworld.com/seyi-shay-co-hosts-this-weeks-mtv-base-official-naija-top-10-chart-with-ehiz/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na abụọ n'ọnwa Eprel afọ 2016, ọ wepụtara vidiyo egwu nke Pack and Go, site na abọm izizi ya Seyi or Shay, nke gosipụtara [[Olamide]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=WATCH Seyi Shay & Olamide in “Pack and Go”|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2016/04/watch-seyi-shay-olamide-in-pack-and-go/|work=BellaNaija|accessdate=27 April 2021|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> Na Mee 2013, Shay gwara Lanre Odukoya nke This Day na ya na [[Olamide]] dekọrọ otu egwu. O kwuru na iso ya na-arụ ọrụ dị mfe n'ihi omume ọrụ ha. Ọ gwakwara Odukoya na ọ bụ Olamide dere abụ ahụ ma a ga-ewepụta ya n'afọ 2014.<ref name="thisdaylive1"/> E gosipụtara Shay na ndekọ nke ọtụtụ ndị na-ese ihe, gụnyere Praiz, Maazị Walz, Yung Grey C na Amir.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.ng/article/seyi-shay-drops-paradise|title=Seyi Shay Drops Paradise|publisher=[[Daily Times of Nigeria]]|date=7 January 2014|accessdate=1 May 2014|author=Ogunjimi, Opeoluwani|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503013320/http://www.dailytimes.com.ng/article/seyi-shay-drops-paradise|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'ụbọchị mbụ n'ọnwa Eprel afọ 2014, Shay wepụtara egwu Dokta Frabz mepụtara "Murda". Abụ ahụ gosipụtara olu ndị ọzọ sitere na Patoranking na Shaydee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/murda-single/id863076541|title=iTunes – Music – Murda – Single by Seyi Shay|publisher=Itunes.apple.com|date=1 April 2014|accessdate=2 May 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227000051/https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/murda-single/id863076541|archivedate=27 December 2014}}</ref> Aribaba nke ''Jaguda'' nyere egwu ahụ kpakpando 9 n'ime 10, na-ekwu, sị: "Ojiji nke okwu ndị a ma ama ''amaghị ihe ị nwere ruo mgbe ọ'' lara na-eme ka oge mbụ na-ege ntị bụrụ ihe na-atọ ụtọ karị. "<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jaguda.com/2014/04/07/two-review-seyi-shay-murda-ft-patoranking-shaydee-may-d/|title=Two To Review: Seyi Shay – Murda Ft. Patoranking & Shaydee + May D – All Over You|publisher=Jaguda.com|date=|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503014133/http://www.jaguda.com/2014/04/07/two-review-seyi-shay-murda-ft-patoranking-shaydee-may-d/|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> N'abalị iri na otu n'ọnwa Mee afọ 2014, etinyere vidiyo egwu maka "Murda" na Vevo. Ọ bụ Meji Alabi duziri ya maka JM Films.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fuse.com.ng/2014/06/11/newvideoalert-seyi-shay-ft-patoranking-shaydee-murda/|title=VIDEO PREMIERE: Seyi Shay Ft. Patoranking and Shaydee – MURDA|publisher=Fuse.com.ng|date=11 June 2014|accessdate=11 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714195938/http://www.fuse.com.ng/2014/06/11/newvideoalert-seyi-shay-ft-patoranking-shaydee-murda/|archivedate=14 July 2014}}</ref> Egwú Murda gara UK na-edepụta na nọmba 8 na chaatị BBC 1 xtra, nke a bụkwa oge mbụ a ga-akpọ egwu Shays na redio na uk. Na 10 Jenụwarị 2017, ọ wepụtara egwu izizi Yolo Yolo nke [[DJ Coublon]] mepụtara.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Music: Seyi Shay – Yolo Yolo|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2017/01/new-music-seyi-shay-yolo-yolo/|work=BellaNaija|accessdate=27 April 2021|date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Na 20 Machị 2017, Meji Alabi wepụtara vidiyo egwu ahụ ma duzie ya.<ref>{{Cite web|title='Yolo Yolo' [Video]|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/seyi-shay-yolo-yolo-video/lz6r5st|work=Pulse Nigeria|accessdate=27 April 2021|language=en|date=20 March 2017|archivedate=27 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427171051/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/seyi-shay-yolo-yolo-video/lz6r5st}}</ref> A họpụtara vidiyo ahụ na mbipụta nke iri na abụọ nke ihe nrite nke The Headies maka Vidyo egwu kachasi . Ihe ndekọ "Yolo Yolo", ghọrọ egwu egwu ahịa Baileys maka ọdịda anyanwụ na Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=“I’m So Happy I didn’t Give Up”: Seyi Shay, The Afrobeats Artist That Followed Her Dream|url=https://www.reformthefunk.com/features/im-so-happy-i-didnt-give-up-seyi-shay-the-afrobeats-artist-that-followed-her-dream|work=REFORM THE FUNK|accessdate=27 April 2021|archivedate=27 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427171416/https://www.reformthefunk.com/features/im-so-happy-i-didnt-give-up-seyi-shay-the-afrobeats-artist-that-followed-her-dream}}</ref> N'afọ 2019, Shay wepụtara Gimme Love, ndekọ gosipụtara [[Runtown]], ọ merikwara Best R&B Single na mbipụta nke 13 nke ihe nrite nke The Headies. Ka e mesịrị n'afọ ahụ, na Disemba, ọ wepụtara remix na vidiyo na Gimme Love, nke gosipụtara Teyana Taylor. N'ọnwa Machị 2019, Shay mara ọkwa na Instagram na e nyela ya ebe obibi egwu na United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gistreel.com/seyi-shay-becomes-first-african-artiste-to-be-given-residency-in-uk/|title=Seyi Shay Becomes First African Artiste To Be Given Residency In UK|publisher=Gistreel|date=5 April 2019|accessdate=12 April 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412134523/https://www.gistreel.com/seyi-shay-becomes-first-african-artiste-to-be-given-residency-in-uk/|archivedate=12 April 2019}}</ref> E kwupụtara na a ga-eme abalị abụọ na Biosdale nke Canary Wharf na London na 29 na 30 Mee 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://leadership.ng/2019/03/16/seyi-shay-to-perform-at-biosdale-of-canary-whale/|title=Seyi Shay To Perform At Biosdale Of Canary Whale|publisher=Leadership Newspaper|date=16 March 2019|accessdate=12 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2019/03/seyi-shay-is-hosting-a-2-day-residency-in-london-weve-got-the-scoop%F0%9F%91%8F%F0%9F%8F%BD/|title=Seyi Shay is hosting a 2-Day Residency in London & we've got the Scoop|publisher=BellaNaija|date=14 March 2019|accessdate=12 April 2019}}</ref> == 2020-dị ugbu a: Nigerian Idol, otu ndị Aristokrat, na Universal Music France == Na 2 Febụwarị 2021, MultiChoice Nigeria, kpughere Seyi Shay, dị ka otu n'ime ndị ọkàikpe atọ nke Nigerian Idol oge 6, site na ebe nrụọrụ weebụ DStv.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Seyi Shay, DJ Sose, Obi Asika Unveiled as Judges for Nigerian Idol Season 6 with IK Osakioduwa to Host Show|url=https://www.dstvafrica.com/en-ng/news/articles/seyi-shay-dj-sose-obi-asika-unveiled-as-judges-for-nigerian-idol-season-6-with-ik-osakioduwa-to-host-show|work=DStv|accessdate=6 April 2021}}</ref> N'ọnwa Machị 2021, n'oge nyocha ahụ, ndị Naijiria katọrọ ya na Twitter maka okwu ya banyere Mayowa Tian Odueyungbo, onye na-agụ egwu dị afọ iri na asaa, n'elu ihe ngosi ya.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nigerian Idol: Seyi Shay under fire for ‘bullying’ 17-year-old contestant|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/music/451927-nigerian-idol-seyi-shay-under-fire-for-bullying-17-year-old-contestant.html|work=Premium Times|accessdate=6 April 2021|date=29 March 2021}}</ref> Na 29 Machị 2021, Frank Edoho, kpọrọ ndị ọkàikpe niile nke ihe ngosi ahụ, dị ka ihe mkpofu maka okwu ya na Torrus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Seyi Shay: Frank Edoho slams judges on Nigerian Idol|url=https://punchng.com/seyi-shay-frank-edoho-slams-judges-on-nigerian-idol/?amp|work=Punch Newspapers|accessdate=7 April 2021|date=29 March 2021}}</ref> Ọ zaghachiri omume ahụ site na tweet, na-ekwu "Ọ dị m ka #JudgeJudy ugbu a. Ị hụrụ ya n'anya ma ọ bụ ịkpọ ya asị, nke ahụ dịkwa mma! n'ụzọ ọ bụla, ekele maka ụdị ejiji nke onye izizi bụ tweeps __ssw____ssw____sw____sswa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Everyone is Talking about Seyi Shay’s Remark on “Nigerian Idol” & Here’s What She Has to Say About it|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/03/seyi-shay-nigerian-idol/|work=BellaNaija|accessdate=7 April 2021|date=29 March 2021}}</ref> Na 7 June 2020, Piriye Isokrari kpughere Seyi Shay, dị ka otu n'ime ụmụ nwanyị na-ese ihe bịanyere aka na Aristokrat Records, ngalaba njikwa Aristokrat narị atọ na iri isii<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aristokrat, UMG Deal Will Attract FDI, Jobs For Nigeria – Isokrari|url=https://leadership.ng/aristokrat-umg-deal-will-attract-fdi-jobs-for-nigeria-isokrari/|work=Leadership News - Nigeria News, Breaking News, Politics and more|accessdate=25 July 2021|date=7 June 2020|archivedate=28 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628164405/https://leadership.ng/aristokrat-umg-deal-will-attract-fdi-jobs-for-nigeria-isokrari/}}</ref> N'afọ 2021, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta mbipụta na Universal Music Publishing, ngalaba France, na Aristokrat Publishing, na-esote mmekorita dị n'etiti Universal Music France, na The Aristokrat Group.<ref name="Vanguard Nigeria News"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet the Judges — Nigerian Idol|url=https://africamagic.dstv.com/show/nigerian-idol/meet-the-judges-nigerian-idol/news|work=[[Africa Magic]]}}</ref> == Abọm == * Seyi or Shay (2015) * ''Nnukwu nwa agbọghọ'' (2021) == EPs == * ''Akpa eletrik'' (2018) == Ndị otu egwu a họọrọ == {| class="wikitable sortable" | colspan="3" style="font-size:110%" |<div class="center">'''Dị ka onye isi nka'''</div> |- !Afọ !Aha !Abọm |- | rowspan="2" |2011 |"Ịhụ Ụzọ Gị n'Anya" | rowspan="8" {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- |"No Le Le" |- | rowspan="2" |2012 |"Irawo" |- |"Irawo" (Remix) (featuring <span style="font-size:85%;">Vector</span>) |- | rowspan="4" |2013 |"Chante" (gosipụtara Ajuju) |- |"Killin' Me Softly" (featuring <span style="font-size:85%;">Timaya</span>) |- |"Onye isi oche" (nke <span style="font-size:85%;">gosipụtara</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">Kcee</span>) |- |"Ragga Ragga" |- |2014 |"Murda" (nke <span style="font-size:85%;">gosipụtara</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Patoranking]]</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">na Shaydee</span>) | rowspan="5" |''Seyi ma ọ bụ Shay'' |- | rowspan="3" |2015 |"Crazy" (<span style="font-size:85%;">gosipụtara</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Wizkid]]</span>) |- |"Jangilova" |- |"Ugbu a" |- |2016 |"Pack and Go" (nke <span style="font-size:85%;">gosipụtara</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">Olamide</span>) |- |2018 |"Ko Ma Roll" (gosipụtara Harmonize) |{{n/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="3" style="font-size:110%" |<div class="center">'''Dị ka onye na-ese ihe'''</div> |- !Afọ !Aha !Abọm |- | rowspan="4" |2013 |"For You" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Praiz</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">featuring Seyi Shay</span>) |{{n/a|Non-album single}} |- |"Paradise" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Mr Walz</span> featuring Seyi Shay) |''Walz nwere ntị'' |- |"Get Down" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Yung GreyC</span> featuring Seyi Shay) |rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- |"Yarinya" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Amir gosipụtara Seyi Shay</span>) |- | rowspan="1" |2014 |"In Love" (<span style="font-size:85%;">[[Wizkid]]</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">featuring Seyi Shay</span>) |''Ayo'' |- | rowspan="2" |2015 |"Sugar" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Ayoola</span> featuring Seyi Shay) |rowspan="4" {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- |"The Motion" (DJ Lambo gosipụtara Seyi Shay, Cynthia Morgan & <span style="font-size:85%;">Eva Alordiah</span>) |- |2016 |"Only You (Remix)" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Nikki Laoye</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">featuring Seyi Shay</span>) |- |2017 |"Celebrate" (<span style="font-size:85%;">NC Dread featuring Seyi Shay</span>) |- |2018 |"Bia" | rowspan="2" |''Akpa eletrik'' |- |2018 |"Alele" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke gosipụtara DJ Consequence na</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Flavour (musician)|Flavour N'abania]]</span>) |- |2020 |"By Gones" (<span style="font-size:85%;">Navio</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">gosipụtara Seyi Shay na Sheila Way</span>) | rowspan="2" |''Ike na Ọnụ Ọgụgụ'' |- |} == Vidiyo ya ndị a họọrọ == {| class="wikitable" |+Vidiyo !Afọ !Aha ya !Onye nduzi !Ref |- |2014 |"Murda" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke</span> gosipụtara Patoranking <span style="font-size:85%;">na</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">Shaydee</span>) | rowspan="2" |[[Meji Alabi]] |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-murda-ft-patoranking-shaydee/|title=VIDEO: Seyi Shay - Murda Ft. Patoranking & Shaydee -|date=2014-06-11|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011835/https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-murda-ft-patoranking-shaydee/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- |2015 |"N'ezie Ugbu a" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-right-now/|title=VIDEO: Seyi Shay - Right Now -|date=2015-07-07|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011320/https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-right-now/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" |2017 |"Bia" |[[Clarence Peters]] |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tooxclusive.com/music/seyi-shay-bia-new-video/|title=Seyi Shay - Bia [New Video]|date=2018-02-01|work=tooXclusive|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011629/http://tooxclusive.com/music/seyi-shay-bia-new-video/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- |"Weekend Vibes" (Remix) (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Sarkodie (rapper)|Sarkodie]]</span> gosipụtara) |Moe Musa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-ft-sarkodie-weekend-vibes-remix/|title=VIDEO: Seyi Shay ft. Sarkodie - Weekend Vibes (Remix) -|date=2017-07-17|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212070553/https://notjustok.com/videos/video-seyi-shay-ft-sarkodie-weekend-vibes-remix/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- |"Your Matter" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke Eugy na Efosa gosipụtara</span>) |[[Meji Alabi]] |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jaguda.com/video/video-seyi-shay-matter-ft-eugy-efosa/|title=VIDEO: Seyi Shay - Your Matter Ft. Eugy & Efosa {{!}} Jaguda.com|author=Bilo|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011949/http://jaguda.com/video/video-seyi-shay-matter-ft-eugy-efosa/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- |2018 |"Surrender" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Kizz Daniel]]</span> gosipụtara) |Clarence Peters |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thenativemag.com/music/watch-seyi-shay-kizz-daniel-surrendermusic-video/|title=Watch Seyi Shay and Kizz Daniel in "Surrender" music video|date=2018-07-12|work=The Native|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011251/http://thenativemag.com/music/watch-seyi-shay-kizz-daniel-surrendermusic-video/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | |"Ko Ma Roll" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke gosipụtara Harmonize</span>) |Ihe osise nke Cardoso |<ref>{{Cite web|author=Ohunyon|first=Ehish|title=Seyi Shay - 'Koma Roll' feat Harmonize [Official Music Video]|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/watch-seyi-shay-harmonize-in-koma-roll-official-music-video/ejry7s9|publisher=Pulse Nigeria|accessdate=23 March 2019|date=3 January 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323193135/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/watch-seyi-shay-harmonize-in-koma-roll-official-music-video/ejry7s9|archivedate=23 March 2019}}</ref> |- |"Gimme Love" (<span style="font-size:85%;">nke</span> <span style="font-size:85%;">[[Runtown]]</span> gosipụtara) |Clarence Peters |<ref>{{Cite web|author=Njoku|first=Chisom|title=Watch: Seyi Shay Releases Video For "Gimme Love"|url=https://guardian.ng/life/seyi-shay-teams-up-with-runtown-in-gimme-love-video/|publisher=Guardian Nigeria|accessdate=16 February 2019|date=21 January 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011852/https://guardian.ng/life/seyi-shay-teams-up-with-runtown-in-gimme-love-video/|archivedate=12 February 2019}}</ref> |} == Omume Ihe nkiri == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Afọ !Aha ya !Ọrụ !Ihe edeturu |- |2018 |''Lara na Beat'' |Lara |<ref>{{Cite news|author=Ukiwe|first=Urenna|title=Meet The Cast Of Lara And The Beat|url=https://guardian.ng/life/meet-the-cast-of-lara-and-the-beat/|accessdate=1 September 2018|work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|date=1 July 2018}}</ref> |- |} == Ihe nrite na nhọpụta == {| class="wikitable" !Afọ !Ihe omume !Ihe nrite !Onye Nwetara ya !Nsonaazụ !Ref |- | rowspan="6" |2013 | rowspan="2" |Ndị isi |Egwú Kasị Mma (Nwanyị) |"Irawo" |{{Nom}} | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/12/olamide-wins-big-headies-2013-full-list-winners/|title=Olamide wins big @ Headies 2013 + full list of winners|publisher=Vanguardngr.com|date=27 December 2013|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225114039/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/12/olamide-wins-big-headies-2013-full-list-winners/|archivedate=25 February 2014}}</ref> |- |Nke Na-esote | rowspan="4" |Ya onwe ya |{{Nom}} |- |City People Entertainment Awards |Onye egwu ọhụrụ kachasị mma nke Afọ (Nwanyị) |{{Won}} |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2013/07/16/2013-city-people-entertainment-awards-first-photos-full-list-of-winners/|title=2013 City People Entertainment Awards: First Photos & Full List of Winners|publisher=Bella Naija|date=|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706115630/http://www.bellanaija.com/2013/07/16/2013-city-people-entertainment-awards-first-photos-full-list-of-winners/|archivedate=6 July 2014}}</ref> |- |Ihe nrite ntụrụndụ nke Nigeria |Ihe Omume Ọhụrụ Kasị Mma nke Afọ |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/137094-nigerian-entertainment-award-announces-2013-nominees.html|title=Nigerian Entertainment Award announces 2013 nominees|publisher=Premium Times|date=31 May 2013|accessdate=5 May 2014|author=Abimboye, Micheal|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306125132/http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/137094-nigerian-entertainment-award-announces-2013-nominees.html|archivedate=6 March 2014}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |Ihe nrite Chase |Onye na-ese ihe nke Afọ (Nwanyị) |{{n/a}} | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|author=|url=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/146520-chase-awards-2013-unveils-nominees.html|title=CHASE Awards 2013 unveils nominees – Premium Times Nigeria|publisher=Premiumtimesng.com|date=12 October 2013|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503020951/http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/146520-chase-awards-2013-unveils-nominees.html|archivedate=3 May 2014}}</ref> |- |- |Abụ nke Afọ |"Irawo" |{{n/a}} |- | rowspan="8" |2014 |2014 Channel O Music Video Awards |Nwanyị Kasị Nwere Onyinye |"Irawo" |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|author=Marshall|first=Rhodé|title=Channel O Africa announces Music Video Awards nominees|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2014-09-05-channel-o-africa-announces-music-video-awards-nominees|publisher=Mail & Guardian|accessdate=12 September 2014|date=5 September 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913011117/http://mg.co.za/article/2014-09-05-channel-o-africa-announces-music-video-awards-nominees|archivedate=13 September 2014}}</ref> |- |City People Entertainment Awards |Onye na-eti egwu nke Afọ (Nwanyị) | rowspan="2" |Ya onwe ya |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bellanaija.com/2014/06/06/rita-dominic-davido-tiwa-savage-majid-michel-2014-city-people-entertainment-awards-nominees/|title=Rita Dominic, Davido, Tiwa Savage, Majid Michel – 2014 City People Entertainment Awards Nominees|publisher=Bellanaija.com|date=6 June 2014|accessdate=10 June 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608231822/http://www.bellanaija.com/2014/06/06/rita-dominic-davido-tiwa-savage-majid-michel-2014-city-people-entertainment-awards-nominees/|archivedate=8 June 2014}}</ref> |- |2014 Nigeria Entertainment Awards |Nwanyị Na-ese Ihe nke Afọ |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/161770-pop-duo-skuki-reject-nigerian-entertainment-awards-nomination.html|title=Pop duo, Skuki, reject Nigerian Entertainment Awards nomination|publisher=[[Premium Times]]|date=31 May 2014|accessdate=1 June 2014|author=Abimboye, Micheal|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605052920/http://www.premiumtimesng.com/arts-entertainment/161770-pop-duo-skuki-reject-nigerian-entertainment-awards-nomination.html|archivedate=5 June 2014}}</ref> |- | rowspan="5" |Ihe nrite Egwú Ụwa |Abụ Kasị Mma n'Ụwa | rowspan="2" |"Ragga Ragga" |{{Nom}} | rowspan="5" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.channelstv.com/2014/02/20/dbanj-tuface-jay-z-kanye-west-davido-kcee-nominated-at-world-music-awards/|title=D'banj, Tuface, Jay-Z, Kanye West, Davido, Kcee Nominated at World Music Awards|publisher=Channelstv.com|date=20 February 2014|accessdate=30 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418234340/http://www.channelstv.com/2014/02/20/dbanj-tuface-jay-z-kanye-west-davido-kcee-nominated-at-world-music-awards/|archivedate=18 April 2014}}</ref> |- |Vidio Kasị Mma n'Ụwa |{{Nom}} |- |Nwanyị Na-ese Ihe Kasị Mma n'Ụwa | rowspan="3" |Ya onwe ya |{{Nom}} |- |Ihe nkiri kacha mma n'ụwa |{{Nom}} |- |Onye Nlegharị anya Kasị Mma n'Ụwa nke Afọ |{{Nom}} |- |2015 |MTV Africa Music Awards 2015 |Nwanyị Kasị Mma na Vidio nke Afọ |TBA |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|title=Seyi Shay Singer thanks 'God almighty' for MAMA nomination|url=http://pulse.ng/buzz/seyi-shay-singer-thanks-god-almighty-for-mama-nomination-id3867272.html|work=Pulse Nigeria|publisher=Joey Akan|accessdate=15 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724025951/http://pulse.ng/buzz/seyi-shay-singer-thanks-god-almighty-for-mama-nomination-id3867272.html|archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=#MTVMAMA2015 NOMINEES ANNOUNCED!|url=http://mama.mtv.com/news/nominations-are-revealed-for-18-july-showstopper/|work=MTV AMA|publisher=MTV|accessdate=11 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614004855/http://mama.mtv.com/news/nominations-are-revealed-for-18-july-showstopper/|archivedate=14 June 2015}}</ref> |- |2019 |Ndị isi |R&B Single kacha mma |"Nye m ịhụnanya" |{{Won}} |<ref>{{Cite web|first=Gbenga|author=Bada|title=Headies 2019: Here are all the winners at the 13th edition of music award|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/headies-2019-here-are-all-the-winners-at-13th-edition-of-music-award/peegxqv|publisher=Pulse Nigeria|accessdate=20 October 2019|date=20 October 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019214705/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/headies-2019-here-are-all-the-winners-at-13th-edition-of-music-award/peegxqv|archivedate=19 October 2019}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2021 | rowspan="2" |Nsọpụrụ Net |Onye Egwú Kasị Ama | rowspan="2" |Ya onwe ya |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|title=Net Honours - The Class of 2021|url=https://thenet.ng/net-honours-class-of-2021/|accessdate=2021-07-21|work=[[Nigerian Entertainment Today]]|language=en-US}}</ref> |- |Onye egwu a na-achọkarị (nwaanyị) |{{Nom}} |<ref>{{Cite web|title=Net Honours - The Class of 2021|url=https://thenet.ng/net-honours-class-of-2021/|accessdate=2021-09-07|work=Nigerian Entertainment Today|language=en-US}}</ref> |} == Ihe edeturu == {{notelist-ua}} == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Official website {{authority control}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] mfiff1lybtumojkq7s21poroftqpz60 Apapa Port Complex 0 19687 687937 99078 2026-07-13T13:22:40Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687937 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Apapa port.lagos.jpg|thumb|Apapa port]] Apapa Port Complex nke a makwaara dị ka '''Lagos Port Complex''' bụ '''ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri''' kacha ukwuu na nke kacha ekwo ekwo na Naịjirịa.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Salisu|first=Umar Obafemi|date=April 2017|title=Analysis of Seaport Productivity in Pre and Post Concession Periods in Nigeria. a Study of Apapa Port|journal=Transport & Logistics|volume=17|issue=42|pages=62–71}}</ref> Apapa Port Complex nwere ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ gụnyere Apapa quays, Third Apapa Wharf Extension, Apapa Dockyard, Apapa Petroleum Wharf, Bulk Vegetable Oil Wharf، [[Ijora, Lagos|Ijora]] Wharf), Kirikiri Lighter Terminal, na Lily pond inland container terminal. N'ịbụ nke gọọmentị Naịjirịa na-achị ala ahụ kwadoro ma wuo, ọ ghọrọ ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri kachasị na mba ahụ maka mbupụ ihe ọkụkụ site na mpaghara Western na Northern Nigeria na ngwụcha afọ 1920. E wegara nchịkwa na gọọmentị Naijiria mgbe enyere ọchịchị onwe onye na N'afọ 2005, e kewara Apapa Port Complex na ọdụ ụgbọ elu ma nye ndị ọrụ onwe ha nkwekọrịta na NPA na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye nwe ụlọ na onye nchịkwa. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == Otu isi ihe dugara n'ịmepụta [[Apapa]] Port Complex bụ mmezu nke ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè Western na Lagos dị ka isi ọdụ, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, mkpa bilitere maka ụlọ ọrụ iji buru ma wepụ ngwongwo n'akụkụ ọ bụla nke Western Nigeria na mpaghara Northern.<ref name="olukoju">{{Cite web|url=http://calebuniversity.edu.ng/ckfinder/userfiles/files/THE%20PORT%20OF%20LAGOS-CHAPTER.pdf|title=THE PORT OF LAGOS, 1850-1929: THE RISE OF WEST AFRICA’S LEADING SEAPORT Ayodeji Olukoju|author=Olukoju|first=Ayodeji|accessdate=2019-01-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215195934/http://calebuniversity.edu.ng/ckfinder/userfiles/files/THE%20PORT%20OF%20LAGOS-CHAPTER.pdf|archivedate=2017-12-15}}</ref> Mana n'oge ahụ, ọtụtụ n'ime ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ndị dị na Lagos adịghị mma maka ụgbọ mmiri n'ihi ọnụnọ nke ájá na oke mmiri, ihe mgbochi a na-eme mgbe ụfọdụ ka a tụgharịa ngwongwo na [[Lagos]] gaa n'ọnụ ụzọ dị jụụ nke Forcados. N'afọ 1906, e mere mgbakọ ego buru ibu maka ịdọrọ ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Lagos na iwu nkume abụọ iji mee ka ọ dịrị ụgbọ mmiri na-aga n'oké osimiri mfe, n'afọ 1913, arụchara ọrụ injinia na ụgbọ mmiri na na-aga ụgbọ mmiri nwere ike ịbanye n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Lagos. N'afọ 1919, a gbatịrị ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri dị mita 180 ruo Apapa, ebe e kpebiri na ọ ga-abụ ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè Western. N'afọ 1926, mgbe emechara ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri anọ dị 1,800 ft n'ogologo, Apapa malitere ịchịkwa ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ndị ọzọ dị na [[Iddo Island|Iddo]] na Lagos Island ma ọ bụghị ya dị ka ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Customs na mbupu nke ngwongwo mbupụ.<ref name="olukoju" /> N'agbata afọ 1928 na 1929, ọ na-ejikwa tọn Narị abụọ na otu, narị atọ na asaa nke ngwongwo mbupụ, na n'agbata 1937 na 1938, Apapa wharf na-ejikọta ihe dị ka tọn narị puku atọ na iri asaa nke ibu, n'afọ 1953, ọ na-eji ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ tọn narị puku asaa.<ref name="olukoju" /> Mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị, ọrụ injinia ndị ọzọ dugara n'ịmezigharị ala maka ụlọ ọrụ ala dị ka ọdụ ndị njem, ụlọ ibu na ụlọ ọrụ omenala.<ref name="thisday" /> N'oge a, a na-achịkwa ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ, ngalaba Marine na-ahụ maka idebe ụzọ, nchekwa na ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri, ụlọ ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri onwe ha rụrụ ọrụ ọkụ ebe ụlọ ọrụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè na-arụkwa ọrụ ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri na njedebe ya.<ref name="olukoju" /> Mmụba nke ibugharị site n'okporo ụzọ tinyere nrụgide na akụrụngwa okporo ụzọ dị ugbu a ma wuo ụzọ ọhụrụ iji jikọta Apapa site na [[Mushin, Lagos|Mushin]] gaa Ibadan na n'ebe ugwu. Malite n'afọ1956, NPA e guzobere ọhụrụ malitere ịgbasa ọnụ ọgụgụ ebe obibi n'ime ihe mgbagwoju anya ahụ, na-agbakwunye ohere isii ọzọ. A rụchara mgbatị a nke ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ n'afọ 1961. A rụzuru mgbatị nke abụọ n'oge atụmatụ mmepe mba mbụ n'etiti afọ 1962 na 1968. Oghere ahụ mụbara mere ka ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ gaa n'ihu na-ebute ụzọ n'ịchịkwa ibu ma na njedebe nke afọ 1966, ọ na-ebu ibu nke nde tọn 1.9. Mgbe mgbatị nke abụọ gasịrị, ala nke ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ dị ihe dị ka hekta otu narị na ikike ijikwa ụgbọ mmiri iri abụọ na-ebu ma ọ bụ na-ebupụ n'otu oge. A rụchara mgbatị nke atọ n'akụkụ iyi Badagry n'afọ 1979. Ndị ọchịchị mepụtara ụlọ ọrụ maka ibudata na zisa nnukwu simenti na ọka. == Taa == Ndị Naịjirịa na-ahụ maka ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri nwere ma na-elekọta ọrụ na Lagos Port Complex site n'afọ 1956 ruo mgbe e nyere ya ikike n'afọ 2005. N'oge a, NPA na-arụ ọtụtụ ọrụ n'ime ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ma e wezụga ndị na ahụ maka nhazi ngwongwo na nrụpụta. N'afọ 2005, e kewara ihe owuwu ahụ n'ọtụtụ ọdụ ma ree ya ndị ọrụ onwe ha iji jikwaa ọnụ ọgụgụ afọ. {| class="wikitable" !Ebe Ọdụ Ụgbọ Mmiri !Ebe a na-anọ amụ nwa !Onye ọrụ onwe onye |- |Apapa Terminal A |1-3 |Apapa Bulk Terminal Ltd (Flour Mills)<ref name="thisday">{{Cite news|title=Nigeria; Port Concessioning - 90 Percent of NPA Workers May Be Laid Off|date=April 24, 2006|work=Thisday (Lagos)}}</ref> |- |Apapa Terminal B |4-5 |Apapa Bulk Terminal Ltd (Flour Mills)<ref name="thisday" /> |- |Apapa Terminal C |6-12 |ENL Consortium Ltd |- |Apapa Terminal D |13 |ENL Consortium Ltd |- |Apapa Terminal E |19-20 |Green View Development Nigeria Ltd (Dangote)<ref name="thisday" /> |- |Ebe nkwakọba ihe Apapa |15-18A |APM Terminals Ltd<ref name="thisday" /> |- |Ijora/Lily pond container terminal | - |Maersk |} === Okporo ụzọ === Mgbe a rụchara ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri dị omimi nke Apapa n'afọ 1926, a tụrụ anya na ọtụtụ okporo ụzọ ga-abụ site na ụgbọ okporo ígwè. Otú ọ dị, ka ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ na-eto ma gwongworo ghọrọ ụzọ kachasị mma iji buru ngwongwo gaa ma si n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri ahụ, mkpọchi okporo ụzọ nke gwongworo na-adọba n'akụkụ ụzọ ghọrọ ihe na-eme mgbe niile.<ref>(December 2, 2018 Sunday). Apapa: Travails of a former Government Reserved Area. Nigerian Tribune. Retrieved from Nexis </ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} 71j9xk0i120hyi5zjbpmr0vyrt7k2xu Tolani Baj 0 19689 688012 175109 2026-07-14T03:44:46Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Infobox person|name=Tolani Baj|image=|other names=Tolanibaj or TBAJ|birth_name=Tolani Shobajo|birth_date={{birth date and age|df=yes|1993|10|20}}|birth_place=[[Chicago]] illinois, [[United States]]|relatives=|nationality={{plainlist| * [[Nigeria]]; * [[Americans|American]] }}|occupation={{hlist|Reality TV star|actress|[[Model (person)|model]]|media personality|entrepreneur}}|known_for=|television=''[[Big Brother Naija]]''}} [[Category:Articles with hCards]] Tolani Shobajo, bụ onye (amụrụ n'abalị iri abụọ n'ọnwa Ọktoba n'afọ 1993), onye a maara nke ọma dị ka '''Tolani Baj''', bụ [[Actor|onye na-eme ihe nkiri]] na telivishọn nke Naijiria, onye na-emepụta ihe, onye mgbasa ozi na onye ọchụnta ego.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/08/07/bbnaija-2020-he-was-pressuring-me-i-didnt-have-choice-tolanibaj-confesses-to-sleeping-with-prince/|title=BBNaija 2020: He was pressuring me – Tolanibaj after sleeping on Prince's bed|date=7 August 2020|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/12/new-celebrity-debut/|title=Congratulations! These Celebrities Made Some Notable Debuts in 2021 ?? ??|date=31 December 2021|work=bellanaija|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/09/01/bbnaija-2020-tolanibaj-reveals-two-housemate-in-line-to-win-n85m-grand-prize/|title=BBNaija 2020: Tolanibaj reveals two housemate in line to win N85m grand prize|date=1 September 2020|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye bi n'ụlọ na [[Dorathy Bachor|''Big Brother Naija'']] oge ise <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punchng.com/bbnaija-reunion-i-regret-my-intimacy-with-prince-tolanibaj/|title=BBNaija Reunion: I regret my intimacy with Prince — TolaniBaj|date=26 June 2021|work=punch nigeria|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/bbnaijas-vee-and-tolani-baj-spotted-clubbing-together-months-after-rift/fm5trzs|title=BBNaija’s Vee and Tolani Baj spotted clubbing together months after rift|date=6 January 2022|work=pulse nigeria|accessdate=8 July 2022|archivedate=21 July 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721111753/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/bbnaijas-vee-and-tolani-baj-spotted-clubbing-together-months-after-rift/fm5trzs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newtelegraphng.com/bbnaijas-tolanibaj-shades-celebrities-living-fake-lifestyles/|title=Bbnaija’s Tolanibaj Shades Celebrities Living Fake Lifestyles|date=18 February 2022|work=sunnews|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://independent.ng/beauty-with-no-brains-nigerians-drag-ex-bbnaija-housemate-tolani-baj-for-being-insensitive/|title=‘Beauty With No Brains’, Nigerians Drag Ex BBNaija Housemate Tolani Baj For Being Insensitive|date=5 June 2022|work=independent|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> == Mmalite na agụmakwụkwọ == Shobajo si [[Ikorodu]], Naịjirịa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-53464874|title=Big Brother Naija Season 5 housemates biography: What you need to know about di 2020 contestants wey just enta di 'lockdown' house|date=19 July 2020|work=BBC|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> A mụrụ ya na 20 Ọktoba 1993 na [[Chicago]], [[Ilinoi|Illinois]], U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/why-i-moved-from-chicago-to-lagos-tolani-baj-ar-media-personality/|title=Why I moved from Chicago to Lagos —Tolani Baj, A&R, media personality|date=9 May 2020|work=vanguard|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> == Ọrụ == Na Disemba 2018, Tolani laghachiri Naijiria mgbe afọ itoolu gachara na Chicago, iji chụsoo ọrụ ya na ụlọ ọrụ ntụrụndụ Naijiria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/why-i-moved-from-chicago-to-lagos-baj/|title=Why I moved from Chicago to Lagos – Baj|date=7 May 2020|work=guardian|accessdate=8 July 2022|archivedate=22 July 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722131915/https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/why-i-moved-from-chicago-to-lagos-baj/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sunnewsonline.com/why-i-moved-from-chicago-to-lagos-nigerian-vblogger-ar-tolani-baj/|title=Why I moved from Chicago to Lagos – Nigerian Vblogger, A&R, Tolani Baj|date=8 May 2020|work=sunnews|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Ọ rụrụ ọrụ maka Pulse TV, Aristokrat Records, Universal Music Group Nigeria na tooXclusive dị ka onye na-ahụ maka ndepụta egwu n'oge ọ nọrọ na US, ma na-agba Vlog na Youtube.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/bbnaijas-tolanibaj-says-she-once-lost-her-job-for-speaking-up-for-her-right/fkxfsdx|title=BBNaija's TolaniBaj says she once lost her job for speaking up for her right|date=2 February 2021|work=pulse nigeria|accessdate=8 July 2022|archivedate=21 July 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721094738/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/bbnaijas-tolanibaj-says-she-once-lost-her-job-for-speaking-up-for-her-right/fkxfsdx}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legit.ng/entertainment/celebrities/1473151-owo-shooting-bbnaijas-tbaj-thrashed-promoting-vlog-amid-black-sunday-disaster-refuses-delete-tweet/|title=Owo Shooting: BBNaija’s Tbaj Thrashed for Promoting Vlog Amid Black Sunday Disaster, Refuses to Delete Tweet|date=6 June 2022|work=independent|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> N'afọ 2020, ọ gara nyocha ma sonye na Big Brother Naija (oge 5).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/naija-fashion/411657-tolanibaj-wathoni-brighto-evicted-from-big-brother-house.html|title=Tolanibaj, Wathoni, BrightO evicted from Big Brother House|date=30 August 2020|work=premiumtimes|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/people-expected-too-much-from-me-in-the-house-ex-bbnaija-housemate-tolani-baj//|title=People Expected Too Much From Me In The House —Ex-BBNaija Housemate, Tolani Baj|date=19 September 2020|work=tribuneonline|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Tolani banyere n'ụlọ Big Brother Naija na 19 Julaị 2020 maka oge 5 nke ihe ngosi TV.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/naija-fashion/400219-bbnaija-2020-organisers-announce-season-5-premiere-date.html|title=BBNaija 2020: Organisers announce Season 5 premiere date|date=29 June 2020|work=premiumtimes|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> A chụpụrụ ya na 30 Ọgọstụ 2020 n'akụkụ BrightO na Wathoni, mgbe ọ nọrọ ụbọchị 42 na ihe ngosi ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/08/brighto-wathoni-tolanibaj-evicted-from-bbnaija-2020-lockdown-show/|title=BrightO, Wathoni, Tolanibaj evicted from BBNaija 2020 Lockdown show|date=30 August 2020|work=vanguard|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-53657033|title=BBNaija 2020 eviction: Nengi and Tolanibaj see me as competition - Ka3na|date=4 August 2020|work=bbc|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/08/30/bbnaija-2020-tolanibaj-evicted-in-shock-process/|title=BBNaija 2020: Tolanibaj evicted in shock process|date=30 August 2020|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> N'oge ọ nọ n'ụlọ ahụ, ya na Erica, Kiddwaya, na Prince nwere mmekọrịta chiri anya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2021/06/22/bbnaija-reunion-why-my-relationship-with-tolanibaj-failed-prince/|title=BBNaija Reunion: Why my relationship with Tolanibaj failed – Prince|date=22 June 2020|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/09/01/bbnaija-2020-tolanibaj-opens-up-on-having-feelings-for-neo-rift-with-vee/|title=BBNaija 2020: Tolanibaj opens up on ‘having feelings for Neo, rift with Vee’|date=1 September 2020|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> == Ndụ onwe onye == Tolani Baj bụ onye mgbasa ozi na-ese okwu nke na-akpali mmeghachi omume na mgbasa ozi mmekọrịta mgbe ụfọdụ, n'ọnọdụ dị iche iche.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2021/07/08/bbnaija-reunion-i-dont-care-being-dragged-tolanibaj-replies-critics/|title=BBNaija reunion: I don’t care being dragged – Tolanibaj replies critics|date=8 July 2021|work=dailypost|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/why-some-celebrities-are-depressed-by-tolani-baj/|title=Why some celebrities are depressed, by Tolani Baj|date=16 February 2021|work=thenationonline|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Tolani na-ekwu na ọ dịghị ihe na-adọrọ mmasị ma ọ bụ na-adọta mmasị banyere nwoke ụmụ nwanyị chọrọ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punchng.com/theres-nothing-attractive-about-a-man-every-woman-wants-tolanibaj/|title=There’s nothing attractive about a man every woman wants – Tolanibaj|date=16 October 2021|work=punch nigeria|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Ọ na-ekwukwa na ọ bụ ihe na-ekwesịghị ekwesị ka nwoke megheere nwanyị ọnụ ụzọ n'ebughị ụzọ kwe ka ọ gafee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/what-i-find-rude-in-men-by-tolani-baj/|title=What I find rude in men, by Tolani Baj|date=30 March 2022|work=thenationonline|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> Na Julaị 13, 2021, Tolanibaj, na onye na-eme ihe ọchị na Instagram, Nasty Blaq, kpalitere asịrị mmekọrịta na-esote akụkọ Instagram nke onye na-ese ihe ọchị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/instagram-comedian-nastyblaq-sparks-relationship-rumours-with-bbnaijas-tolanibaj/gpd77k9|title=Instagram Comedian NastyBlaq sparks relationship rumours with BBNaija's TolaniBaj|date=13 July 2021|work=tribuneonline|accessdate=8 July 2022|archivedate=21 July 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721094736/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/celebrities/instagram-comedian-nastyblaq-sparks-relationship-rumours-with-bbnaijas-tolanibaj/gpd77k9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2021/07/13/bbnaija-star-tolanibaj-comedian-nasty-blaq-spark-dating-rumour/|title=BBNaija star, Tolanibaj, comedian Nasty Blaq spark dating rumour|date=13 July 2021|work=bellanaija|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> == Ihe nkiri == === Telivishọn === {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ !Aha ya !Ọrụ !Ihe edeturu !Ref |- |2020 |''[[Dorathy Bachor|Big Brother oge 5]]'' |Ya onwe ya |Ihe ngosi nke eziokwu |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-57564407|title=BBNaija Lockdown Reunion 2021: Highlights from TolaniBaj/Vee 'smack' clash for 'BBNaija reunion'|date=22 June 2021|work=bbc|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/tori-53988301|title=BBNaija 2020 evicted housemate: Tolanibaj clear di air about her 'feelings' for Neo|date=1 September 2020|work=bbc|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> |} === Vidio egwu === {| class="wikitable" !Afọ !Abụ !Onye na-ese ihe !Ihe edeturu !Ref |- |2019 |''Ka m mara'' |[[Ladipoe]] |Vidio vixen | |- |2021 |''Mba Ọzọ'' |Ọrụ Bankulli. Not3s |Vidio vixen |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/01/tolani-baj-foreign-video-bts/|title=Go Behind the Scenes of Bankulli & Not3s’ "Foreign" Video with Tolani Baj|date=25 January 2021|work=bellanaija|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dnbstories.com/2021/01/tolanibaj-appearance-in-wizkids-music-video.html|title=Fans divided over Tolanibaj’s alleged appearance in Wizkid’s video|date=8 January 2021|work=dnbstories|accessdate=8 July 2022}}</ref> |} == Ndemsibia == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 6x4ijkaqh803iq3zvevgkro7rp5xhaz Urban96 Radio Network 0 19792 688035 212085 2026-07-14T07:33:08Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688035 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Usòrò:Urbanlogo-main.png|thumb|Urban96 Radio Network]] '''Urban 96 Radio Network''' bụ ụlọ ọrụ redio azụmahịa na-asụ Bekee nke nwere isi ụlọ ọrụ na Lekki, [[Lagos]]. Ụlọ ọrụ ahụ na-agbasa usoro redio nke oge a, na-akpọ ụdị egwu dịgasị iche iche gụnyere R&B, hip hop, pop na ngwakọta nke ọdịbendị na ụdị. Redio mbụ malitere Lagos dial ya na frequency 96.5 na OAPs na-abanye na ikuku na 1 Eprel, Ọ bụ isiokwu na-ewu ewu na Twitter n'ụbọchị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://notjustok.com/2016/04/04/urban96-fm-radio-network-launches-lagos-dial-urban96-5-fm-with-over-%E2%82%A61m-up-for-grabs-on-social-media/|title=Urban 96.5 FM launches to Fan Fare|publisher=NotJustOk|date=5 April 2016|accessdate=2016-04-06|author=Dro Ameh|archivedate=2016-04-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406064912/http://notjustok.com/2016/04/04/urban96-fm-radio-network-launches-lagos-dial-urban96-5-fm-with-over-%e2%82%a61m-up-for-grabs-on-social-media/}}</ref> Ọ bụ Alphavision Multimedia, nke CMA Group, nwe ya ma na-arụ ọrụ ya, ọ bụkwa otu n'ime ndị otu mgbasa ozi onwe onye kachasị ewu ewu na [[Naijiria|Naịjirịa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/in-my-family-we-watch-tv-a-lot-tajudeen-adepetu/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629042450/http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/in-my-family-we-watch-tv-a-lot-tajudeen-adepetu/|archivedate=29 June 2015|title=In my family, we watch TV a lot – Tajudeen Adepetu|publisher=National Mirror Newspaper|date=18 February 2015|accessdate=2015-06-26|author=Isiguzo Destiny}}</ref> Ụlọ ọrụ ahụ nyere ndị na-ege ntị narị puku anọ na-emebi ihe ndekọ n'ọnwa mbụ nke nnyefe ule ma na-elekwasị anya na ndị na-ekiri ihe na-emenụ n'etiti ndị dị afọ iri na anọ ruo iri atọ na anọ. [1] == Nnukwu Nnukwu Nnọchiteanya == Alphavision Multimedia tụbara ya na nnukwu nnọkọ nke ji okpukpu abụọ dị ka mwepụta nke 96.5 Lagos ya. Ihe omume ahụ mere na 8 Julaị 2016 na Lekki Coliseum Rooftop na Lagos. DJ Neptune malitere setịpụrụ ya na elekere asaa nke mgbede, na OAPs na-agbanwere iji rịgoro n'elu ikpo okwu, na-ewebata onwe ha ma na-egosi ha na 96.5 dial na ụlọ ọrụ redio na-enweghị isi na-esonyere arụmọrụ eletrik site na Mayorkun, [[Reekado Banks]], [[Skales]], Solidstar, Saeon, [[Adekunle Gold]], AjeButter22, Mr. 2kay, Viktoh, Endia, Yung L, [[Niniola]] na ndị ọzọ. A na-agbasa ihe omume ahụ na ndụ nye ndị na-ege ntị na ndị ọrụ nke Urban96 android, ngwa iOS na websaịtị obodo96.tv nwere hashtag gọọmentị nwetara ihe karịrị nde asaa puku iri anọ na narị itoolu na iri isii na anọ na soshal midia. == Ihe omume na ihe ngosi == Site na 'Stadium Live Show' nke Akon, The Baka Boyz, Full Throttle Show na OAPs na-ejikwa awa atọ na-agbanwe n'oge dị mkpa nke ụbọchị na 'Urban World 40,' Top 40 countdown kwa izu. {{col-start}} {{col-2}} * Oreka Godis, Tyeng Gang (''Urban Breakfast'') * Abiola 'Abby' Oyebade (Urban Xtra, Urban Superstar Top 10) * Segun Emdin (Early Urban Drive, Touchdown 10) * Efe 'Fay Fay' Odudu (Sunny Side Up Weekends, Bangin; in My Head) * [[DJ Neptune]] (Urban Party Mix, Urban Club Mix, Urban Power Mix) {{col-2}} * Big Tak, Shedy (Traffic - The Urban Drive, Urban World 40) * Sulaiman Ladani (Urban Afterdark, Bangin' in My Head) * Kingsley 'Tage' Obike (Rise and Shine, Urban Breakfast Weekend) * Muna (The Saturday Show, The Sunday Show) {{col-end}} == OAPs na ndị otu == * Tajuddeen Adepetu * Olamide Adedeji * Jonathan James Lyomghang * Òtù Ndị Agha Tyeng * [[DJ Neptune]]<ref name="Presenters">{{Cite web|url=http://urban96.fm/oaps/|title=Lagos OAPs and DJs|work=Urban96 FM|accessdate=2016-02-10|archivedate=2016-03-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326060055/http://urban96.fm/oaps/}}</ref> * Oreka 'Rhecks' Godis * Abiola 'Abby' Oyebade * Efe 'Fayfay' Odudu * Kingsley 'Tage' Obike * Dị ka Emdin si kwuo * Kingsley Ladani * Munachi 'Muna (rapper)' Abii<ref name="Presenters" /> * Dro Ameh == Urban96 TV == Na Maachị afọ 2016, Urban96FM malitere ọwa TV nke otu aha ahụ, Urban96TV.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.urban96.fm/watchtv|title=Urban96 launch Digital, Mobile-only TV|publisher=Urban96|author=Dro Ameh|date=14 March 2016|accessdate=14 September 2022|archivedate=14 September 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914151227/https://urban96.fm/watchtv}}</ref> Ụlọ ọrụ ahụ malitere dị ka ụlọ ọrụ dijitalụ mbụ na nke kachasị elu n'Africa naanị 24/7 TV channel. A pụkwara ile ọwa ndị ahụ anya site na ngwa iOS na gam akporo raara onwe ya nye, yana ebe nrụọrụ weebụ ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.urban96.tv|title=Watch Urban96TV}}</ref> N'ọnwa Mee, Urban96 TV malitere ịhazi ọdịnaya TV malite na 'Urban96 Sing Along' na ONTV Nigeria nke Fay Fay kwadoro. Ọwa TV a na-akpọ vidiyo egwu anaghị akwụsị akwụsị awa iri abụọ na anọ kwa ụbọchị, ụbọchị asaa n'izu ma na-egosipụtakwa ụfọdụ ọdịnaya. == Hụkwa == * Ndepụta nke ụlọ ọrụ redio na Lagos == Edensibia == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> 8mychre8lqn0tr94u8zza8a5qdlald4 Akan language 0 20458 687939 450714 2026-07-13T13:33:16Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Language|name=Akan|nativename={{lang|ak|Ákán}}|states=[[Ghana]]|speakers=Ghana: {{sigfig|10.474445|3}} million,<br><small>{{sigfig|9.028426|2}} million </small><div style=text-align:right>(2010)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=Ghana+language&d=POP&f=tableCode:27;countryCode:288;refYear:2010;areaCode:0;sexCode:0&c=10,12,14,16&s=datum:desc&v=1|title=UNdata {{!}} record view {{!}} Population by language, sex and urban/rural residence|website=data.un.org}}<br>The following entries represent Akan speakers: Asante, Fante, Boron (Brong), Akyem, Akuapem, Kwahu, Wasa, Asen (Assin), Denkyira, Agona, Ahafo, Aowin, Akwamu, Evalue & Akan nec.</ref></div>Côte d'Ivoire: {{sigfig|569.000|3}} thousand,<br><small>{{sigfig|346.000|3}} thousand </small><div style=text-align:right>(2017)<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/cotiv.htm |title = Côte d'Ivoire}}</ref></div>Togo: {{sigfig|70.000|2}} thousand<div style=text-align:right>(2014)<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/togo.htm |title = Togo}}</ref></div>|familycolor=Niger-Congo|fam2=[[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]|fam3=[[Volta-Congo]]|fam4=[[Kwa languages|Kwa]]|fam5=[[Potou–Tano languages|Potou–Tano]]|fam6=[[Tano languages|Tano]]|fam7=[[Central Tano languages|Central Tano]]|nation=None.<br>— Government-sponsored language of [[Ghana]]|agency=[[Akan Orthography Committee]]|script=Adinkra Nkyea <ref name="Adinkra Nkyea">{{cite web |last1=Nkyea |first1=Adinkra |title=Adinkra Syllabary |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/adinkra.htm |publisher=Biswajit Mandal}}</ref> Latin Script|iso1=ak|iso2=aka|iso3=aka|lc1=fat|ld1=[[Fante dialect|Fante]]|lc2=twi|ld2=[[Twi]]|lc3=|ld3=|lc4=wss|ld4=[[Wasa dialect|Wasa]]|notice=IPA}} [[Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code]] [[Category:Languages with ISO 639-1 code]] [[Category:Language articles without reference field]] [[Faịlụ:Akan kasa.gif|thumb|Akan kasa]] Akan (/əˈkæn/) bụ asụsụ Central Tano na asụsụ ala nna nke '''ndị Akan''' nke Ghana, nke a na-asụ n'ọtụtụ ọkara ndịda [[Ghana]].<ref name=":4" /> Ihe dị ka 80% nke ndị Ghana nwere ike ịsụ Akan, ihe dị ka 44% nke ndị Ghana bụ ndị na-asụ asụsụ ala.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":4" /> A na-asụkwa ya n'akụkụ ụfọdụ nke [[Côte d'Ivoire]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi|title=Akan (Twi) at Rutgers|work=Rutgers University|accessdate=2019-03-23|archivedate=2021-05-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513023900/https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi}}</ref> Otu onye nwere ike ịkọwa ya dị ka ihe odide-lexography mbụ. E mepụtara asụsụ anọ dị ka ụkpụrụ edemede nwere orthographies dị iche iche: Asante, Akuapem, Bono (nke a maara dị ka Twi), na Fante ; nke, n'agbanyeghị na ha na-aghọta ibe ha, ndị na-ekwu okwu nke ụkpụrụ ndị ọzọ enweghị ike ịnweta ya n'ụdị ederede ruo mgbe Kọmitii Akọn Orthography (AOC) mepụtara orthography Akan na 1978, dabere na Akuap Twiem.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=A Phonology of Akan: Akuapem, Asante, Fante|author=Schacter|first=Paul|publisher=UC Press|year=1968|location=Los Angeles}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Arhin|first=Kwame|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9gJAQAAIAAJ&q=twi|title=A Profile of Brong Kyempim: Essays on the Archaeology, History, Language and Politics of the Brong Peoples of Ghana|date=1979|publisher=Afram|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi|title=Akan (Twi) at Rutgers|work=www.amesall.rutgers.edu|accessdate=2020-01-22|archivedate=2021-05-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513023900/https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi}}</ref><ref name=":2">The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne [[University of Ghana|University of Ghana, Legon]] 1979.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmpyCgAAQBAJ|title=The Spiritual in the Secular: Missionaries and Knowledge about Africa|author=Harries|first=Patrick|date=2012-07-20|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-1-4674-3585-7|language=en}}</ref> A na-eji orthography a dị n'otu dị ka ihe ntụziaka na ụlọ akwụkwọ praịmarị site n'aka ndị na-asụ ọtụtụ asụsụ Central Tano ndị ọzọ, dị ka Akyem, Anyi, Sehwi, Fante, Ahanta, na asụsụ Guan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Akan#ref265882|title=Akan people /Britannica}}</ref> Kọmitii Orthography nke Akan arụwo ọrụ n'ịmepụta usoro orthography. Site na ahia ohu nke Atlantic, e webatara asụsụ ahụ na Caribbean na [[South Amerika|South America]], ọkachasị na [[Suriname]], nke ndị Ndyuka na-asụ, na Jamaica, nke ndị [[Jamaikạ|Jamaican]] Maroons na-asụrụ, nke a makwaara dị ka Coromantee.<ref name=":1"/> Ọdịbendị nke ụmụ nke ndị ohu gbapụrụ agbapụ n'ime Suriname na ndị Maroons na Jamaica ka nwere mmetụta sitere n'asụsụ a, gụnyere omume aha ndị Akan nke ịkpọ aha ụmụaka mgbe ụbọchị izu a mụrụ ha gasịrị, dịka. Akwasi/Kwasi maka nwa nwoke ma ọ bụ Akosua maka nwa agbọghọ amụrụ na Sọnde. Na Jamaica na Suriname, akụkọ ududo ''Anansi'' ka bụ nke a maara nke ọma.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne [[University of Ghana|University of Ghana, Legon]] 1979.</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, ndị Akan bi na [[Ghana]] kwagara n'etiti narị afọ nke 11 na nke 18. Ndị ọzọ bi n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke [[Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] na akụkụ [[Togo]].<ref name=":0"/> Ha si n'ebe ugwu kwaga n'ọhịa na mpaghara ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri na ndịda na narị afọ nke 13. Ndị Akan nwere ọdịnala akụkọ ihe mere eme siri ike nke oge gara aga ha ma bụrụkwa ndị a maara n'ụwa akụkọ ihe mere mere eme maka ihe nnọchianya nke osisi, ígwè na terracotta.<ref name=":1"/> A na-egosipụta echiche ọdịbendị ha n'akụkọ na ilu nakwa n'ihe osise dịka akara eji eme ihe na uwe.<ref name=":1" /> Ọdịbendị na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ndị Akan na [[Ghana]] na-eme ka ọ bụrụ ebe nyocha maka ọzụzụ dị iche iche dị ka akụkọ ọdịnala, ọmụmụ akwụkwọ, asụsụ, anthropology na akụkọ ihe nkiri.<ref name=":1" /> == Mmekọrịta ya na asụsụ ndị ọzọ nke Central Tano == Akan bụ asụsụ na-aga n'ihu nke gụnyere Twi, Fante, na Wasa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/akan|title=Akan Subgroups|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> Ethnologue, nke nhazi ya dabere na ọmụmụ nke nghọta na okwu yiri ibe ya site n'ọtụtụ isi mmalite, na-ekewa ụdị dị iche iche nke Akan dị ka olumba nke asụsụ Akan, nke sitere na ezinụlọ asụsụ Central Tano.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/about/language-info|title=Language Information|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> Glottolog na-eme otu nyocha ahụ, ma e wezụga na a na-akpọ asụsụ Akan "Akanic".<ref name="Glottolog: Akan">{{Cite web|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/akan1251|title=Glottolog: Akan|accessdate=11 January 2015}}</ref> Dabere na ọrụ nke P. K. Agbedor, Fante, Twi (Bono, Asante na Akuapem), Sefwi, Wassa, Asen, Akwamu, na Kwahu mere bụ nke Cluster 1 nke ụdị okwu nke Ghana, akọwapụtara dị ka na Ethnologue site na ọkwa nghọta.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EsaAQAAIAAJ|title=Speech forms of Ghana|author=Agbedor|first=P. K.|date=1999|publisher=CASAS|isbn=978-1-919799-20-9|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne [[University of Ghana|University of Ghana, Legon]] 1979.</ref> Cluster 1 nwere ike ịkpọ r-Akan nke ọma, nke na-enweghị /l/ dị ka phoneme, ebe l-Akan na-ezo aka na ụyọkọ Akan nke mejupụtara [[Nzema language|Nzema]], Baoulé, Anyin na asụsụ ndị ọzọ a na-asụkarị na Ivory Coast, nke nwere /l/ n'ọnọdụ /r/. [citation needed] [[Usòrò:Predominant_tribe_in_the_area_-_(Ghana)_LOC_88692692.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Predominant_tribe_in_the_area_-_%28Ghana%29_LOC_88692692.jpg/220px-Predominant_tribe_in_the_area_-_%28Ghana%29_LOC_88692692.jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb|Map nke mpaghara agbụrụ na asụsụ nke Ghana. Mpaghara Akan (akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ) na-agbasa n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ n'ihe dị ka ọkara n'ime Ivory Coast.]] == Ọmụmụ ụdaolu == Asụsụ ndị Akan nwere nnukwu palatalization, ụdaume nkwekọrịta, na ụda olu. === Mkpụrụ okwu === Tupu ụdaume ihu, a na-eme ka ụdaume Asante niile (ma ọ bụ labio-palatalized), na nkwụsịtụ na-eme ruo n'ókè ụfọdụ. Allophones nke /n/ dị mgbagwoju anya. Na tebụl dị n'okpuru ebe a, a na-akọwapụta allophones palatal{{IPA|/i/}}zed nke na-agụnye ihe karịrị obere ụdaume palatalization, n'ihe gbasara ụdaume /i / . Ụda ndị a n{{IPA|/a/}}-apụta tupu ụdaume ndị ọzọ, dị ka /a/, ọ bụ ezie na n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ ọ bụghị ihe a na-ahụkarị. N'asụsụ Asante, a na-akpọ /ɡu/ /{{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}/, mana na Akuapem ọ ka bụ /{{IPA|/ɡu/}} / . A na-akpọ usoro /{{IPA|/nh/}}/ [ŋŋ̊]. Enwere i{{IPA|/k/}}e ịnụ okwu ikpeazụ /k/ dị ka nkwụsị glottal {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. Enwekwara nasalization nke /{{IPA|/h/}}/ na nke /{{IPA|/j w/}}/ dị ka {{IPA|[h̃]}} na {{IPA|[j̃ w̃]}}, mgbe ọ na-eme n'ihu ụdaume imi. Ihe odide ndị dị na tebụl dị n'okpuru ebe a dị n'usoro /phonemic/, [phonetic], 意 . Rịba ama na orthographic bụ ihe na-edoghị anya; n'akwụkwọ nkuzi, enwere ike ịmata ọdịiche dị na /{{IPA|/dw/}}/ site na diacritic: ''{{IPA|d̩w}}''. N'otu aka ahụ, a pụrụ ịsụgharị ''{{IPA|n̩w}}''. A na-eji orthographic eme ihe n'ụzọ dị nro {{IPA|[ɲᶣĩ]}}. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan="2" | ! colspan="3" |Ọnụ ! colspan="3" |Alveolar ! colspan="3" |Akpụkpọ ahụ ! colspan="3" |Ọkpụkpụ egbugbere ọnụ |- ! rowspan="2" |Ụgbọ imi !<small>ala dị larịị</small> | colspan="2" |m |⟨m⟩ |/n/ |[ŋ, ɲ, ɲĩ] |⟨n, ny, ngi⟩ | | | |/nw/ |[ŋːw, ɲɥĩ] |⟨nw, nu⟩ |- !<small>geminated</small> | | | |/nː/ |[ŋː, ɲːĩ] |⟨ng, nyi, nnyi⟩ | | | |/nːw/ |[ɲːɥĩ] |⟨nw⟩ |- ! rowspan="2" |Kwụsị !<small>enweghị olu</small> |/p/ |[ph] |⟨p⟩ |/t/ |[nke a, tçi] |⟨t, ti⟩ |/k/ |[kh, tɕhi~cçhi] |⟨k, kyi⟩ |/kw/ |[tɕɥi] |⟨kw, twi⟩ |- !<small>kwuru okwu</small> | colspan="2" |b |⟨b⟩ | colspan="2" |d |⟨d⟩ |/g/ |[dʒ, d'i~ɟi] |⟨g, dw, gyi⟩ |/ɡw/ |[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] |⟨gw, dwi⟩ |- ! colspan="2" |Ihe na-esiri ike | colspan="2" |f |⟨f⟩ | colspan="2" |s |⟨s⟩ |/h/ |[Cii] |⟨h, hyi⟩ |/hw/ |[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] |⟨hw, hwi⟩ |- ! colspan="2" |Ndị ọzọ | | | |/r/ |[ɾ, r, Ō] |⟨r⟩ | colspan="2" |j |⟨y⟩ |/w/ |[ịdị] |⟨w, wi⟩ |} === Mkpụrụedemede === Asụsụ ndị Akan nwere ụdaume iri na anọ ruo iri na ise: ụdaume anọ ruo ise "dị ike" (mgbọrọgwụ asụsụ dị elu, ma ọ bụ +ATR), ụdaume ise "dị mfe" (mkpọrọgwụ ire, ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụghị kpamkpam na-anọchite anya ụdaume asaa, na ụdaume imi ise, nke a na-anọghị na ya. Mmadụ iri na anọ niile dị iche na mkpụrụedemede Gold Coast nke oge ọchịchị. A na-''a''hụ ọdịiche ATR na orthographic a naanị na ụfọdụ subdialects nke Fante, mana ọ bụghị n'ụdị edemede; na Asante na Akuapem enwere harmonic allophones nke /a/, mana ọ dịghị ATR. A naghị ahụkarị ụdaume abụọ e dere e (/eʹ/ na /{{IPA|/i/}}/) ''na'' ''o'' (/oʹ/ na/u/) dị iche na ịkpọpụta. {| class="wikitable" !Orthog. !+ATR !-ATR |- |i |{{IPA|/i̘/}} {{IPA|[i̘]}} | |- |na |{{IPA|/e̘/}} {{IPA|[e̘]}} |{{IPA|/i/}} {{IPA|[ɪ~e]}} |- |Ọ bụ | |{{IPA|/e/}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}} |- |a |{{IPA|[æ~ɐ~ə]}} |{{IPA|/a/}} {{IPA|[a]}} |- |Ọ bụ n'afọ | |{{IPA|/o/}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}} |- |o |{{IPA|/o̘/}} {{IPA|[o̘]}} |{{IPA|/u/}} {{IPA|[ʊ~o]}} |- |u |{{IPA|/u̘/}} {{IPA|[u̘]}} | |} ==== Nkwekọrịta ATR ==== Mkpụrụedemede Akan na-etinye aka n'ụdị ụdaume na mgbọrọgwụ nke ire. # -Mkpịsị ụdaume ATR na-esochi ụdaume +ATR na-abụghị nke etiti /iʹaʹaʹ aʹaʹ na-aghọ +ATR. A ''{{IPA|e ɛ a ɔ o}}''-egos''i''pụtakarị nke a na orthography: Ya bụ, orthographic e ɛ a ɔ o become i e a o u. Otú ọ dị, a naghịzi egosipụta ya n'ihe banyere isiokwu na nnọchiaha possessive, na-enye ha mkpụrụ okwu na-agbanwe agbanwe. Iwu a na-ebute ụzọ karịa nke ọzọ. # Mgbe -ATR non-high vowels /e a o/, +ATR mid vowels /Eʹ oʹ/ ghọrọ -ATR high vowels /i u/. Nke a anaghị egosipụta na orthography, n'ihi a na-asụpụta ụdaume abụọ ahụ, na n'ọtụtụ olumba iwu a anaghị arụ ọrụ, n'ezie ụdaume ndị a agbakọtawo. === Ụda ụda === Akan nwere ụda ụda atọ, ''elu'' (/H/), etiti (/M/), na ''ala'' (/L/). Mkpụrụ okwu mbido nwere ike ịbụ naanị ''elu'' ma ọ bụ ala. ==== Okpokoro ụda ==== ụda ụda nke ụda atọ ahụ dabere na gburugburu ha, a na-ebelata ya mgbe ụda ndị ọzọ gasịrị, na-emepụta mbelata na-aga n'ihu nke a maara dị ka ụda ụda. /H/ ụda nwere otu ụda dị ka /H/ ma ọ bụ /M/ ụda dị n'ime otu ahịrịokwu ụda, ebe /M/ tones nwere ụda dị ala. Nke ahụ bụ, usoro /HH/ na /MH/ nwere ọkwa dị elu, ebe usoro /HM/ na /MM/ nwere ụda na-ada. /H/ na-agbadata (dabere) mgbe /L/ gasịrị. /L/ bụ ụda ndabara, nke na-apụta n'ọnọdụ ndị dị ka prefixes reduplicated. Ọ na-anọ mgbe niile na ala nke ụda nke ọkà okwu, ma e wezụga na usoro / HHLH /, n'ọnọdụ ahụ, a na-ebuli ya na ụda mana / H / ikpeazụ ka na-ebelata. Ya mere /HMH/ na /HLH/ na-akpọpụta na ụda dị iche iche ma yiri ya. Mgbe mkpụrụedemede mbụ "ma ama" nke ahịrịokwu, na-abụkarị ụda mbụ dị elu, enwere nkwụsịtụ. A na-emekarị ka mkpụrụedemede a pụta ìhè.<ref name=":3" /> == Ọdịdị == === Ọdịdị nke ọtụtụ aha na Akan === Akan na-emepụta ụfọdụ aha dị iche iche site na ịgbakwunye prefixes 'm' ma ọ bụ 'n' na okwu mbụ ma wepụ ụda mbụ nke aha ahụ. Ihe atụ gụnyere aha ndị dị ka What (nwatakịrị), nke na-emepụta ọtụtụ ya site n'iwepụ 'ab' n'okwu ahụ ma gbakwunye 'mm' iji mepụta ọtụtụ ya:__hau____hau____hau__ (ụmụ). Otu ihe ahụ na-aga maka ịtụrụ (anụmanụ) na ịtụrụ "anụmanụ", ịtụrụ n'ezinụlọ, ịtụrụ ''abirekyie'' (ụmụ ewu) na ịtachi ''mmirekyie'' "ụmụ ewu" wdg. Aha ndị na-eji akara 'n' gụnyere; adaka (ikpo) na nnaka (ikpu), ''adanko'' (agwọ) na ''nnanko'' (agbọgwụ), ''aduro'' (ọgwụ) na ''nnuro'' (ọgwọ), atare (uwe) na ''ntare'' (uwe), ''odwan'' (ụmụ atụrụ) na nnwan (ụma), doana (nri) na ''nnuane'' (n'ọtụtụ nri), ''kraman'' (nkịta) na ''nkraman'' (ụnụ), kaneanea (ìhè), ''safoa'' (isi) na nsa). Akan nwere ike ịmepụta ọtụtụ ''aha'' site na ịgbakwunye suffix nom na okwu mbụ. Ihe atụ gụnyere; auga (''nna'') na ''agyanom'' (ndị nna), nana (nne nne / nwa nwa) na ''nananom'' (ndị nne na nna / ụmụ ụmụ), nua (ndị nwanne) na gum (ụmụnne), рә рә (nwanyi) na yerenom (ndị inyom). Ụfọdụ aha ndị Akan bụ otu n'otu na ọtụtụ. A na-ede aha ndị dị ka nkyene (mmanụ), ''ani'' (anya), ''sika'' (ego) e.t.c n'otu n'otu na n'ọtụtụ.<ref>LearnAkan.com</ref> == Akwụkwọ == Asụsụ Akan nwere akwụkwọ bara ọgaranya n'elu ilu, akụkọ ọdịnala, na ihe nkiri ọdịnala, yana akwụkwọ ọhụrụ na ihe nkiri, akụkọ mkpirikpi, na akwụkwọ akụkọ.<ref name="Nina Pawlak 2010">Nina Pawlak, “Akan Folk Literature and the Beginning of Writing in Twi,” ''Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys'' by B. W. Andrzejewski and S. Pilaszewicz, 128-157 (Cambridge University Press, 2010).</ref> A malitere ide akwụkwọ ndị a n'ụdị ederede na ngwụcha afọ 1800.<ref>J G Christaller, ''Twi mmebuse̲m, mpensã-ahansĩa mmoaano. ''</ref> Mgbe e mesịrị, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia chịkọtara ọtụtụ ilu na akụkọ ọdịnala, gụnyere Funeral Dirges of the Akan People (1969), Folk Songs of Ghana (1963), na Akan Poetry (1958). Ụfọdụ n'ime ndị edemede dị mkpa n'asụsụ ahụ bụ A. A. Opoku (onye na-eme ihe nkiri), E. J. Osew (onye na'eme ihe nkiri, K. E. Owusu (onye na na-ede akwụkwọ akụkọ), na R. A. Tabi (onye na - onye na-eme egwuregwu na onye na-ede akụkọ).<ref name="Nina Pawlak 2010" /> Ngalaba asụsụ Ghana enwebeghị ike ịga n'ihu na-ebipụta akwụkwọ akụkọ n'asụsụ ahụ, ndị na-esonụ anaghị ebipụta: Obreguo, Okrabiri, Afrakoma, Obeede, Fia Tsatsala, na ''Ku Di Fo Nanawu''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/education/201105/65305.php|title=BGL starved of cash, idle for a decade|date=August 5, 2011|work=myjoyonline|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213030713/http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/education/201105/65305.php|archivedate=2015-02-13|accessdate=February 12, 2015}}</ref> == Agụmakwụkwọ == === Primary === N'afọ 1978, AOC guzobere orthography nkịtị maka ndị Akan niile, nke a na-eji dị ka usoro ntụziaka na ụlọ akwụkwọ praịmarị.<ref name="Akan language">{{Cite book|url=http://www.panafril10n.org/index.php/PanAfrLoc/Akan|title=Akan language}}</ref><ref name="The Alternation Strategies in Multilingual Settings">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHzglM3p7AC&q=Akan+Orthography+Committee&pg=PA100|title=Language The Alternation Strategies in Multilingual Settings|author=Guerini|first=Federica|publisher=[[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]]|year=2006|isbn=0-82048-369-9}}</ref> A na-amata asụsụ Akan maka ịgụ na ide, site na ọ dịkarịa ala ọkwa praịmarị dị ala (primary 1[[3).<ref name=":1"/> === Mahadum === A na-amụ asụsụ Akan na mahadum ndị dị na United States, gụnyere Mahadum Ohio, Mahadum steeti Ohio, Machịum Wisconsin-Madison, Mahadim Harvard, Mahadam Boston, Mahaduma Indiana, Mahadin Michigan, na Mahadum Florida. Akan abụwo asụsụ Afrịka a na-amụ mgbe niile na mmemme Summer Cooperative African Languages Institute (SCALI) kwa afọ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi|title=Akan – Languages|publisher=[[Rutgers University|amesall.rutgers.edu]]|accessdate=2022-10-01|archivedate=2021-05-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513023900/https://www.amesall.rutgers.edu/languages/128-akan-twi}}</ref> A na-amụ asụsụ Akan na mahadum ndị a dị ka mmemme bachelor ma ọ bụ masters.<ref name=":1"/> == Okwu ndị a na-ahụkarị == * ''Akwaaba'' Na-anabata * ''Aane'' (Abụọ) - Ee * ''Nyew'' (Fante) Ee * ''Ọnwa'' (Akuapem) * Ọ dị mma * Oho / anhã (Fante)/Daabi (Twi) No/Nope * Da yie (Twi) Good night (n'ụzọ nkịtị "ehi ụra nke ọma") * Ha ga-ehi ụra * ''Ọ bụ otú e si enweta ya?'' (Twi) Olee otú ọ na-aga/Olee otú ị si? (a pụkwara iji ya mee ihe n'echiche na-enweghị ọgụgụ dị ka "onyinye") * Ekele dịrị gị * ''Mepa'' o we we we we, biko/gbaghara m/arịọ m mgbaghara gị * ''Ndwom'' (Fante)/nnwom (Twi) Abụ/abụ ma ọ bụ egwu * ''Ọ̀ bụ n'ihi na ọ bụ n'ebe a na-akpọ ya.A na-ekwu na ọ bụ n'oge a ka a na-eme ihe n'oge ahụ?'' (Abụọ) - Gịnị bụ aha gị? * ''Ọ bụ otú ọ ga-esi mee ka ọ bụrụ ihe a ma ama?'' (Fante) Gịnị bụ aha gị? * ''Ọ bụ m ka m na-eme...''Ọ bụ n'ihi na ''ọ'' bụ n'oge a ka a ga-eme ka m gaa n'ihu.''..'' (Fante) Aha m bụ/A na-akpọ m... * ''Woedzi mfe ahen?'' (Fante) Olee afọ ole ka ọ dị? * ''Edzi mfe ahen'' (Fante) Olee afọ ole ka ị dị? * ''Ọkụ ọkụ?'' Ebee ka ọ dị? * Ka m na-aga / Ka m na na-ahapụ. * ''Mbo'' (Fante)/Mmo (Twi)zie * ''Jo'' (Fante)/ Nintendo (Twi) * Ayɛ Adze (Fante) mere nke ọma * Nkwụsị * N'ihi ụra == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} == Akwụkwọ == * Kasahorow Editors (2005), Modern ''Akan'': Nkwupụta dị mkpirikpi maka asụsụ Akuapem, Fanti na Twi. kasahorow, Accra.  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9988-0-3767-8|9988-0-3767-8]] * Dolphyne, Florence Abena (1988), Asụsụ Akan (Twi-Fante): Usoro ụda ya na usoro ụda ya. Ghana Universities Press, Accra.  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9964-3-0159-6|9964-3-0159-6]] * F.A. Dolphyne (1996) A Comprehensive Course in Twi (Asante) maka Non-Twi Learner. Ghana University Press, Accra.  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9964-3-0245-2|9964-3-0245-2]]. * [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] A Phonology nke Akan: Akuapem, Asante, Fante. Los Angeles: UC Press. * William Nketia (2004) Twi für Ghana:; Wort für Wort. Reise Know-How Verlag, Bielefeld.  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/3-89416-346-1|3-89416-346-1]]. (N'asụsụ German) * Obeng, Samuel Gyasi. (2001). African anthroponymy: Nnyocha ethnopragmatic na norphophonological nke aha onwe onye na Akan na ụfọdụ ndị Afrịka. LINCOM ọmụmụ na anthropology 08. Muenchen: LINCOM Europe.  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/3-89586-431-5|3-89586-431-5]]. * J.E. Redden na N. Owusu (1963, 1995). Twi Basic Course. Foreign Service Institute (Hippocrene reprint).  [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0-7818-0394-2|0-7818-0394-2]] == Njikọ mpụga ==         * English-Tshi (Asante) : a dictionary = Enyiresi-Twi nsem-asekyere-nhõma (1909), Evangelische Missionsgesellschaft in Basel * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080602221106/http://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/akan-language-resources/ Akụkọ Asụsụ Akan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110429215146/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Akan.aspx Journal of West African Languages: Akan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150510202835/http://ak.kasahorow.org/app/d Akwụkwọ ọkọwa okwu] mbụ m n'ịntanetị Akan (Twi, Fanti) Akwụkwọ ọkọwa ihe * [https://www.twitter.com/nkyea Okwu Twi nke Ụbọchị na Isiokwu] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100806111145/http://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/akan-twi-language-resources/ Ihe Ndị Asụsụ Twi] * [http://www.bible.is/AK1BSG/Matt/1/N/ Bible n'asụsụ Twi] * [http://www.alislam.org/quran/Holy-Quran-Asante.pdf Koran n'asụsụ Twi] * [http://love.poem.free.fr/translation-africa/twi-poem.htm Abụ Twi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210129211258/http://www.vibeghana.com/ Lelee Vidio Egwú Twi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090923020454/http://www.bahai-site.org/writings/african/akanasante.html Ekpere na Twi nke ndị Ghana nke okwukwe Baha'i ji] * [https://github.com/laberba/open-twi Open Twi Project], ọrụ iji weta Akan (Asante Twi n'oge a) na ọkọlọtọ dịka ọmụmaatụ na ngwanrọ, akwụkwọ ọkọwa okwu, na ụtọ asụsụ * [https://www.jw.org/aha/ Akwụkwọ na isiokwu na Ahanta] Literature na isiokwu na ahanta. {{Languages of Ghana}}Asusu ndi Ghana{{Kwa languages}}Asusu Kwa{{Authority control}}Njikwa Ikike aid89bzhd6h9smhrcuobvgrpwu7qoaw Akan goldweights 0 22161 687938 101059 2026-07-13T13:28:22Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687938 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Akan Goldweights.jpg|thumb|Akan Goldweights]] '''Ihe ndị dị''' n'Akan (nke a maara n'ógbè ahụ dị ka '''mrammou''') bụ ihe ndị e ji ọla mee nke ndị Akan nke West Africa ji mee ihe dị ka usoro ịtụ ihe, ọkachasị maka wei na ndokwa azụmahịa ziri ezi na ibe ha. Ọnọdụ nwoke na-abawanye nke ukwuu ma ọ bụrụ na o nwere ihe dị arọ zuru oke. Obere ihe dị arọ zuru oke bụ onyinye nye ndị ikom lụrụ di ọhụrụ. Nke a mere ka o doo anya na ọ ga-enwe ike ịbanye n'ahịa ahịa n'ụzọ nkwanye ùgwù na nke ọma. E wezụga ngwa ha bara uru, ihe ọ̀tụ̀tụ̀ dị nta bụ ihe nnọchianya nke ihe ọdịnala West Africa dị ka akara adinkra, osisi, anụmanụ na ndị mmadụ. 85qt3gapenjyrih544mtwuvnsxkdd4h Warri 0 23687 688050 184772 2026-07-14T11:07:49Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688050 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[Usòrò:Warri.jpg|thumb|Warri]] Obodo '''Warri''' bụ obodo eji mmanụ were mara, nke dị n'ime mpaghara South-South Nigeria ma nwee ụlọ mgbakwunye nke Ụlọ Gọọmentị [[Ȯra Delta|Delta]] State. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka isi obodo nke Warri Province n'oge mba ọzọ nọ n'ọchịchị.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Warri, Nigeria – International Cities of Peace|date=7 April 2017|url=http://www.internationalcitiesofpeace.org/cities-listing/warri-nigeria/|accessdate=2021-06-25|language=en-US}}</ref> Obodo ndị gbara ya gburugburu gụnyere [[Uvwie]] n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ, Udu. n'ebe ndịda ọwụwa Anyanwụ, Ogbe-ijoh n'ebe Ndịda, obodo Itsekiri na Warri South LGA n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Google Maps|url=https://www.google.com/maps/@0,0,22z|accessdate=2022-02-12|work=Google Maps|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Uvwie · Nigeria|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Uvwie/@5.5644431,5.7788541,10z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x1041ada58d095a6f:0x26f40f634d9553d|accessdate=2022-02-12|work=Uvwie · Nigeria|language=en}}</ref> N'ihi mmụba ngwa ngwa nke ndị mmadụ na okporo ụzọ ndị jikọtara ya, obodo ahụ na obodo ndị gbara ya gburugburu jikọrọ ọnụ wee bụrụ obodo mepere emepe a maara dị ka Warri. Aha nke a bụ "'''Warri Province'''" bụbụ nke e ji mara akụkụ nke mpaghara a na-akpọ [[Ȯra Delta|Delta]] State ugbu a n'okpuru Colony na Protectorate nke Southern Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Okoh|first=Oghenetoja|date=July 2016|title=WHO CONTROLS WARRI? HOW ETHNICITY BECAME VOLATILE IN THE WESTERN NIGER DELTA (1928–52)*|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/abs/who-controls-warri-how-ethnicity-became-volatile-in-the-western-niger-delta-192852/AF9F401F70B67A02FCFC40E646EEF1B5|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=57|issue=2|pages=209–230|doi=10.1017/S0021853716000074|issn=0021-8537}}</ref> Ókè ya n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ bụ Sapele na Osimiri Forçados dị na ndịda-ọwụwa anyanwụ na Jameson Creek na South-west nke mechara gbanwee na Delta Province. Warri bụ otu n'ime obodo eji ụlọ ọrụ na azụmaahịa mmanụ ala were mara na ndịda Naịjirịa. Ọ bụ isi obodo azụmahịa nke Delta State, nke nwere karịrị mmadụ 311,970 dịka ọnụ ọgụgụ mba nke afọ 2006 si dị.<ref name="nigeria gov">{{Cite web|url=http://www.population.gov.ng/images/Vol%2003%20Table%20DSx%20LGAPop%20by%20SDistrict-PDF.pdf|title=Archived copy|accessdate=5 June 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075911/http://www.population.gov.ng/images/Vol%2003%20Table%20DSx%20LGAPop%20by%20SDistrict-PDF.pdf|archivedate=24 September 2015}}</ref> Warri City bụ '''obodo''' ndị eze anọ, ya bụ; Ovie nke Agbarha-Ame (Urhobo), Orosuen nke Okere-Urhobo (Urhobo)), Olu nke Warri (itsekiri) na Pere nke Ogbe-ijaw (Ijaw)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2016-08-17|title=Delta CP lauds Agbarha monarch on peace, Edion Hall|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/delta-cp-lauds-agbarha-monarch-peace-edion-hall/|accessdate=2022-01-18|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailypost.ng/2021/01/05/delta-commercial-activities-shutdown-as-okere-urhobo-receives-staff-of-office/|title=Delta: Commercial activities shutdown as Okere-Urhobo receives staff of office|first=Matthew|author=Omonigho|date=January 5, 2021}}</ref> Obodo ahụ n'onwe ya bụ obodo ụmụ amaala Urhobos, itsekiris na Ijaws. Ndị bi na ya na-abụkarị ndị otu Kraịst dị n'ụzọ okpukpe dị iche iche, ụfọdụ na-ejikwa ngwakọta nke okpukpe ọdịnala Africa dị ka ọtụtụ ndị ndịda ugwu nke Naijiriasi eme . A maara obodo ahụ na mba niile maka Pidgin English ha pụrụ iche.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Ikeke|first=Nkem|date=2017-03-12|title=8 cities in Nigeria where people cannot do without speaking Pidgin English|url=https://www.legit.ng/1092565-8-nigerian-cities-pidgin-english-spoken.html|accessdate=2022-02-11|work=Legit.ng - Nigeria news.|language=en}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == Obodo Warri ma ọ bụ Iwerre adịla kemgbe 1480.<ref name="Punch1">{{Cite web|date=2021-08-20|title=Warri Kingdom, according to history dating back 541 years|url=https://punchng.com/warri-kingdom-according-to-history-dating-back-541-years/|accessdate=2021-09-18|work=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Usòrò:Sigil_Of_the_Olu_of_Warri_kingdom.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sigil_Of_the_Olu_of_Warri_kingdom.jpg/220px-Sigil_Of_the_Olu_of_Warri_kingdom.jpg|thumb]] Olu nke Warri nke ugbu a bụ Ogiame Atuwatse III, onye e kpuwere okpueze na 21 Ọgọst 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-22|title=All hail Olu of Warri, Atuwatse III|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/08/all-hail-olu-of-warri-atuwatse-iii/|accessdate=2021-09-18|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref> Ọ bụbu isi obodo n'oge ọchịchị Britain. [[Lagos]] na Protectorate nke Southern Nigeria jikọtara ọnụ dị ka Colony na Protectorat nke Southern Nigeria na 28 February 1906 ma Walter Egerton bụ onye a họpụtara dị ka Gọvanọ nke Colony ọhụrụ na Protectorates nke Southern Nigeria, na-arụ ọrụ ruo 1912 [citation needed]. Na mpaghara ọhụrụ a a na-akpọ Southern Nigeria, [[Lagos Colony]] ochie bụụrụ Western Province, na Southern Nigerian Protectorate nke mbụ kewara n'ime Central Province nke isi obodo ya dị na Warri nakwa Eastern Province nke isi obodo ya dị na [[Calabar]]. Warri na-anọdụ n'ikpere mmiri Warri nke jikọrọ ọnụ na osimiri Forcados na Osimiri Escravos n'ebe Jones Creek na mpaghara [[Mba Mmiri|Niger Delta]] dị ala. Obodo a nwere ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri nke oge a nke na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ebe mbufe ibu n'etiti Osimiri Niger na Oké [[Oshimiri Orimiri|Osimiri]] Atlantic maka mbubata na mbupụ. Agụgụala nke obodo ahụ malitere na narị afọ nke 15 mgbe ndị mgbasa ozi Kraịst sitere na Portugal bịara na ya. N'ikpeazụ, ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka ebe isi azụmahịa ndị ohu maka ndị Portuguese na Dutch. Warri bụụrụ obodo ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri dị mkpa karịa na ngwụcha narị afọ nke 19, mgbe ọ bụụrụ ebe azụmahịa [[Nmanu nri|mmanụ nkwụ]] na ihe ndị ọzọ dị mkpa dị ka rọba, ngwaahịa nkwụ, koko, ahụ ekere, akpụkpọ anụ, na akpụkpọ anụ.<ref name="greatest cities">{{Cite web |url=http://www.greatestcities.com/Africa/Nigeria/Warri_city.html |title=Archive copy |accessdate=2022-10-23 |archivedate=2002-06-05 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020605195030/http://www.greatestcities.com/Africa/Nigeria/Warri_city.html }}</ref> Ndị Britain guzobere Warri dị ka isi ụlọ ọrụ nke mpaghara ahụ na mmalite narị afọ nke 20.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-20|title=Warri Kingdom, according to history dating back 541 years|url=https://punchng.com/warri-kingdom-according-to-history-dating-back-541-years/|accessdate=2022-02-11|work=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="ekeh">{{Cite book|author=Ekeh|first=Peter Palmer|title=Warri City and British Colonial Rule in Western Niger Delta|year=2005|publisher=Urhobo Historical Society|isbn=978-064-924-7|pages=31|authorlink=Peter Palmer Ekeh}}</ref> E nweela mmụba dị ukwuu n'ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ; ọ gbanweela site na ịbụ ime obodo were gaa n'obodo ukwu. == Ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ == A na-ahụta Warri dị ka obodo ukwu nke oge a nke nwere mbawanye mmepe akụrụngwa na mpaghara gọọmentị ndị ọzọ dị ka [[Uvwie]], Udu, na [[Okpe]] n'afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya, yana netwọk okporo ụzọ dị iche iche na-ejikọta ebe ndị a n'otu. Nke ọ bụla n'ime mpaghara ndị a nwere usoro nchịkwa nke ya. [citation needed] Ndị karịrị n'ọnụọgụ n'obodo Warri bụ ndị Urhobo, Itsekiri na Ijaw.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-07-08|title=Niger Delta moving from agitation to rebellion?|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/node/212929|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=The New Humanitarian|language=fr}}</ref> Otú ọ dị, dịka o nwere ọnọdụ dị ka obodo ukwu, e nwere ọtụtụ ndị na-abata n'ime ya site n'akụkụ niile nke Naijiria, ọ kachasị ndị Igbo. te si n'akụkụ niile nke mba ahụ, ọkachasị ndị Igbos. == Ọnọdụ ihu igwe == Mpaghara ahụ na-enwe mmiri ozuzo dị mma na iru mmiri dị mma ọtụtụ ugboro afọ. Ọnọdụ ihu igwe nwere ikuku ma nwee oge abụọ dị iche iche: oge ọkọchị na oge mmiri ozuzo. Oge ọkọchị na-adị site n'ihe dị ka Nọvemba ruo Eprel ma bụrụ nke e ji uzuzu dị jụụ nke "ụgụrụ" sitere na ifufe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ wee maara. Oge mmiri ozuzo na-agafe site na Mee ruo Ọktoba ma na-akwụsịtụ ntakịrị oge n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ, mana mmiri na-ezo ugboro ugboro ọbụladị n'oge ọkọchị. A na-akọwa mpaghara ahụ site ihu igwe nwere ikuku nke nwere okpomọkụ kwa afọ nke 32.8 °C (91.0 °F) na mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ nke 2,770 mm (109 in). Enwere oke okpomọkụ nke 28 °C (82 °F) na 32 °C (90 °F). Mpaghara gbara ya gburugburu na-abụkarị oké ọhịa mmiri ozuzo, nke na-abanye na ala mmiri na mpaghara ụfọdụ. Ahịhịa jupụtara na oke osisi, nkwụ, yana osisi mkpụrụ osisi.{{Weather box|location=Warri|metric first=Y|single line=Y|Jan high C=31.5|Feb high C=32.2|Mar high C=32.4|Apr high C=32.2|May high C=31.5|Jun high C=30.0|Jul high C=28.4|Aug high C=28.4|Sep high C=28.8|Oct high C=30.0|Nov high C=31.4|Dec high C=31.5|year high C=30.7|Jan mean C=26.8|Feb mean C=27.5|Mar mean C=27.9|Apr mean C=28.0|May mean C=27.3|Jun mean C=26.3|Jul mean C=25.2|Aug mean C=25.3|Sep mean C=25.5|Oct mean C=26.3|Nov mean C=27.1|Dec mean C=26.8|year mean C=26.7|Jan low C=22.1|Feb low C=22.9|Mar low C=23.5|Apr low C=23.8|May low C=23.1|Jun low C=22.6|Jul low C=21.0|Aug low C=22.3|Sep low C=22.3|Oct low C=22.6|Nov low C=22.9|Dec low C=22.2|year low C=22.6|precipitation colour=green|Jan precipitation mm=30|Feb precipitation mm=58|Mar precipitation mm=127|Apr precipitation mm=201|May precipitation mm=270|Jun precipitation mm=367|Jul precipitation mm=474|Aug precipitation mm=324|Sep precipitation mm=457|Oct precipitation mm=325|Nov precipitation mm=104|Dec precipitation mm=31|year precipitation mm=2768|source 1=Climate-Data.Org<ref name = Climate-Data.Org> {{cite web | url = http://en.climate-data.org/location/513/ | title = Climate: Warri | publisher = [[Climate-Data.org]] | access-date = 29 October 2016}}</ref>}} == Akụ na ụba na akụrụngwa == E nwere Warri Refinery na Petrochemicals dị na Ekpan, ebe ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ mba ụwa na-arụ ọrụ na Naịjirịa bụ ndị nwere ụlọ ọrụ ha n'ebe dị nso na gburugburu ahụ so. Otu n'ime nnukwu ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri nke mba ahụ dị n'ime Ugbuwangue, Warri. N'ihi esemokwu dapụtara na ngwụcha afọ 90, ọkachasị na 1999, ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ gbapụrụ site n'obodo ahụ na mpaghara ndị dị ya nso. === Nchekwa === Ndị agha Amphibious Infantry battalion (Effurun Army Base) nke dị na Effurun, [obodo ejima] bụ ndị na-eweta nchekwa na Warri ma na-achịkwa n'okpuru Brigade HQ na Port Harcourt.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home page|url=https://army.mil.ng/?page_id=17|accessdate=2022-09-05|work=Nigerian Army {{!}} Official Website|language=en-US|archivedate=2022-09-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905205204/https://army.mil.ng/?page_id=17}}</ref> Ndị agha mmiri Naịjirịa na-arụ ọrụ site na ụlọ ọrụ ya na Warri. Ndị agha ụgbọelu nke 61 nke Naịjirịa na-arụkwa ọrụ site na ụlọ ọrụ ya dị na Jeddo, nke dị nso Warri. ==== Egwuregwu ==== Warri nwere ámá egwuregwu mba ụwa nke nwere ike ịba puku mmadụ iri atọ nke bụ ụlọ Warri Wolves football club, nke kwadoro asọmpi nke African Women Football Championship na 2002 nakwa 2006 n'otu aka ahụ ma sonyekwa na otu n'ime ebe a tụrụ anya na a ga-eji mee ihe maka FIFA Under-17 World Cup na Nigeria na 2009.<ref>[[Warri Wolves F.C.]]</ref><ref>[[Warri Township Stadium]]</ref> E ji ámá egwuregwu ahụ were kwado African Youth Athletics Championship (AYAC) na 2013. Warri Wolves, bụ otu egwuregwu bọọlụ ọkachamara nke dị na Warri na-esonye asọmpi na Nigeria National League.<ref>{{Cite web|author=IV|first=Editorial|date=2022-01-05|title=NNL: Warri Wolves return from break Monday|url=https://www.blueprint.ng/nnl-warri-wolves-return-from-break-monday/|accessdate=2022-02-11|work=Blueprint Newspapers Limited|language=en-US}}</ref> Ndị egwuregwu ochie ha a ma ama gụnyere Best Ogedegbe, Wilson Oruma, Efe Ambrose, Victor Ikpeba na Ekigho Ehiosun. === Nrụpụta na ihe ndị a na-emepụta === Ntọala akụ na ụba nke obodo ahụ dabeere na ụlọ ọrụ nsicha mmanụ na ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ na gaasị ndị ọzọ. Ọzọkwa, e nwere ụlọ ọrụ ígwè, Delta Steel Company, nke dị na mpaghara Ovwian Áladja nke Udu.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-02-12|title=How Nigerian government, Indians wreck multi-billion dollar Delta Steel Company, rip off host communities and tax payers|url=https://guardian.ng/features/how-nigerian-government-indians-wreck-multi-billion-dollar-delta-steel-company-rip-off-host-communities-and-tax-payers/|accessdate=2022-02-11|work=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News|language=en-US|archivedate=2022-02-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211205306/https://guardian.ng/features/how-nigerian-government-indians-wreck-multi-billion-dollar-delta-steel-company-rip-off-host-communities-and-tax-payers/}}</ref><ref name="Vanguard(Nigeria)">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/03/20-years-collapse-steel-company-resumes-operation/|title=20 years after collapse, steel company resumes operations|date=5 March 2018|accessdate=21 March 2018|publisher=Vanguard (Nigeria)}}</ref> Ụlọ ọrụ Beta Glass dị nso, na mpụga obodo Ughelli, ebe ala ahụ jupụtara na silica na silicates, ihe ndị a chọrọ maka imepụta glaasị, ceramics na simenti. Transcorp Power Distribution, otu n'ime ụlọ ọrụ na-emepụta [[Transnational Corporation of Nigeria|ike]] na Naịjirịa, dịkwa na Ughelli, nke dị naanị nkeji 15 site na ụgbọ ala. == Njem == === Ụgbọ okporo ígwè === N'afọ 1991, a malitere iwu ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè zuru ezu site na ụlọ ọrụ ígwè dị na Ajaokuta ruo n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Warri, ihe dị ka kilomita 275. Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2006, ụzọ okporo igwe ahụ eruola kilomita 329 n'ogologo, mana akụkụ nke ikpeazụ nke Warri dị 27 kilomita bụ nke na-ezubeghị ezu. N'afọ 2010, ọrụ maliteghachiri iji mezue akụkụ ikpeazụ ahụ na Warri. E meghere ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè ahụ na Septemba 2020. === Okporo ụzọ === Gọọmentị steeti emeela ka netwọk okporo ụzọ dị n'ime Warri Metropolis dị mma iji melite onyinyo obodo ahụ. Njem n'ime obodo ahụ na-abụkarị site na ụgbọala bọs na ụgbọala ụkwụ atọ. Gọọmentị etiti emechaala ọrụ mbawanye okporo ụzọ Warri-Benin Road na akụkụ ndị dị mkpa nke East-West Road Project nke ga-ejikọ Warri-Uyo. === Ikuku === E nwere ọtụtụ helipads na ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ, dị ka Shell yard Ogunu nakwa n'ime Escavos na Focados. === Oké Osimiri === Mbugharị nke ngwaahịa site n'oké osimiri bụ site n'aka Naịjirịa Ports Authority (Delta Ports) nke bụ maka mbupụ na mbubata ngwaahịa nke ọtụtụ nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ. Ọzọkwa dị n'akụkụ osimiri Warri bụ ahịa na ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri nke ndị ahịa obodo na-eji, nke na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ebe njem na azụmahịa nke ime obodo. E nwere ụgbọ mmiri ndị dị n'ógbè ahụ nke a na-eji aga site n'otu ebe gaa na nke ọzọ. == Ụlọ akwụkwọ agụmakwụkwọ == === Ụlọ akwụkwọ praịmarị === Ụlọ akwụkwọ praịmarị na Warri bụ: * Nana Primary School, Warri * Mowoe Primary School, Warri * Ojojo Primary School, Warri * Ogiame Primary School, Warri * Ikengbuwa Primary School,Warri * * Cavagina Primary School, Warri * agina, Warri * Twin Fountain Group of Schools * HillTop * International Unity School (IUS) * NNPC Staff Primary School * SNAPS * Ụlọ Akwụkwọ Alderstown Maka Ndị Ogbi * Kids Compute Academy * Edjeba Estate School, Warri * Lakeland School Ogunu, Warri === Ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị === Ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị dịkwa n'ọnụ ọgụgụ n'obodo Warri. Ndị a gụnyere: * Yonwuren College, Warri * College of Education Demonstration Secondary School, Warri * Twin Fountain Group of Schools * Cambridge International School * Delta Careers College * Federal Government College * Hussey College, Warri * Nana College, Warri * Dom Domingos College, Warri * Delta Secondary School, Warri * Dore Numa College, Warri * Essi College, Warri * Uwangue College, Warri * Urhobo College, Effurun<ref>{{Cite web|title=Urhobo College Archives|url=https://m.guardian.ng/tag/urhobo-college/|accessdate=2022-09-05|work=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News|language=en-US}}</ref> * Classical International School * Ugborikoko Secondary School * Army Day Secondary School, Effurun * College of Commerce Warri * DSC Technical High School, Ovwian-Aladja * Our Lady's High School, Effurun * Mega Stars Christian School, Udu * Eagles Height School, Ajamjamjam * Ogbe Secondary School, Effurun * Ochuks Academy, Adjomo Avenue, Warri * Ubeji Grammar School, Ubeji === Ụlọ akwụkwọ ndị dị elu === E nwere ọtụtụ ụlọ agụmakwụkwọ dị elu dị n'ime Warri Metropolis: * College of Education dị na Edjeba, Warri<ref>{{Cite web|title=Contact Us – College of Education, Warri|url=https://coewarri.edu.ng/contact-us/|accessdate=2021-06-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * Delta State Nursing School, Ogunu, Warri<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-26|title=Delta State Schools of Nursing Admission Form 2020/2021|url=https://www.myschoolgist.com/ng/delta-state-schools-of-nursing-form/|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=www.myschoolgist.com|language=en}}</ref> * Eagle Heights University, Omadino, Warri<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Oritsejafor Will Bankroll N2.5 billion Eagle Height University {{!}} Encomium Magazine|url=https://encomium.ng/how-oritsejafor-will-bankroll-n2-5-billion-eagle-height-university/|accessdate=2021-06-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * Nigeria Maritime University Okerenkoko, Warri<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-11|title=Homepage|url=https://www.nmu.edu.ng/|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=NMU|language=en-US}}</ref> * Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun * Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun == Njem Nlereanya == E nwere ebe ndị njem nleta dị iche iche ị ga-eleta mgbe ị nọ na Warri:<ref name="goodie ibru">{{Cite web|url=http://www.deltastate.gov.ng/retreathotel.htm|title=hotel and tourism development potentials in delta state|work=goodie ibru|date=2 June 2001|accessdate=11 January 2008|archivedate=7 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183319/http://deltastate.gov.ng/retreathotel.htm}}</ref> * Nana Living History Museum<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-07-09|title=100 years of Nanna of Itsekiri's 'Living History'|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/07/100-years-nanna-itsekiris-living-history/|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=Vanguard News|language=en-US}}</ref> * Red Mangrove swamp * Falcorp Mangrove Park / Mini Zoo, Ijala, n'azụ Warri Refinery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Opening hours: Falcorp Mangrove Park - Warri Zoo and Nature Park|url=https://opening-hours.com.ng/0645149/Falcorp_Mangrove_Park_-_Warri_Zoo_and_Nature_Park|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=opening-hours.com.ng|language=en-NG}}</ref> * [[Warri Township Stadium|Ogige Egwuregwu Warri Township]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Warri Township Stadium - Football Stadium|url=https://www.football-lineups.com/stadium/4819/|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=Football-Lineups}}</ref> * Shell Club, Ogunu<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shell Ogunu Golf Club {{!}} All Square Golf|url=https://www.allsquaregolf.com/golf-courses/nigeria/shell-ogunu-golf-club|accessdate=2021-06-25|work=www.allsquaregolf.com|language=en}}</ref> == Okpukpe == == Ndị ama ama == *[[Paul Eyefian]], onye akachukwu *[[Erigga]], onye na-eti egwu == Hụkwa == * Abraka * [[Asaba|Asaba, Delta]] * Agbassa * [[Ȯra Delta|Delta Steeti]] * Effurun * Ọdịda Anyanwụ * Ughelli * Ogige ụgbọ okporo ígwè na Naịjirịa == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Ama ukwu nor na Naigeria]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 4phaxt2j0p74bcup8wmsqgzm2d7703q Via Campesina 0 26747 688042 199929 2026-07-14T09:08:20Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688042 wikitext text/x-wiki   La Vía Campesina (site na Spanish: la vía campesine, li) bụ òtù ndị ugpo mba ụwa nke e guzobere na 1993 na Mons, [[Belgium]], nke òtù otu narị na iri asatọ na ábụọ guzobere zoro na mba 81, ma kọwaa onwe ya dị ka "otu òtù mba niile nke na-ahazi òtù ụmụ amaala nke obere ndị na'etiti na ha, ndị Ọrụ ugwo, ụmụ nwanyị ime obodo, na obodo ndị obodo si Eshia, Africa, America, da Europe".<ref name=":1">"Global Small-Scale Farmers' Movement Developing New Trade Regimes", [[Food First]] ''News & Views'', Volume 28, Number 97 Spring/Summer 2005, p.2.</ref> La Via Campesina na-akwado ọrụ ugbo na ụlọ ọrụ na ya, ọ bụkwa otu ahụ chepụtara okwu ahụ bụ "nchịkwa nri".<ref name=":1">"Global Small-Scale Farmers' Movement Developing New Trade Regimes", [[Food First]] ''News & Views'', Volume 28, Number 97 Spring/Summer 2005, p.2.</ref> La Vía Campesina na-eme mkpọsa iji chebe ikike onye ọrụ ugbo nwere mkpụrụ, ịkwụsị [[ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị]], maka mgbanwe ala, na n'ozuzu maka ịnakwere [[Nkwupụta United Nations Banyere Ihe Ndị Ruuru Ndị Ọrụ Ugbo|ikike nke ndị ọrụ]] ubi.<ref>Borras Jr., Saturnino M. "La Vía Campesina and its Global Campaign for Agrarian Reform.." ''Journal of Agrarian Change'' 8, no. 2/3 (April 2008): 258-289.</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == === Ihe ndị mere n'oge gara aga === [[Usòrò:ViaCampesinaMembersMap.svg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|     Map of countries with a member organization of La Vía Campesina]] Malite n'afọ ndị 1980 gọọmentị na-etinye obere aka n"ime ime obodo, nke na'eme ka ikike ụlọ ọrụ na ndị otu ndị ọrụ ugbo ghara ịdị ike ka ha na na - na "na-ebi ndụ n "n'ọrụ ugpo" na<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/f0ebd26ba9e1891ade9ae0457d34285a6c5a00e1|title=La Vía Campesina: the birth and evolution of a transnational social movement|author=Martínez-Torres|first=María Elena|date=2010|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|doi=10.1080/03066150903498804|volume=37|pages=149–175}}</ref> N'ihi ya, ìgwè ndị ọrụ ugbo mba malitere ịmekọrịta na òtù mba dị iche iche, malite na Latin America wee gaa n'ụwa niile.<ref name=":5" /> Ihe ndị ruuru ndị ọrụ ugbo sitere na nkwado ikike ọhụrụ nke bilitere na 1990s; n'oge ahụ, ihe ndị Ruuru Mmadụ na ihe omume mmepe jikọtara ọnụ nke gbasaa site na ikike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na nke obodo iji tinye ikike mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na akụ na ụba.<ref name=":0" /> Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-arụ ọrụ n'ọrụ ugwo na'ihu na ịma echiche nke neoliberalism aka na akụ na ụba ụwa na ịchọta ụzọ ndị ọzọ ga-echebe ikike nke ndị ọrụ gburugburu ụwa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Shawki|first=Noha|year=2014|title=New Rights Advocacy and the Human Rights of Peasants: La Via Campesina and the Evolution of New Human Rights Norms|journal=Journal of Human Rights Practice|volume=6|issue=2|doi=10.1093/jhuman/huu009}}</ref> === Mmekọrịta ya na ụlọ ọrụ mba ụwa === Ndị otu ndị ọrụ ugbo si Europe, Latin America, Eshia, North America na Africa guzobere nzukọ ahụ na 1993.<ref name=":2">La Via Campesina: International Peasant's Movement. Organisation. Published 9 Feb. 2011. Retrieved from <https://web.archive.org/web/20170710021151/https://viacampesina.org/en/index.php/organisation-mainmenu-44></ref> Ntọala ahụ sochiri Uruguay Round nke General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), ebe a bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta World Trade Organization (WTO) maka Ọrụ Ugbo na Azụmaahịa metụtara Ikike Nzuzo (TRIPS).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|title=The Via Campesina: Peasant Women on the Frontiers of Food Sovereignty|author=Desmarais|first=Annette Aurélie|date=2003|journal=Canadian Woman Studies|volume=23|issue=1|pages=140–145|issn=0713-3235}}</ref> Nkwekọrịta ndị a kpatara mmeghachi omume site n'aka ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ gburugburu ụwa maka ilekwasị anya na nsogbu teknụzụ karịa ikike mmadụ inweta nri, ọkachasị maka ndị bi na Global South.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3ba032a3d33696bd8868c2410d8a9c211d58f19e|title=Worlds apart: The WTO's Agreement on Agriculture and the right to food in developing countries|author=Hawkes|first=Shona|date=2013|journal=International Political Science Review|doi=10.1177/0192512112445238|volume=34|issue=1|pages=21–38}}</ref> Ijikọ ụwa ọnụ na-aga n'ihu n"oge a, na'emetụta ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ gụnyere ọrụ ugbo.<ref name=":2" /> La Vía Campesina nyere ndị ọrụ ugbo obere ikpo okwu iji nụ olu ha banyere otu mgbanwe ndị a si emetụta ndụ ha.<ref name=":2" /> Mmegharị ahụ etoola ma bụrụkwa nke a ghọtara ugbu a dị ka akụkụ nke mkparịta ụka zuru ụwa ọnụ banyere nri na ọrụ ugbo. O gosila ya n'ọtụtụ mba ụwa, dịka: * Òtù Nri na Ọrụ Ugbo nke Mba Ndị Dị n'Otu (FAO);<ref>{{Cite web|title="La société civile et les biotechnologies", interview of Guy Kastler, La Via Campesina, intervenant de la société civile à l'occasion du Symposium international sur le rôle des biotechnologies agricoles|url=http://www.fao.org/about/meetings/agribiotechs-symposium/voices-from-the-symposium/multimedia-detail/en/c/383477/|accessdate=5 May 2020|author=FAO|authorlink=FAO|archivedate=22 April 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422155716/https://www.fao.org/about/meetings/agribiotechs-symposium/voices-from-the-symposium/multimedia-detail/en/c/383477/}}</ref> * International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV);<ref>{{Cite web|title=European Coordination Via Campesina (Mr. Guy Kastler), on UPOV|url=https://www.upov.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?meeting_id=39124&doc_id=346278|accessdate=5 May 2020|author=UPOV|date=5 August 2016}}</ref> * Kansụl Na-ahụ Maka Ihe Ndị Ruuru Mmadụ nke UN (HRC);<ref name=":2"/> * World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Via Campesina etinyela aka na mkparita uka nke Nkwupụta United Nations na ikike nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị ọzọ bi na mpaghara ime obodo, nke UN General Assembly nakweere na Disemba 2018..<ref>{{Cite news|title=UNITED NATIONS: Third Committee approves the UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas|url=https://viacampesina.org/en/united-nations-third-committee-approves-the-un-declaration-on-the-rights-of-peasants-and-other-people-working-in-rural-areas/|accessdate=5 May 2020|work=Via Campesina|date=20 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=A. Wise|first=Timothy|title=UN Backs Seed Sovereignty in Landmark Peasants' Rights Declaration|url=https://www.resilience.org/stories/2019-01-24/un-backs-seed-sovereignty-in-landmark-peasants-rights-declaration/|accessdate=5 May 2020|work=Resilience|date=24 January 2019}}</ref> === Ihe ndị a na-ebute ụzọ === Dị ka weebụsaịtị La Via Campesina si kwuo, mmegharị ndị bụ isi okwu na-akwalite nri ọbụbụeze; na-achọ mgbanwe agrarian; ikike ndị mmadụ n'elu ala, mmiri, ókèala; iguzogide ahia efu; na-akwalite ụmụ nwanyị na-ewu ewu na-ewu ewu; na-akwado ikike mmadụ, ikike nke ndị ọrụ na-akwaga mba ọzọ; na-akwalite agroecology; na-akwalite usoro mkpụrụ osisi ndị ọrụ ugbo; na-amụba òkè ndị ntorobịa n'ọrụ ugbo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About La Via Campesina|url=https://viacampesina.org/en/la-via-campesina-organisational-brochure-edition-2016/|date=2016-10-28|accessdate=2023-05-30|archivedate=2021-05-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511140010/https://viacampesina.org/en/la-via-campesina-organisational-brochure-edition-2016/}}</ref> N'afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya, òtù ahụ etinyela uche dị ukwuu na nsogbu nwoke na nwanyị na ikike ụmụ nwanyị, ma mee ka mmegide ya na ụlọ ọrụ mba dị iche iche sikwuo ike.<ref name=":5"/> O lekwasịrị anya n'inweta nkwado maka okwu gbasara ọbụbụeze nri, iweghachite okwu ahụ bụ "onye ọrụ ugbo" ma mepụta njirimara ndị ọrụ obodo n"ofe ókèala na ọdịbendị mba.<ref name=":5" /> La Vía Campesina na-ejikọkwa aka na òtù ndị ọzọ na ndị na'abụghị gọọmentị (NGOs) iji mee ka ọnụnọ mba ụwa ya sie ike.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|title=The power of peasants: Reflections on the meanings of La Vía Campesina|author=Desmarais|first=Annette Aurélie|date=2008|journal=Journal of Rural Studies|doi=10.1016/j.jrurstud.2007.12.002|volume=24|issue=2|pages=138–149}}</ref> Mkpebi ọchịchị onye kwuo uche ya bụ isi na ọrụ La Vía Campesina, a raara ya nye nnọchiteanya ziri ezi na itinye aka nke ndị niile sonyere, na-eme mgbanwe nhazi mgbe ọ dị mkpa.<ref name=":7"/> Echiche nke ndị mmadụ gburugburu ụwa dị mkpa iji nyochaa ma melite mmepụta nri na ọbụbụeze ụwa.<ref name=":7" /> Akụkụ nke mgbalị a maka ịha nhata n'etiti ndị otu ahụ bụ ịmepụta njirimara ndị ọrụ ugbo. A na-akpọ iweghachite njirimara a "re-peasantization".<ref>Welch, C., 2001. Peasants and globalization in Latin America: a survey of recent literature. Paper presented at the XXIII International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, 6–8 September, Washington, DC.</ref> Dị ka Desmarais si kwuo (2008), okwu ahụ bụ "''onye ọrụ ugbo''" n'asụsụ Bekee nwere ihe jikọrọ ya na feudalism, mana n"asụsụ na ọnọdụ ndị ọzọ, ihe ọ pụtara sara mbara; campesino sitere na okwu campo, nke pụtara "obodo", nke na-ejikọta ndị mmadụ na ala.<ref name=":7" /> Nkọwa feudalist a bụ otu ihe mere nzukọ ahụ ji họrọ ịghara ịsụgharị aha ya n'asụsụ Bekee.<ref name=":7" /> === Ihe nrite === N'ọnwa Nọvemba 2018, La Vía Campesina natara XV Navarra International Prize for Solidarity (Premio Internacional Navarre a la So solidaridad).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://viacampesina.org/en/la-via-campesina-xv-navarra-international-prize-for-solidarity/|title="Globalising the struggle also means globalising solidarity and hope" - La Via Campesina, while accepting the XV Navarra International Prize for Solidarity|date=2017-12-07|work=Via Campesina English|accessdate=2018-06-04|language=en-GB}}</ref> Na June 2018, ndị kwụụrụ onwe, ọtụtụ na ọtụtụ omenala, bụ nke na-adabere kpamkpam na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ma ọ bụ nke akụ na ụba ọ bụla, enwetara onyinye nrite nke Lush Spring Prize Prize Award.<ref>{{Cite web|author=LVC|first=Via Campesina|title=Lush Spring Prize Influence Award Winner: La Via Campesina|url=https://uk.lush.com/article/lush-spring-prize-influence-award-winner-la-campesina|work=uk.lush.com|publisher=Lush Spring Prize|accessdate=22 May 2018|date=2017-05-23}}</ref> N'afọ 2015, nzukọ ahụ natara onyinye site na Latin American Scientific Society for Agroecology ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220331131709/https://www.socla.co/en SOCLA]) "n'ịghọta ihe atụ ya nke ọgụ na-adịghị agwụ ike maka agroeconology na ikike nke ndị ọrụ ugbo, n'imezu ọrụ ya ilekọta ụwa, inye ụwa nri, chekwaa ụdị dị iche iche ma mee ka mbara ala dị jụụ, site n"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://viacampesina.org/en/index.php/main-issues-mainmenu-27/sustainable-peasants-agriculture-mainmenu-42/1879-la-via-campesina-receives-award-for-tireless-struggle-in-favor-of-agroecology|title=La Via Campesina receives award for "tireless struggle in favor of Agroecology"|date=13 October 2015|accessdate=20 November 2015|work=La Via Campesina: International Peasant's Movement|archivedate=21 November 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121025011/http://viacampesina.org/en/index.php/main-issues-mainmenu-27/sustainable-peasants-agriculture-mainmenu-42/1879-la-via-campesina-receives-award-for-tireless-struggle-in-favor-of-agroecology}}</ref> Na 2004, La Vía Campesina nwetara onyinye nturu ugo International Human Rights Award site na Global Exchange, na San Francisco.<ref>Global Exchange Human Rights Awards. Past Honorees. Retrieved from <{{Cite web|url=http://humanrightsaward.org/past-honorees/|title=Past Honorees &#124; 12th Annual Human Rights Award|accessdate=2015-04-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627195622/http://humanrightsaward.org/past-honorees/|archivedate=2015-06-27}}></ref> == Nhazi == [[Usòrò:Via_Campesina.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ụmụ nwanyị so na Via Campesina n'oge 7th World Social Forum (Nairobi, 2007)]] La Vía Campesina bụ òtù na-eme ihe ike, na mpaghara na nke mba. Ndị otu si mba ịrị asatọ na otu, nke a haziri n mpaghara itoolu.<ref name=":2"/> Kọmitii Nhazi Mba Nile na-anọchite anya otu nwoke na otu nwanyị na mpaghara ọ bụla na maysa onye ntorobịa na kọntinent ọ ọwụwa anyanwụ, nke ọkara ahọpụtara site na ndị otu mpaghara ha.<ref name=":2" /> N'inwe ihe dị ka òtù 182 nke obodo na nke mba dị iche iche dị na mmegharị ahụ, La Via Campesina na-anọchite anya ndị ọrụ ugbo 200 gburugburu ụwa.<ref name=":2" /> Dị ka Menser si kwuo (2008), La Via Campesina bụ ihe atụ nke ihe ịga nke ọma na mgbasawanye nke mmegharị mba na mba n'ihe gbasara ọchịchị onye kwuo uche ya n"ihi usoro nhazi ya na mgbanwe ya iji hụ na nnọchiteanya ziri ezi.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Transnational Participatory Democracy in Action: The Case of La Via Campesina|author=Menser|first=Michael|date=2008|journal=Journal of Social Philosophy|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9833.2007.00409.x|volume=39|issue=1|pages=20–41}}</ref> === Nzukọ === Ndị nnọchiteanya si n'ógbè ọ bụla na-ezukọ na Nzukọ Mba Nile ihe dịka afọ anọ ọ ga-abụ. E nwere nzukọ ndị gara aga na Mons na 1993, Tlaxcala City na 1996, Bangalore na 2000, São Paulo na 2004, Maputo na 2008, Jakarta na 2013, na Derio na 2017.<ref name=":3">La Via Campesina: International Peasant's Movement. Our Conferences. Published 11 Apr. 2014. Retrieved from <https://web.archive.org/web/20170710014954/https://viacampesina.org/en/index.php/our-conferences-mainmenu-28></ref> Ngalaba odeakwụkwọ mba ụwa na-agbanwe ebe etiti ya kwa afọ 4 dabere na mkpebi e mere na Nzukọ Mba Nile. Ebe ndị gara aga bụ Belgium (1993-1996), Honduras (1997-2004), Indonesia (2005-2013) na Harare (2013-2021).<ref name=":3" /> Kemgbe Nọvemba 2021, odeakwụkwọ ahụ nọ na Bagnolet, France.<ref>La Via Campesina celebrates its political transition to Europe. Retrieved from <https://viacampesina.org/en/via-campesina-celebrates-its-political-transition-to-europe/</ref> Onye nhazi nke ugbu a bụ [[Morgan Ody]], onye na-emepụta akwụkwọ nri si Bretagne, France, otu (La Confédération paysanne na European Coordination Via Campesina (ECVC). === Ntinye aka nke ụmụ nwanyị === E leghaara nwoke na nwanyị anya dị ka ihe atụ na mmalite nke mmegharị ahụ. Mgbe a bịanyere aka na Nkwupụta Managua - onye bu ụzọ na La Vía Campesina - mmadụ asatọ niile nọ ebe ahụ bụ ụmụ nwoke.<ref name=":6"/> Ụmụ nwanyị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo malitere itinye aka ma na'ịgba mbọ maka ikike ụmụ nwanyị n'oge Nzukọ Mba Nile na Tlaxcala na 1996.<ref name=":6" /> Na nzukọ a, ha kpebiri ịmepụta kọmitii raara onwe ya nye ikike ụmụ nwanyị na nsogbu okike, nke mesịrị ghọọ Kọmiti Ụmụ nwanyị nke Vía Campesina.<ref name=":6" /> Ụmụ nwanyị nọ na kọmitii ahụ tinyekwara aka nke ukwuu n'ịdezi atụmatụ nke ọnọdụ isi nkuku na ọbụbụeze nri nke e gosipụtara na World Food Summit na 1996.<ref name=":6" /> Ha gụnyere ahụike dị ka ihe atụ maka mmepụta nri na-enweghị agro-chemicals, yana mkpa ụmụ nwanyị itinye aka na mgbanwe iwu n'ihi na a na'egbochi ụmụ nwoke itinye akwụkwọ na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.<ref name=":6" /> Ụmụ nwanyị nke La Vía Campesina ka na-arụ ọrụ maka nnọchiteanya ka ukwuu na itinye aka nke ụmụ nwanyị ndị ọrụ ugbo, ọkachasị n'ọkwa ndị ndu. == Nnukwu nri == La Vía Campesina webatara ikike nke ọchịchị nri na Nzukọ nri ụwa na 1996 dị ka "ikike nke ndị mmadụ inwe nri ahụike na omenala kwesịrị ekwesị nke a na-emepụta site na ụzọ na-adigide na ikike ha ịkọwapụta nri na usoro ugbo nke ha."<ref name=":2"/> Okwu ahụ bụ "ọdịbendị kwesịrị ekwesị" na-egosi na nri dịnụ ma nwee ike ịnweta maka ndị mmadụ kwesịrị dabara na ọdịbendụ nke ndị na'eri ya. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ngwaahịa ọka wit a kwadoro na nke a na-ebubata agaghị adaba n'okpuru ụdị a n"ala ebe nri ọka bụ ihe ndabere nke nri ọdịnala. {| class="wikitable" !Okwu ! Ihe nlere anya ! Ọchịchị nri |- | Azụmaahịa | Azụmahịa efu na ihe niile | Nri na ọrụ ugbo ewepụghị na nkwekọrịta azụmahịa |- | Ihe kacha mkpa mmepụta | Agroexports | Nri maka ahịa mpaghara |- | Ọnụ ahịa ihe ubi | 'Ihe ahịa na-ekwu' (hapụ usoro ndị na-emepụta ma ọnụ ahịa ihe ọkụkụ dị ala yana ọnụ ahịa nri a na-atụghị anya ya emebibeghị) | Ọnụ ahịa ziri ezi nke na-ekpuchi ụgwọ ọrụ nke mmepụta ma na-enye ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị ọrụ ugbo aka ibi ndụ n'ụzọ nkwanye ùgwù |- | Ịnweta ahịa | Ịnweta ahịa ndị mba ọzọ | Ịnweta ahịa mpaghara; njedebe nke ịchụpụ ndị ọrụ ugbo site n'ahịa nke ha site n'ịzụ ahịa |- | Enyemaka | Ọ bụ ezie na amachibidoro n'ụwa nke atọ, a na-anabata ọtụtụ enyemaka na US na Europe, mana a na-akwụ ya naanị ndị ọrụ ugbo kacha ukwuu. | Enyemaka dị mma nke na-adịghị emebi obodo ndị ọzọ site na mkpofu (ya bụ inye naanị ndị ọrụ ugbo ezinụlọ maka ịzụ ahịa ozugbo, ọnụahịa / nkwado ego, nchekwa ala, ntụgharị gaa na ọrụ ugbo na-adigide, nyocha, wdg. ) |- | Nri | Isi ihe bụ ngwa ahịa; na omume, nke a pụtara edozi, nri mmeru nke jupụtara na abụba, shuga, nnukwu fructose ọka sirop na nsị nsị. | Ikike mmadụ: kpọmkwem, kwesịrị ịdị mma, na-edozi ahụ, dị ọnụ ala, dabara adaba na omenala, na emepụtara ya na mpaghara |- | Inwe ike imepụta | Nhọrọ maka ndị na-arụ ọrụ akụ na ụba | Ikike nke ndị ime obodo |- | Agụụ | N'ihi obere nrụpụta | Nsogbu nke ịnweta na nkesa n'ihi ịda ogbenye na ahaghị nhata |- | Nchekwa nri | Emezuru site na ibubata nri | Kachasị mma mgbe mmepụta nri dị n'aka ndị agụụ na-agụ, ma ọ bụ emepụtara na mpaghara |- | Ịchịkwa ihe ndị na-emepụta ihe (ala, mmiri, ọhịa) | Ahapụrụ onwe ya | N'okpuru ọchịchị obodo |- | Ịnweta ala | Site na ahịa | Site na mgbanwe agrarian |- | Mkpụrụ | Ngwa ahịa nwere ikike | Ihe nketa a na-ahụkarị nke mmadụ, nke obodo ime obodo na omenala na-atụkwasị obi; 'enweghị patent na ndụ' |- | Ime obodo kredit na itinye ego | Site na ụlọ akụ na ụlọ ọrụ nkeonwe | Site na ngalaba ọha, emebere iji kwado ọrụ ugbo ezinụlọ |- | Mkpofu | Ọ bụghị okwu | A ga-amachibidoro iwu |- | Naanị otu | Ọ bụghị okwu | Isi ihe kpatara ọtụtụ nsogbu |- | Mmepụta karịrị akarị | Enweghị ihe dị otú ahụ, site na nkọwa | Na-eme ka ọnụ ahịa ala na ndị ọrụ ugbo banye ịda ogbenye; anyị chọrọ atumatu njikwa ọkọnọ na US na EU |- | Nkà na ụzụ ọrụ ugbo | Ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, monoculture, Green Revolution, kemịkalụ kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ; na-eji GMOs | Agroecology, ọrụ ugbo na-adigide, enweghị GMOs |- | Ndị ọrụ ugbo | Anachronism, adịghị arụ ọrụ ga-apụ n'anya | Ndị na-echekwa omenala na germplasm ihe ọkụkụ; ndị na-elekọta ihe onwunwe na-arụpụta ihe; ebe nchekwa ihe ọmụma; ihe nrịbama n'ime na ngọngọ ụlọ nke mmepe akụ na ụba gbadoro ụkwụ na nke gụnyere |- | Ndị ahịa obodo | A ga-akwụ ndị ọrụ ụgwọ obere ka enwere ike | Achọrọ ụgwọ ọrụ ndụ |- | Ihe dị ndụ gbanwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa (GMOs) | Ebili nke ọdịnihu | Ihe ọjọọ maka ahụike na gburugburu ebe obibi; teknụzụ na-enweghị isi |- | colspan="3" | '''Isi mmalite:''' Rosset (2003) <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Rosset|first=Peter|date=2003|title=Food sovereignty: Global rally cry of farmer movements|journal=Food First Backgrounder|volume=9|issue=4|pages=1–4}}</ref> |} === Nchịkwa nri vs. nchekwa nri === Nchịkwa nri dị iche na nchekwa nri. A kọwapụtara nchekwa nri dị ka "nweta anụ ahụ, mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, na akụ na ụba maka nri zuru oke, dị nchebe, ma na-edozi ahụ... n'oge niile iji zute nri na nri [ndị mmadụ] họọrọ maka ndụ dị mma ma dị ndụ" site n" nke D. Moyo na nzukọ kwa afọ nke American Society of International Law na 2007. Nchebe nri na-elekwasị anya n'inye nri maka mmadụ niile site n"ụzọ ọ bụla dị mkpa, ma ọ bụ site na mmepụta mpaghara maọ bụ mbubata ụwa. N'ihi ya, iwu akụ na ụba metụtara nchekwa nri na-emekarị ka ọrụ ugbo nke nwere ike ịmepụta nri dị ọnụ ala.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Efficacy of a Program Promoting Rice Self-Sufficiency in Ghana during a Period of Neoliberalism|author=Glenna|first=Leland|date=2012|journal=Rural Sociology|doi=10.1111/j.1549-0831.2012.00088.x|volume=77|issue=4|pages=520–546}}</ref> === Usoro nri === Friedmann na-akọwa usoro nri dị ka usoro na'okpuru iwu nke mmepụta na oriri nke nri n'ụwa niile.<ref name=":4" /> A na-eji oge mgbanwe na mmepụta nri nke na'ihi mgbanwe dị ịrịba ama na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, na akụ na ụba mara ọchịchị nri.<ref name=":4" /> Enwere ike ịkpọ ọnọdụ dị ugbu a nke mmepụta nri zuru ụwa ọnụ "usoro nri ụlọ ọrụ" n'ihi oke nke inye na nhazi nri na ngalaba onwe.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Alternative Agriculture Network Isan and Its Struggle for Food Sovereignty - a Food Regime Perspective of Agricultural Relations of Production in Northeast Thailand|author=Heis|first=Alexandria|date=2015|journal=Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies|volume=8|issue=1|pages=67–85}}</ref> Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ụlọ ọrụ US nwere ikike ịchịkwa mmepụta nri site na ịnye ndị ọrụ ugbo obere, nke na-enye ha ohere isonye na uru na enweghị ihe ize ndụ nke ọrụ ubi, dị ka ihu igwe na ọrịa.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/64c9ca46427daa4092c1a0f5d63606a68fd88cd1|title=International Agrarian Restructuring and the Practical Ethics of Peasant Movement Solidarity|author=Patel|first=Rajeev|date=2006|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|doi=10.1177/0021909606061748|volume=41|issue=1–2|pages=71–93}}</ref> Usoro nri bụ nsonaazụ nke ọgụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'etiti ndị otu na-ese okwu maka ịchịkwa otu esi emepụta nri na echiche, dị ka McMichael si kwuo.<ref name=":4" /> Ọchịchị nri ụlọ ọrụ malitere na echiche akụ na ụba neoliberal nke na-akpali site na arụmọrụ na nnwere onwe azụmahịa, ma kwuo na mba kwesịrị ilekwasị anya na mgbalị na akụ ha na mmepụta ngwaahịa na ọrụ ebe ha nwere uru karịa mba ndị ọzọ (ya bụ, ngwaahịa ha kacha mma na imepụta), dịka Philip McMichael kwuru.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|author=McMichael|first=Philip|year=2009|title=A food regime genealogy|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/6d4d15d2caa44236e81e6542116e1c75c46986a4|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=36|issue=1|pages=139–169|doi=10.1080/03066150902820354}}</ref> Usoro nri ụlọ ọrụ adịla naanị maka afọ 100 gara aga, ma e jiri ya tụnyere puku afọ tupu mmepụta ihe na Green Revolution.<ref name=":4" /> == Hụkwa == * [[Mgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi]] * Ngagharị nke ndị ọrụ ugbo * [[Nkwupụta United Nations Banyere Ihe Ndị Ruuru Ndị Ọrụ Ugbo|Nkwupụta UN Banyere Ihe Ndị Ruuru Ndị Ọrụ Ugbo]] * Afọ Iri nke Ọrụ Ugbo Ezinụlọ nke Mba Ndị Dị n'Otu * Iwu ọrụ ugbo * Mweghachi nke agroecological * Ịlaghachi n'ala * Ọrụ ugbo ezinụlọ * Nri obodo * General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) * Òtù Azụmaahịa Ụwa (WTO) * Nkwekọrịta WTO maka Ọrụ Ugbo * Nkwekọrịta TRIPS nke WTO * National Farmers Union na [[Kánada|Canada]] * Abahlali baseMjondolo na South Africa * Kọmitii Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh na [[Ndia|India]] * Sindicato Labrego Galego-Comisións Labregas na [[Galisa|Galicia]]. * EZLN na [[Mézíkọ|Mexico]] * Fanmi Lavalas na Haiti * Ezigbo Njem Nri * Nyéléni * Òtù Ndị Ọrụ Na-enweghị Ebe Obibi na [[Brazil]] * Òtù Ndị Na-enweghị Ala na South Africa * Òtù Ndị Ọrụ Na-enweghị Ala na Brazil * Movement for Justice na el Barrio na [[Njikọ̀taọ̀hà|United States]] of America * Narmada Bachao Andolan na India * Wepụ Ala na United States of America * Mgbalị Mmegide Ịchụpụ Ndị Dị na Western Cape na South Africa * Njikọ Ndị Ọrụ Ugbo Indonesia na Indonesia * Agroecology * Elizabeth Mpofu * Guy Kastler * José Bové == Edensibia == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * Nchịkwa Nri, Manifesto maka Ọdịnihu nke Ụwa Anyị La Via Campesina, "[https://viacampesina.org/en/food-sovereignty-a-manifesto-for-the-future-of-our-planet-la-via-campesina/ Afọ iri abụọ na ise nke Mgbalị] Nkwekọrịta Maka Nwe Nchebe Nlekọta Nọọ", La via Camposina Website, 2021 * {{Cite journal|author=Desmarais|first=Annette Aurélie|year=2002|title=Vía Campesina: Consolidating an International Peasant Movement|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies|volume=29|issue=2|pages=91–124|doi=10.1080/714003943}} * Martínez-Torres, María Elena, na Peter M. Rosset, "La Vía Campesina: ọmụmụ na evolushọn nke mmegharị mmekọrịta mba na mba", Journal of Peasant Studies, 2010 == Njikọ mpụga == * Vía Campesina Home page nke asụsụ Bekee * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170727063419/https://tv.viacampesina.org/We-are-la-Via-Campesina-776 Anyị bụ La] Vía Campesina vidiyo nke ngosi * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220420044424/https://viacampesina.org/en/member-organisations-of-la-via-campesina-updated-2018/ Ndepụta nke ndị otu] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181012165109/https://viacampesina.net/downloads/PDF/EN-3.pdf Nkwupụta nke Ikike nke Ndị Ọrụ Ugbo - Ụmụ nwanyị na Ụmụ nwoke] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404121819/http://www.viacampesina.org/downloads/pdf/policydocuments/POLICYDOCUMENTS-EN-FINAL.pdf Akwụkwọ Iwu nke Via Campesina] * International Nyeleni Newsletter, olu nke Food Sovereignty movement, nke Vía Campesina na-etinye aka na '''ya''' * [https://viacampesina.org/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2021/12/LVC-EN-Brochure-2021-03F.pdf Akwụkwọ mpịakọta nke 2021] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090513054334/http://www.waronwant.org/overseas-work/food-justice/via-campesina Agha na Want's Vía Campesina project page] * Vía Campesina: otu transnational social movement na-agbanwe agbanwe na ebe nrụọrụ weebụ nke Transnationale Institute * [http://www.democracynow.org/2010/12/8/thousands_march_in_cancn_at_la Ọtụtụ puku ndị na-agagharị na Cancún na La] Vía Campesina "Ụbọchị Omume Ụwa maka Ikpe Ziri Ezi", akụkọ vidiyo nke Democracy Now! [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 1znjwdf1twu0o5pt6hy0iv10ak8ibiv Ilu 1 0 28062 687981 209198 2026-07-13T20:06:01Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687981 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Title page of the Book of Proverbs, chapter 1, vv.1, Bible, Ghazar Barbedtsi, Isfahan (Iran), 1661-1662.jpg|thumb|Ilu 1]]   Ilu 1 bụ isi nke mbụ nke Akwụkwọ Ilu na Akwụkwọ Nsọ Hibru ma ọ bụ Agba Ochie nke Akwụkwọ Nsọ Ndị Kraịst. [1] [1] Akwụkwọ a bụ nchịkọta nke ọtụtụ nchịkọta akwụkwọ amamihe, nke isiokwu ya na 1: 1 nwere ike bu n'obi were Solomon dị ka onye edemede ọdịnala nke akwụkwọ ahụ dum, mana ụbọchị nchịkọta nke onye ọ bụla siri ike ịchọpụta, ma eleghị anya akwụkwọ ahụ nwetara ọdịdị ikpeazụ ya n'oge oge ndọrọ n'agha gasịrị. [3] Isiakwụkwọ a bụ akụkụ nke nchịkọta mbụ nke akwụkwọ ahụ. == Ihe odide == === Asụsụ Hibru === Tebụl na-esonụ na-egosi ihe odide Hibru [2] [3] nke Ilu 1 nwere ụdaume n'akụkụ nsụgharị Bekee nke dabeere na nsụgharị JPS 1917 (ugbu a n'ógbè ọha). {| class="wikitable" !Verse !Hebrew !English translation (JPS 1917) |- | style="text-align:right" |1 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|מִ֭שְׁלֵי שְׁלֹמֹ֣ה בֶן־דָּוִ֑ד מֶ֝֗לֶךְ יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃}}}} |Ilu Sọlọmọn nwa Devid, bụ́ eze Izrel; |- | style="text-align:right" |2 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|לָדַ֣עַת חׇכְמָ֣ה וּמוּסָ֑ר לְ֝הָבִ֗ין אִמְרֵ֥י בִינָֽה׃}}}} |Imara amam-ihe na idọ-aka-na-nti; Ighọta okwu nile nke nghọta; |- | style="text-align:right" |3 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|לָ֭קַחַת מוּסַ֣ר הַשְׂכֵּ֑ל צֶ֥דֶק וּ֝מִשְׁפָּ֗ט וּמֵשָׁרִֽים׃}}}} |Inata ịdọ aka ná ntị nke amamihe, ikpe ziri ezi, na ezi omume, na izi ezi; |- | style="text-align:right" |4 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|לָתֵ֣ת לִפְתָאיִ֣ם עׇרְמָ֑ה לְ֝נַ֗עַר דַּ֣עַת וּמְזִמָּֽה׃}}}} |lnye onye nēnweghi uche nghọta, Nye nwa-okorọbia ihe-ọmuma na ezi uche; |- | style="text-align:right" |5 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|יִשְׁמַ֣ע חָ֭כָם וְי֣וֹסֶף לֶ֑קַח וְ֝נָב֗וֹן תַּחְבֻּל֥וֹת יִקְנֶֽה׃}}}} | Ka onye mara ihe we nu, ba kwa uba n'akwukwọ, Ka onye-nghọta we nweta ndum-ọdu nile nke ama |- | style="text-align:right" |6 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|לְהָבִ֣ין מָ֭שָׁל וּמְלִיצָ֑ה דִּבְרֵ֥י חֲ֝כָמִ֗ים וְחִידֹתָֽם׃}}}} |Ighọta ilu, na ihe-ọtùtù; Okwu nile nke ndi mara ihe, na okwu-ugha nile ha. |- | style="text-align:right" |7 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|יִרְאַ֣ת יְ֭הֹוָה רֵאשִׁ֣ית דָּ֑עַת חׇכְמָ֥ה וּ֝מוּסָ֗ר אֱוִילִ֥ים בָּֽזוּ׃}}}} |Nmalite ihe-ọmuma ka egwu Jehova bu; Ma onye-nzuzu nāju amam-ihe na idọ-aka-na-nti; |- | style="text-align:right" |8 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|שְׁמַ֣ע בְּ֭נִי מוּסַ֣ר אָבִ֑יךָ וְאַל־תִּ֝טֹּ֗שׁ תּוֹרַ֥ת אִמֶּֽךָ׃}}}} |Nuru, nwam, ntụziaka nna-gi, ahapụkwala ozizi nne-gi; |- | style="text-align:right" |9 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כִּ֤י ׀ לִוְיַ֤ת חֵ֓ן הֵ֬ם לְרֹאשֶׁ֑ךָ וַ֝עֲנָקִ֗ים לְגַרְגְּרֹתֶֽךָ׃}}}} |N'ihi na ha gāghọ-kwa-ra isi-gi ihe-iriba-ama-ọma, Na iyab͕a n'olu-gi. |- | style="text-align:right" |10 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּנִ֡י אִם־יְפַתּ֥וּךָ חַ֝טָּאִ֗ים אַל־תֹּבֵֽא׃}}}} |Nwam nwoke, ọ buru na ndi-nmehie rata gi, ekwela. |- | style="text-align:right" |11 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|אִם־יֹאמְרוּ֮ לְכָ֢ה אִ֫תָּ֥נוּ נֶאֶרְבָ֥ה לְדָ֑ם נִצְפְּנָ֖ה לְנָקִ֣י חִנָּֽם׃}}}} |Ọ buru na ha asi, Soro ayi bia, Ka ayi chebiri ọbara, Ka ayi zochiere ndi nēmeghi ihe ọjọ n'efu; |- | style="text-align:right" |12 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|נִ֭בְלָעֵם כִּשְׁא֣וֹל חַיִּ֑ים וּ֝תְמִימִ֗ים כְּי֣וֹרְדֵי בֽוֹר׃}}}} |Ka ayi loda ha na ndu dika ala-mọ, na zuru okè, dika ndi nārida n'olùlù; |- | style="text-align:right" |13 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כׇּל־ה֣וֹן יָקָ֣ר נִמְצָ֑א נְמַלֵּ֖א בָתֵּ֣ינוּ שָׁלָֽל׃}}}} |Ayi gāchọta àkù nile di oké ọnu-ahia, Ayi gēju ulo-ayi ihe-nkwata; |- | style="text-align:right" |14 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|גּ֭וֹרָ֣לְךָ תַּפִּ֣יל בְּתוֹכֵ֑נוּ כִּ֥יס אֶ֝חָ֗ד יִהְיֶ֥ה לְכֻלָּֽנוּ׃}}}} |Tubà n'ife-nzà-gi n'etiti ayi; Ka anyị niile nwee otu akpa'- |- | style="text-align:right" |15 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּנִ֗י אַל־תֵּלֵ֣ךְ בְּדֶ֣רֶךְ אִתָּ֑ם מְנַ֥ע רַ֝גְלְךָ֗ מִנְּתִיבָתָֽם׃}}}} |Nwam, gi na ha gēje ije n'uzọ, b͕ochie ukwu-gi n'uzọ-ha; |- | style="text-align:right" |16 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כִּ֣י רַ֭גְלֵיהֶם לָרַ֣ע יָר֑וּצוּ וִ֝ימַהֲר֗וּ לִשְׁפׇּךְ־דָּֽם׃}}}} |N'ihi na ukwu-ha nāb͕a ọsọ ime ihe ọjọ, Ha nēme kwa ngwa iwusi ọbara. |- | style="text-align:right" |17 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כִּֽי־חִ֭נָּם מְזֹרָ֣ה הָרָ֑שֶׁת בְּ֝עֵינֵ֗י כׇּל־בַּ֥עַל כָּנָֽף׃}}}} |N'ihi na n'efu ka ab͕asaworo ub͕u n'anya nnunu ọ bula; |- | style="text-align:right" |18 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|וְ֭הֵם לְדָמָ֣ם יֶאֱרֹ֑בוּ יִ֝צְפְּנ֗וּ לְנַפְשֹׁתָֽם׃}}}} |Ma ndia nēchere ọbara nke aka ha, ha nēchebe nye ndu-ha. |- | style="text-align:right" |19 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כֵּ֗ן אׇ֭רְחוֹת כׇּל־בֹּ֣צֵֽעַ בָּ֑צַע אֶת־נֶ֖פֶשׁ בְּעָלָ֣יו יִקָּֽח׃}}}} |Otú a ka uzọ nile nke onye ọ bula nke nwere anya-uku nke urù di; ọ nēwepu ndu ndi-nwe-ya. |- | style="text-align:right" |20 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|חׇ֭כְמוֹת בַּח֣וּץ תָּרֹ֑נָּה בָּ֝רְחֹב֗וֹת תִּתֵּ֥ן קוֹלָֽהּ׃}}}} |Amam-ihe nētisi nkpu n'amá, ọ nēkwu kwa olu-ya n'amá nile; |- | style="text-align:right" |21 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּרֹ֥אשׁ הֹמִיּ֗וֹת תִּ֫קְרָ֥א בְּפִתְחֵ֖י שְׁעָרִ֥ים בָּעִ֗יר אֲמָרֶ֥יהָ תֹאמֵֽר׃}}}} |Ọ nākpọ òkù n'isi èzí nile nke nkpọtu, n'oghere ọnu-uzọ-ama nile, n'obodo, ka ọ nēkwu okwu-ya: |- | style="text-align:right" |22 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|עַד־מָתַ֣י ׀ פְּתָיִם֮ תְּֽאֵהֲב֫וּ־פֶ֥תִי וְלֵצִ֗ים לָ֭צוֹן חָמְד֣וּ לָהֶ֑ם וּ֝כְסִילִ֗ים יִשְׂנְאוּ־דָֽעַת׃}}}} |Rùe ole mb͕e, ndi nēnweghi uche, ka unu gāhu uche-ha n'anya n'anya? Rùe ole mb͕e ka ndi nākwa emò gātọ kwa ha utọ n'ikwa-iko, na ndi-nzuzu gākpọ kwa ihe-ọmuma asì? |- | style="text-align:right" |23 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|תָּשׁ֗וּבוּ לְֽת֫וֹכַחְתִּ֥י הִנֵּ֤ה אַבִּ֣יעָה לָכֶ֣ם רוּחִ֑י אוֹדִ֖יעָה דְבָרַ֣י אֶתְכֶֽם׃}}}} |chigharia n'iba-nbam; le, M'gāwukwasi unu mọm, M'gēme ka unu mara okwum nile. |- | style="text-align:right" |24 | style="text-align:right" | |N'ihi na akpọwom òkù, ma unu aju, esetiwom akam, ma ọ dighi onye nāṅa nti; |- | style="text-align:right" |25 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|וַתִּפְרְע֥וּ כׇל־עֲצָתִ֑י וְ֝תוֹכַחְתִּ֗י לֹ֣א אֲבִיתֶֽם׃}}}} |Ma unu onwe-unu eledawo ndum-ọdum nile anya, ma unu ekweghi kwa iba-nbam nile; |- | style="text-align:right" |26 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|גַּם־אֲ֭נִי בְּאֵידְכֶ֣ם אֶשְׂחָ֑ק אֶ֝לְעַ֗ג בְּבֹ֣א פַחְדְּכֶֽם׃}}}} |Mu onwem kwa, na nhuju-anya-unu, gāchì ọchì, M'gākwa emò mb͕e ujọ-unu gābia; |- | style="text-align:right" |27 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּבֹ֤א (כשאוה) [כְשׁוֹאָ֨ה ׀] פַּחְדְּכֶ֗ם וְֽ֭אֵידְכֶם כְּסוּפָ֣ה יֶאֱתֶ֑ה בְּבֹ֥א עֲ֝לֵיכֶ֗ם צָרָ֥ה וְצוּקָֽה׃}}}} |Mb͕e oké egwu-unu nābia dika oké ifufe, Ma nhuju-anya-unu nābia dika oké ifufe; Mgbe nsogbu na nsogbu bịakwasịrị gị. |- | style="text-align:right" |28 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|אָ֣ז יִ֭קְרָאֻנְנִי וְלֹ֣א אֶעֱנֶ֑ה יְ֝שַׁחֲרֻ֗נְנִי וְלֹ֣א יִמְצָאֻֽנְנִי׃}}}} |Mb͕e ahu ka ha gākpọm, ma m'gaghi-aza, ha gāchọsikwam ike, ma ha agaghi-achọtam. |- | style="text-align:right" |29 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|תַּ֭חַת כִּֽי־שָׂ֣נְאוּ דָ֑עַת וְיִרְאַ֥ת יְ֝הֹוָ֗ה לֹ֣א בָחָֽרוּ׃}}}} |N'ihi na ha kpọrọ ihe-ọmuma asì, ma ha arọputaghi egwu Jehova; |- | style="text-align:right" |30 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|לֹא־אָב֥וּ לַעֲצָתִ֑י נָ֝אֲצ֗וּ כׇּל־תּוֹכַחְתִּֽי׃}}}} |Ha anabataghi ndum-ọdum nile, Ha ledara iba-nbam nile anya. |- | style="text-align:right" |31 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|וְֽ֭יֹאכְלוּ מִפְּרִ֣י דַרְכָּ֑ם וּֽמִמֹּעֲצֹ֖תֵיהֶ֣ם יִשְׂבָּֽעוּ׃}}}} |N'ihi nka ka ha gēri ufọdu nime nkpuru nke uzọ-ha, afọ ju kwa ha n'èzù nke aka ha. |- | style="text-align:right" |32 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|כִּ֤י מְשׁוּבַ֣ת פְּתָיִ֣ם תַּהַרְגֵ֑ם וְשַׁלְוַ֖ת כְּסִילִ֣ים תְּאַבְּדֵֽם׃}}}} |N'ihi na nmehie-ha nke ndi nēnweghi uche gētib͕u ha, ntukwasi-obi nke ndi-nzuzu gēbipu kwa ha. |- | style="text-align:right" |33 | style="text-align:right" |<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />{{Lang|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|וְשֹׁמֵ֣עַֽ לִ֭י יִשְׁכׇּן־בֶּ֑טַח וְ֝שַׁאֲנַ֗ן מִפַּ֥חַד רָעָֽה׃}}}} |Ma onye ọ bula nke nāgem nti gēbi na ntukwasi-obi, we di jū, nātughi kwa egwu ihe ọjọ. |} === Ndị akaebe ederede === Ụfọdụ ihe odide ndị mbụ nwere ihe odide nke isiakwụkwọ a n’asụsụ Hibru bụ nke ihe odide Masoret, bụ́ nke gụnyere Codex Aleppo (narị afọ nke 10), na Codex Leningradensis (1008). [7] A chọtara iberibe akwụkwọ ndị nwere akụkụ nke isiakwụkwọ a n'asụsụ Hibru n'etiti Akwụkwọ Mpịakọta Osimiri Nwụrụ Anwụ gụnyere 4Q102 (4QProvª; 30 TOA - 30 OA) nwere amaokwu 27-33. E nwekwara nsụgharị n'asụsụ Grik Koine nke a maara dị ka Septuagint, nke e mere na narị afọ ole na ole gara aga BC; ụfọdụ ihe odide ochie ochie nke nsụgharị a gụnyere Codex Vaticanus (B; GB; narị afọ nke anọ), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: GS; narị afọ nke anọ), na Codex Alexandrinus (A; GA; narị afọ nke ise). == Nnyocha == Isiakwụkwọ a meghere otu akụkụ a na-ewere dị ka nchịkọta mbụ n’akwụkwọ Ilu (nke gụnyere Ilu 1-9), nke a maara dị ka “okwu ndị Didactic” [3] The Jerusalem Bible na-akọwa isi nke 1-9 dị ka okwu mmalite nke isi 10-22:16, bụ́ ihe a na-akpọ “Ilu [n’ezie] nke Sọlọmọn”, dị ka “ahụ́ nke akwụkwọ ahụ n’isi 3] [6] na-esonụ. * Okwu Mmalite (1:1-7) * Zere Ndị Ọjọọ (1:8-19) * Okwu Mbụ nke Amamihe (1:20-33) == Okwu Mmalite (1:1-7) == Nkebi a na-enye nzube na uru nke akwụkwọ ahụ dum, karịsịa ihe ndabere nke ozizi ya. [3] E depụtara nkebi ahịrịokwu ise nke nchịkọta ilu n'ozuzu ya n'amaokwu 1:2a, 2b, 3a, 4a, 6a nke ngalaba mmalite. [7] === Amaokwu 1 ===   Ilu Sọlọmọn, nwa Devid, bụ́ eze Izrel: —Ilu 1:1, Ụkpụrụ BekeeỤdị [15] * "Ilu": site n'aha Hibru משל mashal, nwere ike na-ezo aka "ihe mmụta nke dabeere ma ọ bụ iji ntụnyere ma ọ bụ ntụnyere", nwekwara ike ịbụ "okwu pithy dị mkpirikpi" (Ezikiel 16:44), "ihe mmụta nke e nwetara site ahụmahụ" (Abụ Ọma 78:2-6), "okwu ma ọ bụ site n'okwu" (Deuterọnọmi 28:37), ог "n'ọdịnihu" 18:19 . * “Ilu Solomọn”: nkebi ahịrịokwu a na-ewere aha nke akwụkwọ dum, ọ bụ ezie na ọ pụtaghị na Solomọn dere ma ọ bụ chikọta ilu nile dị n’akwụkwọ a, n’ihi na akụkụ ụfọdụ bụ nchịkọta ndị bu aha dị iche iche ndị edemede, dị ka “okwu ndị maara ihe” ( Ilu 22:17-24:22 ), “okwu ndị ọzọ nke ndị maara ihe” ( Ilu 3-34 ): 30:1-33) na “okwu Lemuel” (Ilu 31:1-9). [9] Akwụkwọ ahụ nwere ike ọ gaghị adị n’ụdị akwụkwọ nsọ ikpeazụ ya n’oge Solomọn, n’ihi na e nwere ihe e dere n’ime ya na “ndị Hezekaịa” gbakwunyere nchịkọta nke ilu Solomọn n’ụdị akwụkwọ ahụ dị adị ( Ilu 25:1-29:27 ). === Amaokwu nke 2 ===   Imara amam-ihe na idọ-aka-na-nti; ka ha ghọta okwu nghọta; Ilu 1:2, Eze Jems Ụdị Ịmara" site na ngwaa Hibru stative, nke nwere ike ịpụta "ịmata" ma ọ bụ "ịmara ihe na ya". [10] “Amamihe” sitere n’aha Hibru חָכְמָה khokhmah, nke pụtara ‘nkà, ikike’ na a pụrụ ime ka ọ ghọgbuo “nkà omume.”[3] [11] Okwu ahụ na-ezo aka na “nkà” nke na-arụpụta ihe bara uru, dị ka nkà aka nke ndị omenkà (Ọpụpụ 31:6;[12] 35:04 ), nke Aịsaịa 35:04 ; ndị na-akwọ ụgbọ mmiri (Abụ Ọma 107:27; [13] Ezikiel 27:8 ), ikike nke ndị na-akpa ákwà (Ọpụpụ 35:26), [14] ma ọ bụ ikike nke ndị ọchịchị (1 Ndị Eze 3:28) [3] [11] Deuterọnọmi 4:6[15] na-ezo aka n'ụkpụrụ na iwu Chineke nyere dị ka amamihe Israel. [11] Ịmụ banyere amamihe pụtara 'ịbụ onye a kwadebere na nkà ndị dị mkpa iji bie ezigbo ndụ na ihe ịga nke ọma'. [3] Ntụziaka”: Aha ahụ מוסר, musar, nke nwere ihe ọ pụtara ụzọ atọ: (1) nke anụ ahụ ma ọ bụ nke nne na nna: “ịdọ aka ná ntị; ntaramahụhụ” (gụnyere nke ahụ sitere n’aka Chineke) (2) ọnụ: “ịdọ aka ná ntị; agbamume” na (3) omume: “ọzụzụ; ntụziaka”, [16] dị ka e nwetara n’okpuru ikike nke (4c: f1 f. . f. [3] Ejikọtara okwu a na “amamihe” (khokhmah) ugboro anọ n'akwụkwọ (Ilu 1:2, 7; 15:33, [17] 23:23). [18] === Amaokwu nke 7 ===   Nmalite ihe-ọmuma ka egwu Jehova bu: Ma ndi-nzuzu nāju amam-ihe na idọ-aka-na-nti. — Ilu 1:7 , Eze Jems Ụdị Egwu Jehova": site na nkebi ahịrịokwu Hibru יִרְאַת יְהוָהyirat YHWH, ya na " YHWH" ("Onyenwe anyị") n'ụdị ebumnobi ebumnobi, dị ka ihe nke "egwu na ihe ijuanya". [19] Okwu a na-agụnye ma nsọpụrụ Chineke (cf. Isaiah 8:13) na nrubeisi nye ya (cf. Diuterọnọmi 10:12-13; Eklisiastis 12:13); ekwuputara ebea dika ihe achoro ezi amamihe site na ikwughachi ya na 9:10 dika ntinye akwukwo maka ngalaba nke nwere Ilu 1-9, na-etolite isi okwu nke akwukwo ahu. [30] “Ụjọ”: site n’okwu Hibru bụ́ יִרְאָה yirah, sitere na mgbọrọgwụ יָרֵא yare, nke nwere ihe ọ pụtara ụzọ atọ: (1) “na-atụ egwu ma ọ bụ ịtụ ụjọ” (Deuterọnọmi 1:29; Jona 1:10), (2) “ịtụ egwu” (1 Ndị Eze 3:2) 19:3); ihe ndị a nile pụtara na Ọpụpụ 20:20 . [19] “Mmalite” pụrụ ịpụta ụzọ n’usoro (Jenesis 1:1; Abụ Ọma 111:10; Ilu 17:14; Maịka 1:13), ma ọ bụ mkpa (Ilu 4:7; Emọs 6:1), ma ọ bụ ‘akụkụ kasị mma’ ( Emọs 6:6 ). == Izere ndị ajọ mmadụ (1:8-19) == Nkebi a nwere nke mbụ n’ime ọtụtụ ntụziaka “nna nyere nwa ya nwoke” n’ime akwụkwọ Ilu. [30] Njirimara ntuziaka ndị a bụ: * arịrịọ maka ịṅa ntị (cf. amaokwu 8); * ntuziaka ahụ ekwuputara dịka iwu ma ọ bụ mmachibido (cf. amaokwu 10b, 15), na * Nkejiokwu mkpali irube isi na ntuziaka ahụ (cf. amaokwu 9, 16-19). N’adịghị ka omume a na-emekarị n’ụlọ akwụkwọ amamihe nke Ijipt na Babilọn, bụ́ nke nwere usoro ntụziaka yiri nke ahụ site n’aka onye nkụzi nye ụmụ akwụkwọ, nkwekọ dị n’etiti nna na nne (n’amaokwu nke 8) na-egosi na ntụziaka ndị dị n’akwụkwọ Ilu pụrụ inwe usoro ntụziaka nke ndị nne na nna n’ụlọ. [30] Ọ bụ ezie na ọ na-enye ihe ncheta mgbe nile banyere ikike nne na nna, akụkụ okwu mkpali ndị ahụ na-adọrọ mmasị mmadụ n'ezi uche karịa ọrụ irubere ndị nne na nna isi. [30] === Amaokwu nke 8 ===   Nwam, nuru idọ-aka-na-nti nke nna-gi, arapu-kwa-la iwu nne-gi. Ụdị mkpesa a, nwa m nwoke, "a na-aga n'ihu na-aga n'ihu n'isiakwụkwọ mmeghe ndị a". [21] Rashi onye France nke oge ochie tụrụ aro na "nna" na-ezo aka na Chineke, nna nke mmadụ, na "ntụziaka" ma ọ bụ "ịdọ aka ná ntị" pụtara iwu nke Chineke "nyere Moses n'akwụkwọ na n'ọnụ". N’otu aka ahụ, ọ tụrụ aro ka “nne” pụtara “mba gị, mba Izrel”. [22] Ọkà mmụta okpukpe John Gill na-agbagha nke a: Nke a abụghị ihe a ga-aghọta n’ebe Chineke bụ Nna nke mmadụ, na iwu ahụ o nyeworo ha, dị ka Jarchi (Rashi) na Gersomlal si kọwaa ya, kama ọ bụ banyere Solomọn na nwa ya nwoke n’ụzọ nkịtị; na nke onye ọ bụla nke bịakwutere ya maka ntụziaka, nwa akwụkwọ ọ bụla, onye na-anụ ihe ma ọ bụ onye na-agụ ya; ma ọ bụ ntụzi-aka nye ụmụ-ntakịrị nile ka ha n̄a nti n’iwu nke ndị mụrụ ha, ma rube isi n’iwu ha nile. == Okwu mbụ nke amamihe (1:20-33) == N'amaokwu a ka e kwuru amamihe dị ka nwanyị, onye ji ikike dị nsọ na-ekwu okwu (ihe ndabere nke ikike a ka akọwara n'Ilu 8:22-31).[30] Ịjụ amamihe ga-apụta ịjụ “egwu Jehova” (amaokwu 29), a na-akọchakwa ya site n'asụsụ dị nso na ebubo amụma (cf. Aisaia 65:1-2,12; Jeremaịa 6:19). [30] N'aka nke ọzọ, ndị na-aṅa ntị n'amamihe ga-enweta nchebe na obi iru ala nke ndị na-aṅa ntị n'amamihe na-enweta (amaokwu 33; cf. Ilu 3:21-26). == Hụkwa == Ngọzi Ikpe Chineke Nkwanye nke Chukwu Ụwa Ihe ojoo Eluigwe Ogologo ndụ Ebere Mitzvah Udo Ezi omume Amamihe YHWH * Akụkụ [[Akwụkwọ Nsọ|Bible]] ndị metụtara ya: Ilu 2, Ilu 3, Ilu 9, Ilu 15 == Ihe edeturu == a. ↑ Ikekwe Gershom ben Juda, C. 960-1040 == Ihe odide == 1. ↑ Holman Illustrated Bible Handbook. Ndị nkwusa Bible Holman, Nashville, Tennessee. 2012. 2.1 "Ilu Isi nke 1". Mechon Mamre. 3.1 "Ilu 1-JPS 1917. Sefaria.org. 4. 1 Akwụkwọ mpịakọta oké osimiri nwụrụ anwụ - Ilu 5. 1 40102 na Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 6. 1 Jerusalem Bible (1966), Okwu Mmalite nke Ilu, p. 931 7. 1 Rịba ama [a] na Ilu 1:2 na NET Bible 8.1 Rịba ama [a] na Ilu 1:1 na NET Bible 9. 1 9.0 9.1 Rịba ama [b] na Ilu 1:1 na NET Bible. 10. 1 Tịm fiọk [b] ke Mme N̄ke 1:2 ke NET Bible 11. 1 11.0 11.1 11.2 Rịba ama [c] na Ilu 1: 2 na NET Bible 12. 1 Ọpụpụ 31:6 13. 1 Abụ Ọma 107:27 14. 1 Ọpụpụ 35:26 15. 1 Deuterọnọmi 4:6 16. 1 16.0 16.1 Rịba ama [d] na Ilu 1:2 na NET Bible. 17.1 Ilu 15:33 18. 1 Ilu 23:23 19. 1 19.0 19.1 Rịba ama [a] na Ilu 1:7 na NET Bible. 20.1 Rịba ama [b] na Ilu 1:7 na NET Bible 21. 1 Perowne, T. T. (1899), "Ilu", Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, Bible hub, 1, eweghachiri 29 Maachị 2021. 22.1 Rashi, Rashi na Ilu 1.8, enwetara 1 Eprel 2021 {{Reflist}} == Ebe e si nweta ya == * {{Cite book|author=Aitken|first=K. T.|chapter=19. Proverbs|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary|editor=Barton|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=first (paperback)|date=2007|pages=405–422|isbn=978-0199277186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJdVkgEACAAJ|accessdate=February 6, 2019}} * {{Cite book|author=Alter|first=Robert|title=The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes: A Translation with Commentary|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TujOn209Ts8C|isbn=978-0393080735}} * {{Cite book|author=Coogan|first=Michael David|authorlink=Michael D. Coogan|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version, Issue 48|editor=Coogan|edition=Augmented 3rd|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780195288810|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmpMPgAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book|author=Farmer|first=Kathleen A.|chapter=The Wisdom Books|editor=McKenzie|title=The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owwhpmIVgSAC|isbn=978-0-66425652-4}} * {{Cite book|author=Fitzmyer|first=Joseph A.|authorlink=Joseph Fitzmyer|title=A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TILXeWJ2eNAC|year=2008|isbn=9780802862419|location=Grand Rapids, MI}} * {{Cite book|author=Fox|first=Michael V.|authorlink=Michael V. Fox|title=Proverbs 10-31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary|series=Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IJsciPDEWoC|isbn=978-0300155563}} * {{Cite book|author=Halley|first=Henry H.|authorlink=Henry Hampton Halley|title=Halley's Bible Handbook: an abbreviated Bible commentary|edition=24th (revised)|publisher=Zondervan Publishing House|date=1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsG4oLToI7oC|isbn=0-310-25720-4}} * {{Cite book|author=Perdue|first=Leo G.|authorlink=|title=Proverbs Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching|series=|publisher=Presbyterian Publishing Corporation|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uO0hE3D6I40C|isbn=978-0664238841}} * {{Cite book|editor=Ulrich|title=The Biblical Qumran Scrolls: Transcriptions and Textual Variants|year=2010|publisher=Brill|url=https://archive.org/details/TheBiblicalQumranScrolls}} * {{Cite book|author=Würthwein|first=Ernst|authorlink=Ernst Würthwein|title=The Text of the Old Testament|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, MI|year=1995|isbn=0-8028-0788-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSNKSBObCYwC|accessdate=January 26, 2019}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Nsụgharị [[Judaism|Ndị Juu]]: ** [https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16372 Mishlei - Ilu - Isi nke 1 (Judaica Press)] nsụgharị [na nkọwa Rashi] na Chabad.org * Nsụgharị [[Efefe Kraịst|Ndị Kraịst]]: ** Bible Online na GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=24&chapter=1&version=9 Akwụkwọ Ilu Isi nke 1 King James Version] * .org/search?title=Book+of+Proverbs&author=&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced" rel="mw:ExtLink nofollow">''Akwụkwọ Ilu'' ọha na eze na LibriVox Nsụgharị dị iche iche o52nax9unfxsyoew9xp0cf67htc7q1d Ilu 6 0 28064 687933 115299 2026-07-13T12:42:26Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687933 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Papyrus Bodmer VI fol. 16.jpg|thumb|Papyrus Bodmer nke ịlụ 6]] '''Ilu 6''' bụ isi nke isii nke Akwụkwọ Ilu na Bible Hibru ma ọ bụ Agba Ochie nke [[Akwụkwọ Nsọ|Bible]] [[Efefe Kraịst|Ndị Kraịst]]. [1]<ref name="Holman">Holman Illustrated Bible Handbook. Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, [[Tennessee| TN]]. 2012.</ref> Akwụkwọ ahụ bụ nchịkọta nke ọtụtụ nchịkọta akwụkwọ amamihe, nke nwere isi na 1:1 nwere ike ịbụ iji were Solomọn dị ka onye edemede ọdịnala nke akwụkwọ ahụ dum, mana ụbọchị nke nchịkọta ọ bụla siri ike ịchọpụta, ma eleghị anya akwụkwọ ahụ nwetara ọdịdị ikpeazụ n'oge ọpụpụ ya. [2] Nke a bụ akụkụ nke nchịkọta mbụ nke akwụkwọ ahụ. == Ihe odide == === Ndị na agba akaebe Ihe edere ede === Ụfọdụ ihe odide oge ochie nwere ederede nke isi a na Hibru bụ nke Masoretic Text, nke gụnyere Aleppo Codex (narị afọ nke iri), na Codex Leningradensis (1008). [1] E nwekwara nsụgharị n''''as'''ụsụ Koine Greek nke a maara dị ka Septuagint, nke e mere na narị afọ ole na ole gara aga BC; ụfọdụ ihe odide oge ochie nke nsụgharị a gụnyere Codex Vaticanus ('''B'''; B; narị afọ nke anọ), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: S; narị afọnke anọ), na Codex Alexandrinus (A; A; narị afọ na nke ise [1]).<math> \mathfrak{G}</math><math> \mathfrak{G}</math> == Nnyocha == Isiokwu a bụ nke a na-ewere dị ka nchịkọta mbụ n'akwụkwọ Ilu (nke gụnyere Ilu 1-9), nke a maara dị ka "Okwu nkuzi". [1] Jerusalem Bible na-akọwa isi 1-9 dị ka mmalite nke isi 10-22:16, ihe a na-akpọ "[ezi] [[Ilu 1|ilu]] nke Solomọn", dị ka "ahụ nke akwụkwọ ahụ".<ref>Jerusalem Bible (1966), ''Introduction to The Proverbs'', p. 931</ref> Ọdịdị nke isi na-agụnye ụfọdụ ndụmọdụ:<ref>Note [a] on Proverbs 6:1 in [[New English Translation|NET Bible]]</ref> # Ọ na-adụ ọdụ ka a tọhapụ ya n'ụgwọ nzuzu (1-5) # Ịdọ aka ná ntị izere ịdị umengwụ (6-8) # Ịdọ aka ná ntị banyere ihe ize ndụ nke ịda ogbenye (9-11) na aghụghọ (12-15), # Ndepụta na-eduzi nke Onyenwe anyị kpọrọ asị (16-19) # Ọ na-adọ aka ná ntị banyere omume rụrụ arụ (20-35). Akwukwo ohuru nke jemsi na-akpọ isi na ngalaba dị ka ndị a: * Nkwa Ndị Dị Iche Ndụ (amaokwu 1-5) * The Folly of Indolence (amaokwu 6-11) * Nwoke Ọjọọ (amaokwu 12-19) * Kpachara anya maka ịkwa iko (amaokwu 20-35) == Ido aka na nti nke ano (6:1-19) == Akụkụ a nwere okwu anọ dịgasị iche iche nke na-echetara okwu ilu dị na isi 10-31 karịa ntụziaka dị na isi 1-9: [1] # Ịdọ aka ná ntị megide ịrụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-agbachitere ụgwọ (amaokwu 1-5) # Ịdọ aka ná ntị megide ịdị umengwụ na ịgba ume ịdị uchu (amaokwu 6-11) # Ịdọ aka ná ntị banyere ihe ize ndụ nke onye na-eme ihe ọjọọ (amaokwu 12-15) # Ịdọ aka ná ntị banyere ihe Onyenwe anyị kpọrọ asị (amaokwu 16-19) Amaokwu 16-19 nwere okwu ọnụọgụ (cf. Ilu 30:15-31; Job 5:19; Amos 1:3-2:8) nke bara uru karịsịa ma dị ka ụzọ nkewa ma dị ka enyemaka maka iburu n'isi. [1] [2] Okwu ahụ depụtara 'ụdị dị iche iche nke ọrụ ọjọọ na nke na-akpaghasị site na nyocha nke ahụ na-adịghị mma': 'anya... ire... aka... obi' ụkwụ' (cf. Ilu 4:23-27), na mgbakwunye nke 'onye akaebe ụgha' na 'onye na-akpali esemokwu' iji mepụta omume ọjọọ asaa ahụ. [1] [2] === Amaokwu 1 === : ''Nwa m nwoke, ọ bụrụ na ị bụrụ onye nkwado maka enyi gị,'' : ''Ọ bụrụ na ị na-enye aka na nkwa maka onye ị na-amaghị'', * "Surety": ma ọ bụ "guaranty", "collateral" E nwere ọtụtụ ntụaka maka suretyship na Ilu, nke mbụ na-abịa ebe a (amaokwu 1-6).<ref>Note [a] on Proverbs 6:1 in NKJV</ref>  N'ihi ya, onye dere Ilu ahụ "enweghị otu akụkụ maka ya, mana ọ katọrọ ya n'ụzọ na-enweghị isi na mgbe ọ bụla a kpọtụrụ ya aha".<ref>Perowne, T. T., [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/proverbs/6.htm Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges: Proverbs 6], accessed 4 April 2021</ref> Ebe ndị ọzọ e zoro aka na ya bụ n'Iwu 11:15, 17:18, 20:16, 22:26 na 27:13.<ref>[[BibleGateway.com]], [https://classic.biblegateway.com/quicksearch/?qs_version=NKJV&quicksearch=surety&begin=24&end=24 Keyword Search: "surety" in Proverbs]</ref> * "Shaken": n'asụsụ Hibru n'ụzọ nkịtị "kụrụ" dịka na "kụrụ aka n'iyi" (NIV), ya bụ, ịmakụ aka na-egosi nkwa nke nkwa (dị ka Ilu 11:15; 17:18; 2 2:26, 2 Ndị Eze 10:15). [1]<ref>Note [f] on Proverbs 6:1 in NET Bible</ref> A ga-eyi onye na-amaghị ihe egwu ọ bụghị naanị '6agụụ' (cf.<ref>Note [b] on Proverbs 6:1 in NKJV</ref> == Ọnụ ego ikwa iko(6:20-35) == Akụkụ a na-elekwasị anya na ntụziaka iji chebe onwe ya pụọ na aghụghọ nke onye na-edina nwanyị, ọkachasị ebe a nke "nwaanyị lụrụ di". [1] Mmekọrịta ya na nwanyị ahụ na-akwa iko ga-efu nnukwu ego, 'ndụ nwoke', dịka di na-ekwo ekworo ma na-ewe iwe ga-achọ ịbọ ọbọ ma chọọ ọnụahịa dị elu karịa ego (amaokwu 34-35). [2] : ''Gbakọta ha n'obi gị mgbe niile'', :: ''ma kee ha n'olu gị''. * "Bụchie ha": ihe na-ezo aka na Deuterọnọmi 6:6-8 (cf.<ref>Note [a] on Proverbs 6:21 in [[New English Translation|NET Bible]]</ref> === Amaokwu 22 === : Mgbe ị na-aga ije, ndụmọdụ ha ga-eduga gị. :: ''Mgbe ị na-ehi ụra, ha ga-echebe gị.'' :: Mgbe ị tetara, ha ga-adụ gị ọdụ. === Amaokwu 23 === : ''N'ihi na dị ka oriọna bụ iwu, na ntụziaka bụ ìhè,'' : ''na ụzọ ndụ[a] bụ mkparị nke ịdọ aka ná ntị'', === Amaokwu 24 === : ''Ha ga-echebe gị'' : ''site n'okwu ndị na-adọrọ adọrọ'' : ''nke nwunye onye ọzọ''. === Amaokwu nke 25 === : ''Agụla agụụ n'obi gị n'ihi ịma mma ya.'' : ''Ekwela ka anya ya jide gị''. === Amaokwu 26 === : ''Maka ọnụahịa nke nwanyị, nwanyị akwụna, bụ ọnụahịa nke achịcha,'' : ''mana nwanyị nke nwoke[b] na-achụ nta ndụ dị oké ọnụ ahịa''. === CAmaokwu 27 === : ''Nwoke nwere ike iburu ọkụ n'apata ụkwụ ya'' : ''n'ebughị uwe ya ọkụ?'' === Amaokwu 28 === : ''Ma ọ bụ mmadụ nwere ike ịga ije na coal'' : ''na ụkwụ ya agaghị agba ọkụ?'' === RAmaokwu 29 === : '' Ọ dịkwa ize ndụ iso nwunye nwoke ọzọ dinara. Onye ọ bụla mere ya ga-ata ahụhụ.''  Ngozi Ikpe chineke Idi njo Hubrcommittee is Nganga Idi aso Ukpuru omume mmekoahu Sheol Njo Mmuo Eziokwu Nghota Obi ojoo Amamihe * Akụkụ [[Akwụkwọ Nsọ|Bible]] ndị metụtara ya: [[Ilu 1]], Ilu 2, Ilu 7, Ilu 9 == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Ebe e si nweta ya == * {{Cite book|author=Aitken|first=K. T.|chapter=19. Proverbs|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary|editor=Barton|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=1st paperback|date=2007|pages=405–22|isbn=978-0-19927718-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJdVkgEACAAJ|accessdate=February 6, 2019}} * {{Cite book|author=Alter|first=Robert|title=The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes: A Translation with Commentary|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TujOn209Ts8C|isbn=978-0-39308073-5}} * {{Cite book|author=Coogan|first=Michael David|authorlink=Michael D. Coogan|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version, Issue 48|editor=Coogan|edition=Augmented 3rd|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19528881-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmpMPgAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book|author=Farmer|first=Kathleen A.|chapter=The Wisdom Books|editor=McKenzie|title=The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owwhpmIVgSAC|isbn=978-0-66425652-4}} * {{Cite book|author=Fox|first=Michael V.|authorlink=Michael V. Fox|title=Proverbs 10-31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary|series=Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IJsciPDEWoC|isbn=978-0-30015556-3}} * {{Cite book|author=Halley|first=Henry H.|authorlink=Henry Hampton Halley|title=Halley's Bible Handbook: an abbreviated Bible commentary|edition=24th rev.|publisher=Zondervan Publishing House|date=1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsG4oLToI7oC|isbn=0-310-25720-4}} * {{Cite book|author=Perdue|first=Leo G.|authorlink=|title=Proverbs Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching|publisher=Presbyterian Publishing Corp.|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uO0hE3D6I40C|isbn=978-0-66423884-1}} * {{Cite book|author=Würthwein|first=Ernst|authorlink=Ernst Würthwein|title=The Text of the Old Testament|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, MI|year=1995|isbn=0-8028-0788-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSNKSBObCYwC|accessdate=January 26, 2019}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Nsụgharị [[Judaism|ndị Juu]]: ** Mishlei - Ilu - Isi nke 6 (Judaica Press) nsụgharị [na nkọwa Rashi] na Chabad.org * Nsụgharị [[Efefe Kraịst|Ndị Kraịst]]: ** Bible n'ịntanetị na GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Proverbs+6 ''Bible''] in Basic English) * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=24&chapter=6&version=9 Akwụkwọ Ilu Isi nke 6 King James Version] * Book of Proverbs public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions 9y7puj54ixu9ansg6wfr87zffnfrqsg Teagasc 0 28642 687995 594968 2026-07-13T23:41:35Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}'''Teagasc''' (nke pụtara "Ntụziaka") bụ ikike steeti nmba a [[Ireland|Republ]] nke Ireland[[Ireland|i]]<nowiki/>d nke na-ahụ maka nyocha na mmepe, ọzụzụ na ọrụ ndụmọdụ na ngalaba nri. Aha gọọmentị nke ahụ bụ Teagasc - Agriculture and Food Development Authority. N'afọ 1988, Teagasc nọchiri An Foras Talúntais / Agricultural Institute (AFT) nke na-ahụ maka nyocha ọrụ ugbo, na An Chomhairle Oiliúna Talmhaíochta / Agricultural Training Council (ACOT) nke na'ahụ maka agụmakwụkwọ na ọrụ ndụmọdụ. == Teagasc kọleji na ebe nyocha == Ọchịchị ahụ nwere ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ ndụmọdụ, kọleji na ebe nyocha ebe ọ na-arụ ọrụ ya. Isi ụlọ ọrụ Teagasc dị na Oak Park Estate na Carlow. === Teagasc kọleji ọrụ ugbo na ubi === * Kọleji Ọrụ Ugbo Clonakilty * Kildalton Agricultural and Horticultural College * Ballyhaise Agricultural College * College of Amenity Horticulture dị na Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin. * Teagasc eCollege === Kọleji ọrụ ugbo na nke ubi === * Gurteen Agricultural College * Mountbellew Agricultural College * Warrenstown Horticultural College (mechiri na 2009) * Pallaskenry Agricultural College === Ebe nnyocha nri === * Moorepark Food Research Centre, Fermoy, Co Cork. (nri na-arụ ọrụ, mmiri ara ehi, ihe oriri na ihe ọṅụṅụ a haziri ahazi)<ref>Hogan, Dick. ''Test tubes in dump traced to farm centre'' [[Irish Times]], 17 January 1995</ref> * Ashtown Food Research Centre (ihe ọhụrụ na-emepụta ihe oriri, ogo na nchekwa, sayensị anụ, bioactives, nutriceuticals, teknụzụ achịcha, ihe ọhụrụ na-eri nri n'oké osimiri, Horticulture gụnyere nchọpụta osisi na Forestry). === Ebe nnyocha ọrụ ugbo === * Animal Bioscience Research Centre (ịrụ ọrụ nke mmepụta anụ na mmiri ara ehi dị elu) * Athenry Production Research Centre (Nmepụta atụrụ, mmepụta anụmanụ, mmiri ara ehi, anụ ehi na mmepụta atụrụ) * Grange Research Centre (anụ ehi) * Johnstown Research Centre (ala, gburugburu ebe obibi na ọrụ ugbo) * Kinsealy Research Centre (nke bụbu horticulture; ebe ọ bụ na emechiri, na ụlọ ọrụ ndị e weghachiri na Ashtown, Dublin 15, na 2012) * Moorepark Research Centre (mmiri ara ehi na ezì) * Oak Park Research Centre (ihe ọkụkụ) * Rural Economy Research Centre (nchọpụta sayensị mmekọrịta na iwu) == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [http://www.teagasc.ie Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ gọọmentị] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230813034809/https://www.mountbellewagri.com/ Mountbellew Agricultural College] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230813034805/https://t-stor.teagasc.ie/ T-Stór - Ebe Nlekọta Nweta Nchebe nke Teagasc] pxrm6wmcur5asjfsqazdbo8pzmm2sg4 Wapenshaw 0 28912 688049 642057 2026-07-14T11:01:18Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688049 wikitext text/x-wiki A gesthaw ma ọ bụ ''wapinshaw'' (site na Old English maka "ihe ngosi ngwá agha") bụ na mbụ nchịkọta na nyocha nke ndị agha e mere na mpaghara ọ bụla na Scotland.<ref>[http://www.oldglasgowpubs.co.uk/hielanjessie.html reference to wapinshaw at barracks in Glasgow]</ref> Ebumnuche ya bụ ime ka ndị isi agha nwee afọ ojuju na ngwá agha nke ndị naejere ha ozi dị mma nakwa na a zụrụ ndị ikom ahụ nke ọma niji ha eme ihe.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911 |wstitle=Wapenshaw |volume=28 |page=304 |inline=1}}</ref> == Ojiji nke 'Wapenshaw' na Lawn Bowls == A ka naeji okwu ahụ eme ihe, iji kọwaa asọmpi ụfọdụ site na klọb<ref>[https://prestwickhowiebowlingclub.co.uk/2016/05/10/open-wappenshaw/ notice of wappenshaw competition at Prestwick Howie bowling club]</ref><ref>[http://gourockpark.homestead.com/Localbowlsinfo.html report of Wapinshaw competition at Gourock Park bowling club]</ref> bowling na Scotland. == Ojiji nke 'Wapenshaw' na Shooting == A naejikwa ''Wapenshaw'' eme ihe mgbe ụfọdụ, na Scotland na ebe ndị ọzọ na [[Obodoézè Nà Ofú|United Kingdom]] maka égbè ma ọ bụ ihe ngosi égbè ndị ọzọ, ọkachasị ndị metụtara ngwá agha akụkọ ihe mere eme.<ref>[http://jointservicespistolclub.com/?page_id=446 Report on Aberdeen shooting club Wapinshaw, 2011]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://galleryrifle.com/?s=wapinshaw |title=Results of the Aberdeen Wapinshaw, 2013-2016 |accessdate=2023-08-16 |archivedate=2023-08-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816113049/http://galleryrifle.com/?s=wapinshaw }}</ref> == Ndị Ọrụ Osisi == Ndị Woodcraft Folk naejikwa ''Wapenshaw'' eme ihe nọtụtụ ebe iji kọwaa emume kwa ụbọchị mgbe ha naama ụlọikwuu, nke naagụnye onye ọ bụla naamaụlọikwuu naewepụ ihe niile nụlọikwuu ha ma naetinye ha nelu ala nusoro a kapịrị ọnụ. Nke a naarụ ọrụ abụọ: iji mee ka ikuku si nụlọikwuu ahụ pụọ, na iji hụ na ọ nweghị ihe furu efu. == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040306121521/http://www.geocities.com/harrowwoodcraft/creed.html Wapenshaw dị ka emume Woodcraft]. E nwetara ya na June 1, 2005. * National Rifle Association of Great Britain na-edepụta ihe omume gụnyere a gbagọrọ agbagọ site na Historic Breechloading Smallarms Association. E nwetara ya na June 1, 2005. 9ob2bqp1ivd4kddqv43tt3c4o4ibc3c Sierra Club 0 29703 687959 177545 2026-07-13T16:15:38Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687959 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sierra Club logo as published 1909.png|thumb|Sierra Club]] Sierra Club bụ ọgbakọ gburugburu ebe obibi America nwere isiakwụkwọ na steeti 50 US niile, Washington D.C. na Puerto Rico. E hiwere klọb ahụ na Mee 28, 1892, na San Francisco, California, site n'aka onye nchekwa nchekwa Scottish-American John Muir, onye ghọrọ onye isi ala mbụ yana onye isi oche kachasị ogologo oge, n'ihe dịka afọ 20 n'ọkwa ndu a. Sierra Club na-arụ ọrụ naanị na United States ma na-ejide ọkwa iwu nke 501(c)(4) ọgbakọ ọdịmma ọha na-anaghị akwụ ụgwọ. Sierra Club Canada bụ ụlọ ọrụ dị iche. Omenala jikọtara ya na ngagharị na-aga n'ihu, klọb ahụ bụ otu n'ime ụlọ ọrụ nchekwa gburugburu ebe obibi izizi buru ibu n'ụwa, ma na-etinye aka ugbu a n'ịkwado ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị iji kwalite amụma gburugburu ebe obibi. Ihe agbadoro anya n'oge na-adịbeghị anya klọb ahụ gụnyere ịkwalite ike na-adigide yana ibelata okpomoku zuru ụwa ọnụ, yana mmegide maka iji coal, ike mmiri na ike nuklia. Nzukọ ahụ na-ewere ọnọdụ siri ike na okwu ndị na-ebute esemokwu, nkatọ, ma ọ bụ mmegide ma ọ bụ n'ime ma ọ bụ n'èzí ma ọ bụ abụọ. A maara klọb ahụ maka nkwado ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya n'ozuzu na-akwado ndị na-emesapụ aka na ndị na-aga n'ihu na ntuli aka. Na mgbakwunye na nkwado ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, Sierra Club na-ahazi ihe omume ntụrụndụ n'èzí, ma bụrụkwa ọgbakọ ama ama maka ịgba ugwu na ugwu ugwu na United States. Ndị otu Sierra Club sụrụ ụzọ na Yosemite Decimal Sistemu nke ịrị elu, ma bụrụkwa ndị na-ahụ maka nnukwu ego nke mmalite mmalite nke ịrị elu. Ọtụtụ n'ime ọrụ a mere n'aha otu ahụ, Sierra Nevada. == Nchịkọta == Ebumnuche nke Sierra Club kwuru bụ "Iji nyocha, ịnụ ụtọ, na ichekwa ebe dị n'ọhịa nke ụwa; Ime na ịkwalite ojiji nke gburugburu ebe obibi na ihe onwunwe nke ụwa; Ịkụzi na itinye ndị mmadụ aka ichebe na iweghachi àgwà nke ihe okike na gburugburu ụmụ mmadụ, na iji ụzọ niile iwu kwadoro iji mezuo ebumnuche ndị a." Otu bọọdụ ndị isi mmadụ iri na ise na-achị ọgbakọ Siera. Kwa afọ, a na-ahọpụta ndị nduzi ise ka ha bụrụ afọ atọ, na ndị otu klọb niile tozuru oke ịtụ vootu. Ndị Board na-ahọpụta onye isi ala kwa afọ site na ndị otu ya. Onye isi nchịkwa na-arụ ọrụ nke otu ahụ kwa ụbọchị. Michael Brune, onye bụbu Rainforest Action Network, jerela ozi dị ka onye isi ụlọ ọrụ otu kemgbe 2010. Brune nọchiri Carl Pope. Pope rituru n'ọkwa n'enweghi afọ ojuju na otu a esila n'ụkpụrụ ya pụta. A haziri Sierra Club na ọkwa mba na steeti nwere isiakwụkwọ aha maka steeti iri ise na ókèala US abụọ (Puerto Rico na Washington D.C.) California bụ naanị steeti nwere ọtụtụ isiakwụkwọ aha maka mpaghara California. Isi klọb na-enye ohere maka otu mpaghara na kọmitii, ụfọdụ n'ime ha nwere ọtụtụ puku ndị otu. Isiakwụkwọ ndị a na-enye ohere maka ngalaba mmasị pụrụ iche (dịka Igwefoto, Ọpụpụ), kọmitii (nchekwa na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị), na ndị ọrụ ọrụ n'otu mbipụta nwere ụdị ọdịdị ala. Ọ bụ ezie na a na-ahazi ọtụtụ ọrụ n'ọkwa mpaghara, ụlọ ọgbakọ ahụ bụ ọgbakọ jikọtara ọnụ; mkpebi ndị e mere na ọkwa mba na-ebute ụzọ, gụnyere iwepụ na ịmepụta Isi, yana iweta na iwepụ ndị òtù. A maara klọb ahụ maka itinye aka na isi ihe omume abụọ: ịkwalite na iduzi ihe omume ntụrụndụ n'èzí, nke a na-eme na United States niile mana nke kachasị na California (karịsịa Southern California), na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị iji kwalite ihe kpatara gburugburu ebe obibi. Akọwala Sierra Club dị ka otu n'ime "otu ndị isi na gburugburu ebe obibi" United States. Ndị otu Sierra Club na-akwado nkwado nke ndị otu n'otu n'otu maka ọkwa a họpụtara ahọpụta. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == [[Usòrò:Petition_and_map_from_John_Muir_and_other_founders_of_Sierra_Club.djvu|thumb|Arịrịọ na map sitere n'aka John Muir na ndị ọzọ guzobere Sierra Club]] === Ntọala === Onye nta akụkọ bụ Robert Underwood Johnson na John Muir rụkọrọ ọrụ na mgbasa ozi na-aga nke ọma iji mepụta nnukwu ogige ntụrụndụ nke Yosemite nke gbara ogige ntụrụndụ dị ntakịrị nke e kere na 1864. Mgbasa ozi a gara nke ọma na 1890. N'ihe dị ka 1889, Johnson gbara Muir ume ka ọ guzobe. otu "otu" iji nyere aka chebe Sierra Nevada, na nzukọ mbụ e mere iji hazie otu ahụ. Ndị ọzọ tinyere aka na nhazi mbụ gụnyere omenkà William Keith, Willis Linn Jepson, Warren Olney, Willard Drake Johnson, Joseph LeConte na David Starr Jordan. Na Mee 1892, onye prọfesọ na-eto eto, Willis Linn Jepson sitere na Mahadum California, Berkeley nyeere Muir na onye ọka iwu Warren Olney aka hiwere nzukọ ọhụrụ a kpụrụ akpụ nke ọwụwa anyanwụ Appalachian Mountain Club. Ndị otu Charter nke Sierra Club họpụtara Muir onyeisi oche, ụlọ ọrụ ọ nọrọ ruo mgbe ọ nwụrụ na 1914. Ihe mgbaru ọsọ mbụ nke klọb ahụ gụnyere iguzobe ogige ntụrụndụ mba Glacier na Mount Rainier, ime ka ndị omebe iwu California kwenye inye Ndagwurugwu Yosemite n'aka gọọmentị etiti US, na ichekwa oke ọhịa redwood nke California. Muir kpọgara Onye isi ala Theodore Roosevelt site na Yosemite na 1903, na afọ abụọ ka e mesịrị, ndị omebe iwu California nyefere Yosemite Valley na Mariposa Grove n'aka gọọmentị etiti. Sierra Club meriri mmeri mbuso agha nke mbu ya site na okike nke ogige mba nke abuo nke obodo, ka Yellowstone gasịrị na 1872. N'afọ 2020, n'ihi ngagharị iwe George Floyd na mkpezi ọha na-esote nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ na akụkọ ihe mere eme ọha, Sierra Club kọwara akụkọ mmalite nke ha dị ka ihe jikọrọ ya na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ. Karịsịa, Sierra Club mbụ kwadoro mkpa nke ndị ọcha na-ewepụ ndị na-acha agba, na Muir na ụfọdụ n'ime ndị enyi ya, dị ka Joseph LeConte, David Starr Jordan, na Henry Fairfield Osborn nwere njikọ chiri anya na mmegharị eugenics nke mbụ. na United States. Osborn kwadoro American Eugenics Society, nke kpọrọ ndị Juu na ndị ọzọ na-abụghị ndị ọcha dị ka agbụrụ dị ala karịa ndị ọcha. === Omume gburugburu ebe obibi na Hetch Hetchy Reservoir === [[Usòrò:Theodore-Roosevelt-and-John-Muir_1906.jpg|thumb|Theodore Roosevelt na John Muir na Yosemite National Park, c. 1906]] N'ime afọ iri mbụ nke 1900s, ndị Sierra Club batara na agha Hetch Hetchy Reservoir nke kewara ndị nchekwa na ndị nchekwa "njikwa akụrụngwa". N'ọgwụgwụ narị afọ nke 19, obodo San Francisco nọ na-eto ngwa ngwa na oke mmiri ya, nke dabere na isi iyi na iyi mpaghara. N'afọ 1890, onye isi obodo San Francisco, James D. Phelan tụrụ aro ka e wuo mmiri mmiri na ọwa mmiri n'Osimiri Tuolumne, bụ́ otu n'ime osimiri Sierra ndịda kasị ukwuu, dị ka ụzọ isi mụbaa na ime ka mmiri dị n'obodo ahụ kwụsie ike. Gifford Pinchot, onye na-aga n'ihu na-akwado ọrụ ọha na eze na onye isi nke US Forest Service, nke nwere ikike na ogige ntụrụndụ mba, kwadoro ịmepụta mmiri mmiri Hetch Hetchy. Muir rịọrọ enyi ya onye isi ala US Roosevelt, onye na-agaghị etinye onwe ya megide dam ahụ, n'ihi na ọ na-ewu ewu na ndị San Francisco (referendum na 1908 kwadoro ọtụtụ mmadụ asaa na otu kwadoro mmiri mmiri na mmiri obodo). Muir na onye ọka iwu William Edward Colby malitere mkpọsa mba megide dam ahụ, na-adọta nkwado nke ọtụtụ ndị nchekwa ọwụwa anyanwụ. Na ntuli aka 1912 nke Onye isi ala US Woodrow Wilson, onye bu San Francisco, ndị na-akwado dam nwere enyi na White House. Ụgwọ ahụ iji gbochie Hetch Hetchy gafere Congress na 1913, ya mere Sierra Club meriri nnukwu agha mbụ ya. Na mmegwara, klọb ahụ kwadoro imepụta National Park Service na 1916, iji wepụ ogige ntụrụndụ na nlekọta ọrụ ọhịa. Stephen Mather, onye otu klọb si Chicago na onye mmegide nke dam Hetch Hetchy, ghọrọ onye ntụzi ọrụ National Park Service nke mbụ. === Afọ 1920-1940 === [[Usòrò:01485_Grand_Canyon_Historic-_Sierra_Club_Hikes_to_Phantom_Ranch_c.1948_(4762103894).jpg|alt=Members socially gathered|thumb|Ndị otu Sierra Club na-eme ihe ọchị maka ntụrụndụ ọha na eze, c. 1948]] N'ime 1920s na 1930s, Sierra Club rụrụ ọrụ dị ka ọha mmadụ na ntụrụndụ, na-eme njem ọpụpụ, na-ejigide ụzọ na-ewu ụlọ na ebe obibi na Sierra. Mgbasa ozi nchekwa gụnyere mgbalị ọtụtụ afọ iji gbasaa Sequoia National Park (mere na 1926) na ihe karịrị afọ iri atọ nke ọrụ iji chebe ma chekwaa Parks Canyon National Park (nke e guzobere na 1940). Ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Stephen Fox na-ekwu, "N'afọ ndị 1930, ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime puku mmadụ atọ bụ ndị Republican." New Deal wetara ọtụtụ ndị nchekwa na Democratic Party, na ọtụtụ ndị Democrats banyere n'ọkwa nke nchekwa. Ndị na-edu ọgbọ nke ndị Turks na-eto eto bụ ndị megharịrị Sierra Club mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị bụ ndị ọka iwu Richard Leonard na Bestor Robinson, onye na-ese foto okike Ansel Adams, na David Brower. Adams kwadoro Brower maka isonye na klọb ahụ, a họpụtakwara ya na bọọdụ nchịkọta akụkọ nke Sierra Club Bulletin. Mgbe Agha IIwa nke Abụọ gasịrị Brower laghachiri n'ọrụ ya na Mahadum California Press, wee malite idezi akwụkwọ akụkọ Sierra Club na 1946. === Mmetụta mba === [[Usòrò:1953_Sierra_Club_Green_River_Canyon_Trip._Sierra_Club_members_beach_the_13-ton_inflatable_pontoon_boat_raft_at_Dinosaur_(e63bbea7dd514e039f7bf9013d4e079b).jpg|thumb|Njem ndagwurugwu Green River na Dinosaur National Monument's Bull Park na 1953.]] Na 1950, Sierra Club nwere ihe dị ka ndị òtù 7,000, ọtụtụ n'ime ha na West Coast. N'afọ ahụ, isi Atlantic ghọrọ nke mbụ e guzobere na mpụga California. Otu òtù ndị nduzi afọ ofufo na-arụsi ọrụ ike na-elekọta nzukọ ahụ, bụ́ ndị otu obere ndị ụkọchukwu na-enyere aka. A họpụtara Brower ka ọ bụrụ onye isi nchịkwa mbụ na 1952, klọb ahụ wee malite ịchụkwute ndị otu nchekwa nchekwa dị ka National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, Wilderness Society, na Izaak Walton League, nke nwere ndị ọrụ ọkachamara ogologo oge. Sierra Club nwetara aha obodo ya n'agha megide Echo Park Dam na Dinosaur National Monument na Utah, nke Ụlọ Ọrụ Na-ahụ Maka Mkpesa mara ọkwa na 1950. Brower duuru ọgụ ahụ, na-akwado nkwado sitere n'aka otu nchekwa nchekwa ndị ọzọ. Nzụlite Brower n'ime mbipụta bịara bụrụ nke siri ike; site n'enyemaka nke onye nkwusa Alfred Knopf, Nke a bụ Dinosaur e mere ngwa ngwa n'ime ndị nta akụkọ. N'ịkpọku ndị na-ekiri Hetch Hetchy, ndị na-ahụ maka nchekwa na-agbachitere Congress nke ọma, bụ nke kpochapụrụ Echo Park dam na ọrụ Colorado River dị ka a kwadoro na 1955. Nkwenye maka ọrụ Sierra Club na mmeri Echo Park na mmeri 10,000 na 1956 kwalitere ndị otu site na 10,000 na 1956 ruo 15,000 na 1960 . Sierra Club bụzi ọgbakọ nchekwa obodo n'ezie, ndị nchekwa wee were atụmatụ ọzara were iwe were iwe. Nzukọ Ọhịa Biennial nke klọb ahụ, nke ewepụtara na 1949 na mmekorita ya na The Wilderness Society, ghọrọ ike dị mkpa na mkpọsa ahụ nwetara ikike nke Iwu Wilderness na 1964, na-akara oge izizi na ala ọha ( nde acres 9.1) na-echebe kpamkpam site na mmepe. . Grand Teton National Park na Ogige Ogige Olimpik ka agbasakwara na agbamume ndị Sierra Club. === Usoro akwụkwọ === Na 1960, Brower ji This Is the American Earth wepụta usoro akwụkwọ ngosi ihe ngosi, na na 1962 In Wildness Is the Preservation of the World, nwere foto agba nke Eliot Porter. Akwụkwọ tebụl kọfị ndị a, nke ngalaba akwụkwọ ha Siera Club bipụtara, webatara ndị na-ege ntị na Sierra Club. E rere puku puku iri ise n'ime afọ anọ mbụ, ma ka ọ na-erule 1960 ahịa karịrị nde $10. N’oge na-adịghị anya Brower nọ na-ebipụta aha ọhụrụ abụọ n’afọ n’usoro ihe ngosi Format, mana ọ bụghị ihe niile mere nke ọma dị ka n’ime ọhịa. Ọ bụ ezie na akwụkwọ ndị ahụ nwere ihe ịga nke ọma n'iwebata ọha na eze na nchekwa ọzara na Sierra Club, ego ha na-efu maka nzukọ ahụ, ihe dị ka $60,000 otu afọ mgbe 1964 gasịrị. Nlekọta ego ghọrọ ihe esemokwu n'etiti Brower na ndị isi ya. === Mgbasa ozi Grand Canyon === Mkpesa agha nke Sierra Club kacha kwusara na 1960 bụ mbọ iji kwụsị Bureau of Reclamation iwu dams abụọ nke ga-eju akụkụ nke Grand Canyon. E bipụtara akwụkwọ bụ Time and the River Flow: Grand Canyon nke Francois Leydet dere n'usoro akwụkwọ Ngosipụta. Na-emegide ọrụ mgbochi mmiri nke Bridge Canyon na Marble Canyon, mgbasa ozi zuru ezu nke ụlọ ọgbakọ ahụ etinyere na The New York Times na The Washington Post na 1966 tiri mkpu, "Oge a ọ bụ nnukwu Canyon ka ha chọrọ iju mmiri," wee jụọ, "anyị kwesịkwara. Ijuju na Sistine Chapel ka ndị njem nlegharị anya wee bịaruo elu ụlọ nso nso? Mgbasa ozi ndị ahụ welitere oke ngagharị iwe na Congress, na-akpali ndị ọrụ ntinye ego nke ime obodo ikwuwapụta na ọ na-akwụsịtụ ọkwa 501(c)(3) nke Sierra Club na-eche nyocha. Ndị ụlọ ọrụ ahụ kpachara anya maka ịtọlite ​​Sierra Club Foundation dị ka nzukọ (c) (3) na 1960 maka onyinye na ntinye aka maka agụmakwụkwọ na ihe omume ndị ọzọ na-adịghị anabata. N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, onyinye a na-enye klọb ahụ kwụsịrị, na-akawanye ụkọ ọrụ ya kwa afọ. Otú ọ dị, ndị otu rịgoro nke ọma na nzaghachi na nyocha banyere izi ezi nke ụtụ isi obodo site na IRS site na 30,000 na 1965 ruo 57,000 na 1967 na 75,000 na 1969. Mmeri a na-enwe na ọrụ mgbochi mmiri na ihe ịma aka sitere na IRS abịaghị n'efu. Iji mejuo ike nke ihe mgbochi mmiri ga-emepụta, ndị Sierra Club kwadoro n'ezie maka ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ ọkụ. Nsonaazụ nke mkpọsa ahụ na azụmaahịa ya bụ, n'okwu onye ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Andrew Needham, na "Grand Canyon wee chekwaa, oghere dị nsọ," ebe "Ndoputa Navajo" - nke nwere ụfọdụ ụlọ ọrụ ike na-ebuli elu. slack — "ghọrọ ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe." === Ọgwụgwụ nke oge Brower === N'agbanyeghị ihe ịga nke ọma klọb ahụ na igbochi atụmatụ maka dams Grand Canyon na igbanwe mgbanwe site na 501 (c) (3) ruo 501 (c) (4), esemokwu tolitere maka ego n'etiti Brower na ndị isi oche. Mwepu nke ụlọ ọgbakọ ahụ kwa afọ bilitere site na $100,000 na 1967 na 1968 ruo ihe dị ka $200,000 na 1969. Esemokwu ọzọ mere n'ihi amụma klọb ahụ banyere ụlọ ọrụ ike nuklia nke Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) ga-arụ na Diablo Canyon dị nso na San Luis Obispo, California. Ọ bụ ezie na klọb ahụ rụrụ ọrụ na-eduga igbochi ụlọ ọrụ nuklia PG&E chọrọ maka Bodega Bay, California, na mmalite 1960s, e wuru ikpe ahụ gburugburu mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi na ihe egwu ala ọma jijiji sitere na mmejọ San Andreas dị nso, ọ bụghị site na mmegide nke nuklia. ike n'onwe ya. N'ịgbanwe maka ịkwaga saịtị ọhụrụ ahụ a tụrụ aro site na Nipomo Dunes nwere mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi gaa na Diablo Canyon, ndị isi oche kpebiri ịkwado atụmatụ PG&E maka ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ. Ntụgharị aka ndị otu na 1967 kwadoro mkpebi kọmiti ahụ. Mana Brower kwubiri na ike nuklia n'ebe ọ bụla bụ mmejọ, ma kwupụta mmegide ya megide ụlọ ọrụ ahụ, megidere iwu gọọmentị nke klọb ahụ. Dị ka otu ndị na-akwado na ndị na-emegide Browser na-agbakọta, ntuli aka nke ndị nduzi ọhụrụ kwa afọ gosipụtara esemokwu ahụ. Ndị na-akwado Brower meriri ọtụtụ n'ime 1968, mana na nhoputa ndi ochichi nke April 1969, ndi ndoro-ndoro ochichi na-emegide Brower meriri n'ọkwa ise mepere emepe. Ansel Adams na onye isi oche Richard Leonard, abụọ n'ime ezigbo ndị enyi ya na bọọdụ ahụ, dugara ndị mmegide Brower, na-ebo ya ebubo enweghị ego na enweghị isi na ịkpọ oku ka achụpụ ya dị ka onye isi nchịkwa. Ndị bọọdụ ahụ tụrụ vootu iri ruo ise ịnakwere arụkwaghịm Brower. N'ikpeazụ, ya na klọb ahụ dịghachi ná mma, a họpụtara Brower ka ọ bụrụ ndị isi oche maka oge site na 1983 ruo 1988, na ọzọ site na 1995 ruo 2000. Brower gbara arụkwaghịm na bọọdụ na 2000. === Afọ McCloskey === [[Usòrò:SIERRA_CLUB_NATURE_HIKE_-_NARA_-_543236.jpg|thumb|Njem okike na Point Lobos State Reserve na 1972.]] Michael McCloskey, nke Brower goro na 1961 dị ka onye nnọchi anya mpaghara ugwu mbụ nke klọb ahụ, ghọrọ onye isi ụlọ ọrụ nke abụọ na 1969. Onye nchịkwa lebara nkọwa zuru ezu, McCloskey hiwere ngalaba nchekwa klọb na 1965 wee duzie mkpọsa iji chekwaa Grand Canyon. ma guzobe Redwoods National Park na North Cascades National Park. N'ime 1970s, McCloskey duuru ọrụ omebe iwu nke klọb ahụ-ichekwa ala Alaskan na mpaghara ọzara ọwụwa anyanwụ, yana ịkwado ebumnuche gburugburu ebe obibi ọhụrụ: Iwu njikwa ihe na-egbu egbu nke 1976, mmezi iwu ikuku dị ọcha, yana njikwa Ngwuputa Ngwuputa na Mweghachi nke 1977. , gafere n'oge ọchịchị nke President Jimmy Carter. Mbọ nke Sierra Club na ndị ọzọ—gụnyere ndị nhazi obodo ojii bụ ndị lụrụ ọgụ megide ọrụ “mmeghari mmeghari obodo” na-emebi emebi—dugara na ngafe nke iwu iwu gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi na mba na iwu njikwa mmetọ mmiri. Sierra Club hibere kọmitii ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị wee mee nkwado onye isi ala mbụ ya na 1984 iji kwado mkpọsa Walter Mondale na-enweghi nke ọma iji wetuo Ronald Reagan. McCloskey gbara arụkwaghịm dị ka onye isi nchịkwa na 1985 mgbe  16+1⁄2 afọ (otu oge ahụ Brower duziri nzukọ a), wee weghara aha onye isi oche, wee bụrụ onye isi atụmatụ ụlọ ọgbakọ, na-etinye oge ya na amụma nchekwa karịa ịhazi atụmatụ mmefu ego. na nchịkwa. Mgbe ya na Douglas Wheeler nwechara mkparịta ụka afọ abụọ, onye nzere Republican ya na-agbakasị ndị otu na-emesapụ aka, ụlọ ọrụ ahụ goro Michael Fischer, onye bụbu onye isi California Coastal Commission, onye jere ozi dị ka onye isi nchịkwa site na 1987 ruo 1992. Carl Pope, bụbu onye otu klọb ahụ. Onye isi omebe iwu, a họpụtara onye isi nchịkwa na 1992. === Nkwado n'ime klọb ahụ === Na 1990s, ndị otu klọb Jim Bensman, Roger Clarke, David Dilworth, Chad Hanson na David Orr tinyere ihe dị ka ndị otu 2,000 hibere John Muir Sierrans (JMS), otu n'ime ụlọ ọgbakọ, iji kwalite mgbanwe n'ọkwa klọb. Ha kwadoro amụma ọhịa efu na ala ọha na, afọ ole na ole ka e mesịrị, iwepụ Glen Canyon Dam. JMS nwere ihe ịga nke ọma n'ịgbanwe ọkwa klọb n'akụkụ abụọ ahụ. === Narị afọ nke 21 === [[Usòrò:Senator_Stabenow_meets_with_representatives_of_the_Sierra_Club._(37077987870).jpg|thumb|Senator Stabenow zutere ndị nnọchi anya Sierra Club na 2017.]] Na 2008, ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ Sierra Club kwụsịrị na mkpesa mgbe Sierra Club kwetara ịkwalite ngwaahịa Clorox, bụ nke akpọrọ otu n'ime ụlọ ọrụ kemịkalụ "dị ize ndụ" nke Òtù Na-ahụ Maka Mmasị Ọha na eze na 2004. Dị ka Carl Pope si kwuo, Sierra Onye isi oche otu, nkwekọrịta ahụ wetara klọb US $1.3 million n'ime afọ anọ nke nkwekọrịta ahụ. Na Nọvemba 2011, onye isi oche Sierra Club Carl Pope rituru n'ihi enweghị afọ ojuju maka nkwekọrịta Clorox na okwu ndị ọzọ. N'agbata 2007 na 2010, Sierra Club nakweere ihe karịrị US $25 nde na onyinye sitere na ụlọ ọrụ gas, nke ka ukwuu sitere n'aka Aubrey McClendon, onye isi oche nke Chesapeake Energy, nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ na-egwupụta gas na-etinye aka na fracking. Na Jenụwarị 2013, onye isi nchịkwa Michael Brune kwupụtara na Sierra Club ga-esonye n'ihu ọha na nnupụisi obodo mbụ na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke afọ 120 dị ka akụkụ nke mkpesa na-aga n'ihu na-akpọku ọchịchị Obama ka ọ jụ pipeline Keystone XL tar sands pipeline, na-ekwu, "Anyị na-ekiri ka nsogbu zuru ụwa ọnụ na-apụta n'ihu anyị, na iguzo n'akụkụ ma hapụ ya ka ọ mee - n'agbanyeghị na anyị maara otú e si akwụsị ya - ga-abụ ihe na-enweghị isi." Na 13 February 2013, e jidere Brune yana mmadụ iri anọ na asatọ, gụnyere onye ndu obodo Julian Bond na ọkà mmụta sayensị ihu igwe NASA James Hansen. Na Mee 2015, Sierra Club họpụtara onye isi ojii mbụ nke ndị isi oche, Aaron Mair. Ndị Sierra Club kwadoro Hillary Clinton na ntuli aka onye isi ala US 2016. Ọ kwadoro Joe Biden na ntuli aka onye isi ala US 2020, na-ekwu maka mmegide ya megide iwu gburugburu ebe obibi Donald Trump. Na Jenụwarị 2023, onye bụbu onye isi NAACP Ben Jealous ghọrọ onye isi ụlọ ọrụ ọhụrụ nke otu ahụ, na-eme ka ọ bụrụ onye Africa mbụ nke America rụzuru ọrụ ahụ. == Ihe omume ndị dị n'èzí == === Ịnya Ugwu === N'afọ 1901, William Colby haziri njem nleta mbụ nke Sierra Club na ndagwurugwu Yosemite. Ndị na-agba ugwu dịka Francis P. Farquhar, Joseph Nisbet LeConte, Norman Clyde, Walter A. Starr, Jr., Jules Eichorn, Glen Dawson, Ansel Adams, na David R. Brower na-eduzi njem ndị dị elu kwa afọ. Emere ọtụtụ mgbago mbụ na Sierra Nevada na ọpụpụ Sierra Club. Ndị otu Sierra Club bụkwa ndị na-anụ ọkụ n'obi nke ịrị elu nkume. N'afọ 1911, e hiwere isiakwụkwọ nke mbụ, Angeles, ma malite ime njem nlegharị anya n'ugwu ndị gbara Los Angeles na gburugburu West. Steve Roper's Fifty Classic Climbs of North America, nke ndị Sierra Club na-akwado ma bipụta ya, ka a na-ewere dịka otu n'ime akwụkwọ ntuziaka na-arị elu nkume na United States. Agụmakwụkwọ Njem Ọzara bụ klaasị mgbago ugwu nke ndị Sierra Club na-elekọta. Ndị otu Sierra anaghị ewepụta ụkpụrụ maka ma ọ bụ na-ahazi alpinism, mana ọ na-ahazi nkuzi ọzara, njem nlegharị anya na njem mgbagharị ugwu maka ndị otu. Na California, a na-ewere klọb ahụ, site na otu egwuregwu ya dị n'èzí, dịka analog nke steeti na klọb ugwu steeti ndị ọzọ dị ka Mazamas, The Mountaineers, ma ọ bụ Colorado Mountain Club. N'ihi mmụba na-elekwasị anya na ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na nchegbu gbasara ụgwọ ego, ọrụ ịnya ugwu na Sierra Club ebelatala kemgbe 1980s. Isiakwụkwọ ụfọdụ, ọkachasị na California, na-aga n'ihu na-ejigide nnukwu mmemme ịgba ugwu. Ụlọ ọgbakọ ahụ na-enye ndị na-agba ugwu pụtara ìhè onyinye Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award. === Ịga ije na njem === N'Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ, ọtụtụ ndị isi Sierra Club sonyeere 10th Mountain Division. Otu n'ime ha bụ David R. Brower, onye jikwaa mmemme High Trip site na 1947 ruo 1954, mgbe ọ na-eje ozi dị ka onye isi na Reserve Army. N'ọtụtụ ebe nke mba ahụ, Sierra Club na-ahazikwa njem nlegharị anya. Webụsaịtị Sierra Club nwere ọrụ "ịga n'akụkụ m". Ngalaba "Sierra Club N'akụkụ Gị" na-egosi njem niile na-abịa na mpaghara dị nso. Njem njem dị elu nke akụkọ ihe mere eme, mgbe ụfọdụ nnukwu njem nwere ihe karịrị otu narị ndị sonyere na ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri, ewepụtala njem nlegharị anya dị nta na karịa nke emere n'ofe United States na mba ofesi. Ọpụpụ ndị a bụ akụkụ bụ isi nke omenala Sierra Club, na n'isiakwụkwọ ụfọdụ, bụ ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ndị otu. Isiakwụkwọ ndị ọzọ, agbanyeghị, nwere ike ịkwado obere ihe omume n'èzí ma ọ bụ ihe ntụrụndụ, na-elekwasị anya naanị na nkwado ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị. N'ozuzu, isiakwụkwọ na California na-arụsi ọrụ ike karịa ihe omume n'èzí. === Ihe nrite Sierra Club === [[Usòrò:Ladybug,_Ready_for_Takeoff.jpg|thumb|''Ladybug'', Ready for Takeoff - Onye mmeri Grand Prize na Sierra Club's April 2010 Trails Photo Contest]] Ndị otu Sierra Club na-enye ọtụtụ ihe nrite kwa afọ, dị ka ihe nrite Sierra Club John Muir, Award Ansel Adams for Conservation Photography, Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award, Edgar Wayburn Award maka ndị ọrụ ọha, onyinye Rachel Carson maka ndị nta akụkọ na Ndị ode akwụkwọ, ihe nrite William O. Douglas maka ọrụ iwu, yana onyinye EarthCare maka nchekwa na nchekwa gburugburu ụwa. == Ọnọdụ iwu == === Nchịkwa ala === A na-ewere njikwa ala, ịnweta, nchekwa dị ka mpaghara nkwado nke Sierra Club. N'ụzọ pụrụ iche maka nzukọ na-aga n'ihu, Sierra Club nwere nzukọ ntọala siri ike n'ime ime obodo, na-arụ ọrụ dị ukwuu na-elekwasị anya n'ịhụ na ojiji nke ala ọha na eze ziri ezi na gburugburu ebe obibi. Nke a na-emesi ike karịsịa na klọb ahụ na-adọta ọtụtụ ndị na-esonyere klọb ahụ maka ntụrụndụ na iji ala ọha na eze mee njem. Ụfọdụ ndị otu Sierra Club agwala ọgbakọ ahụ ka ha gbasie ike n'ịkwado maka nchekwa nke oke ọhịa na ala ọha ndị ọzọ nke gọọmenti etiti nwere. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, n'afọ 2002, a katọrọ klọb ahụ maka ịbanye na Wilderness Society na ikwenye na nkwekọrịta nke ga-enye ohere ịbanye na Black Hills na South Dakota. Na 2023, Sierra Club gbara gọọmentị Puerto Rico akwụkwọ maka ọrụ ume ọhụrụ iri na asatọ na ala karịa hectare 2,000. Ndị otu Sierra Club rụrụ ụka na ala ahụ nwere mmetụta na gburugburu ebe obibi yana uru ọrụ ugbo dị elu. Ndị otu Sierra Club kwuru na iwulite ọrụ ike mmeghari ohuru na ala ugbo bụ "mwakpo siri ike na nchekwa nri nke Puerto Rico." === Mmegide megide coal === [[Usòrò:People's_Climate_March_2017_in_Washington_DC_40.jpg|thumb|Sierra Club na People's Climate March na Washington DC na 2017.]] Ebumnuche nke ụlọ ọgbakọ Sierra bụ iji ike ndị ọzọ dochie coal. Site na mgbasa ozi ya "Beyond Coal", Sierra Club ewepụtala ihe mgbaru ọsọ imechi ọkara nke osisi coal na US n'afọ 2017. Onye ọchụnta ego America na onye bụbu onye isi obodo New York City Michael Bloomberg nyere $50 nde maka ọrụ mgbochi coal nke Sierra Club. na 2011, ma kwupụta onyinye ọzọ $30 million na mgbasa ozi Sierra Beyond Coal na 2015. Mgbasa ozi Beyond Coal na-ekwu na emechiela osisi coal 187 kemgbe 2010. Ndị ọzọ na-akwado mgbasa ozi mgbochi coal nke Sierra Club gụnyere William na Flora Hewlett Foundation na John D. na Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Onye isi oche nke Chesapeake Energy, ụlọ ọrụ gas sitere n'okike, nyere $26 nde na mkpọsa Beyond Coal n'etiti 2007 na 2010. === Mmegide megide ike nuklia === Ndị otu Sierra Club "na-emegide n'ụzọ doro anya" maka ike nuklia. === Mmegide maka mmiri na ihe mgbochi mmiri === Sierra Club agbaala mbọ megide ọrụ ike mmiri na nnukwu mmiri mmiri. N'ịgbaso ọgụ megide ọrụ ike mmiri, Sierra Club ekwupụtala mmegide na eriri ọkụ ma kwuo na ọrụ ike mmiri na-akpaghasị ebe obibi anụmanụ. Ndị otu Sierra Club na-emegide mgbochi mmiri ọ chere na ha ezighi ezi, gụnyere ụfọdụ mmiri mgbochi gọọmentị wuru na ogige ntụrụndụ mba. Na mmalite narị afọ nke 20, nzukọ ahụ lụsoro ọgụ na idei mmiri nke Hetch Hetchy Valley na Yosemite National Park. N'agbanyeghị mkparị a, Congress nyere ikike iwu O'Shaughnessy Dam na Osimiri Tuolumne. Ndị otu Sierra Club na-aga n'ihu na-akwado iwepụ mmiri mmiri ahụ. Ndị otu Sierra Club na-akwado mwepu nke Glen Canyon Dam na igbapu nke Ọdọ Powell. Klọb ahụ na-akwadokwa iwepụ, imebi ma ọ bụ ịchụpụ ọtụtụ dams ndị ọzọ, gụnyere dams anọ na obere Osimiri Snake dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ Washington. Ndị otu Sierra Club na-emegide mbubata ike sitere na ụlọ ọrụ ike mmiri Quebec na New York, na-arụ ụka na ibubata ike ike site na osisi Quebec ga-akpata mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi wee bute obere ọrụ ume ọhụrụ na steeti New York. === Echiche dị iche iche banyere ọrụ anyanwụ === Isiakwụkwọ ụfọdụ nke Sierra Club agbachitere aka megide ọrụ ike anyanwụ, ebe isiakwụkwọ ndị ọzọ agbachitere ọrụ ike anyanwụ. Ndị otu Saerra megidere Agha Born Solar Project, bụ ọrụ anyanwụ kacha ukwuu na U.S., na-ekwu maka mmetụta ọ nwere na ebe mbe ọzara. Ndị otu Sierra Club gbara gọọmentị etiti akwụkwọ ka ha kwụsị ọdụ anyanwụ Calico dị 663.5 megawatt dị na Desert Mojave na California, na-ekwu na ọ ga-emebi anụ ọhịa echedoro. === Mmegide megide ikike dị mfe === Na nzaghachi maka mgbanwe ndị a tụrụ aro iji kwalite usoro inye ohere maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'agbanyeghị nchegbu na nyocha na-enye ohere gburugburu ebe obibi na-egbu oge ma na-egbochi ọrụ ndị nwere mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi bara uru, Sierra Club kwupụtara mmegide megide mgbanwe ndị dị otú ahụ, na-arụrịta ụka "Ihe ọ bụla a tụrụ anya ọrụ bụ - ma ọ bụ pipeline ma ọ bụ okporo ụzọ ma ọ bụ ugbo nke anyanwụ - ọ kwesịrị ịdị n'okpuru otu usoro nyocha nke nkịtị. Ọ bụrụ na anyị chọrọ ka ọrụ ndị a na-aga n'ihu ngwa ngwa, anyị ekwesịghị ịda mbà n'iwu gburugburu ebe obibi, ma na-etinyekwu ego n'ime ụlọ ọrụ na ndị ọrụ. " === Njikọ ya na ndị ọrụ a haziri ahazi === [[Usòrò:Fight_for_$15_on_4-15_(17160504492).jpg|thumb|Ndị otu na New York City Fight maka ihe omume $ 15 na 2015.]] Sierra Club bụ onye otu BlueGreen Alliance, njikọta nke otu gburugburu ebe obibi na otu ndị ọrụ. E hiwere BlueGreen Alliance na 2006 wee tolite site na mmekorita na-adịchaghị mma n'etiti Sierra Club na United Steelworkers. Na 2012, Laborers' International Union of North America hapụrụ njikọ aka n'ihi Sierra Club na ndị ọzọ gburugburu ebe obibi megidere Keystone Pipeline. === Ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na mbata === Mbata na ọpụpụ bụ akụkọ ihe mere eme otu n'ime ihe na-akpata nkewa na klọb. Na 1996, ka ọtụtụ afọ nke arụmụka gasịrị, Sierra Club nakweere ọnọdụ nnọpụiche na ọkwa mbata na ọpụpụ. Dika klọb ahụ na-atụgharị gaa n'aka ekpe kemgbe ọtụtụ afọ, emezigharịrị ọnọdụ a na 2013 iji kwado "ụzọ ziri ezi maka ịbụ nwa amaala maka ndị kwabatara na-enweghị akwụkwọ". Ọ bụ ezie na ọnọdụ nke Sierra Club na-adịkarị mma kwupụta mbata na ọpụpụ, ụfọdụ ndị nkatọ nke Sierra Club boro ebubo na mbọ ụfọdụ ndị otu klọb igbochi mbata na ọpụpụ, bụ a n'ihu nke akụkụ nke ụmụ mmadụ na-achịkwa bi na eugenics ije. Na 1969, Sierra Club bipụtara akwụkwọ Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb, nke o kwuru na mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na-akpata ọdịda gburugburu ebe obibi ma kwadoro usoro mmanye iji belata ya. Ụfọdụ ndị na-ekiri ihe na-arụ ụka na akwụkwọ ahụ nwere "agbụrụ agbụrụ" na omenala nke Eugenics ije, na na ọ "kwughachiri ọtụtụ n'ime Osborn jeremiads." N'ime 1980s, ụfọdụ ndị otu Sierra Club, gụnyere nwunye Paul Ehrlich Anne, chọrọ ibuga klọb ahụ n'ọgba aghara nke mbata na ọpụpụ na United States. Ọnọdụ klọb ahụ bụ na ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị mmadụ karịrị akarị bụ ihe dị mkpa na-ebute mbibi nke gburugburu ebe obibi. N'ihi ya, klọb ahụ kwadoro ịkwado na ibelata ọnụ ọgụgụ US na ụwa. Ụfọdụ ndị otu rụrụ ụka na, dị ka ihe bara uru, a pụghị ime ka ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị United States guzosie ike, ma ọ bụghị naanị ibelata, na ọkwa mbata na-adị ugbu a. Ha gwara klọb ka ọ kwado mbelata mbata na ọpụpụ mbata na ọpụpụ. Klọb ahụ ekwubuola okwu banyere “mmigration of mass” na 1988, kọmitii na-ahụ maka ọnụọgụgụ mmadụ na kọmitii na-ahụ maka nchekwa nke nzukọ ahụ kwuru na mbata na ọpụpụ mbata na United States kwesịrị inwe oke, iji nweta nkwụsi ike nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ. Ndị otu Sierra Club ndị ọzọ chere na okwu mbata na ọpụpụ dị oke anya site na isi ebumnuche gburugburu ebe obibi ọgbakọ, ma na-enwekwa nchegbu na itinye aka na ya ga-emebi ikike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke nzukọ a ịchụso ebumnuche ya ndị ọzọ. N'etiti 1990s, klọb ahụ malitere nke nta nke nta na-apụ na ọnọdụ mgbochi mbata na ọpụpụ, na-ejedebe na ụlọ ọrụ ahụ nakweere ọnọdụ nnọpụiche na amụma mbata na ọpụpụ na 1996. amụma mbata na ọpụpụ, ebe 39.2% kwadoro usoro na-akpọ maka mgbochi siri ike na mbata na ọpụpụ na United States. Mgbe nkuchi bọọdụ 1996 gasịrị, ụfọdụ ndị otu bụ ndị na-akwado mbelata mbata na ọpụpụ haziri onwe ha dị ka "SUSPS", aha sitere na "Sierrans for US Population Stabilization", nke pụtara ugbu a maka "Support US Population Stabilization". SUSPS na-akwado ịlaghachi na “ọdịnala” nke Sierra Club (1970–1996) ụkpụrụ iwu mbata na ọpụpụ. SUSPS akpọọla oku ka emechie oke ala United States n'ụzọ zuru oke, yana maka ịlaghachi na ọkwa mbata na ọpụpụ nke Iwu mbata na ọpụpụ nke 1924 guzobere, nke gụnyere oke agbụrụ siri ike. David Brower kwukwara na ọnọdụ klọb na mbata na ọpụpụ bụ otu n'ime ihe mere ọ gbara arụkwaghịm na bọọdụ na 2000. Ndị na-akwado mbelata mbata na ọpụpụ n'ime ụlọ ọgbakọ ahụ boro ebubo na ụlọ ọrụ ahụ agbahapụla ọnọdụ mgbochi na mbata na ọpụpụ n'ihi onyinye sitere n'aka onye na-achụ ego David Gelbaum. , onye kọrọ na o nyere klọb ahụ $200 nde n'etiti etiti 1990s na mmalite 2000s wee yie Carl Pope egwu n'etiti 1990s ka ọ kwụsị inye onyinye ma ọ bụrụ na ha agbanweghị ọnọdụ ha na mbata na ọpụpụ nakweere na 1988. Esemokwu ahụ bilitere mgbe otu atọ ndị na-akwado mbelata mbata na ọpụpụ gbara ọsọ na ntuli aka ndị isi ụlọ ọrụ Sierra Club nke 2004, na-atụ anya ịkwaga ọnọdụ klọb ahụ n'ọnọdụ nnọpụiche na mbata na ọpụpụ, na iweghachi ọnọdụ ahụ e nwere na mbụ. Otu dị iche iche na-abụghị klọb etinyere aka, dị ka South Poverty Law Center na MoveOn. N'ime mmadụ atọ a, abụọ (Frank Morris na David Pimentel), nọ na bọọdụ nke otu mgbochi mbata na ọpụpụ Diversity Alliance for a Sustainable America na abụọ (Richard Lamm na Frank Morris) nọ na bọọdụ ndị isi ma ọ bụ ndị ndụmọdụ ndụmọdụ. nke Federation for American Immigration Reform; Ha abụọ enweela ọkwa iduzi n'ime NAACP. Onye ndoro-ndoro ochichi nke anọ, Morris Dees nke SPLC katọrọ ntuli aka ha dị ka "mgbalị imegide" nke "ndị na-akwado ndị na-emegide ndị mbata ọzọ". Ndị na-akwado mbelata mbata na ọpụpụ meriri 7% nke votu niile emere na ntuli aka ahụ. N'afọ 2005, ndị otu tozuru oke 102,455 ruo 19,898 megide mgbanwe a tụrụ aro iji "ghọta mkpa ọ dị ịnweta oke ala na ịkwaga United States." N'ịbawanye ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ndị na-eme ihe na-aga n'ihu na-abanye na klọb n'afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya, Sierra Club agbanweela n'ụzọ dị egwu na ọnọdụ ya na mbata na ọpụpụ na-aga n'ihu n'eziokwu. Taa, Sierra Club na-akwado ụzọ nke ịbụ nwa amaala maka ndị na-akwaga akwụkwọ na-enweghị akwụkwọ, na-emegide mgbidi ókèala ma na-arụkọ ọrụ na ndị otu mba ọzọ iji kwalite ikpe ziri ezi gburugburu ebe obibi. Ndị otu mgbochi mbata na ọpụpụ mbata na ọpụpụ dị ka Center for Immigration Studies na Federation for American Immigration Reform (nke SPLC họpụtara ha abụọ dị ka otu ịkpọasị) katọrọ ọgbakọ Sierra Club maka imegide atụmatụ Trump nke imepụta mgbidi na United States. 'ókè ndịda. Otu ndị a na-ekwu na ndị otu Sierra Club katọrọ atụmatụ a n'ihi na ọ bụ naanị akụkụ nke akụkụ na ọ bụghị n'ihi nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi. == Mmekọrịta na enyemaka == David R. Brower tọrọ ntọala Sierra Club Foundation na 1960. Otu 501(c)(3) nzukọ, e hiwere ya ka ndị ọrụ Internal Revenue Service wepụrụ ọkwa enweghị ụtụ isi nke Sierra Club n'ihi mmemme ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị otu. Sierra Club gbakwunyere isi nke mbụ Canada na 1963 na na 1989 mepere ụlọ ọrụ mba na Ottawa. Ndị mmekọ Canada nke Sierra Club na-arụ ọrụ n'okpuru Sierra Club Canada. Na 1971, ndị ọka iwu afọ ofufo bụ ndị ha na Sierra Club rụkọrọ ọrụ hiwere Sierra Club Legal Defence Fund. Nke a bụ ọgbakọ dị iche nke jiri aha "Sierra Club" n'okpuru ikike nke klọb ahụ; ọ gbanwere aha ya na Earthjustice na 1997. Sierra Student Coalition (SSC) bụ ogwe aka ụmụ akwụkwọ na-agba ọsọ nke Sierra Club. Adam Werbach tọrọ ntọala na 1991, o nwere ndị otu 30,000. Mmemme Summer (SPROG) bụ mmemme ọzụzụ onye ndu otu izu nke na-akụziri ndị na-eto eto n'ofe mba ahụ ngwá ọrụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi na ikpe ziri ezi. Nzukọ a na-edobe akara nbipụta, Akwụkwọ Sierra Club. Ha na-ebipụtakwa ọbá akwụkwọ John Muir, nke gụnyere ọtụtụ aha onye malitere ha. Sierra Club Voter Education Fund bụ otu 527 malitere ọrụ na ntuli aka onye isi ala nke afọ 2004 site n'ikusa mgbasa ozi telivishọn gbasara ọnọdụ ndị isi otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi. Site na Mgbasa Ozi Environmental Voter Education Campaign (EVEC), klọb ahụ chọrọ ịchịkọta ndị ọrụ afọ ofufo maka ụlọ akụ ekwentị, ịkwọ ụgbọ mmiri n'ọnụ ụzọ na ide akwụkwọ ozi iji mesie okwu ndị a ike na mkpọsa ahụ. == Mmefu ego na ego == Ego mmefu nke Sierra Club kwa afọ bụ $88 million na 2011 yana $100 million na 2012. N'afọ 2013, mmefu ego otu ahụ bụ $97.8 million. N'afọ 2008, Clorox nyere ndị Sierra Club onyinye $1.3 million maka ikike igosipụta akara Sierra Club n'ahịrị ngwaahịa nhicha. N'ọnwa Febụwarị 2012, a kọrọ na Sierra Club anabatala ihe karịrị nde $26 na nzuzo sitere na ụlọ ọrụ gas sitere n'okike, ọkachasị n'aka Aubrey McClendon, onye isi Chesapeake Energy. Ndị otu Sierra Club ji ego Chesapeake Energy maka mgbasa ozi Beyond Coal iji gbochie ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ ọhụrụ na-agba ọkụ na nke ochie. Michael Brune kọrọ na ọ mụtara banyere onyinye ndị ahụ mgbe ọ nọchiri anya Carl Pope dị ka onye isi nchịkwa nke Sierra Club na 2010. Brune kọrọ na ọ kwụsịrị nkwekọrịta ego na mmasị ụlọ ọrụ gas. N'afọ 2013, Naomi Klein dere na klọb ahụ na-anata nnukwu ego ọtụtụ nde dollar sitere na mmasị mmanụ ọkụ, amalitela ịkpalite "nnukwu esemokwu" n'ime ya na ndị otu "gburugburu" ndị ọzọ nọ na nnata ego fosil. Na 2014, Energy and Environment Legal Institute gbara akwụkwọ ntinye aka na Ọrụ Internal Revenue Service na-arụtụ aka na Sierra Club na Sierra Club Foundation anaghị akwụ ụtụ isi na-akpata site na ire ọkụ anyanwụ maka ndị mmekọ ha n'ofe US. Sierra Club nwere nnukwu PAC nwere mmekọ. O jiri $ 1,000,575 mee ihe na ntuli aka 2014, ha niile na-emegide ndị Republican maka ọfịs. Sierra Club bụ onye mmekọ America Votes, ọgbakọ na-ahazi ma na-akwalite okwu na-aga n'ihu. Ndị nyere aka na Sierra Club gụnyere David Gelbaum, Michael Bloomberg, William na Flora Hewlett Foundation na John D. na Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Ndị otu Sierra Club enwetakwala ego n'aka otu Democracy Alliance na Tides Foundation Advocacy Fund. Na 2015, otu PR, nke a maara dị ka Environmental Policy Alliance, kwuru na Sierra Club na ndị otu gburugburu US ndị ọzọ nwetara ego sitere n'aka otu ndị nwere njikọ na ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ nke Russia. == Nkatọ == === Ọnọdụ banyere ụlọ === Ndị otu Sierra Club abatala nkatọ maka imegide ọrụ mmepe ụlọ dị elu na California, bụ nke e bu n'obi belata ụkọ ụlọ na steeti ahụ yana ibelata ikuku ikuku griin. Ethan Elkind, onye nduzi nke mmemme ihu igwe na Center for Law, Energy and Environment (CLEE) na UC Berkeley Law, kwuru na mmegide nke Sierra Club megide California Senate Bill 827-nke ga-achọ ka obodo kwe ka ụlọ denser na ogologo ụlọ dị nso na ọha mmadụ. ebe a na-ebuga njem ma mee ka ihe ndị obodo ahụ na-adọba ụgbọala na-adọba ụgbọala dị mfe nke nwere ike itinye maka mmepe ụlọ - bụ "ihe ijuanya". O dere, sị, "Sierra Club bụ nzukọ nke ndị nwe ụlọ bara ọgaranya bụ ndị na-achọ ime ka ndị ọhụrụ ghara ịbanye n'ebe ha dị elu, ebe ndị na-agafe agafe? Ma ọ bụ na ha na-agba mbọ n'ezie ịlụ ọgụ maka mgbanwe ihu igwe site n'inye ụlọ zuru ezu maka Californians na obere carbon carbon, na-ejuputa ebe? N'ihi na mmegide ha megide SB 827 dị mwute ikwu na-egosi karịa nke mbụ karịa nke ikpeazụ." Na 2023, Sierra Club nke Hawaii katọrọ Gọvanọ Josh Green maka iwepụta nkwupụta mberede na ụkọ ụlọ Hawaii na inye iwu onye isi nke meziri iwu ụlọ na Hawaii ma kwụsịtụrụ ụkpụrụ iji ala dị iche iche. === Mmetụta mba ọzọ nwere ike inwe === N'ọgwụgwụ 2020, onye nnọchi anya Liz Cheney nke Wyoming rịọrọ Ngalaba Ikpe Ziri Ezi nke United States (DOJ) ka ha nyochaa otu gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka Sierra Club, na-ekwu na "mgba ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na nke ikpe siri ike - jikọtara ya na eziokwu ahụ bụ na otu ndị a na-akwadokarị echiche ndị kwekọrọ. ya na ndị mmegide anyị - na-eme ka ọ bụrụ ihe dị oke egwu na Ngalaba ahụ maara mmetụta ọ bụla nke mba ọzọ nwere ike ime n'ime ma ọ bụ na-ezubere otu ndị a." === Njem E Mere Ịbụ Izrel === Na mbido 2021, otu dị iche iche na-akwado ndị Palestine chọrọ ka Sierra Club kagbuo njem "ịcha ahịhịa" na "apartheid" Israel. N'ihi nke a, ndị otu Sierra Club kwuputara ịkagbu njem abụọ na-abịa, mana ọ gbanwere mkpebi ya ngwa ngwa, na-ekwu na ọ "na-eme ngwa ngwa" na-enweghị nyocha nke ndị otu siri ike. O mechara kwupụta njem hazigharịrị, nke gụnyere nleta na Golan Heights na ókèala Palestine, mana ọ kagbughị njem ahụ. == Ịdu == === Ndị isi ala === Ndị isi otu ọgbakọ Siera agụnyela:   === Ndị nduzi === Ndị isi otu ọgbakọ Siera agụnyela:   === Ndị nduzi ===   == Hụkwa ==    == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * David Brower, For Earth's Sake: The Life and Times of David Brower (Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1990) * Michael McCloskey, In the Thick of It: My Life in the Sierra Club (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005) * Tom Turner, Sierra Club: 100 Years of Protecting Nature (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1991) * Holt-Atherton Special Collections John Muir Papers Archived at the Wayback Machine == Njikọ mpụga == * Official website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181209221534/https://addup.org/ Sierra Club's Addup.org] * [http://www.tscf.org/ Ntọala Sierra Club] * [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf4j49n7st/?query=Sierra%2520Club Ntuziaka maka] ndị otu Sierra Club Akwụkwọ na The Bancroft Library * Ịchọta Enyemaka na Sierra Club Southwest Office ndekọ, 1900-2000, The Bancroft Library * Ịchọta Enyemaka na Sierra Club Board of Directors nzukọ nkeji, 1892-1995, The Bancroft Library * [https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/muir/ Ịchọta Enyemaka maka John Muir Papers] {{U.S. anti-nuclear|state=collapsed}}{{Authority control}} pzzi4c6y5ef07cea8944ub5re9obxz7 Tunji Olurin 0 30716 688020 541081 2026-07-14T05:26:50Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688020 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}   '''Adetunji Idowu Ishola Olurin''' mni (Yoruba; 3 Disemba 1944 - 20 Ọgọst 2021) bụ onye ọchịagha Naijiria nke jere ozi dị ka Gọvanọ ndị agha nke Oyo Steeti site na 1985 ruo 1988 na Field Commander nke ECOMOG Peacekeeping Force na Liberia site na 1992 ruo 1993 n'oge Agha Obodo Mbụ nke [[Liberia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1560&Itemid=34|title=NewsWatchngr – Explore news that is trending now|work=NewsWatchngr|language=en-US|accessdate=22 December 2017|archivedate=13 July 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713030211/http://www.newswatchngr.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1560&Itemid=34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/just-in-ex-military-governor-olurin-dies-at-76/|title=Ex- MIlitary Governor Olurin dies at 76|work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]]|date=21 August 2021|accessdate=21 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="oduyela">{{Cite web|url=http://nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/oduyela/111504.html|title=OWNERS OF NIGERIA|date=15 November 2004|publisher=Nigeriaworld website|accessdate=27 February 2010|archivedate=23 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223064124/http://nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/oduyela/111504.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rulers.org/nigastat.html|title=Nigerian states|work=rulers.org|accessdate=22 December 2017}}</ref> Olurin lara ezumike nká n'ọrụ na 1993, ọ bụkwa onye otu Peoples Democratic Party (PDP). Ọ bụ onye nchịkwa nke [[Ȯra Ekiti|Ekiti Steeti]] site na 8 Ọktoba 2006 ruo 27 Eprel 2007. == Ọmụmụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Tunji Olurin na Ilaro na Chief M. A. O. Olurin, [[Zaina Agoro|Agoro]] nke Ilaro, na Madam Abigail Fola Olurin. Ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ na Egbado College (nke bụzi Yewa College), wee gaa Technical College, Ibadan (nke bụ ugbu a Ibadan Polytechnic) n'afọ 1966. Ọ ghọrọ onye a na-enye ọzụzụ na Times Press na [[Apapa]], Lagos. N'afọ 1967, ọ banyere na Nigerian Defence Academy (NDA), [[Kaduna]], ebe ọ nwetara asambodo NDA nke agụmakwụkwọ. Ọ gara ọtụtụ ọmụmụ ọkachamara n'oge ọrụ agha ya. Ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na School of Infantry, Quetta, Pakistan, Command and Staff College, Jaji, [[Ȯra Kaduna|Kaduna]] na National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, [[Jos]].<ref name="aworibio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.yewa-awori.com/site/article-3,0.html|title=PROFILE OF BRIGADIER-GENERAL ADETUNJI IDOWU OLURIN (RTD)|date=13 December 2007|publisher=Yewa Awori People's Website|accessdate=12 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426113657/http://www.yewa-awori.com/site/article-3,0.html|archivedate=26 April 2010}}</ref> == Ọrụ agha == Olurin debanyere aha na ndị agha Naijiria n'afọ 1967 dị ka onye isi cadet nke 3rd Regular Course ebe ọ nwetara NDACE (Nigerian Defence Academic of Education) ma nye ya ọrụ lieutenant nke abụọ na ndị agha na-achị Naijiria na Machị 1970. Ọ ghọrọ onye isi Brigade Battalion na Kainji n'afọ 1973, ọ bụkwa osote onye isi nchịkwa nke Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. Ọ bụ osote onye ndụmọdụ nchekwa na Kọmitii Ukwu Naịjirịa na India (1975-1978) na ọkwa nke onye isi. Mgbe ọ gachara Staff College na 1978, e zigara ya na United Nations Peace Keeping Operation na Lebanọn, ebe ọ nyere ndị agha Naijiria iwu na United Nations Interim Force na [[Lebanon|Lebanone]] (UNIFIL). E zigara ndị agha ya n'etiti ndị agha Palestine na ndị agha Israel. N'afọ 1981, dị ka General Staff Officer Operations na Army Headquarters, ọ kwadoro ndị agha na-ahụ maka udo nke OAU na [[Chad]]. Ndị agha a gụnyere ndị agha si Nigeria, [[Senegal]], [[Kenya]] na Zaire. N'afọ 1981, ọ rụrụ ọrụ na [[Kano]] iji gbochie ndị nnupụisi nke ndị okpukpe na-eduga.<ref name="aworibio"/> N'oge nnupụisi nke August 1985, mgbe a chụpụrụ Major General Muhammadu Buhari ma jiri Major General Ibrahim Babangida dochie ya. Tunji Olurin bụ Commander nke 1st Mechanized Brigade, [[Minna]]. Ọ "maara" mana ọ bụghị "na-arụsi ọrụ ike" n'ọchịchị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.waado.org/nigerdelta/nigeria_facts/MilitaryRule/Omoigui/PalaceCoup-1985.htm|title=NIGERIA: THE PALACE COUP OF AUGUST 27, 1985|author=Nowa Omoigui|publisher=Urhobo Historical Society|accessdate=12 December 2009|archivedate=8 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608090914/http://www.waado.org/nigerdelta/nigeria_facts/militaryrule/omoigui/PalaceCoup-1985.htm}}</ref> Mgbe nnupụisi ahụ gasịrị, a họpụtara ya dịka Gọvanọ Ndị Agha nke Oyo Steeti (1985-1988). N'oge ọ bụ gọvanọ, ọ bụ onye otu National Council of States.<ref name="aworibio"/> N'afọ 1987, o guzobere kọmitii nke na 1988 tụrụ aro ka e guzobe ihe ghọrọ Mahadum Teknụzụ Ladoke Akintola.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lautech.edu.ng/aboutlautech.php|title=Overview of LAUTECH|publisher=Ladoke Akintola University of Technology|accessdate=12 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091127073938/http://www.lautech.edu.ng/aboutlautech.php|archivedate=27 November 2009}}</ref> N'afọ 1990, Olurin ghọrọ onye isi ndị agha na-achịkwa 3rd Armoured Division na Jos na onye otu Armed Forces Ruling Council.<ref name="aworibio"/> Ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka Field Commander na ECOMOG Peacekeeping Force na [[Liberia]] site na Disemba 1992 ruo Septemba 1993, mgbe Brigadier General John Nanzip Shagaya wepụrụ ya. O jiri mmekọrịta a tụkwasịrị obi ya na onye isi ala Naijiria, General [[Ibrahim Babangida]], nweta ndị agha ọzọ maka ọrụ ahụ, na Jenụwarị 1993 nwere ndị agha 16,000 n'okpuru ya nke 12,000 bụ ndị Naijiria. Olurin kpebisiri ike ịmanye Charles Taylor ka ọ gbachitere onwe ya. Atụmatụ ime ihe ike ya nwere ihe ịga nke ọma n'agha, na-amanye NPFL ịmalite mkparịta ụka na July 1993, ọ bụ ezie na a na-ebo ya ebubo na ọ na-egosi ihu ọma nye ụfọdụ òtù ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Liberia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Liberia's civil war: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and regional security in West Africa|author=Adekeye Adebajo|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2002|isbn=1-58826-052-6}}</ref> == Ọrụ ya mgbe e mesịrị == Na 9 Machị 2002, a họpụtara Tunji Olurin dị ka onye isi oche nke Yewa Group (YG), nke e guzobere iji zụlite Yewaland na Ogun State.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thisdayonline.com/archive/2002/03/29/20020329news41.html|title=Olurin Advocates Self Sustenance|author=Sony Neme|publisher=ThisDay|date=29 March 2002|accessdate=12 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050517164447/http://www.thisdayonline.com/archive/2002/03/29/20020329news41.html|archivedate=17 May 2005}}</ref> N'abalị iri abụọ na isii n'ọnwa Septemba n'afọ 2006, ụlọ omebe iwu nke Ekiti steeti chụpụrụ gọvanọ, Ayodele Fayose na osote ya [[Abiodun Olujimi|Abiodun Christine Olujimi]], na-ebo ebubo na ha mere ihe ọjọọ. N'abalị iri na itoolu n'ọnwa Ọktoba n'afọ 2006, Onye isi ala [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] kwupụtara ọnọdụ mberede na [[Ȯra Ekiti|Ekiti Steeti]] ma kwụsị gọvanọ, osote gọvanọ na ụlọ nzukọ nke steeti ahụ. Ọ họpụtara Tunji Olurin, dị ka "Onye nchịkwa" na Ekiti State. Nzukọ nke Mba kwadoro ọnọdụ mberede na 26 Ọktoba.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawodu.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=164|title=Do Fayose And Olujimi Still Have Immunity?|author=Mobolaji E. Aluko, PhD|date=27 October 2006|publisher=Dawodu|accessdate=12 December 2009|archivedate=2 January 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102144458/http://dawodu.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=164}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6065706.stm|date=19 October 2006|title=Fears over Nigeria emergency rule|author=Senan Murray|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=12 December 2009}}</ref> N'oge na-adịghị anya mgbe a họpụtara ya, Olurin gbasara kansụl gọọmentị ime obodo, ndị ụlọ ọrụ Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) na-enyocha maka ebubo na ha na-emebi ihe dị ka ijeri naira 7.3.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/special/10225101502.htm|title=What Ekiti Elders Want|date=25 February 2007|author=Tunji Ola|publisher=NewsWatch|accessdate=12 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727104825/http://www.newswatchngr.com/editorial/allaccess/special/10225101502.htm|archivedate=27 July 2011}}</ref> N'ọnwa Machị afọ 2007, Tunji Olurin nyere iwu ka ụlọ ọrụ redio na telivishọn nke Ekiti State ghara ịgbasa mmemme nke onye na-azọ ọkwa gọvanọ nke steeti, Kayode Fayemi, ka ọ na-enye ohere mgbasa ozi site na PDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.triumphnewspapers.com/archive/DT12032007/ac123207.html|title=AC blasts Ekiti administrator for partisanship|date=12 March 2007|publisher=Daily Triumph|accessdate=12 December 2009|archivedate=17 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717104943/http://www.triumphnewspapers.com/archive/DT12032007/ac123207.html}}</ref> Olurin nọgidere na-achị ruo mgbe Tope Ademiluyi nọchiri ya na 27 Eprel 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.speakersoffice.gov.ng/constituencies_ekiti.htm|title=CONSTITUENCIES – EKITI STATE|publisher=Office of the Speaker, Nigeria House of Representatives|accessdate=12 December 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163943/http://www.speakersoffice.gov.ng/constituencies_ekiti.htm|archivedate=18 April 2010}}</ref> Kemgbe ahụ, a na-echefu ya na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mgbe e meriri ya na ntuli aka Gọvanọ Ogun Steeti na 2011. == Onyinye na nsọpụrụ == Olurin akụziwo banyere idebe udo na International Peace Academy, National War College, na nzukọ ọmụmụ ihe nke United Nations na Ghana, Nigeria, na Senegal. N'afọ 2006, Gọvanọ Gbenga Daniel nke Ogun Steeti họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ Chancellor nke Mahadum Mbụ nke Mmụta na Naijiria, TASUED.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Admin|title=ADETUNJI OLURIN, OGUN PDP GOVERNORSHIP CANDIDATE FLAGS OFF CAMPAIGN IN ILARO|url=https://www.brandiconimage.com/2011/04/adetunji-olurin-ogun-pdp-governorship.html|work=Brandiconimage|accessdate=26 January 2019}}</ref> Olurin abụwo onye natara ọtụtụ nsọpụrụ gụnyere United Nations Peace Medal na Knight Commander of the Humane Order of African Redemption (KCHOAR), ihe nrite nsọpụrụ kachasị elu nke mba Liberia. Ọ bụ onye isi nsọpụrụ nke Republic of Liberia.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Admin|title=ADETUNJI OLURIN, OGUN PDP GOVERNORSHIP CANDIDATE FLAGS OFF CAMPAIGN IN ILARO|url=https://www.brandiconimage.com/2011/04/adetunji-olurin-ogun-pdp-governorship.html|work=Brandiconimage|accessdate=26 January 2019}}</ref> == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}}{{OyoStateGovernors}}{{Nigeria Babangida Governors}}{{EkitiStateGovernors}}{{Nigerian state governors 2003-2007 term}} [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] e0l7g8988h8wrt5t7hebh4au6xnpuce Wale Oyejide 0 34162 688047 638549 2026-07-14T10:34:23Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Walé Oyéjidé''' bụ onye ọka iwu Naijiria-America, onye na-eti egwu na onye na-emepụta ejiji. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/fashion/discussing-costume-design-with-nigerian-designer-wale-oyejide-id8023589.html|title=Discussing costume design with Nigerian designer Walé Oyéjidé - Fashion|language=de|publisher=Pulse.ng|date=2018-02-22|accessdate=2018-06-27|archivedate=2018-06-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627091338/http://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/fashion/discussing-costume-design-with-nigerian-designer-wale-oyejide-id8023589.html}}</ref> bụ onye guzobere na onye nduzi okike nke ụlọ ọrụ ejiji Ikire Jones . <ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web|author=Lo|first=Andrea|url=https://money.cnn.com/2018/03/19/smallbusiness/ikire-jones-black-panther/index.html|title=How 'Black Panther' scarf designer got his big break|publisher=Money.cnn.com|date=2018-03-19|accessdate=2018-06-27|archivedate=2018-06-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627115704/http://money.cnn.com/2018/03/19/smallbusiness/ikire-jones-black-panther/index.html}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ikirejones.com/our-team/|title=Ikiré Jones - Our Team|publisher=Ikirejones.com|date=|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> == Oge ọ malitere == A mụrụ Oyéjide na 1981, na [[Ibadan]], Nigeria. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/sunday/index.php/the-arts/17750-wale-oyejide-the-musician-attorney-and-fashion-designer|title=Wale Oyejide: The musician, attorney and fashion designer|publisher=Dailytrust.com.ng|date=2014-08-10|accessdate=2018-06-27|archivedate=2018-06-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627092457/https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/sunday/index.php/the-arts/17750-wale-oyejide-the-musician-attorney-and-fashion-designer}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">{{Cite web|url=https://fellowsblog.ted.com/meet-the-nigerian-designer-weaving-african-textiles-with-renaissance-art-including-some-of-black-6112c65ec68b|title=Meet the Nigerian designer weaving African textiles with Renaissance art—including some of Black…|publisher=Fellowsblog.ted.com|date=|accessdate=2018-06-27|archivedate=2024-06-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621111455/https://fellowsblog.ted.com/meet-the-nigerian-designer-weaving-african-textiles-with-renaissance-art-including-some-of-black-6112c65ec68b}}</ref>'afọ ndị 1990, ya na nne ya kwagara Dubai, United Arab Emirates, tupu ha agaa Alabama, U.S., n'oge ọ dị afọ iri na ụma. == Mmụta == <ref name="autogenerated1"/> gụrụ akwụkwọ iwu wee gaa ụlọ akwụkwọ iwu. == Ọrụ == === Ọrụ egwu === Oyejide ewepụtala abọm egwu anọ, gụnyere ''otu ụbọchị ihe niile gbanwere'' (2004), <ref>{{Cite web|author=Wale Oyejide|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/wale-oyejide-mn0000525510|title=Wale Oyejide &#124; Album Discography|publisher=AllMusic|date=|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> ''Broken Jazz 101'' (2004), na ''Africahot! '' ''Oge Afrofuture'' Sessions (2006).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fusicology.com/blog/2006/09/07/africa-hot-the-afrofuture-sessions/|title=The Afrofuture Sessions « Global Soul Events, Music, News|publisher=Fusicology.com|date=2018-06-23|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Hopper|first=Justin|url=https://www.xlr8r.com/reviews/africa-hot-the-afrofuture-sessions|title=Wale Oyejide Africa Hot! The Afrofuture Sessions|publisher=XLR8R|date=2006-09-30|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> === Ọrụ iwu === <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.esquire.com/style/mens-fashion/a25680/best-dressed-finalists-0910/|title=Best Dressed Finalists - Esquire's Best Dressed Real Man Finalists 2010|publisher=Esquire.com|date=2010-08-17|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> hapụrụ egwu maka ụlọ akwụkwọ iwu. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.konbini.com/ng/inspiration/meet-wale-oyejide-the-renaissance-man-that-has-juggled-music-law-and-fashion/|title=Meet Wale Oyejide – The Renaissance Man That Juggles Music, Law And Fashion|publisher=Konbini.com|date=2017-05-31|accessdate=2018-06-27|archivedate=2018-06-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627091249/http://www.konbini.com/ng/inspiration/meet-wale-oyejide-the-renaissance-man-that-has-juggled-music-law-and-fashion/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.articulateshow.org/articulate/wale-oyejide|title=Articulate — Walé Oyéjidé|publisher=Articulateshow.org|date=2017-05-04|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> rụrụ ọrụ iwu ruo afọ ole na ole tupu ọ banye n'ihe ejiji. === Ọrụ ejiji === Oyejide malitere ụlọ ọrụ ejiji ya, Ikire Jones, na 2014 mgbe ọ hapụsịrị ọrụ ya dị ka onye ọka iwu. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/marvel-takes-new-york-fashionistas-to-black-panther-wakanda/4252070.html|title=Marvel Takes New York Fashionistas to Black Panther's Wakanda|publisher=Voanews.com|date=2018-02-13|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.okayafrica.com/ikire-jones-fashion-trends-menswear-west-african-prints/|title=PrĂŞt-Ă€-Poundo: IkirĂŠ Jones for The Western African & International Dandy|publisher=OkayAfrica|date=2013-05-10|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> Jones, dị ka Oyejide kọwara n'oge ọ na-agba Okayafrica ajụjụ ọnụ, bụ ngwakọta nke ịkwa akwa Neapolitan na ịma mma Africa. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/movies/marvel-studios-brings-black-panther-new-york-fashion-week-article-1.3816578|title=Marvel Studios brings 'Black Panther' to New York Fashion Week|publisher=NY Daily News|date=2018-02-12|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=AFP|url=https://m.guardian.ng/life/black-panther-fever-hits-new-york-fashion-week/|title=Black Panther Fever Hits New York Fashion Week — Guardian Life — The Guardian Nigeria Newspaper – Nigeria and World News|publisher=M.guardian.ng|date=2018-02-13|accessdate=2018-06-27}}</ref> Jones mepụtara ụfọdụ uwe maka ihe nkiri Marvel ''Black Panther''. == Mgbasa ozi == Oyejide apụtala <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.articulateshow.org/press/season-1 |title=''Articulate'' Season 1 |accessdate=2023-11-05 |archivedate=2019-04-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406120838/https://www.articulateshow.org/press/season-1 }}</ref> usoro telivishọn ọha na eze Articulate na 2015. == Ndụ onwe onye == Oyejide lụrụ <ref name="autogenerated2"/> ma nwee nwa nwanyị. == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] rq6vwbe5nyb1tn3tvx7xblkoa48ox47 Igodo 0 34349 688052 135928 2026-07-14T11:29:00Z R. Henrik Nilsson 24632 gallery: Early 20th century lever lock key by August Stenman AB Eskilstuna Sweden.jpg | Igodo 688052 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Igodo''' mà ọ bụ '''Igodo''' nwèrè ike na-ezo áká: <gallery mode=nolines> Early 20th century lever lock key by August Stenman AB Eskilstuna Sweden.jpg|Igodo </gallery> 67uux6ud437lqsbmk9uar4znul24bxv Ogige Anụ Ọhịa na Al Wusta 0 34724 687990 144824 2026-07-13T21:47:50Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687990 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Arabian Oryx Sanctuary.jpg|thumb|Ogige Anụ Ọhịa na Al Wusta]]   Ogige Anụ Ọhịa dị na Al Wusta, nke bụ Ogige Oryx nke Arabian, bụ ogige okike dị na Ọzara Central nke Omani na Ugwu Coastal. A gụnyere ya na ndepụta UNESCO World Heritage, ma na ọ ghọrọ ebe mbụ e wepụrụ na ndepụta World Heritage na afọ 2007. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Oman eyes boost in ecotourism with new Oryx sanctuary|url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/386244-oman-eyes-boost-in-ecotourism-with-new-oryx-sanctuary|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223115642/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/386244-oman-eyes-boost-in-ecotourism-with-new-oryx-sanctuary|archivedate=2017-12-23}}</ref> Ụdị ndị n'ebe nchekwa ahụ gụnyere Mountain Gazelle, Nubian ibex, Arabian wolf, honey badger na Caracal. Na ọnwa June 28, n'afọ 2007, e wepụrụ ebe nchekwa ahụ na ndekọ World Heritage Site. UNESCO kwuru mkpebi Oman iji belata ebe ahụ site na 90% mgbe achọtara mmanụ na ebe ahụ, ya na mbelata nke ọnụ ọgụgụ oryx Arabian site na 450 na afọ 1996 ruo 65 na afọ 2007 n'ihi ịchụ nta na [[mbibi ebe obibi]]. 'oge ahụ, ọ bụ naanị ụzọ anọ fọdụrụ. == Edemsibe == 3s1o3uqmg73yqhwe1x6a4jx2rgru3wp String potentiometer 0 34916 687985 632618 2026-07-13T20:20:45Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687985 wikitext text/x-wiki Eriri potentiometer bụ transducer eji achọpụta na tụọ ọnọdụ kwụ ọtọ na ọsọ ọsọ site na iji eriri na-agbanwe agbanwe na spool nwere mmiri. Aha ndị ọzọ a na-ahụkarị gụnyere eriri eriri, transducer ndọtị eriri, ihe mmetụta waya, na sensọ yo-yo == Ihe ndị mejupụtara ya == A na-eji akụkụ anọ dị mkpa eme ihe: eriri na-atụle, spool, spring, na ihe mmetụta ntụgharị. N'ime ụlọ transducer, a na-afụ eriri ígwè na-adịghị agba nchara na eriri cylindrical na-adịgide adịgide nke na-agbagharị ka eriri na-atụle na unreels. Iji mee ka eriri dịgide, a na-ejikọta isi iyi torsion na spool. A na-ejikọta spool na shaft nke ihe mmetụta ntụgharị (a Potentiometer ma ọ bụ rotary encoder). Ka eriri transducer na-agbasa na ihe a na-agagharị agagharị, ọ na-eme ka spool na ihe mmetụta na-agbagharị. Ogwe ntụgharị ahụ na-emepụta mgbaàmà eletrik nke kwekọrọ na ndọtị ma ọ bụ ọsọ nke eriri ahụ. == Ngwa == A na-eji eriri potentiometers tụọ ọnọdụ nke ihe na-agagharị agagharị. Enwere ike ijikọta eriri nlele ahụ kpọmkwem na akụkụ na-agagharị agagharị, na-enye nha mgbe niile nke ọnọdụ ya. Ndị injinia na ndị na-emepụta ihe ejirila ụdị ihe a dị mfe mee ihe ruo ihe dị ka afọ 40.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> String potentiometers na-adịkarị ogologo, dị mfe iji, ma dị ọnụ ala. Ngwa mbụ maka ite eriri na 1960s bụ nnwale ike ọgwụgwụ cyclic aerospace.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> Ndị injinia mepụtara ma wuo nkeji ndị a na mbụ iji tụọ mmegharị nke akụkụ ụgbọelu ka ha na-agbagharị n'oge nnwale.   Taa, a na-eji ite eriri ahụ eme ihe maka nnwale na dịka akụkụ nke ngwá ọrụ.   Ngwa ndị a na-ahụkarị gụnyere: * It * Ọnọdụ cylinder hydraulic, * ule ụgbọ ala na aerospace, * akpaaka ụlọ ọrụ, * Ngwaọrụ ọgwụ, * mmanụ na kemịkal, * Ule nke ihe owuwu, * ígwè ọrụ mmepụta ihe, * robotics.<ref>W. McMahan, V. Chitrakaran, M. Csencsits, D. Dawson, I. D. Walker, B. A. Jones, M. Pritts, D. Dienno, M. Grissom, C. D. Rahn, [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1642051&isnumber=34383 "Field trials and testing of the OctArm continuum manipulator]," Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp.2336-2341, May 2006</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.clemson.edu/ces/crb/students/vilas/projects/octor/images/arm_internals_big.png|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2015-07-21|archivedate=2015-09-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923222442/http://www.clemson.edu/ces/crb/students/vilas/projects/octor/images/arm_internals_big.png}}</ref> A na-eji cylinders hydraulic eme ihe n'ọtụtụ ụlọ ọnwụ dịka forklifts, cranes na aerials, njikwa ihe, die-casting, mmanụ na gas, robotics na akpaaka.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> Ịtụle ndọtị nke cylinder chọrọ ihe ọmụma banyere ọnọdụ ya ugbu a, a na-ejikarịkwa potentiometer eriri. Enwere ike ijikọta eriri potentiometer dị ka ihe na-eguzogide eriri atọ (onye na-ekewa voltaji), na circuit nchịkwa, ma ọ bụ enwere ike ijikọ ya na ngwá electronic iji mepụta mgbaàmà nlele n'ụdị bara uru, dị ka voltaji 0-10 VDC, mgbanwe ugbu a 4-20mA, onye na-ede akara, Bus (DeviceNet na Canbus) na nkwukọrịta RS-232. Nlele dịgasị iche site na ihe dị ka 1 inch ruo ihe karịrị 100 feet ma dị n'ọtụtụ nha ngwugwu kwesịrị ekwesị. == Ihe mgbochi nke usoro ahụ == Ebe ọ bụ na eriri igwe nwere ike ịla azụ ma ọ bụ jiri ifufe ma ọ bụ ike ndọda chegharịa, ngụkọ zuru oke nke nha potentiometer eriri nwere oke. Usoro eriri na-egbochi ọsọ nke ihe atụtara nwere ike ibugharị. Mgbanwe okpomọkụ na-emetụta ma ogologo eriri USB na uru nguzogide nke potentiometer. Ebe a na-atụ ọtụtụ ihe, dị ka akụkọ dị n'ahịrị mgbakọ, ma ọ bụ ihe ndị na-ekpo ọkụ ma ọ bụ ihe mkpuchi mmiri, a chọrọ usoro na-enweghị kọntaktị. Ụzọ nha ọnọdụ kwụ ọtọ ndị ọzọ gụnyere LVDT, ihe mmetụta ike na inductive, yana ndị ntụgharị rack-na-pinion na-agbanwe mmegharị ahịrị ka ọ bụrụ ngagharị rotary. Ngwa anya (oge ụgbọ elu), ultrasonic, na ndị ntụgharị radar dị ma chọta ngwa pụrụ iche. == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [http://celesco.com/faq/cet.htm Okpokoro eriri: Ihe osise na Nkọwa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20250220195757/http://www.unimeasure.com/applicat.htm Igbe eriri: Ihe eji eme ya] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410031430/http://www.firstmarkcontrols.com/s054b.htm String Potentiometer na String Encoder Engineering Guide] mlcyi81ai4kttubca7a9b6zx33hgui2 Uwe Mmanụ Ala Palgrave 0 35290 688038 208111 2026-07-14T08:12:04Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=Olive Coates Palgrave|image=|caption=|birth_name=Olive Hannibal Trolip|birth_date=5 April 1889|birth_place=[[Cradock, Eastern Cape]], South Africa|death_date=August 1963|death_place=[[Umtali]], [[Southern Rhodesia]]|nationality=South African|education=[[Huguenot College]]|spouse=Sidney Heneage Coates Palgrave (1915-death)|children=3}} [[Category:Articles with hCards]] <ref name="caro_Gard">{{Cite web|title=Olive Coates Palgrave|author=Jansen|first=Carolize|work=Gardens and I|date=2011|accessdate=2017-10-13|url=http://www.carolizejansen.com/Olive-Coates-Palgrave.html|language=|quote=|archivedate=2016-03-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222414/http://www.carolizejansen.com/Olive-Coates-Palgrave.html}}</ref> [[Order of the British Empire|Olive Hannibal Coates Palgrave MBE (5 mota 1889 - August 1963) ọ bụ onye na-ese ihe osise botanical nke South Africa, nke a maara ma ka akwụkwọ ya nke 1956 "Trees of Central Africa".]] == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ ya na [[Cradock, Eastern Cape]], ọ bụ nwa nke mbụ n'ime ma ọ dịkarịa ala ụmụ 5 nke Ada Mary Hannibal na Albert John Alfred Trollip (1857-1943), onye sitere na afọ 1820 Settlers, na onye ọrụ ugbo atụrụ Cradock nke tụfuru ìgwè atụrụ ya niile n'oké ifufe snow, nke mere ka ọ kwaga Southern Rhodesia na afọ 1895. Ezinụlọ ya sonyeere ya naanị na afọ 1900, jiri ụgbọ okporo ígwè gaa [[Bulawayo]] wee jiri ụlọ ọrụ Zeederberg Coach Company gaa [[Gwelo]], Matabele Rebellion na Boer War na-egbu oge ha. [[Bertha Stoneman|Agụm akwụkwọ ya malitere na Huguenot College dị na Wellington, Western Cape ebe ya na onye ọkà mmụta sayensị South Africa Ethel Doidge, batara n'okpuru nduzi nke onye nkuzi botany Bertha Stoneman, onye na-ahụ ma ka ihe ọkụkụ na onye dere 'Plants and their way in South Africa'. Olive gụsịrị akwụkwọ na afọ 1906.]]<nowiki/>unu N'afọ 1915, ọ lụrụ Sidney Heneage Coates Palgrave, onye ọrụ gọọmentị Rhodesia. Ha zụlitere ezinụlọ nke ụmụ nwoke atọ, Roderic (Deric) (1917), Keith (1926) na Paul (1929), ha niile na-esonyere ha na njem nlegharị anya n'ọhịa. Nwa ya nwoke Keith Coates Palgrave bipụtara Trees of Southern Africa na afọ 1977, ọrụ nke mejupụtara mkpa ma ka ọrụ ntụaka zụrụ oke iji mee ihe dị ka onye nduzi. Nwa ya nwoke Paul Coates Palgrave, na nwunye Paul Meg (née Stead) nyere foto ndị e ji mee ihe n'akwụkwọ Keith. Ọ nwụrụ na Umtali, Southern Rhodesia, mgbe ọ dị afọ 74. == Edemsibe == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [http://plants.jstor.org/visual/kpal00000056 JSTOR] * [http://rhodesianheritage.blogspot.com/2013/04/how-wild-west-coaches-opened-up-rhodesia.html Ụlọ ọrụ ụgbọ oloko Zeederberg] {{authority control}} 9dma76zj1l3tao5izkw3mahuq8y09oa Bafoi 0 36362 687934 150366 2026-07-13T12:47:09Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687934 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Rocky view in Gora bafai.jpg|thumb|Rocky view in Gora bafai]] . <ref name="PC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nigeriapostcode.com/search/?keyword=Gora&state=Kaduna|title=Nigeria Postcode|accessdate=September 28, 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nigeriapostcode.com/kaduna-zangon-kataf-bafoi-gora-bafoi.html|title=Bafoi, Zangon Kataf|work=Nigeria Postcode|accessdate=September 28, 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mapanet.eu/EN/Postal_Codes/?c=NG&n=4&r0=00&r1=19&r2=21&r3=05&r4=00&l=0|title=Bafoi Gora|work=Mapanet|accessdate=September 28, 2020}}</ref>Bafoi (nakwa Bafoi Kanai, Bafai Gora) [1] bụ obodo dị na Kanai district nke Zangon Kataf Local Government Area na ndịda Kaduna steeti na Middle Belt mpaghara Nigeria .  Koodu ozi nke mpaghara ahụ bụ 802145 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/nwest/233728-in-major-restructuring-el-rufai-slashes-kaduna-districts-to-pre-2001-numbers.html|title=In major restructuring, El-Rufai slashes Kaduna districts to pre-2001 numbers|first=Mohammed|author=Lere|date=June 12, 2017|publisher=Premium Times|accessdate=September 28, 2020}}</ref> Tupu afọ 2017, ọ bụbu mpaghara nke ya.  akụkụ, e ikpeazụ ya na mpaghara Kanai.  [1] Otu n'ime obodo ndị dị na mpaghara a bụ hh5dvozannzslzwqedv7f7vrgwplptl Victoria Lebene 0 38096 688044 198695 2026-07-14T09:27:23Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}  <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-05-25|title=Actress Victoria Lebene reveals more about her break up with Kofi Adjorlolo|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Actress-Victoria-Lebene-reveals-more-about-her-break-up-with-Kofi-Adjorlolo-541110|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=GhanaWeb|language=en}}</ref>'''Victoria Lebene Osafo-Nkansah''' (amụrụ na Julaị 30, 1989), nke a makwaara dị ka '''Victoria Lebene,''' bụ [[Ghana|Onye Ghana]] na-eme ihe nkiri, onye nta akụkọ <ref>{{Cite web|author=Online|first=Peace FM|title=Actress Victoria Lebene Mepka And Husband Welcome Their First Baby|url=https://peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/202006/416610.php|accessdate=2023-11-03|work=Peacefmonline.com - Ghana news|archivedate=2023-11-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103170402/https://peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/202006/416610.php}}</ref> na onye ọchụnta ego.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-03-29|title=Victoria Lebene addresses claims she dated Kofi Adjorlolo|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Victoria-Lebene-addresses-claims-she-dated-Kofi-Adjorlolo-1502129|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=GhanaWeb|language=en|archivedate=2023-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709220523/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Victoria-Lebene-addresses-claims-she-dated-Kofi-Adjorlolo-1502129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=|first=|title=Victoria Lebene Appointed United Nations Youth Ghana Secretary-General|url=https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/201908/388618.php|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Peacefmonline.com – Ghana news|archivedate=2023-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709220523/https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/201908/388618.php}}</ref> == Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Lebene na Accra ma gaa Zenith University College, ebe ọ gụrụ njikwa akụ mmadụ. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-24|title=Celebs who went back to school after getting famous|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Celebs-who-went-back-to-school-after-getting-famous-1476869|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=GhanaWeb|language=en|archivedate=2023-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709220523/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Celebs-who-went-back-to-school-after-getting-famous-1476869}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-25|title=Photos: Victoria ‘Nkonkonsa’ Lebene gets a Bachelor's Degree from AUCC|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/celebrities/photos-victoria-nkonkonsa-lebene-gets-a-bachelors-degree-from-aucc/5we6k6j|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Pulse Ghana|language=en}}</ref> mechara gaa African University College of Communications, ebe ọ nwetara nzere bachelọ na nkwukọrịta mmepe. == Ọrụ == Lebene mere ihe nkiri mbụ ya na 2012, mgbe e gosipụtara ya na usoro ihe nkiri Ghana Ultimate Story . <ref>{{Cite web|author=|first=|title=Actress Victoria Lebene Gives Back To Her Fans|url=https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/201707/319876.php|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Peacefmonline.com – Ghana news|archivedate=2023-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709220523/https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/201707/319876.php}}</ref> gara n'ihu na-arụ ọrụ na ''Miser'', A Sting In a Tale, Jackie Goes to School, Broken Mirror, Accra Girls, Honey Moon, Bitter Sweet Wine, ''Babaani,'' na ''Ramadan''. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ na akwụkwọ akụkọ na mmepụta akụkọ na [[GHOne TV]]. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-03-28|title=3Music Awards 2022: Full List of winners|url=https://www.gbcghanaonline.com/entertainment/3music-awards/2022/|accessdate=2023-07-09|language=en-US}}</ref> kwadoro Golden Movie Awards Red carpet na 2019, <ref>{{Cite web|author=Cecilia|first=Diesob A. K.|date=2019-08-14|title=This Year’s Golden Movie Awards Red Carpet Hosts Divas Unveiled: Madam Mimi Andani-Micheals Announces|url=https://africacelebrities.com/2019/08/14/this-years-golden-movie-awards-red-carpet-hosts-divas-unveiled-madam-mimi-andani-micheals-announces/|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=AfricaCelebrities.Com|language=en-US|archivedate=2023-07-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709220526/https://africacelebrities.com/2019/08/14/this-years-golden-movie-awards-red-carpet-hosts-divas-unveiled-madam-mimi-andani-micheals-announces/}}</ref> ma bụrụ otu n'ime ndị na-akwado red carpet na 3Music Awards 2022. == Onyinye na nhọpụta == {| class="wikitable" !Afọ !Ihe omume !Ihe nrite !Onye e nyere ya !Nsonaazụ |- |2017 |Ihe nrite ihe nkiri ọla edo nke afọ 2017 |Ihe nrite Golden Short Film of the Year |''Mmanya Na-atọ Mkpa''<ref>{{Cite web|author=digital_yfmadmin|date=2017-07-23|title=Golden Movie Awards 2017: Full list of winners|url=https://yfmghana.com/golden-movie-awards-2017-full-list-of-winners/|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=YFM Ghana|language=en-US}}</ref>|{{Won}} |- |2018 |Ihe nrite mkpu |Onye na-eme ihe nkiri nke Afọ |Onye <ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-19|title=Young Ghanaian Actress Victoria Lebene wins two awards|url=https://citinewsroom.com/2018/11/young-ghanaian-actress-victoria-lebene-wins-two-awards/|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Citinewsroom – Comprehensive News in Ghana|language=en-US}}</ref>-eme ihe nkiri nke Afọ [1]|{{Won}} |- |2018 |Ihe nrite C-Baze |Nwa akwụkwọ na-eme ihe nkiri kachasị amasị ya n'afọ |Nwa akwụkwọ <ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-19|title=Victoria Lebene wins awards in just 4 days|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/celebrities/victoria-lebene-wins-awards-in-just-4-days/chvhcwn|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Pulse Ghana|language=en}}</ref>-eme ihe nkiri kachasị amasị ya n'afọ [1]|{{Won}} |} == Ihe nkiri == * ''Deadly Deals'' * ''Ghana Single Ladies'' * ''Jackie Goes to School'' * ''Broken Mirror'' * ''The Honeymoon Trip'' * ''Baabani'' * ''My name is Ramadan'' * ''Bitter Sweet Wine'' * ''Freedom and Justice'' == Ndụ onwe onye == <ref>{{Cite web|author=Online|first=Peace FM|title=Actress Victoria Lebene Mepka And Husband Welcome Their First Baby|url=https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/202006/416610.php|accessdate=2023-07-10|work=Peacefmonline.com - Ghana news|archivedate=2023-07-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710132241/https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/202006/416610.php}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-11|title=VIDEO: Ghanaian blogger Eugene Nkansah weds Victoria Lebene at the beach|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/celebrities/ghanaian-blogger-eugene-nkanah-weds-victoria-lebene-at-the-beach/5s802jj|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Pulse Ghana|language=en}}</ref> lụrụ <ref>{{Cite web|title=Photos: Victoria Lebene, Eugene Osafo Nkansah tie the knot|url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/photos-victoria-lebene-eugene-osafo-nkansah-tie-the-knot|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=www.myjoyonline.com|language=en}}</ref> onye nta akụkọ ntụrụndụ [[Ghana|Onye Ghana]] Eugene Osafo-Nkansah <ref>{{Cite web|author=Afful|first=Aba|date=2020-06-11|title=Peace FM's Eugene Nkansah & Lebene celebrate 1st marriage anniversary|url=https://yen.com.gh/159571-eugene-osafo-nkansah-victoria-lebene-celebrate-1st-marriage-anniversary-photos-video.html|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Yen.com.gh – Ghana news.|language=en|archivedate=2025-03-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328062940/https://yen.com.gh/159571-eugene-osafo-nkansah-victoria-lebene-celebrate-1st-marriage-anniversary-photos-video.html}}</ref> ma ha nwere ụmụ abụọ. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Arthur|first=Portia|date=2023-01-20|title=Heavily pregnant Victoria Lebene stuns in white dress as she flaunts smooth skin|url=https://yen.com.gh/entertainment/style/226585-victoria-lebene-heavily-pregnant-wife-ghanaian-blogger-shows-smooth-face/|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Yen.com.gh – Ghana news.|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-29|title=Beautiful photos from Victoria Lebene and Eugene's baby christening|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/lifestyle/relationships-weddings/beautiful-photos-from-victoria-lebene-and-eugenes-baby-christening/v1b63jh|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=Pulse Ghana|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-12|title=Photos from blogger Eugene Osafo-Nkansah and actress Victoria Lebene’s wedding|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Photos-from-blogger-Eugene-Osafo-Nkansah-and-actress-Victoria-Lebene-s-wedding-754262|accessdate=2023-07-09|work=GhanaWeb|language=en}}</ref> Nna <ref>{{Cite web|author=Arthur|first=Portia|date=2017-07-21|title=If you want to do nudes, be classy|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/celebrities/victoria-lebene-if-you-want-to-do-nudes-be-classy/63xjrz9|accessdate=2023-11-03|work=Pulse Ghana|language=en}}</ref> bụ S.P Victor Mekpeh onye bụ Chief Superintendent Officer nke Ghana Prisons Service lara ezumike nká. [1] == Ọrụ ebere == <ref>{{Cite web|author=Ntumy|first=Elorm Kojo|date=29 July 2017|title=Victoria Lebene and friends donate to Dzorwulu Special Home|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/entertainment/showbiz-news/victoria-lebene-and-friends-donate-to-dzorwulu-special-home.html|accessdate=3 November 2013|work=Graphic Online}}</ref>'ọnwa Julaị 2017, Victoria na ụfọdụ n'ime ndị enyi ya nyere Dzorwulu Special Home na Accra nri ndị a na-esighị esi, ihe ọṅụṅụ, uwe, ihe mposi na mmiri a na-etinye na karama. == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == A Sting In a Tale, Jackie Goes to School, Broken Mirror, Accra Girls, Honey Moon, Bitter Sweet Wine, * {{IMDb name|13476313}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 20xiu83j39qduxvxd5we9pu4m95640e Sira (ihe nkiri) 0 38170 687960 631457 2026-07-13T16:58:15Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687960 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''''Sira''''' bụ Ihe nkiri ihe nkiri nke 2023 nke [[Apolline Traoré]] dere ma duzie na Nafissatou Cissé, Mike Danon, Lazare Minoungou, Nathalie Vairac na Ruth Werner. Ihe nkiri ahụ gosipụtara akụkọ banyere nwa okorobịa <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/film/438366/|title=Sira|first=Apolline|author=Traoré|work=Cineuropa|date=18 January 2023|accessdate=25 February 2023|language=en}}</ref>-akwagharị akwagharị aha ya bụ Sira, onye mgbe mwakpo obi ọjọọ gasịrị jụrụ inyefe onwe ya na ọdịnihu ya n'enweghị ọgụ ma kama ọ na-eguzogide egwu Islamist. Ọ bụ mmepụta n'etiti [[Burkina Faso]], Senegal, [[France]] na Germany. E gosipụtara ya n'ụwa niile na 21 Febụwarị 2023 na 73rd Berlin International Film Festival, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/en/newsdetail/436996|title=The Berlinale adds new titles to Berlinale Special and rounds off its Berlinale Series, Panorama and Generation line-ups|first=Davide|author=Abbatescianni|work=Cineuropa|date=18 January 2023|accessdate=25 February 2023|language=en|archivedate=10 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210080149/https://cineuropa.org/en/newsdetail/436996/}}</ref> ebe ọ meriri Panorama Audience Award maka Best Feature Film. <ref name="paa:berlinale">{{Cite web|url=https://www.berlinale.de/en/2023/news-press-releases/239395.html|title=The Panorama Audience Awards Go to Sira by Apolline Traoré and Kokomo City by D. Smith|work=Berlinale|date=25 February 2023|accessdate=25 February 2023}}</ref> A họọrọ ya dị ka ntinye Burkinabé na Best International Feature Film category maka 96th Academy Awards. Burki<ref name="24:lead">{{Cite web|url=https://www.24heures.bf/cinema-le-film-sira-de-apolline-traore-representera-le-burkina-faso-aux-oscars/|title=Cinéma : le film « Sira » de Apolline Traoré représentera le Burkina Faso aux Oscars|author=Prisca F. Konkobo|date=15 September 2023|accessdate=17 October 2023|work=24heures|language=fr|archivedate=18 October 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018055249/https://www.24heures.bf/cinema-le-film-sira-de-apolline-traore-representera-le-burkina-faso-aux-oscars/}}</ref> Faso weputara ihe nkiri na nke mbụ ya kemgbe afọ 1989. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aframe.oscars.org/news/post/96th-oscars-shortlists|title=96th Oscars Shortlists Announced for 10 Categories|date=21 December 2023|accessdate=22 December 2023|work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|language=en}}</ref><ref name="el:variety">{{Cite news|url=https://variety.com/2023/film/awards/oscars-eligibility-animated-documentary-international-feature-2023-1235827670/|title=Academy Announces 288 Eligible Titles for Animated, Documentary and International Feature Oscar Races|author=Clayton Davis|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=December 7, 2023|accessdate=December 7, 2023|language=en}}</ref> Disemba 7, ọ pụtara na ndepụta ruru eru maka ịtụle maka Oscars nke 2024, mana, ọ bataghị na ndepụta dị mkpirikpi. == Nkọwa == Ihe nkiri a na-eme na Sahel na-akọ akụkọ banyere nwa agbọghọ Fulani, Sira, na-eme njem izute di ya, Jean-Sidi. Na mberede, ndị na-eyi ọha egwu Islamist wakporo ya na ezinụlọ ya. A gbagburu ndị ikom ahụ niile ma onye ndú nke ndị òtù ahụ, Yéré, were Sira ma dinaa ya n'ike. A hapụrụ ya ka ọ nwụọ n'ọzara, Sira chọtara onwe ya naanị ya ma gbaba n'ọgba ka ọ na-akpa atụmatụ ndụ ya. == Ndị na-eme ihe nkiri == [[Usòrò:Sira_Berlinale_2023_03.jpg|thumb|Ndị na-eme ihe nkiri na ndị ọrụ nke ''Sira'' na Berlinale]] * Nafissatou Cissé dị ka Sira * Mike Danon dị ka Moustapha * Lazare Minoungou dị ka Yere * Nathalie Vairac dị ka Aissatou * Ruth Werner dị ka Kemi * Abdramane Barry dị ka Jean Sidi * Ildevert Meda dị ka Karim * Oumou Ba dị ka Djamila * Seydou Diallo dị ka Tidiane * Moïse Tiemtore dị ka Faysal == Mmepụta == Ihe nkiri ahụ nwetara enyemaka site na World Cinema Fund (WCF Africa Program) nke € 39,000 na Nọvemba 2021. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crew-united.com/de/Sira__293444.html|title=Sira, Spielfilm 2021-2023|date=2 February 2023|accessdate=27 February 2023|work=Crew United|language=de}}</ref> A họpụtara onye na-eme ihe nkiri, Nafissatou Cissé n'ime ihe karịrị otu puku ụmụ agbọghọ, bụ ndị a na-ege ntị. E mere ya na [[Mauritania]], Northwest Africa . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/en/interview/439247/|title=Apolline Traoré • Director of Sira|first=Teresa|author=Vena|date=25 February 2023|accessdate=27 February 2023|work=Cineuropa|language=en}}</ref> == Ntọhapụ == ''Sira'' nwere mmalite ya na 21 Febụwarị 2023, dị ka akụkụ nke 73rd Berlin International Film Festival, na Panorama . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2023/film/global/jafar-panahi-joan-baez-fan-bingbing-berlin-panorama-1235492962/|title='The Siren' to Open Berlinale's Panorama Strand, Jafar Panahi, Joan Baez, Fan Bingbing, George MacKay Feature in Selections|first=Naman|author=Ramachandran|date=18 January 2023|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|accessdate=25 February 2023}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africanwomenincinema.blogspot.com/2023/01/apolline-traore-sira.html|title=African Women in Cinema : Apolline Traoré: Sira - Berlinale et Fespaco - 2023|author=Beti Ellerson|work=African Women in Cinema|date=28 January 2023|language=en|accessdate=25 February 2023}}</ref> na-akpọkwa ya na 2023 Panafrican Film and Television Festival nke Ouagadougou, na asọmpi e mere site na 25 Febụwarị 2023 ruo 4 Machị. [1] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ccadiff.ukzn.ac.za/durban-international-film-festival-2023-announces-opening-and-closing-films/|title=Durban International Film Festival 2023 Announces Opening And Closing Films|date=20 June 2023|accessdate=29 October 2023|work=Durban International Film Festival|language=en}}</ref> meghere 44th Durban International Film Festival na 20 Julaị 2023. [1] <ref name="acc:pib">{{Cite news|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1975005|title=54th International Film Festival of India to be held from 20th to 28th November in Goa|date=6 November 2023|accessdate=14 November 2023|publisher=PIB}}</ref> họọrọ ya na 54th International Film Festival of [[Ndia|India]] na-asọmpi maka ICFT UNESCO Gandhi Medal, a gosikwara ya na 23 Nọvemba 2023. [1] <ref name="prog:sbiff">{{Cite news|url=https://sbiff.org/2024-program-announcement/|title=2024 Program Announcement|publisher=SBIFF|date=January 17, 2024|accessdate=January 17, 2024|language=en}}</ref> ga-egosi ya na 39th Santa Barbara International Film Festival na ngalaba 'Non Premiere Feature Films' na Febụwarị 2024. [1] N'abalị iri na anọ n'ọnwa Febụwarị afọ 2023, a kọrọ na ụlọ ọrụ na-ere ahịa dị na Paris bụ Wide enwetala ikike zuru ụwa ọnụ nke ihe nkiri ahụ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/wide-acquires-apolline-traores-berlinale-panorama-feature-sira-exclusive/5179083.article|title=Wide acquires Apolline Traoré's Berlinale Panorama feature 'Sira' (exclusive)|first=Rebecca|author=Leffler|date=14 February 2023|accessdate=25 February 2023|work=[[ScreenDaily]]|language=en}}</ref> == nnabata == Vladan Petkovic na-enyocha maka Cineuropa toro Nafissatou Cissé na-ede, "Ọ bụ Cissé bụ onye na-ejide ndị na-ege ntị na arụmọrụ ya niile, na-eme ka ihe nkiri ahụ dịkwuo egwu karịa usoro mmegwara ndina n'ike. " Petkovic nwere ekele maka onye nduzi [[Apolline Traoré]] na onye na-ese ihe nkiri Nicolas Berteyac maka "ihe nkiri dị mgbagwoju anya nke ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ, anụmanụ na ụgbọala ndị jupụtara na nnukwu foto". O toro onye nchịkọta akụkọ Sylvie Gadmer, onye o kwuru, "n'ụzọ dị mma na-ejikọta ha [shots] na ihe nkiri dị nso," na onye na-ede egwu Cyril Morin, maka "ihe kachasị mma". Maka ihe nkiri ahụ Petkovic kwuru, "Traoré chepụtara akụkọ ahụ n'ụzọ dị nkọ ma na-akwụwa aka ọtọ", nke a na-eme n'ebe dị iche iche "nke nwanyị Africa dị egwu dị ka onye na-eme ihe nkiri nke na-alụ ọgụ megide ihe niile". <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/en/newsdetail/439269/|title=Review: Sira|first=Vladan|author=Petkovic|date=27 February 2023|accessdate=27 February 2023|work=Cineuropa|language=en}}</ref> gbakwunyere, ihe niile na-eme ka ọ bụrụ "ihe nkiri na-adịghị ahụkebe nke ndị na-ege ntị n'Afrịka iji gbasaa na mba ụwa". == Ndị a nabatara == {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" !Ihe nrite !Ụbọchị !Ụdị !Onye e nyere ya !Nsonaazụ !Ihe mgbochi. |- ! scope="row" |Emume Ihe nkiri Mba Nile nke Berlin |25 Febụwarị 2023 |Ihe nrite Panorama Audience maka ihe nkiri kacha mma | rowspan="5" |''Sira''| {{Won}} | rowspan="1" align="center" |<ref name="paa:berlinale"/> |- ! scope="row" |Onyinye Ihe nkiri Amnesty International |25 Febụwarị 2023 |Ihe nrite Amnesty Film nke Berlinale| {{Nom}} | rowspan="1" align="center" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.de/informieren/aktuell/berlinale-filme-nominiert-amnesty-filmpreis-2023|title=20 Berlinale-Filme Für Den Amnesty-Filmpreis 2023 Nominiert|date=14 February 2023|accessdate=25 February 2023|work=Amnesty International|language=de}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou|FESPACO]] |FESPACO nke iri abụọ na asatọ (2023) |Ịnyịnya ọlaọcha nke Yennenga| {{Won}} | rowspan="1" align="center" |<ref name="24:lead"/> |- ! scope="row" |Ihe nkiri World Cinema Amsterdam |28 Ọgọstụ 2023 |Ihe nrite World Cinema Exchange 2023| {{Won}} | rowspan="1" align="center" |<ref name="24:lead" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inter-film.org/artikel/world-cinema-exchange-award-2023/11894|title=World Cinema Exchange Award 2023|first=Rolf|author=Deen|date=28 August 2023|accessdate=18 October 2023|work=Inter–film|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldcinemaamsterdam.nl/nl/nieuws/249/feestelijke-afsluiting-van-13e-editie-van-world-cinema-amsterdam|title=Feestelijke afsluiting van 13e editie van World Cinema Amsterdam|work=World Cinema Amsterdam|date=28 August 2023|accessdate=18 October 2023|language=nl|archivedate=27 September 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927193442/https://worldcinemaamsterdam.nl/nl/nieuws/249/feestelijke-afsluiting-van-13e-editie-van-world-cinema-amsterdam}}</ref> |- ! rowspan="2" scope="row" |Emume ihe nkiri mba ụwa nke India |28 Nọvemba 2023 |IFFI ICFT UNESCO Gandhi Medal| {{Nom}} | style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="acc:pib"/> |- |} == Hụkwa == * List of submissions to the 96th Academy Awards for Best International Feature Film * List of Burkinabé submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * {{IMDb title}} * [https://www.berlinale.de/en/2023/programme/202304143.html ''Sira''] na Berlinale * [https://www.crew-united.com/de/Sira__293444.html ''Sira''] na Crew United blqn1bgaq2tws15v01t5h0vmkgbxfu3 Urzila Carlson 0 38511 688037 541098 2026-07-14T07:42:07Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688037 wikitext text/x-wiki  {{Databox}} '''Urzila Carlson''' ( UR-shih-la / amuru 15 Febrụwarị 1976 ) bu onye ochi na onye omere na South Africa amuru na New Zealand, nke ama ama maka ihe ngosi nkwuputa ya na ihe ngosi ya na mmemme onyonyo. ma New Zealand na Australia. Carlson bụ onye na-ekwurịta okwu oge niile na ''7 Days'' <ref name=":0"/> <ref>Kanowski, Sarah (23 March 2018) [http://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/conversations/conversations-urzila-carlson/9558110 Urzila Carlson: a life without regrets], ''[[Conversations (radio program)|Conversations]]'', [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]. Accessed 27 April 2018.</ref> ''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/comedy/urzila-carlson-treats-standup-like-im-at-a-barbecue-with-mates-talking-s-20180307-h0x631.html|title=Urzila Carlson treats stand-up 'like I'm at a barbecue with mates talking s---'|author=Quinn|first=Karl|date=8 March 2018|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en|accessdate=15 January 2019}}</ref>'' yana ma ụdị Australia na New Zealand nke ''Ị na-aṅa ntị?'' Ọ bụkwa onye na-eme mkparịta ụka na ''The Masked Singer Australia'' maka ihe ngosi nke abụọ na nke atọ. <ref name="Masked Singer S2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.viacomcbsanz.com/news-and-insights/the-first-unmasking-urzila-carlson-is-ready-to-play-detective/|title=The first unmasking. Urzila Carlson is ready to play detective.|date=16 July 2020|work=[[ViacomCBS ANZ]]|publisher=[[Network 10|Network Ten]]|accessdate=16 July 2020}}</ref> na onye asọmpi na oge nke abụọ nke ''Taskmaster NZ'' . == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ Carlson na 1976 na Queen Victoria Hospital na Johannesburg . <ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatreview.org.nz/reviews/production.php?id=3182|title=URZILA CARLSON: THE LONG FLIGHT TO FREEDOM|work=Theatre Review|accessdate=17 January 2019|archivedate=31 March 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331012007/https://www.theatreview.org.nz/reviews/production.php?id=3182}}</ref> O tolitere na nchekwa ihe okike Ingwelala, <ref name=":5" /> n'akụkụ ogige ntụrụndụ Kruger <ref name="tm">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190417134454/http://www.travelmonitor.com.au/category/news/todays-news/comedian-urzila-carlson-is-new-south-african-tourism-ambassador/ COMEDIAN URZILA CARLSON IS NEW SOUTH AFRICAN TOURISM AMBASSADOR] Travel Monitor. 2 October 2018</ref> ma nwee nwanne na nwanne nwanyị. <ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=<!-- https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/news/article.cfm?c_id=1501119&objectid=11756332 -->https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/twelve-questions-with-urzila-carlson/LLSRDSIX5JKNZDNIJBDC6CKUDQ/|title=Twelve questions with Urzila Carlson|author=Dann|first=Jennifer|work=The New Zealand Herald|date=29 November 2016|accessdate=15 January 2019|language=en-NZ}}</ref> <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lotl.com/Culture/Rolling-With-The-Punchlines-Is-Urzila-Carlsons-Fascinating-Memoir--1474/|title='Rolling With The Punchlines' Is Urzila Carlson's Fascinating Memoir|work=lotl.com|accessdate=15 January 2019|archivedate=28 March 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328142201/http://www.lotl.com/Culture/Rolling-With-The-Punchlines-Is-Urzila-Carlsons-Fascinating-Memoir--1474/}}</ref> Ndị mụrụ ya kewara mgbe ọ dị afọ 6 ma ọ bụ 7. <ref name=":1"/> <ref name=":5" /> <ref name=":2" /> Carlson bụ nwanyị nwanyị nwere mmasị nwanyị wee pụtakwuru nne ya mgbe ọ dị afọ 24. <ref name=":0"/> Ọ na-ezo aka na onwe ya dị ka "onye na-enwe mmekọahụ", <ref name="nzherald/ITB2CLU4T4CIKMHAMKKWHVD7QU">{{Cite news|date=25 July 2023|title=Urzila Carlson: The comedian standing up for herself|language=en-NZ|work=NZ Herald|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/urzila-carlson-the-comedian-standing-up-for-herself/ITB2CLU4T4CIKMHAMKKWHVD7QU/|accessdate=25 July 2023}}</ref> onye na-ese foto nke nwanyị nwere mmasị nwanyị na Presbyterian . <ref name=":1" /> <ref name=":3">{{Cite web|author=Steve Bennett|date=2 January 2019|title=Comedians Of The World – Urzila Carlson|url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/review/2019/01/03/42007/comedians_of_the_world_-_urzila_carlson:_argument_library|accessdate=15 January 2019|work=Chortle|language=en}}</ref> Ọ lụrụ nwunye ya Julie na 2014, ha nwekwara otu nwoke na nwa nwanyị ọnụ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/celebrities/83109253/7-days-comedian-urzila-carlson-welcomes-baby-boy|title=7 Days comedian Urzila Carlson welcomes baby boy|work=Stuff|date=12 August 2016|language=en|accessdate=15 January 2019}}</ref> <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|author=Weaser|first=Laura|title=Urzila's Kiwi love story|url=https://www.nowtolove.co.nz/celebrity/celeb-news/urzilas-kiwi-love-story-2979|accessdate=15 January 2019|work=Now To Love|language=en|archivedate=14 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014232957/http://www.nowtolove.co.nz/celebrity/celeb-news/urzilas-kiwi-love-story-2979}}</ref> A na-akpọ ihe ncheta ya nke afọ 2016 ''Rolling With The Punchlines.'' <ref name=":2"/> <ref>{{Cite book|title=Rolling with the punchlines|author=Urzila.|first=Carlson|date=2016|publisher=A & U New Zealand|isbn=9781877505638|location=Sydney|oclc=1057621440}}</ref> Carlson na-asụ [[Asụsụ Bekee|Bekee]] na [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] . <ref name=":9"/> Na 2018, akpọrọ ya onye nnọchi anya Australia nke South Africa Tourism, na-anọchite anya obodo ahụ dịka akụkụ nke mkpọsa na-aga n'ihu iji gbaa ndị Australia, ndị New Zealand na ndị mba South Africa ume ileta. <ref name="tm"/> == Ọrụ == Ọrụ mbụ Carlson rụrụ dị ka onye na-ede akwụkwọ akụkọ, nke ọ rụrụ afọ iri na abụọ. <ref name=":0">Du Chateau, Carroll (24 July 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20190328164804/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/news/article.cfm?c_id=1501119&objectid=10821751 Urzila Carlson: The comedian standing up for herself], ''[[The New Zealand Herald]]'', [[New Zealand Media and Entertainment]]. Retrieved 27 April 2018.</ref> Ka ọ na-erule afọ 24 ọ bụ "onye njikwa mmepụta maka otu akwụkwọ akụkọ kachasị ukwuu n'Africa nwere akwụkwọ akụkọ 13 na akwụkwọ akụkọ 6", <ref name=":5"/> wee nweta ihe nrite maka imewe eserese na imegharị foto. <ref name=":9"/> O siri na [[South Africa]] kwaga [[New Zealand]] na 2006 ka e tuchara ya ọtụtụ izu gụnyere ohi ụgbọ ala ya, ohi ngwa agha n'ebe ọrụ, na ịwaba n'ụlọ ya, ebe ya na ndị agbata obi ya ji cricket chere onye wabatara. ụsụ. Ọ ghọrọ nwa amaala New Zealand na 2012. <ref name=":9"/> Dị ka nke 2019 ọ bi na Auckland . <ref name=":5"/> <ref name=":6"/> <ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=12 April 2018|title=Urzila Carlson goes global with Netflix comedy special Comedians Of The World|language=en|work=Newshub|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/entertainment/2018/12/urzila-carlson-goes-global-with-netflix-comedy-special-comedians-of-the-world.html|accessdate=15 January 2019}}<cite class="citation news cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063441/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/entertainment/2018/12/urzila-carlson-goes-global-with-netflix-comedy-special-comedians-of-the-world.html "Urzila Carlson goes global with Netflix comedy special Comedians Of The World"]. ''Newshub''. 12 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite></ref> Carlson kwagara n'ime ihe nkiri na 2008, mgbe ọ dị afọ 32. <ref name=":0"/> <ref name=":5"/> Ọ pụtawo na ihe ngosi Australian ''The Project'', ''Studio 10'', ''Spicks and Specks'', ''Orange Is the New Brown'', ''Ị na-aṅa ntị?'' , ''Hughesy, Anyị nwere nsogbu'', <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.yourtango.com/2019320559/who-is-urzila-carlson-new-details-comic-comedians-of-the-world-netflix|title=Who Is Urzila Carlson? New Details On The Comic From 'Comedians Of The World' On Netflix|date=7 January 2019|work=YourTango|language=en|accessdate=15 January 2019}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.yourtango.com/2019320559/who-is-urzila-carlson-new-details-comic-comedians-of-the-world-netflix "Who Is Urzila Carlson? New Details On The Comic From 'Comedians Of The World' On Netflix"]. ''YourTango''. 7 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite></ref> na oge abụọ nke ''Onye na-abụ Masked'' . <ref name="Masked Singer S2"/> Ọ pụtakwara na ihe ngosi New Zealand ''7 Days, Ị na-aṅa ntị?'' na ''Super City . <ref name=":1"/> <ref name=":0" /> <ref name=":8" />'' Usoro nkwudo na-agụnye ''The Long Flight to Freedom. <ref name=":9"/>'' Carlson rụrụ na Melbourne International Comedy Festival Gala site na 2016 ruo 2018 wee nata 'Best Female Comedian' na New Zealand Comedy Guild Awards. <ref name=":2"/> A họpụtara ya maka ihe nrite Helpmann maka onye na-eme ihe nkiri kacha mma na 2018. Na 2019, ọ pụtara na Netflix 's ''Comedians of the World'' . <ref name=":3"/> <ref name=":7"/> <ref name=":8"/> N’ọnwa Ọktoba 2019, enyere ya onyinye nturu ugo Rielly Comedy Award sitere na ụdị nka nka nke New Zealand maka ntinye aka ya na ntụrụndụ New Zealand. Na 2021, ọ bụ onye asọmpi na usoro nke abụọ nke ''Taskmaster NZ'' . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/tv-radio/300319416/taskmaster-nz-to-return-with-new-line-up-of-comedians|work=Stuff.co.nz|accessdate=29 July 2021|title=Taskmaster NZ to return with new line up of comedians|date=29 May 2021}}</ref> Na 2022, ọ bụ onye ọka ikpe ọbịa na ''RuPaul Drag Race Down Under'' . Na 2023, Carlson pụtara na ''Guy Montgomery's Guy Mont-Spelling Bee'' . == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * {{IMDb name|4661003}} {{authority control}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] oiuiccjcewvcmxned8kvdtl89rfaaqk Temitope Ajayi 0 38698 687999 449847 2026-07-14T00:01:40Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}'''Amina Temitope Ajayi''' (aka Mama Diaspora) bụ onye ndụmọdụ azụmaahịa Naijiria nke dị na US bụ onye na-ahụ maka ego site na ọzụzụ, onye ọchụnta ego na onye na-arụsi ọrụ ike na obodo. Temitope Ajayi bụ onye bụbu onye isi oche nke All Nigerian American Congress (ANAC). <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.transatlantictimes.com/articles/Af_Anac_Diaspora_9-25-06.html|title=All Nigerian American Congress (ANAC) was invited to join the Nigerian delegation on behalf of Nigerian diaspora at the United Nations on going summit in New York|publisher=Transatlantic Times|accessdate=6 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610181101/http://www.transatlantictimes.com/articles/Af_Anac_Diaspora_9-25-06.html|archivedate=10 June 2015}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/10/diaspora-commission-will-break-nigerias-development-jinx-chief-temitope-ajayi/|title=Diaspora Commission will break Nigeria's development jinx — Chief Temitope Ajay|date=10 October 2014|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/temitope-ajayi-nigerians-in-diaspora-are-too-economically-important-to-be-denied-voting-rights/185223/|title=Temitope Ajayi: Nigerians in Diaspora Are Too Economically Important to be Denied Voting Rights|publisher=THIS DAY LIVE|accessdate=6 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610174506/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/temitope-ajayi-nigerians-in-diaspora-are-too-economically-important-to-be-denied-voting-rights/185223/|archivedate=10 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.punchng.com/feature/super-saturday-lounge/i-rarely-attend-parties-but-when-i-do-im-there-to-dance-temitope-ajayi/|title=I rarely attend parties, but when I do, I'm there to dance –Temitope Ajayi|publisher=The Punch|accessdate=12 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614085304/http://www.punchng.com/feature/super-saturday-lounge/i-rarely-attend-parties-but-when-i-do-im-there-to-dance-temitope-ajayi/|archivedate=14 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="Source">Sunday Oguntola, [http://issuu.com/thenation/docs/october_9__2011 "Sweet home-coming"], "The Nation", 7 June 2015.</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://leadership.ng/features/interviews/377599/came-known-mama-diaspora-ajayi|title=How I Came To Be Known As Mama Diaspora– Ajayi|publisher=Leadership|accessdate=6 June 2015|archivedate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610180301/http://leadership.ng/features/interviews/377599/came-known-mama-diaspora-ajayi}}</ref> na nkwado ọ na-aga n'ihu na nsogbu ndị Naijiria Diaspora emeela ka a kpọọ ya "Mama Diaspora" na mgbasa ozi.A maara Chief Ajayi nke ọma maka ịkwalite ike ụmụ nwanyị na mkpochapụ ịda ogbenye n'Afrika site na Agri-azụmahịa. Site <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nuc.edu.ng/nucsite/File/Monday%20Bulletin/MB%202013/MB%2024%20June,%202013.pdf|title=Little Rock Hosts Arkansas-NED Forum|publisher=National Universities Commission|accessdate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611040841/http://www.nuc.edu.ng/nucsite/File/Monday%20Bulletin/MB%202013/MB%2024%20June%2C%202013.pdf|archivedate=11 June 2015}}</ref> nnọkọ itinye ego Arkansas-Naijiria a na nnọkọ akụ na ụba abụọ ndị ọzọ na US, nkwụsi ike na ezi obi Chief Ajayi enyerela aka n'ime ka o kwenye ma dọta ọtụtụ ndị isi na-etinye ego na azụmahịa ugbo site na US ruo Naịjirịa. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201009170107.html|title=Nigeria: Developing the Economy Through Farming|publisher=AllAfrica|first=Funmi|author=Ogundare|date=16 September 2010}}</ref> bụ onye guzobere / onye isi nke Nigerian American Agricultural Empowerment Program (NAAEP), nke na-etinye aka n'inye ndị ọrụ ugbo, ụmụ nwanyị na ndị na-eto eto ike na Naịjirịa iji mụbaa nri zuru ezu na ọrụ na-adịgide adịgide maka ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ okorobịa na ngalaba ọrụ ugbo. [1] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201007271134.html|title=Nigeria: Naaep Signs MOU With Lisabi Mills on Food Production|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://naaep.biz/|title=Nigerian American Agricultural Empowerment Programme (NAAEP)|publisher=NAAEP.biz|accessdate=10 June 2015|archivedate=1 August 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801190418/http://naaep.biz/}}</ref> abụwo òtù na-azụ ma na enye ndị ọrụ ugbo ike na usoro ọrụ ugbo, ka ọ na eme ka ego azụmaahịa dị mfe, ịnweta ngwa ọrụ ugbo na owuwe ihe ubi na ahịa nke ngwaahịa ha na mpaghara na mba ụwa. [1] [2] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2010/04/naeep-reduces-interest-rate-to-farmers/|title=NAEEP reduces interest rate to farmers|date=23 April 2010|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=5 June 2015}}</ref>'afọ 2010, Chief Ajayi kpọrọ gọọmentị etiti nke Naijiria ka ha belata ọnụego ọmụrụ nwa na mgbazinye ego nye ndị ọrụ ugbo iji bulie ngalaba ọrụ ugbo na ibelata ịda ogbenye na mba ahụ. Chief Temitope Ajayi bụ onye nnọchi anya Goodwill maka steeti Arkansas na Maryland, USA. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/conference-releases-list-of-committees-membership/176281/|title=Conference Releases List of Committees, Membership|publisher=This Day Live|accessdate=14 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031009/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/conference-releases-list-of-committees-membership/176281/|archivedate=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nannewsnigeria.com/confab-delegate-wants-more-women-government-under-buhari|title=Confab delegate wants more women in government under Buhari|publisher=NAN|accessdate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611020457/http://www.nannewsnigeria.com/confab-delegate-wants-more-women-government-under-buhari|archivedate=11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/06/jonathan-touched-nigerian-women-ajayi-mama-diaspora/|title=Jonathan has touched Nigerian women — Ajayi Mama Diaspora|date=24 June 2014|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsinvestigatorsng.com/presidency-clears-492-delegates-for-confab-appoints-3-assistance-secretaries/|title=Presidency Clears 492 Delegates For Confab, Appoints 3 Assistance Secretaries|publisher=Nigerian Watch|accessdate=10 June 2015|archivedate=11 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611010345/http://newsinvestigatorsng.com/presidency-clears-492-delegates-for-confab-appoints-3-assistance-secretaries/}}</ref>. Ajayi bụ onye nnọchiteanya pụrụ iche na 2014 gara aga nke Naịjirịa Nzukọ mba ebe ọ nọchitere anya National Council of Women Societies (NCWS) na Naịjirị ma jee ozi na Kọmitii Confab na Ọrụ Ugbo. Chief Temitope Ajayi <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.diplomaticourier.com/news/opinion/2488-the-status-of-women-girls-in-africa-and-the-rest-of-the-world|title=THE STATUS OF WOMEN AND GIRLS IN AFRICA AND THE REST OF THE WORLD|publisher=Diplomatic Courier|accessdate=12 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614021645/http://www.diplomaticourier.com/news/opinion/2488-the-status-of-women-girls-in-africa-and-the-rest-of-the-world|archivedate=14 June 2015}}</ref> N'okwu ya na Nzukọ Kwa Afọ nke World Bank Group na International Monetary Fund, gwara ndị nnọchiteanya na "Ụmụ nwanyị bụ engine nke ụlọ ọrụ nzuzo, ụmụ nwanyị na-achịkwa akụ na ụba nke mba ọ bụla - n'ihi na ha na-azụ ahịa karịa ndị nwoke ibe ha, ike nke ego ọ bụla bụ n'ikike ha iji gboo mkpa na ọkọnọ". == Oge ọ malitere == Amina Temitope Labinjo bụ nwa nwanyị nke Pa Hector Labinjo nwụrụ anwụ na Oriakụ Elizabeth Labinjo nke Ita Garawu na Lagos Island nke Lagos Steeti, Naijiria. == Ọrụ na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị == Site na 1991 ruo 1993, a họpụtara Chief Ms. Temitope Ajayi dị ka onye enyemaka pụrụ iche nye osote gọvanọ nke Lagos Steeti, Her Excellency Alhaja [[Sinatu Aderoju Ojukutu]] . <ref name="Source"/> Ms. Ajayi rụrụ ọrụ dị ukwuu na ọrụ Ndụ ka mma maka ụmụ nwanyị ime obodo nke onye isi ala nke Naijiria, [[Maryam Babangida]] kwadoro ma bụrụ onye nnọchiteanya maka Nzukọ Ụmụ nwanyị nke mba ụwa nke emere na Morocco na London. Mgbe ọ nwesịrị ahụmahụ dị egwu n'oge ọchịchị ndị agha na-emegbu mmadụ na Naijiria, Chief Ajayi kwagara na United Steeti of Amerika na 1996 ma, kemgbe ahụ, o tinyere ndụ ya n'ime azụmahịa nke ga-ejere obodo Naijiria ya ozi na US na Naijeria. Mgbe <ref name="Source" /> gbagara onwe ya na US n'oge dị mkpirikpi, Chief Ajayi laghachiri Naijiria iji gbanwee ọrụ ugbo na ebumnuche nke inyere aka n'ikpochapụ ịda ogbenye na mba ahụ. Chief Ajayi bụ onye bụbu Onye nhazi mba nke Goodluck Support Group (GSG) USA. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.applauseafrica.com/events/137-a-night-for-president-goodluck-in-new-york|title=A Night for President Goodluck in New York|publisher=Applause Africa|accessdate=6 June 2015|archivedate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610183022/http://www.applauseafrica.com/events/137-a-night-for-president-goodluck-in-new-york}}</ref> kelere [[Muhammadu Buhari]], GCFR, onye bụzi Onye isi ala nke Federal mba nke naijiria maka nkwụsi ike ya n'imeri ntuli aka onye isi ala nke afọ 2015; ma too onye isi ala mbụ, Maazị [[Goodluck Jonathan]] maka ịdị ike ya pụrụ iche, chi na obi ike ịghọ Onye isi ala mbụ na-achị na Naijiria iji merie ntuli aka ma jiri obi ya niile nabata n'udo iji gbochie ime ihe ike na nsogbu na-esote ntuli aka na Naijigide <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/nigerians-in-the-diaspora-hail-jonathan-buharis-victory/|title=Nigerians in the Diaspora hail Jonathan, Buhari's victory|date=3 April 2015|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> Dị ka onye na-eme ihe ike na-eme ngagharị iwe na-akwado ndị Naijiria na-enye ndị Naijide obodo na-eme na-akwado ọrụ gọọmentị dị otú ahụ na-eme ka ndị Naijigharị na-enye na-akwado na-eme ntụli aka na-enye ụmụ ama na-eme atụmatụ Naijiria dị iche iche iche dị iche dị iche na-ebi na-eme vootu na-eme. == Ọrụ ebere == Ihe omume ihu ọma ya malitere mgbe o hibere ụlọ akwụkwọ Ejiji/Technical maka ụmụ akwụkwọ na-enweghị ihe ọ bụla na Ibadan, Nigeria na 1980-1985. Chief Ajayi mechara kwado ma kwado maka One Million Goodluck Mmemme Ụlọ maka Diasporas na mmekorita ya na Federal Mortgage ụlọ akụ nke naijiria n'okpuru DIASPORA HOUSING LOAN SCHEME . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nigerianwatch.com/news/3522-government-ministers-plan-to-build-1m-housing-units-in-nigeria-for-diasporans|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524050314/http://www.nigerianwatch.com/news/3522-government-ministers-plan-to-build-1m-housing-units-in-nigeria-for-diasporans|archivedate=24 May 2014|title=Government ministers plan to build 1m housing units in Nigeria for diasporas|publisher=Nigerian Watch|accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref> Site <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/06/diaspora-commission-to-bring-in-3trn-investments-temitope-ajayi/|title=Diaspora Commission to bring in $3trn investments —Temitope Ajayi|date=12 June 2015|publisher=Vanguard|accessdate=12 June 2015}}</ref> ntinye aka nke Bill nke guzobere Diaspora Commission, Chief Ajayi kpọrọ Onye isi ala Muhammadu Buhari ka ọ họpụta ndị a pụrụ ịtụkwasị obi site na diaspora n'ime kọmitii ahụ iji hụ na ọ ga-aga nke ọma. N'ịmepụta ikike ọdịbendị na ọdịiche dị iche iche, Temitope Ajayi mere mmemme Valentine nri abalị Party nke mbụ na Naịjirịa. Nke, na mgbakwunye na ịnyacha achịcha na imekọ ihe ọnụ na ndị Naijiria ibe ya, ụmụ akwụkwọ dị site na afọ 12 ruo 25 nwetara ihe ịga nke ọma agụmakwụkwọ na onyinye ọrụ obodo site n'aka ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ gọọmentị. Onye omeiwu Barbara Lee, Onye isi obodo Oakland Jerry Brown, Onye omeiwu steeti Don Perata, Onye isi San Francisco Gavin Newsom, na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ, mere ka ndị niile natara onyinye ndị a.Mgbe nwanyị mbụ nke Naịjirịa nwụrụ na ndị ọzọ 117 n'ihe mberede ụgbọelu na Naịjirị n'afọ 2005, Temitope Ajayi mere emume ncheta na Oakland, California, nke onye nnọchi anya Naịjiria nke New York, Dr. F.R. Aderele bịara.Na ngagharị nke ụbọchị nnwere onwe nke Naịjirịa a na-atụ anya ya na New York City (Ọktoba 2005), a họpụtara Temitope Ajayi ka ọ bụrụ Marshall, ya na onye nnọchi anya na-adịgide adịgide na Mission nke Naịjarịa na United Nations Aminu Wali, Consular. General nke Naijiria, Dr. F.R. Aderele, osote onye nnọchi anya Naijiria na UN, onye nnọchianya Adekanye, ụfọdụ ndị gọvanọ steeti si Naijiria n'ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ. === Ndị ọzọ na-abụghị uru === <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gc4women.org/|title=Global Connection for Women Foundation|publisher=GC4WOMEN.org|accessdate=12 June 2015}}</ref> Ajayi <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.africa.com/blog/a-group-of-powerful-women-are-selected-to-receive-awards-during-the-upcoming-international-womens-day-gala/|title=The Global Connections for Women Foundation (GC4W) Celebrates International Women's Day|publisher=africa.com|accessdate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610184823/http://www.africa.com/blog/a-group-of-powerful-women-are-selected-to-receive-awards-during-the-upcoming-international-womens-day-gala/|archivedate=10 June 2015}}</ref> Onye isi oche a na-asọpụrụ na ntọala Global Connections for Women (GC4W), otu ụlọ ọrụ na-enweghị uru nke US kwadoro nke kwenyere na ụmụ nwanyị na ndị ntorobịa niile na ikike ha ịmepụta ohere ọhụrụ maka onwe ha na obodo ha.GC4W <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gc4women.org/2013/12/09/meet-the-founder-lilian-ajayi/|title=Meet The Founder: Lilian Ajayi|date=9 December 2013|publisher=GC4WOMEN.ORG|accessdate=12 June 2015|archivedate=12 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612230459/http://gc4women.org/2013/12/09/meet-the-founder-lilian-ajayi/}}</ref> nke '''Lilian O. Ajayi''', onye isi okwu mba ụwa na onye nnọchi anya olileanya zuru ụwa ọnụ guzobere. == Nkwado == Chief Temitope Ajayi bụ onye natara ọtụtụ nsọpụrụ na onyinye mba ụwa: Maka ozi ya na obodo ndị Afrịka na US, Chief Ajayi nwetara onyinye ọrụ afọ ofufo nke Onye isi ala George W. Bush nyere, nke bụ ihe nrite mba n'okpuru nkwado nke Onye isi oche nke United Steeti na-amata ntinye aka afọ ofufo. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thenigerianvoice.com/news/44135/1/i-am-passionate-about-eradicating-poverty-chief-te.html|title=I am passionate about eradicating poverty -Chief Temitope Ajayi, Coordinator, Nigerian American Agricultural Empowerment Programme (NAAEP)|publisher=Nigerian Voice|accessdate=6 June 2015}}</ref> [[Usòrò:Mama_Diaspora.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Chief Temitope Ajayi nyere mkpịsị ugodi nke obodo Little Rock, Arkansas site n'aka Onye isi obodo Mark Stodola]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theeagleonline.com.ng/dangote-six-others-bag-honorary-citizenship-of-arkansas/|title=Dangote, six others bag honorary citizenship of Arkansas|date=2 June 2013|publisher=The Eagle Online|accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mynewswatchtimesng.com/seven-nigerians-conferred-honorary-citizenship-of-arkansas-state/|title=Seven Nigerians Conferred Honorary Citizenship of Arkansas State|publisher=Newswatch Times|accessdate=6 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304022904/http://www.mynewswatchtimesng.com/seven-nigerians-conferred-honorary-citizenship-of-arkansas-state/|archivedate=4 March 2016}}</ref>'afọ 2013, Gọvanọ Mike Beebe nyere Chief Ms. Temitope Ajayi ikike ịbụ nwa amaala nke [[Arkinsọ|Arkansas]] Steeti n'akụkụ ndị Naijiria ole na ole a ma ama: Alhaji [[Aliko Dangote]] Group; Gọvanor [[Kwankwaso|Rabiu Kwankwaso]] nke Kano Steeti.; Dr. Akinmi Adesina, Minista nke Ọrụ Ugbo na Mmepe Obodo; Prọfesọ Tajudeen Gamosi, onye bụbu onye nkuzi nke Maazị [[Adebowale Adefuye|Adefuye]], onye nnọchi anya Naijiria nke United Steeti.; Onye isi oche nke United Steeti. [[Usòrò:Mama_Diaspora_(holding_Key_of_Alaska).jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ajayi & Amb. Ibrahim Auwalu natara mkpịsị ugodi nke obodo Dyersville site n'aka onye isi obodo James Heavens (n'etiti) ]] Gọvanọ na Onye isi obodo họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ [[Onye nnọchi anya Goodwill]] maka steeti [[Arkinsọ|Arkansas]] na [[Mérílạnd|Maryland]]; Onye isi obodo Mark Stodola nyekwara ya "Key to the City" nke Little Rock, Arkansas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.blackstarnews.com/education/education/connecting-for-excellence-international-women%E2%80%99s-day-awards-gala.html|title=Connecting For Excellence: International Women's Day Awards Gala|publisher=Black Star News|accessdate=8 June 2015|archivedate=10 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610183120/http://www.blackstarnews.com/education/education/connecting-for-excellence-international-women%E2%80%99s-day-awards-gala.html}}</ref>'afọ 2014, e nyere Chief Temitope Ajayi nsọpụrụ n'akụkụ onye mmeri Nobel Peace Prize Leymah Gbowee, H.E. [[Ngozi Okonjo Iweala|Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala]] (Minista na-ahụ maka ego nke Nigeria) na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ site na Global Connection for Women (GC4W) na 2014 Onyinye ụbọchị ụmụnwaanyị mba ụwa Gala na Harvard Club nke New York.Chief Temitope Ajayi so na ndị Naijiria ole na ole ahọpụtara dị ka akụkụ nke Akụkọ Ihe ịga nke ọma nke Naijiria na Ngalaba Nzuzo na Ọrụ Ugbo site na Kansụl Ụlọọrụ na Afrika na Embassy nke Federal Republic nke NaijiriaN'ikike ya dị ka onye isi oche nke ANAC n'oge ahụ, Temitope Ajayi jikọtara ndị isi Naijiria iji maa echiche ụgha nke ndị Naijiria nọ na America aka dị ka ndị omempụ, ihe ngosi a na-atụ anya na CNN nke akpọrọ: Olee otú e si zuo ụlọ akụ? Mgbe ọtụtụ mkparịta ụka gasịrị, onye nnọchi anya CNN rịọrọ ndị Naijiria mgbaghara maka ihe oyiyi ụgha dị otú ahụ nke ndị Naijeria na United Steeti. Ọ natara onyinye Congress site n'aka Congresswoman Barbara Lee maka ọrụ ya. <ref name="Source"/> Ajayi natakwara '''"mkpịsị ugodi nke obodo"''' nke Dyersville, Iowa site n'aka onye isi obodo ahụ, James Heavens, onye gosipụtakwara nkwupụta na-ekwusi ike na a ga-eme emume July 16 ọ bụla dị ka "Ụbọchị ọbụbụenyi Naijiria". N'oge 2006 G8 United Nations World Summit, Temitope Ajayi, ka Ozi na-adịgide adịgide nke Nigeria kpọrọ na United Nations ka ọ bụrụ onye ndụmọdụ na Global na Okwu gbasara ụmụ nwanyị Pan-Afrika. Ọ natara asambodo ịja mma site na bọọdụ ndị nlekọta, Alameda County, California - USA. Ọzọkwa, Chief Ajayi natara onyinye "Nwanyị pụrụ iche" nke Netwọk itinye ego na mba ofesi nyere ya na Njikọ ndị tụkwasịrị obi zuru ụwa ọnụ. Onye nchịkọta akụkọ, Chido Nwangwu nke US Afrika Class Magazine kpọrọ Chief Temitope Ajayi "Nne nke Afọ", na Ebenezer Olayiwola nke Ihe omume na magazin zuru ụwa ọnụ kpọrọ Chief Ajayi dị ka otu n'ime ndị Naijiria kachasị emetụta na United Steeti. == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230728010011/https://gc4women.org/2015/03/12/ GC4WOMEN.ORG] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150227085749/http://gc4women.org/category/news/ GC4WOMEN.ORG/NEWS] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20240226204945/https://gc4women.org/2015/03/13/press-release-the-2nd-annual-gc4w-international-womens-day-awards-recap/ Ihe nrite GC4W nke Abụọ kwa Afọ] * Onye isi oche JOYCE BANDA FOUNDATION E debere Wayback Machine [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] j3vz14khnips374nvnd6q73p8mvzpj2 Teresa Przytycka 0 39022 688001 672519 2026-07-14T00:06:29Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688001 wikitext text/x-wiki  {{Databox}} '''Teresa Maria Przytycka''' (amụrụ 1958) [1] bụ ọkà mmụta ihe omimi nke Polish-American nke na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye nyocha dị elu na ngalaba Kọmputa Biology nke National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), ebe ọ Ụzọ Algorithmic na-eduzi na Kọmputa na Sistemụ Biology (AlgoCSB) ngalaba. .[1] Ọ malitere ọrụ nyocha ya na algọridim yiri ya; na NCBI, nyocha ya na-ewe usoro mgbakọ na mwepụ maka nsogbu na usoro ihe ọmụmụ ihe gbasara ọrịa kansa, usoro mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, na nyocha nke nnukwu data.[1] == Agụmakwụkwọ na ọrụ == Przytycka sitere na Myszków ; Ndị mụrụ ya, bụ́ ndị obodo Gorajec nke dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ Poland, gụrụ akwụkwọ nke ọma n'akụkụ ụfọdụ site n'ịgụ akwụkwọ n'okpuru ala Polish . Ọ gụrụ mgbakọ na mwepụ na sayensị kọmputa na Mahadum Warsaw, {{R|distance}} na-enweta akara ugo mmụta masta ebe ahụ na 1982. <ref name=xplore>{{citation|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/38076729600|title=Teresa M. Przytycka|work=IEEE Xplore|publisher=IEEE|access-date=2021-12-12}}</ref>cv}} Ọ nọrọ na mahadum dị ka onye nchọpụta, ma ọ na-ahapụ ohere ịghọ nwa akwụkwọ doctoral na Mahadum British Columbia (UBC), na-eso di ya, Józef H. Przytycki, bụ onye weere ọnọdụ postdoctoral n'ebe ahụ; {{R|distance}} ọ gụchara Ph.D. na UBC na 1990. Akwụkwọ edemede ya, ''Parallel Algorithms On Trees and Related Problems'', nke metụtara nhazi algọridim yiri ya, David G. Kirkpatrick na-elekọta ya. {{R|cv <ref name=mg>{{mathgenealogy|id=149198}}</ref><ref name=diss>{{citation|title=Parallel Algorithms On Trees And Related Problems|publisher=University of British Columbia|first=Teresa Maria|last=Przytycka|year=1990|doi=10.14288/1.0302108|hdl=2429/30640}}</ref> N'agbanyeghị na ọ bu n'obi ịlaghachi n'ọkwa ya na Mahadum Warsaw, nke ahụ ghọrọ ihe na-agaghị ekwe omume n'ihi ụmụ ọhụrụ ya abụọ na enweghị nlekọta ụmụaka zuru oke na Warsaw n'oge ahụ. <ref name=distance>{{citation|url=https://infocus.nlm.nih.gov/2017/02/06/teresa-przytycka-goes-the-distance/|title=Focus on NLM Scientists: Dr. Teresa Przytycka Goes the Distance|work=NLM in Focus|publisher=National Library of Medicine|date=February 6, 2017|access-date=May 30, 2026|archive-date=May 29, 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250529022813/https://infocus.nlm.nih.gov/2017/02/06/teresa-przytycka-goes-the-distance/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na onye enyemaka onye nlekọta nleta na Mahadum California, Riverside, ọ ghọrọ osote prọfesọ na Mahadum Odense dị na Denmark na 1992, <ref name=cv>{{citation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/CBBresearch/Przytycka/download/TPrzytycka_CV.pdf|title=Curriculum vitae|date=October 2, 2012|access-date=2021-12-12}}</ref>biri ọtụtụ oge a iche na di ya n'ihi nsogbu ahụ ha abụọ . N'etiti 1990s, di ya nọ na-elekọta ya na Mahadum George Washington na US ọwụwa anyanwụ ụsọ oké osimiri, ma o kpebisiri ike ịchọta ọnọdụ dị nso, n'otu oge ahụ na-atụgharị mmasị nyocha ya na usoro ihe omimi. {{R|distance}} Na 1997 ọ ghọrọ onye nyocha Sloan-DOE na Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, ebe ọ gara n'ihu dị ka Burroughs Wellcome Fellow na onye nyocha nyocha. N'afọ 2003, o were ọnọdụ ya ugbu a na National Center for Biotechnology Information. {{R|cv}} == Nkwenye == Na 2021, a kpọrọ Przytycka onye otu nke International Society maka Computational Biology, "maka nke aka algorithmic ya na nsogbu dịgasị iche iche na usoro ihe ọmụmụ ihe mgbakọ na mwepụ, karịsịa na nyocha netwọkụ, ụzọ ndị dabeere na netwọk iji kpughee mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ọrịa, nrụgharị netwọkụ, nhazi usoro. Ọrụ nke DNA conformation dynamics na RNA aptamer analysis". <ref name=iscb>{{citation|url=https://www.iscb.org/iscb-news-items/4626-2021-march02-iscb-congratulates-introduces-2021-class-fellows|title=ISCB Congratulates the 2021 Class of Fellows|publisher=International Society for Computational Biology|access-date=2021-12-12|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212202418/https://www.iscb.org/iscb-news-items/4626-2021-march02-iscb-congratulates-introduces-2021-class-fellows|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Edensibia == [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 6i3j60vy10o0799jjyjttp4w20kikqo Victoria Chibuogu Nneji 0 39677 688043 644625 2026-07-14T09:23:14Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688043 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}'''Victoria Chibuogu Nneji''' (amụrụ na [[Lagos|Eko]] ) bụ Ọka chọgharịa kọmputa nke America, Nigeria, onye na-ahụ maka imewe na ihe ọhụrụ, na onye nkuzi, mara maka ihe ya na robotics, akpaaka, imewe mmadụ na njemụ onwe ya . <ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020|title=Things to Do When You're a Teleworking Aerospace Engineer or Aerospace Engineering Student|url=https://www.aiaa.org/get-involved/things-to-do-when-you-re-a-teleworking-aerospace-engineer-or-aerospace-engineering-student/2020/08/18/default-calendar/aerospace-career-pathways-entrepreneurship-(member-exclusive-webinar)|work=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA)|quote=Victoria Chibuogu Nneji, Lead Engineer & Innovation Strategist, Edge Case Research}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome|url=https://victorianneji.github.io/|accessdate=2022-03-29|work=Victoria Chibuogu Nneji, Ph.D.|language=en}}</ref> == Akụkọ ndụ == Victoria Chibuogu Nnaji a mụrụ na [[Lagos|Eko]], [[Naijiria|Nigeria]] ; mgbe ọ dị afọ 5 ya na ezinụlọ ya kwagara United States ma zụlite ya na Durham, [[Nort Kárólínạ|North Carolina]] . <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|author=|date=2017-12-06|title=Women Who Reign: Victoria Chibuogu Nneji|url=https://reigningit.medium.com/women-who-reign-victoria-chibuogu-nneji-1c819ff3cd7a|accessdate=2021-03-01|work=Medium|publisher=ReigningIt|language=en}}</ref> <ref name=":2" /> Nneji gara North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM) bido obere afọ nke ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị. <ref name=":2" /> O nwere akara ugo mmụta bachelor na etinyere mgbakọ na mwepụ na Mahadum Columbia, ịbụ otu n'ime ndị mbụ n'ime ezinaụlọ ya na-agbaso agụmakwụkwọ post-secondary, na-agụkwa akwụkwọ n'okpuru Adam Sobel . <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The 10: These Black Women in Computer Science Are Changing the Face of Tech|url=https://www.theroot.com/the-10-these-black-women-in-computer-science-are-chang-1792811265|accessdate=2021-03-01|work=The Root|date=17 March 2017|language=en-us}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.theroot.com/the-10-these-black-women-in-computer-science-are-chang-1792811265 "The 10: These Black Women in Computer Science Are Changing the Face of Tech"]. ''The Root''. 17 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-01</span></span>.</cite></ref> <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|author=Farmer|first=Melanie A.|date=Spring 2014|title=Senior Spotlight: Victoria Chibuogu Nneji|url=https://apam.columbia.edu/files/seas/content/apam_image/spring_2014_apam_newsletter.pdf|journal=APAM News|volume=8|issue=2|pages=3}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFFarmer2014">Farmer, Melanie A. (Spring 2014). [https://apam.columbia.edu/files/seas/content/apam_image/spring_2014_apam_newsletter.pdf "Senior Spotlight: Victoria Chibuogu Nneji"] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. ''APAM News''. '''8''' (2). The Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, The FU Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University: 3.</cite></ref> N'ebe a, ọ mere nyocha ọnụọgụgụ maka mgbanwe enyemaka ego ga-esi metụta arụmọrụ nwa akwụkwọ yana ogologo oge ha gụchara akara ugo mmụta ndị otu. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-01-31|title=Senior Spotlight: Victoria Chibuogu Nneji, Set on Making a Difference|url=https://www.engineering.columbia.edu/news/senior-spotlight-victoria-chibuogu-nneji-set-making-difference|accessdate=2021-03-07|work=Columbia Engineering|language=en}}</ref> Nneji n'onwe ya nwere akwukwo mmụta Anita Borg iji kwado ịga mahadum Columbia. <ref name=":0" /> Mgbe ọ na-aga Mahadum Columbia, ọ jere ozi dị ka onye ndụmọdụ maka Northern Manhattan Improvement Corporation (NMIC) na Washington Heights, ma mee nchọpụta onye ọrụ iji mee ka ọganihu na EcoMundo, òtù mgbake ime ihe ike nke ụmụ nwanyị n'ime NMIC. <ref name=":2" /> Nneji nwetara akara ugo mmụta masters na engineering management na Mahadum Duke wee nweta PhD na 2019 na Mechanical Engineering site na Robotics Center na Mahadum Duke. <ref name=":0"/> <ref name=":1" /> Ngụsị akwụkwọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ, ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye nkuzi robotics na Mahadum Duke. <ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2019-10-29|title=Victoria Nneji Duke Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science mems.duke.edu|url=https://mems.duke.edu/faculty/victoria-nneji/|accessdate=2021-03-01|work=Duke University|language=en-US|archivedate=2021-03-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303145439/https://mems.duke.edu/faculty/victoria-nneji}}</ref> Akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ, Exploring Concepts of Operations for On-Demand Passenger Air Transportation (2017), site n'aka ndị na-ede akwụkwọ Nneji, Alexander Stimpson, na Mary Cummings sitere na Mahadum Duke, na Kenneth H. Goodrich, sitere na NASA Langley Research Center ihe na nkà na ẹzà. iji fee "njem ụgbọ elu nke ndị njem na-achọ" na usoro nhazi ga-ewe ihe ụmụaka afụ iri. [1] Nneji emewokwa nsogbu gbasara mmadụ na robot . Akwụkwọ akwụkwọ ahụ, Gwa mkwuo: Ịmepụta HRI iji kwalite obi, nghazi, na mbụ (2016), nke ndị na-edekọ akwụkwọ bụ Nikolas Martelaro, Wendy Ju, na Pamela Hinds, sere na-enweghị ike na ike okwu nwere ike ime ka ndị mmadụ na robots mma. N'ime ọkụ ihe a, Nneji na ndị otu ya akwụkwọ ụmụ akwụkwọ na robots ndị nwere obere obere ike na obere okwu dị elu na mmemme. Ha taka na ụmụ akwụkwọ na-nkwukwu obi na rọbọt ndị na-akpa ike ma na-e kunna okwu na robọt na- nkọ okwu. <ref>N. Martelaro, V. C. Nneji, W. Ju and P. Hinds, "Tell me more designing HRI to encourage more trust, disclosure, and companionship," ''2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI)'', Christchurch, New Zealand, 2016, pp. 181-188, doi: 10.1109/HRI.2016.7451750.</ref> N'afọ 2019, a họpụtara Nneji ka ọ bụrụ ndụmọdụ nchekwa na ọrụ ịnya ụgbọ ala nke Uber (SARA), ya na mmadụ ise ndị ọzọ, iji nyochaa, nye ndụmọdụ na ịtụ aro mgbanwe na mmepe ụgbọ ala Uber kwụụrụ onwe ya. <ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-30|title=New board will scrutinize Uber's self-driving development|url=https://www.autonews.com/mobility-report/new-board-will-scrutinize-ubers-self-driving-development|accessdate=2021-03-01|work=Automotive News|language=en}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Victoria Chibuogu Nneji publications indexed by Google Scholar [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] prd1p0h4h2px1n8bi671zs0xa0mdi6e Soraya Degheidy 0 40057 687967 643748 2026-07-13T18:33:08Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687967 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}'''Soraya Degheidy''' (amụrụ ya na onwa Julaị n’abali iri na isii, nke afo 1995, na Cairo) <ref>{{Cite web|author=Eurobasket|title=Soraya Degheidy, Basketball Player, News, Stats - Eurobasket|url=https://www.eurobasket.com/index.aspx|accessdate=2024-04-01|work=Eurobasket LLC}}</ref> bụ onye na-atu egwuregwu basketball nke Ijipt na-anọchite anya otu egwuregwu basketball ụmụ nwanyị na Al Ahly Sporting Club. Ọ na-egwuri egwu dịka onye nche. Ọ na-eguzo n'ịdị elu nke 5 feet 8 inches (172 cm). <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Soraya DEGHEIDY at the FIBA Women's AfroBasket 2021|url=https://www.fiba.basketball/womensafrobasket/2021/player/Soraya-Degheidy|accessdate=2024-04-01|work=FIBA.basketball|language=en}}</ref> == Ihe Ndị Dị Mkpa n'Oge <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Soraya Degheidy (Degheidy S.) - Player Profile - Basketball24.com|url=https://www.basketball24.com/player/degheidy-soraya/phOnslie/|accessdate=2024-04-01|work=www.basketball24.com|language=en|archivedate=2024-04-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401210025/https://www.basketball24.com/player/degheidy-soraya/phOnslie/}}</ref> == === Ndị otu mba <ref name=":1" /> * Na 2023 FIBA Women's AfroBasket, ọ gbara egwuregwu atọ, na-enweta akara asaa, rebounds abụọ, 2.7 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 3.3. * N'oge asọmpi AfroBasket nke ụmụ nwanyị nke FIBA nke afọ 2023, ọ sonyere n'egwuregwu ise, na-enweta akara 13.6, 2.2 rebounds, 3.6 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 11.8. * Na 2021 FIBA Women's AfroBasket, ọ turu egwuregwu isii, na-enweta akara 15.2, 3.2 rebounds, 2.7 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 13.8. * Na 2021 FIBA Women's Afrobasket - Qualifiers - Zone 5, ọ sonyeere n'egwuregwu ise, na-enweta nkezi 12.8, 0.8 rebounds, 3.6 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke iri na otu. * Na 2019 FIBA Women's Afrobasket, ọ gbara egwuregwu isii, na-enweta akara 14.2, 3.3 rebounds, 1.7 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 11.5. * N'oge 2019 FIBA Women's Afrobasket qualifiers, ọ sonyere na egwuregwu ise, na-enweta nkezi 12.2, 1.6 rebounds, assists ato, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke iteghete. * Na 2017 FIBA Women's Afrobasket, ọ gbara egwuregwu iri na abụọ, na-enweta nkezi 15.3, 4.2 rebounds, 4.3 assists, na arụmọrụ nke 13.5. * Na 2015 Afrobasket Women, ọ gbara egwuregwu asato, na-enweta akara 9.4, 1.1 rebounds, 2.5 assists, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 5.6. * N'ozuzu, nkezi ya maka ọkwa kachasị elu nke otu mba bụ 12.8, 2.3 rebounds, assists ato, na ọkwa arụmọrụ nke 10.4. === Ndị Ntorobịa Mba <ref name=":1" />{{Cite web|title=Soraya Degheidy (Degheidy S.) - Player Profile - Basketball24.com|url=https://www.basketball24.com/player/degheidy-soraya/phOnslie/|accessdate=2024-04-01|work=www.basketball24.com|language=en|archivedate=2024-04-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401210025/https://www.basketball24.com/player/degheidy-soraya/phOnslie/}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://web.archive.org/web/20240401210025/https://www.basketball24.com/player/degheidy-soraya/phOnslie/ "Soraya Degheidy (Degheidy S.) - Player Profile - Basketball24.com"]. ''www.basketball24.com''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-01</span></span>.</cite></ref> === * N'oge 2011 Afrobasket U16 Championship for Women, ọ gbara egwuregwu asaa, na-enweta akara iri na asato, na-enweghị rebounds, assists, maọbụ arụmọrụ. * N'ozuzu, nkezi ya maka ọkwa ndị ntorobịa nke mba ahụ bụ akara iri na asato, na-enweghị rebounds, assists, maọbụ arụmọrụ. === Njikọ<ref name=":0" /> == Edensibia == mo27d0zm1dzj646ac3nm73b2ub5ghyi Snowball Earth (manga) 0 42067 687962 160178 2026-07-13T17:28:55Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}  Snowball Earth (Japanese: スノウボールアース, Hepburn: Sunoubōru Āsu) is a Japanese [[manga]] series written and illustrated by Yuhiro Tsujitsugu. It has been serialized in [[Shogakukan]]'s [[Ngwa manga|''seinen'' manga]] magazine ''[[Nnukwu mmụọ ọchị ọchị kwa ọnwa|Monthly Big Comic Spirits]]'' since January 2021. == Mbipụta == Yuhiro Tsujitsugu dere ma gosipụta ya, ''Snowball Earth'' ka edoberela usoro na akwụkwọ akụkọ Shogakukan <nowiki><i id="mwHA">seinen</i></nowiki> manga ''Monthly Big Comic Spirits'' kemgbe Jenụwarị 27, 2021. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/413943|work=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|accessdate=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=January 27, 2021|archivedate=January 4, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104224826/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/413943}}</ref> Shogakukan achịkọtala isiakwụkwọ ya n'ime {{Lang|ja-latn|[[tankōbon]]}} nke ọ bụla mpịakọta. E wepụtara mpịakọta mbụ na Jenụwarị 30, 2021. <ref name="Vol1-Natalie">{{Cite web|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438946|work=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|accessdate=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=January 30, 2021|archivedate=December 5, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205015334/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438946}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438946 <bdi lang="ja">庵野秀明も「続きが楽しみです」と称賛、新鋭・辻次夕日郎の近未来SFサバイバル1巻</bdi>]. ''[[Natalie (webụsaịtị)|Comic Natalie]]'' (in Japanese). Natasha, Inc. January 30, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221205015334/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438946 Archived] from the original on December 5, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2023</span>.</cite> [[Category:CS1 uses Japanese-language script (ja)]] [[Category:CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)]]</ref> Ruo Ọktoba 30, 2023, ewepụtara mpịakọta isii. Na June 2023, Viz Media kwuputara na ha enyela ikike manga maka mmepụta Bekee na North America, malite na Q2 2024. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Hodgkins|first=Crystalyn|title=Viz Reveals 18 New Releases for Spring 2024 Including Tokyo These Days, Gokurakugai, Snowball Earth Manga, More|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2023-06-10/viz-reveals-18-new-releases-for-spring-2024-including-tokyo-these-days-gokurakugai-snowball-earth-/.198999|work=[[Anime News Network]]|accessdate=June 11, 2023|date=June 10, 2023|archivedate=July 16, 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716051441/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2023-06-10/viz-reveals-18-new-releases-for-spring-2024-including-tokyo-these-days-gokurakugai-snowball-earth-/.198999}}</ref> === Mpịakọta === {{Graphic novel list/header|OneLanguage=no|Language=Japanese}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=1|RelDate=July 30, 2021<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:【7月30日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438699|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=July 30, 2021|archive-date=February 23, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223011315/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/438699|url-status=live}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-861107-2|LicensedRelDate=April 16, 2024<ref>{{cite web|title=Snowball Earth, Vol. 1|url=https://www.viz.com/read/manga/snowball-earth-volume-1/product/7817|publisher=[[Viz Media]]|access-date=January 5, 2024}}</ref>|LicensedISBN=978-1-9747-4377-3}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=2|RelDate=November 30, 2021<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:【11月30日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/455426|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=November 30, 2021|archive-date=December 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201054538/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/455426|url-status=live}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-861187-4|LicensedRelDate=July 16, 2024<ref>{{cite web|title=Snowball Earth, Vol. 2|url=https://www.viz.com/read/manga/snowball-earth-volume-2/product/7910|publisher=[[Viz Media]]|access-date=March 29, 2024}}</ref>|LicensedISBN=978-1-9747-4615-6}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=3|RelDate=March 30, 2022<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:【3月30日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/471636|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=March 30, 2022|archive-date=July 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729015847/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/471636|url-status=live}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-861263-5|LicensedRelDate=—|LicensedISBN=}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=4|RelDate=August 30, 2022<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:【8月30日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/490761|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=August 30, 2022|archive-date=September 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902153855/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/490761|url-status=live}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-8613960|LicensedRelDate=—|LicensedISBN=}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=5|RelDate=February 28, 2023<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:【2月28日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/514440|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=February 28, 2023|archive-date=March 20, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320065124/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/514440|url-status=live|title=Archive copy|accessdate=April 13, 2024|archivedate=March 20, 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320065124/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/514440}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-861589-6|LicensedRelDate=—|LicensedISBN=}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=6|RelDate=October 30, 2023<ref name="vol6">{{cite web|script-title=ja:【10月30日付】本日発売の単行本リスト|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/544932|website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|access-date=November 25, 2023|language=ja|date=October 30, 2023|archive-date=November 21, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121100231/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/544932|url-status=live}}</ref>|ISBN=978-4-09-862646-5|LicensedRelDate=—|LicensedISBN=}} {{Graphic novel list/footer}} == nnabata == Nke manga kwadoro site animator na director Hideaki Anno, <ref name="Vol1-Natalie"/> video egwuregwu Onye kere Hideo Kojima, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://realsound.jp/book/2021/12/post-921376.html|work=Real Sound|publisher=Blueprint Co., Ltd.|accessdate=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=December 9, 2021|archivedate=January 28, 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128071755/https://realsound.jp/book/2021/12/post-921376.html}}</ref> na manga artist One . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/471885|work=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]]|publisher=Natasha, Inc.|accessdate=June 11, 2023|language=ja|date=March 30, 2022|archivedate=August 8, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808173913/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/471885}}</ref> == Edensibia == kwuputara na ha enyela ikike manga maka mmepụta Bekee na North America, malite na Q2 2024kwuputara na ha enyela ikike manga maka mmepụta Bekee na North America, malite na Q2 2024{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Official website at Big Comic Bros (in Japanese) * Snowball Earth at Anime News Network's encyclopedia bz3ykr2txdb8vjxcs5268obmr2fo2bn Bracetti Plaza 0 43296 687996 163556 2026-07-13T23:53:26Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687996 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Mariana Bracetti Plaza.jpg|thumb|Bracetti Plaza]] Bracetti Plaza, ma ọ bụ Mariana Bracetti Plaza, bụ ụlọ nke New York City Housing Authority wuru ma na-elekọta ya na Alphabet City, nke mpaghara East Village nke Manhattan .  [1] [2] [3] [4] A na-akpọ nke aha aha Mariana Bracetti (1825-1903), Puerto Rican a ma ama nke a maara dị ka "Arms of Gold", na onye bụ onye mbụ ahụ.  Boriquas Latin Cross, ọkọlọtọ mbụ nke Puerto Rico .  [1] Ọ bụ Dr. Ramon Emeterio Betances mere ọkọlọtọ a, ma ka bụ akara ngosi nke obiọma onwe Puerto Rican<ref name="nychapage">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/developments/manbracetti.shtml|title=Bracetti Plaza|work=NYCHA Housing Developments|publisher=New York City Housing Authority|accessdate=16 January 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204153557/http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/developments/manbracetti.shtml|archivedate=4 December 2009}}</ref> Bracetti Plaza bụ ụlọ nwere okpukpu okpukpu asaa na mbara ala ruru 1.02 acres (4,100 m na 251 East 3rd Street ma ọ bụ 290 East 4th Street . [1] Mmepe ahụ nwere ụlọ 108 dị ihe dịka mmadụ 312. [1] Obodo ya, East  Village, bụbu nke njikọ na Lower East Side, ụfọdụ na-ewerekwa ya dị ka Lower East Side, ma ugbu a, a na-ese ókè na Houston Street  'ime ya bụ Okporo ụzọ B n'ebe egwuregwu, Okporo ụzọ C n'Ụdị ụmụaka, East 3rd Street na ndịda, yana East 4th Street n'ebe ugwu.<ref name="nychapage" /> <ref name="map">{{Cite web|url=http://gis.nyc.gov/nycha/im/AddressMap.do|title=NYCHA GIS|work=NYCHA Housing Developments|publisher=New York City Housing Authority|accessdate=18 January 2010|archivedate=5 March 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305230943/http://gis.nyc.gov/nycha/im/AddressMap.do}}</ref> <ref name="corner">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/residents/manhattanS_ccop.shtml|title=Manhattan South District CCOP Office|work=Residents' Corner|publisher=New York City Housing Authority|accessdate=18 January 2010|archivedate=June 13, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613210616/http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/residents/manhattanS_ccop.shtml}}</ref>Emechara Bracetti Plaza na Mee 31, 1974. [1] Ndị bịara na-ahụ maka mpaghara nke New York City na-elekọta ya, nke Manhattan Community Board 3 na-achịkwa ya.  [2] [3] As of 2010[update] <nowiki></link></nowiki><nowiki></link></nowiki> , Ọ dịghị onye na-eje ozi dị ka Resident Association President maka Bracetti Plaza.  [4] Ọ bụrụ na mmadụ nọ, ọ ga-abụ onye otu onye isi oche nke Manhattan South District Citywide Council of Presidents == Hụkwa == * Ndepụta nke ụlọ ikike obibi New York City == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == [[Òtù:Aha]] k3mrq3bzdh1zarv94yyc925hfdj2xsp Ụlọ Lillian Wald 0 43333 687991 162691 2026-07-13T21:50:35Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687991 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Lillian Wald Houses & Riis Houses, Manhattan, New York, US.jpg|thumb|Ụlọ Lillian Wald na 2008]] . <ref name="feld">{{Cite book|author=Feld|first=Marjorie N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UH5H8TaNGfsC&dq=%2522Lillian+Wald+Houses%2522&pg=PA188|title=Lillian Wald: A Biography|date=2008|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-3236-3|pages=188|language=en}}</ref>Nwanyị Lillian Wald bụ ụlọ ọrụ NYCHA na Lower East Side nke Manhattan nke na-Bile onye na-akwado ụlọ nke otu aha.  [1] [2] Edobere nkume nkuku ahụ na East Sixth Street na Avenue D na 1947 na-eso iwu ego steeti nke Lillian Wald akwụkwọ maka ya. Mwube nke Ụlọ ahụ dugara na njedebe nke [[Manhattan Street]], na mbụ ụzọ mkpirisi n'etiti East nke atọ na East Houston Street. <ref>{{Cite news|date=2014-10-06|title=The remains of two streets no longer on the map|language=en|url=https://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/2014/10/06/the-remains-of-two-streets-no-longer-on-the-map/|work=Ephemeral New York|accessdate=2022-03-08}}</ref> == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Aha]] onqc4ei1y31tjzwb3wftn5a9c6ob7b8 Ogige ehi nke San Fernando, Cádiz 0 44069 687931 165066 2026-07-13T12:35:26Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687931 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Plaza de Toros, San Fernando (Figura 47).jpg|thumb|Plaza de Toros, San Fernando]] .Plaza de toros de San Fernando bụ mgbanaka mgba ehi dị na San Fernando na mpaghara Cádiz, Andalusia, Spain.  E hiwere ya na 1871, ma dị nso na Edificio de Capitanía General de San Fernando, Museo Histórico Municipal de San Fernando na Castillo de San Romualdo.[1]  Ọ na-anọdụ gburugburu 8000 ekiri == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}}{{Bullrings in Spain}} 2jm4y554kkcv00cjjxgr4athir64enh Skunder Boghossian College of Performing and Visual Arts 0 45008 687961 537950 2026-07-13T17:17:38Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687961 wikitext text/x-wiki   Skunder Boghossian College of Performing and Visual Arts bụ nche anwụ maka ụlọ akwụkwọ kacha ochie nke Etiopia maka nka, [1] na-enye mmemme Bachelor na Masters na nka, ihe nkiri na egwu <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/|title=Overview|work=College of Performing and Visual Arts, Addis Ababa University|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528013138/https://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/}}</ref> <ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yofthahe-nigussie-school-of-theatrical-arts/|title=Overview of Yofthahe Nigussie School of Theatrical Arts|work=College of Performing and Visual Arts, Addis Ababa University|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522163326/http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yofthahe-nigussie-school-of-theatrical-arts/}}</ref> <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yared-school-of-music/overview-of-yared/|title=Overview of Yared School of Music|work=College of Performing and Visual Arts, Addis Ababa University|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522163325/http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yared-school-of-music/overview-of-yared/}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/|title=College of Performing and Visual Arts|work=College of Performing and Visual Arts|accessdate=2019-01-16|archivedate=2019-01-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117013353/http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/}}</ref>akwụkwọ nke Mahadum Addis Ababa, akwụkwọ ahụ ka emepụtara na 2010 iji ngwaahịa ụlọ akwụkwọ dị iche iche — Alle School for Fine Arts and Design, Yoftahe Nigussie School of Theatrical Arts, na Yared School of Music — ya na Gebre Kristos Desta Center na Modern  egwu egwu nka. <ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenextcanvas.com/about-ethiopian-art/|title=About Ethiopian Art|work=The Next Canvas}}</ref> <ref name=":1"/> <ref name=":42">{{Cite news|url=https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/the-alle-school-of-fine-arts-and-design-has-undergone-major-changes/|title="The Alle School of Fine Arts and Design has undergone major changes"|author=Tigabu|first=Tibebeselassie|date=September 12, 2014|work=Contemporary&}}</ref>Akpọrọ aha onye Etiopia kacha mara amara nke oge a bụ Skunder Boghossian, onye kuziri na AAU's School of Fine Arts and Design.  Onye isi mbụ ya bụ Berhanu Ashagrie Deribew. == Ụlọ akwụkwọ == === Alle School of Fine Arts and Design === A na-akpọbu ụlọ akwụkwọ Art Addis Ababa, ụlọ akwụkwọ a nkata ntọala na 1958 ma ọ bụrụ nke mbụ ma bụrụ nke mbụ ụlọ akwụkwọ nka na Etiopia .  [1] Onye omenkà Alle Felegeselam hiwere ya site na nkwado nke Emperor Haile Selassie na onye bụbu Ministry of Education and Fine Arts.  Ọ dịla mkpa maka Etiopia ọgbara ọhụrụ ka o akwadowo "ndị na-ese ihe na- ama" na "ndị niile a ma ama nke Etiopia na-ese ihe, ndị na-ese ihe, ndị na-ebe ihe na ndị na-azụ.  akwụkwọ esiwo n'ọnụ ụzọ ụlọ akwụkwọ a Gafe." <ref name="contemporaryand.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.contemporaryand.com/magazines/the-alle-school-of-fine-arts-and-design-has-undergone-major-changes/|title="The Alle School of Fine Arts and Design has undergone major changes" {{!}} Contemporary And|work=www.contemporaryand.com|language=de|accessdate=2019-01-23}}</ref> Ndị na-ese ihe ụka ọdịnala na-akachakarị ya na mbụ, ihe ndị a na-akụzi bụ naanị ịse, eserese, ihe ọkpụkpụ, nka azụmahịa na akụkọ nka nka. <ref name=":02"/> N'afọ 1975, ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ malitere ịchọ ka ụmụ akwụkwọ gụchaa klas nke iri na ịgafe ule nkà. Ọ jikọtara ya na AAU na 1988, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, ọ nwere ike inye Bachelors na Master's degrees. N'afọ 2012, e degharịrị usoro ọmụmụ kọleji iji kwado ụmụ akwụkwọ ya nke ọma maka ahịa nka mba ụwa. Na 2015, kọleji gbakwunyere Mmemme Masters na Fine Arts na Production Film. <ref name=":42"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chcinetwork.org/addis-2019-cfp|title=CHCI Africa Workshop - Addis 2019 - Africa as Concept and Method: Emancipation, Decolonization, Freedom|work=Consortium of Humanities Centers and Institutes}}</ref>Akwụkwọ akwụkwọ a na ụlọ ọrụ na nke mba dị iche iche na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ iji ọrụ dị ka Action Archives, nke e-akwụkwọ na Institut für Raumexperiment na Berlin University of Arts .  [1] Ɔ kwadokwara nkwado mba ụwa oghere oghere n'obodo mepere emepe n'Africa.  [2] [3] O sonye n'ịhọrọ ihe osise maka owuwu udo na nchekwa nke Africa .  Na 2019, ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ haziri Consortium of Humanities Centers and Institutes (CHICI) Africa Workshop. === Ụlọ akwụkwọ egwu nke Yared === A na-akpọbu National School of Music, ụlọ akwụkwọ a ntọala ntọala na 1946 ma bụrụ nke mbụ ma ọ bụrụ nna ụlọ akwụkwọ na Etiopia.  [1] Ọ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ịmepụta ndị na-emepụta egwu Etiopia.  [2] Iwu nke ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ bụ "ịzụ ndị nkuzi egwu na ndị na-emepụta, mmepụta omenala, inye ọrụ na eze ọkụ, na ọnụọgụ mmadụ ihe.  na mkparị ihe na nkà egwu oge ochie nke ihuenyo, egosipụta., na akwụkwọ <ref name=":6">Kimberlin, Cynthia Tse. "Yared School of Music." In Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Y-Z: Vol. 5, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Siegbert Uhlig, 29-30. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014.</ref> <ref name=":6">Kimberlin, Cynthia Tse. "Yared School of Music." In Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Y-Z: Vol. 5, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Siegbert Uhlig, 29-30. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014.</ref>A kpọpụtara ya na Akwụkwọ Akwụkwọ Music Yared na 1969, na- Madina onye nsso Etiopia nke egwu Saint Yared, mgbe arọ Bulgarian akwụkwọ ụlọ ọhụrụ na ngwá ọrụ.  Na 1998, ọ sonyeere Mahadum Addis Ababa ka ọ bụrụ ụlọ ọrụ na-enye akara ugo họrọ, na-enye Bachelor of Art in Music degrees.  [1] Ọ gara n'ihu hụ na 1972 na 2012. === Ụlọ akwụkwọ Yoftahe Nigussie nke Ụlọ ihe nkiri === Tọrọ ntọala na 1978, ụlọ akwụkwọ a bụ nke mbụ Etiopia ma bụrụ naanị ụlọ akwụkwọ ejije. <ref name=":3"/> Aha ya bụ Yoftaḥe Nǝguśe, onye ọsụ ụzọ na ihe nkiri Etiopia na nnukwu onye na-eme ihe nkiri nke afọ 1930. <ref>Zabolotskikh, Maxim. "Yoftaḥe Nǝguśe." In Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Y-Z: Vol. 5, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Siegbert Uhlig, 66-67. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014.</ref> Ụmụ akwụkwọ na-amụ ka esi eduzi, dee, ime ihe, na ide ihe nkiri na ihe nkiri nkatọ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yofthahe-nigussie-school-of-theatrical-arts/programs-of-yofthahe/|title=Programs of Yofthahe|work=College of Performing and Visual Arts, Addis Ababa University|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522163327/http://www.aau.edu.et/cpva/academics/yofthahe-nigussie-school-of-theatrical-arts/programs-of-yofthahe/}}</ref> Ya na ya na Ụlọ Akwụkwọ Egwú na-arụkọ ọrụ iji dee na ịmepụta mmepụta egwu. <ref name=":2"/> N'afọ 2011, ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ webatara mmemme Master of Arts na Ụlọ ihe nkiri na Ụlọ ihe nkiri na mmepe, nke na-akụziri ụmụ akwụkwọ na iji ihe nkiri dịka ngwá ọrụ mmepe obodo. === The Gebre Kristos Desta Center === The Gebre Kristos Desta Center na Modern Art Museum tọrọ ntọala na 2005 wee meghere ọha na eze na 2008. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://artdaily.com/index.asp?int_sec=11&int_new=61618#.UVr9F6tARCZ|title=Netsa Art Village: Cutting edge contemporary art movement emerges in Ethiopia|author=Vaughan|first=Jenny|date=February 22, 2013|work=artdaily.org|accessdate=May 22, 2024|archivedate=September 28, 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928205019/https://artdaily.com/index.asp?int_sec=11&int_new=61618#.UVr9F6tARCZ}}</ref> Ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ izizi na naanị ya maka nka ọgbara ọhụrụ na mba ahụ. <ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenextcanvas.com/gebre-kristos-desta-art-center/|title=GEBRE KRISTOS DESTA CENTER|work=The Next Canvas|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522153310/https://www.thenextcanvas.com/gebre-kristos-desta-art-center/}}</ref> A na-edebe ya n'ime ụlọ ochie nke Alga Werash Asfaw Wosen arụrụ ma bụrụ nke onye Etiopia na-ese ihe bụ Gebre Kristos Desta mere ka ọ bụrụ onye ọrụ iri atọ.  Ndị ọrụ Goethe akwụkwọ ya <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arefe.wordpress.com/2008/10/14/gebre-kristoss-paintings-dispalyed-at-new-museum/|title=New museum named after Gebre Kristos|date=October 14, 2008|work=Addis Journal}}</ref> <ref name=":5"/> Ebe etiti ahụ nwere ihe ngosi na-adịgide nke ụfọdụ ndị omenkà ọgbara ọhụrụ ama ama nke Etiopia, egwu Desta na Boghossian, yana Abdruhman Sherif, Yohannes Gedamu, Tibebe Teffa, Behailu Bezabeh, Bekele Mekonen na Bisrat Shibabaw.  [1] Ọ na-egosi enyo nwa oge ọrụ nke ndị omenkà ọgbara ọhụrụ nke Etiopia bụ Julie Mehretu, Emeka Ogboh, na Michael Tsegaye.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gebrekristosdestacenter.org/|title=Previous Shows|work=Gebre Kristos Desta Center|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2024-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522153313/https://www.gebrekristosdestacenter.org/}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gebrekristosdestacenter.org/contact-1/|title=Contact|work=Gebre Kristos Desta Center|accessdate=2024-05-22|archivedate=2019-09-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914071745/http://www.gebrekristosdestacenter.org/contact-1}}</ref>ụnwayọ ọnwa 2019, onye isi ụlọ ọrụ ahụ bụ Elizabeth Wolde Giorgis . == Ndị gụsịrị akwụkwọ == * Wosene Worke Kosrof * [[Elizabeth Habte Wold]] == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 83cnmzo1k68mryfk8t4rtktrzly071f Valerie Mason-John 0 45251 688040 177486 2026-07-14T08:35:09Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688040 wikitext text/x-wiki   [[File:Valerie Mason-John.jpg|thumb|Valerie Mason-John]] Valerie Mason-John ( opera 22 Nọvemba 1962) [1] bụ nzere Bekee na onye rụpụtara mgbake elo - Iji nkuzi Buddha merie ahụ riri ahụ, [2] ọzọ na mmemme mmemme iri na abụọ maka ahụ riri ahụ. == Tesis == akwụkwọ e akwụkwọ ahụ site na Windhorse Publications na 2013, ọ kwuru onye nnata ihe nrite akwụkwọ kacha mma USA 2014 [1] na akwụkwọ akwụkwọ kacha mma 2015 [2] na ngalaba mkpali onwe na onye onwe onye.  nsogbu ọchịchị na-eme ugbu a na UK, USA, Canada, India na Finland.  Mason-John bụkwa onye mmekọ nke Mindfulness Based Addiction Recovery (MBAR), nke sitere na Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression sitere n'aka John D. Teasdale, Mark Williams, na Zindal Seagal. Mason-John na-eji ha/ha isiaha ma bụrụ onye otu LGBT obodo.  [1] Ha bụ onye dere akwụkwọ amị [2] ma na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ekwu okwu ọha na eze na Mindfulness for Addiction and Emotional Well Being, ma bụrụ onye na-enye ihe na-ejedebe mmegbu na ọrụ.  Valerie ka echiri echichi na Triratna Buddhist Community, ebe ha natara aha ime ohere ha, Vimalasara.  [3] Ha bụkwa onye isi oche nke Triratna Vancouver Buddhist Center.  [4] Aha Buddhist ha bụ Vimalasara, nkeere "onye isi ya bụ igwe agba nchara na nke dị ọcha".  Ha na-abụbu onye na-ede akwụkwọ na- matchghị akwụkwọ maka akwụkwọ ndị Voice ma bụrụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri na onye na-ede uri na-ekwu okwu na-eji aha ọkwa "Queenie".  [5] Black British site n'emekiri, ha player onye Canada ugbu a. == Akụkọ ndụ == Amụrụ na Cambridge, England, nye nne na nna Sierra Leone Creole, Mason-John mmegharị n'oge ọ bụ nwata "na-elekọta ya" - n'ahụ obibi na ebe a na-elekọta ụgbọ, [1] ụlọ ụlọ Orphanages Barnardo  na Britain, e obere oge ya na ya bi.  nne ha na nwa afọ iri na mma.  Mason-John tupu ya enweta akara ugo mahadum na 1980, mana ọ gara n'ihu na- , alakaso na ike akwụkwọ ruo ugbu a.  akwụkwọ ozi 1990, ha na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye edemede, onye na-ese ihe na onye nkuzi.  Ụlọ nkuzi nkuzi na Mahadum South Bank nke London, ma na-eduzi amụ ihe a na-ahụ maka njikwa iwe na idozi nsogbu . Ka ọnwa 18 gachara ụdị nkà ihe ndị na-eso agha na Mahadum Leeds n'oge 1980, Mason-John akwụkwọ akwụkwọ post-gụ akwụkwọ, akwụkwọ MFA na edemede okike na diplọma na-eme ihe nkiri na Mahadum Sussex [1] na Desmond  Ụlọ akwụkwọ Jones.  Ka ọ na-erule 2003, dị iche ha nwere na iko na-amị ha n'ime iwu Buddhist nke dị n'Ebe Ọdịda, dugara ha n'ịde na ime ihe, na Francis onwe ha na ndị ọzọ na-ahụzịaka iwe na guba.  Na Disemba 2007, Mahadum East London hụrụ Mason-John Honorary Doctor of Letters.  [2] Mason-John na-aga n'ihu na-ede akwụkwọ, na-arụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-enye ihe onwe onye;  ha na-eme ma na-ezo okwu na mba ụwa == Mbipụta, mgbasa ozi, na ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ == Ụbọchị Mason-John apụtala na UK na akwụkwọ nta ndị mba ụwa na akwụkwọ ndị edemede dị ka The Guardian, Voice, Curve Magazine, Morning Star, Akwụkwọ Pink, Akwụkwọ ihe enyi na Wasafiri .  Ha enyewokwa aka na Ọkara egwu: Ahụmahụ ụmụ ekere nke njem n'ụwa dum (mbipụta nke abụọ, Pandora Rough Guide, 1990), Frauen Zimmerim Haus Europa (Papyrosa, 1991), Mwakpo na Mgbakọ (Cassell, 1995), Okwu sitere na  Okwu Up Café ( akwụkwọ akwụkwọ Centerprise, 1993), na Tell Tales (Kwuo Akụkọ/Flipped Eye Publications, 2005). Mason-John bụ onye nchịkọta akwụkwọ nke Feminist Arts News site na 1992 ruo 1997. [1] Na mgbakwunye, ha bụ onye ntụzi nka nke London Mardi Gras site na 1997 ruo 2000, wee pụta apụ dị ka onye isi ihe ngosi nka.  nke Pride Arts.  [1] Ihe nzere ha na-agụnye ọrụ na- echereghị maka BBC, Channel 4 na Vis International TV;  Ekwala ngwaọrụ na mgbasa ozi nke redio nke Britain maka BBC World Service na mmemme mpaghara Midweek, Awa Nwanyị [2] na Shelagh Rogers Gosi na-esote Isi na CBC Radio . Na mgbakwunye na ọrụ ha na mgbasa ozi na akwụkwọ akụkọ, Mason-John malitere ọrụ na ihe nkiri. N'ịbụ ndị gụrụ akwụkwọ na Desmond Jones School of Mime and Physical Theatre, ha malitere ime na ide maka ogbo site na 1998. <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/9791/1/%5B08%5D%20Mason-John%20Interview%20TP%20March%202011.pdf|title='Odd Girl Out': An Interview with Valerie Mason-John, aka Queenie|author=Emma|first=Parker|date=|work=University of Leicester|accessdate=|archivedate=2017-08-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809070940/https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/9791/1/%5b08%5d%20Mason-John%20Interview%20TP%20March%202011.pdf}}</ref> Na-elekwasị anya na egwuregwu otu nwanyị, ha mepụtara otu ọrụ, gụnyere ''Sin Dykes, Brown Girl in the Ring'', ''Adventures of Snow Black na Rose Red'' na ''Ị nwetara m'', n'etiti egwuregwu ndị ọzọ. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/valerie-mason-john|title=Valerie Mason-John - Literature|work=literature.britishcouncil.org|language=en|accessdate=2017-03-14}}</ref> Akwụkwọ akụkọ mbụ ha ''Borrowed Body'' (2005), bụ nke e mechara maliteghachi dị ka ''The Banana Kid'' (2007), natara akwụkwọ ọgụgụ nke afọ. <ref name=":1"/> Ebe ọ bụ na, Mason-John edeela akwụkwọ isii gụnyere akwụkwọ akụkọ mmụọ ha na-abụghị akụkọ ifo ''Detox Your Heart'' (2006), <ref name=":1" /> nke e debere maka ntụgharị na 2017. == ''The Great Black North'' == . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/the-great-black-north-contemporary-african-canadian-poetry|title=The Great Black North – Briarpatch Magazine|work=briarpatchmagazine.com|language=en|accessdate=2017-03-17|archivedate=2017-09-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912234803/https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/the-great-black-north-contemporary-african-canadian-poetry}}</ref>Na 2012, Mason-John n'ụdị onye na-ekwu okwu bụ Kevan Anthony Cameron deziri akwụkwọ akwụkwọ Anthology The Great Black North: Contemporary African Canadian Poetry, nke Frontenac House , [1] na- amị ihe 90 ndị na-ede  uri.  [2] The Great Black North bụ otu n'ime nchịkọta uri mbụ zuru oke nke ndị na-ede uri Black Canada nke oge a.  [1] Ndị na-ede uri ama ama n'ime akwụkwọ ozi George Elliott Clarke, M. Nourbese Philip, Wayde Compton, Sylvia Hamilton, Olive Senior, Fredrick Ward na d'bi Young .  Ndekọ icheta dị iche iche n'ụzọ o si pụtapụta abụ "peeji" na "stage", dịka ụzọ isi kwanyere ma omenala ederede na nke ọnụ nke ndị na-ede uri sitere na mba Africa. == Ọrụ ebipụtara == * 1992–97: Onye nchịkọta ''akụkọ akụkọ nka nwanyị'' * 1992: ''Oji Art na Culture na Mainland nke Europe: France, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain'' (onye nchịkọta akụkọ), Arts Council of England * 1993: ''Okwu Ndị Lesbian: Ime Black Waves'' (onye na-ede akwụkwọ ya na Ann Khambatta) Scarlet Press,  * 1993: ''Okwu sitere na Cafe Women's Cafe: Egwu Lesbian sitere na Okwu Up'' (onye ntinye aka; eds Bernadette Halpin na Dorothea Smartt ), Centerprise Publications,  * 1994: ''Oji Na-ekwu okwu: Ndị Lesbian nke Africa na Eshia Na-ekwu Okwu Anthology'' (onye nchịkọta akụkọ), Cassell,  * 1995: ''Mwakpo na Mgbakọ'' (onye ntinye aka), Cassell,  * 1999: ''Nwa agbọghọ Brown na mgbanaka: Ejije, Prose na uri'', Jide Aka * 2005: ''Ahụ agbaziri'', Ọdụ Agwọ,  * 2005: ''Kwuo Akụkọ'' (onye ntinye aka), Kwuo Akụkọ/Mbipụta Anya tụgharịa,  * 2006: ''Detox Your Obi'', Windhorse Publications,  * 2007: ''Black British Aesthetic'', nke Victoria Arana deziri - onye ntinye aka,  * 2008: ''Olu gbajiri agbaji bụ ụmụ nwanyị na-adịghị emetụ aka na-ekwu'' ,  * 2012: ''Nnukwu Black North - uri African Canadian nke oge a'' (nke Kevan Anthony Cameron deziri),  * 2013: mbipụta ọhụrụ nke ''Borrowed Body'', Demeter Press Canada,  * 2014: ''Nzọụkwụ asatọ mgbake - Iji nkuzi Buddha iji merie ihe riri ahụ'' - onye ode akwụkwọ,  * 2017: Mbipụta agbasawanye ọhụrụ nke ''Detox Obi Gị - Ntụgharị uche maka Mmetụta Mmetụta'' ,  * 2020: ''A bụ m Negro gị: nsọpụrụ James Baldwin'' . Canada: Mahadum nke Alberta Press,  <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=D1TODwAAQBAJ ''I Am Still Your Negro: An Homage to James Baldwin''], Google Books.</ref> == Ihe nrite na ihe nrite == * 2000: Windrush Achievement Award Arts na Community ọsụ ụzọ * 2001: Onye mmeri nke Black, Asia na Chinese Shoreline/Cultureword First Chapter Award * 2005: Award Book Minds (obere ndepụta) (maka ''ahụ agbaziri'' ) * 2006/7: Onyinye Maka Arts - Council Arts England * 2006: Onye mmeri Mind Book of The Year Award (maka ''ahụ agbaziri'' ) * 2007: Black LGBT Community Award * 2007: Doctorate Honorary for Life Achievement - Dọkịta nke Akwụkwọ Ozi * 2014: Akwụkwọ nrite akwụkwọ Alberta akwụkwọ kacha mma (maka ''The Great Black North'' ) * 2014: Onyinye Akwụkwọ kacha mma na USA (maka ''mgbake nzọụkwụ asatọ'' ) * 2014: Robert Kroetsch Poetry Award (maka ''The Great Black North'' ) * 2015: Onyinye Akwụkwọ kacha mma nke mba ụwa (maka ''mgbake nzọụkwụ asatọ'' ) == Ntụaka == {{Reflist|30em}} * Official website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131030123558/http://www.thebuddhistcentre.com/eightsteps "Eight Step Recovery: Using the Buddha's Teachings to Overcome Addictions"]. The Buddhist Centre. * [http://www.bullyvictimbystander.com Let's Talk About Bullying] * [https://tricycle.org/dharmatalks/using-buddhas-teachings-to-overcome-addiction/ Using the Buddha's Teachings to Overcome Addiction], a Dharma Talk for ''Tricycle: The Buddhist Review''. April 2016. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070203150716/http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth5688A7141b5e91959BLwX4224A05 "Valerie Mason-John"], Contemporary writers | British Council. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080203204723/http://www.uel.ac.uk/news/latest_news/stories/graduation-ssmcs.htm "Valerie Mason-John inspires graduates - awarded Honorary Doctorate of the University of East London"], University of East London, 2006. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110708032256/http://crazybiswadip.blogspot.com/2008/02/hoping-with-compassion.html "Hoping With Compassion"]. Interview by Biswadip Mitra, ''Insight'', 28 February 2008. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110606093313/http://www.rainbownetwork.com/UserPortal/Article/Detail.aspx?ID=16692&sid=59 "Entertainment : Books : Interviews | Valerie Mason-John"], GaydarNation, 3 July 2005. * Rochita Loenen-Ruiz, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070709133511/http://www.theswordreview.com/columns.php?sub_id=56 "Inside the Writing Mind - An Interview with Valerie Mason-John"], ''The Sword Review'', 2005. * Linda Jordan, [http://www.wildmind.org/blogs/book-reviews/book-review-detox-your-heart-by-valerie-mason-john "'Detox Your Heart' by Valerie Mason-John"], Wildmind, 18 April 2007. * [http://www.windhorsepublications.com/product-category/authors/valerie-mason-john-vimalasara/ "Valerie Mason-John (Vimalasara)"], Windhorse Publications {{Authority control}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] lr6q2ccb7pi8d0s4dq54t32wdau9h22 Stephen Wallem 0 46639 687978 368628 2026-07-13T19:56:55Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687978 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Stephen Wallem 2011.jpg|thumb|Stephen Wallem]] '''Stephen Wallem''' (amụrụ na June 14, 1968) bu one American na eme Ihe ejije n'ihe onyonyo nakwa na n'ogbako ndi mmadu. Amara ya ofuma n'ihi egwu out nwoke "Off the Wallem", nakwa otutu uhe ejije ome goro. Wallems bu one na ede Ihe ejije, onye n'ede egwu nakwa onye nhazi ihei. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://stephenwallem.com/|title=澳客十大专家杀号定胆&#124;澳洲幸运10官方网站&#124;澳洲幸运10开奖官网|work=stephenwallem.com|accessdate=2024-06-03|archivedate=2022-12-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226003601/http://stephenwallem.com/}}</ref> Site na 2009 ruo 2015, ọ gosipụtara Thor Lundgren na usoro Showtime Nurse Jackie . Ọ bụ nwanne Linda Wallem, onye na-eme ihe nkiri, onye edemede, na onye na-emepụta ihe.<ref name="Advocate">{{Cite web|url=http://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/television/2010/03/23/nurse-jackies-hammer-thor|title=Nurse Jackie's Hammer of Thor|date=March 23, 2010|work=www.advocate.com}}</ref> == Ndụ na ọrụ == A mụrụ Wallem ma zụlite ya na Rockford, Illinois, ma rụọ ọrụ dị ka onye na-eme ihe nkiri na onye na-agụ egwú Cabaret na-emeri ihe nrite na Chicago tupu ọ kwaga New York iji mee ihe nkiri telivishọn mbụ ya na Nurse Jackie . Njem mba gụnyere Forever Plaid, Into the Woods na ''Scrooge'' na Richard Chamberlain. O nwetara ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ihe ngosi 2,500 dị ka 'Jinx' na 'Sparky' na ụlọ ọrụ dị iche iche nke Forever Plaid, gụnyere Chicago, Las Vegas, Denver na njem mba mbụ. Wallem gosipụtara 'Judas' / 'Padre' na mmepụta nke Man of La Mancha (After Dark Award for 'Outstanding Performance', Joseph Jefferson Award for 'Best Ensemble') ma mee ihe ngosi ya na Long Wharf Theatre na New Haven. Maka Ravinia Festival, ya na ndị mmeri Tony Patti LuPone, Audra McDonald, Michael Cerveris na George Hearn pụtara na A Little Night Music, Passion, Sunday in the Park na George na Doll na David Hyde Pierce (nke Lonny Price duziri). Wallem malitekwara ọrụ 'Arvid' na ụlọ ọrụ Broadway nke ''Kristina från Duvemåla'', nke Benny Andersson na Björn Ulvaeus nke [[ABBA]] dere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm3434452/bio|title=Stephen Wallem|work=IMDb}}</ref> Mgbe ọ mechiri oge nke atọ nke ''Nọọsụ Jackie'', Wallem sonyeere onye na-eme ihe nkiri Edie Falco maka ihe ngosi cabaret akpọrọ The Other Steve and Edie . Mmepụta ahụ, nke Wallem na Falco chepụtara na ntụziaka egwu site n'aka onye mmeri ugboro atọ After Dark Award Beckie Menzie na ntụziakọta site na Tony Humrichouser, gbara ọsọ maka mmemme abalị atọ na Laurie Beechman Theatre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ww38.cabaretexchange.com/news-mainmenu-55/current-news/1562-the-other-steve-a-edie.html|title=cabaretexchange.com|work=ww38.cabaretexchange.com|accessdate=2024-06-03|archivedate=2023-11-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125160151/http://ww38.cabaretexchange.com/news-mainmenu-55/current-news/1562-the-other-steve-a-edie.html}}</ref> Ihe ngosi ahụ nwetara ọtụtụ otuto dị egwu, otu onye nyocha na-ekwu na "E nwere ezi echiche dị mma n'etiti egwu egwu na ihe ndị ọzọ na-atọ ọchị, ike doro anya nke Wallem, onye mere ka ìgwè mmadụ ahụ nwee obi ụtọ na parodies abụọ, otu bụ "okwu okwu," nke ọzọ bụ "Defying Gravity" nke Wicked gbanwere ka ọ bụrụ "Defing Parody".Wallem nwere ọrụ nkwado dị ka Maazị Pitts na 2022 Jennifer Lopez romcom Marry Me, na ọrụ nkwado na oge 5 nke The Resident dị ka Winston, onye ọrụ mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya dị ịtụnanya ma nwee ọgụgụ isi. == Edensibịa == [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] <references /> [[Otú:Ndị amụrụ n'afọ 1968]] 7kth9p3g3082cd7kk6gw9teeps09flh Stephen Cepello 0 48027 687976 644822 2026-07-13T19:51:58Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Stephen Cepello''' (amụrụ Jun 29, 1949) bu onye omenka America na onye mgba.  Dị ka onye mgba, a mara ya nke ọma site na aha mgbanaka ya, "The California Terminator" Steve Strong.  Mgbe ọ ịgba mgba iji le anya na ọrụ nka ya, a na-egosi ya ka ọ na-ese ihe osise Gọvanọ Gọvanọ na Minnesota State Capitol nke onye mgba mgba na Gọvanọ nke Minnesota Jesse Ventura . == Ndụ Mbido == A akare Cepello na Arizona, ebe ọ ima ike mgbe ọ dị afọ asaa.  Ọ gara ụlọ akwụkwọ Kachina Art na Phoenix. Ọ gara nwanne dị na Phoenix wee soro ndị otu basketball, na-enweta akụ na ụlọ egwuregwu ama nke ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ <ref name="oww">{{Cite web|title=Wrestler Profiles: Steve Strong|work=Online World of Wrestling|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/s/steve-strong.html|accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> == Ọrụ mgba mgba ọkachamara == Strong egwu ịgba mgba na 1973, na-aa mpi maka nkwalite mgba mgba nke Stu Hart's Stampede .  Ejiri ọtụtụ ọrụ ya na Hawaii.  Ɔ gbara ọsọ maka NWA Hawaii dị ka ma onye mgba mgba na otu onye otu ọtụtụ mkpado .  Ọtụtụ ọkụ na-arụ ọrụ n'ihi nkwalite n'onwe ya arụ ọrụ site na Julaị 1974 ruo June 1977, nweta nkwalite ahụ wee nwee ike iji mmegide mmeri ọhụrụ mgbe ewe ngo aha ndị ahụ na Julaị 1977. Strong gbara maka ike maka  NWA Hawaii Heavyweight Championship wee ruo agba nke ikpeazụ nke nche ahụ tupu Bill Francis rie ya. O mekwara ya na agba ikpeazụ nke maka NWA Hawaii Tag Team Championship yana onye mmekọ Steve Lawler mana n'ikpeazụ Sam Steamboat na Billy White Wolf.  A na-akpata ike na Jesse Ventura, dịka onye nkwalite ahụ chere na foto elu ha yiri nke ahụ na anụ ahụ muscular mere ka ha bụrụ egwuregwu dị mma.  Na Julaị 28, Strong na Ventura ife aka iji merie otu mkpado.  Ha jidere eriri ruo Nọvemba, mgbe ha tụbara ha John Tolos na Bill Francis. Na Jenụwarị 1978, Strong ikike ume n'ọsọ ya na Francis, merie ya maka NWA Hawaii Heavyweight Championship yana, ya na onye otu Chris Markoff, maka NWA Hawaii Tag Team Championship kwa tụfuru aha arọ ahụ n'aka Tolos n'afọ na-eso ya mana jide eriri otu mkpado ahụ ruo mgbe Bill na Russ Francis mkpebi n'April 26 n'afọ ahụ.  Na June 14, Strong na onye bụbu onye mgba Tolos aka iji merie eriri maka oge ikpeazụ.  Ha meri Big John Studd na Buddy Rose wee jide aha ahụ gosipụtara tupu ha enyefee ya Mr. Fuji na Karl Von Steiger na August 16. <ref name="hit">{{Cite web|title=NWA Hawaiian Tag Team Title History|work=Solie's Wrestling Titles|url=http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/hawttnwa.html|accessdate=2009-04-25|archivedate=2010-07-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726162913/http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/hawttnwa.html}}</ref> == Ọrụ nka == Cepello video na egwu maka Michael Nesmith 's "Cruisin", nke ihere na nchịkọta 1981 ịka Elephant Parts .  Nesmith kwuru n'ụzọ hiere ụzọ na 1989 na Hulk Hogan mmetụta ọrụ a, mana ọ gbaziri njikọ ya na 2003. [1] Ọ pụtakwara n'ọtụtụ ihe nkiri.  Na 1981, ọ gbara Ivory King na Tarzan, The Ape Man. N'afọ ahụ, o were ọrụ na Looker, nke Michael Crichton duziri ya. Na 1985, Strong dị na Grunt!  Ihe nkiri mgba mgba, na-egosi agwa a mara ka ihe nkpuchi <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Motion Picture Guide 1986 Annual: The Films of 1985|first=Jay Robert|author=Nash|publisher=Cinebooks|year=1987|isbn=0-933997-14-0}}</ref> Cepello eseela ihe ọrụ nke abụọ onye otu mkpado mbụ na Gọvanọ Minnesota Jesse Ventura.  Otu, nke e sere maka ụgbọ mmiri Gọvanọ, na-egosi Ventura ka ọ na-agba ụgbọ mgbe ọ na-ejide ọkọlọtọ America. Nke ọzọ, ihe osise nke Ventura na-etinye aka ya na Musée Rodin 's The Thinker, na- Zimbabwe na Minnesota State Capitol. Foto nke ikpeazụ abụrụla isiokwu, dịka Cepello kwuru tupu ntọala ya na ọ ga-enwe ntụaka maka ọrụ mgba Ventura.  Ụfọdụ ndị na-ekiri ekwuwo na ha na-ahụ akwụkwọ ozi WWF, nke na-ezo aka na World Wrestling Federation, zoro ezo na mpịa nke Ventura's sleeve, ebe ndị ọzọ na-akpa na eriri Ventura nwere ihu zoro ezo.. <ref name="code">{{Cite web|title=Viewers squint at portrait for a Ventura Code|url=http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/121903/art_LA0610-7.shtml|accessdate=2009-04-25|date=2003-12-19|first=Patrick|author=Howe|work=Augusta Chronicle}}</ref> O meela ihe ọrụ azụmahịa, nke akara akara maka Dave Draper's Bomber Blend whey protein. Mgbe ọ na-ebi na Hawaii, ọ na-ese ma na-ere ihe osise nke oké osimiri. Cepello, onye ọrụ ya ọtụtụ ihe ọrụ nke anụmanụ, na-arụsi ọrụ ike n'ịrụ ọrụ ichekwa anụ ọkụ mmiri. <ref name="bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.stevecepello.com/bio.html|title=Biography|work=SteveCepello.com|accessdate=2009-04-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050205142050/http://stevecepello.com/bio.html|archivedate=2005-02-05}}</ref> == Asọmpi na mmezu == * '''Oge mgba mgba nke steeti iri ise''' ** NWA Hawaii Asọmpi Arọ arọ (1 oge) <ref name="hih">{{Cite web|work=Solie's Wrestling Titles|url=http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/hawhtnwa.html|title=NWA Hawaiian Junior Heavyweight/Heavyweight Title History|accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> ** NWA Hawaii Tag Team Championship ( ugboro 3 ) - ya na Jesse Ventura (otu oge), Chris Markoff (otu oge), na John Tolos (otu oge) <ref name="hit" /> == Edensibịa == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050206142215/http://www.stevecepello.com/ Weebụsaịtị gọọmentị] * Stephen Cepello's profile at [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] a3qwkvd8n17mwlvptk6dp036z554gqz Ǹgwèrè nwere nkèrè afọ nke Rhodes 0 48279 687989 172961 2026-07-13T21:42:11Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox|name=Rhodesian girdled lizard|status=LC|status_system=IUCN3.1|status_ref=<ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Alexander, G.J. |author2=Tolley, K.A |date=2021 |title=''Cordylus rhodesianus'' |volume=2021 |page=e.T110160195A110160295|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/110160195/110160295 |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref>|taxon=Cordylus rhodesianus|authority=([[John Hewitt (herpetologist)|Hewitt]], 1933)|synonyms=|image=File:Erfurt - Thüringer Zoopark - Trachylepis margaritifera 01.jpg|image caption=Ǹgwèrè nwere nkèrè afọ nke Rhodes}} Ǹgwèrè nwere nkèrè afọ nke Rhodes ('''''Cordylus rhodesianus''''') bụ otu n'ime ụdị ǹgwèrè atọ dị óké patapata nke sitere na [[Zimbabwe]], [[Malawi]], na [[Mozambique]]. Ụdị abụọ ndị ọzọ bụ ''Cordylus nyikae'' na ''Cordylus meculae''. A na-ahụ ha ka ha na-ebi n'okpuru nkume n'ebe ndị óké nkume toputara ebe ha na-eri obere [[Arthropod|ụmụ ahụhụ]]. Ndị toro eto n'ime ha na-adị 60-90 mm n'ogologo site n'imi ruo n'ọnụ. &nbsp;Ogologo ọ́dụ̀ ya bụ ihe dịka ọkara ogologo ahụ ya niile. Nke a makwaara dịka ǹgwèrè nwere nkèrè afọ nke Zimbabwe, ha bi n'ala ahịhịa Ugwu nke ọwụwa anyanwụ Zimbabwe. Ihe mgbochi isi ha na-akwọ mụrụmụrụ ma ọ bụ rịgọtụ ntakịrị. A na-agbapu oghere imi ya n'etiti ọnụ imi ya, ọnụ azụ ya nwekwara akụkụ azụ. Azụ ya na-acha odo odo ma nwee ntụpọ ụfọdụ gbara ọchịchịrị ụfọdụ na-enwu gbaa. Afọ ya na-acha odo odo ruo ntụ. Ụmụ nwoke na ụmụ nwanyị ha nwere oghere femoral. A na-ebupụ ǹgwèrè nwere nkèrè afọ nke Zimbabwe site na Mozambique maka azụmahịa anụ ụlọ. Ǹgwèrè a na-anọgide na-agbaji ma ejide ya ma chọọ ọtụtụ ebe zoro ezo nke e ji nkume ndị a tụkọtara atụ wuo. == Edensibia == {{Reflist}}[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa: Ralph Curtis Books Publishing, Sanibel Island, Florida, 399 p. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji], na Marais, J., 2005. Ụdị ọhụrụ nke rupicolous ''Cordylus'' Laurenti 1768 (Sauria: Cordylidae) sitere na Northern Mozambique: African Journal of Herpetology, 54 (2): 131-138. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Nnyocha nke obere ''Cordylus'' nke ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka (Sauria: Cordylidae), na nkọwa nke ụdị ọhụrụ: African Journal of Herpetology, 51 (1): 9-34. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Ụdị ọhụrụ nke rupicolous ''Cordylus'' Laurenti si Malawi (Sauria: Cordylidae): African Journal of Herpetology, 49 (2): 169-172.{{Cordylidae}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q2711973}} oxaceespfgg5wdbugq4piermxdd428x Tina McElroy Ansa 0 48587 688011 197974 2026-07-14T03:20:22Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688011 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}'''Tina McElroy Ansa''' (amuru na Nọvemba 18, 1949 wee nwụọ na Septemba 10, 2024) <ref>Ted Wadley, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120207191150/http://www.newgeorgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-748 "Tina McElroy Ansa (born 1949)"], ''The New Georgia Encyclopedia'', October 28, 2005.</ref> bu onye ode akwukwo [[Ndị Afụrịka ǹkè Amerịka|America-Amerika]], <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Tina-McElroy-Ansa/e/B000AQ4IXO/ref=dp_byline_cont_book_1|title=Amazon.com: Tina McElroy Ansa: Books, Biography, Blog, Audiobooks, Kindle|work=www.amazon.com|accessdate=November 25, 2017}}</ref> onye na-ese ihe onyonyo, onye nkuzi, onye ọchụnta ego na onye nta akụkọ . <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/108511.Tina_McElroy_Ansa|title=Tina McElroy Ansa|work=www.goodreads.com|accessdate=November 25, 2017}}</ref> Ọrụ ya apụtala na ''Los Angeles Times'', ''Newsday'', ''The Atlanta Constitution'', ''Florida Times-Union'', ''Essence Magazine'', ''The Crisis'', ''Ms. Magazine'', ''America Magazine'', na ''Atlanta Magazine'' . <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.harpercollins.com/cr-100567/tina-mcelroy-ansa|title=Tina McElroy Ansa|work=HarperCollins US|language=en|accessdate=November 25, 2017}}</ref> == Ndụ onwe onye == Amụrụ '''Tina McElroy''' na Walter J. na Nellie McElroy na Macon, Georgia, ebe o tolitere na mpaghara Pleasant Hill. <ref name=":1"/> Ansa gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Spelman College <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spelman.edu/about-us/news-and-events/news-releases/2011/06/28/spelman-college-celebrates-130-years-of-educating-women-for-leadership-and-service|title=SPELMAN COLLEGE CELEBRATES 130 YEARS OF EDUCATING WOMEN FOR LEADERSHIP AND SERVICE|work=www.spelman.edu|accessdate=November 25, 2017|archivedate=December 1, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201080835/http://www.spelman.edu/about-us/news-and-events/news-releases/2011/06/28/spelman-college-celebrates-130-years-of-educating-women-for-leadership-and-service}}</ref> wee lụọ Jonée Ansa, onye na-eme ihe nkiri, afọ 42. Ansa bi na St. Simons Island, Georgia ebe ọ na-ede, dezie ma na-ebipụta site na ya DownSouth Press. Ọ na-eji Mụọ nke di ya ọ hụrụ n'anya na-aga n'akụkụ ya. == Ọrụ ide == Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na kọleji ma rụọ ọrụ ruo ọtụtụ afọ n'ọkwá dị iche iche na ''Atlanta Constitution'', Ansa dere ọtụtụ akwụkwọ akụkọ ma bụrụ onye na-enye aka ugboro ugboro n'ọtụtụ oge, gụnyere ''Los Angeles Times'', ''Newsday'', na ''Atlanta Journal-Constitution'' . == Akwụkwọ akụkọ == o tolitere na mpaghara Pleasant Hill. Ansa gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Spelman College wee lụọ Jonée Ansa, onye na-eme ihe nkiri * ''Nwa nke Ezinụlọ'' (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989.  ) * ''Ụzọ jọrọ njọ'' (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Co., 1995.  ) * ''Aka m ji akwado'' (New York: Ugboro abụọ, 1998.  ) * ''Ị mara nke ọma'' (New York: William Morrow, 2002.  ) * "Rachel" na ''Mending the World: Akụkọ nke Ezinụlọ site n'aka ndị ode akwụkwọ ojii nke oge a'', Rosemarie Robotham, onye nchịkọta akụkọ (New York: Akwụkwọ BasicCivitas, 2003.  ) == Ntụaka == {{Reflist|30em}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20240508022930/https://tinamcelroyansa.com/ Weebụsaịtị gọọmentị] * [http://pid.emory.edu/ark:/25593/tznrr Tina McElroy Ansa akwụkwọ] na Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, na Rare Book Library [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 2s205yvn4kxy6kxlnvf0r23hpqfi7yy Afụ ụfụ 0 51095 687975 207878 2026-07-13T19:51:27Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687975 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Stratonicea-village-center.jpg|thumb|Afụ ụfụ]] Dandume (ma ọ bụ Dan Dume ) bụ ọchịchị ime obodo dị na Katsina Steeti, Naijiria.  Isi ụlọ ọrụ ya dị na obodo Dandume na ike nke mpaghara ahụ. == Okirikiri ala == Ọ nwere mpaghara dị narị anọ na iri abụọ na abụọ km 2 na ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ dị otu puku narị na iri anọ na ise, narị asaa na iri atọ na iteghete na ngụkọ nke afọ 2006. Na kwa ndị obodo dandume na-arụ ọrụ ugbo. Ha bụ ndị nwe otu omenala Dandume bụ ụlọ Dandume bụ nnukwu njikwa a na-ere ike ihe ike.  Koodu ozi nke mpaghara ahụ bụ narị asatọ na iri atọ. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Post Offices- with map of LGA|publisher=NIPOST|url=http://www.nipost.gov.ng/PostCode.aspx|accessdate=2009-10-20|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007011423/http://www.nipost.gov.ng/PostCode.aspx|archivedate=2009-10-07}}</ref> <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Dandume Local Government Area|url=https://www.manpower.com.ng/places/lga/457/dandume#google_vignette|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=www.manpower.com.ng}}</ref> == Ihu igwe == Na Dandume, Ebe nke awụ niile na-nọnnọ ya na oge adịghị mma, oge udu mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ na oge ọkọchị na- horo isi.  Nkezi kwa afọ dị n'etiti iri ise nà anọ°F na iri iteghete na isii°F;  ọ na- akara ala ma ọ bụ mpaghara iri anọ na asatọ°F ma ọ bụ otu narị na abụọ°F. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dandume Climate, Weather By Month, Average Temperature (Nigeria) - Weather Spark|url=https://weatherspark.com/y/55121/Average-Weather-in-Dandume-Nigeria-Year-Round|accessdate=2024-07-09|work=weatherspark.com|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-07-23|title=Weather Forecast Dan Dume - Nigeria (Katsina) : free 15 day weather forecasts|url=https://www.weathercrave.com/weather-forecast-nigeria/city-482144/weather-forecast-dan-dume-today|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=Weather Crave|language=en}}</ref> === Igwe ojii === N'ime afo ahụ dum, elele a na-ahụ anya n'oge na nkezi ìhè igwe ojii nke Dandume .Dandume na-enweta oge ya ozizi mma site n'ọnwa Nọvemba abalị ise ruo Machị abalị abụọ , ogologo oge nke 3.9.  Na 63% nke mbara igwe doro anya, nke na-edo ọnọdụ anya, ma ọ bụ obere urukpuru na nkezi, Jenụwarị bụ ụgbụ kacha pụta ìhè n'afọ na Dandume.  Site na Machị 2 ruo Nọvemba 5, ma ọ bụ ụnwanyị 8.1, bụ mgbe oke igwe ojii na-eme n'afọ.  Site na 77% nke mbara igwe bụ urukpuru ma ọ bụ na-enwekarị urukpuru na nkezi, Mee bụ ụnwanyi ígwé ojii ngbapụ n'afọ na Dandume. <ref name=":0" /> == Akụ na ụba, == Isi ụlọ ọrụ dị n'okpuruokpuru Dandume bụ ọrụ ugbo, ebe a na-akọ ụdị ihe omume dị iche iche nke a na-akọ n'ebe ahụ nke asị kokoyam, osikapa, agwa, mkpuru osisi, agwa soy, ose na poteto.  .  Azụmahịa bụ ụzọ ọzọ dị mkpa nke akụ na ọnọdụ Dandume.  akara a nwere akara ngosi, akara aka Dandume, ebe a na-azụ ma na-ere ụdị ọka dị iche iche. <ref name=":1" /> == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} sf1fdvwc5ral7j053whogtn21lkwdnm Ihe Omume Maka Ịbụ Onye Nkwado Ụmụ nwanyị 0 51157 687997 184814 2026-07-13T23:55:29Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687997 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Inkluderende 8. mars 2024, 2.jpg|thumb|Ihe Omume Maka Ịbụ Onye Nkwado Ụmụ nwanyị]]   Ihe omume maka i bụ onye nkwado umunwanyi(uzo nwanyi gụnyere IFI) Òtù mba njiko umunwanyi nke Norway nzukọ na-arụ ọrụ maka ịha nhatanha, iche iche na nsonye na ndabere nke ikike mmadụ.[1][2][3] Ọ bụ ọgbakọ ndị nwanyị na-emekọrịta ihe na Norway. IFI na-ekwusi ike na nwanyị ga-adabere na ikike ụmụ mmadụ na mgba nke ndị na-adịghị ike, na IFI na-akwado ọtụtụ ndị na-adịghị ike, na-elekwasị anya n'okwu ndị dị ka ntinye trans na mgbochi ịkpa ókè agbụrụ. Ebe ọ bụ na 2022 IFI haziri gụnyere March 8 ọnụ na Mmekọahụ og politikk (nkwado iwu nne na nna), FRI na ndị ọzọ == Akụkọ ihe mere eme na ihe a lekwasịrị anya == Otu ìgwè ndị na-ahụ maka ụmụ nwanyị guzobere IFI na 2022 iji gbochie mgbasawanye na-arịwanye elu na populism na-emegide nwoke na nwanyị, na iji wuo otu ndị inyom sara mbara na Norway, nke na-arụ ọrụ na ndabere nke ikike mmadụ na nkwanye ùgwù maka nkwanye ùgwù mmadụ nke onye ọ bụla. IFI na-ekwusi ike na ụmụ nwanyị ga-adabere na ikike mmadụ na ọgụ na-agbanwe agbanwe nke ndị na-adịghị ike. <ref name="Fett">{{Cite journal|author=Støle-Nilsen|first=Marianne|date=2023|title=Mot en inkluderende feminisme|url=https://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-nb_digitidsskrift_2023033083031_001|journal=[[Fett (magazine)|Fett]]|volume=|issue=1|pages=65–69}}</ref> Nzukọ ahụ sitere na netwọk na-abụghị nke a na-ahụ anya guyere umunwanyi, nke e guzobere na 2020 ma nwee ihe dị ka otu puku ndị otu ka ọ na-erule afọ 2024. Netwọk guyere umunwanyi nwere mgbọrọgwụ ya na "Kpọọ maka Inclusive Feminisme," nke ndị inyom 2,476 bipụtara na 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-12|title=Opprop for inkluderende kvinnekamp|url=https://www.dagbladet.no/kultur/opprop-for-inkluderende-kvinnekamp/72234921|work=Dagbladet}}</ref> N'afọ 2023, a sochiri oku ụmụ nwanyị megide transphobia, nke ndị nkwado ụmụ nwanyị 2,611 bịanyere aka.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-01-25|title=2611 feminister mot transfobi|url=https://www.blikk.no/trans/2611-feminister-mot-transfobi/229090|work=Blikk}}</ref> A na-ejikarị okwu ahụ bụ femism na-agụnye ụmụ nwanyị eme ihe n'otu ihe na femism intersectional, ọkachasị femism nke na-agụnyere ndị transgender na ndị ọzọ na-adịghị ike. Ịha nhatanha na Mgbochi ịkpa oke Ombud Hanne Bjurstrøm kwuru na ọchịchọ maka ụmụ nwanyị na-agụnye "na-adaba nke ọma na [nnyocha àgwà [[Bufdir]] site na 2017], nke chọpụtara na ndị na-enwe obi abụọ banyere ndị na-eme ihe na-eme, gụnyere ndị trans, na-abawanye ụba. " IFI kwusiri ike na nghọta zuru oke nke ọdịmma ụmụ nwanyị nke na-eburu n'uche okike na mmekọahụ dị iche iche kwekọrọ na ikike mmadụ nke oge a na ikike ụmụ nwanyị. <ref>{{Cite web|accessdate=2024-08-01|publisher=[[Gender Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud|Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud]]|title=Ulike meninger er OK, å spre transhat er forbudt|url=https://www.ldo.no/ombudet-og-samfunnet/siste-nytt2/ulike-meninger-erok-men-transhater-forbudt/}}</ref><ref>Sørlie, Anniken; Grønningsæter, Andrea Vige; Arnesen, Lars Andre Strøm (2023). «Den transinkluderende kvinneretten». I [[Ingunn Ikdahl]], [[Kirsten Sandberg]], Julie Stewart, [[Vibeke Blaker Strand]], Tone Linn Wærstad (red.). ''Hellums metode: Festskrift til Anne Hellum''. s. 309–320. Gyldendal Akademisk</ref> Ọ bụ ezie na ajọ mbunobi megide ndị na-erughị eru aghọwo ihe na-adịghị agbasa n'etiti ndị mmadụ n'ozuzu ha, ọkachasị n'etiti ọgbọ na-eto eto, akụkọ orụ Extremism na 2024 kwuru na ikike LGBTQ + nọ n'okpuru nrụgide dị ukwuu site n'aka ndị na-emebiga ihe ókè.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/nou-2024-3/id3027182/|title=NOU 2024: 3: Felles innsats mot ekstremisme|date=2024|publisher=[[Government of Norway]]}}</ref> oru nche Ndị uwe ojii Norwegian gosipụtara na nyocha egwu mba ha maka 2023 na 2024 na enwere ihe na-egosi na ndị LGBTQ+ ga-aghọ ndị isi maka ndị na-emebiga ihe ókè na-aga n'ihu. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2023|publisher=[[Norwegian Police Security Service]]|title=Nasjonal trusselvurdering|url=https://www.pst.no/alle-artikler/trusselvurderinger/ntv-2023/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2024|publisher=[[Norwegian Police Security Service]]|title=Nasjonal trusselvurdering|url=https://www.pst.no/globalassets/2024/ntv2024/nasjonal-trusselvurdering-2024_uuweb.pdf}}</ref> N'afọ 2024, Ụmụ nwanyị UN dọrọ aka ná ntị banyere mmegide ndị na-emegide ikike site na iji Mgbasa ozi ịkpọasị na ihe na-eduhie eduhie iji lekwasị anya ma gbalịa ime ka ndị otu ndị ka nta ghara ịbụ ndị iwu.<ref name="unwomen2024">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/05/lgbtiq-communities-and-the-anti-rights-pushback-5-things-to-know|title=LGBTIQ+ communities and the anti-rights pushback: 5 things to know|accessdate=2024-06-15|publisher=[[UN Women]]|date=}}</ref> Norway enwekwara mkpọsa megide ndị transgender na 2020s.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Engebretsen, Elisabeth Lund|url=https://www.m24.no/debatt-elisabeth-lund-engebretsen-kjonn/slik-skaper-media-mer-trans-og-homofobisk-retorikk/714425?noLog=1|title=Slik skaper media mer trans- og homofobisk retorikk|date=2024-05-02|work=M24}}</ref> Norway nwere mwakpo ndị na-eyi ọha egwu na 2022 na-elekwasị anya na obodo na ugwu Oslo . Marianne Gulli, onye isi oche nke FRI Oslo na Viken, kwuru na Initiative gụnyere umunwanyi"dị mkpa maka ịmepụta obodo ụmụ nwanyị nke nwere ohere maka onye ọ bụla".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Marianne Gulli er nyvalgt styreleder – FRI Oslo og Viken|url=https://www.friosloviken.no/marianne-gulli-er-nyvalgt-styreleder-fri-oslo-og-viken/|publisher=Fri Oslo og Viken|accessdate=27 July 2024}}</ref> === Ntinye March 8 === IFI na-ahazi March 8 guyere na Oslo, otu n'ime ihe omume abụọ dị mkpa nke ubochi umunwanyi na Oslo, na mmekorita ya na ọtụtụ òtù ndị inyom na ndị na-eme ihe ike dị ka Sex og__zul____zul____zul__ (nkwado iwu nne na nna) na nzukọ ndị Òtù Na-ahụ Maka Mmekọahụ na Ịdịiche okike (FRI), Queer World na radiOrakel.[12][13] [14] [15] .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sexogpolitikk.no/kalender/inkluderende-8-mars-pa-eidsvolls-plass/|title=Inkluderende 8. mars på Eidsvolls plass|accessdate=2024-02-14|publisher=[[Sex og politikk]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.universitas.no/8-mars-tog-8mars-feminisme/kvinnedagens-paradoks/363824|title=Kvinnedagens paradoks|accessdate=2024-01-13|work=Universitas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://skeivungdom.no/2023/03/08/en-interseksjonell-og-inkluderende-8-mars/|title=En interseksjonell og inkluderende 8. mars|accessdate=2024-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.friosloviken.no/events/8-mars-fri-stiller-seg-bak-inkluderende-feminisme/|title=Fri stiller seg bak Inkluderende feminisme|accessdate=2024-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lokalradio.no/nyheter/radionyheter/kvinneradioen-markerer-kvinnedagen/|title=Kvinneradioen markerer kvinnedagen|accessdate=2024-01-13|work=Lokalradio|quote=– På radiOrakel markerer vi 8. mars med å være med på alternativ 8. mars i regi av inkluderende feminisme}}</ref> N'ime March 8 na-akọwa onwe ya dị ka ihe omume nke meghere maka ụmụ nwoke na ụmụ nwanyị niile na nke na-emegide Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ, Transphobia, homophobia, fascism, na ableism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.friosloviken.no/events/inkluderende-8-mars-2024-pa-eidsvolls-plass/|title=Inkluderende 8. mars 2024 på Eidsvolls plass|accessdate=2024-07-28|publisher=Fri Oslo og Viken|date=}}</ref> == Nhazi == IFI nwere ndị otu si Norway niile ma bụrụ nke ndị isi na-eduzi. Onye ndú ya bụ Marianne Støle-Nilsen. == Ihe odide == <references /> c9petf686g9rdumlttsnwmrwlitbw6y Emanuel Herrera 0 51450 687822 687801 2026-07-13T12:18:38Z King ChristLike 13051 added databox and Ce 687822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[Faịlụ:Emanuel HERRERA Montpellier.JPG|thumb|Emanuel HERRERA Montpellier]] '''Emanuel Herrera''' ({{IPA|es|emaˈnwel eˈreɾa}}</link> , amụrụ 13 Eprel 1987) bụ onye [[Footbọl|egwuregwu bọọlụ]] Argentine nke na-agba bọọlụ Chilean Primera División side Ñublense dị ka onye ọkpọ . Ọ gbara n'ọkwa ndị ntorobịa nke Rosario Central ruo afọ isii, mana ọ dịghị mgbe ya na ndị otu mbụ rụpụtara ya. A gbaziri ya na Chacarita Juniors, Sportivo Italiano na Patronato na ngalaba nke abụọ nke Argentine . Enweghị nhọrọ na obodo ya mere ka ọ chọọ ohere na Chile, ebe ọ nabatara onyinye nke Deportes Concepción . N'ime ndị otu Chile, ọ kwadoro onwe ya dị ka onye mmalite na, mgbe nnukwu oge 2011 gasịrị ebe o meriri ihe mgbaru ọsọ 29 na egwuregwu 39, Unión Española bịanyere aka na ya. N'agbanyeghị na ọ nọ naanị ọkara oge, o jisiri ike bụrụ 2012 Torneo Apertura top scorer na akara ugboro ise na 2012 Copa Libertadores . Nke a jidere mmasị Montpellier, nke kwụrụ $ 3.5 nde maka ya. Ọ nọrọ na ndị otu French maka oge abụọ, mana mgbe mmalite na-adịghị mma na mgbasa ozi 2013-14, a gbaziri ya na Tigres, ebe ọ na-egwuri egwu maka semester ma merie Copa MX . Mgbe nke a gasịrị, Emelec bịanyere aka na Herrera, ebe ọ nọrọ oge atọ wee merie ihe mgbaru ọsọ 21 na egwuregwu 78, na-emeri 2014 na 2015 Campeonato Ecuatoriano . N'afọ 2017, a gbaziri ya na klọb Peruvian FBC Melgar na mgbe ahụ na ụlọ ọgbakọ Mexico Lobos BUAP . == Ọrụ klọb == === Ọrụ na Argentina === A mụrụ Herrera na Rosario. Herrera malitere ọrụ football ya na Chacarita Juniors . Na 21, na-enweghị ike ịmanye na mbụ otu, ọ hapụrụ mbụ ya club Chacarita Juniors na e zigara Sportivo Italiano na Buenos Aires ma ọnụnọ ya na Buenos Aires ebe ịkwaga Patronato . Oge atọ ya na Argentina bụ ọdịda na naanị egwuregwu 16 na mkpokọta enweghị goolu. === Wepụ Concepción === === Mahadum Española === [[Usòrò:Emanuelherrera.JPG|áká_èkpè|thumb|264x264px| Emanuel Herrera na Estadio Santa Laura .]] Mgbe ndị otu ahụ erughị eru maka asọmpi egwuregwu maka nkwalite, ọ kwadoro nnyefe na 13 December 2011 na Herrera ga-esonye na Chile Primera División n'akụkụ Unión Española, na-abanye na nkwekọrịta afọ ise. Na 25 Jenụwarị 2012, Herrera mere ọkwa izizi ya maka klọb ahụ na Copa Libertadores First Stage nke ụkwụ mbụ megide Tigres na na 2 February 2012, ọ meriri ihe mgbaru ọsọ mbụ maka klọb ahụ na egwuregwu n'ụkwụ nke abụọ bụ 2– 2, na-agafe na ọkwa otu. Na Copa Libertadores, Herrera ga-akara 4 ọzọ megide Junior de Barranquilla, Club Bolívar (gbatara ọzọ) na Club Deportivo Universidad Católica (ihe mgbaru ọsọ anọ niile na-abịa na ọkwa otu). Herrera nyere aka na Copa Libertadores n'ụkwụ abụọ a megide Boca Juniors bụ nke furu efu na egwuregwu abụọ ahụ. Na Copa Libertadores, Herrera banyere n'asọmpi ahụ na-ebute ihe mgbaru ọsọ 5 na egwuregwu 10. === Ọkụ === Na 2024, Herrera laghachiri na Chile wee bịanye aka na Ñublense na ngalaba kachasị elu. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Silva|first=Felipe|title=Jugó en la Ligue 1 y ahora llega al fútbol chileno: "¡Bienvenido, Maquinaria!"|url=https://chile.as.com/futbol/jugo-en-la-ligue-1-y-ahora-llega-al-futbol-chileno-bienvenido-maquinaria-n/?omnil=resrelrecomv|accessdate=2 February 2024|work=[[Diario AS]]|date=1 February 2024|language=es}}</ref> == Nkwanye ugwu == '''Tigers UANL''' * Copa MX (1): Clausura 2014 '''Egwuregwu Cristal''' ; Mahadum Deportes * Nkewa nke Peruvian Primera : 2023 == Ntụaka == 2011 gasịrị ebe o meriri ihe mgbaru ọsọ 29 na egwuregwu 39, Unión Española bịanyere aka na ya. N'agbanyeghị na ọ nọ naanịna ọkwa otu). Herrera nyere aka na Copa{{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Herrera, Emanuel}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 3lnoojifz5vjyr3gd0ycuvyasiblmtz Sandhya Rani Tudu 0 51899 687816 200234 2026-07-13T11:59:41Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder|image=File:Sandhya Rani Tudu 2020.jpg|office=Minister of State For Paschimanchal Unnayan Affairs (Independent Charge), Government of West Bengal|termstart=10 May 2021|termend=|predecessor=|governor=[[Jagdeep Dhankhar]]<br/>[[La. Ganesan]]<br/>[[C. V. Ananda Bose]]|1blankname=Chief Minister|1namedata=[[Mamata Banerjee]]|successor=|constituency=[[Manbazar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Manbazar]]|party=[[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]}} '''Sandhya Rani Tudu''' bụ onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị India. A họpụtara ya na West Bengal Legislative Assembly site na Manbazar dị ka onye otu Trinamool Congress.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/amp/elections/manbazar-west-bengal-election-result-2021|title=West Bengal assembly election 2021: Full list of winners|publisher=Times Now|date=3 May 2021|accessdate=8 May 2021|archivedate=7 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507033353/https://www.timesnownews.com/amp/elections/manbazar-west-bengal-election-result-2021}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/amp/news/politics/manbazar-election-result-2021-live-updates-manbazar-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3696404.html|title=Manbazar Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Sandhya Rani Tudu of TMC wins|publisher=News18|accessdate=9 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/magazine/nation/story/20210524-mamata-banerjee-s-rainbow-cabinet-1802464-2021-05-14|title=Ranibandh Election Result 2021|publisher=India Today|accessdate=9 May 2021}}</ref> == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Sandhya Rani TudunaTwitter {{DEFAULTSORT:Rani Tudu, Sandhya}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] n405r9zy9qqk2gisy5gp28z5t9b5cv4 687817 687816 2026-07-13T11:59:42Z KiranBOT 25138 removed AMP tracking from URLs ([[:m:User:KiranBOT/AMP|details]]) ([[User talk:Usernamekiran|report error]]) v2.2.9s 687817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder|image=File:Sandhya Rani Tudu 2020.jpg|office=Minister of State For Paschimanchal Unnayan Affairs (Independent Charge), Government of West Bengal|termstart=10 May 2021|termend=|predecessor=|governor=[[Jagdeep Dhankhar]]<br/>[[La. Ganesan]]<br/>[[C. V. Ananda Bose]]|1blankname=Chief Minister|1namedata=[[Mamata Banerjee]]|successor=|constituency=[[Manbazar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Manbazar]]|party=[[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]}} '''Sandhya Rani Tudu''' bụ onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị India. A họpụtara ya na West Bengal Legislative Assembly site na Manbazar dị ka onye otu Trinamool Congress.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/manbazar-west-bengal-election-result-2021|title=West Bengal assembly election 2021: Full list of winners|publisher=Times Now|date=3 May 2021|accessdate=8 May 2021|archivedate=7 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507033353/https://www.timesnownews.com/amp/elections/manbazar-west-bengal-election-result-2021}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/manbazar-election-result-2021-live-updates-manbazar-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3696404.html|title=Manbazar Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Sandhya Rani Tudu of TMC wins|publisher=News18|accessdate=9 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20210524-mamata-banerjee-s-rainbow-cabinet-1802464-2021-05-14|title=Ranibandh Election Result 2021|publisher=India Today|accessdate=9 May 2021}}</ref> == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Sandhya Rani TudunaTwitter {{DEFAULTSORT:Rani Tudu, Sandhya}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] e0e3nou6x125tb5l5ssql1njbou5hri 1995 Ihe mere na Okinawa 0 52568 688022 207270 2026-07-14T05:39:52Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 688022 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:The protesting crowd in Ginowan on 2009-11-08.jpg|thumb|Ihe mere na Okinawa na 1995]]   Ihe omume mmeko nwoke nke Okinawa nke 1995 (Japanese: 沖縄米兵少女暴行事件) mere na Septemba 4, 1995, mgbe ndị ọrụ US atọ, onye US Navy Seaman Marcus Gill dị afọ 22, onye dị afọ 22, Rod Hari na U.S. Kendrick Ledet dị afọ, ndị niile na-eje ozi na Camp Hansen na Okinawa, gbaziri ụgbọ ala ma tọọrọ otu nwa agbọghọ Okinawan dị afọ 12. Ha tiri ya ihe, kechie anya ya na ọnụ ya ma kee ya aka. Gill na Harp wee dinaa ya n'ike, ebe Ledet kwuru na ọ bụ naanị ya mere ka ọ ga-eme otú ahụ n'ihi egwu Gill..<ref>Teresa Watanabe [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-10-28-mn-62075-story.html "Okinawa Rape Suspect's Lawyer Gives Dark Account : Japan: Attorney of accused Marine says co-defendant admitted assaulting 12-year-old girl 'just for fun'". ] ''Los Angeles Times'' October 28, 1995</ref> Iwu ndị Japan gbara ndị omempụ ikpe ma maa ha ikpe n'ụlọ ikpe Japan, dịka nkwekọrịta US-Japan Status of Forces siri dị. Ezinụlọ ndị a na-azara ọnụ kwuru na mbụ na ndị ọrụ Japan kpasuru ndị ikom ahụ ịkpa ókè agbụrụ n'ihi na ha niile bụ ndị Africa America ma manye nkwupụta n'aka ha, ma emesịa weghaara ebubo ahụ.[1] Ihe ahụ merenụ butere arụmụka ọzọ maka ọnụnọ ndị agha US na-aga n'ihu na Japan n'etiti ndị Okinawan.<ref name="CNNOkinawa">{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9510/okinawa_protest/index.html|title=Thousands rally against U.S. bases in Okinawa|accessdate=11 April 2008|publisher=CNN|date=21 October 1995}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2002/08/01/kor_ed1_.php|title=Road deaths ignite Korean anti-Americanism|accessdate=11 April 2008|work=International Herald Tribune|date=1 August 2002|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915160744/http://www.iht.com/articles/2002/08/01/kor_ed1_.php|archivedate=15 September 2007}}</ref> == Ịtọrọ mmadụ na ndina n'ike == Mgbe ndị omempụ atọ ahụ na onye agha mmiri nke anọ a na-akpọghị aha na-akwọ ụgbọala, Gill jụrụ ha ma ọ bụrụ na ha "tọrọla ime ihe nzuzu" nke n'oge na-adịghị anya mere ka ha niile nwee mkparịta ụka banyere otu ha ga-esi dinaa n'ike, Gill kwuru n'oge akaebe na Ledet tụrụ aro ime ya n'ezie ka ha na-achọ ịkwaga Harp laghachi na Camp Kinser, <ref>{{Cite news|author=Allen/Sumida|first=David/Chiyomi|title=Maine defendants claim that Gill bullied them to commit abduction}}</ref> na-akpali ha ịga ụlọ ahịa na Kadena Airbase ebe Harp na Ledet ga-azụta condoms na teepu eletrik. Ha atọ ga-etinye awa anọ sochirinụ na-achọ onye a chọrọ, n'otu oge na-anwa ịtọrọ nwanyị n'okporo ụzọ tupu ya agbalaga n'ime ụlọ mgbe Harp bịakwutere ya.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Inoue|first=Masamichi|title=Okinawa and the U.S. Military Identity Making in the Age of Globalization|date=17 April 2007|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231511148|pages=32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TnsVoSw8hRgC&dq=gill&pg=PA32|accessdate=28 June 2024}}</ref> N'elekere asatọ nke ehihie, mmadụ atọ ahụ hụrụ onye ahụ ka ọ na-abanye n'ụlọ ahịa ebe ọ na-aga obere oge site n'ụlọ ya ịzụta akwụkwọ ndekọ. Mgbe ọ hapụrụ, Harp gakwuuru ya ma rịọ maka ntụziaka, ka nke a na-eme, Ledet kụrụ ya ihe ma jide ya n'olu iji dọrọ ya n'ụgbọala ka Harp nyere aka. Mgbe ọ nọ n'ụgbọala ahụ, Harp jidere ọnụ ya, aka ya, na nkwonkwo ụkwụ ya ma Ledet tinye ya na anya ya. Ha gara n'ebe Blue Beach Training, ebe ndị ọkàiwu Harp na Ledet ga-ewepụ ya n'ụgbọala ahụ, tupu Gill ewepụ uwe elu onye ahụ a tara ahụhụ, kụọ ya aka n'ihu na afọ, ma tụba ya azụ n'ụ ụgbọ ala ebe o dinara ya n'ike. <ref>{{Cite book|author=Hein/Selden|first=Laura/Mark|title=Islands of Discontent Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power|date=9 April 2003|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=9781461637929|pages=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ec4dAAAAQBAJ&dq=okinawa%20rape%20blue%20beach%20training%20area&pg=PA137}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Allen|first=David|title=Sailor admits raping Okinawan}}</ref> Mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, dị ka akaebe Gill nyere n'ụlọ ikpe si kwuo: ya na Ledet mere ihe ọchị banyere mpụ ahụ tupu Ledet alaghachi n'ụgbọala ahụ mgbe ọ yipụchara uwe ime ya, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị Harp banyere n'ime ma dinaa ya n'ike. Mgbe ha kwụsịrị, nwa agbọghọ ahụ gara ije ruo mgbe ọ chọtara ụlọ ebe ọ kpọrọ nne ya ma kọwaa ihe merenụ. Nne ya tinyere akwụkwọ mkpesa na ndị uwe ojii bụ ndị nwere ike ịmata ndị ikom ahụ ngwa ngwa dabere na nkọwa nke onye ahụ, gụnyere kpọmkwem nọmba na nọmba laịsensị nke ụgbọala ịgbazite. == Mmeghachi omume == Foto nke ihu ndị a na-enyo enyo anọghị na mgbasa ozi Japan. Ndị isi akụkọ na-enwe nchegbu na iwe ọha na eze maka idina mmadụ n'ike ga-akawanye ọkụ ma na-ekwu okwu ịkpa ókè agbụrụ ma ọ bụrụ na a gbasaa agbụrụ nke ndị a na-enyo enyo. Otu onye na-ahụ maka mgbasa ozi ọha na United States, na-ekwu okwu site n'isi ụlọ ọrụ ndị agha US na Japan dị na Yokota, kwuru na ya enweghị ike ikpughe agbụrụ ndị a na-enyo enyo n'ihi nkwanye ùgwù maka nzuzo ha.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Barr|first=Cameron W.|date=October 26, 1995|title=Japan's Media Avoid Showing Race of US Rape Suspects|work=Christian Science Monitor|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1995/1026/26012.html|accessdate=2023-03-16}}</ref> Mgbe amatachara ihe omume ahụ, iwe ọha na eze malitere, ọkachasị na US-Japan Status of Forces Agreement, nke na-enye ndị ọrụ US ihe ụfọdụ nke mpụ (nnwere onwe na ikike nke iwu obodo) naanị dịka ọ metụtara ebe ndị a na-enyo enyo nọ. ejidere. Ọ bụ ezie na e mere mpụ ahụ n'ebe ndị agha United States nọ, US bu ụzọ kpọchie ndị ikom ahụ, na Septemba 6.[1] Ọ bụ ezie na asịrị ụgha na-agbasa na ndị a na-enyo enyo nwere onwe ha ịgagharị na ntọala ahụ na a hụwo ha ka ha na-eri hamburgers, [2] a na-ejide ndị a na-enyo enyo na brig ndị agha ruo mgbe ndị ọrụ Japan boro ha ebubo mpụ ahụ.<ref name="OKpact" /> N'agbanyeghị arịrịọ ngwa ngwa nke ndị mmanye iwu Japan rịọrọ maka njide na ikpe ikpe, e bufere ndị ikom ahụ naanị na Septemba 29, mgbe ndị Japan kpechara ha ikpe.[1] Oge igbu oge a kwekọrọ na nkwekọrịta Ọnọdụ nke Forces, nke na-ekwu, "Njide onye ebubo ebubo nke ndị agha United States ma ọ bụ akụkụ ndị nkịtị nke Japan ga-enwe ikike, ọ bụrụ na ọ nọ n'aka United States. States, nọrọ na United States ruo mgbe a boro ya ebubo."[2] Ọ bụ ezie na ndị agha chụpụrụ ndị a na-enyo enyo n'isi ụlọ ọrụ ndị uwe ojii dị na Naha maka ajụjụ ọnụ kwa ụbọchị, [3] onyinye SOFA na igbu oge n'ịkwafe ndị a na-enyo enyo mụbara iwe n'ihi Mwakpo, na-ebute mmụba nke echiche Anti-American n'etiti ndị Okinawan na ndị Japan n'ozuzu ha.<ref>U.S.-Japan SOFA Agreement, Article xvii (5) (c):</ref> Okinawa Prefectural Assembly wepụrụ mkpebi iji mee mkpesa megide omume ndị agha US.[1] N'October 21, e mere ngagharị iwe na obodo Ginowan iji mee mkpesa maka ihe mere na ebe ndị agha US. Ihe dị ka ndị bi na 85,000 sonyere na nnọkọ ahụ, gụnyere Gọvanọ Okinawa Masahide Ota. Nke a bụ ngagharị iwe kacha ukwuu na Okinawa kemgbe abanyela nkwekọrịta ahụ na 1960.[2][3] Gọvanọ Okinawa Masahide Ota n'oge ahụ jụrụ ịbịanye aka n'akwụkwọ ndị agha US chọrọ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=反基地運動のうねり：時事ドットコム|url=https://www.jiji.com/jc/v2?id=20100424us_marine_corps_in_okinawa_04|accessdate=2021-12-28|work=時事ドットコム|language=ja}}</ref> N'ihi ngagharị iwe banyere ikike, US kwetara ịtụle ịnyefe ndị a na-enyo enyo na ndị Japan tupu ebubo ma ọ bụrụ na ịdị njọ nke mpụ ahụ a na-ebo ya mere ka ọ bụrụ ihe ziri ezi.<ref name="OKpact">{{Cite news|author=Watanabe|first=Teresa|date=1995-10-26|title=U.S., Japan OK Pact on Military Crime Suspects|language=en-US|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-10-26-mn-61240-story.html|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|accessdate=2023-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=外務省: 日米地位協定第17条5（c）及び、刑事裁判手続に係る日米合同委員会合意|url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/sfa/rem_keiji_01.html|accessdate=2021-12-28|work=www.mofa.go.jp}}</ref> E kpebiri nkwekọrịta a na nzukọ mberede n'etiti [[President of the United States|Onye isi ala US]] Bill Clinton na Praịm Minista Japan Ryutaro Hashimoto. Ndị Okinawa tinyere mgbasa ozi zuru ezu na ''The New York Times'' na-akatọ ndina n'ike na akụkụ ndị ọzọ nke ụlọ ọrụ US na Okinawa.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> U.S. Navy Admiral Richard C. Macke bụ ọchịagha nke United States Pacific Command n'oge mwakpo ahụ. Na mkparịta ụka ndị nta akụkọ n'ọnwa Nọvemba afọ 1995, Macke kwuru banyere omume ụmụ nwoke ahụ: "Echere m na ọ bụ ihe nzuzu. Agwara m ọtụtụ ugboro: maka ụgwọ ha kwụrụ iji gbazite ụgbọ ala ahụ [nke e ji mee ihe na mpụ ahụ], ha nwere ike ịnwe nwa agbọghọ [nwanyi akwụna]. "A katọrọ okwu ndị a dị ka ndị na-enweghị mmetụta, a chụpụrụ Macke n'ọrụ ya ma manye ya Ịla ezumike nká n'oge. E belatara ya n'ọkwa ka ọ bụrụ onye admiral (kpakpando abụọ) site na onye admiral zuru oke (kpakpakpando anọ), nke belatara ezumike nká ya site na US $ 7,384/ọnwa ruo US $ 5,903/ọnwa.<ref name="retired-pacific-admiral-censured">{{Cite web|url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1996/vp961016/10160391.htm|title=Retired Pacific Admiral is Censured "Unduly Familiar" Relationship with Marine Corps Office is Cited.|author=Eisman|first=Dale|publisher=The Virginian-Pilot|date=16 October 1996|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214093844/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1996/vp961016/10160391.htm|archivedate=14 December 2007|accessdate=8 November 2007}}</ref> == Ikpe == N'ịbụ onye onye ọkàiwu ya gbara ume nke gwara ya na ụlọ ikpe ndị Japan na-enwekarị ọmịiko nye ndị kwupụtara mpụ ha, ma gosipụta nchegharị <ref>{{Cite web|author=Fukurai|first=Hiroshi|title=People's Panels vs. Imperial Hegemony: Japan's Twin Lay Justice Systems and the Future of American Military Bases in Japan|url=https://manoa.hawaii.edu/aplpj/wp-content/uploads/sites/120/2011/11/APLPJ_12.1_fukurai.pdf|accessdate=June 26, 2024}}</ref> Gill kwetara na ikpe mara maka ndina n'ike ahụ, ebe ndị ikom abụọ ndị ọzọ siri ọnwụ n'oge ikpe ahụ na ha emeghị ndina n'obi, mana ha kwetara na ha nwere nkata aghụghọ. Ikpe ahụ mechiri na Machị 7th 1996. <ref>{{Cite web|author=NHK|title=沖縄 米兵暴行事件に怒り爆発|url=https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/tv60bin/detail/index.cgi?das_id=D0009030269_00000|accessdate=2021-12-28|work=テレビ60年 特選コレクション {{!}} NHKアーカイブス|language=ja}}</ref> Gill kọwaara ndị ọka ikpe na ọ nọ n'okpuru nrụgide metụtara ọrụ n'ime izu ole na ole tupu mpụ ahụ nke iwu ya ka a kagbuo ya maka ịlaghachi na US mgbe ọ dara ule Physical Readiness ya maka oke ibu.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Allen|first=David|title=Apologetic Gill tells judges co-defendants are lying}}</ref> Ndị ọkàiwu tụrụ aro ka a maa ndị ikom ahụ ikpe, afọ 10 nke ọ bụla. onye ọka ikpe ahụ mara Ledet ikpe afọ isii na ọkara, ma maa Gill na Harp ikpe ịga mkpọrọ afọ asaa na ịrụ ọrụ ike, nke n'oge ikpe ahụ ka a na-ewere dị ka ntaramahụhụ dịtụ ogologo karịa nkezi site na ụkpụrụ ndị Japan.<ref name="March 7, 1996 NPR Morning Eddition THREE U.S. SERVICEMEN SENTENCED IN OKINAWA FOR RAPE">{{Cite news|author=McCarthy|first=Julie|title=THREE U.S. SERVICEMEN SENTENCED IN OKINAWA FOR RAPE|accessdate=22 September 2024}}</ref> Ezinụlọ ha kwụrụ ụgwọ ego maka ezinụlọ nke onye ahụ nwụrụ anwụ, ihe a na-emekarị na Japan.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> == Ihe si na ya pụta == Ndị ikom atọ ahụ nọrọ n'Ụlọ Mkpọrọ ndị Japan ma hapụ ha n'afọ 2003 wee nye ha ndị ọzọ na-enweghị nsọpụrụ n'ọrụ agha. Mgbe a tọhapụrụ ya, Rodrico Harp katọrọ ọnọdụ ụlọ mkpọrọ na Japan ma kwuo na ọrụ n'ụlọ mkpọrọ nke a manyere ya ime bụ Ọrụ ohu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/ex-marine-decries-nature-of-japan-prison-work-1.21905|title=Ex-Marine decries nature of Japan prison work|author=Allen|first=David|publisher=Stars and Stripes, Pacific Edition|date=18 July 2004|accessdate=4 April 2007}}</ref> Ledet, onye kwuru na ya edinaghị nwa agbọghọ ahụ n'ike, nwụrụ n'afọ 2006 n'ihe doro anya na ọ gburu onwe ya na United States. A chọtara ya n'ụlọ dị n'okpukpu nke atọ nke Lauren Cooper, nwa akwụkwọ dị ala na Mahadum Kennesaw State na onye ọ maara nke ọma nke o doro anya na o dinara ma gbuo ya site na mgbochi. O mechara gbuo ndụ ya site n'iji mma bepụ akwara ya n'olu ya.<ref>Allen, D. "[http://www.stripes.com/news/former-marine-who-sparked-okinawa-furor-is-dead-in-suspected-murder-suicide-1.53269 Former Marine who sparked Okinawa furor is dead in suspected murder-suicide.]" ''Stars and Stripes, Pacific Edition'', 25 August 2006.</ref> N'afọ 2008, e wepụtara ihe nkiri akpọrọ The First Breath of Tengan Rei nke dabeere na ihe mere n'Okinawa. <ref>{{Cite news|work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]|url=https://www.stripes.com/news/film-inspired-by-rape-of-okinawa-girl-by-u-s-troops-1.86170|date=14 December 2008|title=Film inspired by rape of Okinawa girl by U.S. troops|first=David|author=Allen}}</ref> N'ọnwa Disemba afọ 2011, Minista na-ahụ maka nchekwa n'oge ahụ bụ Yasuo Ichikawa bụ isiokwu nke mmegide nke ndị Liberal Democratic Party maka ịghara ịma nkọwa nke ndina n'ike. Nke a sochiri onye nọ n'okpuru ya Satoshi Tanaka na-agwa ndị nta akụkọ okwu n'ụlọ oriri na ọṅụṅụ ma na-eji okwu euphemisms maka ndina n'ike iji kwurịta banyere ịkwaga ọdụ ụgbọ elu US Futenma. A chụpụrụ Satoshi Tanaka dị ka onye nduzi nke Okinawa Defense Bureau, <ref>The Japan Times [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111210a2.html Upper House censures ministers - Ichikawa, Yamaoka censured in Diet December 10, 2011] Retrieved on August 16, 2012</ref> na mgbanwe nke Jenụwarị 13, 2012, Naoki Tanaka nọchiri Ichikawa. <ref>The Japan Times [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120114a1.html New Noda Cabinet on tax push January 14, 2012] Retrieved on August 16, 2012</ref> == Hụkwa == * Mmekọahụ n'oge ndị Japan na-achị * 1945 Ihe mere na Katsuyama * Ihe mere na Yumiko-chan na 1955 * 2002 Ihe mere na Okinawa Michael Brown * 2006 Ogbugbu Yokosuka * Ogbugbu nke 2008 Yokosuka '''Ọchịagha:''' * Mwakpo mmekọahụ na ndị agha US == Ihe odide == [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 2k0i1wl3k8kobbv38ggdj9nbeqpmxmo Wepụghachi Nkà na Ụzụ! 0 52878 688055 644865 2026-07-14T11:41:45Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688055 wikitext text/x-wiki Take Back The Tech bụ mgbasa ozi zuru ụwa ọnụ na-emekọ ihe ọnụ na-ejikọta okwu nke ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị na teknụzụ ozi na nkwukọrịta (ICT). O bu n’obi ime ka ndị mmadụ mara maka otu ime ihe ike a na-eme ụmụnwaanyị n’igwe okwu ICT dị ka ịntanetị na ekwentị, na ịkpọku ka ndị mmadụ jiri ICT na-agba mbọ kwụsị ime ihe ike ụmụ nwanyị.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2014-11-22|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://takebackthetech.net/frequently-asked-questions|accessdate=2022-08-30|work=Take Back The Tech|language=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://takebackthetech.net/frequently-asked-questions "Frequently Asked Questions"]. ''Take Back The Tech''. 2014-11-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-30</span></span>.</cite></ref> Ọ bụ Association for Progressive Communications, Women's Networking Support Programme malitere ya na 2006. Kemgbe ahụ, ndị mmadụ n'otu n'otu, ndị otu na ndị na-abụghị ndị gọọmentị na-akwado ma ọ dịkarịa ala mba 24.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.takebackthetech.net/connect/meet-other-campaigners|title=TakeBackTheTech|accessdate=2011-06-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622062628/http://www.takebackthetech.net/connect/meet-other-campaigners|archivedate=2011-06-22}}</ref> Aha ahụ bụ Take Back The Tech! sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ nke Take Back the Night (ma ọ bụ Reclaim the Night), njem na-eme ngagharị iwe na-eme ihe megide ndina n'ike na ụdị ime ihe ike ndị ọzọ megide ụmụ nwanyị.<ref name=":0" /> == Ihe si na ya pụta == Mgbasa ozi a gosiputara ụzọ ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị si na-ewere ụdị ọhụrụ site na iji ICT. Nke a gụnyere: * Mmegbu n'ịntanetị. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, mgbe onye na-enye nsogbu na-eziga ozi ugboro ugboro, nke a na-achọghị, nke na-eyi egwu na / ma ọ bụ nke mmekọahụ site na iji email ma ọ bụ SMS. Nke a nwekwara ike ịgụnye itinye ozi onwe onye banyere onye ahụ e gburu na / ma ọ bụ foto dijitalụ gbanwere nke onye ahụ e megburu na forums na weebụsaịtị ọha na eze, na-esokarị ozi na-arịọ maka nzaghachi mmekọahụ ma ọ bụ ime ihe ike. * Ịgba ọsọ na Internet. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ojiji nke netwọk mmekọrịta dị ka Facebook na Twitter iji soro ọrụ na mmegharị mmadụ, ojiji a na-eji spyware nyochaa [[Orunotu|kọmputa]] mmadụ na iji [[Intanet|Ịntanetị]] eme ihe, yana ojiji nke Ngwaọrụ Satellite zuru ụwa ọnụ iji soro mmegharị na ọnọdụ mmadụ, nke na-abụkarị site n'aka onye na-eme ihe ike n'ụlọ. * mmegbu nke nzuzo na ịntanetị na iyi egwu. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, izipu foto onwe onye na vidiyo nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe gbasara mmekọahụ na saịtị Ịntanetị iji weda onye ọzọ ala, ma ọ bụ mee ka onye ahụ mezuo ihe ndị a chọrọ. Nnyocha na-egosi na ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ụdị ndị a na-eme ihe ike na teknụzụ bụ ụmụ nwanyị.<ref>{{Cite web|year=2022|title=World report on violence and health|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf;jsessionid=B28BA6A5C7FD25600112D2A7D12B2035?sequence=1|accessdate=2022-08-30|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|year=2022|title=How Technology is Being Used to Perpetrate Violence Against Women – And to Fight it|url=https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/How%20Technology%20is%20Being%20Used%20to%20Perpetrate%20Violence%20Against%20Women%20%E2%80%93%20And%20to%20Fight%20it_1.pdf|accessdate=2022-08-30|publisher=Association for Progressive Communications (APC)}}</ref> Mgbasa ozi ahụ ghọtakwara na nkewa dijitalụ nwoke na nwanyị na-enye aka na mmekọrịta ike na-ezighi ezi nke na-eme ka ọnọdụ ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị nwee ike ime.[1] Iji dozie esemokwu a, a na-agba ndị mgbasa ozi ume: * Cheta ma kwado onyinye akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ụmụ nwanyị nyere na mmepe nke ICT, dị ka onyinye nke [[Ada Lovelace]] na Grace Hopper. * Bulie ikike nke ụmụ nwanyị na ụmụ agbọghọ n'iji ICT ọhụrụ. * Na-akwalite àgwà nke nnwale na igwu egwu na ICT ọhụrụ iji merie technophobia. * Na-etinye aka na mmegide na nkwado iji melite mmepe iwu Ịntanetị nke na-eburu n'uche akụkụ nwoke na nwanyị nke ICT. == Mgbasa ozi na mmata == Mgbasa ozi kachasị ukwuu, Take Back The Tech! na-ekere òkè na ya bụ ụbọchị iri na isii a na-eme kwa afọ nke mmegide megide ime ihe ike metụtara nwoke na nwanyị (Nọvemba 25 - Disemba 10). N'ime afọ niile, weghachite teknụzụ! na-agba obere mkpọsa, na-ebipụta isiokwu na zines ma na-ahazi ihe omume.<ref>{{Cite web|title=News and Opinions|url=https://takebackthetech.net/news|accessdate=2022-08-30|work=Take Back The Tech|language=en}}</ref> N'afọ 2013, Bytes for All, Pakistan, otu na-ahụ maka ihe ndị ruuru mmadụ nke na-elekọta Take Back The Tech! mkpọsa na Pakistan, e nyere ya Avon Communication Award n'okpuru ụdị 'Innovative Campaign Award' maka iduzi mkpọsa mba dị mma na Pakistan. Ọ bụ Salma Hayek nyere onyinye ahụ na Isi ụlọ ọrụ United Nations . <ref>{{Cite web|author=|date=|title=Bytes for All receives Avon Global Communications Award for local Take Back the Tech! campaign - Association for Progressive Communications|url=https://www.apc.org/en/node/17044|accessdate=15 July 2018|work=www.apc.org}}</ref> == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20241007200550/https://takebackthetech.net/ Wepụghachi Nkà na Ụzụ! Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ mkpọsa] * [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Technology/Regional/2011/May-16/Lebanons-girls-set-to-Take-back-the-Tech-this-summer.ashx Ụmụ agbọghọ Lebanọn setịpụrụ iweghachi teknụzụ n'oge ọkọchị a, The Daily Star, 16 Mee 2011] * [http://tribune.com.pk/story/140378/virtual-world-real-dangers/ Ụwa Virtual, ezigbo ihe ize ndụ, The Express Tribune, 3 Eprel 2011] * [http://globalvoicesonline.org/2010/11/29/take-bach-the-tech-to-eliminate-violence-against-women/ Were teknụzụ iji kpochapụ ime ihe ike megide ụmụ nwanyị, Global Voices Online, 29 Nov 2010] 3skhmic518spewhajf2g4m3cmu1nk70 Suteki na Kareshi 0 53232 687988 190364 2026-07-13T21:25:24Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 5 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687988 wikitext text/x-wiki   Suteki na Kareshi (Japanese) bụ usoro manga Japanese nke Kazune Kawahara dere ma gosipụta ya. Edebere ya n'usoro na akwụkwọ akụkọ Shueisha's Bessatsu Margaret site na Jenụwarị 2016 ruo Ọktọba 2020, ebe anakọtara isiakwụkwọ ya n'ime mpịakọta iri na anọ. Usoro a meriri 64th Shogakukan Manga Award na ụdị shojo na 2019. == Mbipụta == Kazune Kawahara dere ma gosipụta ya, Suteki na Kareshi malitere serialization na akwụkwọ akụkọ Shueisha's shōjo manga Bessatsu Margaret na Jenụarị 13, 2016.[1] Na Julaị 2017, e bipụtara isiakwụkwọ mgbakwunye na Betsuma Spin-off, akwụkwọ akụkọ mgbakwunye Bessatsu Margaret.[2] Usoro a kwụsịrị usoro nsonye ya na Ọktoba 13, 2020.[3] Shueisha chịkọtara isiakwụkwọ manga n'ime mpịakọta iri na anọ nke tankōbon, nke ebipụtara site na Mee 2016 ruo Nọvemba 2020. === Mpịakọta === {{Graphic novel list/header|OneLanguage=yes|Language=Japanese|Width=70%}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=1|OriginalRelDate=May 25, 2016<ref name="vol1">{{cite web |script-title=ja:【5月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/188367 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=May 25, 2016 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja |title=Archive copy |accessdate=October 12, 2024 |archivedate=October 25, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025164611/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/188367 }}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845589-1}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=2|OriginalRelDate=September 23, 2016<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【9月23日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/202598 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=September 23, 2016 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja |title=Archive copy |accessdate=October 12, 2024 |archivedate=April 4, 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404143834/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/202598 }}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845640-9}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=3|OriginalRelDate=February 24, 2017<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【2月24日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/221915 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=February 23, 2017 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845720-8}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=4|OriginalRelDate=June 23, 2017<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【6月23日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/237755 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=June 23, 2017 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845775-8}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=5|OriginalRelDate=October 25, 2017<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【10月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/253957 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=October 25, 2017 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845838-0}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=6|OriginalRelDate=February 23, 2018<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【2月23日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/270589 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=February 23, 2018 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-845892-2}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=7|OriginalRelDate=June 25, 2018<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【6月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/287823 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=June 25, 2018 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844056-9}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=8|OriginalRelDate=November 22, 2018<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【11月22日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/308811 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=November 22, 2018 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844124-5}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=9|OriginalRelDate=February 25, 2019<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【2月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/320992 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=February 25, 2019 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844173-3}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=10|OriginalRelDate=July 25, 2019<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【7月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/340902 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=July 25, 2019 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844223-5}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=11|OriginalRelDate=November 25, 2019<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【11月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/356497 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=November 25, 2019 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja |title=Archive copy |accessdate=October 12, 2024 |archivedate=April 17, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417132648/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/356497 }}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844265-5}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=12|OriginalRelDate=March 25, 2020<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【3月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/372430 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=March 25, 2020 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja}}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844315-7}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=13|OriginalRelDate=July 22, 2020<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:【7月22日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/388564 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=July 22, 2020 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja |title=Archive copy |accessdate=October 12, 2024 |archivedate=November 4, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104141850/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/388564 }}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844361-4}} {{Graphic novel list|VolumeNumber=14|OriginalRelDate=November 25, 2020<ref name="vol14">{{cite web |script-title=ja:【11月25日付】本日発売の単行本リスト |url=https://natalie.mu/comic/news/405912 |website=[[Natalie (website)|Comic Natalie]] |publisher=Natasha, Inc. |date=November 25, 2020 |access-date=June 23, 2022 |language=ja |title=Archive copy |accessdate=October 12, 2024 |archivedate=January 3, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103014646/https://natalie.mu/comic/news/405912 }}</ref>|OriginalISBN=978-4-08-844425-3}} {{Graphic novel list/footer}} == Nnakwere == Ka ọ na-erule n'ọnwa Disemba 2020, ''Suteki na Kareshi'' nwere ihe karịrị nde atọ e kesara. Usoro ahụ bụ nke iri na asaa na mbipụta 2017 nke Takarajimasha's ''Kono Manga ga Sugoi!'' ndepụta nke manga kachasị mma maka ndị na-agụ akwụkwọ nwanyị. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Ressler|first=Karen|title=Kono Manga ga Sugoi! Reveals 2017's Series Ranking for Female Readers|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2016-12-09/kono-manga-ga-sugoi-reveals-2017-series-ranking-for-female-readers/.109677|work=[[Anime News Network]]|date=December 9, 2016|accessdate=June 23, 2022}}</ref> N'afọ 2018, a họpụtara ya na 42nd Kodansha Manga Award na ngalaba shōjo. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Pineda|first=Rafael Antonio|title=42nd Annual Kodansha Manga Awards' Nominees Announced|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2018-04-05/42nd-annual-kodansha-manga-awards-nominees-announced/.129986|work=[[Anime News Network]]|date=April 5, 2018|accessdate=June 23, 2022}}</ref> N'afọ sochirinụ, usoro ahụ meriri 64th Shogakukan Manga Award n'otu ụdị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Sherman|first=Jennifer|title=Dr. Stone, Age 12, More Win 64th Shogakukan Manga Awards|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-01-21/dr-stone-age-12-more-win-64th-shogakukan-manga-awards/.142363|work=[[Anime News Network]]|date=January 21, 2019|accessdate=June 23, 2022}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ gọọmentị na Bessatsu Margaret (n'asụsụ Japanese) * Suteki na Kareshi (manga) naAnime News Networkencyclopedia k78z8dmpmsyzue01l4jeujfs840x9zy Wanda Szuman 0 53363 688048 190526 2026-07-14T10:55:35Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688048 wikitext text/x-wiki   [[Usòrò:Groby_Wanny_Szuman_i_Ireny_Kozłowskiej_z_d._Szuman_w_Toruniu.jpg|thumb|Ili Szuman]] '''Wanda Szuman''' ma ọ bụ '''Szumanówna''' <ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record showing both surnames|url=https://integro.cen.info.pl/1292400489182/szumanowna-wanda/o-dostepnosci-rysunku-dla-dzieci-niewidomych?bibFilter=129|work=Katalog Biblioteki Pedagogicznej KPCEN we Włocławku|accessdate=2 May 2023|archivedate=21 December 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241221182351/https://integro.cen.info.pl/1292400489182/szumanowna-wanda/o-dostepnosci-rysunku-dla-dzieci-niewidomych?bibFilter=129}}</ref> (3 Eprel 1890 - 1 Disemba 1994) bụ onye nkuzi Poland. Ọ bụ "onye ọsụ ụzọ nke agụmakwụkwọ pụrụ iche na Poland" ma na-arụ ọrụ karịsịa na ụmụ mgbei na ụmụaka nwere mkpa pụrụ iche.O sokwa n'òtù agụmakwụkwọ n'okpuru ala n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ, na-akụzi isiokwu ndị iwu machibidoro n'oge ahụ.  O nwetara ọtụtụ ihe nrite maka nkuzi ya n'oge ndụ ya. == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ Szuman na 3 Eprel 1890 na Toruń, Poland (Prussia n'oge ahụ), ma nwụọ na 1 Disemba 1994 mgbe ọ dị afọ 104. <ref name="torun">{{Cite web|title=Wanda Szuman (1992)|url=https://www.torun.pl/pl/node/1662|work=www.torun.pl|accessdate=1 May 2023|language=pl|archivedate=1 May 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501120544/https://www.torun.pl/pl/node/1662}}</ref><ref name="walega-2004">{{Cite journal|author=Wałęga|first=Agnieszka|date=2004|title=Środowisko rodzinne Wandy Szuman (1890-1994)|url=https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/files/Rocznik_Torunski/Rocznik_Torunski-r2004-t31/Rocznik_Torunski-r2004-t31-s137-165/Rocznik_Torunski-r2004-t31-s137-165.pdf|journal=Rocznik Toruński|language=pl|volume=31|pages=137–165|accessdate=3 May 2023}}</ref> Nne ya bụ Eugenia Gumpert, onye na-ahụ maka mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, nna ya bụ dọkịta na-awa ahụ Leon Szuman,ma ọ bu otù nime umu-ndikom asa;  n'etiti ụmụnne ya Stefan Szuman [pl] ghọrọ prọfesọ nke akparamaagwa, Jerzy Szuman ghọrọ onye prọfesọ nke ọrụ ugbo, na Henryk Antoni Szuman [pl] bụ onye ụkọchukwu lara n'iyi n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ.Nne ya nwụrụ na 1895 na nna ya lụrụ nwanne nna ya, Emilia Osiecka (née Gumpert).. <ref name="walega-2004" /> Szuman gara ụlọ mgbatị ahụ ụmụnna nwanyị dị nsọ na Lviv.  N'afọ 1911, ọ gara Kraków wee gụchaa akwụkwọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ọzụzụ ndị nkuzi nkeonwe maka ụmụ nwanyị.  N'oge ahụ, ọ na-etinye aka na ya na-arụ ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ n'onwe ya, gụnyere agụmakwụkwọ n'okpuru ala n'asụsụ Polish (n'oge ahụ iwu na-akwadoghị na Prussia).[1]  N'afọ 1914, o hiwere Wełnianka, otu ụlọ akwụkwọ agụmakwụkwọ maka ụmụ agbọghọ. Mgbe Poland nwetaghachiri nnwere onwe mgbe Agha Ụwa Mbụ gasịrị, Szuman ghọrọ onye Poland. Ọ malitekwara itinye aka na ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ dị iche iche na Poland ọhụrụ, na mbụ na mpaghara Toruń. O sonyere n'ọtụtụ NGO agụmakwụkwọ n'oge ahụ.<ref name="walega-2003">{{Cite journal|author=Wałęga|first=Agnieszka|date=4 February 2003|title=Wanda Szuman (1890-1994) - zarys życia i działalności pedagogicznej|url=https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/bhw/article/view/17732|journal=Biuletyn Historii Wychowania|language=pl|issue=17/18|pages=22–32|doi=10.14746/bhw.2003.17.18.3|issn=2657-9286|accessdate=3 May 2023}}</ref> Mgbe e mesịrị, ọ kwagara Warsaw ebe ọ gara n'ihu na agụmakwụkwọ ya site na 1921 ruo 1923 ma mee nchọpụta agụmakwụkwọ.<ref name="walega-2003" /> N'afọ 1931 na Warsaw, Szuman malitere kọmitii pụrụ iche na-ahazi itinye ụmụaka na nlekọta nkuzi. A na-etinye ụmụaka ruo afọ abụọ n'ụlọ ezinụlọ ndị nwere ụmụ ole na ole ma ọ bụ na-enweghị.<ref>Schilde, K. (2005). ''Need and Care: Glimpses Into the Beginnings of Eastern Europe's Professional Welfare''. Germany: Barbara Budrich Publishers. p. 189</ref> Site na 1933, ọ rụrụ ọrụ na Poznań ebe ọ bụ onye nlekọta seminarị. <ref name="walega-2003" /> <ref>''Official Journal''. (1932). Switzerland: League of Nations. p. 2238</ref> Ọ na-arụsi ọrụ ike na agụmakwụkwọ nzuzo n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ mgbe ọ bi na Radom. Mgbe agha ahụ gasịrị, ọ laghachiri Toruń ebe ọ haziri ma duzie ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị. N'ihi nkwado siri ike ọ na-akwado Katọlik, ndị ọchịchị Kọmunist machibidoro ya ma chụọ ya n'ọrụ na 1949; a ga-emezigharị ya na 1958. Site na 1949 ruo 1952, ọ rụrụ ọrụ dị ka ọkà n'akparamàgwà mmadụ na onye na-agwọ ọrịa maka ụmụaka nwere mkpa pụrụ iche.  Ọ lara ezumike nká na 1952, mana ọ gara n'ihu na-etinye aka n'ọtụtụ ọmụmụ ihe ọmụmụ na ngalaba nkuzi ma nọgide na-arụ ọrụ na òtù dị iche iche na-akwado agụmakwụkwọ pụrụ iche, karịsịa metụtara inyere ụmụaka kpuru ìsì aka.[1][2]  Ọrụ ya e bipụtara gụnyere Wychowanie niewidomego dziecka (Raising a Blind Child; 1961). == Nkwado == A na-ewere ya dị ka onye ọsụ ụzọ nke agụmakwụkwọ pụrụ iche na Poland. E nyere Szuman Order of Polonia Restituta na 1923, nke a kọwara dị ka "{{Lang|pl|referentka kuratorjum szkolnego pomorskie}}" (onye odeakwụkwọ na ụlọ akwụkwọ Pomeranian), <ref>{{Cite book|title=Order Odrodzenia Polski : trzechlecie pierwszej kapituły : 1921-1924|url=https://kpbc.ukw.edu.pl/dlibra/plain-content?id=87843|accessdate=1 May 2023}}</ref> na na 1992 e nyere nwa amaala nsọpụrụ nke obodo Toruń.[1]  Ọ nwetakwara akara baajị ọla edo nke otu Polish Association of the Blind [pl] (1966), Nrite nke Polish Society for Combating Disability [pl] (1984), baajị nke otu ndị nkuzi Polish “Maka nkuzi nzuzo” (1985)  , na Order of the Smile (1986). [[Usòrò:Tablice_informacyjna_i_pamiątkowa_Przedszkola_Miejskiego_Nr_1_imienia_Wandy_Szuman_w_Toruniu.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ihe ncheta n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ọta akara aha ya bụ iji sọpụrụ Szuman]] Akpọrọ ụlọ akwụkwọ abụọ dị na Toruń na nsọpụrụ ya: ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị (VII Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Wandy Szuman), [1] na ụlọ akwụkwọ elementrị (Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 16 im. Wandy Szuman w Toruniu), [2] dị ka ụlọ akwụkwọ ọta akara. Otu akwụkwọ banyere ya, Wanda Szuman - pedagog i andragog industria: szkice do portretu (Wanda Szuman - Child and Adult Special Educator: Sketches for a Portrait), nke Beata Borowska-Beszta ( ). <ref name="borowska-beszta-2009">{{Cite book|author=Borowska-Beszta|first=Beata|url=http://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4057|title=Wanda Szuman - pedagog i andragog specjalny- szkice do portretu, red. nauk Beata Borowska-Beszta, Radom 2009, 224 s|date=2009|publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Technologii Eksploatacji - PIB|isbn=978-83-7204-785-4|language=pl|accessdate=3 May 2023}}</ref>  == Akwụkwọ ndị a họọrọ == * ''Komisja Edukacyjna polezem ministerstwem oświaty w Europie'' [The Education Commission as the first ministry of education in Europe], 1919<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Komisja ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/864247774|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * ''Zum Nsogbu der Waisenerziehung'' [Na nsogbu nke ịzụlite ụmụ mgbei], 1929<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Zum Problem ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/1050731852|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * Rola opiekunów spocznych [Ọrụ ndị ọrụ mmekọrịta ọha na eze], 1930<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Rola ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/864247739|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * ''Testy inteligencji Ch. Bühler dla niemowląt'' ''[Nnyocha ọgụgụ isi Ch. Buhler maka ụmụ ọhụrụ]'', 1930<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Testy ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/1117295439|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * ''Usoro umieszczania sierot w rodzinach'' [Ụzọ nke itinye ụmụ mgbei n'ezinụlọ], 1931<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Zum Problem ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/864247686|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * ''Wychowanie niewidomego DVY'' [Rising a Blind Child], 1961<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "Wychowanie ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/749219977|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> * O检ności hrysunku dla niewidomych ''[Banyere ohere nke ise ihe maka ụmụaka kpuru ìsì]'', 1967 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Catalogue record for "O dostępności ..."|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/749160297|publisher=Worldcat|accessdate=12 May 2023}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * {{Cite book|author=Wałęga|first=Agnieszka|title=Życie i działalność Wandy Szuman (1890-1994)|date=2005|publisher=Mado|location=Toruń|isbn=9788389886125|language=Polish}} * {{Cite book|author=Łapicz|first=Czesław|title=Wanda Szuman : historia jednego życia|date=1997|publisher=Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika|location=Toruń|isbn=9788323108030|language=Polish}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9qVN_XbITis Ihe nkiri dị mkpirikpi banyere Szuman] sllob4rhebut7tl8n3enhtvr7s77268 Selica Winiata 0 54089 687943 452471 2026-07-13T13:49:35Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Selica Winiata''' (amuru 14 Nọvemba 1986) bu onye egwu egwuregwu na onye ntughari nke New Zealand. Ọ na-egwu maka Black Ferns, Black Ferns Sevens na mpaghara maka Cyclones Manawatu. Ọ bụ akụkụ nke Black Ferns 2014 na onye mmeri 2017 Rugby World Cup squads. Ya na ndị otu Black Ferns Sevens meriri nrite ọla ọcha na asọmpi izizi ụmụ nwanyị 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens na ihe nrite ọla edo na 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens. === XV === Winiata gara Freyberg High School wee mee mpụta mbụ ya na mpaghara maka Manawatū Cyclones na 2001, afọ 14. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|author=Julian|first=Adam|date=2023-08-17|title=A Century for 'Shorty' - Selica Winiata set to play 100th game for Manawatū|url=https://www.allblacks.com/news/a-century-for-shorty-selica-winiata-set-to-play-100th-game-for-manawatu|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=allblacks.com|language=en-NZ}}</ref> <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|author=Heagney|first=George|date=2023-08-19|title=Cyclones centurion Selica Winiata to bring up 100 games for Manawatū|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/women-in-sport/300952311/cyclones-centurion-selica-winiata-to-bring-up-100-games-for-manawat|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=www.stuff.co.nz}}</ref> O mere mpụta mbụ ya na mba ofesi maka Black Ferns na 2008 megide Wallaroos . <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|author=Rattue|first=Chris|date=2018-08-18|title=Selica Winiata: Black Fern, ref, mum, constable|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/rugby/black-ferns/black-ferns-flyer-selica-winiata-black-fern-ref-mum-constable/VXM6HC2URXVAQLZAFHYUIQTGM4/|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=NZ Herald|language=en-NZ}}</ref> Winiata pụtara na ule atọ megide England na Julaị 2013. <ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2013-07-16|title=Black Ferns clinch series victory|url=https://www.planetrugby.com/black-ferns-clinch-series-victory|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=Planet Rugby|language=en}}</ref> O nwetara mmeri dị egwu n'ule nke abụọ iji nyere New Zealand aka ị nweta usoro ahụ megide England na Hamilton . <ref name=":3" /> Ọ gbara asọmpi na iko mba ụwa Rugby ụmụ nwanyị 2014 . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.policeassn.org.nz/newsroom/publications/featured-articles/tough-little-cookie-scores-top-sports-award|title='TOUGH LITTLE COOKIE' SCORES TOP SPORTS AWARD|publisher=policeassn.org.nz|date=30 September 2014|accessdate=13 April 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823074007/https://policeassn.org.nz/newsroom/publications/featured-articles/tough-little-cookie-scores-top-sports-award|archivedate=23 August 2017}}</ref> Agụnyere ya na ndị otu New Zealand ka ọ kpọọ na 2015 Women's Rugby Super Series . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allblacks.com/News/27374/black-ferns-squad-to-tour-canada-named|title=Black Ferns squad to tour Canada named|date=2 June 2015|accessdate=15 July 2015|publisher=ALLBLACKS.COM|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715182254/http://www.allblacks.com/News/27374/black-ferns-squad-to-tour-canada-named|archivedate=15 July 2015}}</ref> Na 2016, Ọ gbara megide Wallaroos na iko Laurie O'Reilly ebe ọ gbara agba anọ na ule mbụ, na otu nwara na nke abụọ. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-10-22|title=Black Ferns vs Australia (Game 1)|url=http://stats.allblacks.com/asp/teamsheet_bf.asp?MT_ID=10091|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=stats.allblacks.com}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=Julian|first=Adam|date=2024-05-24|title=A history of the prestigious Laurie O'Reilly Cup|url=https://www.allblacks.com/news/a-history-of-the-prestigious-laurie-oreilly-cup|accessdate=2024-07-17|work=allblacks.com|language=en-NZ|archivedate=2024-07-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717082247/https://www.allblacks.com/news/a-history-of-the-prestigious-laurie-oreilly-cup}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-10-26|title=Black Ferns vs Australia (Game 2)|url=http://stats.allblacks.com/asp/teamsheet_bf.asp?MT_ID=10092|accessdate=2024-07-22|work=stats.allblacks.com}}</ref> N'ọnwa Nọvemba n'afọ ahụ, ọ meriri ihe nkwado abụọ, megide [[Kánada|Canada]] na Ireland . <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2017-03-28|title=Black Ferns standout training with Chiefs|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/rugby/super-rugby/rugby-black-ferns-standout-training-with-chiefs/3HDU5SLKMK7BCBP6FHYMYKSNTI/|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=NZ Herald|language=en-NZ}}</ref> Akpọrọ ya aha onye ọkpụkpọ Rugby New Zealand nke afọ 2016. <ref name=":4" /> <ref>{{Cite web|author=Schroeter|first=Miri|date=20 January 2017|title=Manawatu sports people surprised Selica Winiata did not make the NZ sevens squad|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/sevens/88625153/manawatu-sports-people-surprised-selica-winiata-did-not-make-the-nz-sevens-squad|accessdate=8 June 2017|work=www.stuff.co.nz}}</ref> Winiata meriri na [[2017 Women's Rugby Super Series]] . <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Black Ferns squad for International Women's Rugby Series named|url=https://www.sporty.co.nz/crfu/newsarticle/48362|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=www.sporty.co.nz}}</ref> Akpọrọ ya aha na squad maka 2017 Rugby World Cup . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allblacks.com/News/31052/black-ferns-squad-for-2017-womens-rugby-world-cup-named|title=Black Ferns squad for 2017 Women's Rugby World Cup named|work=All Blacks|language=en|accessdate=13 August 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142409/http://www.allblacks.com/News/31052/black-ferns-squad-for-2017-womens-rugby-world-cup-named|archivedate=12 June 2018}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/sport/334498/black-ferns-world-cup-squad-named|title=Black Ferns World Cup squad named|date=5 July 2017|work=Radio New Zealand|accessdate=13 August 2017|language=en-nz}}</ref> Ọ gbara agba abụọ n'ikpeazụ megide England . <ref name=":1"/> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-08-28|title=England lament Women's World Cup final defeat|url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/sport/archives/2017/08/28/2003677317|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=www.taipeitimes.com}}</ref> Na 18 August 2018, Ọ pụtara maka Black Ferns n'akụkụ [[Ostraliya|Australia]] na Bledisloe Cup okpukpu abụọ na Sydney . <ref name=":0"/> Ọ pụtara na 2019 Women's Rugby Super Series na San Diego . <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/black-ferns/114218297/black-ferns-skipper-les-elder-returns-for-super-series-decider-against-england|title=Black Ferns skipper Les Elder returns for Super Series decider against England|date=13 July 2019|publisher=Stuff.co.nz|accessdate=2019-07-17}}</ref> N'August, ọ gbara mbọ n'akụkụ ya 47–10 mmeri ha meriri Australia na mmeghe nke iko Laurie O'Reilly . <ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-10|title=Wallaroos fall to Black Ferns in series opener|url=https://australia.rugby/news/2019/08/09/wallaroos-vs-black-ferns-match-report|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=australia.rugby|language=en}}</ref> Winiata bịanyere aka na Hurricanes Poua maka oge mbido 2022 nke Super Rugby Aupiki . <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-03|title=Hurricanes Women's Squad Named in Historic Announcement|url=https://www.hurricanes.co.nz/news/article/hurricanes-womens-squad-named-in-historic-announcement/|accessdate=2022-02-09|work=Hurricanes|language=en}}</ref> Na 2023, O mere ngosi ya nke 100 maka Manawatū Cyclones megide Otago na agba nke isii nke Farah Palmer Cup na Dunedin . <ref name=":1"/> <ref name=":2"/> Ọ gbagoro 77 mgbalị maka Cyclones, 14 n'ime mgbalị ndị ahụ bụ na 2012. <ref name=":1" /> <ref name=":2" /> === Asaa === Winiata bụ onye otu Black Ferns Sevens ruo afọ asatọ wee pụta na asọmpi iri na ise, na-agba mbọ 32. <ref name=":1"/> Ọ nwetakwara aha World Sevens Series abụọ ma bụrụ akụkụ nke otu Aotearoa Maori Sevens nke meriri aha Hong Kong Sevens anọ. <ref name=":1" /> Na 2013, ọ bụ onye otu onye mmeri New Zealand ụmụ nwanyị asaa na Rugby World Cup Sevens . <ref>{{Cite web|author=Liam Napier|date=7 June 2013|title=New Zealand Sevens World Cup squads named|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/sevens/8769424/New-Zealand-Sevens-World-Cup-squads-named|archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20140320092000/http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/rugby/sevens/8769424/New-Zealand-Sevens-World-Cup-squads-named|archivedate=20 March 2014|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> <ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-28|title=World Series selection quicker than Winiata expected|url=https://www.women.rugby/news/541687|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=www.women.rugby|language=en|archivedate=2024-07-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723020549/https://www.women.rugby/news/541687}}</ref> === Onye nhọpụta === Winiata mere mpụta mbụ ya na mba ụwa na 2019 Oceania Women's Sevens na Fiji . <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-18|title=Black Fern Selica Winiata to referee on HSBC World Rugby Sevens Series|url=https://www.women.rugby/news/541595/black-fern-selica-winiata-to-referee-on-hsbc-world-rugby-sevens-series|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=www.women.rugby|language=en|archivedate=2024-07-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723020548/https://www.women.rugby/news/541595/black-fern-selica-winiata-to-referee-on-hsbc-world-rugby-sevens-series}}</ref> <ref name=":5"/> A họpụtara ya ka ọ bụrụ onye ọrụ egwuregwu maka agba abụọ nke 2019–20 Women's Sevens Series, ọ chịburu na asọmpi Dubai na Cape Town na Disemba. <ref name=":6" /> <ref name=":5" /> Ọ bụ otu n'ime Kiwi atọ ahọpụtara n'òtù ndị na-ahụ maka ndị na-ahụ maka asọmpi ụmụ nwanyị nke 2020 Summer Olympics . <ref>{{Cite news|author=Powell|first=Alex|date=2021-04-17|title=Tokyo Olympics: Black Ferns star Selicia Winiata named as one of three Kiwi sevens referees|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/sport/2021/04/tokyo-olympics-black-ferns-star-selicia-winiata-named-as-one-of-three-kiwi-sevens-referees.html|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=Newshub|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-17|title=Three New Zealand Referees selected for the Tokyo Olympics|url=https://www.nzrugby.co.nz/news-and-events/latest-news/three-new-zealand-referees-selected-for-the-tokyo-olympics|accessdate=2024-07-23|work=NZ Rugby|language=en-NZ}}</ref> == Ndụ onwe onye == Winiata bụ onye New Zealand nke sitere na agbụrụ Māori ( agbụrụ Ngāti Raukawa ). Ọ bụ onye uwe ojii na Palmerston North . <ref>{{Cite web|author=Manawatu Standard|date=23 September 2014|title=Winiata receives police sporting accolade|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/manawatu-standard/news/10532893/Winiata-receives-police-sporting-accolade|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=All Blacks.COM Via NZPA|date=22 September 2014|title=Constable Selica Winiata the NZ Police Sportsperson of the Year|url=http://www.allblacks.com/News/26006/constable-selica-winiata-the-nz-police-sportsperson-of-the-year|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430105241/http://allblacks.com/News/26006/constable-selica-winiata-the-nz-police-sportsperson-of-the-year|archivedate=30 April 2015|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref> Na mgbakwunye na ịbụ onye ọkpụkpọ Rugby Union, onye ọka ikpe na onye uwe ojii ( Senior Constable ), ọ na-arụkwa ọrụ dị ka onye na-ekwu okwu rugby maka Sky TV . == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] bwbw24sc7fdeqbcxt24ky3o73pjk8j5 Susan Krumins 0 54564 687987 644409 2026-07-13T21:12:06Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687987 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[Faịlụ:130831-024_-_Susan_Kuijken_-_Flame_Games_2013.1.jpg|thumb|Susan Krumins]] '''Susan Krumins''' (née '''Kuijken''' ; amụrụ 8 Julaị 1986) bụ onye ọgba ọsọ etiti na ogologo oge Dutch. Ọ bụ onye nrite ọla nchara 5000 mita n'asọmpi asọmpi egwuregwu mba Europe nke afọ 2014 ma nwetakwa ọla kọpa [[3000 mita]] na 2014 IAAF Continental Cup . Kuijken nọchitere anya Netherlands ugboro abụọ na asọmpi mba ụwa na egwuregwu, na ngwụcha ya kacha mma bụ nke asatọ na 5000.&nbsp;m na 2013. N'ime usoro afọ niile, ọ gbara asọmpi ugboro asaa na European Cross Country Championship . Ọ gbara asọmpi maka Mahadum Florida State wee bụrụ onye mmeri NCAA na ime ụlọ 3000&nbsp;m (2008) na n'èzí 1500&nbsp;m (2009). Ọ meriri nrite ndị obere European na 2005 na egwu egwu na obodo ma mesịa nweta aha n'okpuru 23 na asọmpi European Cross Country 2008 . Otu n'ime ihe kacha mma ya bụ nkeji 4:05.38 maka mita 1500, nkeji 8:36.08 maka 3000.&nbsp;m, na nkeji 15:00.69 maka mita 5000. == Ọrụ == === Ndụ mmalite na ọrụ === Amụrụ na Nijmegen, ọ mere mpụta mbụ ya na mba ụwa na ịgba ọsọ mba, na-asọ mpi na ngalaba nke obere asọmpi European Cross Country 2002 wee mechaa na 34th. Ọ laghachiri na mbipụta 2003 mana jisiri ike naanị 69th na mbọ ahụ. Ihe nrite mbụ o nwetara n'ụwa bịara n'ememme Olympic nke ndị ntorobịa Europe nke afọ 2003, ebe ọ bụ onye nyere ihe nrite ọla edo karịa [[3000 mita|mita 3000]] na ọla ọla na mita 1500 . Ihe omume izizi ya zuru ụwa ọnụ bịara n'afọ gachara: ọ họọrọ 71st na asọmpi nke obere na 2004 IAAF World Cross Country Championship, mana o mechaghị na 3000.&nbsp;m na 2004 World Junior Championship na egwuregwu . Ọ rụrụ nke ọma na ọkwa kọntinent, na-abịa 39th na 2004 European Cross Country Championship . [[Usòrò:Susan_kuijken.jpg|thumb| Kuijken na 2007 European Cross Country Championship]] Kuijken debere usoro kacha mma nke onwe na egwu na 2005: 2:06.25 nkeji maka mita 800, 4:19.72 nkeji maka 1500.&nbsp;m (nke asaa na ihe omume European Cup 2005 ), 9:28.45 nkeji maka 3000&nbsp;m (akụkụ nke mmeri ọla ọcha n'asọmpi Junior Athletics nke afọ 2005 ) na nkeji 10:42.93 maka steeplechase 3000 mita . N'elu ahihia, ọ bụ onye nwe obere ọla nchara na asọmpi mba Europe nke 2005 wee tinye 58th na asọmpi nke obere na 2005 IAAF World Cross Country Championship . === Egwuregwu kọleji === Na njedebe nke 2005 ọ malitere ịga Florida State University, na-eme isi na akparamaagwa, wee malite ịsọ mpi na ndị otu egwuregwu egwuregwu Florida State Seminoles . Ọ bụ 3000&nbsp;m onye gbara ọsọ na asọmpi ogbako Atlantic Coast wee tinye 27th na NCAA Women's Division I Cross Country Championship . N'ime ọpụpụ mba ụwa naanị ya n'afọ ahụ, ọ bịara 16th n'ọsọ n'okpuru-23 na asọmpi mba Europe nke 2006 . Na 2007 lekwasịrị anya na 1500&nbsp;m anya wetara rịzọlt dị ka ọ na-emeziwanye ike ya nke ukwuu ruo nkeji 4:11.34 - oge butere ya ọnọdụ nke abụọ na asọmpi N'èzí NCAA . Ọ nọ n'ọkwa nke atọ na nzukọ NCAA Cross Country nke afọ ahụ. <ref name="FSU">[http://www.seminoles.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=32900&ATCLID=209584135 Susan Kuijken]. Florida State Seminoles. Retrieved on 8 November 2014.</ref>Na asọmpi Europe ọ bụ nke anọ na 1500&nbsp;m n'asọmpị asọmpi European Athletics U23 nke afọ 2007, mana ọ gwụchara n'ọsọ otu afọ na asọmpi mba Europe nke afọ 2007 . <ref name="Stats">[https://web.archive.org/web/20141108174006/http://www.susankuijken.com/stats Susan Kuijken stats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108174006/http://www.susankuijken.com/stats |date=8 November 2014 }}. Susan Kuijken. Retrieved on 8 November 2014.</ref> Ọ ruru n'elu ihe nkiri kọleji America na oge ime ime 2008. Mgbe o meriri ọsọ mile na nzukọ ime ụlọ nke Atlantic Coast (ACC), o kwuru na 3000&nbsp;m aha na NCAA Indoor Championship na oge ndekọ ogbako nke 8:58.14 nkeji. Ọ dabara nke a n'èzí mgbe ọ nwesịrị mmerụ ahụ n'etiti oge, na-ejedebe nke asatọ na 1500.&nbsp;m na NCAA n'èzí, mana ọ nọ n'ụdị dị mma na NCAA Cross Country Championship ma bụrụ onye na-agba ọsọ. Ihe nrite ọla edo batara na ngalaba n'okpuru 23 na asọmpi mba Europe nke 2008 . Oge ụlọ akwụkwọ kọleji ya kacha aga nke ọma bụ na 2009. Ọ malitere site na mmeri na asọmpi ime ụlọ ACC na onye na-agba ọsọ na NCAA Indoor Championship, mgbe ahụ, mmeri karịrị 5000 mita bịara na asọmpi ACC n'èzí. Ọ nwetara aha kọleji na 1500&nbsp;m na 2009 NCAA Outdoor Championship ma tinye nke atọ na NCAA Cross Country Championship. Ihe omume ya mere ka Mahadum Florida State nweta mmeri otu egwuregwu na asọmpi ACC n'ime ụlọ, n'èzí na n'ofe obodo. === Ọkachamara na-agba ọsọ === Nke kacha mma nke 4:05.86 nkeji maka 1500&nbsp;m wetara nhọrọ ya maka asọmpi mba ụwa nke 2009 na egwuregwu, n'agbanyeghị na o meghị ya na ọkwa okpomọkụ. Kuijken malitere ịsọ mpi ọkachamara na 2010, wee mee ọkwa izizi ya nke European na 2010 European Athletics Championship (na-agba ọsọ na okpomọkụ naanị). Ọ tụfuru ọtụtụ oge 2011, na nlọghachi ya na 2012 ụdị ya agafeela elu ya, na oge kachasị mma ya bụ nkeji 4:10.84. [[Usòrò:Podium_5000m_women_Zurich_2014.jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb| Kuijken (n'aka nri) na 5000&nbsp;m podium maka asọmpi egwuregwu 2014 nke Europe]] Oge 2013 hụrụ Kuijken kụrụ ọkwa arụmọrụ ọhụrụ. Na Golden Spike Ostrava ọ bụ 1500&nbsp;m onye gbara ọsọ n'ime nkeji 4:05.38 kacha mma. O debere ndekọ Dutch nke 5:38.37 nkeji maka ogologo mita 2000 . Ọ meriri 3000&nbsp;m nrite ọla edo na Njikọ Mbụ nke 2013 European Team Championship wee gbaa ọsọ kacha mma nke 8:39.65 nkeji maka anya mgbe ọ na-etinye nke anọ na Nzukọ Rieti (nke họọrọ ya nke mbụ n'etiti ndị Europe maka anya n'afọ ahụ). Ọsọ nke 15:04.36 nkeji na egwuregwu Bislett mere ka ọ bụrụ onye Europe kacha elu n'oge ahụ wee gụchaa n'ọkwa asatọ na ngwụcha nke mmemme ahụ na asọmpi egwuregwu ụwa nke afọ 2013 - onye na-eme egwuregwu kacha mma na Europe. Na mbido 2014, o wepụtara oge izizi ụwa nke 4:07.21 nkeji maka 1500.&nbsp;m mgbe ọ na-emeri na Perth Track Classic . O meriri aha mba mbụ ya n'afọ ahụ n'ebe dị anya ahụ. A họpụtara ya ka ọ gbaa 5000 ahụ&nbsp;m na asọmpi egwuregwu 2014 nke European wee bịa nke atọ n'azụ [[Sifan Hassan]] na Meraf Bahta (ha abụọ amụrụ Africa). Ihe nrite mbụ ya zuru ụwa ọnụ bịara na njedebe nke oge egwu na 2014 IAAF Continental Cup, ebe ọ nọchitere anya Europe ma bụrụ 3000.&nbsp;m nwere ihe nrite ọla n'azụ Genzebe Dibaba na Meraf. Na 2015, Kuijken gbara 31: 54.32 iji tinye 10th na 2015 World Championships na Athletics - Ụmụ nwanyị 10,000 mita na 15:08.00 iji tinye 8th na 2015 World Championships na Athletics - Ụmụ nwanyị 5000 mita . [[Usòrò:2018_European_Athletics_Championships_Day_4_(17).jpg|thumb|290x290px| Krumins (aka ekpe) ya na 10,000 ya&nbsp;m ọla ọcha n'asọmpị asọmpi European 2018]] 11 Feb 2017 - Schoollọ akwụkwọ 10k okporo ụzọ 31:43 (1st)27 Mar - Venloop HM (mpụta mbụ) 70:51 (nke anọ)21 Mee - Vienna 5k okporo ụzọ 15:40 (2nd) 2 Jun - Nijmegen 5k 15:21 (nke anọ) 24 Jun - iko Euro 3k 9:03 (4th)22 Jul - Heusden 5k 14:53 (1st) 8 Ọgọst - London WC Ikpeazụ 10k 31:20 (5th) 10 Ọgọst - London WC Heat 5k 14:57 (4th)13 Ọgọst - London WC Ikpeazụ 5k 14:58 (8th) 20 Ọgọọst - Birmingham DL 3k 8:34 (nke asaa)27 Ọgọst - Berlin CL 1500m 4:02 (nke atọ) 1 Septemba - Brussels 2017 Diamond League Ikpeazụ 5k 14:51 (9th) Na 2017, Krumins gbara 31:20.24 iji tinye 5th na 2017 World Championships in Athletics – Ụmụ nwanyị 10,000 mita na 14:58.33 iji tinye 8th na 2017 World Championships in Athletics – Ụmụ nwanyị 5000 mita . Na 8 August 2018, ọ meriri nrite ọlaọcha n'azụ Israel Lonah Chemtai Salpeter na 10,000 mita na 2018 European Athletics Championships na Berlin. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flotrack.org/articles/6238093-salpeter-makes-european-championships-history-for-israel|title=Salpeter Makes European Championships History For Israel|work=flotrack.org}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-runner-lonah-chemtai-salpeter-wins-gold-at-european-championships/|title=Israeli runner Lonah Chemtai Salpeter wins gold at European Championships|work=The Times of Israel|accessdate=9 August 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> == Ihe kacha mma nkeonwe == [[Usòrò:Susan_Kuijken_-_Flame_Games_2013,_A'dam.jpg|thumb| Krumins na-agba ọsọ na Amsterdam na 2013]] * 800 mita – 2:02.24 nkeji (2009) * 1000 mita – 2:38.01 nkeji (2014) * 1500 mita – 4:02.25 nkeji (2017) * Ọsọ Mile (ime ụlọ) - 4:34.11 nkeji (2009) * Mile ọsọ (ụzọ) - 4:18 min (2013) * 2000 mita – 5:38.37 nkeji (2013) * [[3000 mita]] – 8:34.31 nkeji (2017) * 3000 mita ime ụlọ - 8:56.27 nkeji (2009) * Maịl abụọ - 9:23.52 nkeji (2014) * 5000 mita – 14:51.25 nkeji (2017) * 10,000 mita - 31:05.40 nkeji (2019) * 3000 mita steeplechase - 10:42.93 nkeji (2005) == Aha obodo == * Asọmpi egwuregwu Dutch ** 1500 mita: 2014 == Asọmpi mba ụwa == {| {{AchievementTable|Event=yes}} |- !colspan="6"|Representing the {{NED}} |- |2002 |[[2002 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Medulin]], Croatia |34th |Junior race (3.73&nbsp;km) |13:10 |- |rowspan=3|2003 |rowspan=2|[[Athletics at the 2003 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival|European Youth Olympic Festival]] |rowspan=2|[[Valkenswaard]], Netherlands |bgcolor=cc9966|3rd |1500 metres |4:30.70 |- |bgcolor=gold|1st |3000 metres |9:47.07 |- |[[2003 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Edinburgh]], United Kingdom |69th |Junior race (4.52&nbsp;km) |18:33 |- |rowspan=3|2004 |[[2004 IAAF World Cross Country Championships|World Cross Country Championships]] |[[Brussels]], Belgium |71st |Junior race (6&nbsp;km) |[[2004 IAAF World Cross Country Championships – Women's junior race|23:16]] |- |[[2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics|World Junior Championships]] |[[Grosseto]], Italy | — |3000 metres |[[2004 World Junior Championships in Athletics – Women's 3000 metres|DNF]] |- |[[2004 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Heringsdorf]], Germany |39th |Junior race (3.64&nbsp;km) |12.24 |- |rowspan=3|2005 |[[2005 IAAF World Cross Country Championships|World Cross Country Championships]] |[[Saint-Galmier]], France |58th |Junior race (6.153&nbsp;km) |[[2005 IAAF World Cross Country Championships – Women's junior race|23:21]] |- |[[2005 European Athletics Junior Championships|European Junior Championships]] |[[Kaunas]], Lithuania |bgcolor=silver|2nd |3000 metres |9:28.45 |- |[[2005 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Tilburg]], Netherlands |bgcolor=cc9966|3rd |Junior race (4.83&nbsp;km) |[[2005 European Cross Country Championships#Junior women individual 4.83km|15.33]] |- |2006 |[[2006 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[San Giorgio su Legnano]], Italy |16th |Under-23 race (5.975&nbsp;km) |19:45 |- |rowspan=2|2007 |[[2007 European Athletics U23 Championships|European U23 Championships]] |[[Debrecen]], Hungary |4th |1500 metres |[[2007 European Athletics U23 Championships – Women's 1500 metres|4:17.90]] |- |[[2007 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Toro, Zamora|Toro]], Spain | — |Under-23 race (6.7&nbsp;km) |[[2008 European Cross Country Championships#Women U23 individual 6.7km|DNF]] |- |2008 |[[2008 European Cross Country Championships|European Cross Country Championships]] |[[Brussels]], Belgium |bgcolor=gold|1st |Under-23 race (6&nbsp;km) |[[2008 European Cross Country Championships#Women U23 individual 6.0km|21:02]] |- |2009 |[[2009 World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]] |[[Berlin]], Germany |36th (heats) |1500 metres |[[2009 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 1500 metres|4:18.10]] |- |2010 |[[2010 European Athletics Championships|European Championships]] |[[Barcelona]], Spain |19th (h) |1500 metres |[[2010 European Athletics Championships – Women's 1500 metres|4:11.03]] |- |rowspan=2|2013 |[[2013 European Team Championships|European Team Championships 1st League]] |[[Dublin]], Ireland |bgcolor=gold|1st |3000 metres |9:07.04 |- |[[2013 World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]] |[[Moscow]], Russia |8th |5000 metres |[[2013 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 5000 metres|15:14.70]] |- |rowspan=2| 2014 |[[2014 European Athletics Championships|European Championships]] |[[Zürich]], Switzerland |bgcolor=cc9966|3rd |5000 metres |[[2014 European Athletics Championships – Women's 5000 metres|15:32.82]] |- |[[2014 IAAF Continental Cup|IAAF Continental Cup]] |[[Marrakech]], Morocco |bgcolor=cc9966|3rd |3000 metres |[[2014 IAAF Continental Cup results#Women's 3000 metres|9:01.41]] |- |rowspan=2|2015 |rowspan=2|[[2015 World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]] |rowspan=2|[[Beijing]], [[China]] |8th |5000 metres |[[2015 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 5000 metres|15:08.00]] |- |10th |10,000 metres |[[2015 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 10,000 metres|31:54.32]] |- |rowspan=3|2016 |[[2016 European Athletics Championships|European Championships]] |[[Amsterdam, Netherlands]] |4th |5000 metres |[[2016 European Athletics Championships – Women's 5000 metres|15:23.87]] |- |rowspan=2|[[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] |rowspan=2|[[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]] |8th |5000 metres |[[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 5000 metres|15:00.69]] |- |14th |10,000 metres |[[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's 10,000 metres|31:32.43]] |- |rowspan=2|2017 |rowspan=2|[[2017 World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]] |rowspan=2|[[London, United Kingdom]] |8th |5000 metres |[[2017 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 5000 metres|14:58.33]] |- |5th |10,000 metres |[[2017 World Championships in Athletics – Women's 10,000 metres|31:20.24]] |- |rowspan=2|2018 |rowspan=2|[[2018 European Athletics Championships|European Championships]] |rowspan=2|[[Berlin, Germany]] |6th |5000 m |[[2018 European Athletics Championships – Women's 5000 metres|15:09.65]] |- |bgcolor=silver|2nd |10,000 m |[[2018 European Athletics Championships – Women's 10,000 metres|31:52.55]] |- |2019 |[[2019 World Athletics Championships|World Championships]] |[[Doha, Qatar]] |7th |10,000 m |[[2019 World Athletics Championships – Women's 10,000 metres|31:05.40]] |- |2021 |rowspan=1|[[Athletics at the 2020 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] |rowspan=1|[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] | – |10,000 m |[[Athletics at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's 10,000 metres|DNF]] |} == Hụkwa == * Ndepụta nke ndị mmeri asọmpi egwuregwu European (ụmụ nwanyị) * Netherlands na asọmpi egwuregwu nke European == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} [[Òtù:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Òtù:Pages with unreviewed translations]] an6mx5vgp0knhle89urhzwnd7kh1rn6 Ụgbọelu Lufthansa Cargo Flight 8460 0 54954 687998 656518 2026-07-13T23:59:27Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687998 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Lufthansa Cargo Flight 8460 wreckage (3).jpg|thumb|Lufthansa Cargo Flight 8460 ]] Lufthansa Cargo Flight 8460 bu bu ugboelu na efe n'obodo di iche iche nke nwere Ihe mgberede mgbe ona Acho igbatu na Riyadh, Saudi Arabia n'ubochi 27 July 2010. Ma ndi na elekota ugboelu ahu, na ndi mmadu no n'ime ya weruru nani ahu mana ha di ndu.<ref>{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://www.airlineindustry.co/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|title=Lufthansa MD-11 Crash Lands at Riyadh|publisher=AirlineIndustryReview.com|date=|accessdate=27 July 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602075149/http://www.airlineindustry.co/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|archivedate=2 June 2019}}</ref> == Ihe mberede == Ụgbọelu 8460 bụ ụgbọ elu mba ụwa nke na-ebu ibu site na Frankfurt, Germany, gaa [[Hong Kong]] site na Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, na Sharjah, United Arab Emirates . <ref name="AIR">{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|title=Lufthansa Cargo MD-11 Crash Lands at Riyadh ( with Photos, Aircraft's History and Flight History )|publisher=Airline Industry Review|first=K|author=Flyer|accessdate=27 July 2010|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120723085421/http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|archivedate=23 July 2012}}</ref> Ụgbọelu si Frankfurt gaa Riyadh enweghị nsogbu, ọnọdụ ihu igwe na Riyadh dị mma, na-ahụ anya zuru ezu.<ref name="AH42edca16">{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://avherald.com/h?article=42edca16&opt=0|title=Accident: Lufthansa MD11 at Riyadh on Jul 27th 2010, cargo fire, broke up on landing|publisher=Aviation Herald|first=Simon|author=Hradecky|accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="finalRep">{{Àtụ:Cite web|date=21 January 2012|title=Final Accident Report|url=http://www.bfu-web.de/EN/Publications/Investigation%20Report/2010/Report_10_2X003_MD11_Riyadh.pdf|accessdate=16 April 2016|work=|publisher=General Authority of Civil Aviation}}</ref> Mgbe o rutere n'ọdụ ụgbọ elu mba ụwa nke King Khalid na Riyadh, ụgbọelu ahụ dara n'ụzọ siri ike, na-awụli elu ugboro ugboro, n'ikpeazụ na-agbaji ma na-agbadata n'okporo ụzọ. Ma Captain dị afọ 39 na First Officer dị afọ 29 nwere ike ịpụ n'ụgbọelu ahụ site na iji slide mberede, mana merụrụ ahụ. Mgbe ihe mberede ahụ gasịrị, ọkụ gbara n'etiti ụgbọelu ahụ tupu ndị ọrụ mberede nke ọdụ ụgbọ elu ejide ya. <ref name="finalRep"/> <ref name="aviationSafety">{{Àtụ:Cite web|title=Accident Description|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20100727-0|work=Aviation Safety Net|accessdate=16 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="middleEastAv">{{Àtụ:Cite news|title=Lufthansa Cargo Crash in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.theaviatorme.com/airlines/business/content-62450|work=Aviation Business Middle East|date=27 July 2010|accessdate=22 February 2024}}</ref> == Ụgbọelu == [[Faịlụ:I-DUPB_MD-11_Alitalia_KIX_19MAY03_(8394884796).jpg|alt=D-ALCQ, when it was still in service with Alitalia|thumb|270x270px|D-ALCQ, mgbe ọ ka na-arụ ọrụ na Alitalia]] Ụgbọelu ahụ metụtara ihe mberede ahụ bụ McDonnell Douglas MD-11 edebanyere aha dị ka D-ALCQ, <ref name="AH42edca16">{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://avherald.com/h?article=42edca16&opt=0|title=Accident: Lufthansa MD11 at Riyadh on Jul 27th 2010, cargo fire, broke up on landing|publisher=Aviation Herald|first=Simon|author=Hradecky|accessdate=15 August 2010}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFHradecky">Hradecky, Simon. [http://avherald.com/h?article=42edca16&opt=0 "Accident: Lufthansa MD11 at Riyadh on Jul 27th 2010, cargo fire, broke up on landing"]. Aviation Herald<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite></ref> MSN 48431, nọmba akara 534. E bugara ụgbọelu ahụ na Alitalia na 1993 dị ka I-DUPB ma mesịa gbanwee ya ka ọ bụrụ ụgbọelu na-ebu ibu na 2004. <ref name="AIR">{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|title=Lufthansa Cargo MD-11 Crash Lands at Riyadh ( with Photos, Aircraft's History and Flight History )|publisher=Airline Industry Review|first=K|author=Flyer|accessdate=27 July 2010|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120723085421/http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/|archivedate=23 July 2012}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFFlyer">Flyer, K. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201249/http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/ "Lufthansa Cargo MD-11 Crash Lands at Riyadh ( with Photos, Aircraft's History and Flight History )"]. Airline Industry Review. Archived from [http://www.airlineindustryreview.com/lufthansa-md-11-crash-lands-at-riyadh/ the original] on 23 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite></ref> N'oge ihe mberede ahụ, D-ALCQ emechaala okirikiri 10,073 ma nweta awa ụgbọ elu 73,247. A kwadebere ya na injin atọ General Electric CF6-80C2D1F.<ref name="Total">{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://www.lhcargo.com/content.jsp?path=0,1,19141,114559,122121|title=Lufthansa Cargo plane accident in Riyadh, 27 JUL 4.15 p. m. LT FRA|publisher=Lufthansa Cargo|accessdate=27 July 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801002900/http://www.lhcargo.com/content.jsp?path=0,1,19141,114559,122121|archivedate=1 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Àtụ:Cite web|title=Accident McDonnell Douglas MD-11F D-ALCQ, Tuesday 27 July 2010|url=https://asn.flightsafety.org/asndb/321273|accessdate=2024-07-16|work=asn.flightsafety.org}}</ref><ref>{{Àtụ:Cite web|title=Final report D-ALCQ|url=https://www.bfu-web.de/EN/Publications/FinalReports/2010/Report_10_2X003_MD11_Riyadh.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1|accessdate=16 July 2024}}</ref> == Nnyocha == General Authority of Civil Aviation meghere nyocha banyere ihe mberede ahụ. Akụkọ ikpeazụ chọpụtara na ihe kpatara ihe mberede ahụ bụ na ụgbọelu ahụ kụrụ ala nke ukwuu, nke mere ka ọ daa n'okporo ụzọ. Ndị ọrụ ụgbọelu ahụ amaghị ihe ahụ na-awụli elu ma meghachi omume n'ụzọ mere ka ụgbọelu ahụ sie ike. Mmetụta nke atọ na nke ikpeazụ siri ike nke na ọ mere ka fuselage azụ gbajie. <ref name="finalRep"/> <ref name="aviationSafety">{{Àtụ:Cite web|title=Accident Description|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20100727-0|work=Aviation Safety Net|accessdate=16 April 2016}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20100727-0 "Accident Description"]. ''Aviation Safety Net''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref><ref>{{Àtụ:Cite web|url=http://www.aviation-accidents.net/lufthansa-cargo-mcdonnel-douglas-md11f-d-alcq-flight-gec8460/|title=Accident report of Lufthansa Cargo – Mcdonnel Douglas – MD11F (D-ALCQ) flight GEC8460|date=2016-03-27|work=Aviation Accident Database|language=en-US|accessdate=2018-12-16}}</ref> Tupu ihe mberede a, e nwere 29 ndị ọzọ na-awụli elu ma ọ bụ na-ada n'ike n'ike na ụgbọ elu MD-11 nke kpatara nnukwu mmebi.<ref name="finalRep">{{Àtụ:Cite web|date=21 January 2012|title=Final Accident Report|url=http://www.bfu-web.de/EN/Publications/Investigation%20Report/2010/Report_10_2X003_MD11_Riyadh.pdf|accessdate=16 April 2016|work=|publisher=General Authority of Civil Aviation}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://www.bfu-web.de/EN/Publications/Investigation%20Report/2010/Report_10_2X003_MD11_Riyadh.pdf "Final Accident Report"] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. General Authority of Civil Aviation. 21 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2016</span> &#x2013; via German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation.</cite></ref> Ihe mberede yiri nke a mere na FedEx Express Flight 80 n'afọ gara aga, ebe ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri abụọ ahụ nwụrụ n'ịda. A maara na ndị ọrụ ụgbọ elu hụrụ MD-11 na-ada n'ike siri ike ịchọpụta.<ref name="finalRep"/> Akụkọ ikpeazụ ahụ nyere ọtụtụ aro iji melite ọzụzụ, usoro na ngwá ọrụ ụgbọ elu iji nyere ndị ọrụ aka ịnagide ọdịda.<ref name="finalRep" /> k973nett7tkn9zj4dn54iom9slwqrcx Syed Sahil Agha 0 56123 687992 345885 2026-07-13T21:53:02Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687992 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Dastangoi_Oral_storytelling_india.jpg|thumb|Syed Sahil Agha]] '''Syed Sahil Agha''' (amụrụ n'afọ 1982) bụ onye India na-akọ akụkọ, onye na-eme ihe nkiri, onye edemede na onye na-anakọta ụgbọ ala, onye ọkachamara na nkà okwu nke ''Dastangoi,'' nkà nke narị afọ nke 13 nke ịkọ akụkọ n'Asụsụ Urdu. Ọ chọtara ụdị ochie nke QissaKhwani wee maliteghachi ya site n'ịkpọ aha ya QissaGoi ma maliteghachi Jumlebaazi, ụdị nkà na-ekwu okwu ọnụ na narị afọ nke 13 na Wordplay .[1] [2] A maara ya maka ọrụ ya dị ka Shibli Nomani na Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Mesaịa ahụ, usoro ntanetị ewepụtara na Apple TV.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special screening of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: The Messiah held at AMU {{!}} December 19, 2024|url=https://amu.ac.in/news/2024/12/19/special-screening-of-sir-syed-ahmad-khan-the-messiah-held-at-amu|accessdate=2024-12-24|work=Aligarh Muslim University|language=en}}</ref><ref name="purplepencilproject.">{{Cite web|author=Maniar|first=Prakruti|date=2019-11-30|title=On the art of storytelling: Dastango Syed Sahil Agha|url=https://www.purplepencilproject.com/dastango-syed-sahil-agha|accessdate=2019-11-30|work=www.purplepencilproject.com}}</ref><ref name="outlookindia">{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/70269/satire-and-humour-come-alive-at-storytelling-festival-udaipur-tales|author=Sahana lyer|title=Udaipur Tales Brings Alive the Art of Storytelling|date=2020-02-29|work=outlooktraveller|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-02-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Raza|first=Danish|date=2018-12-07|title=The long and Short of Storytelling in India|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/the-long-and-short-of-storytelling-in-india/story-RQ6uANbpZ1Rl6qHPvMgkzH.html|accessdate=2018-12-29|work=hindustantimes.com}}</ref> == Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Syed Sahil Agha na 1982 na Delhi n'aka Sayyed Mansoor Agha, onye edemede na onye nta akụkọ.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|author=Habib|first=Waquar|date=2024-02-26|title=Dastangoi Artist Syed Sahil Agha On Mastering A Fading Art|url=https://www.outlooktraveller.com/editors-picks/celebrating-people/dastangoi-artist-syyed-sahil-agha-on-mastering-a-fading-art|accessdate=2024-12-24|work=Outlook Traveller|language=en}}</ref><ref name="the-hindu-news.">{{Cite web|author=Phukan|first=Vikram|date=2019-11-21|title=Diamonds in the rough|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/theatre/diamonds-in-the-rough/article30040698.ece/amp|accessdate=2019-11-19|work=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye Delhi Gharana sitere na Silsila nke Sufism nke Amir Khusrau.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Syed Sahil Agha: Featured Teller at Gaatha Festival|url=https://www.gmisf.org/en/view-featured-teller/syed-sahil-agha/|accessdate=2024-12-25|work=www.gmisf.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Hasan|first=Shah Imran|title=ماضی اورمستقبل کا پل ہے داستان گوئی ۔ سید ساحل آغا|url=https://www.urdu.awazthevoice.in/india-news/dastangoi-is-the-bridge-between-past-and-future-syed-sahil-agha-24736.html|accessdate=2024-12-25|work=www.urdu.awazthevoice.in|language=ur}}</ref> Ọ mụtara ma mee ọzụzụ ya na National School of Drama wee gụchaa Bachelor of Arts site na Jamia Millia Islamia wee malite ịrụ ọrụ dị ka Dastango na mmemme.[1][2] Ka oge na-aga, o mere Diploma Post Graduate na Acting si Shri Ram Center for Performing Arts, Delhi. <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|author=|title=Meet Sahil Agha who owns over 50 vintage cars|url=https://ummid.com/news/2022/october/21.10.2022/meet-sahil-agha-who-owns-over-50-vintage-cars.html|accessdate=21 October 2022|work=ummid.com|publisher=ummid}}</ref> == Ọrụ == Agha nyere ọrụ Dastangoi ọkachamara mbụ ya na 2010 na Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi, mgbe ọ na-achụ Bachelor of Arts ebe ahụ.[1] [2] Ọ na-ekwu na nna nna ya bụ mkpali maka ọrụ ya.<ref name="Outlook">{{Cite web|author=Saha|first=Pracheta|date=21 November 2018|title=Dastaan-E-Dastangoi: The Lost Art Form Of Story Telling|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/society/dastaan-e-dastangoi-the-lost-art-form-of-story-telling-news-320489|accessdate=2018-12-29|work=www.outlookindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.norway.no/en/india/norway-india/news-and-events/new-delhi/news/storytelling-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective/|title=Storytelling from a cross-cultural perspective|language=en|work=www.norway.no|accessdate=2018-12-30|archivedate=2019-02-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204014210/https://www.norway.no/en/india/norway-india/news-and-events/new-delhi/news/storytelling-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|work=Sohaila Kapur|url=https://www.theweek.in/webworld/features/society/an-enthralling-collage-of-plays.html/amp|title=An enthralling collage of plays|date=2018-05-01|accessdate=2018-05-01|archivedate=2019-05-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517223151/https://www.theweek.in/webworld/features/society/an-enthralling-collage-of-plays.html/amp}}</ref> O weputara echiche ọhụrụ nke 'Musical Dastangoi' nke nwere akụkọ jikọtara ya na Indian Opera na egwu ọdịnala India.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Eba|first=Syeda|date=2020-02-08|title=Dastangoi: Bringing stories alive|url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/features/dastangoi-bringing-stories-alive-399611|accessdate=2020-02-10|work=Millennium Post|language=en-US}}</ref> Agha bụ onye dere Dastan-e-Hind (2010), nchịkọta nke dastans ya na akụkọ ọdịnala ndị India, akpalila ihe ngosi nke ọtụtụ ndị na-ese ihe gburugburu ụwa.[1] [2] Ọ na-eme naanị ya kama ịbụ akụkụ nke otu ụzọ.Dastans ya gụnyere Nairang-e DastanGoi, Dastan-e-Awadh, Dastan-e-Dard, Dastan-e-Taqseem, [1] Dastan-e-Dastangoi, Dastan Mehboob-e-Ilahi, Dastan-e-Amir Khusrau, Dastan-e-Chiragh, Dastan-e-Mahatma, [6] [7] Dastan-e-Vikram-Betal na Tughlaqnama, Dastan Dilli Ke Shayron ki[8] bụ ndị bụrụla ihe egwu n'etiti ndị na-ege ya ntị.Akụkọ egwu ya gụnyere Dastan-e-Duvidha, Jashn-e-Virasat, Dilli Durbar, [1] [2] Dastan Ishq-e-Meera, Dastan-e-Sahir na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ. Ọ bụbu akụkụ nke Bharatmuni Rang Utsav, Gaatha: Mumbai International Story Telling Festival, Udaipur Tales International Storytelling Festival, Jahan-e-Khusrau, Shimla International Literature Festival, Sahityotsav Cultural Karvan, Jashn-e-Rekhta na Adbi Forum. === Nchịkọta ụgbọ ala ochie === Agha, ịnakọta ụgbọala ochie bụ ihe na-atọ ụtọ.<ref name="timesofindia">{{Cite news|author=TOI|date=6 April 2022|title=Delhi's vintage car lover who restores iconic beauties, watch!|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/city/delhi/meet-delhis-vintage-car-lover-who-restores-iconic-jalopies/videoshow/90692634.cms?from=mdr|accessdate=7 April 2022|work=[[timesofindia]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Muttabi Ali Khan|title=This Delhi man owns over 50 vintage cars|url=https://munsifdaily.com/social-media/this-delhi-man-owns-over-50-vintage-cars/|accessdate=21 October 2022|work=munsifdaily.com|publisher=munsifdaily}}</ref> N'ime afọ iri abụọ na ise gara aga, ọ chịkọtara ọtụtụ ụgbọala ndị Britain na ndị Germany.<ref name="the economic times">{{Cite news|author=TOI|date=7 April 2022|title=Delhi's vintage car lover who restores iconic beauties, watch!|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/delhis-vintage-car-lover-who-restores-iconic-beauties-watch/videoshow/90709421.cms|accessdate=7 April 2022|work=the [[The Economic Times|economic times]] (Panache)}}</ref><ref name=":2"/> == Ihe nkiri == === Telivishọn === {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ !Ihe ngosi !Ọrụ !Ọwa Mmiri ! class="unsortable" |Nkwupụta |- |2018 |''Mirza Ghalib Umrao Begum'' |Onye edemede |DD Urdu | style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2019-03-16|title=Syed Sahil Agha|url=http://shimlaliteraturefestival.com/performer/syed-sahil-agha/|accessdate=2024-12-24|work=Shimla International Literature Festival|language=en-US}}</ref> |- |2019 |''Dastangoi'' |Onye edemede na onye na-eme ihe nkiri |Zee Salaam |<ref name=":3"/> |- |} === Ihe nkiri === {| class="wikitable sortable" !Afọ !Ihe nkiri !Ọrụ !Ọwa Mmiri !Nkwupụta |- |2019 |''Pari Khana'' |Onye edemede |Ihe nkiri Sood |<ref name=":3"/> |- |2020 |''Sanam Khana'' |Onye edemede |Netflix |<ref name=":3" /> |- |} == Ihe nrite na nsọpụrụ == Na 2022, National Museum, New Delhi kwanyere Agha na Amara nke Dastangoi ma gosipụtakwa uwe Angrakha ya na Chitram Vastram. <ref>{{Cite web|author=IANS|date=17 Dec 2022|title=How India dressed up: National Museum recreates saga from old manuscripts|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/how-india-dressed-up-national-museum-recreates-saga-from-old-manuscripts-122121800555_1.html|accessdate=18 Dec 2022|work=[[Business Standard]]|publisher=business-standard.com}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=|title=वस्त्रों और परिधानों की कहानी, पांडुलिपि चित्रों की जुबानी|url=https://www.newstodaynetwork.com/वस्त्रों-और-परिधानों-की-कहानी-पांडुलिपि-चित्रों-की-जुबानी/cid9487238.htm|accessdate=|work=www.newstodaynetwork.com/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=dailychhattisgarh news desk|date=17 Dec 2022|title=वस्त्रों और परिधानों की कहानी, पांडुलिपि चित्रों की जुबानी|url=https://dailychhattisgarh.com/article-details.php?article=181093&path_article=7|accessdate=18 Dec 2022|publisher=IANS|archivedate=20 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220140621/https://dailychhattisgarh.com/article-details.php?article=181093&path_article=7}}</ref> * Ihe nrite Pradesh Jouhar 2017 * Ihe nrite Hafeez Merathi 2017 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://udaipurtales.com/upcomst.php|title=Storytellers Of 2020|date=2020-02-08|work=Udaipur Tales|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-02-10|archivedate=2020-02-08|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208210025/http://udaipurtales.com/upcomst.php}}</ref> * Onyinye Delhi Minorities Commission 2019 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://viewswall.com/2020/sahil-agha-a-distinguished-dastango-honored-by-dmc/culture-and-communities/|title=Sahil Agha, a distinguished Dastango, honored by DMC|author=viewswall|work=www.viewswall.com|accessdate=2020-08-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=|title=Delhi Minorities Commission announces Awards in various fields|url=https://theindianawaaz.com/delhi-minorities-commission-announces-awards-in-various-fields/|accessdate=2020-06-17|work=theindianawaaz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=|title=DMC 2019 AWARDS|url=https://archive.org/stream/dmc-2019-awards/DMC-2019-Awards_djvu.txt|accessdate=2020-06-17|work=Delhi Minorities Commission}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * {{IMDb name|id=15450934}}  [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] s2hz7myftg63ltgdvhny8suunfgh3iq Te Taka Keegan 0 56695 687994 205606 2026-07-13T23:39:17Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687994 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Te Taka Adrian Gregory Keegan''' bụ onye mmụta New Zealand na onye na-emegharị asụsụ Māori. Ọ sitere na Waikato-Maniapoto, Ngāti Apakura, Te Whānau-ā-Karuai ki Ngāti Porou na Ngāti Whakaaue iwi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tuhono.net/en/about-tuhono/dr-te-taka-keegan|title=Dr Te Taka Keegan (Deputy Chairperson)|work=www.tuhono.net}}</ref> N'ịbụ onye nwere nzụlite na injinia ngwaike, Keegan laghachiri na Mahadum nke Waikato iji nweta nzere masta na Traditional Māori Navigation . <ref name="scilearn">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/127-dr-te-taka-keegan|title=Dr Te Taka Keegan|work=Science Learning Hub}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~tetaka/tuhingaroa/index.htm|title=Aria|work=www.cs.waikato.ac.nz|accessdate=2025-03-07|archivedate=2023-02-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202083249/https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~tetaka/tuhingaroa/index.htm}}</ref> Mgbe ahụ, ọ banyere na ngalaba sayensị kọmputa wee bụrụ onye mbụ na-akụzi sayensị kọmpụta na immersion te reo Māori Ọ gụsịrị PhD ya nke akpọrọ Indigenous Language Usage in a Digital Library: He Hautoa Kia Ora Tonu Ai dabere na ọrụ ya na New Zealand Digital Library, ọrụ nyocha nke Ian H. Witten duziri.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sunday-star-times/features/2672404/He-tangata-whai-kupu|title=He tangata whai kupu|work=Stuff|date=28 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nzdl.org/html/people.html|title=NZDL: People|accessdate=6 June 2014|archivedate=10 August 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810062136/http://www.nzdl.org/html/people.html}}</ref> Enwere ike ịchọta profaịlụ agụmakwụkwọ ya na ebe nrụọrụ weebụ Mahadum Waikato. <ref>{{Cite web|title=University of Waikato|url=https://profiles.waikato.ac.nz/tetaka.keegan|accessdate=2024-11-05|work=profiles.waikato.ac.nz}}</ref> Keegan duziri ndị otu sụgharịrị Microsoft Windows XP na Microsoft Office 2003 n'ime te reo Māori <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/|title=Maori language macron idea finds favour with Microsoft engineers|first=Adam|author=Gifford|date=16 April 2003}}</ref> ma soro ndị otu sụgharịa Office 2013 na Windows 8 nwee ndụmọdụ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/|title=Te reo boots up for 21st century|first=RENEE|author=KIRIONA|date=20 October 2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.msdn.com/b/nzgovtech/archive/2013/06/26/te-reo-maori-choice-for-windows-8-office-2013-and-the-internet.aspx|title=Te reo Māori choice for Windows 8, Office 2013, and the Internet}}</ref> Nke mbụ gụnyere iwepụta ọtụtụ usoro ọhụrụ, bụ nke ewebatala n'okwu metụtara Kọmputa A Dictionary of Māori.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Taiuru|first=K.N.|title=A Dictionary of Māori Computer Related Terms: English - Māori|publisher=Karaitiana N. Taiuru|year=2006|isbn=978-0-9582621-1-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-HKJhn7YZ4C}}</ref> O tinyekwara aka na SwiftKey inwe Māori dịka asụsụ akwadoro. Na njikọ ya na ịnọ ezumike na [[Google]], Keegan bụ ike na-akpali asụsụ n'azụ Google Māori. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/03/09/googles-toolkit-for-translators-helps-feed-its-machine/|title=Google's Toolkit for Translators Helps Feed Its Machine|first=Miguel|author=Helft|date=9 March 2010}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10524178|title=Te Reo no longer lost in translation|first=Adam|author=Gifford|date=29 July 2008|accessdate=7 March 2025|archivedate=27 July 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727054629/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10524178}}</ref>Ọ bụkwa otu n'ime ndị nlekọta nke Tūhono, nchekwa data na-ejikọta Māori n'otu n'otu na iwi ha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newzealand.googleblog.com/2013/12/kua-puta-google-whakamaori-ki-te-reo.html|title=Kua puta a Google Whakamāori ki te reo Māori: Google Translate now in Māori}}</ref> == Ihe nrite == N'afọ 2017, Praịm Minista New Zealand Bill English nyere Keegan ihe nrite nkuzi kachasị elu nke mba ahụ, <ref name="award">{{Cite web|url=https://news.microsoft.com/en-nz/2017/08/22/te-reo-binary-combine-win-prime-ministers-supreme-award/|title=Te Reo and Binary Combine to Win Prime Minister's Supreme Award|author=Clifford|first=Aidan|date=22 Aug 2017|work=microsoft.com|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|accessdate=5 Dec 2017}}</ref> Ihe nrite kacha elu nke Prime Minister, iji kwado nkwado siri ike nke Keegan na nkuzi na mmụta. <ref>{{Cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=9 Aug 2017|title=Weaving te reo into technology - Dr Te Taka Keegan wins top teaching honour|url=http://www.maoritelevision.com/news/national/weaving-te-reo-technology-dr-te-taka-keegan-wins-top-teaching-honour|accessdate=5 Dec 2017}}</ref> == Ntụaka == {{Authority control}}{{Reflist}} [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 01nmqu71xkb95tve7pkr3l5ddvs22qv Santa Rosa storm 0 56965 687819 212006 2026-07-13T12:04:06Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687819 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Temporal santa rosa 2003.PNG|thumb|Santa Rosa Storm]] Okee Ifufe Santa Rosa na-eme ememe na Southern Hemisphere ruo ụbọchị mbụ nke afọ, nke bụ otu ụbọchị ka ụbọchị mbụ nke Santa Rosa na Lima, Peru, nke a na-eme na August 30 kwa afọ.. Akụkọ ifo na-ekwu na Isabel Flores de Oliva, nke a makwaara dị ka Rose of Lima (Spanish: Rosa de Lima), kpatara oké ifufe nke gbochiri ndị ohi ụgbọ mmiri Dutch ịwakpo obodo Lima na 1615. Otú ọ dị, Ndị na-ahụ maka ihu igwe na-ekwu na oké ifufe ahụ bụ n'ihi ihu igwe mbụ na-ekpo ọkụ, nke bụ ihe sitere na mbata nke oge opupu ihe ubi na ihu oyi. Akụkọ a na-ewu ewu na Argentina, Uruguay, karịsịa na mpaghara Rio de la Plata (gụnyere Buenos Aires na Montevideo), mpaghara Cordoba nke Argentina, na mpaghara Cuyo, ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ nke Buenos Aires.. == Akụkọ ifo na eziokwu == {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin:0 1em 0.5em 0;" |+<small>'''Mmiri ozuzo maka oge oké ifufe Santa Rosa (August 20 ruo September 20 approx.) <br />'''</small> '''1861 - 2003'''<br /> !Afọ !Oge !Mmiri ozuzo (mm) <br /> |- |1870 |08/30 |28 |- |1876 |08/29 ruo 08/30 |73 |- |1922 |08/29 ruo 09/01 |80 |- |1923 |08/27 ruo 09/03 |80 |- |1942 |08/31 ruo 09/02 |98 |- |1956 |08/29 ruo 08/31 |97 |- |1959 |08/30 ruo 09/01 |55 |- |1983 |08/26 ruo 08/31 |60 |- |1986 |08/29 ruo 09/03 |68 |- |1992 |08/29 ruo 09/02 |54 |- |1993 |08/30 ruo 09/01 |49 |- |1994 |08/31 ruo 09/02 |39 |- |1996 |08/25 ruo 08/26 |22 |- |2001 |08/26 ruo 08/27 |59 |- |2002 |08/28 |13 |- |2003 |09/03 ruo 09/07 |88 |- ! colspan="4" |<small>Ebe e si nweta ya: [https://web.archive.org/web/20090830042722/http://www.metsul.com/secoes/visualiza.php?cod_subsecao=28&cod_texto=220 Metsul]</small> |} Ihe ndekọ nke oké ifufe ahụ bụ otu n'ime ndị mbụ ga-amalite na njedebe nke oke osimiri ndịda, site na 10 August 20 ruo Septemba 20..   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> N'ezie, ifufe Santa Rosa bụ nke kacha njọ n'afọ.  Otú ọ dị, eziokwu dị iche.  N'obodo Buenos Aires (dị ka Villa Ortúzar SMN Observatory), oké ifufe ahụ mere naanị n'ụbọchị na-esote August 30 maka oge nke isii kemgbe 1861..<ref>{{Cite web|title=¿Llega la tormenta de Santa Rosa? {{!}} Servicio Meteorologico Nacional.|url=https://www.smn.gob.ar/noticias/%C2%BFllega-la-tormenta-de-santa-rosa|accessdate=2022-11-06|work=www.smn.gob.ar|archivedate=2022-11-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106115908/https://www.smn.gob.ar/noticias/%C2%BFllega-la-tormenta-de-santa-rosa}}</ref> N'ime oké ifufe iri na isii, asaa emeela kemgbe 1992, ma eleghị anya n'ihi okpomọkụ ụwa.   <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> == Ihe odide == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090830042722/http://www.metsul.com/secoes/visualiza.php?cod_subsecao=28&cod_texto=220 Oké Ifufe nke Santa Rosa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090902071137/http://www.clarin.com/diario/2009/08/30/sociedad/s-01988557.htm Oké ifufe nke Santa Rosa na-abịa taa ma kwụsị okpomọkụ (The Santa Rosa Storm na-abịa Taa na okpomọkụ na-agwụ) 30 Ọgọst 2009, Clarin] <references /> ojvyunjclquufmmy1fqrbkdm57zeahk Asụsụ Chamalal 0 58923 687979 204360 2026-07-13T19:58:39Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687979 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Чамалалы (Чамала-ди).jpg|thumb|Asụsụ Chamalal]] '''Chamalal''' (nke a na-akpọ Camalal ma ọ bụ Chamalin) bụ [[asụsụ Andic]] nke ezinụlọ asụsụ Caucasian nke ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ nke a na-asụ na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ Dagestan, [[Mpaghara Russia|Russia]] site na ihe dị ka agbụrụ 5,100 Chamalals . O nwere olumba atọ dị iche iche, Gadyri, Gakvari na Gigatl. == Nhazi == Chamalal nwere olumba atọ dị iche iche: [[Gadyri dialect|Gadyri]] (Gachitl-Kvankhi), [[Gakvari dialect|Gakvari]] (Agvali-Richaganik-Tsumada-Urukh), na [[Gigatl dialect|Gigatl]] (Hihatl). Enwekwara olumba abụọ ọzọ: Kwenkhi, Tsumada. === Asụsụ ndị ewepụtara === A na-ahụta Gigatl (Hihatl) na Chamalal kwesịrị ekwesị (ya na olumba Gadyri, Gakvari, Tsumada na Kwenkhi) dị ka asụsụ obodo. == Nkesa ala == Ihe dị ka ndị na-asụ agbụrụ 500 bi n'ime ime obodo asatọ dị na Tsumadinsky District dị n'akụkụ aka ekpe nke osimiri Andi-Koisu na Dagestan Republic na Chechnya Republic. Ndị na-ekwu okwu bụ ndị Alakụba, bụ ndị na-agbaso Sunni Islam kemgbe narị afọ nke 8 ma ọ bụ 9th. === Ọkwa gọọmentị === Enweghị obodo nwere Chamalal dị ka asụsụ gọọmentị. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == A na-asụ Chamalal na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ Dagestan, [[Mpaghara Russia|Russia]] site na ụmụ amaala Chamalals kemgbe narị afọ nke 8 ma ọ bụ 9th. Ndị agbụrụ a dị ihe dịka 5,000, nwere ihe dịka 5,100 ndị na-ekwu okwu. Asụsụ ahụ nwere ọkwa 6b (egwu). <ref>{{Cite web|title=Чамалинский язык {{!}} Малые языки России|url=https://minlang.iling-ran.ru/lang/chamalinskiy-yazyk|accessdate=2024-10-18|work=minlang.iling-ran.ru}}</ref> == Usoro edemede == Chamalal bụ asụsụ edeghị ede. A na-eji Avar na Russian eme ihe n'ụlọ akwụkwọ, a na-ejikwa Avar maka ebumnuche edemede. == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} == Akwụkwọ akụkọ == * {{Cite journal|author=Anderson|first=Stephen|year=2005|title=Review: The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Vols. 1-4|journal=Language|volume=81|issue=4|pages=993–996|doi=10.1353/lan.2005.0161}} * {{Cite journal|year=1996|title=Back Matter|journal=Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics|volume=109|issue=2}} * {{Cite journal|author=Blažek|first=Václav|year=2002|title=The 'beech'-argument — State-of-the-Art|journal=Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics|volume=115|issue=2|pages=190–217}} * {{Cite journal|author=Friedman|first=Victor|year=2005|title=Review:The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 3: The North East Caucasian Languages, Part 1|journal=The Slavic and East European Journal|volume=49|issue=3|pages=537–539|doi=10.2307/20058337}} * {{Cite journal|author=Greppin|first=John A. C.|year=1996|title=New Data on the Hurro-Urartian Substratum in Armenian|journal=Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics|volume=109|issue=1|pages=40–44}} * {{Cite journal|author=Harris|first=Alice C.|year=2009|title=Exuberant Exponence in Batsbi|journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory|volume=27|issue=2|pages=267–303|doi=10.1007/s11049-009-9070-8}} * {{Cite journal|author=Haspelmath|first=Martin|year=1996|title=Review:The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Vol. 4: North East Caucasian Languages, Part 2|journal=Language|volume=72|issue=1|pages=126–129|doi=10.2307/416797}} * {{Cite book|author=Kolga|first=M.|title=The Red book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire|year=1993}} * {{Cite book|author=Magomedova|first=P. T.|title=The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus|year=2004|pages=3–65|chapter=Chamalal}} * {{Cite journal|author=Schulze|first=Wolfgang|year=2005|title=Grammars for East Caucasian|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=47|issue=3|pages=321–352}} * {{Cite journal|author=Szczśniak|first=Andrew L.|year=1963|title=A Brief Index of Indigenous Peoples and Languages of Asiatic Russia|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=5|issue=6|pages=1–29}} * {{Cite journal|author=Tuite|first=Kevin|year=1998|title=A Case of Taboo-Motivated Lexical Replacement in the Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=40|issue=3|pages=363–383}} * {{Cite journal|author=Voegelin|first=C. F.|authorlink=Charles F. Voegelin|year=1966|title=Index of Languages of the World|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=8|issue=6|pages=i-xiv, 1-222}} == Ọgụgụ ọzọ == * {{Cite web|author=Margus Kolga|title=The Chamalals|work=[[The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire]]|date=1993|url=https://redbook.verbix.com/chamalals.shtml}} 5r6wnztu18nsscb1vl4egn5qy7zpirq Asụsụ Karata-Tukita 0 58958 687977 207901 2026-07-13T19:55:35Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Reflist}} [[Faịlụ:Каратинцы (КIирди).jpg|thumb|Asụsụ Karata-Tukita]] '''Karata''' ( {{Lang|kpt|кӏкӏирлӏи}} ) bụ [[asụsụ Andic]] nke ezinụlọ asụsụ Caucasian nke ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ nke a na-asụ na ndịda Dagestan, [[Mpaghara Russia|Russia]] site na 9,549 Karata na 2020. Enwere obodo iri nke a na-asụkarị asụsụ ahụ: Karata, Anchix, Tukita, Rachabalda, Lower Inxelo, Mashtada, Archo, Chabakovo, Racitl, na mbụ Siux . <ref name="nicholsReview">{{Cite journal|author=Nichols|first=Johanna|year=2006|title=Review: Karatinsko-russkij slovar' [Karata-Russian Dictionary]|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=48|issue=1|pages=95–98|issn=0003-5483|authorlink=Johanna Nichols}}</ref> Ndị na-ekwu okwu na-eji Avar dịka asụsụ edemede ha. == Olumba == Asụsụ ahụ nwere olumba abụọ, '''Karata''' na [[Tukita language|Tukita]], nke dịtụ iche na ụda ụda na morphology mana ha nwere nghọta. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The Karatas|url=https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/karatas.shtml|accessdate=2021-06-07|work=www.eki.ee|publisher=[[The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire]]}}</ref> A na-ewere Tukita mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka asụsụ dị iche, dabere na lexicostatistics . <ref>{{Cite web|title=Тукитинский язык {{!}} Minority languages of Russia|url=https://minlang.iling-ran.ru/en/node/116|accessdate=2024-09-27|work=minlang.iling-ran.ru}}</ref> Enwekwara mkpịrị-asụsụ anọ; ''Anchikh, Archi, Ratsitl'' na ''Rachabalda'', aha obodo ha ''.'' <ref name=":0" /> == fonology == === Consonants === Karata nwere consonants 45. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Каратинский язык {{!}} Minority languages of Russia|url=https://minlang.iling-ran.ru/en/node/73|accessdate=2024-10-01|work=minlang.iling-ran.ru}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+Consonant phonemes of Karata ! colspan="2" rowspan="3" | ! rowspan="3" |Labial ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Dental ! colspan="4" |Alveolar ! rowspan="3" |Palatal ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Velar ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Uvular ! rowspan="3" |Pharyn-<nowiki><br id="mwYA"></nowiki><nowiki><br></nowiki>geal ! rowspan="3" |Glottal |- class="small" ! colspan="2" |central ! colspan="2" |lateral |- class="small" !lenis !fortis !lenis !fortis !lenis !fortis !lenis !fortis !lenis !fortis |- ! colspan="2" |Nasal |{{IPAlink|m}} |{{IPAlink|n}} | | | | | | | | | | | | |- ! rowspan="3" |Plosive !<small> voiced</small> |{{IPAlink|b}} |{{IPAlink|d}} | | | | | | |{{IPAlink|ɡ}} | | | | | |- !<small> voiceless</small> |{{IPAlink|p}} |{{IPAlink|t}} | | | | | | |{{IPAlink|k}} | | | | |{{IPAlink|ʔ}} |- !<small>ejective</small> |({{IPAlink|pʼ}}) |{{IPAlink|tʼ}} | | | | | | |{{IPAlink|kʼ}} | | | | | |- ! rowspan="3" |Affricate !<small> voiced</small> | | | |({{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}) | | | | | | | | | | |- !<small> voiceless</small> | |{{IPAlink|t͡s}} |{{IPAlink|t͡sː}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ʃː}} | |{{IPAlink|t͡ɬː}} | | |{{IPAlink|k͡xː}} | |{{IPAlink|q͡χː}} | | |- !<small>ejective</small> | |{{IPAlink|t͡sʼ}} |{{IPAlink|t͡sʼː}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ʃʼ}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ʃʼː}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ɬʼ}} |{{IPAlink|t͡ɬʼː}} | | |{{IPAlink|k͡xʼː}} | |{{IPAlink|q͡χʼː}} | | |- ! rowspan="2" |Fricative !<small>voiceless</small> | |{{IPAlink|s}} |{{IPAlink|sː}} |{{IPAlink|ʃ}} |{{IPAlink|ʃː}} |{{IPAlink|ɬ}} |{{IPAlink|ɬː}} |{{IPAlink|ç}} |{{IPAlink|x}} |{{IPAlink|xː}} | | |{{IPAlink|ʜ}} |{{IPAlink|h}} |- !<small> voiced</small> |{{IPAlink|v}} |{{IPAlink|z}} | |{{IPAlink|ʒ}} | | | | |{{IPAlink|ɣ}} | | | |{{IPAlink|ʢ}} | |- ! colspan="2" |Trill | | | |{{IPAlink|r}} | | | | | | | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Approximant | | | | | |{{IPAlink|l}} | |{{IPAlink|j}} | | | | | | |} * A na-akpọ nkwụsị glottal edegharịrị ebe a n'ụzọ doro anya "glottalic laryngeal " site na isi iyi. === Udaume === Karata nwere ụdaume iri na asatọ. <ref name=":1"/> == Ntụaka == iche na ụda ụda na morphology mana ha nwere nghọta. [1] A na-ewere Tukita mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka asụsụ dị iche,{{Reflist}} fkwtz8rltbf217su35zgaqtymx03oo3 Akụkọ banyere Amadou Koumba 0 59330 688024 204959 2026-07-14T05:48:42Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 688024 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Les Contes d'Amadou Koumba, édition 1947.jpg|thumb|'''''Akụkọ banyere Amadou Koumba''''']]   '''''Akụkọ banyere Amadou Koumba''''' ma ọ bụ '''''Les Contes d'Amadou Koumba''''' bụ nchịkọta akụkọ sitere na Senegal, nke Birago Diop dere site na ndekọ nke [[griot]] ezinụlọ ya, Amadou Koumba. E bipụtara ya na nke mbụ ya na 1947. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Birago-Diop|title=Birago Diop {{!}} Senegalese author|accessdate=2016-10-05}}</ref> Nke a bụ otu n'ime mbọ mbụ dị mkpa iji tinye akwụkwọ ọnụ n'Africa n'ụdị ederede. Dị ka [[Roland Colin]] si kwuo, akụkọ ndị a na-ekpughe nkà kachasị mma nke Wolof griots na Birago Diop na-eme ka akụkọ ndị a na-ege ntị na ndị na-agụ Europe na ndị kasị nta na-akọ banyere "mmụọ Black African". == Akụkọ (na aha French) == * "Fari l'nesse" * "Na-aga n'ihu" * "Les mamelles" * "N'Gor Niébé" * "Maman-Caïman" * "Les mauvaises compagnies I" * "Les mauvaises Compagnies II" * "Les mauvaises Compagnies III" * "Les mauvaises Compagnies IV" * "La lance de l'hyene" * "Une Commission" * "Lee anya" * "Tours de lièvre" * "Petit-mari" * "Vérité et mensonge" * "La biche et les deux chasseurs" * "Les calebasses de Kouss" * "L'héritage" * "Sarzan" == Mbipụta == * Paris, Fasquelle, Kọl. " Écrivains d'Outre-Mer », 1947 * Réed. Paris/Dakar, Présence Africaine, 1960 * Réed. Paris/Dakar, Présence Africaine, 1969 == Ntụaka == kwuo, akụkọ ndị a na-ekpughe nkà kachasị mma{{Reflist}} jb8k1glr3qcmll02f5zkp36o7lme21m Zakaria 1 0 60404 687980 208956 2026-07-13T20:01:44Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687980 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Weigel Four horns and craftsmen.jpg|thumb|Zakaria]]   '''Zakaria 1''' bụ isi nke mbụ nke Akwụkwọ Zakariya na Baịbul Hibru[1] ma ọ bụ Agba Ochie nke Baịbụl Ndị Kraịst.[2][3][a] Akwụkwọ a nwere amụma ndị a na-ekwu na ọ bụ onye amụma Zakariya buru ha. Na Baịbụl Hibru ọ bụ otu n'ime akwụkwọ iri na abụọ nke Ndị Amụma ndị ntà. [4] Dị ka nke mbụ n'ime isi iri na anọ dị n'akwụkwọ ahụ, [1] isiakwụkwọ a bụ akụkụ nke ngalaba (nke a na-akpọ "Zekaraya nke Mbụ") nke nwere Zekaraya 1-8. [5] Ọ na-edekọ mmeghe nakwa abụọ mbụ n'ime ọhụụ asatọ onye amụma ahụ nwetara. [6] Ọhụụ ndị a bụ isi ihe na ihe kachasị iche n'akwụkwọ ahụ, nke nwere usoro edemede na ụdị̀dị a haziri ahazi, nke a hazụrụ n'usoro.[7] == Ihe odide == E dere ihe odide mbụ ahụ n'Asụsụ Hibru. E kewara isiakwụkwọ a n'amaokwu iri abụọ na otu na Bible Bekee.[b] E nwere ụfọdụ ọdịiche dị n'etiti isi na nọmba amaokwu nke isi a na Bible Bekee na n'ihe odide Hibru: [1] {| class="wikitable" !Bekee !Asụsụ Hibru |- |1:1-17 |1:1-16 |- |1:18-21 |2:1-4 |- |} Isiokwu a na-agbaso usoro nọmba a na-ahụkarị na nsụgharị Bible Bekee nke Ndị Kraịst, na nkọwa maka nọmba na nsụgharị Bible Hibru. 9nih2y682rskfitp3g3bgclq3904a14 Abụ nke Abụ 5 0 60478 687935 209255 2026-07-13T12:51:58Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687935 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Vienne en son jardin 04225.JPG|thumb|Vienne en son jardin]]   Abụ nke 5 (nke a na-akpọkarị [ebee? dị ka Abụ 5) bụ isi nke ise nke Abụ Abụ na Akwụkwọ Nsọ Hibru ma ọ bụ Agba Ochie nke Akwụkwọ Nsọ Ndị Kraịst. [1] [1] Akwụkwọ a bụ otu n'ime Megillot ise, nchịkọta nke akwụkwọ mkpirisi, yana Rut, Abụ Ákwá, Eklisiastis na Esta, n'ime Ketuvim, akụkụ nke atọ na nke ikpeazụ nke Akwụkwọ Nsọ Hibru. [3] Omenala ndị Juu na-ele Solomọn anya dị ka onye dere akwụkwọ a (ọ bụ ezie na nke a na-arụrịta ụka ugbu a), na njiri mara nke a na-emetụta nnabata nke akwụkwọ a dị ka ederede ederede. siakwụkwọ a meghere site na nzaghachi nwoke ahụ nye nkwenye nke onye hụrụ ya n'anya n'amaokwu mmechi nke isi 4, mana akụkụ nke abụọ nke isiakwụkwọ ahụ na-akọ banyere ọjụjụ nwanyị ahụ jụrụ ịnabata nwoke ahụ n'ime ụlọ ya n'abalị, mgbe ọ gbanwere obi ya, ọ ga-apụrịrị; n’akụkụ nke ọzọ ọ chọrọ ya n’obodo ahụ ma na nkebi ikpeazụ (amaokwu nke 10 gawa n’ihu) ọ kọwara ụmụ nwanyị Jerusalem otú nwoke ahụ si maa mma. == Ihe odide == E ji asụsụ Hibru dee ihe odide mbụ ahụ. E kewara isiakwụkwọ a n’amaokwu iri na isii. === Ndị akaebe ederede === Ụfọdụ ihe odide ndị mbụ nwere ihe odide dị n’isiakwụkwọ a n’asụsụ Hibru sitere n’Akwụkwọ Nsọ Masoret, bụ́ nke gụnyere Codex Leningradensis (1008). [5] [a] A chọtara otu ibe nke nwere akụkụ nke isiakwụkwọ a n'etiti Akwụkwọ Mpịakọta Osimiri Nwụrụ Anwụ, nke e kenyere dị ka 4Q107 (4QCant); 30 TOA-30 OA; amaokwu nke 1). E nwekwara nsụgharị n’asụsụ Grik Koine nke a maara dị ka Septuagint, nke e mere na narị afọ ole na ole gara aga TOA. Ihe odide ochie nke ụdị Septuagint gụnyere Codex Vaticanus (B; GB; narị afọ nke anọ), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: GS; narị afọ nke anọ), na Codex Alexandrinus (A; GA; narị afọ nke ise). == Ọdịdị ya == Modern English Version (MEV) na-akọwa ndị ọkà okwu n'isi a dị ka: * Abụ 5:1a = Nwoke ahụ * Abụ 5:1b = Ndị Enyi nke Nwoke * Abụ 5:2-8 = Nwanyị ahụ * Abụ 5:9 = Ndị Enyi nke Nwanyị ahụ * Abụ 5:10-16 = Nwanyị ahụ Mmalite nke isi nke ise na mmechi nke isi anọ anọghị n'otu amaokwu na nsụgharị niile nke Akwụkwọ Nsọ: nsụgharị Vulgate nke isi 5 malitere na "Veniat dilectus meus...", [5] nke bụ njedebe nke okwu nwanyị ahụ n'amaokwu ikpeazụ nke isi nke anọ na ọtụtụ nsụgharị ndị ọzọ:   ] Veniat dilectus meus in hortum suum et comedat fructus eius optimos. Ka onye ihe-ya nātọm utọ bata n'ubi-ya ab͕ara ogige, detu kwa nkpuru-ya di oké ọnu-ahia. Vulgate, CANTICUM CANTICORUM 5:1a —Bible mu asɛm, Asomafo no Nnwuma 4:16b == Nnyocha == === Nwoke na ndị ukwe: na-anwale ma na-anụ ụtọ ubi (5:1) === Amaokwu a nwere mmechi nwoke ahụ nke mkparịta ụka na njedebe nke isiakwụkwọ gara aga; oku a na-akpọ iri na ihe ọṅụṅụ na-egosi ngwucha. [4] John Gill na-ekwu na okwu ndị na-emechi mkparịta ụka ekwesịghị ịbụ ndị e kewapụrụ na mgbanwe ndị ọzọ na isi 4. ==== Amaokwu 1 ==== [Onye a hụrụ n'anya/Nwoke ahụ] : ''Abịala m n'ubi m, nwanne m nwanyị, di m;'' : ''Agbakọtawo m myrra m na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ.'' : ''Anọ m na mmanụ aṅụ m;'' : ''Anọ m na mmiri ara m.'' [Nye Ndị Enyi Ya] : ''Rịa, O ndị enyi!'' : ''Ịṅụ mmanya, ee, ịṅụ mmanya miri emi,'' : ''O ndị m hụrụ n'anya!'' * "Nwunye” ma ọ bụ “nwanyị a na-alụ ọhụrụ” ( Abụ 4:8-10, 12 ) ya na “nwanna nwanyị” ( Abụ 4:9-10, 12 ) bụ okwu ịhụnanya. === Nwanyị: Ọchụchọ nke abụọ n'abalị maka onye ọ hụrụ n'anya nrọ ya (5:2-8) === N'akụkụ a, nwanyị ahụ jụrụ ịnabata onye hụrụ ya n'anya n'ime ụlọ ya n'abalị (ma ọ bụ n'eziokwu ma ọ bụ na nrọ; cf 3: 1-5), ma mgbe ọ gbanwere obi ya, nwoke ahụ apụworịị. Ọ na-achọ ya n’ime obodo, ndị nche (ndị nche) wee chọta ya ma tie ya ihe. Ọ na-arịọ ụmụ nwaanyị Jeruselem ka o nyere ya aka maka ọnọdụ ịhụnanya ya. ==== Amaokwu nke 2 ==== [[Faịlụ:Lilien_Hohelied.jpg|thumb|Ihu akwụkwọ nke Ephraim Moses Lilien maka ''Das Hohelied'', na-egosi isiokwu nke nduru na lilies.]] : Mu onwem nāraru ura, ma obim nēteta: ọ bu olu onye ihe-ya nātọm utọ ka ọ nāku, si, Megherem, nwa-nnem nwayi, ihu-n'anyam, ndurum, ihe emerughi-arum: n'ihi na isim juputara n'igirigi, ọbuná ọchichirim nējuputa kwa n'ọnu-miri nke abali. * "“Ịhụnanya m” (ma ọ bụ “enyi [nwoke m] [nwoke]”; Hibru: רעתיra-yā-t[10]) okwu ịhụnanya nke nwoke ji mee ihe ugboro itoolu n’akwụkwọ (Abụ 1:9, 15; 2:2, 10, 13; 4:1,7; 5:4) . [18] [11] Ụdị nwoke nke otu okwu mgbọrọgwụ ịkpọ nwoke ahụ ("enyi m [nwoke]"; Hibru: 12-רעי[( a na-eji ya eme ihe n'ụzọ yiri ya na "onye m hụrụ n'anya" (Hibru: Abụ 5: 16. * "Mkpọchi": "curls" ma ọ bụ "ntutu === Chorus: Ihe ịma aka iji tụnyere nwoke hụrụ n'anya (5:9) === "Ụmụ nwanyị Jerusalem" chọrọ ịmara ihe nwoke ahụ hụrụ n'anya dị ka ya.[4] === Nwanyị: uri na-akọwa nwoke (5:10-16) === Nwanyị ahụ na-akọwa onye hụrụ ya n'anya site na isi ruo na mkpịsị ụkwụ na wasf ma ọ bụ uri nkọwa, na-eji ihe oyiyi nke anụ ọhịa na osisi maka isi ya, mgbe ahụ ọla na nkume dị oké ọnụ ahịa maka akụkụ ahụ ya. [4] Nke a wasf na ndị ọzọ (4: 1-8; 6: 4-10; 7: 2-10a (7: 1-9a English)) nkà mmụta okpukpe na-egosipụta obi nke Abụ ahụ kpọrọ ahụ ahụ ka ọ bụghị ihe ọjọọ kama ọ dị mma ọbụna kwesịrị otuto, ma na-asọpụrụ ahụ site n'ilekwasị anya na ekele (kama ịrapara). [23] Hess na-ekwu na nke a na-egosipụta 'uru bụ isi nke ihe Chineke kere dị ka ihe dị mma na ahụ mmadụ dị ka akụkụ bụ isi nke ihe ahụ e kere eke, ma ọ̀ bụ ná mmalite (Jenesis 1:26-28) ma ọ bụ nke a gbapụtara ná mbilite n'ọnwụ (1 Ndị Kọrint 15:42, 44). ==== Amaokwu 16 ==== : ''Ọnụ ya na-atọ ụtọ: ee, ọ mara mma n'ụzọ zuru oke. Nke a bụ onye m hụrụ n'anya, nke a bụ enyi m, O ụmụ nwanyị Jerusalem.'' * Ụtọ”: na-ezo aka n’ihe ọṅụṅụ na Nehemaịa 8:10 (cf. Abụ 7:10). [25] * “Enyi m” (“enyi [nwoke] m”; Hibru-12]): bụ okwu ịhụnanya nke nwanyị na-eji maka nwoke ahụ nke a na-eji naanị ebe a n'akwụkwọ dum, [b] n'ihe owuwu yiri ya na “onye m hụrụ n'anya” [12]) 9 ugboro n'akwụkwọ (Abụ 1:9, 15; 2:2,10, 13; 4:1,7; 5:2; 6:4). [18][11] == Ntọala egwu == Nkebi ahịrịokwu Veniat dilectus meus na ederede dị iche iche dị ka antiphons dabere na ya ka edobere ya na egwu, dịka ọmụmaatụ na abụ Gregorian, yana ndị na-ede egwú gụnyere Alessandro Grandi na Pietro Torri. == Hụkwa == * [[Jerusalem]] * [[Lebanon|Lebanọn]] * Akụkụ [[Akwụkwọ Nsọ|Bible]] ndị metụtara ya: Abụ nke Abụ 4 == Ihe edeturu == . a. ↑ Ebe ọ bụ na 1947 ihe odide Aleppo Codex dị ugbu a na-efu Abụ nke Abụ 3:11, mgbe okwu ציון )“Zion” gasịrị, ruo ọgwụgwụ. ]6[ b. Ojiji ọzọ e ji rêïin na Bible Hibru dị na Job 31:9 (dị ka “onye agbata obi m”). == Ntụaka == 1. ↑ Holman Illustrated Bible Handbook. Ndị nkwusa Bible Holman, Nashville, Tennessee. 2012. 2. Ulrich, Eugene, ed. 3. ↑ Akwụkwọ mpịakọta osimiri nwụrụ anwụ - Abụ nke Abụ. 4. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). 5. CANTICUM CANTICORUM 5 na weebụsaịtị Vatican. 6. ↑ ​​Ikwọ Solomon 4:16b Bible Ikọmbakara 7. ↑ Gill, J., Ngosipụta nke Gill na Abụ nke Solomon 5, nwetara 14 Jenụarị 2023 8. ↑ Abụ 5:1 NKJV 9. ↑ Abụ 5:2 KJV 10. † 10 10.0 Akwukwo nke Akwukwo: 11.1 11.0 11.1 Akwụkwọ ikike siri ike: 7474. 12.1 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Nyocha ederede Hibru: Asomafo no Nnwuma 5:16 . 13. ↑ Rịba ama [b] na Abụ nke Sọlọmọn 5:2 na NKJV 14. ↑ Abụ 5:16 KJV 15. ↑ Veniat dilectus meus na hortum na gregorien.info 16. ↑ Alessandro Grandi: Celesti fiori Motetti na www.muziekweb.nl 17. ↑ RISM 455034494. 18.1 Veniat dilectus meus sitere na Mus.ms. 30299 na webụsaịtị ọba akwụkwọ Berlin.{{Reflist}} == Ebe e si nweta ya. == == Njikọ mpụga == * Nsụgharị [[Judaism|Ndị Juu]]: ** [https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16449 Shir Hashirim - Abụ nke Abụ - Isi nke 5 (Judaica Press)] nsụgharị [na nkọwa Rashi] na Chabad.org * Nsụgharị [[Efefe Kraịst|Ndị Kraịst]]: ** Bible Online na GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=26&chapter=5&version=9 Abụ Solomọn Isi nke 5 King James Version] * Abụ nke Solomon nke ọha na eze na Ụdị dị iche iche ktol975r60gmrpwmue3hmdfzsge24em Module:Lang 828 62710 687829 283407 2026-05-12T23:20:12Z Andrybak 14535 make_error_span, make_error_msg: use CSS variable `--color-error` to improve readability 687829 Scribunto text/plain --[=[ Lua support for the {{lang}}, {{langx}}, {{lang-??}}, and {{transliteration}} templates and replacement of various supporting templates. ]=] require('strict'); local getArgs = require ('Module:Arguments').getArgs; local unicode = require ("Module:Unicode data"); -- for is_Latin() and is_rtl() local yesno = require ('Module:Yesno'); local sandbox = (mw.getCurrentFrame():getTitle():match ('/sandbox') or ''); -- when called from a sandbox template or module load sandbox data and sandbox configuration local lang_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/data' .. sandbox); -- language name override and transliteration tool-tip tables local lang_name_table = lang_data.lang_name_table; -- language codes, names, regions, scripts, suppressed scripts local lang_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.lang; local lang_dep_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.lang_dep; local script_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.script; local region_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.region; local variant_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.variant; local suppressed_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.suppressed; local override_table = lang_data.override; local synonym_table = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/ISO 639 synonyms'); -- ISO 639-2/639-2T code translation to 639-1 code local cfg = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/configuration' .. sandbox); -- for internationalization local is_latn_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/data/is latn data'); local sizeof_ranges_t = is_latn_data.sizeof_ranges_t; local namespace = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().namespace; -- used for categorization local content_lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage(); local this_wiki_lang_tag = content_lang.code; -- get this wiki's language tag local this_wiki_lang_dir = content_lang:getDir(); -- get this wiki's language direction local initial_style_state; -- set by lang_xx_normal() and lang_xx_italic() local maint_cats = {}; -- maintenance categories go here local maint_msgs = {}; -- and their messages go here --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ S P A N >-------------------------------------------------- ]] local function make_error_span (template, msg) return table.concat ({'<span style="color:var(--color-error,#d33)">', cfg.misc_text_t.error, ': ', template, msg, '</span>'}) end --[[--------------------------< S U B S T I T U T E >---------------------------------------------------------- Substitutes $1, $2, etc in <message> with data from <data_t>. Returns plain-text substituted string when <data_t> not nil; returns <message> else. ]] local function substitute (message, data_t) return data_t and mw.message.newRawMessage (message, data_t):plain() or message; end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ M S G >-------------------------------------------------- Assembles an error message from template name, message text, help link, and error category. ]] local function make_error_msg (msg, args_t, template) local category; local text; -- handle the oddity that is {{langx}} if cfg.templates_t.langxx == template then text = args_t.text or args_t[1]; -- for {{lang-xx}} else text = args_t.text or args_t[2]; -- for {{lang}}, {{langx}}, and {{transliteration}} end if cfg.templates_t.transliteration == template then category = cfg.make_error_msg_t.xlit_err_cat; else category = cfg.make_error_msg_t.lang_err_cat; end local category_link = ((0 == namespace or 10 == namespace) and not args_t.nocat) and substitute ('[[Category:$1]]', {category}) or ''; return substitute ('[$1] <span style="color:var(--color-error,#d33)">$2: &#x7B;{$3}}: $4 ([[:Category:$5|$6]])</span>$7', -- &#x7B; prevents template name from being treated as a template call in certain situations { text or cfg.make_error_msg_t.undefined, cfg.misc_text_t.error, template, msg, category, cfg.misc_text_t.help, category_link }) end --[[--------------------------< P A R A M E T E R _ V A L I D A T E >------------------------------------------ ]] local function parameter_validate (args_t, template) local err_msg = cfg.parameter_validate_t.invalid_param; if cfg.templates_t.lang == template then -- for {{lang}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_lang_t[param] and -- unique {{lang}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end elseif cfg.templates_t.langx == template then -- for {{langx}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_langx_t[param] and -- unique {{langx}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.params_x_t[param] and -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end elseif cfg.templates_t.langxx == template then -- for {{lang-xx}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_lang_xx_t[param] and -- unique {{lang-xx}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.params_x_t[param] and -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end end end --[[--------------------------< I S _ S E T >------------------------------------------------------------------ Returns true if argument is set; false otherwise. Argument is 'set' when it exists (not nil) or when it is not an empty string. ]] local function is_set (var) return not (var == nil or var == ''); end --[[--------------------------< I N V E R T _ I T A L I C S >------------------------------------------------- This function attempts to invert the italic markup a args.text by adding/removing leading/trailing italic markup in args.text. Like |italic=unset, |italic=invert disables automatic italic markup. Individual leading/trailing apostrophes are converted to their HTML numeric entity equivalent so that the new italic markup doesn't become bold markup inadvertently. Leading and trailing wiki markup is extracted from args.text into separate table elements. Addition, removal, replacement of wiki markup is handled by a string.gsub() replacement table operating only on these separate elements. In the string.gsub() matching pattern, '.*' matches empty string as well as the three expected wiki markup patterns. This function expects that markup in args.text is complete and correct; if it is not, oddness may result. ]] local function invert_italics (source) local invert_pattern_table = { -- leading/trailing markup add/remove/replace patterns [""]="\'\'", -- empty string becomes italic markup ["\'\'"]="", -- italic markup becomes empty string ["\'\'\'"]="\'\'\'\'\'", -- bold becomes bold italic ["\'\'\'\'\'"]="\'\'\'", -- bold italic become bold }; local seg = {}; source = source:gsub ("%f[\']\'%f[^\']", '&#39;'); -- protect single quote marks from being interpreted as bold markup seg[1] = source:match ('^(\'\'+%f[^\']).+') or ''; -- get leading markup, if any; ignore single quote seg[3] = source:match ('.+(%f[\']\'\'+)$') or ''; -- get trailing markup, if any; ignore single quote if '' ~= seg[1] and '' ~= seg[3] then -- extract the 'text' seg[2] = source:match ('^\'\'+%f[^\'](.+)%f[\']\'\'+$') -- from between leading and trailing markup elseif '' ~= seg[1] then seg[2] = source:match ('^\'\'+%f[^\'](.+)') -- following leading markup elseif '' ~= seg[3] then seg[2] = source:match ('(.+)%f[\']\'\'+$') -- preceding trailing markup else seg[2] = source -- when there is no markup end seg[1] = invert_pattern_table[seg[1]] or seg[1]; -- replace leading markup according to pattern table seg[3] = invert_pattern_table[seg[3]] or seg[3]; -- replace leading markup according to pattern table return table.concat (seg); -- put it all back together and done end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C >------------------------------------------------ Validates |italic= or |italics= assigned values. When |italic= is set and has an acceptable assigned value, return the matching CSS font-style property value or, for the special case 'default', return nil. When |italic= is not set, or has an unacceptable assigned value, return nil and a nil error message. When both |italic= and |italics= are set, returns nil and a 'conflicting' error message. The return value nil causes the calling lang, lang_xx, or xlit function to set args.italic according to the template's defined default ('inherit' for {{lang}}, 'inherit' or 'italic' for {{lang-??}} depending on the individual template's requirements, 'italic' for {{transliteration}}) or to the value appropriate to |script=, if set ({{lang}} and {{lang-??}} only). Accepted values and the values that this function returns are are: nil - when |italic= absent or not set; returns nil default - for completeness, should rarely if ever be used; returns nil yes - force args.text to be rendered in italic font; returns 'italic' no - force args.text to be rendered in normal font; returns 'normal' unset - disables font control so that font-style applied to text is dictated by markup inside or outside the template; returns 'inherit' invert - disables font control so that font-style applied to text is dictated by markup outside or inverted inside the template; returns 'invert' ]] local function validate_italic (args) local properties = {[cfg.keywords_t.affirmative] = 'italic', [cfg.keywords_t.negative] = 'normal', [cfg.keywords_t.unset] = 'inherit', [cfg.keywords_t.invert] = 'invert', [cfg.keywords_t.default] = nil}; local count = 0 for _, arg in pairs {'italic', 'italics', 'i'} do if args[arg] then count = count + 1 end end if count > 1 then -- return nil and an error message if more than one is set return nil, cfg.validate_italic_t.multi_italic; end return properties[args.italic or args.italics or args.i], nil; -- return an appropriate value and a nil error message end --[=[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ C A T _ A R G S >---------------------------------------------------------- Default behavior of the {{lang}} and {{lang-??}} templates is to add categorization when the templates are used in main space. This default functionality may be suppressed by setting |nocat=yes or |cat=no. This function selects one of these two parameters to control categorization. Because having two parameters with 'opposite' names and 'opposite' values is confusing, this function accepts only affirmative values for |nocat= and only negative values for |cat=; in both cases the 'other' sense (and non-sense) is not accepted and the parameter is treated as if it were not set in the template. Sets args.nocat to true if categorization is to be turned off; to nil if the default behavior should apply. Accepted values for |nocat= are the text strings: 'yes', 'y', 'true', 't', on, '1' -- [[Module:Yesno]] returns logical true for all of these; false or nil else for |cat= 'no', 'n', 'false', 'f', 'off', '0' -- [[Module:Yesno]] returns logical false for all of these; true or nil else ]=] local function validate_cat_args (args) if not (args.nocat or args.cat) then -- both are nil, so categorize return; end if false == yesno (args.cat) or true == yesno (args.nocat) then args.nocat = true; -- set to true when args.nocat is affirmative; nil else (as if the parameter were not set in the template) else -- args.nocat is the parameter actually used. args.nocat = nil; end end --[[--------------------------< I N _ A R R A Y >-------------------------------------------------------------- Whether needle is in haystack. ]] local function in_array (needle, haystack) if needle == nil then return false; end for n,v in ipairs (haystack) do if v == needle then return n; end end return false; end --[[--------------------------< F O R M A T _ I E T F _ T A G >------------------------------------------------ Prettify IETF tags to use recommended subtag formats: code: lower case script: sentence case region: upper case variant: lower case private: lower case prefixed with -x- ]] local function format_ietf_tag (code, script, region, variant, private) local out = {}; if is_set (private) then return table.concat ({code:lower(), 'x', private:lower()}, '-'); -- if private, all other tags ignored end table.insert (out, code:lower()); if is_set (script) then script = script:lower():gsub ('^%a', string.upper); table.insert (out, script); end if is_set (region) then table.insert (out, region:upper()); end if is_set (variant) then table.insert (out, variant:lower()); end return table.concat (out, '-'); end --[[--------------------------< G E T _ I E T F _ P A R T S >-------------------------------------------------- Extracts and returns IETF language tag parts: primary language subtag (required) - 2 or 3 character IANA language code script subtag - four character IANA script code region subtag - two-letter or three digit IANA region code variant subtag - four digit or 5-8 alnum variant code; only one variant subtag supported private subtag - x- followed by 1-8 alnum private code; only supported with the primary language tag in any one of these forms lang lang-variant lang-script lang-script-variant lang-region lang-region-variant lang-script-region lang-script-region-variant lang-x-private each of lang, script, region, variant, and private, when used, must be valid. Languages with both two- and three-character code synonyms are promoted to the two-character synonym because the IANA registry file omits the synonymous three-character code; we cannot depend on browsers understanding the synonymous three-character codes in the lang= attribute. For {{lang-??}} templates, the parameters |script=, |region=, and |variant= are supported (not supported in {{lang}} because those parameters are superfluous to the IETF subtags in |code=). Returns six values; all lower case. Valid parts are returned as themselves; omitted parts are returned as empty strings, invalid parts are returned as nil; the sixth returned item is an error message (if an error detected) or nil. See http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/bcp/bcp47.txt section 2.1. ]] local function get_ietf_parts (source, args_script, args_region, args_variant) local code, script, region, variant, private; -- IETF tag parts if not is_set (source) then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.missing_lang_tag; end local pattern = { -- table of tables holding acceptable IETF tag patterns and short names of the IETF part captured by the pattern {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 1 - ll-Ssss-RR-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 2 - ll-Ssss-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 3 - ll-Ssss-RR-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 4 - ll-Ssss-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'v'}, -- 5 - ll-Ssss-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'v'}, -- 6 - ll-Ssss-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 7 - ll-RR-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 8 - ll-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 9 - ll-RR-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 10 - ll-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'v'}, -- 11 - ll-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'v'}, -- 12 - ll-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)$', 's', 'r'}, -- 13 - ll-Ssss-RR {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r'}, -- 14 - ll-Ssss-DDD (region is 3 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)$', 's'}, -- 15 - ll-Ssss {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)$', 'r'}, -- 16 - ll-RR {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)$', 'r'}, -- 17 - ll-DDD (region is 3 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)$'}, -- 18 - ll {'^(%a%a%a?)%-x%-(%w%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?)$', 'p'}, -- 19 - ll-x-pppppppp (private is 1-8 alnum characters) } local t = {}; -- table of captures; serves as a translator between captured IETF tag parts and named variables for i, v in ipairs (pattern) do -- spin through the pattern table looking for a match local c1, c2, c3, c4; -- captures in the 'pattern' from the pattern table go here c1, c2, c3, c4 = source:match (pattern[i][1]); -- one or more captures set if source matches pattern[i]) if c1 then -- c1 always set on match code = c1; -- first capture is always code t = { [pattern[i][2] or 'x'] = c2, -- fill the table of captures with the rest of the captures [pattern[i][3] or 'x'] = c3, -- take index names from pattern table and assign sequential captures [pattern[i][4] or 'x'] = c4, -- index name may be nil in pattern[i] table so "or 'x'" spoofs a name for this index in this table }; script = t.s or ''; -- translate table contents to named variables; region = t.r or ''; -- absent table entries are nil so set named IETF parts to empty string for concatenation variant= t.v or ''; private = t.p or ''; break; -- and done end end if not code then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_tag, {source}); -- don't know what we got but it is malformed end code = code:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not (override_table[code] or lang_table[code] or synonym_table[code] or lang_dep_table[code]) then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_code, {code}); -- invalid language code, don't know about the others (don't care?) end if synonym_table[code] then -- if 639-2/639-2T code has a 639-1 synonym table.insert (maint_cats, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.maint_promo_cat, {code})); table.insert (maint_msgs, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.maint_promo_msg, {code, synonym_table[code]})); code = synonym_table[code]; -- use the synonym end if is_set (script) then if is_set (args_script) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_scr; -- both code with script and |script= not allowed end else script = args_script or ''; -- use args.script if provided end if is_set (script) then script = script:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not script_table[script] then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_scr_code, {script, code}); -- language code OK, invalid script, don't know about the others (don't care?) end end if suppressed_table[script] then -- ensure that code-script does not use a suppressed script if in_array (code, suppressed_table[script]) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.script_code, {script, code}); -- language code OK, script is suppressed for this code end end if is_set (region) then if is_set (args_region) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_reg; -- both code with region and |region= not allowed end else region = args_region or ''; -- use args.region if provided end if is_set (region) then region = region:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not region_table[region] then return code, script, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_reg_code, {region, code}); end end if is_set (variant) then if is_set (args_variant) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_var; -- both code with variant and |variant= not allowed end else variant = args_variant or ''; -- use args.variant if provided end if is_set (variant) then variant = variant:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not variant_table[variant] then -- make sure variant is valid return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var, {variant}); end -- does this duplicate/replace tests in lang() and lang_xx()? if is_set (script) then -- if script set it must be part of the 'prefix' if not in_array (table.concat ({code, '-', script}), variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code_scr, {variant, code, script}); end elseif is_set (region) then -- if region set, there are some prefixes that require lang code and region (en-CA-newfound) if not in_array (code, variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then -- first see if lang code is all that's required (en-oxendict though en-GB-oxendict is preferred) if not in_array (table.concat ({code, '-', region}), variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then -- now try for lang code and region (en-CA-newfound) return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code_reg, {variant, code, region}); end end else -- cheap way to determine if there are prefixes; fonipa and others don't have prefixes; # operator always returns 0 if variant_table[variant]['prefixes'][1] and not in_array (code, variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code, {variant, code}); end end end if is_set (private) then private = private:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not override_table[table.concat ({code, '-x-', private})] then -- make sure private tag is valid; note that index return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_pri, {private}); end end return code, script, region, variant, private, nil; -- return the good bits; make sure that msg is nil end --[=[-------------------------< M A K E _ W I K I L I N K >---------------------------------------------------- Makes a wikilink; when both link and display text is provided, returns a wikilink in the form [[L|D]]; if only link is provided, returns a wikilink in the form [[L]]; if neither are provided or link is omitted, returns an empty string. ]=] local function make_wikilink (link, display) if is_set (link) then if is_set (display) then return table.concat ({'[[', link, '|', display, ']]'}); else return table.concat ({'[[', link, ']]'}); end else return ''; end end --[[--------------------------< D I V _ M A R K U P _ A D D >-------------------------------------------------- Adds <i> and </i> tags to list-item text or to implied <p>..</p> text. Mixed not supported. ]] local function div_markup_add (text, style) if text:find ('^\n[%*:;#]') then -- look for list markup; list markup must begin at start of text if 'italic' == style then return text:gsub ('(\n[%*:;#]+)([^\n]+)', '%1<i>%2</i>'); -- insert italic markup at each list item else return text; end end if text:find ('\n+') then -- look for any number of \n characters in text text = text:gsub ('([^\n])\n([^\n])', '%1 %2'); -- replace single newline characters with a space character which mimics MediaWiki if 'italic' == style then text = text:gsub('[^\n]+', '<p><i>%1</i></p>'); -- insert p and italic markup tags at each implied p (two or more consecutive '\n\n' sequences) else text = text:gsub ('[^\n]+', '<p>%1</p>'); -- insert p markup at each implied p text = text:gsub ('\n', ''); -- strip newline characters end end return text; end --[[--------------------------< T I T L E _ W R A P P E R _ M A K E >------------------------------------------ Makes a <span title="<title text>"><content_text></span> or <div title="<title text>"><content_text></div> where <title text> is in the tool-tip in the wiki's local language and <content_text> is non-local-language text in HTML markup. This because the lang= attribute applies to the content of its enclosing tag. <tag> holds a string 'div' or 'span' used to choose the correct wrapping tag. ]] local function title_wrapper_make (title_text, content_text, tag) local wrapper_t = {}; table.insert (wrapper_t, table.concat ({'<', tag})); -- open opening wrapper tag table.insert (wrapper_t, ' title=\"'); -- begin title attribute table.insert (wrapper_t, title_text); -- add <title_text> table.insert (wrapper_t, '\">'); -- end title attribute and close opening wrapper tag table.insert (wrapper_t, content_text); -- add <content_text> table.insert (wrapper_t, table.concat ({'</', tag, '>'})); -- add closing wrapper tag return table.concat (wrapper_t); -- make a big string and done end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T E X T _ H T M L >-------------------------------------------------- Add the HTML markup to text according to the type of content that it is: <span> or <i> tags for inline content or <div> tags for block content The lang= attribute also applies to the content of the tag where it is placed so this is wrong because 'Spanish language text' is English: <i lang="es" title="Spanish language text">casa</i> should be: <span title="Spanish language text"><i lang="es">casa</i></span> or for <div>...</div>: <div title="Spanish language text"><div lang="es"><spanish-language-text></div></div> ]] local function make_text_html (code, text, tag, rtl, style, size, language) local html_t = {}; local style_added = ''; local wrapper_tag = tag; -- <tag> gets modified so save a copy for use when/if we create a wrapper span or div if text:match ('^%*') then table.insert (html_t, '&#42;'); -- move proto language text prefix outside of italic markup if any; use numeric entity because plain splat confuses MediaWiki text = text:gsub ('^%*', ''); -- remove the splat from the text end if 'span' == tag then -- default HTML tag for inline content if 'italic' == style then -- but if italic tag = 'i'; -- change to <i> tags end else -- must be div so go text = div_markup_add (text, style); -- handle implied <p>, implied <p> with <i>, and list markup (*;:#) with <i> end table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({'<', tag})); -- open the <i>, <span>, or <div> HTML tag code = code:gsub ('%-x%-.*', ''); -- strip private use subtag from code tag because meaningless outside of Wikipedia table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' lang="', code, '\"'})); -- add language attribute if (rtl or unicode.is_rtl(text)) and ('ltr' == this_wiki_lang_dir) then -- text is right-to-left on a left-to-right wiki table.insert (html_t, ' dir="rtl"'); -- add direction attribute for right-to-left languages elseif not (rtl or unicode.is_rtl(text)) and ('rtl' == this_wiki_lang_dir) then -- text is left-to-right on a right-to-left wiki table.insert (html_t, ' dir="ltr"'); -- add direction attribute for left-to-right languages end if 'normal' == style then -- when |italic=no table.insert (html_t, ' style=\"font-style: normal;'); -- override external markup, if any style_added = '\"'; -- remember that style attribute added and is not yet closed end if is_set (size) then -- when |size=<something> if is_set (style_added) then table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' font-size: ', size, ';'})); -- add when style attribute already inserted else table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' style=\"font-size: ', size, ';'})); -- create style attribute style_added = '\"'; -- remember that style attribute added and is not yet closed end end table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({style_added, '>'})); -- close the opening HTML tag table.insert (html_t, text); -- insert the text table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({'</', tag, '>'})); -- close the 'text' <i>, <span>, or <div> HTML tag if is_set (language) then -- create a <title_text> string for the title= attribute in a wrapper span or div local title_text; if 'zxx' == code then -- special case for this tag 'no linguistic content' title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.zxx}); -- not a language so don't use 'language' in title text elseif mw.ustring.find (language, 'languages', 1, true) then title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.collective}); -- for collective languages else title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.individual}); -- for individual languages end return title_wrapper_make (title_text, table.concat (html_t), wrapper_tag); else return table.concat (html_t); end end --[=[-------------------------< M A K E _ C A T E G O R Y >---------------------------------------------------- For individual language, <language>, returns: [[Category:Articles containing <language>-language text]] For English: [[Category:Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text]] For ISO 639-2 collective languages (and for 639-1 bh): [[Category:Articles with text in <language> languages]] ]=] local function make_category (code, language_name, nocat, name_get) if ((0 ~= namespace) or nocat) and not name_get then -- only categorize in article space return ''; -- return empty string for concatenation end if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then return substitute ('[[$1 $2]]', {cfg.make_category_t.collective_cat, language_name}); end if this_wiki_lang_tag == code then return substitute ('[[$1 $2 $3-$4]]', { -- unique category name for the local language cfg.make_category_t.cat_prefix, cfg.make_category_t.explicit_cat, language_name, cfg.make_category_t.cat_postfix, }); else return substitute ('[[$1 $2-$3]]', { -- category for individual languages cfg.make_category_t.cat_prefix, language_name, cfg.make_category_t.cat_postfix, }); end end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T R A N S L I T >---------------------------------------------------- Return translit <i lang=xx-Latn>...</i> where xx is the language code; else return empty string. The value |script= is not used in {{transliteration}} for this purpose; instead it uses |code. Because language scripts are listed in the {{transliteration}} switches they are included in the data tables. The script parameter is introduced at {{Language with name and transliteration}}. If |script= is set, this function uses it in preference to code. To avoid confusion, in this module and the templates that use it, the transliteration script parameter is renamed to be |translit-script= (in this function, tscript). This function is used by both lang_xx() and xlit() lang_xx() always provides code, language_name, and translit; may provide tscript; never provides style xlit() always provides language_name, translit, and one of code or tscript, never both; always provides style For {{transliteration}}, style only applies when a language code is provided. ]] local function make_translit (code, language_name, translit, std, tscript, style, engvar) local title_t = lang_data.translit_title_table; -- table of transliteration standards and the language codes and scripts that apply to those standards local title_text = ''; -- tool tip text for title= attribute std = std and std:lower(); -- lower case for table indexing if not is_set (std) and not is_set (tscript) then -- when neither standard nor script specified title_text = language_name; -- write a generic tool tip if not mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then -- collective language names (plural 'languages' is part of the name) title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', {title_text, cfg.misc_text_t.language}); -- skip this text (individual and macro languages only) end title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {title_text, mw.ustring.lower (cfg.engvar_t[engvar]['romanisz_lc'])}); -- finish the tool tip; use romanization when neither script nor standard supplied elseif is_set (std) and is_set (tscript) then -- when both are specified if title_t[std] then -- and if standard is legitimate if title_t[std][tscript] then -- and if script for that standard is legitimate if script_table[tscript] then title_text = substitute ('$1$2 ($3 $4) $5', { -- add the appropriate text to the tool tip title_text, title_t[std][tscript:lower()], script_table[tscript], cfg.make_translit_t.script, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- use the default if script not in std table; TODO: maint cat? error message because script not found for this standard? end else title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- use the default if script not in std table; TODO: maint cat? error message because script not found for this standard? end else return ''; -- invalid standard, setup for error message end elseif is_set (std) then -- translit-script not set, use language code if not title_t[std] then return ''; end -- invalid standard, setup for error message if title_t[std][code] then -- if language code is in the table (xlit may not provide a language code) local fmt_str = '$1$2 ($3 $4) $5'; -- generic format string for tool tip if language_name:match ('languages') then fmt_str = '$1$2 ($3) $5'; -- format string for collective languages tool tip end title_text = substitute (fmt_str, { -- add the appropriate text to the tool tip title_text, title_t[std][code:lower()], language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else -- code doesn't match title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- so use the standard's default end else -- here if translit-script set but translit-std not set if title_t['no_std'][tscript] then title_text = title_text .. title_t['no_std'][tscript]; -- use translit-script if set elseif title_t['no_std'][code] then title_text = title_text .. title_t['no_std'][code]; -- use language code else if is_set (tscript) then title_text = substitute ('$1$2-$3 $4', { -- write a script tool tip title_text, language_name, cfg.make_translit_t.script, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); elseif is_set (code) then if not mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then -- collective language names (plural 'languages' is part of the name) title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', { -- skip this text (individual and macro languages only) title_text, cfg.misc_text_t.language, }); end title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', { -- finish the tool tip title_text, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', { -- generic tool tip (can we ever get here?) title_text, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); end end end local tag if is_set (code) then -- when a language code is provided (always with {{lang-??}} templates, not always with {{transliteration}}) code = code:match ('^(%a%a%a?)'); -- strip all subtags leaving only the language subtag if not style then -- nil for the default italic style tag = '<i lang="%s-Latn">%s</i>' else tag = '<span style="font-style: %s" lang="%s-Latn">%s</span>' -- non-standard style, construct a span tag for it tag = string.format(tag, style, "%s", "%s") end tag = string.format(tag, code, "%s") else tag = '<span>%s</span>' -- when no language code: no lang= attribute, not italic ({{transliteration}} only) end tag = string.format(tag, translit) -- add the translit text if '' == title_text then -- when there is no need for a tool-tip return tag; -- done else title_text = cfg.engvar_sel_t.gb == engvar and title_text:gsub ('([Rr]omani)z', '%1s') or title_text; -- gb eng when engvar specifies gb eng; us eng else return title_wrapper_make (title_text, tag, 'span'); -- wrap with a tool-tip span and done end end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ T E X T >---------------------------------------------------- This function checks the content of args.text and returns empty string if nothing is amiss else it returns an error message. The tests are for empty or missing text and for improper or disallowed use of apostrophe markup. Italic rendering is controlled by the |italic= template parameter so italic markup should never appear in args.text either as ''itself'' or as '''''bold italic''''' unless |italic=unset or |italic=invert. ]] local function validate_text (template, args) if not is_set (args.text) then return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.no_text, args, template); end if args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'\'\'%f[^\']") or args.text:find ("\'\'\'\'\'[\']+") then -- because we're looking, look for 4 appostrophes or 6+ appostrophes return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.malformed_markup, args, template); end local style = args.italic; if (cfg.keywords_t.unset ~= style) and (cfg.keywords_t.invert ~=style) then if args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'%f[^\']") or args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'\'\'\'%f[^\']") then -- italic but not bold, or bold italic return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.italic_markup, args, template); end end end --[[--------------------------< R E N D E R _ M A I N T >------------------------------------------------------ Render mainenance messages and categories. ]] local function render_maint (nocat) local maint = {}; if 0 < #maint_msgs then -- when there are maintenance messages table.insert (maint, table.concat ({'<span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">'})); -- opening <span> tag for _, msg in ipairs (maint_msgs) do table.insert (maint, table.concat ({msg, ' '})); -- add message strings end table.insert (maint, '</span>'); -- close the span end if (0 < #maint_cats) and (0 == namespace) and not nocat then -- when there are maintenance categories; article namespace only for _, cat in ipairs (maint_cats) do table.insert (maint, table.concat ({'[[Category:', cat, ']]'})); -- format and add the categories end end return table.concat (maint); end --[[--------------------------< P R O T O _ P R E F I X >------------------------------------------------------ For proto languages, text is prefixed with a splat. We do that here as a flag for make_text_html() so that a splat will be rendered outside of italic markup (if used). If the first character in text here is already a splat, we do nothing. proto_param is boolean or nil; true adds splat prefix regardless of language name; false removes and inhibits regardless of language name; nil does nothing; presumes that the value in text is correct but removes extra splac. ]] local function proto_prefix (text, language_name, proto_param) if false == proto_param then -- when forced by |proto=no return text:gsub ('^%**', ''); -- return text without splat prefix regardless of language name or existing splat prefix in text elseif (language_name:find ('^Proto%-') or (true == proto_param)) then -- language is a proto or forced by |proto=yes return text:gsub ('^%**', '*'); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat; also removes duplicate prefixing splats end return text:gsub ('^%*+', '*'); -- return text unmolested except multiple splats reduced to one splat end --[[--------------------------< H A S _ P O E M _ T A G >------------------------------------------------------ Looks for a poem strip marker in text; returns true when found; false else. Auto-italic detection disabled when text has poem stripmarker because it is not possible for this code to know the content that will replace the stripmarker. ]] local function has_poem_tag (text) return text:find ('\127[^\127]*UNIQ%-%-poem%-[%a%d]+%-QINU[^\127]*\127') and true or false; end --[[--------------------------< H T M L _ T A G _ S E L E C T >------------------------------------------------ Inspects content of and selectively trims text. Returns text and the name of an appropriate HTML tag for text. If text contains: \n\n text has implied <p>..</p> tags - trim leading and trailing whitespace and return If text begins with list markup: \n* unordered \n; definition \n: definition \n# ordered trim all leading whitespace except \n and trim all trailing whitespace If text contains <poem>...</poem> stripmarker, return text unmodified and choose <div>..</div> tags because the stripmarker is replaced with text wrapped in <div>..</div> tags. If the text contains any actual <div>...</div> tags, then it's again returned unmodified and <div>...</div> tags are used to wrap it, to prevent div/span inversion. ]] local function html_tag_select (text) local tag; if has_poem_tag (text) then -- contains poem stripmarker (we can't know the content of that) tag = 'div'; -- poem replacement is in div tags so lang must use div tags elseif text:find ('<div') then -- reductive; if the text contains a div tag, we must use div tags tag = 'div'; elseif mw.text.trim (text):find ('\n\n+') then -- contains implied p tags text = mw.text.trim (text); -- trim leading and trailing whitespace characters tag = 'div'; -- must be div because span may not contain p tags (added later by MediaWiki); poem replacement is in div tags elseif text:find ('\n[%*:;%#]') then -- if text has list markup text = text:gsub ('^[\t\r\f ]*', ''):gsub ('%s*$', ''); -- trim all whitespace except leading newline character '\n' tag = 'div'; -- must be div because span may not contain ul, dd, dl, ol tags (added later by MediaWiki) else text = mw.text.trim (text); -- plain text tag = 'span'; -- so span is fine end return text, tag; end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ P R O T O >-------------------------------------------------- Validates value assigned to |proto=; permitted values are yes and no; yes returns as true, no returns as false, empty string (or parameter omitted) returns as nil; any other value returns nil with <proto_param> as second return value for use in error message. ]] local function validate_proto (proto_param) if cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == proto_param then return true; elseif cfg.keywords_t.negative == proto_param then return false; elseif is_set (proto_param) then return nil, proto_param; -- |proto= something other than 'yes' or 'no' else return nil; -- missing or empty end end --[[--------------------------< L A N G U A G E _ N A M E _ G E T >-------------------------------------------- Common function to return language name from the data set according to IETF tag. Returns language name if found in data tables; nil else. ]] local function language_name_get (ietf, code, cat) ietf = ietf:lower(); -- ietf:lower() because format_ietf_tag() returns mixed case local name; -- remains nil if not found if override_table[ietf] then -- look for whole IETF tag in override table name = override_table[ietf]; elseif override_table[code] then -- not there so try basic language tag name = override_table[code]; elseif lang_table[code] then -- shift to IANA active tag/name table name = lang_table[code]; elseif lang_dep_table[code] then -- try the IANA deprecated tag/name table name = lang_dep_table[code]; end if lang_dep_table[code] and cat then -- because deprecated code may have been overridden to en.wiki preferred name table.insert (maint_cats, substitute (cfg.language_name_get_t.deprecated_cat, {code})); table.insert (maint_msgs, substitute (cfg.language_name_get_t.deprecated_msg, {code})); end return name; -- name from data tables or nil end --[[--------------------------< T E X T _ S C R I P T _ M A T C H _ T E S T >---------------------------------- IETF script subtag should match the script of the <text>. This module does not attempt to know all scripts and what they look like. It does know what Latn script looks like so when <text> is written using other than the Latn script, the IETF script subtag, if present, should not be Latn. Conversely, when <text> is written using the Latn script, the IETF script subtag, if present, should be Latn. For the purposes of this test, Latf (Fraktur) and Latg (Gaelic) are considered to be equivalent to Latn because unicode treats these two scripts as font-specific variants of Latn. Returns an error message when mismatch detected; nil else. ]] local function text_script_match_test (script, is_latn_text, pos, char) local scripts_t = {['latf'] = true, ['latg'] = true, ['latn'] = true}; -- unicode 'latn' scripts; 'latf' and 'latg' are font variants so there are no Fraktur or Gaelic codepoints if is_set (script) then -- don't bother with the rest of this if <script> is nil or empty string script = script:lower(); -- lower case to index into <scripts_t> if is_latn_text then -- when text is wholly Latn script if not scripts_t[script] then -- but a non-Latn script is specified return cfg.text_script_match_test_t.latn_txt_mismatch; -- emit an error message end else -- when text is not wholly Latn script if scripts_t[script] then -- but a Latn script is specified return substitute (cfg.text_script_match_test_t.latn_scr_mismatch, {pos, char}); -- emit an error message with position of first offending character end end end end --[[--------------------------< B I N A R Y _ S E A R C H >--------------------------------------------------- conducts a binary search of <ranges_t> for a sub-range that holds <target>. returns boolean true if a sub-range holding <target> is found; boolean false else. ]] local function binary_search (target, ranges_t) local idx_bot = 1; -- initialize to index of first key local idx_top = sizeof_ranges_t; -- initialize to index of last key (number of keys) if (target < ranges_t[idx_bot][1]) or (target > ranges_t[idx_top][2]) then -- invalid; target out of range return; -- abandon end local idx_mid; -- calculated index of range midway between top index and bottom index local flag = false; -- flag to tell us when we've evaluated last (highest) range in <ranges_t> while 1 do idx_mid = math.ceil ((idx_bot + idx_top) / 2); -- get the mid-point in the <ranges_t> sequence if (target >= ranges_t[idx_mid][1]) and (target <= ranges_t[idx_mid][2]) then -- indexed range low value <= target <= indexed range high value return true; -- we found the range that holds the <target> character; return true elseif (target > ranges_t[idx_mid][2]) then -- is <target> > indexed range high value? idx_bot = idx_mid; -- adjust <idx_bot> up else -- here when <target> less than indexed range low value idx_top = idx_mid - 1; -- adjust <idx_top> down end if flag then break; -- here when we just evaluated the last range and <target> not found end if not flag and (idx_bot == idx_top) then -- set true just before we evaluate the last (highest) range in <ranges_t> flag = true; end end end --[[--------------------------< I S _ L A T I N >-------------------------------------------------------------- compare <text> as codepoints to lists of known codepoints accepted as Latn script returns boolean true and modified <text> when <text> is wrapped in accept-as-written markup returns boolean true and <text> when codepoint is known returns boolean false, <text>, non-Latn codepoint position in <text> (left to right), and the codepoint character when codepoint is not known TODO: when text has accept-as-written markup, return a non-boolean value to indicate that <text> is not wholly latn script? Use that return value to create non-Latn HTML lang= attribute because <text> isn't really latn so lang=und (undetermined)? or instead, omit the -Latn subtag? (without -Latn need to force |italic=yes) ]] local function is_latin (text, tag) local count; text, count = text:gsub ('^%(%((.+)%)%)$', '%1'); -- remove accept-as-written markup if present if 0 ~= count then return true, text; -- markup present so assume that <text> is Latn-script end local pos = 0; -- position counter for error messaging for codepoint in mw.ustring.gcodepoint (text) do -- fetch each code point pos = pos + 1; -- bump the position counter if not is_latn_data.singles_t[codepoint] and -- codepoint not found in the singles list? not binary_search (codepoint, is_latn_data.ranges_t) and -- codepoint not a member of a listed range? not (tag and is_latn_data.specials_t[codepoint] and is_latn_data.specials_t[codepoint][tag]) then -- not a language-specific codepoint? return false, text, pos, mw.ustring.char (codepoint); -- codepoint not known; return false with codepoint position and character representation end end return true, text; -- is known; return <text> end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{lang}}. There should be no reason to set parameters in the {{lang}} {{#invoke:}} <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang}}</includeonly> Parameters are received from the template's frame (parent frame). ]] local function _lang (args) local out = {}; local language_name; -- used to make category names local category_name; -- same as language_name except that it retains any parenthetical disambiguators (if any) from the data set local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local code; -- the language code local msg; -- for error messages local tag = 'span'; -- initial value for make_text_html() local template = args.template or cfg.templates_t.lang; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; validate_cat_args (args); -- determine if categorization should be suppressed if args[1] and args.code then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {'1', cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.code}), args, template); else args.code = args[1] or args.code; -- prefer args.code end if args[2] and args.text then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {'2', cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.text}), args, template); else args.text = args[2] or args.text; -- prefer args.text end msg = validate_text (template, args); -- ensure that |text= is set if is_set (msg) then -- msg is an already-formatted error message return msg; end args.text, tag = html_tag_select (args.text); -- inspects text; returns appropriate HTML tag with text trimmed accordingly args.rtl = args.rtl == cfg.keywords_t.affirmative; -- convert to boolean: 'yes' -> true, other values -> false args.proto, msg = validate_proto (args.proto); -- return boolean, or nil, or nil and error message flag if msg then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.invalid_proto, {msg}), args, template); end code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (args.code); -- |script=, |region=, |variant= not supported because they should be part of args.code ({{{1}}} in {{lang}}) if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end local is_latn_text, pos, char; is_latn_text, args.text, pos, char= is_latin (args.text, code); -- make a boolean msg = text_script_match_test (subtags.script, is_latn_text, pos, char) if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if nil == args.italic then -- nil when |italic= absent or not set or |italic=default; args.italic controls if ('latn' == subtags.script) or -- script is latn (this_wiki_lang_tag ~= code and not is_set (subtags.script) and not has_poem_tag (args.text) and is_latn_text) then -- text not this wiki's language, no script specified and not in poem markup but is wholly latn script (auto-italics) args.italic = 'italic'; -- DEFAULT for {{lang}} templates is upright; but if latn script set for font-style:italic else args.italic = 'inherit'; -- italic not set; script not latn; inherit current style end end if is_set (subtags.script) then -- if script set, override rtl setting if in_array (subtags.script, lang_data.rtl_scripts) then args.rtl = true; -- script is an rtl script else args.rtl = false; -- script is not an rtl script end end args.code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles language_name = language_name_get (args.code, code, true); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant if cfg.keywords_t.invert == args.italic and 'span' == tag then -- invert only supported for in-line content args.text = invert_italics (args.text) end args.text = proto_prefix (args.text, language_name, args.proto); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat table.insert (out, make_text_html (args.code, args.text, tag, args.rtl, args.italic, args.size, language_name)); table.insert (out, make_category (code, language_name, args.nocat)); table.insert (out, render_maint (args.nocat)); -- maintenance messages and categories return table.concat (out); -- put it all together and done end --[[--------------------------< L A N G >---------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{lang}}. There should be no reason to set parameters in the {{lang}} {{#invoke:}} <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang}}</includeonly> Parameters are received from the template's frame (parent frame). ]] local function lang (frame) local args_t = getArgs (frame, { -- this code so that we can detect and handle wiki list markup in text valueFunc = function (key, value) if 2 == key or 'text' == key then -- the 'text' parameter; do not trim wite space return value; -- return untrimmed 'text' elseif value then -- all other values: if the value is not nil value = mw.text.trim (value); -- trim whitespace if '' ~= value then -- empty string when value was only whitespace return value; end end return nil; -- value was empty or contained only whitespace end -- end of valueFunc }); args_t.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args_t, cfg.templates_t.lang); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args_t, cfg.templates_t.lang); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end return _lang (args_t); end --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L A T I O N _ M A K E >---------------------------------------------- Stand-alone function to create literal translation of main text. Also used by {{lang-x2}}. ]] local function translation_make (args_t) local translation_t = {', '}; -- initialize output if 'none' ~= args_t.label then -- if we want a label table.insert (translation_t, '<small>'); -- open the <small> HTML tag if cfg.keywords_t.negative == args_t.link then table.insert (translation_t, substitute ('<abbr title="$1">$2</abbr>', {cfg.translation_make_t.lit_xlation, cfg.translation_make_t.lit_abbr})); -- unlinked form else table.insert (translation_t, make_wikilink (cfg.translation_make_t.lit_xlation, cfg.translation_make_t.lit_abbr)); -- linked form end table.insert (translation_t, "&thinsp;</small>"); -- close the <small> HTML tag end table.insert (translation_t, table.concat ({ -- user styling spans match spand from {{gloss}} '<span class="gloss-quot">\'</span>', -- user styling span for quote marks; use HTML entities to avoid wiki markup confusion '<span class="gloss-text">', -- open user styling span for the translation args_t.translation, -- the translation '</span>', -- close user styling span for the translation '<span class="gloss-quot">\'</span>' -- user styling span for quote marks })); return table.concat (translation_t); -- make a big string and done end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X >-------------------------------------------------------------- For the {{lang-??}} templates, the only parameter required to be set in the template is the language code. All other parameters can, usually should, be written in the template call. For {{lang-??}} templates for languages that can have multiple writing systems, it may be appropriate to set |script= as well. For each {{lang-??}} template choose the appropriate entry-point function so that this function knows the default styling that should be applied to text. For normal, upright style: <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang_xx_inherit|code=xx}}</includeonly> For italic style: <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang_xx_italic|code=xx}}</includeonly> All other parameters should be received from the template's frame (parent frame) Supported parameters are: |code = (required) the IANA language code |script = IANA script code; especially for use with languages that use multiple writing systems |region = IANA region code |variant = IANA variant code |text = (required) the displayed text in language specified by code |link = boolean false ('no') does not link code-spcified language name to associated language article |rtl = boolean true ('yes') identifies the language specified by code as a right-to-left language |nocat = boolean true ('yes') inhibits normal categorization; error categories are not affected |cat = boolian false ('no') opposite form of |nocat= |italic = boolean true ('yes') renders displayed text in italic font; boolean false ('no') renders displayed text in normal font; not set renders according to initial_style_state |lit = text that is a literal translation of text |label = 'none' to suppress all labeling (language name, 'translit.', 'lit.') any other text replaces language-name label - automatic wikilinking disabled for those {{lang-??}} templates that support transliteration (those templates where |text= is not entirely latn script): |translit = text that is a transliteration of text |translit-std = the standard that applies to the transliteration |translit-script = ISO 15924 script name; falls back to code For {{lang-??}}, the positional parameters are: {{{1}}} text {{{2}}} transliterated text {{{3}}} literal translation text no other positional parameters are allowed ]] local function _lang_xx (args, base_template) -- base_template will be either of 'langx' or 'lang-xx' local out = {}; local language_name; -- used to make display text, article links local category_name; -- same as language_name except that it retains any parenthetical disambiguators (if any) from the data set local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, and variant local code; -- the language code local translit_script_name; -- name associated with IANA (ISO 15924) script code local translit; local msg; -- for error messages local tag = 'span'; -- initial value for make_text_html() local template = args.template or base_template; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; local text_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 2 or 1; -- for {{langx}} 'text' positional parameter is '2' local translit_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 3 or 2; local xlate_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 4 or 3; if args[text_idx] and args.text then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {text_idx, cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.text}), args, template); else args.text = args[text_idx] or args.text; -- prefer positional 'text' parameter end msg = validate_text (template, args); -- ensure that |text= is set, does not contain italic markup and is protected from improper bolding if is_set (msg) then return msg; end args.text, tag = html_tag_select (args.text); -- inspects text; returns appropriate HTML tag with text trimmed accordingly if args[translit_idx] and args.translit then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {translit_idx, cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.translit}), args, template); else args.translit = args[translit_idx] or args.translit -- prefer positional 'translit' parameter end args.engvar = cfg.engvar_sel_t[args.engvar] or cfg.default_engvar; -- |engvar= when valid; cfg.default_engvar else if args[xlate_idx] and (args.translation or args.lit) then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_n_lit, {xlate_idx}), args, template); elseif args.translation and args.lit then return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_lit, args, template); else args.translation = args[xlate_idx] or args.translation or args.lit; -- prefer positional 'translation' parameter end if args.links and args.link then return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_link, args, template); else args.link = args.link or args.links; -- prefer args.link end validate_cat_args (args); -- determine if categorization should be suppressed args.rtl = args.rtl == cfg.keywords_t.affirmative; -- convert to boolean: 'yes' -> true, other values -> false code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (args.code, args.script, args.region, args.variant); -- private omitted because private if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if args.translit then local latn, pos, char; latn, args.translit, pos, char = is_latin (args.translit, (('' ~= subtags.private) and (code .. '-x-' .. subtags.private)) or code); if not latn then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.translit_nonlatn, {pos, char}), args, template); end end local is_latn_text, text, pos, char = is_latin (args.text, code); -- make a boolean args.text = text; -- may have been modified (accept-as-written markup removed) msg = text_script_match_test (subtags.script, is_latn_text, pos, char) if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template then -- auto-italics for {{langx}} templates; adapted from {{lang}} (no support for poem tag) if nil == args.italic then -- nil when |italic= absent or not set or |italic=default; args.italic controls if ('latn' == subtags.script) or -- script is latn (this_wiki_lang_tag ~= code and not is_set (subtags.script) and is_latn_text) then -- text is not this wiki's language, no script specified and is wholly latn script (auto-italics) args.italic = 'italic'; -- set font-style:italic else args.italic = 'inherit'; -- italic not set; script not latn; inherit current style end end else -- {{lang-xx}} does not do auto italics; retained for those wikis that don't support {{langx}} if nil == args.italic then -- args.italic controls if is_set (subtags.script) then if 'latn' == subtags.script then args.italic = 'italic'; -- |script=Latn; set for font-style:italic else args.italic = initial_style_state; -- italic not set; script is not latn; set for font-style:<initial_style_state> end else args.italic = initial_style_state; -- here when |italic= and |script= not set; set for font-style:<initial_style_state> end end end if is_set (subtags.script) then -- if script set override rtl setting if in_array (subtags.script, lang_data.rtl_scripts) then args.rtl = true; -- script is an rtl script else args.rtl = false; -- script is not an rtl script end end args.proto, msg = validate_proto (args.proto); -- return boolean, or nil, or nil and error message flag if msg then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.invalid_proto, {args.proto}), args, template); end args.code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles language_name = language_name_get (args.code, code, true); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant category_name = language_name; -- category names retain IANA parenthetical diambiguators (if any) language_name = language_name:gsub ('%s+%b()', ''); -- remove IANA parenthetical disambiguators or qualifiers from names that have them if args.label then if 'none' ~= args.label then table.insert (out, table.concat ({args.label, ': '})); -- custom label end else if cfg.keywords_t.negative == args.link then table.insert (out, language_name); -- language name without wikilink else if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then table.insert (out, make_wikilink (language_name)); -- collective language name uses simple wikilink elseif lang_data.article_name[args.code:lower()] then -- is IETF tag in article name over ride? table.insert (out, make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[args.code:lower()], language_name)); -- language name with wikilink from override data elseif lang_data.article_name[code] then -- is language tag in article override table.insert (out, make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[code], language_name)); -- language name with wikilink from override data else table.insert (out, make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language}), language_name)); -- language name with wikilink end end table.insert (out, ': '); -- separator end if cfg.keywords_t.invert == args.italic then args.text = invert_italics (args.text) end args.text = proto_prefix (args.text, language_name, args.proto); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat table.insert (out, make_text_html (args.code, args.text, tag, args.rtl, args.italic, args.size, ('none' == args.label) and language_name or nil)) if is_set (args.translit) and not is_latn_text then -- transliteration; not supported when args.text is wholly latn text (this is an imperfect test) table.insert (out, ', '); -- comma to separate text from translit if 'none' ~= args.label then table.insert (out, '<small>'); if script_table[args['translit-script']] then -- when |translit-script= is set, try to use the script's name translit_script_name = script_table[args['translit-script']]; else translit_script_name = language_name; -- fall back on language name end local translit_title_obj = mw.title.makeTitle (0, substitute ('$1 $2',{cfg.lang_xx_t.romanization, translit_script_name})); -- make a title object; no engvar, article titles use US spelling if translit_title_obj.exists and (cfg.keywords_t.negative ~= args.link) then table.insert (out, make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {cfg.lang_xx_t.romanization, translit_script_name or language_name}), substitute ('$1', {cfg.engvar_t[args.engvar]['romanisz_pt']})) .. ':'); -- make a wikilink if there is an article to link to; engvar the display text else table.insert (out, substitute ('$1:', {cfg.engvar_t[args.engvar]['romanisz_pt']})); -- else plain text per engvar end table.insert (out, '&nbsp;</small>'); -- close the small tag end translit = make_translit (args.code, language_name, args.translit, args['translit-std'], args['translit-script'], nil, args.engvar) if is_set (translit) then table.insert (out, translit); else return make_error_msg (substitute ('$1: $2', {cfg.lang_xx_t.invalid_xlit_std, args['translit-std'] or '[missing]'}), args, template); end elseif is_set (args.translit) and is_latn_text then -- when creating a transliteration of Latn script <text> return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.xlit_of_latn, args, template); -- emit error message and abandon end if is_set (args.translation) then -- translation (not supported in {{lang}}) table.insert (out, translation_make (args)); end table.insert (out, make_category (code, category_name, args.nocat)); table.insert (out, render_maint(args.nocat)); -- maintenance messages and categories return table.concat (out); -- put it all together and done end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ A R G S _ G E T >---------------------------------------------- Common function to get args table from {{lang-??}} templates. Returns table of args. Text positional parameters are not trimmed here but are selectively trimmed at html_tag_select(). ]] local function lang_xx_args_get (frame, base_template) local args_t = getArgs(frame, { parentFirst= true, -- parameters in the template override parameters set in the {{#invoke:}} valueFunc = function (key, value) if ((cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 2 or 1) == key then -- the 'text' positional parameter; 1 for {{lang-??}}, 2 for {{langx}}; do not trim wite space return value; -- return untrimmed 'text' positional parameter elseif value then -- all other values: if the value is not nil value = mw.text.trim (value); -- trim whitespace if '' ~= value then -- empty string when value was only whitespace return value; end end return nil; -- value was empty or contained only whitespace end -- end of valueFunc }); return args_t; end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ I T A L I C >-------------------------------------------------- Entry point for those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_italic(). Sets the initial style state to italic. ]] local function lang_xx_italic (frame) local args = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langxx); args.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang_xx_italic|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end initial_style_state = 'italic'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx) .. '[[Category:Pages using Lang-xx templates]]'; -- temporary category end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X _ I T A L I C >------------------------------------------------ Entry point from another module. Sets the initial style state to italic. ]] local function _lang_xx_italic (args) initial_style_state = 'italic'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ I N H E R I T >------------------------------------------------ Entry point for those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_inherit(). Sets the initial style state to inherit. ]] local function lang_xx_inherit (frame) local args = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langxx); args.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang_xx_inherit|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end initial_style_state = 'inherit'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx) .. '[[Category:Pages using Lang-xx templates]]'; -- temporary category end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X _ I N H E R I T >---------------------------------------------- Entry point from another module. Sets the initial style state to inherit. ]] local function _lang_xx_inherit (args) initial_style_state = 'inherit'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G X >------------------------------------------------------------------ Entry point from another module. ]] local function _langx (args_t) local langx_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/langx'); -- get necessary data local rtl_t = langx_data.rtl_t; -- get list of language tags for languages that are rendered right-to-left local link_t = langx_data.link_t; -- get list of language tags for {{lang-??}} templates that set |link=<something> local size_t = langx_data.size_t; -- get list of language tags for {{lang-??}} templates that set |size=<something> local msg = parameter_validate (args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end args_t.code = args_t[1] or args_t.code; -- get the language tag; must be {{{1}}} or |code= if not args_t.code then return make_error_msg (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.missing_lang_tag, args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end args_t.rtl = args_t.rtl or (rtl_t[args_t.code] and cfg.keywords_t.affirmative); -- prefer |rtl= in template call, use rtl_t else args_t.link = args_t.link or link_t[args_t.code]; -- prefer |link= in template call, use link_t felse args_t.size = args_t.size or size_t[args_t.code]; -- prefer |size= in template call, use size_t else args_t[1] = nil; -- unset to mimic {{lang-??}} templates which set |code=xx local lang_subtag = args_t.code; -- use only the base language subtag for unsupported tag test; some args_t.code are modified by |script= etc return _lang_xx (args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end --[[--------------------------< L A N G X >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{langx}}. this function calls _lang_xx() to render non-English text. The {{lang-??}} templates have three positional paramters but {{langx}} has four: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 {{lang-xx |<text> |<xlit> |<xlat> }} {{langx |<tag> |<text> |<xlit> |<xlat> }} The calls to lang_xx_args_get() and _lang_xx() use 'langx' as a flag for those functions to select the proper positional parameters. {{lang-??}} depends on the calling template to select 'inherit' or 'italic' to establish the default rendering. {{langx}} can't do that. The initial version of {{langx}} relied on a list of language tags (inherit_t in ~/langx) scraped from those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_inherit() to render text in upright font. langx() now uses auto-italics code adapted from {{lang}} (doesn't support poem tags). ]] local function langx (frame) local args_t = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langx); -- get the arguments; 'langx' is the <base_template> used to decide which positional param is 'text', 'translit', 'lit' return _langx (args_t); end --[[--------------------------< _ I S _ I E T F _ T A G >------------------------------------------------------ Returns true when a language name associated with IETF language tag exists; nil else. IETF language tag must be valid. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _is_ietf_tag (tag) -- entry point when this module is require()d into another local c, s, r, v, p, err; -- code, script, region, variant, private, error message c, s, r, v, p, err = get_ietf_parts (tag); -- disassemble tag into constituent part and validate return ((c and not err) and true) or nil; -- return true when code portion has a value without error message; nil else end --[[--------------------------< I S _ I E T F _ T A G >-------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function is_ietf_tag (frame) return _is_ietf_tag (getArgs (frame)[1]); -- args[1] is the IETF language tag to be tested; also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< I S _ I E T F _ T A G _ F R A M E >-------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}; same as is_ietf_tag() except does not get parameters from the parent (template) frame. This function not useful when called by {{lang|fn=is_ietf_tag_frame|<tag>}} because <tag> is in the parent frame. ]] local function is_ietf_tag_frame (frame) return _is_ietf_tag (getArgs (frame, {frameOnly = true,})[1]); -- args[1] is the IETF language tag to be tested; do not get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< _ N A M E _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------------- Returns language name associated with IETF language tag if valid; error message else. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Set invoke's |link= parameter to yes to get wikilinked version of the language name. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _name_from_tag (args) local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local raw_code = args[1]; -- save a copy of the input IETF subtag local link = cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == args['link']; -- make a boolean local label = args.label; local code; -- the language code local msg; -- gets an error message if IETF language tag is malformed or invalid local language_name = ''; code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (raw_code); if msg then local template = (args['template'] and table.concat ({'{{', args['template'], '}}: '})) or ''; -- make template name (if provided by the template) return make_error_span (template, msg); end raw_code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles; private omitted because private language_name = language_name_get (raw_code, code); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant if 'yes' ~= args.raw then language_name = language_name:gsub ('%s+%b()', ''); -- remove IANA parenthetical disambiguators or qualifiers from names that have them end if link then -- when |link=yes, wikilink the language name if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then language_name = make_wikilink (language_name, label); -- collective language name uses simple wikilink elseif lang_data.article_name[raw_code:lower()] then -- is IETF tag in article name override? language_name = make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[raw_code:lower()], label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink from override data elseif lang_data.article_name[code] then -- is language tag in article name override? language_name = make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[code], label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink from override data else language_name = make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language}), label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink end end return language_name; end --[[--------------------------< N A M E _ F R O M _ T A G >---------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function name_from_tag (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|name_from_tag|<IETF tag>|link=<yes>|template=<template name>}} return _name_from_tag (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< _ T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E >-------------------------------------------------- Returns the IETF language tag associated with the language name. Spelling of language name must be correct according to the spelling in the source tables. When a standard language name has a parenthetical disambiguator, that disambiguator must be omitted (they are not present in the data name-to-tag tables). Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _tag_from_name (args) -- entry point from another module local msg; if args[1] and '' ~= args[1] then local data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/tag from name'); -- get the reversed data tables TODO: change when going live local lang = args[1]:lower(); -- allow any-case for the language name (speeling must till be correct) local tag = data.rev_override_table[lang] or data.rev_lang_table[lang] or data.rev_lang_dep_table[lang]; -- get the code; look first in the override then in the standard if tag then return tag, true; -- language name found so return tag and done; second return used by is_lang_name() else msg = substitute (cfg.tag_from_name_t.lang_not_found, {args[1]}); -- language name not found, error message end else msg = cfg.tag_from_name_t.missing_lang_name; -- language name not found, error message end local template = ''; if args.template and '' ~= args.template then template = table.concat ({'{{', args['template'], '}}: '}); -- make template name (if provided by the template) end return make_error_span (template, msg); end --[[--------------------------< T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E >---------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function tag_from_name (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|tag_from_name|<language name>|link=<yes>|template=<template name>}} local result, _ = _tag_from_name (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame; supress second return used by is_lang_name() return result; end --[[--------------------------< I S _ L A N G _ N A M E >------------------------------------------------------ Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function is_lang_name (frame) local _, result = _tag_from_name (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame; supress second return used by tag_from_name() return result and true or nil; end --[[--------------------------< _ X L I T >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _xlit (args) local title_table = lang_data.translit_title_table; -- table of transliteration standards and the language codes and scripts that apply to those standards local language_name; -- language name that matches language code; used for tool tip local translit; -- transliterated text to display local script; -- IANA script local msg; -- for when called functions return an error message local template = args.template or cfg.templates_t.transliteration; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; if is_set (args[3]) then -- [3] set when {{transliteration|code|standard|text}} args.text = args[3]; -- get the transliterated text args.translit_std = args[2] and args[2]:lower(); -- get the standard; lower case for table indexing if not title_table[args.translit_std] then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_xlit_std, {args.translit_std}), args, template); end else if is_set (args[2]) then -- [2] set when {{transliteration|code|text}} args.text = args[2]; -- get the transliterated text else if args[1] and (args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%a?$') or -- args[2] missing; is args[1] a language or script tag or is it the transliterated text? args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%-x%-')) then -- or is args[1] a private-use tag return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.no_text, args, template); -- args[1] is a code so we're missing text else args.text = args[1]; -- args[1] is not a code so we're missing that; assign args.text for error message return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.missing_lang_scr, args, template); end end end if is_set (args[1]) then -- IANA language code used for HTML lang= attribute; or ISO 15924 script code if args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%a?$') or args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%-x%-') then -- args[1] has correct form? args.code = args[1]:lower(); -- use the language/script code; only (2, 3, or 4 alpha characters) or private-use; lower case because table indexes are lower case else return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_lang_scr, {args[1]}), args, template); -- invalid language / script code end else return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.missing_lang_scr, args, template); -- missing language / script code so quit end local is_latn_text, pos, char; is_latn_text, args.text, pos, char= is_latin (args.text, args.code); -- is latn text? strip accept-as-written markup if not is_latn_text then -- when text is not latn return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.translit_nonlatn, {pos, char}), args, template); -- abandon with error message end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if 'italic' == args.italic then -- 'italic' when |italic=yes; because that is same as absent or not set and |italic=default args.italic = nil; -- set to nil; end args.engvar = cfg.engvar_sel_t[args.engvar] or cfg.default_engvar; -- |engvar= when valid; cfg.default_engvar else if override_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the override table? language_name = override_table[args.code]; args.code = args.code:match ('^%a%a%a?'); -- if private use, strip all but language subtag elseif lang_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the standard language code tables? language_name = lang_table[args.code]; elseif lang_dep_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the deprecated language code tables? language_name = lang_dep_table[args.code]; elseif script_table[args.code] then -- if here, code is not a language code; is it a script code? language_name = script_table[args.code]; script = args.code; -- code was an ISO 15924 script so use that instead args.code = ''; -- unset because not a language code else return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_lang_scr, {args.code}), args, template); -- invalid language / script code end -- here only when all parameters passed to make_translit() are valid return make_translit (args.code, language_name, args.text, args.translit_std, script, args.italic, args.engvar); end --[[--------------------------< X L I T >---------------------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function xlit (frame) return _xlit (getArgs(frame)); end --[[--------------------------< C A T E G O R Y _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------- Returns category name associated with IETF language tag if valid; error message else. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _category_from_tag (args_t) local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local raw_code = args_t[1]; -- save a copy of the input IETF subtag local link = cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == args_t.link; -- make a boolean local label = args_t.label; local code; -- the language code local msg; -- gets an error message if IETF language tag is malformed or invalid local category_name = ''; code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (raw_code); if msg then local template = (args_t.template and table.concat ({'{{', args_t.template, '}}: '})) or ''; -- make template name (if provided by the template) return make_error_span (template, msg); end raw_code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles; private omitted because private category_name = language_name_get (raw_code, code); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant category_name = make_category (code, category_name, nil, true):gsub ('[%[%]]', ''); if link then return table.concat ({'[[:', category_name, ']]'}); else return category_name; end end --[[--------------------------< C A T E G O R Y _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function category_from_tag (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|category_from_tag|<IETF tag>|template=<template name>}} return _category_from_tag (getArgs (frame)); -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T E D F U N C T I O N S >------------------------------------------ ]] return { category_from_tag = category_from_tag, -- frame entry points when this module is #invoke:ed into templates/wikitext lang = lang, -- entry point for {{lang}} langx = langx, -- entry point for {{langx}} lang_xx_inherit = lang_xx_inherit, -- entry points for {{lang-??}} lang_xx_italic = lang_xx_italic, is_ietf_tag = is_ietf_tag, is_ietf_tag_frame = is_ietf_tag_frame, is_lang_name = is_lang_name, tag_from_name = tag_from_name, -- returns IETF tag associated with language name name_from_tag = name_from_tag, -- used for template documentation; possible use in ISO 639 name from code templates xlit = xlit, -- entry point for {{transliteration}} _category_from_tag = _category_from_tag, -- API entry points when this module is require()d into other modules _lang = _lang, _langx = _langx, _lang_xx_inherit = _lang_xx_inherit, _lang_xx_italic = _lang_xx_italic, _is_ietf_tag = _is_ietf_tag, get_ietf_parts = get_ietf_parts, _tag_from_name = _tag_from_name, _name_from_tag = _name_from_tag, _xlit = _xlit, _translation_make = translation_make, }; 4lchs3y6tbwcup48cwp3ayuhrxmusvw 687830 687829 2026-07-13T12:31:16Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang]] 687829 Scribunto text/plain --[=[ Lua support for the {{lang}}, {{langx}}, {{lang-??}}, and {{transliteration}} templates and replacement of various supporting templates. ]=] require('strict'); local getArgs = require ('Module:Arguments').getArgs; local unicode = require ("Module:Unicode data"); -- for is_Latin() and is_rtl() local yesno = require ('Module:Yesno'); local sandbox = (mw.getCurrentFrame():getTitle():match ('/sandbox') or ''); -- when called from a sandbox template or module load sandbox data and sandbox configuration local lang_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/data' .. sandbox); -- language name override and transliteration tool-tip tables local lang_name_table = lang_data.lang_name_table; -- language codes, names, regions, scripts, suppressed scripts local lang_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.lang; local lang_dep_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.lang_dep; local script_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.script; local region_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.region; local variant_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.variant; local suppressed_table = lang_data.lang_name_table.suppressed; local override_table = lang_data.override; local synonym_table = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/ISO 639 synonyms'); -- ISO 639-2/639-2T code translation to 639-1 code local cfg = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/configuration' .. sandbox); -- for internationalization local is_latn_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/data/is latn data'); local sizeof_ranges_t = is_latn_data.sizeof_ranges_t; local namespace = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().namespace; -- used for categorization local content_lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage(); local this_wiki_lang_tag = content_lang.code; -- get this wiki's language tag local this_wiki_lang_dir = content_lang:getDir(); -- get this wiki's language direction local initial_style_state; -- set by lang_xx_normal() and lang_xx_italic() local maint_cats = {}; -- maintenance categories go here local maint_msgs = {}; -- and their messages go here --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ S P A N >-------------------------------------------------- ]] local function make_error_span (template, msg) return table.concat ({'<span style="color:var(--color-error,#d33)">', cfg.misc_text_t.error, ': ', template, msg, '</span>'}) end --[[--------------------------< S U B S T I T U T E >---------------------------------------------------------- Substitutes $1, $2, etc in <message> with data from <data_t>. Returns plain-text substituted string when <data_t> not nil; returns <message> else. ]] local function substitute (message, data_t) return data_t and mw.message.newRawMessage (message, data_t):plain() or message; end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ M S G >-------------------------------------------------- Assembles an error message from template name, message text, help link, and error category. ]] local function make_error_msg (msg, args_t, template) local category; local text; -- handle the oddity that is {{langx}} if cfg.templates_t.langxx == template then text = args_t.text or args_t[1]; -- for {{lang-xx}} else text = args_t.text or args_t[2]; -- for {{lang}}, {{langx}}, and {{transliteration}} end if cfg.templates_t.transliteration == template then category = cfg.make_error_msg_t.xlit_err_cat; else category = cfg.make_error_msg_t.lang_err_cat; end local category_link = ((0 == namespace or 10 == namespace) and not args_t.nocat) and substitute ('[[Category:$1]]', {category}) or ''; return substitute ('[$1] <span style="color:var(--color-error,#d33)">$2: &#x7B;{$3}}: $4 ([[:Category:$5|$6]])</span>$7', -- &#x7B; prevents template name from being treated as a template call in certain situations { text or cfg.make_error_msg_t.undefined, cfg.misc_text_t.error, template, msg, category, cfg.misc_text_t.help, category_link }) end --[[--------------------------< P A R A M E T E R _ V A L I D A T E >------------------------------------------ ]] local function parameter_validate (args_t, template) local err_msg = cfg.parameter_validate_t.invalid_param; if cfg.templates_t.lang == template then -- for {{lang}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_lang_t[param] and -- unique {{lang}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end elseif cfg.templates_t.langx == template then -- for {{langx}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_langx_t[param] and -- unique {{langx}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.params_x_t[param] and -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end elseif cfg.templates_t.langxx == template then -- for {{lang-xx}} for param, _ in pairs (args_t) do if not cfg.known_params_t.params_lang_xx_t[param] and -- unique {{lang-xx}} parameters not cfg.known_params_t.params_x_t[param] and -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} not cfg.known_params_t.common_params_all_t[param] then -- common to all return substitute (err_msg, {param}); -- <param> not found so abandon end end end end --[[--------------------------< I S _ S E T >------------------------------------------------------------------ Returns true if argument is set; false otherwise. Argument is 'set' when it exists (not nil) or when it is not an empty string. ]] local function is_set (var) return not (var == nil or var == ''); end --[[--------------------------< I N V E R T _ I T A L I C S >------------------------------------------------- This function attempts to invert the italic markup a args.text by adding/removing leading/trailing italic markup in args.text. Like |italic=unset, |italic=invert disables automatic italic markup. Individual leading/trailing apostrophes are converted to their HTML numeric entity equivalent so that the new italic markup doesn't become bold markup inadvertently. Leading and trailing wiki markup is extracted from args.text into separate table elements. Addition, removal, replacement of wiki markup is handled by a string.gsub() replacement table operating only on these separate elements. In the string.gsub() matching pattern, '.*' matches empty string as well as the three expected wiki markup patterns. This function expects that markup in args.text is complete and correct; if it is not, oddness may result. ]] local function invert_italics (source) local invert_pattern_table = { -- leading/trailing markup add/remove/replace patterns [""]="\'\'", -- empty string becomes italic markup ["\'\'"]="", -- italic markup becomes empty string ["\'\'\'"]="\'\'\'\'\'", -- bold becomes bold italic ["\'\'\'\'\'"]="\'\'\'", -- bold italic become bold }; local seg = {}; source = source:gsub ("%f[\']\'%f[^\']", '&#39;'); -- protect single quote marks from being interpreted as bold markup seg[1] = source:match ('^(\'\'+%f[^\']).+') or ''; -- get leading markup, if any; ignore single quote seg[3] = source:match ('.+(%f[\']\'\'+)$') or ''; -- get trailing markup, if any; ignore single quote if '' ~= seg[1] and '' ~= seg[3] then -- extract the 'text' seg[2] = source:match ('^\'\'+%f[^\'](.+)%f[\']\'\'+$') -- from between leading and trailing markup elseif '' ~= seg[1] then seg[2] = source:match ('^\'\'+%f[^\'](.+)') -- following leading markup elseif '' ~= seg[3] then seg[2] = source:match ('(.+)%f[\']\'\'+$') -- preceding trailing markup else seg[2] = source -- when there is no markup end seg[1] = invert_pattern_table[seg[1]] or seg[1]; -- replace leading markup according to pattern table seg[3] = invert_pattern_table[seg[3]] or seg[3]; -- replace leading markup according to pattern table return table.concat (seg); -- put it all back together and done end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C >------------------------------------------------ Validates |italic= or |italics= assigned values. When |italic= is set and has an acceptable assigned value, return the matching CSS font-style property value or, for the special case 'default', return nil. When |italic= is not set, or has an unacceptable assigned value, return nil and a nil error message. When both |italic= and |italics= are set, returns nil and a 'conflicting' error message. The return value nil causes the calling lang, lang_xx, or xlit function to set args.italic according to the template's defined default ('inherit' for {{lang}}, 'inherit' or 'italic' for {{lang-??}} depending on the individual template's requirements, 'italic' for {{transliteration}}) or to the value appropriate to |script=, if set ({{lang}} and {{lang-??}} only). Accepted values and the values that this function returns are are: nil - when |italic= absent or not set; returns nil default - for completeness, should rarely if ever be used; returns nil yes - force args.text to be rendered in italic font; returns 'italic' no - force args.text to be rendered in normal font; returns 'normal' unset - disables font control so that font-style applied to text is dictated by markup inside or outside the template; returns 'inherit' invert - disables font control so that font-style applied to text is dictated by markup outside or inverted inside the template; returns 'invert' ]] local function validate_italic (args) local properties = {[cfg.keywords_t.affirmative] = 'italic', [cfg.keywords_t.negative] = 'normal', [cfg.keywords_t.unset] = 'inherit', [cfg.keywords_t.invert] = 'invert', [cfg.keywords_t.default] = nil}; local count = 0 for _, arg in pairs {'italic', 'italics', 'i'} do if args[arg] then count = count + 1 end end if count > 1 then -- return nil and an error message if more than one is set return nil, cfg.validate_italic_t.multi_italic; end return properties[args.italic or args.italics or args.i], nil; -- return an appropriate value and a nil error message end --[=[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ C A T _ A R G S >---------------------------------------------------------- Default behavior of the {{lang}} and {{lang-??}} templates is to add categorization when the templates are used in main space. This default functionality may be suppressed by setting |nocat=yes or |cat=no. This function selects one of these two parameters to control categorization. Because having two parameters with 'opposite' names and 'opposite' values is confusing, this function accepts only affirmative values for |nocat= and only negative values for |cat=; in both cases the 'other' sense (and non-sense) is not accepted and the parameter is treated as if it were not set in the template. Sets args.nocat to true if categorization is to be turned off; to nil if the default behavior should apply. Accepted values for |nocat= are the text strings: 'yes', 'y', 'true', 't', on, '1' -- [[Module:Yesno]] returns logical true for all of these; false or nil else for |cat= 'no', 'n', 'false', 'f', 'off', '0' -- [[Module:Yesno]] returns logical false for all of these; true or nil else ]=] local function validate_cat_args (args) if not (args.nocat or args.cat) then -- both are nil, so categorize return; end if false == yesno (args.cat) or true == yesno (args.nocat) then args.nocat = true; -- set to true when args.nocat is affirmative; nil else (as if the parameter were not set in the template) else -- args.nocat is the parameter actually used. args.nocat = nil; end end --[[--------------------------< I N _ A R R A Y >-------------------------------------------------------------- Whether needle is in haystack. ]] local function in_array (needle, haystack) if needle == nil then return false; end for n,v in ipairs (haystack) do if v == needle then return n; end end return false; end --[[--------------------------< F O R M A T _ I E T F _ T A G >------------------------------------------------ Prettify IETF tags to use recommended subtag formats: code: lower case script: sentence case region: upper case variant: lower case private: lower case prefixed with -x- ]] local function format_ietf_tag (code, script, region, variant, private) local out = {}; if is_set (private) then return table.concat ({code:lower(), 'x', private:lower()}, '-'); -- if private, all other tags ignored end table.insert (out, code:lower()); if is_set (script) then script = script:lower():gsub ('^%a', string.upper); table.insert (out, script); end if is_set (region) then table.insert (out, region:upper()); end if is_set (variant) then table.insert (out, variant:lower()); end return table.concat (out, '-'); end --[[--------------------------< G E T _ I E T F _ P A R T S >-------------------------------------------------- Extracts and returns IETF language tag parts: primary language subtag (required) - 2 or 3 character IANA language code script subtag - four character IANA script code region subtag - two-letter or three digit IANA region code variant subtag - four digit or 5-8 alnum variant code; only one variant subtag supported private subtag - x- followed by 1-8 alnum private code; only supported with the primary language tag in any one of these forms lang lang-variant lang-script lang-script-variant lang-region lang-region-variant lang-script-region lang-script-region-variant lang-x-private each of lang, script, region, variant, and private, when used, must be valid. Languages with both two- and three-character code synonyms are promoted to the two-character synonym because the IANA registry file omits the synonymous three-character code; we cannot depend on browsers understanding the synonymous three-character codes in the lang= attribute. For {{lang-??}} templates, the parameters |script=, |region=, and |variant= are supported (not supported in {{lang}} because those parameters are superfluous to the IETF subtags in |code=). Returns six values; all lower case. Valid parts are returned as themselves; omitted parts are returned as empty strings, invalid parts are returned as nil; the sixth returned item is an error message (if an error detected) or nil. See http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/bcp/bcp47.txt section 2.1. ]] local function get_ietf_parts (source, args_script, args_region, args_variant) local code, script, region, variant, private; -- IETF tag parts if not is_set (source) then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.missing_lang_tag; end local pattern = { -- table of tables holding acceptable IETF tag patterns and short names of the IETF part captured by the pattern {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 1 - ll-Ssss-RR-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 2 - ll-Ssss-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 3 - ll-Ssss-RR-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'r', 'v'}, -- 4 - ll-Ssss-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 's', 'v'}, -- 5 - ll-Ssss-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 's', 'v'}, -- 6 - ll-Ssss-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 7 - ll-RR-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 8 - ll-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 9 - ll-RR-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'r', 'v'}, -- 10 - ll-DDD-variant (where region is 3 digits; variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d%d)$', 'v'}, -- 11 - ll-variant (where variant is 4 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%w%w%w%w%w%w?%w?%w?)$', 'v'}, -- 12 - ll-variant (where variant is 5-8 alnum characters) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%a%a)$', 's', 'r'}, -- 13 - ll-Ssss-RR {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)%-(%d%d%d)$', 's', 'r'}, -- 14 - ll-Ssss-DDD (region is 3 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a%a%a)$', 's'}, -- 15 - ll-Ssss {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%a%a)$', 'r'}, -- 16 - ll-RR {'^(%a%a%a?)%-(%d%d%d)$', 'r'}, -- 17 - ll-DDD (region is 3 digits) {'^(%a%a%a?)$'}, -- 18 - ll {'^(%a%a%a?)%-x%-(%w%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?%w?)$', 'p'}, -- 19 - ll-x-pppppppp (private is 1-8 alnum characters) } local t = {}; -- table of captures; serves as a translator between captured IETF tag parts and named variables for i, v in ipairs (pattern) do -- spin through the pattern table looking for a match local c1, c2, c3, c4; -- captures in the 'pattern' from the pattern table go here c1, c2, c3, c4 = source:match (pattern[i][1]); -- one or more captures set if source matches pattern[i]) if c1 then -- c1 always set on match code = c1; -- first capture is always code t = { [pattern[i][2] or 'x'] = c2, -- fill the table of captures with the rest of the captures [pattern[i][3] or 'x'] = c3, -- take index names from pattern table and assign sequential captures [pattern[i][4] or 'x'] = c4, -- index name may be nil in pattern[i] table so "or 'x'" spoofs a name for this index in this table }; script = t.s or ''; -- translate table contents to named variables; region = t.r or ''; -- absent table entries are nil so set named IETF parts to empty string for concatenation variant= t.v or ''; private = t.p or ''; break; -- and done end end if not code then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_tag, {source}); -- don't know what we got but it is malformed end code = code:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not (override_table[code] or lang_table[code] or synonym_table[code] or lang_dep_table[code]) then return nil, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_code, {code}); -- invalid language code, don't know about the others (don't care?) end if synonym_table[code] then -- if 639-2/639-2T code has a 639-1 synonym table.insert (maint_cats, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.maint_promo_cat, {code})); table.insert (maint_msgs, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.maint_promo_msg, {code, synonym_table[code]})); code = synonym_table[code]; -- use the synonym end if is_set (script) then if is_set (args_script) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_scr; -- both code with script and |script= not allowed end else script = args_script or ''; -- use args.script if provided end if is_set (script) then script = script:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not script_table[script] then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_scr_code, {script, code}); -- language code OK, invalid script, don't know about the others (don't care?) end end if suppressed_table[script] then -- ensure that code-script does not use a suppressed script if in_array (code, suppressed_table[script]) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.script_code, {script, code}); -- language code OK, script is suppressed for this code end end if is_set (region) then if is_set (args_region) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_reg; -- both code with region and |region= not allowed end else region = args_region or ''; -- use args.region if provided end if is_set (region) then region = region:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not region_table[region] then return code, script, nil, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_reg_code, {region, code}); end end if is_set (variant) then if is_set (args_variant) then return code, nil, nil, nil, nil, cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.redundant_var; -- both code with variant and |variant= not allowed end else variant = args_variant or ''; -- use args.variant if provided end if is_set (variant) then variant = variant:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not variant_table[variant] then -- make sure variant is valid return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var, {variant}); end -- does this duplicate/replace tests in lang() and lang_xx()? if is_set (script) then -- if script set it must be part of the 'prefix' if not in_array (table.concat ({code, '-', script}), variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code_scr, {variant, code, script}); end elseif is_set (region) then -- if region set, there are some prefixes that require lang code and region (en-CA-newfound) if not in_array (code, variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then -- first see if lang code is all that's required (en-oxendict though en-GB-oxendict is preferred) if not in_array (table.concat ({code, '-', region}), variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then -- now try for lang code and region (en-CA-newfound) return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code_reg, {variant, code, region}); end end else -- cheap way to determine if there are prefixes; fonipa and others don't have prefixes; # operator always returns 0 if variant_table[variant]['prefixes'][1] and not in_array (code, variant_table[variant]['prefixes']) then return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_var_code, {variant, code}); end end end if is_set (private) then private = private:lower(); -- ensure that we use and return lower case version of this if not override_table[table.concat ({code, '-x-', private})] then -- make sure private tag is valid; note that index return code, script, region, nil, nil, substitute (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.unrecog_pri, {private}); end end return code, script, region, variant, private, nil; -- return the good bits; make sure that msg is nil end --[=[-------------------------< M A K E _ W I K I L I N K >---------------------------------------------------- Makes a wikilink; when both link and display text is provided, returns a wikilink in the form [[L|D]]; if only link is provided, returns a wikilink in the form [[L]]; if neither are provided or link is omitted, returns an empty string. ]=] local function make_wikilink (link, display) if is_set (link) then if is_set (display) then return table.concat ({'[[', link, '|', display, ']]'}); else return table.concat ({'[[', link, ']]'}); end else return ''; end end --[[--------------------------< D I V _ M A R K U P _ A D D >-------------------------------------------------- Adds <i> and </i> tags to list-item text or to implied <p>..</p> text. Mixed not supported. ]] local function div_markup_add (text, style) if text:find ('^\n[%*:;#]') then -- look for list markup; list markup must begin at start of text if 'italic' == style then return text:gsub ('(\n[%*:;#]+)([^\n]+)', '%1<i>%2</i>'); -- insert italic markup at each list item else return text; end end if text:find ('\n+') then -- look for any number of \n characters in text text = text:gsub ('([^\n])\n([^\n])', '%1 %2'); -- replace single newline characters with a space character which mimics MediaWiki if 'italic' == style then text = text:gsub('[^\n]+', '<p><i>%1</i></p>'); -- insert p and italic markup tags at each implied p (two or more consecutive '\n\n' sequences) else text = text:gsub ('[^\n]+', '<p>%1</p>'); -- insert p markup at each implied p text = text:gsub ('\n', ''); -- strip newline characters end end return text; end --[[--------------------------< T I T L E _ W R A P P E R _ M A K E >------------------------------------------ Makes a <span title="<title text>"><content_text></span> or <div title="<title text>"><content_text></div> where <title text> is in the tool-tip in the wiki's local language and <content_text> is non-local-language text in HTML markup. This because the lang= attribute applies to the content of its enclosing tag. <tag> holds a string 'div' or 'span' used to choose the correct wrapping tag. ]] local function title_wrapper_make (title_text, content_text, tag) local wrapper_t = {}; table.insert (wrapper_t, table.concat ({'<', tag})); -- open opening wrapper tag table.insert (wrapper_t, ' title=\"'); -- begin title attribute table.insert (wrapper_t, title_text); -- add <title_text> table.insert (wrapper_t, '\">'); -- end title attribute and close opening wrapper tag table.insert (wrapper_t, content_text); -- add <content_text> table.insert (wrapper_t, table.concat ({'</', tag, '>'})); -- add closing wrapper tag return table.concat (wrapper_t); -- make a big string and done end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T E X T _ H T M L >-------------------------------------------------- Add the HTML markup to text according to the type of content that it is: <span> or <i> tags for inline content or <div> tags for block content The lang= attribute also applies to the content of the tag where it is placed so this is wrong because 'Spanish language text' is English: <i lang="es" title="Spanish language text">casa</i> should be: <span title="Spanish language text"><i lang="es">casa</i></span> or for <div>...</div>: <div title="Spanish language text"><div lang="es"><spanish-language-text></div></div> ]] local function make_text_html (code, text, tag, rtl, style, size, language) local html_t = {}; local style_added = ''; local wrapper_tag = tag; -- <tag> gets modified so save a copy for use when/if we create a wrapper span or div if text:match ('^%*') then table.insert (html_t, '&#42;'); -- move proto language text prefix outside of italic markup if any; use numeric entity because plain splat confuses MediaWiki text = text:gsub ('^%*', ''); -- remove the splat from the text end if 'span' == tag then -- default HTML tag for inline content if 'italic' == style then -- but if italic tag = 'i'; -- change to <i> tags end else -- must be div so go text = div_markup_add (text, style); -- handle implied <p>, implied <p> with <i>, and list markup (*;:#) with <i> end table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({'<', tag})); -- open the <i>, <span>, or <div> HTML tag code = code:gsub ('%-x%-.*', ''); -- strip private use subtag from code tag because meaningless outside of Wikipedia table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' lang="', code, '\"'})); -- add language attribute if (rtl or unicode.is_rtl(text)) and ('ltr' == this_wiki_lang_dir) then -- text is right-to-left on a left-to-right wiki table.insert (html_t, ' dir="rtl"'); -- add direction attribute for right-to-left languages elseif not (rtl or unicode.is_rtl(text)) and ('rtl' == this_wiki_lang_dir) then -- text is left-to-right on a right-to-left wiki table.insert (html_t, ' dir="ltr"'); -- add direction attribute for left-to-right languages end if 'normal' == style then -- when |italic=no table.insert (html_t, ' style=\"font-style: normal;'); -- override external markup, if any style_added = '\"'; -- remember that style attribute added and is not yet closed end if is_set (size) then -- when |size=<something> if is_set (style_added) then table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' font-size: ', size, ';'})); -- add when style attribute already inserted else table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({' style=\"font-size: ', size, ';'})); -- create style attribute style_added = '\"'; -- remember that style attribute added and is not yet closed end end table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({style_added, '>'})); -- close the opening HTML tag table.insert (html_t, text); -- insert the text table.insert (html_t, table.concat ({'</', tag, '>'})); -- close the 'text' <i>, <span>, or <div> HTML tag if is_set (language) then -- create a <title_text> string for the title= attribute in a wrapper span or div local title_text; if 'zxx' == code then -- special case for this tag 'no linguistic content' title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.zxx}); -- not a language so don't use 'language' in title text elseif mw.ustring.find (language, 'languages', 1, true) then title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.collective}); -- for collective languages else title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', {language, cfg.make_text_html_t.individual}); -- for individual languages end return title_wrapper_make (title_text, table.concat (html_t), wrapper_tag); else return table.concat (html_t); end end --[=[-------------------------< M A K E _ C A T E G O R Y >---------------------------------------------------- For individual language, <language>, returns: [[Category:Articles containing <language>-language text]] For English: [[Category:Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text]] For ISO 639-2 collective languages (and for 639-1 bh): [[Category:Articles with text in <language> languages]] ]=] local function make_category (code, language_name, nocat, name_get) if ((0 ~= namespace) or nocat) and not name_get then -- only categorize in article space return ''; -- return empty string for concatenation end if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then return substitute ('[[$1 $2]]', {cfg.make_category_t.collective_cat, language_name}); end if this_wiki_lang_tag == code then return substitute ('[[$1 $2 $3-$4]]', { -- unique category name for the local language cfg.make_category_t.cat_prefix, cfg.make_category_t.explicit_cat, language_name, cfg.make_category_t.cat_postfix, }); else return substitute ('[[$1 $2-$3]]', { -- category for individual languages cfg.make_category_t.cat_prefix, language_name, cfg.make_category_t.cat_postfix, }); end end --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T R A N S L I T >---------------------------------------------------- Return translit <i lang=xx-Latn>...</i> where xx is the language code; else return empty string. The value |script= is not used in {{transliteration}} for this purpose; instead it uses |code. Because language scripts are listed in the {{transliteration}} switches they are included in the data tables. The script parameter is introduced at {{Language with name and transliteration}}. If |script= is set, this function uses it in preference to code. To avoid confusion, in this module and the templates that use it, the transliteration script parameter is renamed to be |translit-script= (in this function, tscript). This function is used by both lang_xx() and xlit() lang_xx() always provides code, language_name, and translit; may provide tscript; never provides style xlit() always provides language_name, translit, and one of code or tscript, never both; always provides style For {{transliteration}}, style only applies when a language code is provided. ]] local function make_translit (code, language_name, translit, std, tscript, style, engvar) local title_t = lang_data.translit_title_table; -- table of transliteration standards and the language codes and scripts that apply to those standards local title_text = ''; -- tool tip text for title= attribute std = std and std:lower(); -- lower case for table indexing if not is_set (std) and not is_set (tscript) then -- when neither standard nor script specified title_text = language_name; -- write a generic tool tip if not mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then -- collective language names (plural 'languages' is part of the name) title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', {title_text, cfg.misc_text_t.language}); -- skip this text (individual and macro languages only) end title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', {title_text, mw.ustring.lower (cfg.engvar_t[engvar]['romanisz_lc'])}); -- finish the tool tip; use romanization when neither script nor standard supplied elseif is_set (std) and is_set (tscript) then -- when both are specified if title_t[std] then -- and if standard is legitimate if title_t[std][tscript] then -- and if script for that standard is legitimate if script_table[tscript] then title_text = substitute ('$1$2 ($3 $4) $5', { -- add the appropriate text to the tool tip title_text, title_t[std][tscript:lower()], script_table[tscript], cfg.make_translit_t.script, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- use the default if script not in std table; TODO: maint cat? error message because script not found for this standard? end else title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- use the default if script not in std table; TODO: maint cat? error message because script not found for this standard? end else return ''; -- invalid standard, setup for error message end elseif is_set (std) then -- translit-script not set, use language code if not title_t[std] then return ''; end -- invalid standard, setup for error message if title_t[std][code] then -- if language code is in the table (xlit may not provide a language code) local fmt_str = '$1$2 ($3 $4) $5'; -- generic format string for tool tip if language_name:match ('languages') then fmt_str = '$1$2 ($3) $5'; -- format string for collective languages tool tip end title_text = substitute (fmt_str, { -- add the appropriate text to the tool tip title_text, title_t[std][code:lower()], language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else -- code doesn't match title_text = title_text .. title_t[std]['default']; -- so use the standard's default end else -- here if translit-script set but translit-std not set if title_t['no_std'][tscript] then title_text = title_text .. title_t['no_std'][tscript]; -- use translit-script if set elseif title_t['no_std'][code] then title_text = title_text .. title_t['no_std'][code]; -- use language code else if is_set (tscript) then title_text = substitute ('$1$2-$3 $4', { -- write a script tool tip title_text, language_name, cfg.make_translit_t.script, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); elseif is_set (code) then if not mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then -- collective language names (plural 'languages' is part of the name) title_text = substitute ('$1-$2', { -- skip this text (individual and macro languages only) title_text, cfg.misc_text_t.language, }); end title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', { -- finish the tool tip title_text, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); else title_text = substitute ('$1 $2', { -- generic tool tip (can we ever get here?) title_text, cfg.make_translit_t.transliteration, }); end end end local tag if is_set (code) then -- when a language code is provided (always with {{lang-??}} templates, not always with {{transliteration}}) code = code:match ('^(%a%a%a?)'); -- strip all subtags leaving only the language subtag if not style then -- nil for the default italic style tag = '<i lang="%s-Latn">%s</i>' else tag = '<span style="font-style: %s" lang="%s-Latn">%s</span>' -- non-standard style, construct a span tag for it tag = string.format(tag, style, "%s", "%s") end tag = string.format(tag, code, "%s") else tag = '<span>%s</span>' -- when no language code: no lang= attribute, not italic ({{transliteration}} only) end tag = string.format(tag, translit) -- add the translit text if '' == title_text then -- when there is no need for a tool-tip return tag; -- done else title_text = cfg.engvar_sel_t.gb == engvar and title_text:gsub ('([Rr]omani)z', '%1s') or title_text; -- gb eng when engvar specifies gb eng; us eng else return title_wrapper_make (title_text, tag, 'span'); -- wrap with a tool-tip span and done end end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ T E X T >---------------------------------------------------- This function checks the content of args.text and returns empty string if nothing is amiss else it returns an error message. The tests are for empty or missing text and for improper or disallowed use of apostrophe markup. Italic rendering is controlled by the |italic= template parameter so italic markup should never appear in args.text either as ''itself'' or as '''''bold italic''''' unless |italic=unset or |italic=invert. ]] local function validate_text (template, args) if not is_set (args.text) then return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.no_text, args, template); end if args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'\'\'%f[^\']") or args.text:find ("\'\'\'\'\'[\']+") then -- because we're looking, look for 4 appostrophes or 6+ appostrophes return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.malformed_markup, args, template); end local style = args.italic; if (cfg.keywords_t.unset ~= style) and (cfg.keywords_t.invert ~=style) then if args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'%f[^\']") or args.text:find ("%f[\']\'\'\'\'\'%f[^\']") then -- italic but not bold, or bold italic return make_error_msg (cfg.validate_text_t.italic_markup, args, template); end end end --[[--------------------------< R E N D E R _ M A I N T >------------------------------------------------------ Render mainenance messages and categories. ]] local function render_maint (nocat) local maint = {}; if 0 < #maint_msgs then -- when there are maintenance messages table.insert (maint, table.concat ({'<span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">'})); -- opening <span> tag for _, msg in ipairs (maint_msgs) do table.insert (maint, table.concat ({msg, ' '})); -- add message strings end table.insert (maint, '</span>'); -- close the span end if (0 < #maint_cats) and (0 == namespace) and not nocat then -- when there are maintenance categories; article namespace only for _, cat in ipairs (maint_cats) do table.insert (maint, table.concat ({'[[Category:', cat, ']]'})); -- format and add the categories end end return table.concat (maint); end --[[--------------------------< P R O T O _ P R E F I X >------------------------------------------------------ For proto languages, text is prefixed with a splat. We do that here as a flag for make_text_html() so that a splat will be rendered outside of italic markup (if used). If the first character in text here is already a splat, we do nothing. proto_param is boolean or nil; true adds splat prefix regardless of language name; false removes and inhibits regardless of language name; nil does nothing; presumes that the value in text is correct but removes extra splac. ]] local function proto_prefix (text, language_name, proto_param) if false == proto_param then -- when forced by |proto=no return text:gsub ('^%**', ''); -- return text without splat prefix regardless of language name or existing splat prefix in text elseif (language_name:find ('^Proto%-') or (true == proto_param)) then -- language is a proto or forced by |proto=yes return text:gsub ('^%**', '*'); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat; also removes duplicate prefixing splats end return text:gsub ('^%*+', '*'); -- return text unmolested except multiple splats reduced to one splat end --[[--------------------------< H A S _ P O E M _ T A G >------------------------------------------------------ Looks for a poem strip marker in text; returns true when found; false else. Auto-italic detection disabled when text has poem stripmarker because it is not possible for this code to know the content that will replace the stripmarker. ]] local function has_poem_tag (text) return text:find ('\127[^\127]*UNIQ%-%-poem%-[%a%d]+%-QINU[^\127]*\127') and true or false; end --[[--------------------------< H T M L _ T A G _ S E L E C T >------------------------------------------------ Inspects content of and selectively trims text. Returns text and the name of an appropriate HTML tag for text. If text contains: \n\n text has implied <p>..</p> tags - trim leading and trailing whitespace and return If text begins with list markup: \n* unordered \n; definition \n: definition \n# ordered trim all leading whitespace except \n and trim all trailing whitespace If text contains <poem>...</poem> stripmarker, return text unmodified and choose <div>..</div> tags because the stripmarker is replaced with text wrapped in <div>..</div> tags. If the text contains any actual <div>...</div> tags, then it's again returned unmodified and <div>...</div> tags are used to wrap it, to prevent div/span inversion. ]] local function html_tag_select (text) local tag; if has_poem_tag (text) then -- contains poem stripmarker (we can't know the content of that) tag = 'div'; -- poem replacement is in div tags so lang must use div tags elseif text:find ('<div') then -- reductive; if the text contains a div tag, we must use div tags tag = 'div'; elseif mw.text.trim (text):find ('\n\n+') then -- contains implied p tags text = mw.text.trim (text); -- trim leading and trailing whitespace characters tag = 'div'; -- must be div because span may not contain p tags (added later by MediaWiki); poem replacement is in div tags elseif text:find ('\n[%*:;%#]') then -- if text has list markup text = text:gsub ('^[\t\r\f ]*', ''):gsub ('%s*$', ''); -- trim all whitespace except leading newline character '\n' tag = 'div'; -- must be div because span may not contain ul, dd, dl, ol tags (added later by MediaWiki) else text = mw.text.trim (text); -- plain text tag = 'span'; -- so span is fine end return text, tag; end --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ P R O T O >-------------------------------------------------- Validates value assigned to |proto=; permitted values are yes and no; yes returns as true, no returns as false, empty string (or parameter omitted) returns as nil; any other value returns nil with <proto_param> as second return value for use in error message. ]] local function validate_proto (proto_param) if cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == proto_param then return true; elseif cfg.keywords_t.negative == proto_param then return false; elseif is_set (proto_param) then return nil, proto_param; -- |proto= something other than 'yes' or 'no' else return nil; -- missing or empty end end --[[--------------------------< L A N G U A G E _ N A M E _ G E T >-------------------------------------------- Common function to return language name from the data set according to IETF tag. Returns language name if found in data tables; nil else. ]] local function language_name_get (ietf, code, cat) ietf = ietf:lower(); -- ietf:lower() because format_ietf_tag() returns mixed case local name; -- remains nil if not found if override_table[ietf] then -- look for whole IETF tag in override table name = override_table[ietf]; elseif override_table[code] then -- not there so try basic language tag name = override_table[code]; elseif lang_table[code] then -- shift to IANA active tag/name table name = lang_table[code]; elseif lang_dep_table[code] then -- try the IANA deprecated tag/name table name = lang_dep_table[code]; end if lang_dep_table[code] and cat then -- because deprecated code may have been overridden to en.wiki preferred name table.insert (maint_cats, substitute (cfg.language_name_get_t.deprecated_cat, {code})); table.insert (maint_msgs, substitute (cfg.language_name_get_t.deprecated_msg, {code})); end return name; -- name from data tables or nil end --[[--------------------------< T E X T _ S C R I P T _ M A T C H _ T E S T >---------------------------------- IETF script subtag should match the script of the <text>. This module does not attempt to know all scripts and what they look like. It does know what Latn script looks like so when <text> is written using other than the Latn script, the IETF script subtag, if present, should not be Latn. Conversely, when <text> is written using the Latn script, the IETF script subtag, if present, should be Latn. For the purposes of this test, Latf (Fraktur) and Latg (Gaelic) are considered to be equivalent to Latn because unicode treats these two scripts as font-specific variants of Latn. Returns an error message when mismatch detected; nil else. ]] local function text_script_match_test (script, is_latn_text, pos, char) local scripts_t = {['latf'] = true, ['latg'] = true, ['latn'] = true}; -- unicode 'latn' scripts; 'latf' and 'latg' are font variants so there are no Fraktur or Gaelic codepoints if is_set (script) then -- don't bother with the rest of this if <script> is nil or empty string script = script:lower(); -- lower case to index into <scripts_t> if is_latn_text then -- when text is wholly Latn script if not scripts_t[script] then -- but a non-Latn script is specified return cfg.text_script_match_test_t.latn_txt_mismatch; -- emit an error message end else -- when text is not wholly Latn script if scripts_t[script] then -- but a Latn script is specified return substitute (cfg.text_script_match_test_t.latn_scr_mismatch, {pos, char}); -- emit an error message with position of first offending character end end end end --[[--------------------------< B I N A R Y _ S E A R C H >--------------------------------------------------- conducts a binary search of <ranges_t> for a sub-range that holds <target>. returns boolean true if a sub-range holding <target> is found; boolean false else. ]] local function binary_search (target, ranges_t) local idx_bot = 1; -- initialize to index of first key local idx_top = sizeof_ranges_t; -- initialize to index of last key (number of keys) if (target < ranges_t[idx_bot][1]) or (target > ranges_t[idx_top][2]) then -- invalid; target out of range return; -- abandon end local idx_mid; -- calculated index of range midway between top index and bottom index local flag = false; -- flag to tell us when we've evaluated last (highest) range in <ranges_t> while 1 do idx_mid = math.ceil ((idx_bot + idx_top) / 2); -- get the mid-point in the <ranges_t> sequence if (target >= ranges_t[idx_mid][1]) and (target <= ranges_t[idx_mid][2]) then -- indexed range low value <= target <= indexed range high value return true; -- we found the range that holds the <target> character; return true elseif (target > ranges_t[idx_mid][2]) then -- is <target> > indexed range high value? idx_bot = idx_mid; -- adjust <idx_bot> up else -- here when <target> less than indexed range low value idx_top = idx_mid - 1; -- adjust <idx_top> down end if flag then break; -- here when we just evaluated the last range and <target> not found end if not flag and (idx_bot == idx_top) then -- set true just before we evaluate the last (highest) range in <ranges_t> flag = true; end end end --[[--------------------------< I S _ L A T I N >-------------------------------------------------------------- compare <text> as codepoints to lists of known codepoints accepted as Latn script returns boolean true and modified <text> when <text> is wrapped in accept-as-written markup returns boolean true and <text> when codepoint is known returns boolean false, <text>, non-Latn codepoint position in <text> (left to right), and the codepoint character when codepoint is not known TODO: when text has accept-as-written markup, return a non-boolean value to indicate that <text> is not wholly latn script? Use that return value to create non-Latn HTML lang= attribute because <text> isn't really latn so lang=und (undetermined)? or instead, omit the -Latn subtag? (without -Latn need to force |italic=yes) ]] local function is_latin (text, tag) local count; text, count = text:gsub ('^%(%((.+)%)%)$', '%1'); -- remove accept-as-written markup if present if 0 ~= count then return true, text; -- markup present so assume that <text> is Latn-script end local pos = 0; -- position counter for error messaging for codepoint in mw.ustring.gcodepoint (text) do -- fetch each code point pos = pos + 1; -- bump the position counter if not is_latn_data.singles_t[codepoint] and -- codepoint not found in the singles list? not binary_search (codepoint, is_latn_data.ranges_t) and -- codepoint not a member of a listed range? not (tag and is_latn_data.specials_t[codepoint] and is_latn_data.specials_t[codepoint][tag]) then -- not a language-specific codepoint? return false, text, pos, mw.ustring.char (codepoint); -- codepoint not known; return false with codepoint position and character representation end end return true, text; -- is known; return <text> end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{lang}}. There should be no reason to set parameters in the {{lang}} {{#invoke:}} <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang}}</includeonly> Parameters are received from the template's frame (parent frame). ]] local function _lang (args) local out = {}; local language_name; -- used to make category names local category_name; -- same as language_name except that it retains any parenthetical disambiguators (if any) from the data set local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local code; -- the language code local msg; -- for error messages local tag = 'span'; -- initial value for make_text_html() local template = args.template or cfg.templates_t.lang; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; validate_cat_args (args); -- determine if categorization should be suppressed if args[1] and args.code then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {'1', cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.code}), args, template); else args.code = args[1] or args.code; -- prefer args.code end if args[2] and args.text then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {'2', cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.text}), args, template); else args.text = args[2] or args.text; -- prefer args.text end msg = validate_text (template, args); -- ensure that |text= is set if is_set (msg) then -- msg is an already-formatted error message return msg; end args.text, tag = html_tag_select (args.text); -- inspects text; returns appropriate HTML tag with text trimmed accordingly args.rtl = args.rtl == cfg.keywords_t.affirmative; -- convert to boolean: 'yes' -> true, other values -> false args.proto, msg = validate_proto (args.proto); -- return boolean, or nil, or nil and error message flag if msg then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.invalid_proto, {msg}), args, template); end code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (args.code); -- |script=, |region=, |variant= not supported because they should be part of args.code ({{{1}}} in {{lang}}) if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end local is_latn_text, pos, char; is_latn_text, args.text, pos, char= is_latin (args.text, code); -- make a boolean msg = text_script_match_test (subtags.script, is_latn_text, pos, char) if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if nil == args.italic then -- nil when |italic= absent or not set or |italic=default; args.italic controls if ('latn' == subtags.script) or -- script is latn (this_wiki_lang_tag ~= code and not is_set (subtags.script) and not has_poem_tag (args.text) and is_latn_text) then -- text not this wiki's language, no script specified and not in poem markup but is wholly latn script (auto-italics) args.italic = 'italic'; -- DEFAULT for {{lang}} templates is upright; but if latn script set for font-style:italic else args.italic = 'inherit'; -- italic not set; script not latn; inherit current style end end if is_set (subtags.script) then -- if script set, override rtl setting if in_array (subtags.script, lang_data.rtl_scripts) then args.rtl = true; -- script is an rtl script else args.rtl = false; -- script is not an rtl script end end args.code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles language_name = language_name_get (args.code, code, true); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant if cfg.keywords_t.invert == args.italic and 'span' == tag then -- invert only supported for in-line content args.text = invert_italics (args.text) end args.text = proto_prefix (args.text, language_name, args.proto); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat table.insert (out, make_text_html (args.code, args.text, tag, args.rtl, args.italic, args.size, language_name)); table.insert (out, make_category (code, language_name, args.nocat)); table.insert (out, render_maint (args.nocat)); -- maintenance messages and categories return table.concat (out); -- put it all together and done end --[[--------------------------< L A N G >---------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{lang}}. There should be no reason to set parameters in the {{lang}} {{#invoke:}} <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang}}</includeonly> Parameters are received from the template's frame (parent frame). ]] local function lang (frame) local args_t = getArgs (frame, { -- this code so that we can detect and handle wiki list markup in text valueFunc = function (key, value) if 2 == key or 'text' == key then -- the 'text' parameter; do not trim wite space return value; -- return untrimmed 'text' elseif value then -- all other values: if the value is not nil value = mw.text.trim (value); -- trim whitespace if '' ~= value then -- empty string when value was only whitespace return value; end end return nil; -- value was empty or contained only whitespace end -- end of valueFunc }); args_t.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args_t, cfg.templates_t.lang); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args_t, cfg.templates_t.lang); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end return _lang (args_t); end --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L A T I O N _ M A K E >---------------------------------------------- Stand-alone function to create literal translation of main text. Also used by {{lang-x2}}. ]] local function translation_make (args_t) local translation_t = {', '}; -- initialize output if 'none' ~= args_t.label then -- if we want a label table.insert (translation_t, '<small>'); -- open the <small> HTML tag if cfg.keywords_t.negative == args_t.link then table.insert (translation_t, substitute ('<abbr title="$1">$2</abbr>', {cfg.translation_make_t.lit_xlation, cfg.translation_make_t.lit_abbr})); -- unlinked form else table.insert (translation_t, make_wikilink (cfg.translation_make_t.lit_xlation, cfg.translation_make_t.lit_abbr)); -- linked form end table.insert (translation_t, "&thinsp;</small>"); -- close the <small> HTML tag end table.insert (translation_t, table.concat ({ -- user styling spans match spand from {{gloss}} '<span class="gloss-quot">\'</span>', -- user styling span for quote marks; use HTML entities to avoid wiki markup confusion '<span class="gloss-text">', -- open user styling span for the translation args_t.translation, -- the translation '</span>', -- close user styling span for the translation '<span class="gloss-quot">\'</span>' -- user styling span for quote marks })); return table.concat (translation_t); -- make a big string and done end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X >-------------------------------------------------------------- For the {{lang-??}} templates, the only parameter required to be set in the template is the language code. All other parameters can, usually should, be written in the template call. For {{lang-??}} templates for languages that can have multiple writing systems, it may be appropriate to set |script= as well. For each {{lang-??}} template choose the appropriate entry-point function so that this function knows the default styling that should be applied to text. For normal, upright style: <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang_xx_inherit|code=xx}}</includeonly> For italic style: <includeonly>{{#invoke:lang|lang_xx_italic|code=xx}}</includeonly> All other parameters should be received from the template's frame (parent frame) Supported parameters are: |code = (required) the IANA language code |script = IANA script code; especially for use with languages that use multiple writing systems |region = IANA region code |variant = IANA variant code |text = (required) the displayed text in language specified by code |link = boolean false ('no') does not link code-spcified language name to associated language article |rtl = boolean true ('yes') identifies the language specified by code as a right-to-left language |nocat = boolean true ('yes') inhibits normal categorization; error categories are not affected |cat = boolian false ('no') opposite form of |nocat= |italic = boolean true ('yes') renders displayed text in italic font; boolean false ('no') renders displayed text in normal font; not set renders according to initial_style_state |lit = text that is a literal translation of text |label = 'none' to suppress all labeling (language name, 'translit.', 'lit.') any other text replaces language-name label - automatic wikilinking disabled for those {{lang-??}} templates that support transliteration (those templates where |text= is not entirely latn script): |translit = text that is a transliteration of text |translit-std = the standard that applies to the transliteration |translit-script = ISO 15924 script name; falls back to code For {{lang-??}}, the positional parameters are: {{{1}}} text {{{2}}} transliterated text {{{3}}} literal translation text no other positional parameters are allowed ]] local function _lang_xx (args, base_template) -- base_template will be either of 'langx' or 'lang-xx' local out = {}; local language_name; -- used to make display text, article links local category_name; -- same as language_name except that it retains any parenthetical disambiguators (if any) from the data set local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, and variant local code; -- the language code local translit_script_name; -- name associated with IANA (ISO 15924) script code local translit; local msg; -- for error messages local tag = 'span'; -- initial value for make_text_html() local template = args.template or base_template; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; local text_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 2 or 1; -- for {{langx}} 'text' positional parameter is '2' local translit_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 3 or 2; local xlate_idx = (cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 4 or 3; if args[text_idx] and args.text then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {text_idx, cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.text}), args, template); else args.text = args[text_idx] or args.text; -- prefer positional 'text' parameter end msg = validate_text (template, args); -- ensure that |text= is set, does not contain italic markup and is protected from improper bolding if is_set (msg) then return msg; end args.text, tag = html_tag_select (args.text); -- inspects text; returns appropriate HTML tag with text trimmed accordingly if args[translit_idx] and args.translit then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param, {translit_idx, cfg.lang_t.conflict_n_param_types.translit}), args, template); else args.translit = args[translit_idx] or args.translit -- prefer positional 'translit' parameter end args.engvar = cfg.engvar_sel_t[args.engvar] or cfg.default_engvar; -- |engvar= when valid; cfg.default_engvar else if args[xlate_idx] and (args.translation or args.lit) then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_n_lit, {xlate_idx}), args, template); elseif args.translation and args.lit then return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_lit, args, template); else args.translation = args[xlate_idx] or args.translation or args.lit; -- prefer positional 'translation' parameter end if args.links and args.link then return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.conflict_link, args, template); else args.link = args.link or args.links; -- prefer args.link end validate_cat_args (args); -- determine if categorization should be suppressed args.rtl = args.rtl == cfg.keywords_t.affirmative; -- convert to boolean: 'yes' -> true, other values -> false code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (args.code, args.script, args.region, args.variant); -- private omitted because private if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if args.translit then local latn, pos, char; latn, args.translit, pos, char = is_latin (args.translit, (('' ~= subtags.private) and (code .. '-x-' .. subtags.private)) or code); if not latn then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.translit_nonlatn, {pos, char}), args, template); end end local is_latn_text, text, pos, char = is_latin (args.text, code); -- make a boolean args.text = text; -- may have been modified (accept-as-written markup removed) msg = text_script_match_test (subtags.script, is_latn_text, pos, char) if msg then -- if an error detected then there is an error message return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template then -- auto-italics for {{langx}} templates; adapted from {{lang}} (no support for poem tag) if nil == args.italic then -- nil when |italic= absent or not set or |italic=default; args.italic controls if ('latn' == subtags.script) or -- script is latn (this_wiki_lang_tag ~= code and not is_set (subtags.script) and is_latn_text) then -- text is not this wiki's language, no script specified and is wholly latn script (auto-italics) args.italic = 'italic'; -- set font-style:italic else args.italic = 'inherit'; -- italic not set; script not latn; inherit current style end end else -- {{lang-xx}} does not do auto italics; retained for those wikis that don't support {{langx}} if nil == args.italic then -- args.italic controls if is_set (subtags.script) then if 'latn' == subtags.script then args.italic = 'italic'; -- |script=Latn; set for font-style:italic else args.italic = initial_style_state; -- italic not set; script is not latn; set for font-style:<initial_style_state> end else args.italic = initial_style_state; -- here when |italic= and |script= not set; set for font-style:<initial_style_state> end end end if is_set (subtags.script) then -- if script set override rtl setting if in_array (subtags.script, lang_data.rtl_scripts) then args.rtl = true; -- script is an rtl script else args.rtl = false; -- script is not an rtl script end end args.proto, msg = validate_proto (args.proto); -- return boolean, or nil, or nil and error message flag if msg then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_t.invalid_proto, {args.proto}), args, template); end args.code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles language_name = language_name_get (args.code, code, true); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant category_name = language_name; -- category names retain IANA parenthetical diambiguators (if any) language_name = language_name:gsub ('%s+%b()', ''); -- remove IANA parenthetical disambiguators or qualifiers from names that have them if args.label then if 'none' ~= args.label then table.insert (out, table.concat ({args.label, ': '})); -- custom label end else if cfg.keywords_t.negative == args.link then table.insert (out, language_name); -- language name without wikilink else if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then table.insert (out, make_wikilink (language_name)); -- collective language name uses simple wikilink elseif lang_data.article_name[args.code:lower()] then -- is IETF tag in article name over ride? table.insert (out, make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[args.code:lower()], language_name)); -- language name with wikilink from override data elseif lang_data.article_name[code] then -- is language tag in article override table.insert (out, make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[code], language_name)); -- language name with wikilink from override data else table.insert (out, make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language}), language_name)); -- language name with wikilink end end table.insert (out, ': '); -- separator end if cfg.keywords_t.invert == args.italic then args.text = invert_italics (args.text) end args.text = proto_prefix (args.text, language_name, args.proto); -- prefix proto-language text with a splat table.insert (out, make_text_html (args.code, args.text, tag, args.rtl, args.italic, args.size, ('none' == args.label) and language_name or nil)) if is_set (args.translit) and not is_latn_text then -- transliteration; not supported when args.text is wholly latn text (this is an imperfect test) table.insert (out, ', '); -- comma to separate text from translit if 'none' ~= args.label then table.insert (out, '<small>'); if script_table[args['translit-script']] then -- when |translit-script= is set, try to use the script's name translit_script_name = script_table[args['translit-script']]; else translit_script_name = language_name; -- fall back on language name end local translit_title_obj = mw.title.makeTitle (0, substitute ('$1 $2',{cfg.lang_xx_t.romanization, translit_script_name})); -- make a title object; no engvar, article titles use US spelling if translit_title_obj.exists and (cfg.keywords_t.negative ~= args.link) then table.insert (out, make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {cfg.lang_xx_t.romanization, translit_script_name or language_name}), substitute ('$1', {cfg.engvar_t[args.engvar]['romanisz_pt']})) .. ':'); -- make a wikilink if there is an article to link to; engvar the display text else table.insert (out, substitute ('$1:', {cfg.engvar_t[args.engvar]['romanisz_pt']})); -- else plain text per engvar end table.insert (out, '&nbsp;</small>'); -- close the small tag end translit = make_translit (args.code, language_name, args.translit, args['translit-std'], args['translit-script'], nil, args.engvar) if is_set (translit) then table.insert (out, translit); else return make_error_msg (substitute ('$1: $2', {cfg.lang_xx_t.invalid_xlit_std, args['translit-std'] or '[missing]'}), args, template); end elseif is_set (args.translit) and is_latn_text then -- when creating a transliteration of Latn script <text> return make_error_msg (cfg.lang_xx_t.xlit_of_latn, args, template); -- emit error message and abandon end if is_set (args.translation) then -- translation (not supported in {{lang}}) table.insert (out, translation_make (args)); end table.insert (out, make_category (code, category_name, args.nocat)); table.insert (out, render_maint(args.nocat)); -- maintenance messages and categories return table.concat (out); -- put it all together and done end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ A R G S _ G E T >---------------------------------------------- Common function to get args table from {{lang-??}} templates. Returns table of args. Text positional parameters are not trimmed here but are selectively trimmed at html_tag_select(). ]] local function lang_xx_args_get (frame, base_template) local args_t = getArgs(frame, { parentFirst= true, -- parameters in the template override parameters set in the {{#invoke:}} valueFunc = function (key, value) if ((cfg.templates_t.langx == base_template) and 2 or 1) == key then -- the 'text' positional parameter; 1 for {{lang-??}}, 2 for {{langx}}; do not trim wite space return value; -- return untrimmed 'text' positional parameter elseif value then -- all other values: if the value is not nil value = mw.text.trim (value); -- trim whitespace if '' ~= value then -- empty string when value was only whitespace return value; end end return nil; -- value was empty or contained only whitespace end -- end of valueFunc }); return args_t; end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ I T A L I C >-------------------------------------------------- Entry point for those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_italic(). Sets the initial style state to italic. ]] local function lang_xx_italic (frame) local args = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langxx); args.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang_xx_italic|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end initial_style_state = 'italic'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx) .. '[[Category:Pages using Lang-xx templates]]'; -- temporary category end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X _ I T A L I C >------------------------------------------------ Entry point from another module. Sets the initial style state to italic. ]] local function _lang_xx_italic (args) initial_style_state = 'italic'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); end --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ I N H E R I T >------------------------------------------------ Entry point for those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_inherit(). Sets the initial style state to inherit. ]] local function lang_xx_inherit (frame) local args = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langxx); args.fn = nil; -- unset because not supported but this function might have been called by {{lang|fn=lang_xx_inherit|...}} local msg = parameter_validate (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- verify that all supplied parameters are supported by {{lang-??}} if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); -- when template has unsupported params, abandon with error message end initial_style_state = 'inherit'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx) .. '[[Category:Pages using Lang-xx templates]]'; -- temporary category end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G _ X X _ I N H E R I T >---------------------------------------------- Entry point from another module. Sets the initial style state to inherit. ]] local function _lang_xx_inherit (args) initial_style_state = 'inherit'; return _lang_xx (args, cfg.templates_t.langxx); end --[[--------------------------< _ L A N G X >------------------------------------------------------------------ Entry point from another module. ]] local function _langx (args_t) local langx_data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/langx'); -- get necessary data local rtl_t = langx_data.rtl_t; -- get list of language tags for languages that are rendered right-to-left local link_t = langx_data.link_t; -- get list of language tags for {{lang-??}} templates that set |link=<something> local size_t = langx_data.size_t; -- get list of language tags for {{lang-??}} templates that set |size=<something> local msg = parameter_validate (args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end args_t.code = args_t[1] or args_t.code; -- get the language tag; must be {{{1}}} or |code= if not args_t.code then return make_error_msg (cfg.get_ietf_parts_t.missing_lang_tag, args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end args_t.rtl = args_t.rtl or (rtl_t[args_t.code] and cfg.keywords_t.affirmative); -- prefer |rtl= in template call, use rtl_t else args_t.link = args_t.link or link_t[args_t.code]; -- prefer |link= in template call, use link_t felse args_t.size = args_t.size or size_t[args_t.code]; -- prefer |size= in template call, use size_t else args_t[1] = nil; -- unset to mimic {{lang-??}} templates which set |code=xx local lang_subtag = args_t.code; -- use only the base language subtag for unsupported tag test; some args_t.code are modified by |script= etc return _lang_xx (args_t, cfg.templates_t.langx); end --[[--------------------------< L A N G X >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Entry point for {{langx}}. this function calls _lang_xx() to render non-English text. The {{lang-??}} templates have three positional paramters but {{langx}} has four: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 {{lang-xx |<text> |<xlit> |<xlat> }} {{langx |<tag> |<text> |<xlit> |<xlat> }} The calls to lang_xx_args_get() and _lang_xx() use 'langx' as a flag for those functions to select the proper positional parameters. {{lang-??}} depends on the calling template to select 'inherit' or 'italic' to establish the default rendering. {{langx}} can't do that. The initial version of {{langx}} relied on a list of language tags (inherit_t in ~/langx) scraped from those {{lang-??}} templates that call lang_xx_inherit() to render text in upright font. langx() now uses auto-italics code adapted from {{lang}} (doesn't support poem tags). ]] local function langx (frame) local args_t = lang_xx_args_get (frame, cfg.templates_t.langx); -- get the arguments; 'langx' is the <base_template> used to decide which positional param is 'text', 'translit', 'lit' return _langx (args_t); end --[[--------------------------< _ I S _ I E T F _ T A G >------------------------------------------------------ Returns true when a language name associated with IETF language tag exists; nil else. IETF language tag must be valid. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _is_ietf_tag (tag) -- entry point when this module is require()d into another local c, s, r, v, p, err; -- code, script, region, variant, private, error message c, s, r, v, p, err = get_ietf_parts (tag); -- disassemble tag into constituent part and validate return ((c and not err) and true) or nil; -- return true when code portion has a value without error message; nil else end --[[--------------------------< I S _ I E T F _ T A G >-------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function is_ietf_tag (frame) return _is_ietf_tag (getArgs (frame)[1]); -- args[1] is the IETF language tag to be tested; also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< I S _ I E T F _ T A G _ F R A M E >-------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}; same as is_ietf_tag() except does not get parameters from the parent (template) frame. This function not useful when called by {{lang|fn=is_ietf_tag_frame|<tag>}} because <tag> is in the parent frame. ]] local function is_ietf_tag_frame (frame) return _is_ietf_tag (getArgs (frame, {frameOnly = true,})[1]); -- args[1] is the IETF language tag to be tested; do not get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< _ N A M E _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------------- Returns language name associated with IETF language tag if valid; error message else. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Set invoke's |link= parameter to yes to get wikilinked version of the language name. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _name_from_tag (args) local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local raw_code = args[1]; -- save a copy of the input IETF subtag local link = cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == args['link']; -- make a boolean local label = args.label; local code; -- the language code local msg; -- gets an error message if IETF language tag is malformed or invalid local language_name = ''; code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (raw_code); if msg then local template = (args['template'] and table.concat ({'{{', args['template'], '}}: '})) or ''; -- make template name (if provided by the template) return make_error_span (template, msg); end raw_code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles; private omitted because private language_name = language_name_get (raw_code, code); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant if 'yes' ~= args.raw then language_name = language_name:gsub ('%s+%b()', ''); -- remove IANA parenthetical disambiguators or qualifiers from names that have them end if link then -- when |link=yes, wikilink the language name if mw.ustring.find (language_name, 'languages', 1, true) then language_name = make_wikilink (language_name, label); -- collective language name uses simple wikilink elseif lang_data.article_name[raw_code:lower()] then -- is IETF tag in article name override? language_name = make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[raw_code:lower()], label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink from override data elseif lang_data.article_name[code] then -- is language tag in article name override? language_name = make_wikilink (lang_data.article_name[code], label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink from override data else language_name = make_wikilink (substitute ('$1 $2', {language_name, cfg.misc_text_t.language}), label or language_name); -- language name with wikilink end end return language_name; end --[[--------------------------< N A M E _ F R O M _ T A G >---------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function name_from_tag (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|name_from_tag|<IETF tag>|link=<yes>|template=<template name>}} return _name_from_tag (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< _ T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E >-------------------------------------------------- Returns the IETF language tag associated with the language name. Spelling of language name must be correct according to the spelling in the source tables. When a standard language name has a parenthetical disambiguator, that disambiguator must be omitted (they are not present in the data name-to-tag tables). Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _tag_from_name (args) -- entry point from another module local msg; if args[1] and '' ~= args[1] then local data = mw.loadData ('Module:Lang/tag from name'); -- get the reversed data tables TODO: change when going live local lang = args[1]:lower(); -- allow any-case for the language name (speeling must till be correct) local tag = data.rev_override_table[lang] or data.rev_lang_table[lang] or data.rev_lang_dep_table[lang]; -- get the code; look first in the override then in the standard if tag then return tag, true; -- language name found so return tag and done; second return used by is_lang_name() else msg = substitute (cfg.tag_from_name_t.lang_not_found, {args[1]}); -- language name not found, error message end else msg = cfg.tag_from_name_t.missing_lang_name; -- language name not found, error message end local template = ''; if args.template and '' ~= args.template then template = table.concat ({'{{', args['template'], '}}: '}); -- make template name (if provided by the template) end return make_error_span (template, msg); end --[[--------------------------< T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E >---------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function tag_from_name (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|tag_from_name|<language name>|link=<yes>|template=<template name>}} local result, _ = _tag_from_name (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame; supress second return used by is_lang_name() return result; end --[[--------------------------< I S _ L A N G _ N A M E >------------------------------------------------------ Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function is_lang_name (frame) local _, result = _tag_from_name (getArgs(frame)) -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame; supress second return used by tag_from_name() return result and true or nil; end --[[--------------------------< _ X L I T >-------------------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _xlit (args) local title_table = lang_data.translit_title_table; -- table of transliteration standards and the language codes and scripts that apply to those standards local language_name; -- language name that matches language code; used for tool tip local translit; -- transliterated text to display local script; -- IANA script local msg; -- for when called functions return an error message local template = args.template or cfg.templates_t.transliteration; maint_cats = {}; -- initialize because when this module required into another module, these only declared once so only initialzed once maint_msgs = {}; if is_set (args[3]) then -- [3] set when {{transliteration|code|standard|text}} args.text = args[3]; -- get the transliterated text args.translit_std = args[2] and args[2]:lower(); -- get the standard; lower case for table indexing if not title_table[args.translit_std] then return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_xlit_std, {args.translit_std}), args, template); end else if is_set (args[2]) then -- [2] set when {{transliteration|code|text}} args.text = args[2]; -- get the transliterated text else if args[1] and (args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%a?$') or -- args[2] missing; is args[1] a language or script tag or is it the transliterated text? args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%-x%-')) then -- or is args[1] a private-use tag return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.no_text, args, template); -- args[1] is a code so we're missing text else args.text = args[1]; -- args[1] is not a code so we're missing that; assign args.text for error message return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.missing_lang_scr, args, template); end end end if is_set (args[1]) then -- IANA language code used for HTML lang= attribute; or ISO 15924 script code if args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%a?$') or args[1]:match ('^%a%a%a?%-x%-') then -- args[1] has correct form? args.code = args[1]:lower(); -- use the language/script code; only (2, 3, or 4 alpha characters) or private-use; lower case because table indexes are lower case else return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_lang_scr, {args[1]}), args, template); -- invalid language / script code end else return make_error_msg (cfg.transl_t.missing_lang_scr, args, template); -- missing language / script code so quit end local is_latn_text, pos, char; is_latn_text, args.text, pos, char= is_latin (args.text, args.code); -- is latn text? strip accept-as-written markup if not is_latn_text then -- when text is not latn return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.lang_xx_t.translit_nonlatn, {pos, char}), args, template); -- abandon with error message end args.italic, msg = validate_italic (args); if msg then return make_error_msg (msg, args, template); end if 'italic' == args.italic then -- 'italic' when |italic=yes; because that is same as absent or not set and |italic=default args.italic = nil; -- set to nil; end args.engvar = cfg.engvar_sel_t[args.engvar] or cfg.default_engvar; -- |engvar= when valid; cfg.default_engvar else if override_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the override table? language_name = override_table[args.code]; args.code = args.code:match ('^%a%a%a?'); -- if private use, strip all but language subtag elseif lang_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the standard language code tables? language_name = lang_table[args.code]; elseif lang_dep_table[args.code] then -- is code a language code defined in the deprecated language code tables? language_name = lang_dep_table[args.code]; elseif script_table[args.code] then -- if here, code is not a language code; is it a script code? language_name = script_table[args.code]; script = args.code; -- code was an ISO 15924 script so use that instead args.code = ''; -- unset because not a language code else return make_error_msg (substitute (cfg.transl_t.unrecog_lang_scr, {args.code}), args, template); -- invalid language / script code end -- here only when all parameters passed to make_translit() are valid return make_translit (args.code, language_name, args.text, args.translit_std, script, args.italic, args.engvar); end --[[--------------------------< X L I T >---------------------------------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function xlit (frame) return _xlit (getArgs(frame)); end --[[--------------------------< C A T E G O R Y _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------- Returns category name associated with IETF language tag if valid; error message else. All code combinations supported by {{lang}} and the {{lang-??}} templates are supported by this function. Module entry point from another module. ]] local function _category_from_tag (args_t) local subtags = {}; -- IETF subtags script, region, variant, and private local raw_code = args_t[1]; -- save a copy of the input IETF subtag local link = cfg.keywords_t.affirmative == args_t.link; -- make a boolean local label = args_t.label; local code; -- the language code local msg; -- gets an error message if IETF language tag is malformed or invalid local category_name = ''; code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private, msg = get_ietf_parts (raw_code); if msg then local template = (args_t.template and table.concat ({'{{', args_t.template, '}}: '})) or ''; -- make template name (if provided by the template) return make_error_span (template, msg); end raw_code = format_ietf_tag (code, subtags.script, subtags.region, subtags.variant, subtags.private); -- format to recommended subtag styles; private omitted because private category_name = language_name_get (raw_code, code); -- get language name; try IETF tag first, then code w/o variant then code w/ variant category_name = make_category (code, category_name, nil, true):gsub ('[%[%]]', ''); if link then return table.concat ({'[[:', category_name, ']]'}); else return category_name; end end --[[--------------------------< C A T E G O R Y _ F R O M _ T A G >-------------------------------------------- Module entry point from an {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function category_from_tag (frame) -- entry point from an {{#invoke:lang|category_from_tag|<IETF tag>|template=<template name>}} return _category_from_tag (getArgs (frame)); -- pass-on the args table, nothing else; getArgs() so we also get parent frame end --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T E D F U N C T I O N S >------------------------------------------ ]] return { category_from_tag = category_from_tag, -- frame entry points when this module is #invoke:ed into templates/wikitext lang = lang, -- entry point for {{lang}} langx = langx, -- entry point for {{langx}} lang_xx_inherit = lang_xx_inherit, -- entry points for {{lang-??}} lang_xx_italic = lang_xx_italic, is_ietf_tag = is_ietf_tag, is_ietf_tag_frame = is_ietf_tag_frame, is_lang_name = is_lang_name, tag_from_name = tag_from_name, -- returns IETF tag associated with language name name_from_tag = name_from_tag, -- used for template documentation; possible use in ISO 639 name from code templates xlit = xlit, -- entry point for {{transliteration}} _category_from_tag = _category_from_tag, -- API entry points when this module is require()d into other modules _lang = _lang, _langx = _langx, _lang_xx_inherit = _lang_xx_inherit, _lang_xx_italic = _lang_xx_italic, _is_ietf_tag = _is_ietf_tag, get_ietf_parts = get_ietf_parts, _tag_from_name = _tag_from_name, _name_from_tag = _name_from_tag, _xlit = _xlit, _translation_make = translation_make, }; 4lchs3y6tbwcup48cwp3ayuhrxmusvw Module:Lang/data 828 62712 687831 439059 2026-05-03T21:40:57Z Trappist the monk 14640 +crb; 687831 Scribunto text/plain local lang_obj = mw.language.getContentLanguage(); local this_wiki_lang_tag = lang_obj.code; -- get this wiki's language tag --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ N A M E _ T A B L E >------------------------------------------------ primary table of tables that decode: lang -> language tags and names script -> ISO 15924 script tags region -> ISO 3166 region tags variant -> IANA registered variant tags suppressed -> map of scripts tags and their associated language tags all of these data come from separate modules that are derived from the IANA language-subtag-registry file key_to_lower() avoids the metatable trap and sets all keys in the subtables to lowercase. Many language codes have multiple associated names; Module:lang is only concerned with the first name so key_to_lower() only fetches the first name. ]] local function key_to_lower (module, src_type) local out = {}; local source_t = (('var_sup' == src_type) and require (module)) or mw.loadData (module); -- fetch data from this module; require() avoids metatable trap for variant data if 'var_sup' == src_type then for k, v in pairs (source_t) do out[k:lower()] = v; -- for variant and suppressed everything is needed end elseif 'lang' == src_type and source_t.active then -- for ~/iana_languages (active) for k, v in pairs (source_t.active) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end elseif 'lang_dep' == src_type and source_t.deprecated then -- for ~/iana_languages (deprecated) for k, v in pairs (source_t.deprecated) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end else -- here for all other sources for k, v in pairs (source_t) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end end return out; end local lang_name_table_t = { lang = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana languages', 'lang'), lang_dep = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana languages', 'lang_dep'), script = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana scripts'), -- script keys are capitalized; set to lower region = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana regions'), -- region keys are uppercase; set to lower variant = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana variants', 'var_sup'), suppressed = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana suppressed scripts', 'var_sup'), -- script keys are capitalized; set to lower } --[[--------------------------< I 1 8 N M E D I A W I K I O V E R R I D E >-------------------------------- For internationalization; not used at en.wiki The language names taken from the IANA language-subtag-registry file are given in English. That may not be ideal. Translating ~8,000 language names is also not ideal. MediaWiki maintains (much) shorter lists of language names in most languages for which there is a Wikipedia edition. When desired, Module:Lang can use the MediaWiki language list for the local language. Caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be complete or may not exist at all. When incomplete, MediaWiki's list will 'fall back' to another language (typically English). When that happens add an appropriate entry to the override table below. Caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be correct. At en.wiki, the MediaWiki language names do not agree with the IANA language names for these ISO 639-1 tags. Often it is simply spelling differences: bh: IANA: Bihari languages MW: Bhojpuri – the ISO 639-3 tag for Bhojpuri is bho bn: IANA: Bengali MW: Bangla – Bengali is the exonym, Bangla is the endonym dv: IANA: Dhivehi MW: Divehi el: IANA: Modern Greek MW: Greek ht: IANA: Haitian MW: Haitian Creole ky: IANA: Kirghiz MW: Kyrgyz li: IANA: Limburgan MW: Limburgish or: IANA: Oriya MW: Odia os: IANA: Ossetian MW: Ossetic "pa: IANA: Panjabi MW: Punjabi "ps: IANA: Pushto MW: Pashto "to: IANA: Tonga MW: Tongan "ug: IANA: Uighur MW: Uyghur use the override table to override language names that are incorrect for your project To see the list of names that MediaWiki has for your language, enter this in the Debug console: =mw.dumpObject (mw.language.fetchLanguageNames ('<tag>', 'all')) (replacing <tag> with the language tag for your language) Use of the MediaWiki language names lists is enabled when media_wiki_override_enable is set to boolean true. ]] local media_wiki_override_enable = false; -- set to true to override IANA names with MediaWiki names; always false at en.wiki -- caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be complete or may not exist at all if true == media_wiki_override_enable then local mw_languages_by_tag_t = mw.language.fetchLanguageNames (this_wiki_lang_tag, 'all'); -- get a table of language tag/name pairs known to MediaWiki for tag, name in pairs (mw_languages_by_tag_t) do -- loop through each tag/name pair in the MediaWiki list if lang_name_table_t.lang[tag] then -- if the tag is in the main list lang_name_table_t.lang[tag] = name; -- overwrite existing name with the name from MediaWiki end end end --[[--------------------------< O V E R R I D E >-------------------------------------------------------------- Language codes and names in this table override the BCP47 names in lang_name_table. indexes in this table shall always be lower case ]] local override = { ------------------------------< I S O _ 6 3 9 - 1 >------------------------------------------------------------ ["ab"] = "Abkhaz", -- to match en.wiki article name ["ca-valencia"] = "Valencian", ["cu"] = "Church Slavonic", -- 2nd IANA name; ["de-at"] = "Austrian German", -- these code-region and code-variant tags to match en.wiki article names ["de-ch"] = "Swiss Standard German", ["en-au"] = "Australian English", ["en-ca"] = "Canadian English", ["en-emodeng"] = "Early Modern English", ["en-gb"] = "British English", ["en-ie"] = "Irish English", ["en-in"] = "Indian English", ["en-nz"] = "New Zealand English", ["en-us"] = "American English", ["en-za"] = "South African English", ["fr-ca"] = "Canadian French", ["fr-gallo"] = "Gallo", ["fy"] = "West Frisian", -- Western Frisian ["mo"] = "Moldovan", -- Moldavian (deprecated code); to match en.wiki article title ["nl-be"] = "Flemish", -- match MediaWiki ["oc-gascon"] = "Gascon", ["oc-provenc"] = "Provençal", ["ps"] = "Pashto", -- Pushto ["pt-br"] = "Brazilian Portuguese", -- match MediaWiki ["ro-md"] = "Moldovan", -- 'not deprecated' form ["ro-cyrl-md"] = "Moldovan", -- 'not deprecated' form ["tw-asante"] = "Asante Twi", ["ug"] = "Uyghur", -- 2nd IANA name; to match en.wiki article name -- these ISO 639-1 language-name overrides imported from Module:Language/data/wp_languages (since deleted) --<begin do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ["av"] = "Avar", -- Avaric ["bo"] = "Standard Tibetan", -- Tibetan ["el"] = "Greek", -- Modern Greek -- ["en-SA"] = "South African English", -- English; no; SA is not South Africa it Saudi Arabia; ZA is South Africa ["ff"] = "Fula", -- Fulah ["ht"] = "Haitian Creole", -- Haitian ["hz"] = "Otjiherero", -- Herero ["ii"] = "Yi", -- Sichuan Yi ["ki"] = "Gikuyu", -- Kikuyu ["kl"] = "Greenlandic", -- Kalaallisut ["ky"] = "Kyrgyz", -- Kirghiz ["lg"] = "Luganda", -- Ganda ["li"] = "Limburgish", -- Limburgan ["mi"] = "Māori", -- Maori ["na"] = "Nauruan", -- Nauru ["nb"] = "Bokmål", -- Norwegian Bokmål ["nd"] = "Northern Ndebele", -- North Ndebele ["nn"] = "Nynorsk", -- Norwegian Nynorsk ["nr"] = "Southern Ndebele", -- South Ndebele ["ny"] = "Chichewa", -- Nyanja ["oj"] = "Ojibwe", -- Ojibwa ["or"] = "Odia", -- Oriya ["pa"] = "Punjabi", -- Panjabi ["rn"] = "Kirundi", -- Rundi ["sl"] = "Slovene", -- Slovenian ["ss"] = "Swazi", -- Swati ["st"] = "Sotho", -- Southern Sotho ["to"] = "Tongan", -- Tonga --<end do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ------------------------------< I S O _ 6 3 9 - 2, - 3, - 5 >---------------------------------------------- ["alv"] = "Atlantic–Congo languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["arc"] = "Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)", -- Official Aramaic (700-300 BCE), Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE); to match en.wiki article title uses ISO639-2 'preferred' name ["art"] = "constructed", -- to match en.wiki article; lowercase for category name ["arx"] = "Aruá (Rondonia State)", -- Aruá (Rodonia State); to match en.wiki article ["ast-es"] = "Leonese", -- ast in IANA is Asturian; Leonese is a dialect ["bea"] = "Dane-zaa", -- Beaver; to match en.wiki article title ["bha"] = "Bhariati", -- Bharia; to match en.wiki article title ["bhd"] = "Bhadarwahi", -- Bhadrawahi; to match en.wiki article title ["bla"] = "Blackfoot", -- Siksika; to match en.wiki article title ["blc"] = "Nuxalk", -- Bella Coola; to match en.wiki article title ["bua"] = "Buryat", -- Buriat; this is a macro language; these four use wp preferred transliteration; ["bxm"] = "Mongolian Buryat", -- Mongolia Buriat; these three all redirect to Buryat ["bxr"] = "Russian Buryat", -- Russia Buriat; ["bxu"] = "Chinese Buryat", -- China Buriat; ["byr"] = "Yipma", -- Baruya, Yipma ["clm"] = "Klallam", -- Clallam; to match en.wiki article title ["crb"] = "Kalinago", -- Island Carib; to match en.wiki article ["egy"] = "Ancient Egyptian", -- Egyptian (Ancient); distinguish from contemporary arz: Egyptian Arabic ["ems"] = "Alutiiq", -- Pacific Gulf Yupik; to match en.wiki article title ["esx"] = "Eskimo–Aleut languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["frr"] = "North Frisian", -- Northern Frisian ["frs"] = "East Frisian Low Saxon", -- Eastern Frisian ["gsw-fr"] = "Alsatian", -- match MediaWiki ["haa"] = "Hän", -- Han; to match en.wiki article title ["hei"] = "Heiltsuk–Oowekyala", -- Heiltsuk; to match en.wiki article title ["hmx"] = "Hmong–Mien languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["ilo"] = "Ilocano", -- Iloko; to match en.wiki article title ["jam"] = "Jamaican Patois", -- Jamaican Creole English ["lij-mc"] = "Monégasque", -- Ligurian as spoken in Monaco; this one for proper tool tip; also in <article_name> table ["luo"] = "Dholuo", -- IANA (primary) /ISO 639-3: Luo (Kenya and Tanzania); IANA (secondary): Dholuo ["mhr"] = "Meadow Mari", -- Eastern Mari ["mid"] = "Modern Mandaic", -- Mandaic ['mis'] = "uncoded", -- Uncoded languages; capitalization; special scope, not collective scope; ["mkh"] = "Mon–Khmer languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["mla"] = "Tamambo", -- Malo ['mte'] = "Mono-Alu", -- Mono (Solomon Islands) ['mul'] = "multiple", -- Multiple languages; capitalization; special scope, not collective scope; ["nan-tw"] = "Taiwanese Hokkien", -- make room for IANA / 639-3 nan Min Nan Chinese; match en.wiki article title ["new"] = "Newar", -- Newari, Nepal Bhasa; to match en,wiki article title ["ngf"] = "Trans–New Guinea languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["nic"] = "Niger–Congo languages", -- Niger-Kordofanian languages; to match en,wiki article title ["nrf"] = "Norman", -- not quite a collective - IANA name: Jèrriais + Guernésiais; categorizes to Norman-language text ["nrf-gg"] = "Guernésiais", -- match MediaWiki ["nrf-je"] = "Jèrriais", -- match MediaWiki ["nzi"] = "Nzema", -- Nzima; to match en.wiki article title ["oma"] = "Omaha–Ponca", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["orv"] = "Old East Slavic", -- Old Russian ["pfl"] = "Palatine German", -- Pfaelzisch; to match en.wiki article ["pie"] = "Piro Pueblo", -- Piro; to match en.wiki article ["pms"] = "Piedmontese", -- Piemontese; to match en.wiki article title ["pnb"] = "Punjabi (Western)", -- Western Panjabi; dab added to override import from ~/wp languages and distinguish pnb from pa in reverse look up tag_from_name() ['qwm'] = "Cuman", -- Kuman (Russia); to match en.wiki article name ["rop"] = "Australian Kriol", -- Kriol; en.wiki article is a dab; point to correct en.wiki article ["rsk"] = "Pannonian Rusyn", -- Ruthenian; en.wiki preferred name ["sco-ulster"] = "Ulster Scots", ["sdo"] = "Bukar–Sadong", -- Bukar-Sadung Bidayuh; to match en.wiki article title ["smp"] = "Samaritan Hebrew", -- to match en.wiki article title ["stq"] = "Saterland Frisian", -- Saterfriesisch ["tfn"] = "Denaʼina", -- to match en.wiki article title ["und"] = "undetermined", -- capitalization to match existing category ["wrg"] = "Warrongo", -- Warungu ["xal-ru"] = "Kalmyk", -- to match en.wiki article title ["xgf"] = "Tongva", -- ISO 639-3 is Gabrielino-Fernandeño ["yuf"] = "Havasupai–Hualapai", -- Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai; to match en.wiki article title ["zkh"] = "Khorezmian Turkic", -- Khorezmian; to match en.wiki article title, avoiding the dab ["zkt"] = "Khitan", -- Kitan; to match en.wiki article title ["zxx"] = "no linguistic content", -- capitalization -- these ISO 639-2, -3 language-name overrides imported from Module:Language/data/wp_languages (since deleted) --<begin do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ["ace"] = "Acehnese", -- Achinese ["aec"] = "Sa'idi Arabic", -- Saidi Arabic ["akl"] = "Aklan", -- Aklanon ["alt"] = "Altay", -- Southern Altai ["apm"] = "Mescalero-Chiricahua", -- Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache ["bal"] = "Balochi", -- Baluchi -- ["bcl"] = "Central Bicolano", -- Central Bikol ["bin"] = "Edo", -- Bini ["bpy"] = "Bishnupriya Manipuri", -- Bishnupriya ["chg"] = "Chagatay", -- Chagatai ["ckb"] = "Sorani Kurdish", -- Central Kurdish ["cnu"] = "Shenwa", -- Chenoua ["coc"] = "Cocopah", -- Cocopa ["diq"] = "Zazaki", -- Dimli ["fit"] = "Meänkieli", -- Tornedalen Finnish ["fkv"] = "Kven", -- Kven Finnish ["frk"] = "Old Frankish", -- Frankish ["gez"] = "Ge'ez", -- Geez ["gju"] = "Gujari", -- Gujari ["gsw"] = "Alemannic German", -- Swiss German ["gul"] = "Gullah", -- Sea Island Creole English ["hak"] = "Hakka", -- Hakka Chinese ["hbo"] = "Biblical Hebrew", -- Ancient Hebrew ["hnd"] = "Hindko", -- Southern Hindko -- ["ikt"] = "Inuvialuk", -- Inuinnaqtun ["kaa"] = "Karakalpak", -- Kara-Kalpak ["khb"] = "Tai Lü", -- Lü ["kmr"] = "Kurmanji Kurdish", -- Northern Kurdish ["kpo"] = "Kposo", -- Ikposo ["krj"] = "Kinaray-a", -- Kinaray-A -- ["ktz"] = "Juǀ'hoan", -- Juǀʼhoan ["lez"] = "Lezgian", -- Lezghian ["liv"] = "Livonian", -- Liv ["lng"] = "Lombardic", -- Langobardic ["mia"] = "Miami-Illinois", -- Miami ["miq"] = "Miskito", -- Mískito ["mix"] = "Mixtec", -- Mixtepec Mixtec ["mni"] = "Meitei", -- Manipuri ["mrj"] = "Hill Mari", -- Western Mari ["mww"] = "White Hmong", -- Hmong Daw ["nds-nl"] = "Dutch Low Saxon", -- Low German -- ["new"] = "Nepal Bhasa", -- Newari ["nso"] = "Northern Sotho", -- Pedi -- ["nwc"] = "Classical Nepal Bhasa", -- Classical Newari, Classical Nepal Bhasa, Old Newari ["ood"] = "O'odham", -- Tohono O'odham ["otk"] = "Old Turkic", -- Old Turkish ["pal"] = "Middle Persian", -- Pahlavi ["pam"] = "Kapampangan", -- Pampanga ["phr"] = "Potwari", -- Pahari-Potwari ["pka"] = "Jain Prakrit", -- Ardhamāgadhī Prākrit -- ["pnb"] = "Punjabi", -- Western Panjabi ["psu"] = "Shauraseni", -- Sauraseni Prākrit ["rap"] = "Rapa Nui", -- Rapanui ["rar"] = "Cook Islands Māori", -- Rarotongan ["rmu"] = "Scandoromani", -- Tavringer Romani ["rom"] = "Romani", -- Romany ["rup"] = "Aromanian", -- Macedo-Romanian ["ryu"] = "Okinawan", -- Central Okinawan ["sdc"] = "Sassarese", -- Sassarese Sardinian ["sdn"] = "Gallurese", -- Gallurese Sardinian ["shp"] = "Shipibo", -- Shipibo-Conibo ["src"] = "Logudorese", -- Logudorese Sardinian ["sro"] = "Campidanese", -- Campidanese Sardinian ["tkl"] = "Tokelauan", -- Tokelau ["tvl"] = "Tuvaluan", -- Tuvalu ["tyv"] = "Tuvan", -- Tuvinian ["vls"] = "West Flemish", -- Vlaams ["wep"] = "Westphalian", -- Westphalien ["xal"] = "Oirat", -- Kalmyk ["xcl"] = "Old Armenian", -- Classical Armenian ["yua"] = "Yucatec Maya", -- Yucateco --<end do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ------------------------------< P R I V A T E _ U S E _ T A G S >---------------------------------------------- ["akk-x-latbabyl"] = "Late Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-midassyr"] = "Middle Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-midbabyl"] = "Middle Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-neoassyr"] = "Neo-Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-neobabyl"] = "Neo-Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-old"] = "Old Akkadian", ["akk-x-oldassyr"] = "Old Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-oldbabyl"] = "Old Babylonian Akkadian", ["alg-x-proto"] = "Proto-Algonquian", -- alg in IANA is Algonquian languages ["ar-x-classic"] = "Classical Arabic", ["ar-x-nabat"] = "Nabataean Arabic", ["ar-x-safaitic"] = "Safaitic", ["art-x-uropi"] = "Uropi", -- art in IANA is Artificial languages ["ast-x-west"] = "Western Asturian", ["ca-x-old"] = "Old Catalan", ["cel-x-combrit"] = "Common Brittonic", -- cel in IANA is Celtic languages ["cel-x-proto"] = "Proto-Celtic", ["ccs-x-proto"] = "Proto-Kartvelian", -- ccs in IANA is Kartvelian languages ["egy-x-demotic"] = "Demotic Egyptian", ["egy-x-late"] = "Late Egyptian", ["egy-x-middle"] = "Middle Egyptian", ["egy-x-old"] = "Old Egyptian", ["et-x-seto"] = "Seto", -- to replace {{Lang-est-sea}} ["fa-x-classic"] = "Classical Persian", ["fiu-x-proto"] = "Proto-Finno-Ugric", -- fiu in IANA is Finno-Ugric languages ["fr-x-frainc"] = "Franc-Comtois", -- to replace {{Lang-fra-frc}} ["fr-x-quebec"] = "Quebec French", ["gem-x-proto"] = "Proto-Germanic", -- gem in IANA is Germanic languages ["gmq-x-proto"] = "Proto-Norse", ["gmw-x-ecg"] = "East Central German", ["gmw-x-proto"] = "Proto-West Germanic", ["grc-x-aeolic"] = "Aeolic Greek", -- these grc-x-... codes are preferred alternates to the non-standard catchall code grc-gre ["grc-x-arcadcyp"] = "Arcadocypriot Greek", ["grc-x-attic"] = "Attic Greek", ["grc-x-biblical"] = "Biblical Greek", ["grc-x-byzant"] = "Byzantine Greek", ["grc-x-classic"] = "Classical Greek", ["grc-x-doric"] = "Doric Greek", ["grc-x-hellen"] = "Hellenistic Greek", ["grc-x-ionic"] = "Ionic Greek", ["grc-x-koine"] = "Koine Greek", ["grc-x-medieval"] = "Medieval Greek", ["grc-x-pamph"] = "Pamphylian Greek", ["grc-x-patris"] = "Patristic Greek", ["grk-x-proto"] = "Proto-Greek", -- grk in IANA is Greek languages ["iir-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-Iranian", -- iir in IANA is Indo-Iranian Languages ["inc-x-mitanni"] = "Mitanni-Aryan", -- inc in IANA is Indic languages ["inc-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-Aryan", ["ine-x-anatolia"] = "Anatolian languages", ["ine-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-European", ["ira-x-proto"] = "Proto-Iranian", -- ira in IANA is Iranian languages ["itc-x-proto"] = "Proto-Italic", -- itc in IANA is Italic languages ["ksh-x-colog"] = "Colognian", -- en.wiki article is Colognian; ksh (Kölsch) redirects there ["la-x-church"] = "Ecclesiastical Latin", ["la-x-classic"] = "Classical Latin", ["la-x-late"] = "Late Latin", ["la-x-medieval"] = "Medieval Latin", ["la-x-new"] = "New Latin", ["la-x-old"] = "Old Latin", ["la-x-ren"] = "Renaissance Latin", ["la-x-vulgar"] = "Vulgar Latin", ["lmo-x-berg"] = "Bergamasque", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Bergamasque is a dialect ["lmo-x-cremish"] = "Cremish", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Cremish is a dialect ["lmo-x-milanese"] = "Milanese", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Milanese is a dialect ["mis-x-ripuar"] = "Ripuarian", -- replaces improper use of ksh in wp_languages ["prg-x-old"] = "Old Prussian", ["roa-x-proto"] = "Proto-Romance", ["sem-x-ammonite"] = "Ammonite", ["sem-x-aramaic"] = "Aramaic", ["sem-x-canaan"] = "Canaanite languages", ["sem-x-dadanit"] = "Dadanitic", ["sem-x-dumaitic"] = "Dumaitic", ["sem-x-egurage"] = "Eastern Gurage", ["sem-x-hasaitic"] = "Hasaitic", ["sem-x-hatran"] = "Hatran Aramaic", ["sem-x-hismaic"] = "Hismaic", ["sem-x-nabat"] = "Nabataean Aramaic", ["sem-x-oldsoara"] = "Old South Arabian", ["sem-x-palmyren"] = "Palmyrene Aramaic", ["sem-x-proto"] = "Proto-Semitic", ["sem-x-taymanit"] = "Taymanitic", ["smi-x-proto"] = "Proto-Samic", -- smi in IANA is Samic languages ["sla-x-proto"] = "Proto-Slavic", -- sla in IANA is Slavic languages ["sq-x-proto"] = "Proto-Albanian", ["trk-x-oldanat"] = "Old Anatolian Turkish", -- to replace {{Lang-1ca}} ["urj-x-proto"] = "Proto-Uralic", -- urj in IANA is Uralic languages ["yuf-x-hav"] = "Havasupai", -- IANA name for these three is Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai ["yuf-x-wal"] = "Walapai", ["yuf-x-yav"] = "Yavapai", ["xsa-x-himyarit"] = "Himyaritic", ["xsc-x-pontic"] = "Pontic Scythian", -- xsc in IANA is Scythian ["xsc-x-saka"] = "Saka", ["xsc-x-sarmat"] = "Sarmatian", ["zle-x-ruthenia"] = "Ruthenian", -- zle in IANA is East Slavic languages collective; moved to allow rsk for Pannonian Rusyn } --[[--------------------------< A R T I C L E _ L I N K >------------------------------------------------------ for those rare occasions when article titles don't fit with the normal '<language name> language', this table maps language code to article title. Use of this table should be avoided and the use of redirects preferred as that is the long-standing method of handling article names that don't fit with the normal pattern ]] local article_name = { ['aru'] = "Arawá language", -- Aruá (Amazonas State); to avoid Aruá dab page ['arx'] = "Aruá language (Rondônia)", -- Aruá (Rodonia State) overridden to Aruá (Rondonia State); to avoid Aruá dab page ['kue'] = "Kuman language (New Guinea)", -- Kuman (Papua New Guinea); to avoid Kuman dab page ["lij-mc"] = "Monégasque dialect", -- Ligurian as spoken in Monaco ['mbo'] = "Mbo language (Cameroon)", -- Mbo (Cameroon) ['mnh'] = "Mono language (Congo)", -- Mono (Democratic Republic of Congo); see Template_talk:Lang#Mono_languages ['mnr'] = "Mono language (California)", -- Mono (USA) ['mru'] = "Mono language (Cameroon)", -- Mono (Cameroon) ["snq"] = "Sangu language (Gabon)", -- Sangu (Gabon) ["toi"] = "Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)", -- Tonga (Zambia and Zimbabwe); to avoid Tonga language dab page ["vwa"] = "Awa language (China)", -- Awa (China); to avoid Awa dab page ["xlg"] = "Ligurian language (ancient)", -- see Template_talk:Lang#Ligurian_dab ["zmw"] = "Mbo language (Congo)", -- Mbo (Democratic Republic of Congo) } --[=[-------------------------< R T L _ S C R I P T S >-------------------------------------------------------- ISO 15924 scripts that are written right-to-left. Data in this table taken from [[ISO 15924#List of codes]] last update to this list: 2017-12-24 ]=] local rtl_scripts = { 'adlm', 'arab', 'aran', 'armi', 'avst', 'cprt', 'egyd', 'egyh', 'hatr', 'hebr', 'hung', 'inds', 'khar', 'lydi', 'mand', 'mani', 'mend', 'merc', 'mero', 'narb', 'nbat', 'nkoo', 'orkh', 'palm', 'phli', 'phlp', 'phlv', 'phnx', 'prti', 'rohg', 'samr', 'sarb', 'sogd', 'sogo', 'syrc', 'syre', 'syrj', 'syrn', 'thaa', 'wole', }; --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L I T _ T I T L E S >------------------------------------------------ This is a table of tables of transliteration standards and the language codes or language scripts that apply to those standards. This table is used to create the tool-tip text associated with the transliterated text displayed by some of the {{lang-??}} templates. These tables are more-or-less copied directly from {{special|PermaLink/680078354}}. The standard 'NO_STD' is a construct to allow for the cases when no |std= parameter value is provided. ]] local translit_title_table = { ['abkai'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Abkai system of romanization', }, ['ahl'] = { ['default'] = 'Academy of the Hebrew Language transliteration', }, ['ala'] = { ['default'] = 'American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration', }, ['ala-lc'] = { ['default'] = 'American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration', }, ['batr'] = { ['default'] = 'Bikdash Arabic Transliteration Rules', }, ['bgn/pcgn'] = { ['default'] = 'Board on Geographic Names / Permanent Committee on Geographical Names transliteration', }, ['din'] = { ['ar'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['fa'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ku'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ps'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['tg'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ug'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ur'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['arab'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['default'] = 'DIN transliteration', }, ['eae'] = { ['default'] = 'Encyclopaedia Aethiopica transliteration', }, ['hepburn'] = { ['default'] = 'Hepburn transliteration', }, ['hu'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Hu system of romanization', }, ['hunterian'] = { ['default'] = 'Hunterian transliteration', }, ['iast'] = { ['default'] = 'International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration', }, ['iso'] = { -- when a transliteration standard is supplied ['ab'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ba'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['be'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['bg'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['kk'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ky'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['mn'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ru'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['tg'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['uk'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['bua'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['sah'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['tut'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['xal'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['cyrl'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['cyrs'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ar'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ku'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ps'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ug'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ur'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['arab'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['he'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['yi'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['hebr'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['el'] = 'ISO 843 Greek', ['grc'] = 'ISO 843 Greek', ['ja'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['hira'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['hrkt'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['jpan'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['kana'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['zh'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['chi'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['cmn'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['zho'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', -- ['han'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', -- unicode alias of Hani? doesn't belong here? should be Hani? ['hans'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['hant'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['ka'] = 'ISO 9984 Georgian', ['kat'] = 'ISO 9984 Georgian', ['arm'] = 'ISO 9985 Armenian', ['hy'] = 'ISO 9985 Armenian', ['th'] = 'ISO 11940 Thai', ['tha'] = 'ISO 11940 Thai', ['ko'] = 'ISO 11941 Korean', ['kor'] = 'ISO 11941 Korean', ['awa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bho'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bn'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bra'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['doi'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['dra'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gon'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gu'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['hi'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['hno'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['inc'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['kn'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['kok'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ks'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mag'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mai'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ml'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ne'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['new'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['or'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['pa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['pnb'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['raj'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sat'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sd'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['si'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['skr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ta'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['tcy'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['te'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['beng'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['brah'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['deva'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gujr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['guru'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['knda'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mlym'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['orya'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sinh'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['taml'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['telu'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['default'] = 'ISO transliteration', }, ['jyutping'] = { ['default'] = 'Jyutping transliteration', }, ['mdorff'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Möllendorff system of romanization', }, ['mlcts'] = { ['default'] = 'Myanmar Language Commission Transcription System', }, ['mr'] = { ['default'] = 'McCune–Reischauer transliteration', }, ['nihon-shiki'] = { ['default'] = 'Nihon-shiki transliteration', }, ['no_std'] = { -- when no transliteration standard is supplied ['akk'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['sem'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['phnx'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['xsux'] = 'Cuneiform transliteration', }, ['pinyin'] = { ['default'] = 'Pinyin transliteration', }, ['rr'] = { ['default'] = 'Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration', }, ['rtgs'] = { ['default'] = 'Royal Thai General System of Transcription', }, ['satts'] = { ['default'] = 'Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System transliteration', }, ['scientific'] = { ['default'] = 'scientific transliteration', }, ['thdl'] = { ['default'] = 'THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription', }, ['ukrainian'] = { ['default'] = 'Ukrainian National system of romanization', }, ['ungegn'] = { ['default'] = 'United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names transliteration', }, ['wadegile'] = { ['default'] = 'Wade–Giles transliteration', }, ['wehr'] = { ['default'] = 'Hans Wehr transliteration', }, ['wylie'] = { ['default'] = 'Wylie transliteration', }, ['yaleko'] = { ['default'] = 'Yale romanization of Korean', }, ['zwpy'] = { ['default'] = 'Tibetan pinyin' }, }; --[[--------------------------< E N G _ V A R >---------------------------------------------------------------- Used at en.wiki so that spelling of 'romanized' (US, default) can be changed to 'romanised' to match the envar specified by a {{Use xxx English}}. This is accomplished by setting |engvar=gb; can, should be omitted in articles that use American English; no need for the clutter. ]] local engvar_sel_t = { -- select either UK English or US English ['au'] = 'gb_t', -- these match IANA region codes (except in lower case) ['ca'] = 'us_t', ['gb'] = 'gb_t', ['ie'] = 'gb_t', ['in'] = 'gb_t', ['nz'] = 'gb_t', ['us'] = 'us_t', -- default engvar ['za'] = 'gb_t' }; local engvar_t = { ['gb_t'] = { ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanisation', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanisation', -- upper case ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanised', -- past tense }, ['us_t'] = { -- default engvar ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanization', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanization', -- upper case ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanized', -- past tense } } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >---------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { this_wiki_lang_tag = this_wiki_lang_tag, this_wiki_lang_dir = lang_obj:getDir(), -- wiki's language direction article_name = article_name, engvar_t = engvar_t, engvar_sel_t = engvar_sel_t, lang_name_table = lang_name_table_t, override = override, rtl_scripts = rtl_scripts, special_tags_table = special_tags_table, translit_title_table = translit_title_table, }; s0e87rcbxa4drtas1ou6pyjfr8z57z9 687832 687831 2026-07-13T12:31:16Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data]] 687831 Scribunto text/plain local lang_obj = mw.language.getContentLanguage(); local this_wiki_lang_tag = lang_obj.code; -- get this wiki's language tag --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ N A M E _ T A B L E >------------------------------------------------ primary table of tables that decode: lang -> language tags and names script -> ISO 15924 script tags region -> ISO 3166 region tags variant -> IANA registered variant tags suppressed -> map of scripts tags and their associated language tags all of these data come from separate modules that are derived from the IANA language-subtag-registry file key_to_lower() avoids the metatable trap and sets all keys in the subtables to lowercase. Many language codes have multiple associated names; Module:lang is only concerned with the first name so key_to_lower() only fetches the first name. ]] local function key_to_lower (module, src_type) local out = {}; local source_t = (('var_sup' == src_type) and require (module)) or mw.loadData (module); -- fetch data from this module; require() avoids metatable trap for variant data if 'var_sup' == src_type then for k, v in pairs (source_t) do out[k:lower()] = v; -- for variant and suppressed everything is needed end elseif 'lang' == src_type and source_t.active then -- for ~/iana_languages (active) for k, v in pairs (source_t.active) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end elseif 'lang_dep' == src_type and source_t.deprecated then -- for ~/iana_languages (deprecated) for k, v in pairs (source_t.deprecated) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end else -- here for all other sources for k, v in pairs (source_t) do out[k:lower()] = v[1]; -- ignore multiple names; take first name only end end return out; end local lang_name_table_t = { lang = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana languages', 'lang'), lang_dep = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana languages', 'lang_dep'), script = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana scripts'), -- script keys are capitalized; set to lower region = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana regions'), -- region keys are uppercase; set to lower variant = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana variants', 'var_sup'), suppressed = key_to_lower ('Module:Lang/data/iana suppressed scripts', 'var_sup'), -- script keys are capitalized; set to lower } --[[--------------------------< I 1 8 N M E D I A W I K I O V E R R I D E >-------------------------------- For internationalization; not used at en.wiki The language names taken from the IANA language-subtag-registry file are given in English. That may not be ideal. Translating ~8,000 language names is also not ideal. MediaWiki maintains (much) shorter lists of language names in most languages for which there is a Wikipedia edition. When desired, Module:Lang can use the MediaWiki language list for the local language. Caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be complete or may not exist at all. When incomplete, MediaWiki's list will 'fall back' to another language (typically English). When that happens add an appropriate entry to the override table below. Caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be correct. At en.wiki, the MediaWiki language names do not agree with the IANA language names for these ISO 639-1 tags. Often it is simply spelling differences: bh: IANA: Bihari languages MW: Bhojpuri – the ISO 639-3 tag for Bhojpuri is bho bn: IANA: Bengali MW: Bangla – Bengali is the exonym, Bangla is the endonym dv: IANA: Dhivehi MW: Divehi el: IANA: Modern Greek MW: Greek ht: IANA: Haitian MW: Haitian Creole ky: IANA: Kirghiz MW: Kyrgyz li: IANA: Limburgan MW: Limburgish or: IANA: Oriya MW: Odia os: IANA: Ossetian MW: Ossetic "pa: IANA: Panjabi MW: Punjabi "ps: IANA: Pushto MW: Pashto "to: IANA: Tonga MW: Tongan "ug: IANA: Uighur MW: Uyghur use the override table to override language names that are incorrect for your project To see the list of names that MediaWiki has for your language, enter this in the Debug console: =mw.dumpObject (mw.language.fetchLanguageNames ('<tag>', 'all')) (replacing <tag> with the language tag for your language) Use of the MediaWiki language names lists is enabled when media_wiki_override_enable is set to boolean true. ]] local media_wiki_override_enable = false; -- set to true to override IANA names with MediaWiki names; always false at en.wiki -- caveat lector: the list of MediaWiki language names for your language may not be complete or may not exist at all if true == media_wiki_override_enable then local mw_languages_by_tag_t = mw.language.fetchLanguageNames (this_wiki_lang_tag, 'all'); -- get a table of language tag/name pairs known to MediaWiki for tag, name in pairs (mw_languages_by_tag_t) do -- loop through each tag/name pair in the MediaWiki list if lang_name_table_t.lang[tag] then -- if the tag is in the main list lang_name_table_t.lang[tag] = name; -- overwrite existing name with the name from MediaWiki end end end --[[--------------------------< O V E R R I D E >-------------------------------------------------------------- Language codes and names in this table override the BCP47 names in lang_name_table. indexes in this table shall always be lower case ]] local override = { ------------------------------< I S O _ 6 3 9 - 1 >------------------------------------------------------------ ["ab"] = "Abkhaz", -- to match en.wiki article name ["ca-valencia"] = "Valencian", ["cu"] = "Church Slavonic", -- 2nd IANA name; ["de-at"] = "Austrian German", -- these code-region and code-variant tags to match en.wiki article names ["de-ch"] = "Swiss Standard German", ["en-au"] = "Australian English", ["en-ca"] = "Canadian English", ["en-emodeng"] = "Early Modern English", ["en-gb"] = "British English", ["en-ie"] = "Irish English", ["en-in"] = "Indian English", ["en-nz"] = "New Zealand English", ["en-us"] = "American English", ["en-za"] = "South African English", ["fr-ca"] = "Canadian French", ["fr-gallo"] = "Gallo", ["fy"] = "West Frisian", -- Western Frisian ["mo"] = "Moldovan", -- Moldavian (deprecated code); to match en.wiki article title ["nl-be"] = "Flemish", -- match MediaWiki ["oc-gascon"] = "Gascon", ["oc-provenc"] = "Provençal", ["ps"] = "Pashto", -- Pushto ["pt-br"] = "Brazilian Portuguese", -- match MediaWiki ["ro-md"] = "Moldovan", -- 'not deprecated' form ["ro-cyrl-md"] = "Moldovan", -- 'not deprecated' form ["tw-asante"] = "Asante Twi", ["ug"] = "Uyghur", -- 2nd IANA name; to match en.wiki article name -- these ISO 639-1 language-name overrides imported from Module:Language/data/wp_languages (since deleted) --<begin do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ["av"] = "Avar", -- Avaric ["bo"] = "Standard Tibetan", -- Tibetan ["el"] = "Greek", -- Modern Greek -- ["en-SA"] = "South African English", -- English; no; SA is not South Africa it Saudi Arabia; ZA is South Africa ["ff"] = "Fula", -- Fulah ["ht"] = "Haitian Creole", -- Haitian ["hz"] = "Otjiherero", -- Herero ["ii"] = "Yi", -- Sichuan Yi ["ki"] = "Gikuyu", -- Kikuyu ["kl"] = "Greenlandic", -- Kalaallisut ["ky"] = "Kyrgyz", -- Kirghiz ["lg"] = "Luganda", -- Ganda ["li"] = "Limburgish", -- Limburgan ["mi"] = "Māori", -- Maori ["na"] = "Nauruan", -- Nauru ["nb"] = "Bokmål", -- Norwegian Bokmål ["nd"] = "Northern Ndebele", -- North Ndebele ["nn"] = "Nynorsk", -- Norwegian Nynorsk ["nr"] = "Southern Ndebele", -- South Ndebele ["ny"] = "Chichewa", -- Nyanja ["oj"] = "Ojibwe", -- Ojibwa ["or"] = "Odia", -- Oriya ["pa"] = "Punjabi", -- Panjabi ["rn"] = "Kirundi", -- Rundi ["sl"] = "Slovene", -- Slovenian ["ss"] = "Swazi", -- Swati ["st"] = "Sotho", -- Southern Sotho ["to"] = "Tongan", -- Tonga --<end do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ------------------------------< I S O _ 6 3 9 - 2, - 3, - 5 >---------------------------------------------- ["alv"] = "Atlantic–Congo languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["arc"] = "Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)", -- Official Aramaic (700-300 BCE), Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE); to match en.wiki article title uses ISO639-2 'preferred' name ["art"] = "constructed", -- to match en.wiki article; lowercase for category name ["arx"] = "Aruá (Rondonia State)", -- Aruá (Rodonia State); to match en.wiki article ["ast-es"] = "Leonese", -- ast in IANA is Asturian; Leonese is a dialect ["bea"] = "Dane-zaa", -- Beaver; to match en.wiki article title ["bha"] = "Bhariati", -- Bharia; to match en.wiki article title ["bhd"] = "Bhadarwahi", -- Bhadrawahi; to match en.wiki article title ["bla"] = "Blackfoot", -- Siksika; to match en.wiki article title ["blc"] = "Nuxalk", -- Bella Coola; to match en.wiki article title ["bua"] = "Buryat", -- Buriat; this is a macro language; these four use wp preferred transliteration; ["bxm"] = "Mongolian Buryat", -- Mongolia Buriat; these three all redirect to Buryat ["bxr"] = "Russian Buryat", -- Russia Buriat; ["bxu"] = "Chinese Buryat", -- China Buriat; ["byr"] = "Yipma", -- Baruya, Yipma ["clm"] = "Klallam", -- Clallam; to match en.wiki article title ["crb"] = "Kalinago", -- Island Carib; to match en.wiki article ["egy"] = "Ancient Egyptian", -- Egyptian (Ancient); distinguish from contemporary arz: Egyptian Arabic ["ems"] = "Alutiiq", -- Pacific Gulf Yupik; to match en.wiki article title ["esx"] = "Eskimo–Aleut languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["frr"] = "North Frisian", -- Northern Frisian ["frs"] = "East Frisian Low Saxon", -- Eastern Frisian ["gsw-fr"] = "Alsatian", -- match MediaWiki ["haa"] = "Hän", -- Han; to match en.wiki article title ["hei"] = "Heiltsuk–Oowekyala", -- Heiltsuk; to match en.wiki article title ["hmx"] = "Hmong–Mien languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["ilo"] = "Ilocano", -- Iloko; to match en.wiki article title ["jam"] = "Jamaican Patois", -- Jamaican Creole English ["lij-mc"] = "Monégasque", -- Ligurian as spoken in Monaco; this one for proper tool tip; also in <article_name> table ["luo"] = "Dholuo", -- IANA (primary) /ISO 639-3: Luo (Kenya and Tanzania); IANA (secondary): Dholuo ["mhr"] = "Meadow Mari", -- Eastern Mari ["mid"] = "Modern Mandaic", -- Mandaic ['mis'] = "uncoded", -- Uncoded languages; capitalization; special scope, not collective scope; ["mkh"] = "Mon–Khmer languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["mla"] = "Tamambo", -- Malo ['mte'] = "Mono-Alu", -- Mono (Solomon Islands) ['mul'] = "multiple", -- Multiple languages; capitalization; special scope, not collective scope; ["nan-tw"] = "Taiwanese Hokkien", -- make room for IANA / 639-3 nan Min Nan Chinese; match en.wiki article title ["new"] = "Newar", -- Newari, Nepal Bhasa; to match en,wiki article title ["ngf"] = "Trans–New Guinea languages", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["nic"] = "Niger–Congo languages", -- Niger-Kordofanian languages; to match en,wiki article title ["nrf"] = "Norman", -- not quite a collective - IANA name: Jèrriais + Guernésiais; categorizes to Norman-language text ["nrf-gg"] = "Guernésiais", -- match MediaWiki ["nrf-je"] = "Jèrriais", -- match MediaWiki ["nzi"] = "Nzema", -- Nzima; to match en.wiki article title ["oma"] = "Omaha–Ponca", -- to match en.wiki article title (endash) ["orv"] = "Old East Slavic", -- Old Russian ["pfl"] = "Palatine German", -- Pfaelzisch; to match en.wiki article ["pie"] = "Piro Pueblo", -- Piro; to match en.wiki article ["pms"] = "Piedmontese", -- Piemontese; to match en.wiki article title ["pnb"] = "Punjabi (Western)", -- Western Panjabi; dab added to override import from ~/wp languages and distinguish pnb from pa in reverse look up tag_from_name() ['qwm'] = "Cuman", -- Kuman (Russia); to match en.wiki article name ["rop"] = "Australian Kriol", -- Kriol; en.wiki article is a dab; point to correct en.wiki article ["rsk"] = "Pannonian Rusyn", -- Ruthenian; en.wiki preferred name ["sco-ulster"] = "Ulster Scots", ["sdo"] = "Bukar–Sadong", -- Bukar-Sadung Bidayuh; to match en.wiki article title ["smp"] = "Samaritan Hebrew", -- to match en.wiki article title ["stq"] = "Saterland Frisian", -- Saterfriesisch ["tfn"] = "Denaʼina", -- to match en.wiki article title ["und"] = "undetermined", -- capitalization to match existing category ["wrg"] = "Warrongo", -- Warungu ["xal-ru"] = "Kalmyk", -- to match en.wiki article title ["xgf"] = "Tongva", -- ISO 639-3 is Gabrielino-Fernandeño ["yuf"] = "Havasupai–Hualapai", -- Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai; to match en.wiki article title ["zkh"] = "Khorezmian Turkic", -- Khorezmian; to match en.wiki article title, avoiding the dab ["zkt"] = "Khitan", -- Kitan; to match en.wiki article title ["zxx"] = "no linguistic content", -- capitalization -- these ISO 639-2, -3 language-name overrides imported from Module:Language/data/wp_languages (since deleted) --<begin do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ["ace"] = "Acehnese", -- Achinese ["aec"] = "Sa'idi Arabic", -- Saidi Arabic ["akl"] = "Aklan", -- Aklanon ["alt"] = "Altay", -- Southern Altai ["apm"] = "Mescalero-Chiricahua", -- Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache ["bal"] = "Balochi", -- Baluchi -- ["bcl"] = "Central Bicolano", -- Central Bikol ["bin"] = "Edo", -- Bini ["bpy"] = "Bishnupriya Manipuri", -- Bishnupriya ["chg"] = "Chagatay", -- Chagatai ["ckb"] = "Sorani Kurdish", -- Central Kurdish ["cnu"] = "Shenwa", -- Chenoua ["coc"] = "Cocopah", -- Cocopa ["diq"] = "Zazaki", -- Dimli ["fit"] = "Meänkieli", -- Tornedalen Finnish ["fkv"] = "Kven", -- Kven Finnish ["frk"] = "Old Frankish", -- Frankish ["gez"] = "Ge'ez", -- Geez ["gju"] = "Gujari", -- Gujari ["gsw"] = "Alemannic German", -- Swiss German ["gul"] = "Gullah", -- Sea Island Creole English ["hak"] = "Hakka", -- Hakka Chinese ["hbo"] = "Biblical Hebrew", -- Ancient Hebrew ["hnd"] = "Hindko", -- Southern Hindko -- ["ikt"] = "Inuvialuk", -- Inuinnaqtun ["kaa"] = "Karakalpak", -- Kara-Kalpak ["khb"] = "Tai Lü", -- Lü ["kmr"] = "Kurmanji Kurdish", -- Northern Kurdish ["kpo"] = "Kposo", -- Ikposo ["krj"] = "Kinaray-a", -- Kinaray-A -- ["ktz"] = "Juǀ'hoan", -- Juǀʼhoan ["lez"] = "Lezgian", -- Lezghian ["liv"] = "Livonian", -- Liv ["lng"] = "Lombardic", -- Langobardic ["mia"] = "Miami-Illinois", -- Miami ["miq"] = "Miskito", -- Mískito ["mix"] = "Mixtec", -- Mixtepec Mixtec ["mni"] = "Meitei", -- Manipuri ["mrj"] = "Hill Mari", -- Western Mari ["mww"] = "White Hmong", -- Hmong Daw ["nds-nl"] = "Dutch Low Saxon", -- Low German -- ["new"] = "Nepal Bhasa", -- Newari ["nso"] = "Northern Sotho", -- Pedi -- ["nwc"] = "Classical Nepal Bhasa", -- Classical Newari, Classical Nepal Bhasa, Old Newari ["ood"] = "O'odham", -- Tohono O'odham ["otk"] = "Old Turkic", -- Old Turkish ["pal"] = "Middle Persian", -- Pahlavi ["pam"] = "Kapampangan", -- Pampanga ["phr"] = "Potwari", -- Pahari-Potwari ["pka"] = "Jain Prakrit", -- Ardhamāgadhī Prākrit -- ["pnb"] = "Punjabi", -- Western Panjabi ["psu"] = "Shauraseni", -- Sauraseni Prākrit ["rap"] = "Rapa Nui", -- Rapanui ["rar"] = "Cook Islands Māori", -- Rarotongan ["rmu"] = "Scandoromani", -- Tavringer Romani ["rom"] = "Romani", -- Romany ["rup"] = "Aromanian", -- Macedo-Romanian ["ryu"] = "Okinawan", -- Central Okinawan ["sdc"] = "Sassarese", -- Sassarese Sardinian ["sdn"] = "Gallurese", -- Gallurese Sardinian ["shp"] = "Shipibo", -- Shipibo-Conibo ["src"] = "Logudorese", -- Logudorese Sardinian ["sro"] = "Campidanese", -- Campidanese Sardinian ["tkl"] = "Tokelauan", -- Tokelau ["tvl"] = "Tuvaluan", -- Tuvalu ["tyv"] = "Tuvan", -- Tuvinian ["vls"] = "West Flemish", -- Vlaams ["wep"] = "Westphalian", -- Westphalien ["xal"] = "Oirat", -- Kalmyk ["xcl"] = "Old Armenian", -- Classical Armenian ["yua"] = "Yucatec Maya", -- Yucateco --<end do-not-edit except to comment out>-- ------------------------------< P R I V A T E _ U S E _ T A G S >---------------------------------------------- ["akk-x-latbabyl"] = "Late Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-midassyr"] = "Middle Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-midbabyl"] = "Middle Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-neoassyr"] = "Neo-Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-neobabyl"] = "Neo-Babylonian Akkadian", ["akk-x-old"] = "Old Akkadian", ["akk-x-oldassyr"] = "Old Assyrian Akkadian", ["akk-x-oldbabyl"] = "Old Babylonian Akkadian", ["alg-x-proto"] = "Proto-Algonquian", -- alg in IANA is Algonquian languages ["ar-x-classic"] = "Classical Arabic", ["ar-x-nabat"] = "Nabataean Arabic", ["ar-x-safaitic"] = "Safaitic", ["art-x-uropi"] = "Uropi", -- art in IANA is Artificial languages ["ast-x-west"] = "Western Asturian", ["ca-x-old"] = "Old Catalan", ["cel-x-combrit"] = "Common Brittonic", -- cel in IANA is Celtic languages ["cel-x-proto"] = "Proto-Celtic", ["ccs-x-proto"] = "Proto-Kartvelian", -- ccs in IANA is Kartvelian languages ["egy-x-demotic"] = "Demotic Egyptian", ["egy-x-late"] = "Late Egyptian", ["egy-x-middle"] = "Middle Egyptian", ["egy-x-old"] = "Old Egyptian", ["et-x-seto"] = "Seto", -- to replace {{Lang-est-sea}} ["fa-x-classic"] = "Classical Persian", ["fiu-x-proto"] = "Proto-Finno-Ugric", -- fiu in IANA is Finno-Ugric languages ["fr-x-frainc"] = "Franc-Comtois", -- to replace {{Lang-fra-frc}} ["fr-x-quebec"] = "Quebec French", ["gem-x-proto"] = "Proto-Germanic", -- gem in IANA is Germanic languages ["gmq-x-proto"] = "Proto-Norse", ["gmw-x-ecg"] = "East Central German", ["gmw-x-proto"] = "Proto-West Germanic", ["grc-x-aeolic"] = "Aeolic Greek", -- these grc-x-... codes are preferred alternates to the non-standard catchall code grc-gre ["grc-x-arcadcyp"] = "Arcadocypriot Greek", ["grc-x-attic"] = "Attic Greek", ["grc-x-biblical"] = "Biblical Greek", ["grc-x-byzant"] = "Byzantine Greek", ["grc-x-classic"] = "Classical Greek", ["grc-x-doric"] = "Doric Greek", ["grc-x-hellen"] = "Hellenistic Greek", ["grc-x-ionic"] = "Ionic Greek", ["grc-x-koine"] = "Koine Greek", ["grc-x-medieval"] = "Medieval Greek", ["grc-x-pamph"] = "Pamphylian Greek", ["grc-x-patris"] = "Patristic Greek", ["grk-x-proto"] = "Proto-Greek", -- grk in IANA is Greek languages ["iir-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-Iranian", -- iir in IANA is Indo-Iranian Languages ["inc-x-mitanni"] = "Mitanni-Aryan", -- inc in IANA is Indic languages ["inc-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-Aryan", ["ine-x-anatolia"] = "Anatolian languages", ["ine-x-proto"] = "Proto-Indo-European", ["ira-x-proto"] = "Proto-Iranian", -- ira in IANA is Iranian languages ["itc-x-proto"] = "Proto-Italic", -- itc in IANA is Italic languages ["ksh-x-colog"] = "Colognian", -- en.wiki article is Colognian; ksh (Kölsch) redirects there ["la-x-church"] = "Ecclesiastical Latin", ["la-x-classic"] = "Classical Latin", ["la-x-late"] = "Late Latin", ["la-x-medieval"] = "Medieval Latin", ["la-x-new"] = "New Latin", ["la-x-old"] = "Old Latin", ["la-x-ren"] = "Renaissance Latin", ["la-x-vulgar"] = "Vulgar Latin", ["lmo-x-berg"] = "Bergamasque", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Bergamasque is a dialect ["lmo-x-cremish"] = "Cremish", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Cremish is a dialect ["lmo-x-milanese"] = "Milanese", -- lmo in IANA is Lombard; Milanese is a dialect ["mis-x-ripuar"] = "Ripuarian", -- replaces improper use of ksh in wp_languages ["prg-x-old"] = "Old Prussian", ["roa-x-proto"] = "Proto-Romance", ["sem-x-ammonite"] = "Ammonite", ["sem-x-aramaic"] = "Aramaic", ["sem-x-canaan"] = "Canaanite languages", ["sem-x-dadanit"] = "Dadanitic", ["sem-x-dumaitic"] = "Dumaitic", ["sem-x-egurage"] = "Eastern Gurage", ["sem-x-hasaitic"] = "Hasaitic", ["sem-x-hatran"] = "Hatran Aramaic", ["sem-x-hismaic"] = "Hismaic", ["sem-x-nabat"] = "Nabataean Aramaic", ["sem-x-oldsoara"] = "Old South Arabian", ["sem-x-palmyren"] = "Palmyrene Aramaic", ["sem-x-proto"] = "Proto-Semitic", ["sem-x-taymanit"] = "Taymanitic", ["smi-x-proto"] = "Proto-Samic", -- smi in IANA is Samic languages ["sla-x-proto"] = "Proto-Slavic", -- sla in IANA is Slavic languages ["sq-x-proto"] = "Proto-Albanian", ["trk-x-oldanat"] = "Old Anatolian Turkish", -- to replace {{Lang-1ca}} ["urj-x-proto"] = "Proto-Uralic", -- urj in IANA is Uralic languages ["yuf-x-hav"] = "Havasupai", -- IANA name for these three is Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai ["yuf-x-wal"] = "Walapai", ["yuf-x-yav"] = "Yavapai", ["xsa-x-himyarit"] = "Himyaritic", ["xsc-x-pontic"] = "Pontic Scythian", -- xsc in IANA is Scythian ["xsc-x-saka"] = "Saka", ["xsc-x-sarmat"] = "Sarmatian", ["zle-x-ruthenia"] = "Ruthenian", -- zle in IANA is East Slavic languages collective; moved to allow rsk for Pannonian Rusyn } --[[--------------------------< A R T I C L E _ L I N K >------------------------------------------------------ for those rare occasions when article titles don't fit with the normal '<language name> language', this table maps language code to article title. Use of this table should be avoided and the use of redirects preferred as that is the long-standing method of handling article names that don't fit with the normal pattern ]] local article_name = { ['aru'] = "Arawá language", -- Aruá (Amazonas State); to avoid Aruá dab page ['arx'] = "Aruá language (Rondônia)", -- Aruá (Rodonia State) overridden to Aruá (Rondonia State); to avoid Aruá dab page ['kue'] = "Kuman language (New Guinea)", -- Kuman (Papua New Guinea); to avoid Kuman dab page ["lij-mc"] = "Monégasque dialect", -- Ligurian as spoken in Monaco ['mbo'] = "Mbo language (Cameroon)", -- Mbo (Cameroon) ['mnh'] = "Mono language (Congo)", -- Mono (Democratic Republic of Congo); see Template_talk:Lang#Mono_languages ['mnr'] = "Mono language (California)", -- Mono (USA) ['mru'] = "Mono language (Cameroon)", -- Mono (Cameroon) ["snq"] = "Sangu language (Gabon)", -- Sangu (Gabon) ["toi"] = "Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)", -- Tonga (Zambia and Zimbabwe); to avoid Tonga language dab page ["vwa"] = "Awa language (China)", -- Awa (China); to avoid Awa dab page ["xlg"] = "Ligurian language (ancient)", -- see Template_talk:Lang#Ligurian_dab ["zmw"] = "Mbo language (Congo)", -- Mbo (Democratic Republic of Congo) } --[=[-------------------------< R T L _ S C R I P T S >-------------------------------------------------------- ISO 15924 scripts that are written right-to-left. Data in this table taken from [[ISO 15924#List of codes]] last update to this list: 2017-12-24 ]=] local rtl_scripts = { 'adlm', 'arab', 'aran', 'armi', 'avst', 'cprt', 'egyd', 'egyh', 'hatr', 'hebr', 'hung', 'inds', 'khar', 'lydi', 'mand', 'mani', 'mend', 'merc', 'mero', 'narb', 'nbat', 'nkoo', 'orkh', 'palm', 'phli', 'phlp', 'phlv', 'phnx', 'prti', 'rohg', 'samr', 'sarb', 'sogd', 'sogo', 'syrc', 'syre', 'syrj', 'syrn', 'thaa', 'wole', }; --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L I T _ T I T L E S >------------------------------------------------ This is a table of tables of transliteration standards and the language codes or language scripts that apply to those standards. This table is used to create the tool-tip text associated with the transliterated text displayed by some of the {{lang-??}} templates. These tables are more-or-less copied directly from {{special|PermaLink/680078354}}. The standard 'NO_STD' is a construct to allow for the cases when no |std= parameter value is provided. ]] local translit_title_table = { ['abkai'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Abkai system of romanization', }, ['ahl'] = { ['default'] = 'Academy of the Hebrew Language transliteration', }, ['ala'] = { ['default'] = 'American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration', }, ['ala-lc'] = { ['default'] = 'American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration', }, ['batr'] = { ['default'] = 'Bikdash Arabic Transliteration Rules', }, ['bgn/pcgn'] = { ['default'] = 'Board on Geographic Names / Permanent Committee on Geographical Names transliteration', }, ['din'] = { ['ar'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['fa'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ku'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ps'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['tg'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ug'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['ur'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['arab'] = 'DIN 31635 Arabic', ['default'] = 'DIN transliteration', }, ['eae'] = { ['default'] = 'Encyclopaedia Aethiopica transliteration', }, ['hepburn'] = { ['default'] = 'Hepburn transliteration', }, ['hu'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Hu system of romanization', }, ['hunterian'] = { ['default'] = 'Hunterian transliteration', }, ['iast'] = { ['default'] = 'International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration', }, ['iso'] = { -- when a transliteration standard is supplied ['ab'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ba'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['be'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['bg'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['kk'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ky'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['mn'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ru'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['tg'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['uk'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['bua'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['sah'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['tut'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['xal'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['cyrl'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['cyrs'] = 'ISO 9 Cyrillic', ['ar'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ku'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ps'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ug'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['ur'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['arab'] = 'ISO 233 Arabic', ['he'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['yi'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['hebr'] = 'ISO 259 Hebrew', ['el'] = 'ISO 843 Greek', ['grc'] = 'ISO 843 Greek', ['ja'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['hira'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['hrkt'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['jpan'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['kana'] = 'ISO 3602 Japanese', ['zh'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['chi'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['cmn'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['zho'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', -- ['han'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', -- unicode alias of Hani? doesn't belong here? should be Hani? ['hans'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['hant'] = 'ISO 7098 Chinese', ['ka'] = 'ISO 9984 Georgian', ['kat'] = 'ISO 9984 Georgian', ['arm'] = 'ISO 9985 Armenian', ['hy'] = 'ISO 9985 Armenian', ['th'] = 'ISO 11940 Thai', ['tha'] = 'ISO 11940 Thai', ['ko'] = 'ISO 11941 Korean', ['kor'] = 'ISO 11941 Korean', ['awa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bho'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bn'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['bra'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['doi'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['dra'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gon'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gu'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['hi'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['hno'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['inc'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['kn'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['kok'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ks'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mag'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mai'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ml'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ne'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['new'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['or'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['pa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['pnb'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['raj'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sa'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sat'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sd'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['si'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['skr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['ta'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['tcy'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['te'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['beng'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['brah'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['deva'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['gujr'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['guru'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['knda'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['mlym'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['orya'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['sinh'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['taml'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['telu'] = 'ISO 15919 Indic', ['default'] = 'ISO transliteration', }, ['jyutping'] = { ['default'] = 'Jyutping transliteration', }, ['mdorff'] = { -- Manchu romanization ['default'] = 'Möllendorff system of romanization', }, ['mlcts'] = { ['default'] = 'Myanmar Language Commission Transcription System', }, ['mr'] = { ['default'] = 'McCune–Reischauer transliteration', }, ['nihon-shiki'] = { ['default'] = 'Nihon-shiki transliteration', }, ['no_std'] = { -- when no transliteration standard is supplied ['akk'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['sem'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['phnx'] = 'Semitic transliteration', ['xsux'] = 'Cuneiform transliteration', }, ['pinyin'] = { ['default'] = 'Pinyin transliteration', }, ['rr'] = { ['default'] = 'Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration', }, ['rtgs'] = { ['default'] = 'Royal Thai General System of Transcription', }, ['satts'] = { ['default'] = 'Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System transliteration', }, ['scientific'] = { ['default'] = 'scientific transliteration', }, ['thdl'] = { ['default'] = 'THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription', }, ['ukrainian'] = { ['default'] = 'Ukrainian National system of romanization', }, ['ungegn'] = { ['default'] = 'United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names transliteration', }, ['wadegile'] = { ['default'] = 'Wade–Giles transliteration', }, ['wehr'] = { ['default'] = 'Hans Wehr transliteration', }, ['wylie'] = { ['default'] = 'Wylie transliteration', }, ['yaleko'] = { ['default'] = 'Yale romanization of Korean', }, ['zwpy'] = { ['default'] = 'Tibetan pinyin' }, }; --[[--------------------------< E N G _ V A R >---------------------------------------------------------------- Used at en.wiki so that spelling of 'romanized' (US, default) can be changed to 'romanised' to match the envar specified by a {{Use xxx English}}. This is accomplished by setting |engvar=gb; can, should be omitted in articles that use American English; no need for the clutter. ]] local engvar_sel_t = { -- select either UK English or US English ['au'] = 'gb_t', -- these match IANA region codes (except in lower case) ['ca'] = 'us_t', ['gb'] = 'gb_t', ['ie'] = 'gb_t', ['in'] = 'gb_t', ['nz'] = 'gb_t', ['us'] = 'us_t', -- default engvar ['za'] = 'gb_t' }; local engvar_t = { ['gb_t'] = { ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanisation', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanisation', -- upper case ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanised', -- past tense }, ['us_t'] = { -- default engvar ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanization', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanization', -- upper case ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanized', -- past tense } } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >---------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { this_wiki_lang_tag = this_wiki_lang_tag, this_wiki_lang_dir = lang_obj:getDir(), -- wiki's language direction article_name = article_name, engvar_t = engvar_t, engvar_sel_t = engvar_sel_t, lang_name_table = lang_name_table_t, override = override, rtl_scripts = rtl_scripts, special_tags_table = special_tags_table, translit_title_table = translit_title_table, }; s0e87rcbxa4drtas1ou6pyjfr8z57z9 Module:Lang/data/iana languages 828 62721 687917 439091 2026-06-22T16:56:25Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to 2026-06-14 data; 687917 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 local active = { ["aa"] = {"Afar"}, ["ab"] = {"Abkhazian"}, ["ae"] = {"Avestan"}, ["af"] = {"Afrikaans"}, ["ak"] = {"Akan"}, ["am"] = {"Amharic"}, ["an"] = {"Aragonese"}, ["ar"] = {"Arabic"}, ["as"] = {"Assamese"}, ["av"] = {"Avaric"}, ["ay"] = {"Aymara"}, ["az"] = {"Azerbaijani"}, ["ba"] = {"Bashkir"}, ["be"] = {"Belarusian"}, ["bg"] = {"Bulgarian"}, ["bi"] = {"Bislama"}, ["bm"] = {"Bambara"}, ["bn"] = {"Bengali", "Bangla"}, ["bo"] = {"Tibetan"}, ["br"] = {"Breton"}, ["bs"] = {"Bosnian"}, ["ca"] = {"Catalan", "Valencian"}, ["ce"] = {"Chechen"}, ["ch"] = {"Chamorro"}, ["co"] = {"Corsican"}, ["cr"] = {"Cree"}, ["cs"] = {"Czech"}, ["cu"] = {"Church Slavic", "Church Slavonic", "Old Bulgarian", "Old Church Slavonic", "Old Slavonic"}, ["cv"] = {"Chuvash"}, ["cy"] = {"Welsh"}, ["da"] = {"Danish"}, ["de"] = {"German"}, ["dv"] = {"Dhivehi", "Divehi", "Maldivian"}, ["dz"] = {"Dzongkha"}, ["ee"] = {"Ewe"}, ["el"] = {"Modern Greek (1453-)"}, ["en"] = {"English"}, ["eo"] = {"Esperanto"}, ["es"] = {"Spanish", "Castilian"}, ["et"] = {"Estonian"}, ["eu"] = {"Basque"}, ["fa"] = {"Persian"}, ["ff"] = {"Fulah"}, ["fi"] = {"Finnish"}, ["fj"] = {"Fijian"}, ["fo"] = {"Faroese"}, ["fr"] = {"French"}, ["fy"] = {"Western Frisian"}, ["ga"] = {"Irish"}, ["gd"] = {"Scottish Gaelic", "Gaelic"}, ["gl"] = {"Galician"}, ["gn"] = {"Guarani"}, ["gu"] = {"Gujarati"}, ["gv"] = {"Manx"}, ["ha"] = {"Hausa"}, ["he"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["hi"] = {"Hindi"}, ["ho"] = {"Hiri Motu"}, ["hr"] = {"Croatian"}, ["ht"] = {"Haitian", "Haitian Creole"}, ["hu"] = {"Hungarian"}, ["hy"] = {"Armenian"}, ["hz"] = {"Herero"}, ["ia"] = {"Interlingua (IALA)", "Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association)"}, ["id"] = {"Indonesian"}, ["ie"] = {"Interlingue", "Occidental"}, ["ig"] = {"Igbo"}, ["ii"] = {"Sichuan Yi", "Nuosu"}, ["ik"] = {"Inupiaq"}, ["io"] = {"Ido"}, ["is"] = {"Icelandic"}, ["it"] = {"Italian"}, ["iu"] = {"Inuktitut"}, ["ja"] = {"Japanese"}, ["jv"] = {"Javanese"}, ["ka"] = {"Georgian"}, ["kg"] = {"Kongo"}, ["ki"] = {"Kikuyu", "Gikuyu"}, ["kj"] = {"Kuanyama", "Kwanyama"}, ["kk"] = {"Kazakh"}, ["kl"] = {"Kalaallisut", "Greenlandic"}, ["km"] = {"Khmer", "Central Khmer"}, ["kn"] = {"Kannada"}, ["ko"] = {"Korean"}, ["kr"] = {"Kanuri"}, ["ks"] = {"Kashmiri"}, ["ku"] = {"Kurdish"}, ["kv"] = {"Komi"}, ["kw"] = {"Cornish"}, ["ky"] = {"Kirghiz", "Kyrgyz"}, ["la"] = {"Latin"}, ["lb"] = {"Luxembourgish", "Letzeburgesch"}, ["lg"] = {"Ganda", "Luganda"}, ["li"] = {"Limburgan", "Limburger", "Limburgish"}, ["ln"] = {"Lingala"}, ["lo"] = {"Lao"}, ["lt"] = {"Lithuanian"}, ["lu"] = {"Luba-Katanga"}, ["lv"] = {"Latvian"}, ["mg"] = {"Malagasy"}, ["mh"] = {"Marshallese"}, ["mi"] = {"Maori"}, ["mk"] = {"Macedonian"}, ["ml"] = {"Malayalam"}, ["mn"] = {"Mongolian"}, ["mr"] = {"Marathi"}, ["ms"] = {"Malay (macrolanguage)"}, ["mt"] = {"Maltese"}, ["my"] = {"Burmese"}, ["na"] = {"Nauru"}, ["nb"] = {"Norwegian Bokmål"}, ["nd"] = {"North Ndebele"}, ["ne"] = {"Nepali (macrolanguage)"}, ["ng"] = {"Ndonga"}, ["nl"] = {"Dutch", "Flemish"}, ["nn"] = {"Norwegian Nynorsk"}, ["no"] = {"Norwegian"}, ["nr"] = {"South Ndebele"}, ["nv"] = {"Navajo", "Navaho"}, ["ny"] = {"Chichewa", "Chewa", "Nyanja"}, ["oc"] = {"Occitan (post 1500)"}, ["oj"] = {"Ojibwa"}, ["om"] = {"Oromo"}, ["or"] = {"Oriya (macrolanguage)", "Odia (macrolanguage)"}, ["os"] = {"Iron Ossetic", "Iron", "Iron Ossetian", "Ossetian", "Ossetic"}, ["pa"] = {"Panjabi", "Punjabi"}, ["pi"] = {"Pali"}, ["pl"] = {"Polish"}, ["ps"] = {"Pushto", "Pashto"}, ["pt"] = {"Portuguese"}, ["qu"] = {"Quechua"}, ["rm"] = {"Romansh"}, ["rn"] = {"Rundi"}, ["ro"] = {"Romanian", "Moldavian", "Moldovan"}, ["ru"] = {"Russian"}, ["rw"] = {"Kinyarwanda"}, ["sa"] = {"Sanskrit"}, ["sc"] = {"Sardinian"}, ["sd"] = {"Sindhi"}, ["se"] = {"Northern Sami"}, ["sg"] = {"Sango"}, ["sh"] = {"Serbo-Croatian"}, ["si"] = {"Sinhala", "Sinhalese"}, ["sk"] = {"Slovak"}, ["sl"] = {"Slovenian"}, ["sm"] = {"Samoan"}, ["sn"] = {"Shona"}, ["so"] = {"Somali"}, ["sq"] = {"Albanian"}, ["sr"] = {"Serbian"}, ["ss"] = {"Swati"}, ["st"] = {"Southern Sotho"}, ["su"] = {"Sundanese"}, ["sv"] = {"Swedish"}, ["sw"] = {"Swahili (macrolanguage)"}, ["ta"] = {"Tamil"}, ["te"] = {"Telugu"}, ["tg"] = {"Tajik"}, ["th"] = {"Thai"}, ["ti"] = {"Tigrinya"}, ["tk"] = {"Turkmen"}, ["tl"] = {"Tagalog"}, ["tn"] = {"Tswana"}, ["to"] = {"Tonga (Tonga Islands)"}, ["tr"] = {"Turkish"}, ["ts"] = {"Tsonga"}, ["tt"] = {"Tatar"}, ["tw"] = {"Twi"}, ["ty"] = {"Tahitian"}, ["ug"] = {"Uighur", "Uyghur"}, ["uk"] = {"Ukrainian"}, ["ur"] = {"Urdu"}, ["uz"] = {"Uzbek"}, ["ve"] = {"Venda"}, ["vi"] = {"Vietnamese"}, ["vo"] = {"Volapük"}, ["wa"] = {"Walloon"}, ["wo"] = {"Wolof"}, ["xh"] = {"Xhosa"}, ["yi"] = {"Yiddish"}, ["yo"] = {"Yoruba"}, ["za"] = {"Zhuang", "Chuang"}, ["zh"] = {"Chinese"}, ["zu"] = {"Zulu"}, ["aaa"] = {"Ghotuo"}, ["aab"] = {"Alumu-Tesu"}, ["aac"] = {"Ari"}, ["aad"] = {"Amal"}, ["aae"] = {"Arbëreshë Albanian"}, ["aaf"] = {"Aranadan"}, ["aag"] = {"Ambrak"}, ["aah"] = {"Abu' Arapesh"}, ["aai"] = {"Arifama-Miniafia"}, ["aak"] = {"Ankave"}, ["aal"] = {"Afade"}, ["aan"] = {"Anambé"}, ["aao"] = {"Algerian Saharan Arabic"}, ["aap"] = {"Pará Arára"}, ["aaq"] = {"Eastern Abnaki"}, ["aas"] = {"Aasáx"}, ["aat"] = {"Arvanitika Albanian"}, ["aau"] = {"Abau"}, ["aav"] = {"Austro-Asiatic languages"}, ["aaw"] = {"Solong"}, ["aax"] = {"Mandobo Atas"}, ["aaz"] = {"Amarasi"}, ["aba"] = {"Abé"}, ["abb"] = {"Bankon"}, ["abc"] = {"Ambala Ayta"}, ["abd"] = {"Manide"}, ["abe"] = {"Western Abnaki"}, ["abf"] = {"Abai Sungai"}, ["abg"] = {"Abaga"}, ["abh"] = {"Tajiki Arabic"}, ["abi"] = {"Abidji"}, ["abj"] = {"Aka-Bea"}, ["abl"] = {"Lampung Nyo"}, ["abm"] = {"Abanyom"}, ["abn"] = {"Abua"}, ["abo"] = {"Abon"}, ["abp"] = {"Abellen Ayta"}, ["abq"] = {"Abaza"}, ["abr"] = {"Abron"}, ["abs"] = {"Ambonese Malay"}, ["abt"] = {"Ambulas"}, ["abu"] = {"Abure"}, ["abv"] = {"Baharna Arabic"}, ["abw"] = {"Pal"}, ["abx"] = {"Inabaknon"}, ["aby"] = {"Aneme Wake"}, ["abz"] = {"Abui"}, ["aca"] = {"Achagua"}, ["acb"] = {"Áncá"}, ["acd"] = {"Gikyode"}, ["ace"] = {"Achinese"}, ["acf"] = {"Saint Lucian Creole French"}, ["ach"] = {"Acoli"}, ["aci"] = {"Aka-Cari"}, ["ack"] = {"Aka-Kora"}, ["acl"] = {"Akar-Bale"}, ["acm"] = {"Mesopotamian Arabic"}, ["acn"] = {"Achang"}, ["acp"] = {"Eastern Acipa"}, ["acq"] = {"Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic"}, ["acr"] = {"Achi"}, ["acs"] = {"Acroá"}, ["act"] = {"Achterhoeks"}, ["acu"] = {"Achuar-Shiwiar"}, ["acv"] = {"Achumawi"}, ["acw"] = {"Hijazi Arabic"}, ["acx"] = {"Omani Arabic"}, ["acy"] = {"Cypriot Arabic"}, ["acz"] = {"Acheron"}, ["ada"] = {"Adangme"}, ["adb"] = {"Atauran"}, ["add"] = {"Lidzonka", "Dzodinka"}, ["ade"] = {"Adele"}, ["adf"] = {"Dhofari Arabic"}, ["adg"] = {"Andegerebinha"}, ["adh"] = {"Adhola"}, ["adi"] = {"Adi"}, ["adj"] = {"Adioukrou"}, ["adl"] = {"Galo"}, ["adn"] = {"Adang"}, ["ado"] = {"Abu"}, ["adq"] = {"Adangbe"}, ["adr"] = {"Adonara"}, ["ads"] = {"Adamorobe Sign Language"}, ["adt"] = {"Adnyamathanha"}, ["adu"] = {"Aduge"}, ["adw"] = {"Amundava"}, ["adx"] = {"Amdo Tibetan"}, ["ady"] = {"Adyghe", "Adygei"}, ["adz"] = {"Adzera"}, ["aea"] = {"Areba"}, ["aeb"] = {"Tunisian Arabic"}, ["aec"] = {"Saidi Arabic"}, ["aed"] = {"Argentine Sign Language"}, ["aee"] = {"Northeast Pashai", "Northeast Pashayi"}, ["aek"] = {"Haeke"}, ["ael"] = {"Ambele"}, ["aem"] = {"Arem"}, ["aen"] = {"Armenian Sign Language"}, ["aeq"] = {"Aer"}, ["aer"] = {"Eastern Arrernte"}, ["aes"] = {"Alsea"}, ["aeu"] = {"Akeu"}, ["aew"] = {"Ambakich"}, ["aey"] = {"Amele"}, ["aez"] = {"Aeka"}, ["afa"] = {"Afro-Asiatic languages"}, ["afb"] = {"Gulf Arabic"}, ["afd"] = {"Andai"}, ["afe"] = {"Putukwam"}, ["afg"] = {"Afghan Sign Language"}, ["afh"] = {"Afrihili"}, ["afi"] = {"Akrukay", "Chini"}, ["afk"] = {"Nanubae"}, ["afn"] = {"Defaka"}, ["afo"] = {"Eloyi"}, ["afp"] = {"Tapei"}, ["afs"] = {"Afro-Seminole Creole"}, ["aft"] = {"Afitti"}, ["afu"] = {"Awutu"}, ["afz"] = {"Obokuitai"}, ["aga"] = {"Aguano"}, ["agb"] = {"Legbo"}, ["agc"] = {"Agatu"}, ["agd"] = {"Agarabi"}, ["age"] = {"Angal"}, ["agf"] = {"Arguni"}, ["agg"] = {"Angor"}, ["agh"] = {"Ngelima"}, ["agi"] = {"Agariya"}, ["agj"] = {"Argobba"}, ["agk"] = {"Isarog Agta"}, ["agl"] = {"Fembe"}, ["agm"] = {"Angaataha"}, ["agn"] = {"Agutaynen"}, ["ago"] = {"Tainae"}, ["agq"] = {"Aghem"}, ["agr"] = {"Aguaruna"}, ["ags"] = {"Esimbi"}, ["agt"] = {"Central Cagayan Agta"}, ["agu"] = {"Aguacateco"}, ["agv"] = {"Remontado Dumagat"}, ["agw"] = {"Kahua"}, ["agx"] = {"Aghul"}, ["agy"] = {"Southern Alta"}, ["agz"] = {"Mt. Iriga Agta"}, ["aha"] = {"Ahanta"}, ["ahb"] = {"Axamb"}, ["ahg"] = {"Qimant"}, ["ahh"] = {"Aghu"}, ["ahi"] = {"Tiagbamrin Aizi"}, ["ahk"] = {"Akha"}, ["ahl"] = {"Igo"}, ["ahm"] = {"Mobumrin Aizi"}, ["ahn"] = {"Àhàn"}, ["aho"] = {"Ahom"}, ["ahp"] = {"Aproumu Aizi"}, ["ahr"] = {"Ahirani"}, ["ahs"] = {"Ashe"}, ["aht"] = {"Ahtena"}, ["aia"] = {"Arosi"}, ["aib"] = {"Ainu (China)"}, ["aic"] = {"Ainbai"}, ["aid"] = {"Alngith"}, ["aie"] = {"Amara"}, ["aif"] = {"Agi"}, ["aig"] = {"Antigua and Barbuda Creole English"}, ["aih"] = {"Ai-Cham"}, ["aii"] = {"Assyrian Neo-Aramaic"}, ["aij"] = {"Lishanid Noshan"}, ["aik"] = {"Ake"}, ["ail"] = {"Aimele"}, ["aim"] = {"Aimol"}, ["ain"] = {"Ainu (Japan)"}, ["aio"] = {"Aiton"}, ["aip"] = {"Burumakok"}, ["aiq"] = {"Aimaq"}, ["air"] = {"Airoran"}, ["ait"] = {"Arikem"}, ["aiw"] = {"Aari"}, ["aix"] = {"Aighon"}, ["aiy"] = {"Ali"}, ["aja"] = {"Aja (South Sudan)"}, ["ajg"] = {"Aja (Benin)"}, ["aji"] = {"Ajië"}, ["ajn"] = {"Andajin"}, ["ajs"] = {"Algerian Jewish Sign Language"}, ["aju"] = {"Judeo-Moroccan Arabic"}, ["ajw"] = {"Ajawa"}, ["ajz"] = {"Amri Karbi"}, ["akb"] = {"Batak Angkola"}, ["akc"] = {"Mpur"}, ["akd"] = {"Ukpet-Ehom"}, ["ake"] = {"Akawaio"}, ["akf"] = {"Akpa"}, ["akg"] = {"Anakalangu"}, ["akh"] = {"Angal Heneng"}, ["aki"] = {"Aiome"}, ["akj"] = {"Aka-Jeru"}, ["akk"] = {"Akkadian"}, ["akl"] = {"Aklanon"}, ["akm"] = {"Aka-Bo"}, ["ako"] = {"Akurio"}, ["akp"] = {"Siwu"}, ["akq"] = {"Ak"}, ["akr"] = {"Araki"}, ["aks"] = {"Akaselem"}, ["akt"] = {"Akolet"}, ["aku"] = {"Akum"}, ["akv"] = {"Akhvakh"}, ["akw"] = {"Akwa"}, ["akx"] = {"Aka-Kede"}, ["aky"] = {"Aka-Kol"}, ["akz"] = {"Alabama"}, ["ala"] = {"Alago"}, ["alc"] = {"Qawasqar"}, ["ald"] = {"Alladian"}, ["ale"] = {"Aleut"}, ["alf"] = {"Alege"}, ["alg"] = {"Algonquian languages"}, ["alh"] = {"Alawa"}, ["ali"] = {"Amaimon"}, ["alj"] = {"Alangan"}, ["alk"] = {"Alak"}, ["all"] = {"Allar"}, ["alm"] = {"Amblong"}, ["aln"] = {"Gheg Albanian"}, ["alo"] = {"Larike-Wakasihu"}, ["alp"] = {"Alune"}, ["alq"] = {"Algonquin"}, ["alr"] = {"Alutor"}, ["als"] = {"Tosk Albanian"}, ["alt"] = {"Southern Altai"}, ["alu"] = {"'Are'are"}, ["alv"] = {"Atlantic-Congo languages"}, ["alw"] = {"Alaba-K’abeena", "Wanbasana"}, ["alx"] = {"Amol"}, ["aly"] = {"Alyawarr"}, ["alz"] = {"Alur"}, ["ama"] = {"Amanayé"}, ["amb"] = {"Ambo"}, ["amc"] = {"Amahuaca"}, ["ame"] = {"Yanesha'"}, ["amf"] = {"Hamer-Banna"}, ["amg"] = {"Amurdak"}, ["ami"] = {"Amis"}, ["amj"] = {"Amdang"}, ["amk"] = {"Ambai"}, ["aml"] = {"War-Jaintia"}, ["amm"] = {"Ama (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["amn"] = {"Amanab"}, ["amo"] = {"Amo"}, ["amp"] = {"Alamblak"}, ["amq"] = {"Amahai"}, ["amr"] = {"Amarakaeri"}, ["ams"] = {"Southern Amami-Oshima"}, ["amt"] = {"Amto"}, ["amu"] = {"Guerrero Amuzgo"}, ["amv"] = {"Ambelau"}, ["amw"] = {"Western Neo-Aramaic"}, ["amx"] = {"Anmatyerre"}, ["amy"] = {"Ami"}, ["amz"] = {"Atampaya"}, ["ana"] = {"Andaqui"}, ["anb"] = {"Andoa"}, ["anc"] = {"Ngas"}, ["and"] = {"Ansus"}, ["ane"] = {"Xârâcùù"}, ["anf"] = {"Animere"}, ["ang"] = {"Old English (ca. 450-1100)"}, ["anh"] = {"Nend"}, ["ani"] = {"Andi"}, ["anj"] = {"Anor"}, ["ank"] = {"Goemai"}, ["anl"] = {"Anu-Hkongso Chin"}, ["anm"] = {"Anal"}, ["ann"] = {"Obolo"}, ["ano"] = {"Andoque"}, ["anp"] = {"Angika"}, ["anq"] = {"Jarawa (India)"}, ["anr"] = {"Andh"}, ["ans"] = {"Anserma"}, ["ant"] = {"Antakarinya", "Antikarinya"}, ["anu"] = {"Anuak"}, ["anv"] = {"Denya"}, ["anw"] = {"Anaang"}, ["anx"] = {"Andra-Hus"}, ["any"] = {"Anyin"}, ["anz"] = {"Anem"}, ["aoa"] = {"Angolar"}, ["aob"] = {"Abom"}, ["aoc"] = {"Pemon"}, ["aod"] = {"Andarum"}, ["aoe"] = {"Angal Enen"}, ["aof"] = {"Bragat"}, ["aog"] = {"Angoram"}, ["aoi"] = {"Anindilyakwa"}, ["aoj"] = {"Mufian"}, ["aok"] = {"Arhö"}, ["aol"] = {"Alor"}, ["aom"] = {"Ömie"}, ["aon"] = {"Bumbita Arapesh"}, ["aor"] = {"Aore"}, ["aos"] = {"Taikat"}, ["aot"] = {"Atong (India)", "A'tong"}, ["aou"] = {"A'ou"}, ["aox"] = {"Atorada"}, ["aoz"] = {"Uab Meto"}, ["apa"] = {"Apache languages"}, ["apb"] = {"Sa'a"}, ["apc"] = {"Levantine Arabic"}, ["apd"] = {"Sudanese Arabic"}, ["ape"] = {"Bukiyip"}, ["apf"] = {"Pahanan Agta"}, ["apg"] = {"Ampanang"}, ["aph"] = {"Athpariya"}, ["api"] = {"Apiaká"}, ["apj"] = {"Jicarilla Apache"}, ["apk"] = {"Kiowa Apache"}, ["apl"] = {"Lipan Apache"}, ["apm"] = {"Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache"}, ["apn"] = {"Apinayé"}, ["apo"] = {"Ambul"}, ["app"] = {"Apma"}, ["apq"] = {"A-Pucikwar"}, ["apr"] = {"Arop-Lokep"}, ["aps"] = {"Arop-Sissano"}, ["apt"] = {"Apatani"}, ["apu"] = {"Apurinã"}, ["apv"] = {"Alapmunte"}, ["apw"] = {"Western Apache"}, ["apx"] = {"Aputai"}, ["apy"] = {"Apalaí"}, ["apz"] = {"Safeyoka"}, ["aqa"] = {"Alacalufan languages"}, ["aqc"] = {"Archi"}, ["aqd"] = {"Ampari Dogon"}, ["aqg"] = {"Arigidi"}, ["aqk"] = {"Aninka"}, ["aql"] = {"Algic languages"}, ["aqm"] = {"Atohwaim"}, ["aqn"] = {"Northern Alta"}, ["aqp"] = {"Atakapa"}, ["aqr"] = {"Arhâ"}, ["aqt"] = {"Angaité"}, ["aqz"] = {"Akuntsu"}, ["arb"] = {"Standard Arabic"}, ["arc"] = {"Official Aramaic (700-300 BCE)", "Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)"}, ["ard"] = {"Arabana"}, ["are"] = {"Western Arrarnta"}, ["arh"] = {"Arhuaco"}, ["ari"] = {"Arikara"}, ["arj"] = {"Arapaso"}, ["ark"] = {"Arikapú"}, ["arl"] = {"Arabela"}, ["arn"] = {"Mapudungun", "Mapuche"}, ["aro"] = {"Araona"}, ["arp"] = {"Arapaho"}, ["arq"] = {"Algerian Arabic"}, ["arr"] = {"Karo (Brazil)"}, ["ars"] = {"Najdi Arabic"}, ["art"] = {"Artificial languages"}, ["aru"] = {"Aruá (Amazonas State)", "Arawá"}, ["arv"] = {"Arbore"}, ["arw"] = {"Arawak"}, ["arx"] = {"Aruá (Rodonia State)"}, ["ary"] = {"Moroccan Arabic"}, ["arz"] = {"Egyptian Arabic"}, ["asa"] = {"Asu (Tanzania)"}, ["asb"] = {"Assiniboine", "Nakoda Assiniboine"}, ["asc"] = {"Casuarina Coast Asmat"}, ["ase"] = {"American Sign Language"}, ["asf"] = {"Auslan", "Australian Sign Language"}, ["asg"] = {"Cishingini"}, ["ash"] = {"Abishira"}, ["asi"] = {"Buruwai"}, ["asj"] = {"Sari"}, ["ask"] = {"Ashkun"}, ["asl"] = {"Asilulu"}, ["asn"] = {"Xingú Asuriní"}, ["aso"] = {"Dano"}, ["asp"] = {"Algerian Sign Language"}, ["asq"] = {"Austrian Sign Language"}, ["asr"] = {"Asuri"}, ["ass"] = {"Ipulo"}, ["ast"] = {"Asturian", "Asturleonese", "Bable", "Leonese"}, ["asu"] = {"Tocantins Asurini"}, ["asv"] = {"Asoa"}, ["asw"] = {"Australian Aborigines Sign Language"}, ["asx"] = {"Muratayak"}, ["asy"] = {"Yaosakor Asmat"}, ["asz"] = {"As"}, ["ata"] = {"Pele-Ata"}, ["atb"] = {"Zaiwa"}, ["atc"] = {"Atsahuaca"}, ["atd"] = {"Ata Manobo"}, ["ate"] = {"Atemble"}, ["atg"] = {"Ivbie North-Okpela-Arhe"}, ["ath"] = {"Athapascan languages"}, ["ati"] = {"Attié"}, ["atj"] = {"Atikamekw", "Nehirowimowin"}, ["atk"] = {"Ati"}, ["atl"] = {"Mt. Iraya Agta"}, ["atm"] = {"Ata"}, ["atn"] = {"Ashtiani"}, ["ato"] = {"Atong (Cameroon)"}, ["atp"] = {"Pudtol Atta"}, ["atq"] = {"Aralle-Tabulahan"}, ["atr"] = {"Waimiri-Atroari"}, ["ats"] = {"Gros Ventre"}, ["att"] = {"Pamplona Atta"}, ["atu"] = {"Reel"}, ["atv"] = {"Northern Altai"}, ["atw"] = {"Atsugewi"}, ["atx"] = {"Arutani"}, ["aty"] = {"Aneityum"}, ["atz"] = {"Arta"}, ["aua"] = {"Asumboa"}, ["aub"] = {"Alugu"}, ["auc"] = {"Waorani"}, ["aud"] = {"Anuta"}, ["auf"] = {"Arauan languages"}, ["aug"] = {"Aguna"}, ["auh"] = {"Aushi"}, ["aui"] = {"Anuki"}, ["auj"] = {"Awjilah"}, ["auk"] = {"Heyo"}, ["aul"] = {"Aulua"}, ["aum"] = {"Asu (Nigeria)"}, ["aun"] = {"Molmo One"}, ["auo"] = {"Auyokawa"}, ["aup"] = {"Makayam"}, ["auq"] = {"Anus", "Korur"}, ["aur"] = {"Aruek"}, ["aus"] = {"Australian languages"}, ["aut"] = {"Austral"}, ["auu"] = {"Auye"}, ["auw"] = {"Awyi"}, ["aux"] = {"Aurá"}, ["auy"] = {"Awiyaana"}, ["auz"] = {"Uzbeki Arabic"}, ["avb"] = {"Avau"}, ["avd"] = {"Alviri-Vidari"}, ["avi"] = {"Avikam"}, ["avk"] = {"Kotava"}, ["avl"] = {"Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic"}, ["avm"] = {"Angkamuthi"}, ["avn"] = {"Avatime"}, ["avo"] = {"Agavotaguerra"}, ["avs"] = {"Aushiri"}, ["avt"] = {"Au"}, ["avu"] = {"Avokaya"}, ["avv"] = {"Avá-Canoeiro"}, ["awa"] = {"Awadhi"}, ["awb"] = {"Awa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["awc"] = {"Cicipu"}, ["awd"] = {"Arawakan languages"}, ["awe"] = {"Awetí"}, ["awg"] = {"Anguthimri"}, ["awh"] = {"Awbono"}, ["awi"] = {"Aekyom"}, ["awk"] = {"Awabakal"}, ["awm"] = {"Arawum"}, ["awn"] = {"Awngi"}, ["awo"] = {"Awak"}, ["awr"] = {"Awera"}, ["aws"] = {"South Awyu"}, ["awt"] = {"Araweté"}, ["awu"] = {"Central Awyu"}, ["awv"] = {"Jair Awyu"}, ["aww"] = {"Awun"}, ["awx"] = {"Awara"}, ["awy"] = {"Edera Awyu"}, ["axb"] = {"Abipon"}, ["axe"] = {"Ayerrerenge"}, ["axg"] = {"Mato Grosso Arára"}, ["axk"] = {"Yaka (Central African Republic)"}, ["axl"] = {"Lower Southern Aranda"}, ["axm"] = {"Middle Armenian"}, ["axx"] = {"Xârâgurè"}, ["aya"] = {"Awar"}, ["ayb"] = {"Ayizo Gbe"}, ["ayc"] = {"Southern Aymara"}, ["ayd"] = {"Ayabadhu"}, ["aye"] = {"Ayere"}, ["ayg"] = {"Ginyanga"}, ["ayh"] = {"Hadrami Arabic"}, ["ayi"] = {"Leyigha"}, ["ayk"] = {"Akuku"}, ["ayl"] = {"Libyan Arabic"}, ["ayn"] = {"Sanaani Arabic"}, ["ayo"] = {"Ayoreo"}, ["ayp"] = {"North Mesopotamian Arabic"}, ["ayq"] = {"Ayi (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["ayr"] = {"Central Aymara"}, ["ays"] = {"Sorsogon Ayta"}, ["ayt"] = {"Magbukun Ayta"}, ["ayu"] = {"Ayu"}, ["ayz"] = {"Mai Brat"}, ["aza"] = {"Azha"}, ["azb"] = {"South Azerbaijani"}, ["azc"] = {"Uto-Aztecan languages"}, ["azd"] = {"Eastern Durango Nahuatl"}, ["azg"] = {"San Pedro Amuzgos Amuzgo"}, ["azj"] = {"North Azerbaijani"}, ["azm"] = {"Ipalapa Amuzgo"}, ["azn"] = {"Western Durango Nahuatl"}, ["azo"] = {"Awing"}, ["azt"] = {"Faire Atta"}, ["azz"] = {"Highland Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["baa"] = {"Babatana"}, ["bab"] = {"Bainouk-Gunyuño"}, ["bac"] = {"Badui"}, ["bad"] = {"Banda languages"}, ["bae"] = {"Baré"}, ["baf"] = {"Nubaca"}, ["bag"] = {"Tuki"}, ["bah"] = {"Bahamas Creole English"}, ["bai"] = {"Bamileke languages"}, ["baj"] = {"Barakai"}, ["bal"] = {"Baluchi"}, ["ban"] = {"Balinese"}, ["bao"] = {"Waimaha"}, ["bap"] = {"Bantawa"}, ["bar"] = {"Bavarian"}, ["bas"] = {"Basa (Cameroon)"}, ["bat"] = {"Baltic languages"}, ["bau"] = {"Bada (Nigeria)"}, ["bav"] = {"Vengo"}, ["baw"] = {"Bambili-Bambui"}, ["bax"] = {"Bamun"}, ["bay"] = {"Batuley"}, ["bba"] = {"Baatonum"}, ["bbb"] = {"Barai"}, ["bbc"] = {"Batak Toba"}, ["bbd"] = {"Bau"}, ["bbe"] = {"Bangba"}, ["bbf"] = {"Baibai"}, ["bbg"] = {"Barama"}, ["bbh"] = {"Bugan"}, ["bbi"] = {"Barombi"}, ["bbj"] = {"Ghomálá'"}, ["bbk"] = {"Babanki"}, ["bbl"] = {"Bats"}, ["bbm"] = {"Babango"}, ["bbn"] = {"Uneapa"}, ["bbo"] = {"Northern Bobo Madaré", "Konabéré"}, ["bbp"] = {"West Central Banda"}, ["bbq"] = {"Bamali"}, ["bbr"] = {"Girawa"}, ["bbs"] = {"Bakpinka"}, ["bbt"] = {"Mburku"}, ["bbu"] = {"Kulung (Nigeria)"}, ["bbv"] = {"Karnai"}, ["bbw"] = {"Baba"}, ["bbx"] = {"Bubia"}, ["bby"] = {"Befang"}, ["bca"] = {"Central Bai"}, ["bcb"] = {"Bainouk-Samik"}, ["bcc"] = {"Southern Balochi"}, ["bcd"] = {"North Babar"}, ["bce"] = {"Bamenyam"}, ["bcf"] = {"Bamu"}, ["bcg"] = {"Baga Pokur"}, ["bch"] = {"Bariai"}, ["bci"] = {"Baoulé"}, ["bcj"] = {"Bardi"}, ["bck"] = {"Bunuba"}, ["bcl"] = {"Central Bikol"}, ["bcm"] = {"Bannoni"}, ["bcn"] = {"Bali (Nigeria)"}, ["bco"] = {"Kaluli"}, ["bcp"] = {"Bali (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bcq"] = {"Bench"}, ["bcr"] = {"Babine"}, ["bcs"] = {"Kohumono"}, ["bct"] = {"Bendi"}, ["bcu"] = {"Awad Bing"}, ["bcv"] = {"Shoo-Minda-Nye"}, ["bcw"] = {"Bana"}, ["bcy"] = {"Bacama"}, ["bcz"] = {"Bainouk-Gunyaamolo"}, ["bda"] = {"Bayot"}, ["bdb"] = {"Basap"}, ["bdc"] = {"Emberá-Baudó"}, ["bdd"] = {"Bunama"}, ["bde"] = {"Bade"}, ["bdf"] = {"Biage"}, ["bdg"] = {"Bonggi"}, ["bdh"] = {"Baka (South Sudan)"}, ["bdi"] = {"Burun"}, ["bdj"] = {"Bai (South Sudan)", "Bai"}, ["bdk"] = {"Budukh"}, ["bdl"] = {"Indonesian Bajau"}, ["bdm"] = {"Buduma"}, ["bdn"] = {"Baldemu"}, ["bdo"] = {"Morom"}, ["bdp"] = {"Bende"}, ["bdq"] = {"Bahnar"}, ["bdr"] = {"West Coast Bajau"}, ["bds"] = {"Burunge"}, ["bdt"] = {"Bokoto"}, ["bdu"] = {"Oroko"}, ["bdv"] = {"Bodo Parja"}, ["bdw"] = {"Baham"}, ["bdx"] = {"Budong-Budong"}, ["bdy"] = {"Bandjalang"}, ["bdz"] = {"Badeshi"}, ["bea"] = {"Beaver"}, ["beb"] = {"Bebele"}, ["bec"] = {"Iceve-Maci"}, ["bed"] = {"Bedoanas"}, ["bee"] = {"Byangsi"}, ["bef"] = {"Benabena"}, ["beg"] = {"Belait"}, ["beh"] = {"Biali"}, ["bei"] = {"Bekati'"}, ["bej"] = {"Beja", "Bedawiyet"}, ["bek"] = {"Bebeli"}, ["bem"] = {"Bemba (Zambia)"}, ["beo"] = {"Beami"}, ["bep"] = {"Besoa"}, ["beq"] = {"Beembe"}, ["ber"] = {"Berber languages"}, ["bes"] = {"Besme"}, ["bet"] = {"Guiberoua Béte"}, ["beu"] = {"Blagar"}, ["bev"] = {"Daloa Bété"}, ["bew"] = {"Betawi"}, ["bex"] = {"Jur Modo"}, ["bey"] = {"Beli (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bez"] = {"Bena (Tanzania)"}, ["bfa"] = {"Bari"}, ["bfb"] = {"Pauri Bareli"}, ["bfc"] = {"Panyi Bai", "Northern Bai"}, ["bfd"] = {"Bafut"}, ["bfe"] = {"Betaf", "Tena"}, ["bff"] = {"Bofi"}, ["bfg"] = {"Busang Kayan"}, ["bfh"] = {"Blafe"}, ["bfi"] = {"British Sign Language"}, ["bfj"] = {"Bafanji"}, ["bfk"] = {"Ban Khor Sign Language"}, ["bfl"] = {"Banda-Ndélé"}, ["bfm"] = {"Mmen"}, ["bfn"] = {"Bunak"}, ["bfo"] = {"Malba Birifor"}, ["bfp"] = {"Beba"}, ["bfq"] = {"Badaga"}, ["bfr"] = {"Bazigar"}, ["bfs"] = {"Southern Bai"}, ["bft"] = {"Balti"}, ["bfu"] = {"Gahri"}, ["bfw"] = {"Bondo"}, ["bfx"] = {"Bantayanon"}, ["bfy"] = {"Bagheli"}, ["bfz"] = {"Mahasu Pahari"}, ["bga"] = {"Gwamhi-Wuri"}, ["bgb"] = {"Bobongko"}, ["bgc"] = {"Haryanvi"}, ["bgd"] = {"Rathwi Bareli"}, ["bge"] = {"Bauria"}, ["bgf"] = {"Bangandu"}, ["bgg"] = {"Bugun"}, ["bgi"] = {"Giangan"}, ["bgj"] = {"Bangolan"}, ["bgk"] = {"Bit", "Buxinhua"}, ["bgl"] = {"Bo (Laos)"}, ["bgn"] = {"Western Balochi"}, ["bgo"] = {"Baga Koga"}, ["bgp"] = {"Eastern Balochi"}, ["bgq"] = {"Bagri"}, ["bgr"] = {"Bawm Chin"}, ["bgs"] = {"Tagabawa"}, ["bgt"] = {"Bughotu"}, ["bgu"] = {"Mbongno"}, ["bgv"] = {"Warkay-Bipim"}, ["bgw"] = {"Bhatri"}, ["bgx"] = {"Balkan Gagauz Turkish"}, ["bgy"] = {"Benggoi"}, ["bgz"] = {"Banggai"}, ["bha"] = {"Bharia"}, ["bhb"] = {"Bhili"}, ["bhc"] = {"Biga"}, ["bhd"] = {"Bhadrawahi"}, ["bhe"] = {"Bhaya"}, ["bhf"] = {"Odiai"}, ["bhg"] = {"Binandere"}, ["bhh"] = {"Bukharic"}, ["bhi"] = {"Bhilali"}, ["bhj"] = {"Bahing"}, ["bhl"] = {"Bimin"}, ["bhm"] = {"Bathari"}, ["bhn"] = {"Bohtan Neo-Aramaic"}, ["bho"] = {"Bhojpuri"}, ["bhp"] = {"Bima"}, ["bhq"] = {"Tukang Besi South"}, ["bhr"] = {"Bara Malagasy"}, ["bhs"] = {"Buwal"}, ["bht"] = {"Bhattiyali"}, ["bhu"] = {"Bhunjia"}, ["bhv"] = {"Bahau"}, ["bhw"] = {"Biak"}, ["bhx"] = {"Bhalay"}, ["bhy"] = {"Bhele"}, ["bhz"] = {"Bada (Indonesia)"}, ["bia"] = {"Badimaya"}, ["bib"] = {"Bissa", "Bisa"}, ["bid"] = {"Bidiyo"}, ["bie"] = {"Bepour"}, ["bif"] = {"Biafada"}, ["big"] = {"Biangai"}, ["bih"] = {"Bihari languages"}, ["bik"] = {"Bikol"}, ["bil"] = {"Bile"}, ["bim"] = {"Bimoba"}, ["bin"] = {"Bini", "Edo"}, ["bio"] = {"Nai"}, ["bip"] = {"Bila"}, ["biq"] = {"Bipi"}, ["bir"] = {"Bisorio"}, ["bit"] = {"Berinomo"}, ["biu"] = {"Biete"}, ["biv"] = {"Southern Birifor"}, ["biw"] = {"Kol (Cameroon)"}, ["bix"] = {"Bijori"}, ["biy"] = {"Birhor"}, ["biz"] = {"Baloi"}, ["bja"] = {"Budza"}, ["bjb"] = {"Banggarla"}, ["bjc"] = {"Bariji"}, ["bje"] = {"Biao-Jiao Mien"}, ["bjf"] = {"Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic"}, ["bjg"] = {"Bidyogo"}, ["bjh"] = {"Bahinemo"}, ["bji"] = {"Burji"}, ["bjj"] = {"Kanauji"}, ["bjk"] = {"Barok"}, ["bjl"] = {"Bulu (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bjm"] = {"Bajelani"}, ["bjn"] = {"Banjar"}, ["bjo"] = {"Mid-Southern Banda"}, ["bjp"] = {"Fanamaket"}, ["bjr"] = {"Binumarien"}, ["bjs"] = {"Bajan"}, ["bjt"] = {"Balanta-Ganja"}, ["bju"] = {"Busuu"}, ["bjv"] = {"Bedjond"}, ["bjw"] = {"Bakwé"}, ["bjx"] = {"Banao Itneg"}, ["bjy"] = {"Bayali"}, ["bjz"] = {"Baruga"}, ["bka"] = {"Kyak"}, ["bkc"] = {"Baka (Cameroon)"}, ["bkd"] = {"Binukid", "Talaandig"}, ["bkf"] = {"Beeke"}, ["bkg"] = {"Buraka"}, ["bkh"] = {"Bakoko"}, ["bki"] = {"Baki"}, ["bkj"] = {"Pande"}, ["bkk"] = {"Brokskat"}, ["bkl"] = {"Berik"}, ["bkm"] = {"Kom (Cameroon)"}, ["bkn"] = {"Bukitan"}, ["bko"] = {"Kwa'"}, ["bkp"] = {"Boko (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bkq"] = {"Bakairí"}, ["bkr"] = {"Bakumpai"}, ["bks"] = {"Northern Sorsoganon"}, ["bkt"] = {"Boloki"}, ["bku"] = {"Buhid"}, ["bkv"] = {"Bekwarra"}, ["bkw"] = {"Bekwel"}, ["bkx"] = {"Baikeno"}, ["bky"] = {"Bokyi"}, ["bkz"] = {"Bungku"}, ["bla"] = {"Siksika"}, ["blb"] = {"Bilua"}, ["blc"] = {"Bella Coola"}, ["bld"] = {"Bolango"}, ["ble"] = {"Balanta-Kentohe"}, ["blf"] = {"Buol"}, ["blh"] = {"Kuwaa"}, ["bli"] = {"Bolia"}, ["blj"] = {"Bolongan"}, ["blk"] = {"Pa'o Karen", "Pa'O"}, ["bll"] = {"Biloxi"}, ["blm"] = {"Beli (South Sudan)"}, ["bln"] = {"Southern Catanduanes Bikol"}, ["blo"] = {"Anii"}, ["blp"] = {"Blablanga"}, ["blq"] = {"Baluan-Pam"}, ["blr"] = {"Blang"}, ["bls"] = {"Balaesang"}, ["blt"] = {"Tai Dam"}, ["blv"] = {"Kibala", "Bolo"}, ["blw"] = {"Balangao"}, ["blx"] = {"Mag-Indi Ayta"}, ["bly"] = {"Notre"}, ["blz"] = {"Balantak"}, ["bma"] = {"Lame"}, ["bmb"] = {"Bembe"}, ["bmc"] = {"Biem"}, ["bmd"] = {"Baga Manduri"}, ["bme"] = {"Limassa"}, ["bmf"] = {"Bom-Kim"}, ["bmg"] = {"Bamwe"}, ["bmh"] = {"Kein"}, ["bmi"] = {"Bagirmi"}, ["bmj"] = {"Bote-Majhi"}, ["bmk"] = {"Ghayavi"}, ["bml"] = {"Bomboli"}, ["bmm"] = {"Northern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bmn"] = {"Bina (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bmo"] = {"Bambalang"}, ["bmp"] = {"Bulgebi"}, ["bmq"] = {"Bomu"}, ["bmr"] = {"Muinane"}, ["bms"] = {"Bilma Kanuri"}, ["bmt"] = {"Biao Mon"}, ["bmu"] = {"Somba-Siawari"}, ["bmv"] = {"Bum"}, ["bmw"] = {"Bomwali"}, ["bmx"] = {"Baimak"}, ["bmz"] = {"Baramu"}, ["bna"] = {"Bonerate"}, ["bnb"] = {"Bookan"}, ["bnc"] = {"Bontok"}, ["bnd"] = {"Banda (Indonesia)"}, ["bne"] = {"Bintauna"}, ["bnf"] = {"Masiwang"}, ["bng"] = {"Benga"}, ["bni"] = {"Bangi"}, ["bnj"] = {"Eastern Tawbuid"}, ["bnk"] = {"Bierebo"}, ["bnl"] = {"Boon"}, ["bnm"] = {"Batanga"}, ["bnn"] = {"Bunun"}, ["bno"] = {"Bantoanon"}, ["bnp"] = {"Bola"}, ["bnq"] = {"Bantik"}, ["bnr"] = {"Butmas-Tur"}, ["bns"] = {"Bundeli"}, ["bnt"] = {"Bantu languages"}, ["bnu"] = {"Bentong"}, ["bnv"] = {"Bonerif", "Beneraf", "Edwas"}, ["bnw"] = {"Bisis"}, ["bnx"] = {"Bangubangu"}, ["bny"] = {"Bintulu"}, ["bnz"] = {"Beezen"}, ["boa"] = {"Bora"}, ["bob"] = {"Aweer"}, ["boe"] = {"Mundabli-Mufu"}, ["bof"] = {"Bolon"}, ["bog"] = {"Bamako Sign Language"}, ["boh"] = {"Boma"}, ["boi"] = {"Barbareño"}, ["boj"] = {"Anjam"}, ["bok"] = {"Bonjo"}, ["bol"] = {"Bole"}, ["bom"] = {"Berom"}, ["bon"] = {"Bine"}, ["boo"] = {"Tiemacèwè Bozo"}, ["bop"] = {"Bonkiman"}, ["boq"] = {"Bogaya"}, ["bor"] = {"Borôro"}, ["bot"] = {"Bongo"}, ["bou"] = {"Bondei"}, ["bov"] = {"Tuwuli"}, ["bow"] = {"Rema"}, ["box"] = {"Buamu"}, ["boy"] = {"Bodo (Central African Republic)"}, ["boz"] = {"Tiéyaxo Bozo"}, ["bpa"] = {"Daakaka"}, ["bpc"] = {"Mbuk"}, ["bpd"] = {"Banda-Banda"}, ["bpe"] = {"Bauni"}, ["bpg"] = {"Bonggo"}, ["bph"] = {"Botlikh"}, ["bpi"] = {"Bagupi"}, ["bpj"] = {"Binji"}, ["bpk"] = {"Orowe", "'Ôrôê"}, ["bpl"] = {"Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin"}, ["bpm"] = {"Biyom"}, ["bpn"] = {"Dzao Min"}, ["bpo"] = {"Anasi"}, ["bpp"] = {"Kaure"}, ["bpq"] = {"Banda Malay"}, ["bpr"] = {"Koronadal Blaan"}, ["bps"] = {"Sarangani Blaan"}, ["bpt"] = {"Barrow Point"}, ["bpu"] = {"Bongu"}, ["bpv"] = {"Bian Marind"}, ["bpw"] = {"Bo (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bpx"] = {"Palya Bareli"}, ["bpy"] = {"Bishnupriya"}, ["bpz"] = {"Bilba"}, ["bqa"] = {"Tchumbuli"}, ["bqb"] = {"Bagusa"}, ["bqc"] = {"Boko (Benin)", "Boo"}, ["bqd"] = {"Bung"}, ["bqf"] = {"Baga Kaloum"}, ["bqg"] = {"Bago-Kusuntu"}, ["bqh"] = {"Baima"}, ["bqi"] = {"Bakhtiari"}, ["bqj"] = {"Bandial"}, ["bqk"] = {"Banda-Mbrès"}, ["bql"] = {"Karian", "Bilakura"}, ["bqm"] = {"Wumboko"}, ["bqn"] = {"Bulgarian Sign Language"}, ["bqo"] = {"Balo"}, ["bqp"] = {"Busa"}, ["bqq"] = {"Biritai"}, ["bqr"] = {"Burusu"}, ["bqs"] = {"Bosngun"}, ["bqt"] = {"Bamukumbit"}, ["bqu"] = {"Boguru"}, ["bqv"] = {"Koro Wachi", "Begbere-Ejar"}, ["bqw"] = {"Buru (Nigeria)"}, ["bqx"] = {"Baangi"}, ["bqy"] = {"Bengkala Sign Language"}, ["bqz"] = {"Bakaka"}, ["bra"] = {"Braj"}, ["brb"] = {"Brao", "Lave"}, ["brc"] = {"Berbice Creole Dutch"}, ["brd"] = {"Baraamu"}, ["brf"] = {"Bira"}, ["brg"] = {"Baure"}, ["brh"] = {"Brahui"}, ["bri"] = {"Mokpwe"}, ["brj"] = {"Bieria"}, ["brk"] = {"Birked"}, ["brl"] = {"Birwa"}, ["brm"] = {"Barambu"}, ["brn"] = {"Boruca"}, ["bro"] = {"Brokkat"}, ["brp"] = {"Barapasi"}, ["brq"] = {"Breri"}, ["brr"] = {"Birao"}, ["brs"] = {"Baras"}, ["brt"] = {"Bitare"}, ["bru"] = {"Eastern Bru"}, ["brv"] = {"Western Bru"}, ["brw"] = {"Bellari"}, ["brx"] = {"Bodo (India)"}, ["bry"] = {"Burui"}, ["brz"] = {"Bilbil"}, ["bsa"] = {"Abinomn"}, ["bsb"] = {"Brunei Bisaya"}, ["bsc"] = {"Bassari", "Oniyan"}, ["bse"] = {"Wushi"}, ["bsf"] = {"Bauchi"}, ["bsg"] = {"Bashkardi"}, ["bsh"] = {"Kati"}, ["bsi"] = {"Bassossi"}, ["bsj"] = {"Bangwinji"}, ["bsk"] = {"Burushaski"}, ["bsl"] = {"Basa-Gumna"}, ["bsm"] = {"Busami"}, ["bsn"] = {"Barasana-Eduria"}, ["bso"] = {"Buso"}, ["bsp"] = {"Baga Sitemu"}, ["bsq"] = {"Bassa"}, ["bsr"] = {"Bassa-Kontagora"}, ["bss"] = {"Akoose"}, ["bst"] = {"Basketo"}, ["bsu"] = {"Bahonsuai"}, ["bsv"] = {"Baga Sobané"}, ["bsw"] = {"Baiso"}, ["bsx"] = {"Yangkam"}, ["bsy"] = {"Sabah Bisaya"}, ["bta"] = {"Bata"}, ["btc"] = {"Bati (Cameroon)"}, ["btd"] = {"Batak Dairi"}, ["bte"] = {"Gamo-Ningi"}, ["btf"] = {"Birgit"}, ["btg"] = {"Gagnoa Bété"}, ["bth"] = {"Biatah Bidayuh"}, ["bti"] = {"Burate"}, ["btj"] = {"Bacanese Malay"}, ["btk"] = {"Batak languages"}, ["btm"] = {"Batak Mandailing"}, ["btn"] = {"Ratagnon"}, ["bto"] = {"Rinconada Bikol"}, ["btp"] = {"Budibud"}, ["btq"] = {"Batek"}, ["btr"] = {"Baetora"}, ["bts"] = {"Batak Simalungun"}, ["btt"] = {"Bete-Bendi"}, ["btu"] = {"Batu"}, ["btv"] = {"Bateri"}, ["btw"] = {"Butuanon"}, ["btx"] = {"Batak Karo"}, ["bty"] = {"Bobot"}, ["btz"] = {"Batak Alas-Kluet"}, ["bua"] = {"Buriat"}, ["bub"] = {"Bua"}, ["buc"] = {"Bushi"}, ["bud"] = {"Ntcham"}, ["bue"] = {"Beothuk"}, ["buf"] = {"Bushoong"}, ["bug"] = {"Buginese"}, ["buh"] = {"Younuo Bunu"}, ["bui"] = {"Bongili"}, ["buj"] = {"Basa-Gurmana"}, ["buk"] = {"Bugawac"}, ["bum"] = {"Bulu (Cameroon)"}, ["bun"] = {"Sherbro"}, ["buo"] = {"Terei"}, ["bup"] = {"Busoa"}, ["buq"] = {"Brem"}, ["bus"] = {"Bokobaru"}, ["but"] = {"Bungain"}, ["buu"] = {"Budu"}, ["buv"] = {"Bun"}, ["buw"] = {"Bubi"}, ["bux"] = {"Boghom"}, ["buy"] = {"Bullom So"}, ["buz"] = {"Bukwen"}, ["bva"] = {"Barein"}, ["bvb"] = {"Bube"}, ["bvc"] = {"Baelelea"}, ["bvd"] = {"Baeggu"}, ["bve"] = {"Berau Malay"}, ["bvf"] = {"Boor"}, ["bvg"] = {"Bonkeng"}, ["bvh"] = {"Bure"}, ["bvi"] = {"Belanda Viri"}, ["bvj"] = {"Baan"}, ["bvk"] = {"Bukat"}, ["bvl"] = {"Bolivian Sign Language"}, ["bvm"] = {"Bamunka"}, ["bvn"] = {"Buna"}, ["bvo"] = {"Bolgo"}, ["bvp"] = {"Bumang"}, ["bvq"] = {"Birri"}, ["bvr"] = {"Burarra"}, ["bvt"] = {"Bati (Indonesia)"}, ["bvu"] = {"Bukit Malay"}, ["bvv"] = {"Baniva"}, ["bvw"] = {"Boga"}, ["bvx"] = {"Dibole"}, ["bvy"] = {"Baybayanon"}, ["bvz"] = {"Bauzi"}, ["bwa"] = {"Bwatoo"}, ["bwb"] = {"Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua"}, ["bwc"] = {"Bwile"}, ["bwd"] = {"Bwaidoka"}, ["bwe"] = {"Bwe Karen"}, ["bwf"] = {"Boselewa"}, ["bwg"] = {"Barwe"}, ["bwh"] = {"Bishuo"}, ["bwi"] = {"Baniwa"}, ["bwj"] = {"Láá Láá Bwamu"}, ["bwk"] = {"Bauwaki"}, ["bwl"] = {"Bwela"}, ["bwm"] = {"Biwat"}, ["bwn"] = {"Wunai Bunu"}, ["bwo"] = {"Boro (Ethiopia)", "Borna (Ethiopia)"}, ["bwp"] = {"Mandobo Bawah"}, ["bwq"] = {"Southern Bobo Madaré"}, ["bwr"] = {"Bura-Pabir"}, ["bws"] = {"Bomboma"}, ["bwt"] = {"Bafaw-Balong"}, ["bwu"] = {"Buli (Ghana)"}, ["bww"] = {"Bwa"}, ["bwx"] = {"Bu-Nao Bunu"}, ["bwy"] = {"Cwi Bwamu"}, ["bwz"] = {"Bwisi"}, ["bxa"] = {"Tairaha"}, ["bxb"] = {"Belanda Bor"}, ["bxc"] = {"Molengue"}, ["bxd"] = {"Pela"}, ["bxe"] = {"Birale"}, ["bxf"] = {"Bilur", "Minigir"}, ["bxg"] = {"Bangala"}, ["bxh"] = {"Buhutu"}, ["bxi"] = {"Pirlatapa"}, ["bxj"] = {"Bayungu"}, ["bxk"] = {"Bukusu", "Lubukusu"}, ["bxl"] = {"Jalkunan"}, ["bxm"] = {"Mongolia Buriat"}, ["bxn"] = {"Burduna"}, ["bxo"] = {"Barikanchi"}, ["bxp"] = {"Bebil"}, ["bxq"] = {"Beele"}, ["bxr"] = {"Russia Buriat"}, ["bxs"] = {"Busam"}, ["bxu"] = {"China Buriat"}, ["bxv"] = {"Berakou"}, ["bxw"] = {"Bankagooma"}, ["bxz"] = {"Binahari"}, ["bya"] = {"Batak"}, ["byb"] = {"Bikya"}, ["byc"] = {"Ubaghara"}, ["byd"] = {"Benyadu'"}, ["bye"] = {"Pouye"}, ["byf"] = {"Bete"}, ["byg"] = {"Baygo"}, ["byh"] = {"Bhujel"}, ["byi"] = {"Buyu"}, ["byj"] = {"Bina (Nigeria)"}, ["byk"] = {"Biao"}, ["byl"] = {"Bayono"}, ["bym"] = {"Bidjara"}, ["byn"] = {"Bilin", "Blin"}, ["byo"] = {"Biyo"}, ["byp"] = {"Bumaji"}, ["byq"] = {"Basay"}, ["byr"] = {"Baruya", "Yipma"}, ["bys"] = {"Burak"}, ["byt"] = {"Berti"}, ["byv"] = {"Medumba"}, ["byw"] = {"Belhariya"}, ["byx"] = {"Qaqet"}, ["byz"] = {"Banaro"}, ["bza"] = {"Bandi"}, ["bzb"] = {"Andio"}, ["bzc"] = {"Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bzd"] = {"Bribri"}, ["bze"] = {"Jenaama Bozo"}, ["bzf"] = {"Boikin"}, ["bzg"] = {"Babuza"}, ["bzh"] = {"Mapos Buang"}, ["bzi"] = {"Bisu"}, ["bzj"] = {"Belize Kriol English"}, ["bzk"] = {"Nicaragua Creole English"}, ["bzl"] = {"Boano (Sulawesi)"}, ["bzm"] = {"Bolondo"}, ["bzn"] = {"Boano (Maluku)"}, ["bzo"] = {"Bozaba"}, ["bzp"] = {"Kemberano"}, ["bzq"] = {"Buli (Indonesia)"}, ["bzr"] = {"Biri"}, ["bzs"] = {"Brazilian Sign Language"}, ["bzt"] = {"Brithenig"}, ["bzu"] = {"Burmeso"}, ["bzv"] = {"Naami"}, ["bzw"] = {"Basa (Nigeria)"}, ["bzx"] = {"Kɛlɛngaxo Bozo"}, ["bzy"] = {"Obanliku"}, ["bzz"] = {"Evant"}, ["caa"] = {"Chortí"}, ["cab"] = {"Garifuna"}, ["cac"] = {"Chuj"}, ["cad"] = {"Caddo"}, ["cae"] = {"Lehar", "Laalaa"}, ["caf"] = {"Southern Carrier"}, ["cag"] = {"Nivaclé"}, ["cah"] = {"Cahuarano"}, ["cai"] = {"Central American Indian languages"}, ["caj"] = {"Chané"}, ["cak"] = {"Kaqchikel", "Cakchiquel"}, ["cal"] = {"Carolinian"}, ["cam"] = {"Cemuhî"}, ["can"] = {"Chambri"}, ["cao"] = {"Chácobo"}, ["cap"] = {"Chipaya"}, ["caq"] = {"Car Nicobarese"}, ["car"] = {"Galibi Carib"}, ["cas"] = {"Tsimané"}, ["cau"] = {"Caucasian languages"}, ["cav"] = {"Cavineña"}, ["caw"] = {"Callawalla"}, ["cax"] = {"Chiquitano"}, ["cay"] = {"Cayuga"}, ["caz"] = {"Canichana"}, ["cba"] = {"Chibchan languages"}, ["cbb"] = {"Cabiyarí"}, ["cbc"] = {"Carapana"}, ["cbd"] = {"Carijona"}, ["cbg"] = {"Chimila"}, ["cbi"] = {"Chachi"}, ["cbj"] = {"Ede Cabe"}, ["cbk"] = {"Chavacano"}, ["cbl"] = {"Bualkhaw Chin"}, ["cbn"] = {"Nyahkur"}, ["cbo"] = {"Izora"}, ["cbq"] = {"Tsucuba", "Cuba"}, ["cbr"] = {"Cashibo-Cacataibo"}, ["cbs"] = {"Cashinahua"}, ["cbt"] = {"Chayahuita"}, ["cbu"] = {"Candoshi-Shapra"}, ["cbv"] = {"Cacua"}, ["cbw"] = {"Kinabalian"}, ["cby"] = {"Carabayo"}, ["ccc"] = {"Chamicuro"}, ["ccd"] = {"Cafundo Creole"}, ["cce"] = {"Chopi"}, ["ccg"] = {"Samba Daka"}, ["cch"] = {"Atsam"}, ["ccj"] = {"Kasanga"}, ["ccl"] = {"Cutchi-Swahili"}, ["ccm"] = {"Malaccan Creole Malay"}, ["ccn"] = {"North Caucasian languages"}, ["cco"] = {"Comaltepec Chinantec"}, ["ccp"] = {"Chakma"}, ["ccr"] = {"Cacaopera"}, ["ccs"] = {"South Caucasian languages"}, ["cda"] = {"Choni"}, ["cdc"] = {"Chadic languages"}, ["cdd"] = {"Caddoan languages"}, ["cde"] = {"Chenchu"}, ["cdf"] = {"Chiru"}, ["cdh"] = {"Chambeali"}, ["cdi"] = {"Chodri"}, ["cdj"] = {"Churahi"}, ["cdm"] = {"Chepang"}, ["cdn"] = {"Chaudangsi"}, ["cdo"] = {"Min Dong Chinese"}, ["cdr"] = {"Cinda-Regi-Tiyal"}, ["cds"] = {"Chadian Sign Language"}, ["cdy"] = {"Chadong"}, ["cdz"] = {"Koda"}, ["cea"] = {"Lower Chehalis"}, ["ceb"] = {"Cebuano"}, ["ceg"] = {"Chamacoco"}, ["cek"] = {"Eastern Khumi Chin"}, ["cel"] = {"Celtic languages"}, ["cen"] = {"Cen"}, ["cet"] = {"Centúúm"}, ["cey"] = {"Ekai Chin"}, ["cfa"] = {"Dijim-Bwilim"}, ["cfd"] = {"Cara"}, ["cfg"] = {"Como Karim"}, ["cfm"] = {"Falam Chin"}, ["cga"] = {"Changriwa"}, ["cgc"] = {"Kagayanen"}, ["cgg"] = {"Chiga"}, ["cgk"] = {"Chocangacakha"}, ["chb"] = {"Chibcha"}, ["chc"] = {"Catawba"}, ["chd"] = {"Highland Oaxaca Chontal"}, ["chf"] = {"Tabasco Chontal"}, ["chg"] = {"Chagatai"}, ["chh"] = {"Chinook"}, ["chj"] = {"Ojitlán Chinantec"}, ["chk"] = {"Chuukese"}, ["chl"] = {"Cahuilla"}, ["chm"] = {"Mari (Russia)"}, ["chn"] = {"Chinook jargon"}, ["cho"] = {"Choctaw"}, ["chp"] = {"Chipewyan", "Dene Suline"}, ["chq"] = {"Quiotepec Chinantec"}, ["chr"] = {"Cherokee"}, ["cht"] = {"Cholón"}, ["chw"] = {"Chuwabu"}, ["chx"] = {"Chantyal"}, ["chy"] = {"Cheyenne"}, ["chz"] = {"Ozumacín Chinantec"}, ["cia"] = {"Cia-Cia"}, ["cib"] = {"Ci Gbe"}, ["cic"] = {"Chickasaw"}, ["cid"] = {"Chimariko"}, ["cie"] = {"Cineni"}, ["cih"] = {"Chinali"}, ["cik"] = {"Chitkuli Kinnauri"}, ["cim"] = {"Cimbrian"}, ["cin"] = {"Cinta Larga"}, ["cip"] = {"Chiapanec"}, ["cir"] = {"Tiri", "Haméa", "Méa"}, ["ciw"] = {"Chippewa"}, ["ciy"] = {"Chaima"}, ["cja"] = {"Western Cham"}, ["cje"] = {"Chru"}, ["cjh"] = {"Upper Chehalis"}, ["cji"] = {"Chamalal"}, ["cjk"] = {"Chokwe"}, ["cjm"] = {"Eastern Cham"}, ["cjn"] = {"Chenapian"}, ["cjo"] = {"Ashéninka Pajonal"}, ["cjp"] = {"Cabécar"}, ["cjs"] = {"Shor"}, ["cjv"] = {"Chuave"}, ["cjy"] = {"Jinyu Chinese"}, ["ckb"] = {"Central Kurdish"}, ["ckh"] = {"Chak"}, ["ckl"] = {"Cibak"}, ["ckm"] = {"Chakavian"}, ["ckn"] = {"Kaang Chin"}, ["cko"] = {"Anufo"}, ["ckq"] = {"Kajakse"}, ["ckr"] = {"Kairak"}, ["cks"] = {"Tayo"}, ["ckt"] = {"Chukot"}, ["cku"] = {"Koasati"}, ["ckv"] = {"Kavalan"}, ["ckx"] = {"Caka"}, ["cky"] = {"Cakfem-Mushere"}, ["ckz"] = {"Cakchiquel-Quiché Mixed Language"}, ["cla"] = {"Ron"}, ["clc"] = {"Chilcotin", "Tsilhqot’in"}, ["cld"] = {"Chaldean Neo-Aramaic"}, ["cle"] = {"Lealao Chinantec"}, ["clh"] = {"Chilisso"}, ["cli"] = {"Chakali"}, ["clj"] = {"Laitu Chin"}, ["clk"] = {"Idu-Mishmi"}, ["cll"] = {"Chala"}, ["clm"] = {"Klallam", "Clallam"}, ["clo"] = {"Lowland Oaxaca Chontal"}, ["cls"] = {"Classical Sanskrit"}, ["clt"] = {"Lautu Chin"}, ["clu"] = {"Caluyanun"}, ["clw"] = {"Chulym"}, ["cly"] = {"Eastern Highland Chatino"}, ["cma"] = {"Maa"}, ["cmc"] = {"Chamic languages"}, ["cme"] = {"Cerma"}, ["cmg"] = {"Classical Mongolian"}, ["cmi"] = {"Emberá-Chamí"}, ["cml"] = {"Campalagian"}, ["cmm"] = {"Michigamea"}, ["cmn"] = {"Mandarin Chinese"}, ["cmo"] = {"Central Mnong"}, ["cmr"] = {"Mro-Khimi Chin"}, ["cms"] = {"Messapic"}, ["cmt"] = {"Camtho"}, ["cna"] = {"Changthang"}, ["cnb"] = {"Chinbon Chin"}, ["cnc"] = {"Côông"}, ["cng"] = {"Northern Qiang"}, ["cnh"] = {"Hakha Chin", "Haka Chin"}, ["cni"] = {"Asháninka"}, ["cnk"] = {"Khumi Chin"}, ["cnl"] = {"Lalana Chinantec"}, ["cno"] = {"Con"}, ["cnp"] = {"Northern Ping Chinese", "Northern Pinghua"}, ["cnq"] = {"Chung"}, ["cnr"] = {"Montenegrin"}, ["cns"] = {"Central Asmat"}, ["cnt"] = {"Tepetotutla Chinantec"}, ["cnu"] = {"Chenoua"}, ["cnw"] = {"Ngawn Chin"}, ["cnx"] = {"Middle Cornish"}, ["coa"] = {"Cocos Islands Malay"}, ["cob"] = {"Chicomuceltec"}, ["coc"] = {"Cocopa"}, ["cod"] = {"Cocama-Cocamilla"}, ["coe"] = {"Koreguaje"}, ["cof"] = {"Colorado"}, ["cog"] = {"Chong"}, ["coh"] = {"Chonyi-Dzihana-Kauma", "Chichonyi-Chidzihana-Chikauma"}, ["coj"] = {"Cochimi"}, ["cok"] = {"Santa Teresa Cora"}, ["col"] = {"Columbia-Wenatchi"}, ["com"] = {"Comanche"}, ["con"] = {"Cofán"}, ["coo"] = {"Comox"}, ["cop"] = {"Coptic"}, ["coq"] = {"Coquille"}, ["cot"] = {"Caquinte"}, ["cou"] = {"Wamey"}, ["cov"] = {"Cao Miao"}, ["cow"] = {"Cowlitz"}, ["cox"] = {"Nanti"}, ["coz"] = {"Chochotec"}, ["cpa"] = {"Palantla Chinantec"}, ["cpb"] = {"Ucayali-Yurúa Ashéninka"}, ["cpc"] = {"Ajyíninka Apurucayali"}, ["cpe"] = {"English-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cpf"] = {"French-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cpg"] = {"Cappadocian Greek"}, ["cpi"] = {"Chinese Pidgin English"}, ["cpn"] = {"Cherepon"}, ["cpo"] = {"Kpeego"}, ["cpp"] = {"Portuguese-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cps"] = {"Capiznon"}, ["cpu"] = {"Pichis Ashéninka"}, ["cpx"] = {"Pu-Xian Chinese"}, ["cpy"] = {"South Ucayali Ashéninka"}, ["cqd"] = {"Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao"}, ["cra"] = {"Chara"}, ["crb"] = {"Island Carib"}, ["crc"] = {"Lonwolwol"}, ["crd"] = {"Coeur d'Alene"}, ["crf"] = {"Caramanta"}, ["crg"] = {"Michif"}, ["crh"] = {"Crimean Tatar", "Crimean Turkish"}, ["cri"] = {"Sãotomense"}, ["crj"] = {"Southern East Cree"}, ["crk"] = {"Plains Cree"}, ["crl"] = {"Northern East Cree"}, ["crm"] = {"Moose Cree"}, ["crn"] = {"El Nayar Cora"}, ["cro"] = {"Crow"}, ["crp"] = {"Creoles and pidgins"}, ["crq"] = {"Iyo'wujwa Chorote"}, ["crr"] = {"Carolina Algonquian"}, ["crs"] = {"Seselwa Creole French"}, ["crt"] = {"Iyojwa'ja Chorote"}, ["crv"] = {"Chaura"}, ["crw"] = {"Chrau"}, ["crx"] = {"Carrier"}, ["cry"] = {"Cori"}, ["crz"] = {"Cruzeño"}, ["csa"] = {"Chiltepec Chinantec"}, ["csb"] = {"Kashubian"}, ["csc"] = {"Catalan Sign Language", "Lengua de señas catalana", "Llengua de Signes Catalana"}, ["csd"] = {"Chiangmai Sign Language"}, ["cse"] = {"Czech Sign Language"}, ["csf"] = {"Cuba Sign Language"}, ["csg"] = {"Chilean Sign Language"}, ["csh"] = {"Asho Chin"}, ["csi"] = {"Coast Miwok"}, ["csj"] = {"Songlai Chin"}, ["csk"] = {"Jola-Kasa"}, ["csl"] = {"Chinese Sign Language"}, ["csm"] = {"Central Sierra Miwok"}, ["csn"] = {"Colombian Sign Language"}, ["cso"] = {"Sochiapam Chinantec", "Sochiapan Chinantec"}, ["csp"] = {"Southern Ping Chinese", "Southern Pinghua"}, ["csq"] = {"Croatia Sign Language"}, ["csr"] = {"Costa Rican Sign Language"}, ["css"] = {"Southern Ohlone"}, ["cst"] = {"Northern Ohlone"}, ["csu"] = {"Central Sudanic languages"}, ["csv"] = {"Sumtu Chin"}, ["csw"] = {"Swampy Cree"}, ["csx"] = {"Cambodian Sign Language"}, ["csy"] = {"Siyin Chin"}, ["csz"] = {"Coos"}, ["cta"] = {"Tataltepec Chatino"}, ["ctc"] = {"Chetco"}, ["ctd"] = {"Tedim Chin"}, ["cte"] = {"Tepinapa Chinantec"}, ["ctg"] = {"Chittagonian"}, ["cth"] = {"Thaiphum Chin"}, ["ctl"] = {"Tlacoatzintepec Chinantec"}, ["ctm"] = {"Chitimacha"}, ["ctn"] = {"Chhintange"}, ["cto"] = {"Emberá-Catío"}, ["ctp"] = {"Western Highland Chatino"}, ["cts"] = {"Northern Catanduanes Bikol"}, ["ctt"] = {"Wayanad Chetti"}, ["ctu"] = {"Chol"}, ["cty"] = {"Moundadan Chetty"}, ["ctz"] = {"Zacatepec Chatino"}, ["cua"] = {"Cua"}, ["cub"] = {"Cubeo"}, ["cuc"] = {"Usila Chinantec"}, ["cuh"] = {"Chuka", "Gichuka"}, ["cui"] = {"Cuiba"}, ["cuj"] = {"Mashco Piro"}, ["cuk"] = {"San Blas Kuna"}, ["cul"] = {"Culina", "Kulina"}, ["cuo"] = {"Cumanagoto"}, ["cup"] = {"Cupeño"}, ["cuq"] = {"Cun"}, ["cur"] = {"Chhulung"}, ["cus"] = {"Cushitic languages"}, ["cut"] = {"Teutila Cuicatec"}, ["cuu"] = {"Tai Ya"}, ["cuv"] = {"Cuvok"}, ["cuw"] = {"Chukwa"}, ["cux"] = {"Tepeuxila Cuicatec"}, ["cuy"] = {"Cuitlatec"}, ["cvg"] = {"Chug"}, ["cvn"] = {"Valle Nacional Chinantec"}, ["cwa"] = {"Kabwa"}, ["cwb"] = {"Maindo"}, ["cwd"] = {"Woods Cree"}, ["cwe"] = {"Kwere"}, ["cwg"] = {"Chewong", "Cheq Wong"}, ["cwt"] = {"Kuwaataay"}, ["cxh"] = {"Cha'ari"}, ["cya"] = {"Nopala Chatino"}, ["cyb"] = {"Cayubaba"}, ["cyo"] = {"Cuyonon"}, ["czh"] = {"Huizhou Chinese"}, ["czk"] = {"Knaanic"}, ["czn"] = {"Zenzontepec Chatino"}, ["czo"] = {"Min Zhong Chinese"}, ["czt"] = {"Zotung Chin"}, ["daa"] = {"Dangaléat"}, ["dac"] = {"Dambi"}, ["dad"] = {"Marik"}, ["dae"] = {"Duupa"}, ["dag"] = {"Dagbani"}, ["dah"] = {"Gwahatike"}, ["dai"] = {"Day"}, ["daj"] = {"Dar Fur Daju"}, ["dak"] = {"Dakota"}, ["dal"] = {"Dahalo"}, ["dam"] = {"Damakawa"}, ["dao"] = {"Daai Chin"}, ["daq"] = {"Dandami Maria"}, ["dar"] = {"Dargwa"}, ["das"] = {"Daho-Doo"}, ["dau"] = {"Dar Sila Daju"}, ["dav"] = {"Taita", "Dawida"}, ["daw"] = {"Davawenyo"}, ["dax"] = {"Dayi"}, ["day"] = {"Land Dayak languages"}, ["daz"] = {"Moi-Wadea", "Dao"}, ["dba"] = {"Bangime"}, ["dbb"] = {"Deno"}, ["dbd"] = {"Dadiya"}, ["dbe"] = {"Dabe"}, ["dbf"] = {"Edopi"}, ["dbg"] = {"Dogul Dom Dogon"}, ["dbi"] = {"Doka"}, ["dbj"] = {"Ida'an"}, ["dbl"] = {"Dyirbal"}, ["dbm"] = {"Duguri"}, ["dbn"] = {"Duriankere"}, ["dbo"] = {"Dulbu"}, ["dbp"] = {"Duwai"}, ["dbq"] = {"Daba"}, ["dbr"] = {"Dabarre"}, ["dbt"] = {"Ben Tey Dogon"}, ["dbu"] = {"Bondum Dom Dogon"}, ["dbv"] = {"Dungu"}, ["dbw"] = {"Bankan Tey Dogon"}, ["dby"] = {"Dibiyaso"}, ["dcc"] = {"Deccan"}, ["dcr"] = {"Negerhollands"}, ["dda"] = {"Dadi Dadi"}, ["ddd"] = {"Dongotono"}, ["dde"] = {"Doondo"}, ["ddg"] = {"Fataluku"}, ["ddi"] = {"West Goodenough"}, ["ddj"] = {"Jaru"}, ["ddn"] = {"Dendi (Benin)"}, ["ddo"] = {"Dido"}, ["ddr"] = {"Dhudhuroa"}, ["dds"] = {"Donno So Dogon"}, ["ddw"] = {"Dawera-Daweloor"}, ["dec"] = {"Dagik"}, ["ded"] = {"Dedua"}, ["dee"] = {"Dewoin"}, ["def"] = {"Dezfuli"}, ["deg"] = {"Degema"}, ["deh"] = {"Dehwari"}, ["dei"] = {"Demisa"}, ["del"] = {"Delaware"}, ["dem"] = {"Dem"}, ["den"] = {"Slavey"}, ["dep"] = {"Pidgin Delaware"}, ["deq"] = {"Dendi (Central African Republic)"}, ["der"] = {"Deori"}, ["des"] = {"Desano"}, ["dev"] = {"Domung"}, ["dez"] = {"Dengese"}, ["dga"] = {"Southern Dagaare"}, ["dgb"] = {"Bunoge Dogon"}, ["dgc"] = {"Casiguran Dumagat Agta"}, ["dgd"] = {"Dagaari Dioula"}, ["dge"] = {"Degenan"}, ["dgg"] = {"Doga"}, ["dgh"] = {"Dghwede"}, ["dgi"] = {"Northern Dagara"}, ["dgk"] = {"Dagba"}, ["dgl"] = {"Andaandi", "Dongolawi"}, ["dgn"] = {"Dagoman"}, ["dgo"] = {"Dogri (individual language)"}, ["dgr"] = {"Tlicho", "Dogrib", "Tłı̨chǫ"}, ["dgs"] = {"Dogoso"}, ["dgt"] = {"Ndra'ngith"}, ["dgw"] = {"Daungwurrung"}, ["dgx"] = {"Doghoro"}, ["dgz"] = {"Daga"}, ["dhd"] = {"Dhundari"}, ["dhg"] = {"Dhangu-Djangu", "Dhangu", "Djangu"}, ["dhi"] = {"Dhimal"}, ["dhl"] = {"Dhalandji"}, ["dhm"] = {"Zemba"}, ["dhn"] = {"Dhanki"}, ["dho"] = {"Dhodia"}, ["dhr"] = {"Dhargari"}, ["dhs"] = {"Dhaiso"}, ["dhu"] = {"Dhurga"}, ["dhv"] = {"Dehu", "Drehu"}, ["dhw"] = {"Dhanwar (Nepal)"}, ["dhx"] = {"Dhungaloo"}, ["dia"] = {"Dia"}, ["dib"] = {"South Central Dinka"}, ["dic"] = {"Lakota Dida"}, ["did"] = {"Didinga"}, ["dif"] = {"Dieri", "Diyari"}, ["dig"] = {"Digo", "Chidigo"}, ["dih"] = {"Kumiai"}, ["dii"] = {"Dimbong"}, ["dij"] = {"Dai"}, ["dik"] = {"Southwestern Dinka"}, ["dil"] = {"Dilling"}, ["dim"] = {"Dime"}, ["din"] = {"Dinka"}, ["dio"] = {"Dibo"}, ["dip"] = {"Northeastern Dinka"}, ["diq"] = {"Dimli (individual language)"}, ["dir"] = {"Dirim"}, ["dis"] = {"Dimasa"}, ["diu"] = {"Diriku"}, ["diw"] = {"Northwestern Dinka"}, ["dix"] = {"Dixon Reef"}, ["diy"] = {"Diuwe"}, ["diz"] = {"Ding"}, ["dja"] = {"Djadjawurrung"}, ["djb"] = {"Djinba"}, ["djc"] = {"Dar Daju Daju"}, ["djd"] = {"Djamindjung", "Ngaliwurru"}, ["dje"] = {"Zarma"}, ["djf"] = {"Djangun"}, ["dji"] = {"Djinang"}, ["djj"] = {"Djeebbana"}, ["djk"] = {"Eastern Maroon Creole", "Businenge Tongo", "Nenge"}, ["djm"] = {"Jamsay Dogon"}, ["djn"] = {"Jawoyn", "Djauan"}, ["djo"] = {"Jangkang"}, ["djr"] = {"Djambarrpuyngu"}, ["dju"] = {"Kapriman"}, ["djw"] = {"Djawi"}, ["dka"] = {"Dakpakha"}, ["dkg"] = {"Kadung"}, ["dkk"] = {"Dakka"}, ["dkr"] = {"Kuijau"}, ["dks"] = {"Southeastern Dinka"}, ["dkx"] = {"Mazagway"}, ["dlg"] = {"Dolgan"}, ["dlk"] = {"Dahalik"}, ["dlm"] = {"Dalmatian"}, ["dln"] = {"Darlong"}, ["dma"] = {"Duma"}, ["dmb"] = {"Mombo Dogon"}, ["dmc"] = {"Gavak"}, ["dmd"] = {"Madhi Madhi"}, ["dme"] = {"Dugwor"}, ["dmf"] = {"Medefaidrin"}, ["dmg"] = {"Upper Kinabatangan"}, ["dmk"] = {"Domaaki"}, ["dml"] = {"Dameli"}, ["dmm"] = {"Dama"}, ["dmn"] = {"Mande languages"}, ["dmo"] = {"Kemedzung"}, ["dmr"] = {"East Damar"}, ["dms"] = {"Dampelas"}, ["dmu"] = {"Dubu", "Tebi"}, ["dmv"] = {"Dumpas"}, ["dmw"] = {"Mudburra"}, ["dmx"] = {"Dema"}, ["dmy"] = {"Demta", "Sowari"}, ["dna"] = {"Upper Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnd"] = {"Daonda"}, ["dne"] = {"Ndendeule"}, ["dng"] = {"Dungan"}, ["dni"] = {"Lower Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnj"] = {"Dan"}, ["dnk"] = {"Dengka"}, ["dnn"] = {"Dzùùngoo"}, ["dno"] = {"Ndrulo", "Northern Lendu"}, ["dnr"] = {"Danaru"}, ["dnt"] = {"Mid Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnu"] = {"Danau"}, ["dnv"] = {"Danu"}, ["dnw"] = {"Western Dani"}, ["dny"] = {"Dení"}, ["doa"] = {"Dom"}, ["dob"] = {"Dobu"}, ["doc"] = {"Northern Dong"}, ["doe"] = {"Doe"}, ["dof"] = {"Domu"}, ["doh"] = {"Dong"}, ["doi"] = {"Dogri (macrolanguage)"}, ["dok"] = {"Dondo"}, ["dol"] = {"Doso"}, ["don"] = {"Toura (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["doo"] = {"Dongo"}, ["dop"] = {"Lukpa"}, ["doq"] = {"Dominican Sign Language"}, ["dor"] = {"Dori'o"}, ["dos"] = {"Dogosé"}, ["dot"] = {"Dass"}, ["dov"] = {"Dombe"}, ["dow"] = {"Doyayo"}, ["dox"] = {"Bussa"}, ["doy"] = {"Dompo"}, ["doz"] = {"Dorze"}, ["dpp"] = {"Papar"}, ["dra"] = {"Dravidian languages"}, ["drb"] = {"Dair"}, ["drc"] = {"Minderico"}, ["drd"] = {"Darmiya"}, ["dre"] = {"Dolpo"}, ["drg"] = {"Rungus"}, ["dri"] = {"C'Lela"}, ["drl"] = {"Paakantyi"}, ["drn"] = {"West Damar"}, ["dro"] = {"Daro-Matu Melanau"}, ["drq"] = {"Dura"}, ["drs"] = {"Gedeo"}, ["drt"] = {"Drents"}, ["dru"] = {"Rukai"}, ["dry"] = {"Darai"}, ["dsb"] = {"Lower Sorbian"}, ["dse"] = {"Dutch Sign Language"}, ["dsh"] = {"Daasanach"}, ["dsi"] = {"Disa"}, ["dsk"] = {"Dokshi"}, ["dsl"] = {"Danish Sign Language"}, ["dsn"] = {"Dusner"}, ["dso"] = {"Desiya"}, ["dsq"] = {"Tadaksahak"}, ["dsz"] = {"Mardin Sign Language"}, ["dta"] = {"Daur"}, ["dtb"] = {"Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan"}, ["dtd"] = {"Ditidaht"}, ["dth"] = {"Adithinngithigh"}, ["dti"] = {"Ana Tinga Dogon"}, ["dtk"] = {"Tene Kan Dogon"}, ["dtm"] = {"Tomo Kan Dogon"}, ["dtn"] = {"Daatsʼíin"}, ["dto"] = {"Tommo So Dogon"}, ["dtp"] = {"Kadazan Dusun", "Central Dusun"}, ["dtr"] = {"Lotud"}, ["dts"] = {"Toro So Dogon"}, ["dtt"] = {"Toro Tegu Dogon"}, ["dtu"] = {"Tebul Ure Dogon"}, ["dty"] = {"Dotyali"}, ["dua"] = {"Duala"}, ["dub"] = {"Dubli"}, ["duc"] = {"Duna"}, ["due"] = {"Umiray Dumaget Agta"}, ["duf"] = {"Dumbea", "Drubea"}, ["dug"] = {"Duruma", "Chiduruma"}, ["duh"] = {"Dungra Bhil"}, ["dui"] = {"Dumun"}, ["duk"] = {"Uyajitaya"}, ["dul"] = {"Alabat Island Agta"}, ["dum"] = {"Middle Dutch (ca. 1050-1350)"}, ["dun"] = {"Dusun Deyah"}, ["duo"] = {"Dupaninan Agta"}, ["dup"] = {"Duano"}, ["duq"] = {"Dusun Malang"}, ["dur"] = {"Dii"}, ["dus"] = {"Dumi"}, ["duu"] = {"Drung"}, ["duv"] = {"Duvle"}, ["duw"] = {"Dusun Witu"}, ["dux"] = {"Duungooma"}, ["duy"] = {"Dicamay Agta"}, ["duz"] = {"Duli-Gey"}, ["dva"] = {"Duau"}, ["dwa"] = {"Diri"}, ["dwk"] = {"Dawik Kui"}, ["dwr"] = {"Dawro"}, ["dws"] = {"Dutton World Speedwords"}, ["dwu"] = {"Dhuwal"}, ["dww"] = {"Dawawa"}, ["dwy"] = {"Dhuwaya"}, ["dwz"] = {"Dewas Rai"}, ["dya"] = {"Dyan"}, ["dyb"] = {"Dyaberdyaber"}, ["dyd"] = {"Dyugun"}, ["dyg"] = {"Villa Viciosa Agta"}, ["dyi"] = {"Djimini Senoufo"}, ["dyl"] = {"Bhutanese Sign Language"}, ["dym"] = {"Yanda Dom Dogon"}, ["dyn"] = {"Dyangadi", "Dhanggatti"}, ["dyo"] = {"Jola-Fonyi"}, ["dyr"] = {"Dyarim"}, ["dyu"] = {"Dyula"}, ["dyy"] = {"Djabugay", "Dyaabugay"}, ["dza"] = {"Tunzu"}, ["dzd"] = {"Daza"}, ["dze"] = {"Djiwarli"}, ["dzg"] = {"Dazaga"}, ["dzl"] = {"Dzalakha"}, ["dzn"] = {"Dzando"}, ["eaa"] = {"Karenggapa"}, ["ebc"] = {"Beginci"}, ["ebg"] = {"Ebughu"}, ["ebk"] = {"Eastern Bontok"}, ["ebo"] = {"Teke-Ebo"}, ["ebr"] = {"Ebrié"}, ["ebu"] = {"Embu", "Kiembu"}, ["ecr"] = {"Eteocretan"}, ["ecs"] = {"Ecuadorian Sign Language"}, ["ecy"] = {"Eteocypriot"}, ["eee"] = {"E"}, ["efa"] = {"Efai"}, ["efe"] = {"Efe"}, ["efi"] = {"Efik"}, ["ega"] = {"Ega"}, ["egl"] = {"Emilian"}, ["egm"] = {"Benamanga"}, ["ego"] = {"Eggon"}, ["egx"] = {"Egyptian languages"}, ["egy"] = {"Egyptian (Ancient)"}, ["ehs"] = {"Miyakubo Sign Language"}, ["ehu"] = {"Ehueun"}, ["eip"] = {"Eipomek"}, ["eit"] = {"Eitiep"}, ["eiv"] = {"Askopan"}, ["eja"] = {"Ejamat"}, ["eka"] = {"Ekajuk"}, ["eke"] = {"Ekit"}, ["ekg"] = {"Ekari"}, ["eki"] = {"Eki"}, ["ekk"] = {"Standard Estonian"}, ["ekl"] = {"Kol (Bangladesh)", "Kol"}, ["ekm"] = {"Elip"}, ["eko"] = {"Koti"}, ["ekp"] = {"Ekpeye"}, ["ekr"] = {"Yace"}, ["eky"] = {"Eastern Kayah"}, ["ele"] = {"Elepi"}, ["elh"] = {"El Hugeirat"}, ["eli"] = {"Nding"}, ["elk"] = {"Elkei"}, ["elm"] = {"Eleme"}, ["elo"] = {"El Molo"}, ["elu"] = {"Elu"}, ["elx"] = {"Elamite"}, ["ema"] = {"Emai-Iuleha-Ora"}, ["emb"] = {"Embaloh"}, ["eme"] = {"Emerillon"}, ["emg"] = {"Eastern Meohang"}, ["emi"] = {"Mussau-Emira"}, ["emk"] = {"Eastern Maninkakan"}, ["emm"] = {"Mamulique"}, ["emn"] = {"Eman"}, ["emp"] = {"Northern Emberá"}, ["emq"] = {"Eastern Minyag"}, ["ems"] = {"Pacific Gulf Yupik"}, ["emu"] = {"Eastern Muria"}, ["emw"] = {"Emplawas"}, ["emx"] = {"Erromintxela"}, ["emy"] = {"Epigraphic Mayan"}, ["emz"] = {"Mbessa"}, ["ena"] = {"Apali"}, ["enb"] = {"Markweeta"}, ["enc"] = {"En"}, ["end"] = {"Ende"}, ["enf"] = {"Forest Enets"}, ["enh"] = {"Tundra Enets"}, ["enl"] = {"Enlhet"}, ["enm"] = {"Middle English (1100-1500)"}, ["enn"] = {"Engenni"}, ["eno"] = {"Enggano"}, ["enq"] = {"Enga"}, ["enr"] = {"Emumu", "Emem"}, ["enu"] = {"Enu"}, ["env"] = {"Enwan (Edo State)"}, ["enw"] = {"Enwan (Akwa Ibom State)"}, ["enx"] = {"Enxet"}, ["eot"] = {"Beti (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["epi"] = {"Epie"}, ["era"] = {"Eravallan"}, ["erg"] = {"Sie"}, ["erh"] = {"Eruwa"}, ["eri"] = {"Ogea"}, ["erk"] = {"South Efate"}, ["ero"] = {"Horpa"}, ["err"] = {"Erre"}, ["ers"] = {"Ersu"}, ["ert"] = {"Eritai"}, ["erw"] = {"Erokwanas"}, ["ese"] = {"Ese Ejja"}, ["esg"] = {"Aheri Gondi"}, ["esh"] = {"Eshtehardi"}, ["esi"] = {"North Alaskan Inupiatun"}, ["esk"] = {"Northwest Alaska Inupiatun"}, ["esl"] = {"Egypt Sign Language"}, ["esm"] = {"Esuma"}, ["esn"] = {"Salvadoran Sign Language"}, ["eso"] = {"Estonian Sign Language"}, ["esq"] = {"Esselen"}, ["ess"] = {"Central Siberian Yupik"}, ["esu"] = {"Central Yupik"}, ["esx"] = {"Eskimo-Aleut languages"}, ["esy"] = {"Eskayan"}, ["etb"] = {"Etebi"}, ["etc"] = {"Etchemin"}, ["eth"] = {"Ethiopian Sign Language"}, ["etn"] = {"Eton (Vanuatu)"}, ["eto"] = {"Eton (Cameroon)"}, ["etr"] = {"Edolo"}, ["ets"] = {"Yekhee"}, ["ett"] = {"Etruscan"}, ["etu"] = {"Ejagham"}, ["etx"] = {"Eten"}, ["etz"] = {"Semimi"}, ["eud"] = {"Eudeve"}, ["euq"] = {"Basque (family)"}, ["eve"] = {"Even"}, ["evh"] = {"Uvbie"}, ["evn"] = {"Evenki"}, ["ewo"] = {"Ewondo"}, ["ext"] = {"Extremaduran"}, ["eya"] = {"Eyak"}, ["eyo"] = {"Keiyo"}, ["eza"] = {"Ezaa"}, ["eze"] = {"Uzekwe"}, ["faa"] = {"Fasu"}, ["fab"] = {"Fa d'Ambu"}, ["fad"] = {"Wagi"}, ["faf"] = {"Fagani"}, ["fag"] = {"Finongan"}, ["fah"] = {"Baissa Fali"}, ["fai"] = {"Faiwol"}, ["faj"] = {"Faita"}, ["fak"] = {"Fang (Cameroon)"}, ["fal"] = {"South Fali"}, ["fam"] = {"Fam"}, ["fan"] = {"Fang (Equatorial Guinea)"}, ["fap"] = {"Paloor"}, ["far"] = {"Fataleka"}, ["fat"] = {"Fanti"}, ["fau"] = {"Fayu"}, ["fax"] = {"Fala"}, ["fay"] = {"Southwestern Fars"}, ["faz"] = {"Northwestern Fars"}, ["fbl"] = {"West Albay Bikol"}, ["fcs"] = {"Quebec Sign Language"}, ["fer"] = {"Feroge"}, ["ffi"] = {"Foia Foia"}, ["ffm"] = {"Maasina Fulfulde"}, ["fgr"] = {"Fongoro"}, ["fia"] = {"Nobiin"}, ["fie"] = {"Fyer"}, ["fif"] = {"Faifi"}, ["fil"] = {"Filipino", "Pilipino"}, ["fip"] = {"Fipa"}, ["fir"] = {"Firan"}, ["fit"] = {"Tornedalen Finnish", "Meänkieli"}, ["fiu"] = {"Finno-Ugrian languages"}, ["fiw"] = {"Fiwaga"}, ["fkk"] = {"Kirya-Konzəl"}, ["fkv"] = {"Kven Finnish"}, ["fla"] = {"Kalispel-Pend d'Oreille"}, ["flh"] = {"Foau"}, ["fli"] = {"Fali"}, ["fll"] = {"North Fali"}, ["fln"] = {"Flinders Island"}, ["flr"] = {"Fuliiru"}, ["fly"] = {"Flaaitaal", "Tsotsitaal"}, ["fmp"] = {"Fe'fe'"}, ["fmu"] = {"Far Western Muria"}, ["fnb"] = {"Fanbak"}, ["fng"] = {"Fanagalo"}, ["fni"] = {"Fania"}, ["fod"] = {"Foodo"}, ["foi"] = {"Foi"}, ["fom"] = {"Foma"}, ["fon"] = {"Fon"}, ["for"] = {"Fore"}, ["fos"] = {"Siraya"}, ["fox"] = {"Formosan languages"}, ["fpe"] = {"Fernando Po Creole English"}, ["fqs"] = {"Fas"}, ["frc"] = {"Cajun French"}, ["frd"] = {"Fordata"}, ["frk"] = {"Frankish"}, ["frm"] = {"Middle French (ca. 1400-1600)"}, ["fro"] = {"Old French (842-ca. 1400)"}, ["frp"] = {"Arpitan", "Francoprovençal"}, ["frq"] = {"Forak"}, ["frr"] = {"Northern Frisian"}, ["frs"] = {"Eastern Frisian"}, ["frt"] = {"Fortsenal"}, ["fse"] = {"Finnish Sign Language"}, ["fsl"] = {"French Sign Language"}, ["fss"] = {"Finland-Swedish Sign Language", "finlandssvenskt teckenspråk", "suomenruotsalainen viittomakieli"}, ["fub"] = {"Adamawa Fulfulde"}, ["fuc"] = {"Pulaar"}, ["fud"] = {"East Futuna"}, ["fue"] = {"Borgu Fulfulde"}, ["fuf"] = {"Pular"}, ["fuh"] = {"Western Niger Fulfulde"}, ["fui"] = {"Bagirmi Fulfulde"}, ["fuj"] = {"Ko"}, ["fum"] = {"Fum"}, ["fun"] = {"Fulniô"}, ["fuq"] = {"Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde"}, ["fur"] = {"Friulian"}, ["fut"] = {"Futuna-Aniwa"}, ["fuu"] = {"Furu"}, ["fuv"] = {"Nigerian Fulfulde"}, ["fuy"] = {"Fuyug"}, ["fvr"] = {"Fur"}, ["fwa"] = {"Fwâi"}, ["fwe"] = {"Fwe"}, ["gaa"] = {"Ga"}, ["gab"] = {"Gabri"}, ["gac"] = {"Mixed Great Andamanese"}, ["gad"] = {"Gaddang"}, ["gae"] = {"Guarequena"}, ["gaf"] = {"Gende"}, ["gag"] = {"Gagauz"}, ["gah"] = {"Alekano"}, ["gai"] = {"Borei"}, ["gaj"] = {"Gadsup"}, ["gak"] = {"Gamkonora"}, ["gal"] = {"Galolen"}, ["gam"] = {"Kandawo"}, ["gan"] = {"Gan Chinese"}, ["gao"] = {"Gants"}, ["gap"] = {"Gal"}, ["gaq"] = {"Gata'"}, ["gar"] = {"Galeya"}, ["gas"] = {"Adiwasi Garasia"}, ["gat"] = {"Kenati"}, ["gau"] = {"Mudhili Gadaba"}, ["gaw"] = {"Nobonob"}, ["gax"] = {"Borana-Arsi-Guji Oromo"}, ["gay"] = {"Gayo"}, ["gaz"] = {"West Central Oromo"}, ["gba"] = {"Gbaya (Central African Republic)"}, ["gbb"] = {"Kaytetye"}, ["gbd"] = {"Karajarri"}, ["gbe"] = {"Niksek"}, ["gbf"] = {"Gaikundi"}, ["gbg"] = {"Gbanziri"}, ["gbh"] = {"Defi Gbe"}, ["gbi"] = {"Galela"}, ["gbj"] = {"Bodo Gadaba"}, ["gbk"] = {"Gaddi"}, ["gbl"] = {"Gamit"}, ["gbm"] = {"Garhwali"}, ["gbn"] = {"Mo'da"}, ["gbo"] = {"Northern Grebo"}, ["gbp"] = {"Gbaya-Bossangoa"}, ["gbq"] = {"Gbaya-Bozoum"}, ["gbr"] = {"Gbagyi"}, ["gbs"] = {"Gbesi Gbe"}, ["gbu"] = {"Gagadu"}, ["gbv"] = {"Gbanu"}, ["gbw"] = {"Gabi-Gabi"}, ["gbx"] = {"Eastern Xwla Gbe"}, ["gby"] = {"Gbari"}, ["gbz"] = {"Zoroastrian Dari"}, ["gcc"] = {"Mali"}, ["gcd"] = {"Ganggalida"}, ["gce"] = {"Galice"}, ["gcf"] = {"Guadeloupean Creole French"}, ["gcl"] = {"Grenadian Creole English"}, ["gcn"] = {"Gaina"}, ["gcr"] = {"Guianese Creole French"}, ["gct"] = {"Colonia Tovar German"}, ["gda"] = {"Gade Lohar"}, ["gdb"] = {"Pottangi Ollar Gadaba"}, ["gdc"] = {"Gugu Badhun"}, ["gdd"] = {"Gedaged"}, ["gde"] = {"Gude"}, ["gdf"] = {"Guduf-Gava"}, ["gdg"] = {"Ga'dang"}, ["gdh"] = {"Gadjerawang", "Gajirrabeng"}, ["gdi"] = {"Gundi"}, ["gdj"] = {"Gurdjar"}, ["gdk"] = {"Gadang"}, ["gdl"] = {"Dirasha"}, ["gdm"] = {"Laal"}, ["gdn"] = {"Umanakaina"}, ["gdo"] = {"Ghodoberi"}, ["gdq"] = {"Mehri"}, ["gdr"] = {"Wipi"}, ["gds"] = {"Ghandruk Sign Language"}, ["gdt"] = {"Kungardutyi"}, ["gdu"] = {"Gudu"}, ["gdx"] = {"Godwari"}, ["gea"] = {"Geruma"}, ["geb"] = {"Kire"}, ["gec"] = {"Gboloo Grebo"}, ["ged"] = {"Gade"}, ["gef"] = {"Gerai"}, ["geg"] = {"Gengle"}, ["geh"] = {"Hutterite German", "Hutterisch"}, ["gei"] = {"Gebe"}, ["gej"] = {"Gen"}, ["gek"] = {"Ywom"}, ["gel"] = {"ut-Ma'in"}, ["gem"] = {"Germanic languages"}, ["geq"] = {"Geme"}, ["ges"] = {"Geser-Gorom"}, ["gev"] = {"Eviya"}, ["gew"] = {"Gera"}, ["gex"] = {"Garre"}, ["gey"] = {"Enya"}, ["gez"] = {"Geez"}, ["gfk"] = {"Patpatar"}, ["gft"] = {"Gafat"}, ["gga"] = {"Gao"}, ["ggb"] = {"Gbii"}, ["ggd"] = {"Gugadj"}, ["gge"] = {"Gurr-goni"}, ["ggg"] = {"Gurgula"}, ["ggk"] = {"Kungarakany"}, ["ggl"] = {"Ganglau"}, ["ggt"] = {"Gitua"}, ["ggu"] = {"Gagu", "Gban"}, ["ggw"] = {"Gogodala"}, ["gha"] = {"Ghadamès"}, ["ghc"] = {"Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic"}, ["ghe"] = {"Southern Ghale"}, ["ghh"] = {"Northern Ghale"}, ["ghk"] = {"Geko Karen"}, ["ghl"] = {"Ghulfan"}, ["ghn"] = {"Ghanongga"}, ["gho"] = {"Ghomara"}, ["ghr"] = {"Ghera"}, ["ghs"] = {"Guhu-Samane"}, ["ght"] = {"Kuke", "Kutang Ghale"}, ["gia"] = {"Kija"}, ["gib"] = {"Gibanawa"}, ["gic"] = {"Gail"}, ["gid"] = {"Gidar"}, ["gie"] = {"Gaɓogbo", "Guébie"}, ["gig"] = {"Goaria"}, ["gih"] = {"Githabul"}, ["gii"] = {"Girirra"}, ["gil"] = {"Gilbertese"}, ["gim"] = {"Gimi (Eastern Highlands)"}, ["gin"] = {"Hinukh"}, ["gip"] = {"Gimi (West New Britain)"}, ["giq"] = {"Green Gelao"}, ["gir"] = {"Red Gelao"}, ["gis"] = {"North Giziga"}, ["git"] = {"Gitxsan"}, ["giu"] = {"Mulao"}, ["giw"] = {"White Gelao"}, ["gix"] = {"Gilima"}, ["giy"] = {"Giyug"}, ["giz"] = {"South Giziga"}, ["gjk"] = {"Kachi Koli"}, ["gjm"] = {"Gunditjmara"}, ["gjn"] = {"Gonja"}, ["gjr"] = {"Gurindji Kriol"}, ["gju"] = {"Gujari"}, ["gka"] = {"Guya"}, ["gkd"] = {"Magɨ (Madang Province)"}, ["gke"] = {"Ndai"}, ["gkn"] = {"Gokana"}, ["gko"] = {"Kok-Nar"}, ["gkp"] = {"Guinea Kpelle"}, ["gku"] = {"ǂUngkue"}, ["glb"] = {"Belning"}, ["glc"] = {"Bon Gula"}, ["gld"] = {"Nanai"}, ["glh"] = {"Northwest Pashai", "Northwest Pashayi"}, ["glj"] = {"Gula Iro"}, ["glk"] = {"Gilaki"}, ["gll"] = {"Garlali"}, ["glo"] = {"Galambu"}, ["glr"] = {"Glaro-Twabo"}, ["glu"] = {"Gula (Chad)"}, ["glw"] = {"Glavda"}, ["gly"] = {"Gule"}, ["gma"] = {"Gambera"}, ["gmb"] = {"Gula'alaa"}, ["gmd"] = {"Mághdì"}, ["gme"] = {"East Germanic languages"}, ["gmg"] = {"Magɨyi"}, ["gmh"] = {"Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)"}, ["gml"] = {"Middle Low German"}, ["gmm"] = {"Gbaya-Mbodomo"}, ["gmn"] = {"Gimnime"}, ["gmq"] = {"North Germanic languages"}, ["gmr"] = {"Mirning", "Mirniny"}, ["gmu"] = {"Gumalu"}, ["gmv"] = {"Gamo"}, ["gmw"] = {"West Germanic languages"}, ["gmx"] = {"Magoma"}, ["gmy"] = {"Mycenaean Greek"}, ["gmz"] = {"Mgbolizhia"}, ["gna"] = {"Kaansa"}, ["gnb"] = {"Gangte"}, ["gnc"] = {"Guanche"}, ["gnd"] = {"Zulgo-Gemzek"}, ["gne"] = {"Ganang"}, ["gng"] = {"Ngangam"}, ["gnh"] = {"Lere"}, ["gni"] = {"Gooniyandi"}, ["gnj"] = {"Ngen"}, ["gnk"] = {"ǁGana"}, ["gnl"] = {"Gangulu"}, ["gnm"] = {"Ginuman"}, ["gnn"] = {"Gumatj"}, ["gno"] = {"Northern Gondi"}, ["gnq"] = {"Gana"}, ["gnr"] = {"Gureng Gureng"}, ["gnt"] = {"Guntai"}, ["gnu"] = {"Gnau"}, ["gnw"] = {"Western Bolivian Guaraní"}, ["gnz"] = {"Ganzi"}, ["goa"] = {"Guro"}, ["gob"] = {"Playero"}, ["goc"] = {"Gorakor"}, ["god"] = {"Godié"}, ["goe"] = {"Gongduk"}, ["gof"] = {"Gofa"}, ["gog"] = {"Gogo"}, ["goh"] = {"Old High German (ca. 750-1050)"}, ["goi"] = {"Gobasi"}, ["goj"] = {"Gowlan"}, ["gok"] = {"Gowli"}, ["gol"] = {"Gola"}, ["gom"] = {"Goan Konkani"}, ["gon"] = {"Gondi"}, ["goo"] = {"Gone Dau"}, ["gop"] = {"Yeretuar"}, ["goq"] = {"Gorap"}, ["gor"] = {"Gorontalo"}, ["gos"] = {"Gronings"}, ["got"] = {"Gothic"}, ["gou"] = {"Gavar"}, ["gov"] = {"Goo"}, ["gow"] = {"Gorowa"}, ["gox"] = {"Gobu"}, ["goy"] = {"Goundo"}, ["goz"] = {"Gozarkhani"}, ["gpa"] = {"Gupa-Abawa"}, ["gpe"] = {"Ghanaian Pidgin English"}, ["gpn"] = {"Taiap"}, ["gqa"] = {"Ga'anda"}, ["gqi"] = {"Guiqiong"}, ["gqn"] = {"Guana (Brazil)"}, ["gqr"] = {"Gor"}, ["gqu"] = {"Qau"}, ["gra"] = {"Rajput Garasia"}, ["grb"] = {"Grebo"}, ["grc"] = {"Ancient Greek (to 1453)"}, ["grd"] = {"Guruntum-Mbaaru"}, ["grg"] = {"Madi"}, ["grh"] = {"Gbiri-Niragu"}, ["gri"] = {"Ghari"}, ["grj"] = {"Southern Grebo"}, ["grk"] = {"Greek languages"}, ["grm"] = {"Kota Marudu Talantang"}, ["gro"] = {"Groma"}, ["grq"] = {"Gorovu"}, ["grr"] = {"Taznatit"}, ["grs"] = {"Gresi"}, ["grt"] = {"Garo"}, ["gru"] = {"Kistane"}, ["grv"] = {"Central Grebo"}, ["grw"] = {"Gweda"}, ["grx"] = {"Guriaso"}, ["gry"] = {"Barclayville Grebo"}, ["grz"] = {"Guramalum"}, ["gse"] = {"Ghanaian Sign Language"}, ["gsg"] = {"German Sign Language"}, ["gsl"] = {"Gusilay"}, ["gsm"] = {"Guatemalan Sign Language"}, ["gsn"] = {"Nema", "Gusan"}, ["gso"] = {"Southwest Gbaya"}, ["gsp"] = {"Wasembo"}, ["gss"] = {"Greek Sign Language"}, ["gsw"] = {"Swiss German", "Alemannic", "Alsatian"}, ["gta"] = {"Guató"}, ["gtu"] = {"Aghu-Tharnggala"}, ["gua"] = {"Shiki"}, ["gub"] = {"Guajajára"}, ["guc"] = {"Wayuu"}, ["gud"] = {"Yocoboué Dida"}, ["gue"] = {"Gurindji"}, ["guf"] = {"Gupapuyngu"}, ["gug"] = {"Paraguayan Guaraní"}, ["guh"] = {"Guahibo"}, ["gui"] = {"Eastern Bolivian Guaraní"}, ["guk"] = {"Gumuz"}, ["gul"] = {"Sea Island Creole English"}, ["gum"] = {"Guambiano"}, ["gun"] = {"Mbyá Guaraní"}, ["guo"] = {"Guayabero"}, ["gup"] = {"Gunwinggu"}, ["guq"] = {"Aché"}, ["gur"] = {"Farefare"}, ["gus"] = {"Guinean Sign Language"}, ["gut"] = {"Maléku Jaíka"}, ["guu"] = {"Yanomamö"}, ["guw"] = {"Gun"}, ["gux"] = {"Gourmanchéma"}, ["guz"] = {"Gusii", "Ekegusii"}, ["gva"] = {"Guana (Paraguay)"}, ["gvc"] = {"Guanano"}, ["gve"] = {"Duwet"}, ["gvf"] = {"Golin"}, ["gvj"] = {"Guajá"}, ["gvl"] = {"Gulay"}, ["gvm"] = {"Gurmana"}, ["gvn"] = {"Kuku-Yalanji"}, ["gvo"] = {"Gavião Do Jiparaná"}, ["gvp"] = {"Pará Gavião"}, ["gvr"] = {"Gurung"}, ["gvs"] = {"Gumawana"}, ["gvy"] = {"Guyani"}, ["gwa"] = {"Mbato"}, ["gwb"] = {"Gwa"}, ["gwc"] = {"Gawri", "Kalami"}, ["gwd"] = {"Gawwada"}, ["gwe"] = {"Gweno"}, ["gwf"] = {"Gowro"}, ["gwg"] = {"Moo"}, ["gwi"] = {"Gwichʼin"}, ["gwj"] = {"ǀGwi"}, ["gwm"] = {"Awngthim"}, ["gwn"] = {"Gwandara"}, ["gwr"] = {"Gwere"}, ["gwt"] = {"Gawar-Bati"}, ["gwu"] = {"Guwamu"}, ["gww"] = {"Kwini"}, ["gwx"] = {"Gua"}, ["gxx"] = {"Wè Southern"}, ["gya"] = {"Northwest Gbaya"}, ["gyb"] = {"Garus"}, ["gyd"] = {"Kayardild"}, ["gye"] = {"Gyem"}, ["gyf"] = {"Gungabula"}, ["gyg"] = {"Gbayi"}, ["gyi"] = {"Gyele"}, ["gyl"] = {"Gayil"}, ["gym"] = {"Ngäbere"}, ["gyn"] = {"Guyanese Creole English"}, ["gyo"] = {"Gyalsumdo"}, ["gyr"] = {"Guarayu"}, ["gyy"] = {"Gunya"}, ["gyz"] = {"Geji", "Gyaazi"}, ["gza"] = {"Ganza"}, ["gzi"] = {"Gazi"}, ["gzn"] = {"Gane"}, ["haa"] = {"Hän"}, ["hab"] = {"Hanoi Sign Language"}, ["hac"] = {"Gurani"}, ["had"] = {"Hatam"}, ["hae"] = {"Eastern Oromo"}, ["haf"] = {"Haiphong Sign Language"}, ["hag"] = {"Hanga"}, ["hah"] = {"Hahon"}, ["hai"] = {"Haida"}, ["haj"] = {"Hajong"}, ["hak"] = {"Hakka Chinese"}, ["hal"] = {"Halang"}, ["ham"] = {"Hewa"}, ["han"] = {"Hangaza"}, ["hao"] = {"Hakö"}, ["hap"] = {"Hupla"}, ["haq"] = {"Ha"}, ["har"] = {"Harari"}, ["has"] = {"Haisla"}, ["hav"] = {"Havu"}, ["haw"] = {"Hawaiian"}, ["hax"] = {"Southern Haida"}, ["hay"] = {"Haya"}, ["haz"] = {"Hazaragi"}, ["hba"] = {"Hamba"}, ["hbb"] = {"Huba"}, ["hbn"] = {"Heiban"}, ["hbo"] = {"Ancient Hebrew"}, ["hbu"] = {"Habu"}, ["hca"] = {"Andaman Creole Hindi"}, ["hch"] = {"Huichol"}, ["hdn"] = {"Northern Haida"}, ["hds"] = {"Honduras Sign Language"}, ["hdy"] = {"Hadiyya"}, ["hea"] = {"Northern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hed"] = {"Herdé"}, ["heg"] = {"Helong"}, ["heh"] = {"Hehe"}, ["hei"] = {"Heiltsuk"}, ["hem"] = {"Hemba"}, ["hgm"] = {"Haiǁom"}, ["hgw"] = {"Haigwai"}, ["hhi"] = {"Hoia Hoia"}, ["hhr"] = {"Kerak"}, ["hhy"] = {"Hoyahoya"}, ["hia"] = {"Lamang"}, ["hib"] = {"Hibito"}, ["hid"] = {"Hidatsa"}, ["hif"] = {"Fiji Hindi"}, ["hig"] = {"Kamwe"}, ["hih"] = {"Pamosu"}, ["hii"] = {"Hinduri"}, ["hij"] = {"Hijuk"}, ["hik"] = {"Seit-Kaitetu"}, ["hil"] = {"Hiligaynon"}, ["him"] = {"Himachali languages", "Western Pahari languages"}, ["hio"] = {"Tsoa"}, ["hir"] = {"Himarimã"}, ["hit"] = {"Hittite"}, ["hiw"] = {"Hiw"}, ["hix"] = {"Hixkaryána"}, ["hji"] = {"Haji"}, ["hka"] = {"Kahe"}, ["hke"] = {"Hunde"}, ["hkh"] = {"Khah", "Poguli"}, ["hkk"] = {"Hunjara-Kaina Ke"}, ["hkn"] = {"Mel-Khaonh"}, ["hks"] = {"Hong Kong Sign Language", "Heung Kong Sau Yue"}, ["hla"] = {"Halia"}, ["hlb"] = {"Halbi"}, ["hld"] = {"Halang Doan"}, ["hle"] = {"Hlersu"}, ["hlt"] = {"Matu Chin"}, ["hlu"] = {"Hieroglyphic Luwian"}, ["hma"] = {"Southern Mashan Hmong", "Southern Mashan Miao"}, ["hmb"] = {"Humburi Senni Songhay"}, ["hmc"] = {"Central Huishui Hmong", "Central Huishui Miao"}, ["hmd"] = {"Large Flowery Miao", "A-hmaos", "Da-Hua Miao"}, ["hme"] = {"Eastern Huishui Hmong", "Eastern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmf"] = {"Hmong Don"}, ["hmg"] = {"Southwestern Guiyang Hmong"}, ["hmh"] = {"Southwestern Huishui Hmong", "Southwestern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmi"] = {"Northern Huishui Hmong", "Northern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmj"] = {"Ge", "Gejia"}, ["hmk"] = {"Maek"}, ["hml"] = {"Luopohe Hmong", "Luopohe Miao"}, ["hmm"] = {"Central Mashan Hmong", "Central Mashan Miao"}, ["hmn"] = {"Hmong", "Mong"}, ["hmp"] = {"Northern Mashan Hmong", "Northern Mashan Miao"}, ["hmq"] = {"Eastern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hmr"] = {"Hmar"}, ["hms"] = {"Southern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hmt"] = {"Hamtai"}, ["hmu"] = {"Hamap"}, ["hmv"] = {"Hmong Dô"}, ["hmw"] = {"Western Mashan Hmong", "Western Mashan Miao"}, ["hmx"] = {"Hmong-Mien languages"}, ["hmy"] = {"Southern Guiyang Hmong", "Southern Guiyang Miao"}, ["hmz"] = {"Hmong Shua", "Sinicized Miao"}, ["hna"] = {"Mina (Cameroon)"}, ["hnd"] = {"Southern Hindko"}, ["hne"] = {"Chhattisgarhi"}, ["hng"] = {"Hungu"}, ["hnh"] = {"ǁAni"}, ["hni"] = {"Hani"}, ["hnj"] = {"Hmong Njua", "Mong Leng", "Mong Njua"}, ["hnm"] = {"Hainanese"}, ["hnn"] = {"Hanunoo"}, ["hno"] = {"Northern Hindko"}, ["hns"] = {"Caribbean Hindustani"}, ["hnu"] = {"Hung"}, ["hoa"] = {"Hoava"}, ["hob"] = {"Mari (Madang Province)"}, ["hoc"] = {"Ho"}, ["hod"] = {"Holma"}, ["hoe"] = {"Horom"}, ["hoh"] = {"Hobyót"}, ["hoi"] = {"Holikachuk"}, ["hoj"] = {"Hadothi", "Haroti"}, ["hok"] = {"Hokan languages"}, ["hol"] = {"Holu"}, ["hom"] = {"Homa"}, ["hoo"] = {"Holoholo"}, ["hop"] = {"Hopi"}, ["hor"] = {"Horo"}, ["hos"] = {"Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language"}, ["hot"] = {"Hote", "Malê"}, ["hov"] = {"Hovongan"}, ["how"] = {"Honi"}, ["hoy"] = {"Holiya"}, ["hoz"] = {"Hozo"}, ["hpo"] = {"Hpon"}, ["hps"] = {"Hawai'i Sign Language (HSL)", "Hawai'i Pidgin Sign Language"}, ["hra"] = {"Hrangkhol"}, ["hrc"] = {"Niwer Mil"}, ["hre"] = {"Hre"}, ["hrk"] = {"Haruku"}, ["hrm"] = {"Horned Miao"}, ["hro"] = {"Haroi"}, ["hrp"] = {"Nhirrpi"}, ["hrt"] = {"Hértevin"}, ["hru"] = {"Hruso"}, ["hrw"] = {"Warwar Feni"}, ["hrx"] = {"Hunsrik"}, ["hrz"] = {"Harzani"}, ["hsb"] = {"Upper Sorbian"}, ["hsh"] = {"Hungarian Sign Language"}, ["hsl"] = {"Hausa Sign Language"}, ["hsn"] = {"Xiang Chinese"}, ["hss"] = {"Harsusi"}, ["hti"] = {"Hoti"}, ["hto"] = {"Minica Huitoto"}, ["hts"] = {"Hadza"}, ["htu"] = {"Hitu"}, ["htx"] = {"Middle Hittite"}, ["hub"] = {"Huambisa"}, ["huc"] = {"ǂHua", "ǂʼAmkhoe"}, ["hud"] = {"Huaulu"}, ["hue"] = {"San Francisco Del Mar Huave"}, ["huf"] = {"Humene"}, ["hug"] = {"Huachipaeri"}, ["huh"] = {"Huilliche"}, ["hui"] = {"Huli"}, ["huj"] = {"Northern Guiyang Hmong", "Northern Guiyang Miao"}, ["huk"] = {"Hulung"}, ["hul"] = {"Hula"}, ["hum"] = {"Hungana"}, ["huo"] = {"Hu"}, ["hup"] = {"Hupa"}, ["huq"] = {"Tsat"}, ["hur"] = {"Halkomelem"}, ["hus"] = {"Huastec"}, ["hut"] = {"Humla"}, ["huu"] = {"Murui Huitoto"}, ["huv"] = {"San Mateo Del Mar Huave"}, ["huw"] = {"Hukumina"}, ["hux"] = {"Nüpode Huitoto"}, ["huy"] = {"Hulaulá"}, ["huz"] = {"Hunzib"}, ["hvc"] = {"Haitian Vodoun Culture Language"}, ["hve"] = {"San Dionisio Del Mar Huave"}, ["hvk"] = {"Haveke"}, ["hvn"] = {"Sabu"}, ["hvv"] = {"Santa María Del Mar Huave"}, ["hwa"] = {"Wané"}, ["hwc"] = {"Hawai'i Creole English", "Hawai'i Pidgin"}, ["hwo"] = {"Hwana"}, ["hya"] = {"Hya"}, ["hyw"] = {"Western Armenian"}, ["hyx"] = {"Armenian (family)"}, ["iai"] = {"Iaai"}, ["ian"] = {"Iatmul"}, ["iar"] = {"Purari"}, ["iba"] = {"Iban"}, ["ibb"] = {"Ibibio"}, ["ibd"] = {"Iwaidja"}, ["ibe"] = {"Akpes"}, ["ibg"] = {"Ibanag"}, ["ibh"] = {"Bih"}, ["ibl"] = {"Ibaloi"}, ["ibm"] = {"Agoi"}, ["ibn"] = {"Ibino"}, ["ibr"] = {"Ibuoro"}, ["ibu"] = {"Ibu"}, ["iby"] = {"Ibani"}, ["ica"] = {"Ede Ica"}, ["ich"] = {"Etkywan"}, ["icl"] = {"Icelandic Sign Language"}, ["icr"] = {"Islander Creole English"}, ["ida"] = {"Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki", "Luidakho-Luisukha-Lutirichi"}, ["idb"] = {"Indo-Portuguese"}, ["idc"] = {"Idon", "Ajiya"}, ["idd"] = {"Ede Idaca"}, ["ide"] = {"Idere"}, ["idi"] = {"Idi"}, ["idr"] = {"Indri"}, ["ids"] = {"Idesa"}, ["idt"] = {"Idaté"}, ["idu"] = {"Idoma"}, ["ifa"] = {"Amganad Ifugao"}, ["ifb"] = {"Batad Ifugao", "Ayangan Ifugao"}, ["ife"] = {"Ifè"}, ["iff"] = {"Ifo"}, ["ifk"] = {"Tuwali Ifugao"}, ["ifm"] = {"Teke-Fuumu"}, ["ifu"] = {"Mayoyao Ifugao"}, ["ify"] = {"Keley-I Kallahan"}, ["igb"] = {"Ebira"}, ["ige"] = {"Igede"}, ["igg"] = {"Igana"}, ["igl"] = {"Igala"}, ["igm"] = {"Kanggape"}, ["ign"] = {"Ignaciano"}, ["igo"] = {"Isebe"}, ["igs"] = {"Interglossa"}, ["igw"] = {"Igwe"}, ["ihb"] = {"Iha Based Pidgin"}, ["ihi"] = {"Ihievbe"}, ["ihp"] = {"Iha"}, ["ihw"] = {"Bidhawal"}, ["iin"] = {"Thiin"}, ["iir"] = {"Indo-Iranian languages"}, ["ijc"] = {"Izon"}, ["ije"] = {"Biseni"}, ["ijj"] = {"Ede Ije"}, ["ijn"] = {"Kalabari"}, ["ijo"] = {"Ijo languages"}, ["ijs"] = {"Southeast Ijo"}, ["ike"] = {"Eastern Canadian Inuktitut"}, ["ikh"] = {"Ikhin-Arokho"}, ["iki"] = {"Iko"}, ["ikk"] = {"Ika"}, ["ikl"] = {"Ikulu"}, ["iko"] = {"Olulumo-Ikom"}, ["ikp"] = {"Ikpeshi"}, ["ikr"] = {"Ikaranggal"}, ["iks"] = {"Inuit Sign Language"}, ["ikt"] = {"Inuinnaqtun", "Western Canadian Inuktitut"}, ["ikv"] = {"Iku-Gora-Ankwa"}, ["ikw"] = {"Ikwere"}, ["ikx"] = {"Ik"}, ["ikz"] = {"Ikizu"}, ["ila"] = {"Ile Ape"}, ["ilb"] = {"Ila"}, ["ilg"] = {"Garig-Ilgar"}, ["ili"] = {"Ili Turki"}, ["ilk"] = {"Ilongot"}, ["ilm"] = {"Iranun (Malaysia)"}, ["ilo"] = {"Iloko"}, ["ilp"] = {"Iranun (Philippines)"}, ["ils"] = {"International Sign"}, ["ilu"] = {"Ili'uun"}, ["ilv"] = {"Ilue"}, ["ima"] = {"Mala Malasar"}, ["imi"] = {"Anamgura"}, ["iml"] = {"Miluk"}, ["imn"] = {"Imonda"}, ["imo"] = {"Imbongu"}, ["imr"] = {"Imroing"}, ["ims"] = {"Marsian"}, ["imt"] = {"Imotong"}, ["imy"] = {"Milyan"}, ["inb"] = {"Inga"}, ["inc"] = {"Indic languages"}, ["ine"] = {"Indo-European languages"}, ["ing"] = {"Degexit'an"}, ["inh"] = {"Ingush"}, ["inj"] = {"Jungle Inga"}, ["inl"] = {"Indonesian Sign Language"}, ["inm"] = {"Minaean"}, ["inn"] = {"Isinai"}, ["ino"] = {"Inoke-Yate"}, ["inp"] = {"Iñapari"}, ["ins"] = {"Indian Sign Language"}, ["int"] = {"Intha"}, ["inz"] = {"Ineseño"}, ["ior"] = {"Inor"}, ["iou"] = {"Tuma-Irumu"}, ["iow"] = {"Iowa-Oto"}, ["ipi"] = {"Ipili"}, ["ipo"] = {"Ipiko"}, ["iqu"] = {"Iquito"}, ["iqw"] = {"Ikwo"}, ["ira"] = {"Iranian languages"}, ["ire"] = {"Iresim"}, ["irh"] = {"Irarutu"}, ["iri"] = {"Rigwe", "Irigwe"}, ["irk"] = {"Iraqw"}, ["irn"] = {"Irántxe"}, ["iro"] = {"Iroquoian languages"}, ["irr"] = {"Ir"}, ["iru"] = {"Irula"}, ["irx"] = {"Kamberau"}, ["iry"] = {"Iraya"}, ["isa"] = {"Isabi"}, ["isc"] = {"Isconahua"}, ["isd"] = {"Isnag"}, ["ise"] = {"Italian Sign Language"}, ["isg"] = {"Irish Sign Language"}, ["ish"] = {"Esan"}, ["isi"] = {"Nkem-Nkum"}, ["isk"] = {"Ishkashimi"}, ["ism"] = {"Masimasi"}, ["isn"] = {"Isanzu"}, ["iso"] = {"Isoko"}, ["isr"] = {"Israeli Sign Language"}, ["ist"] = {"Istriot"}, ["isu"] = {"Isu", "Isu (Menchum Division)"}, ["isv"] = {"Interslavic"}, ["itb"] = {"Binongan Itneg"}, ["itc"] = {"Italic languages"}, ["itd"] = {"Southern Tidung"}, ["ite"] = {"Itene"}, ["iti"] = {"Inlaod Itneg"}, ["itk"] = {"Judeo-Italian"}, ["itl"] = {"Itelmen"}, ["itm"] = {"Itu Mbon Uzo"}, ["ito"] = {"Itonama"}, ["itr"] = {"Iteri"}, ["its"] = {"Isekiri"}, ["itt"] = {"Maeng Itneg"}, ["itv"] = {"Itawit"}, ["itw"] = {"Ito"}, ["itx"] = {"Itik"}, ["ity"] = {"Moyadan Itneg"}, ["itz"] = {"Itzá"}, ["ium"] = {"Iu Mien"}, ["ivb"] = {"Ibatan"}, ["ivv"] = {"Ivatan"}, ["iwk"] = {"I-Wak"}, ["iwm"] = {"Iwam"}, ["iwo"] = {"Iwur"}, ["iws"] = {"Sepik Iwam"}, ["ixc"] = {"Ixcatec"}, ["ixl"] = {"Ixil"}, ["iya"] = {"Iyayu"}, ["iyo"] = {"Mesaka"}, ["iyx"] = {"Yaka (Congo)"}, ["izh"] = {"Ingrian"}, ["izm"] = {"Kizamani"}, ["izr"] = {"Izere"}, ["izz"] = {"Izii"}, ["jaa"] = {"Jamamadí"}, ["jab"] = {"Hyam"}, ["jac"] = {"Popti'", "Jakalteko"}, ["jad"] = {"Jahanka"}, ["jae"] = {"Yabem"}, ["jaf"] = {"Jara"}, ["jah"] = {"Jah Hut"}, ["jaj"] = {"Zazao"}, ["jak"] = {"Jakun"}, ["jal"] = {"Yalahatan"}, ["jam"] = {"Jamaican Creole English"}, ["jan"] = {"Jandai"}, ["jao"] = {"Yanyuwa"}, ["jaq"] = {"Yaqay"}, ["jas"] = {"New Caledonian Javanese"}, ["jat"] = {"Jakati"}, ["jau"] = {"Yaur"}, ["jax"] = {"Jambi Malay"}, ["jay"] = {"Yan-nhangu", "Nhangu"}, ["jaz"] = {"Jawe"}, ["jbe"] = {"Judeo-Berber"}, ["jbi"] = {"Badjiri"}, ["jbj"] = {"Arandai"}, ["jbk"] = {"Barikewa"}, ["jbm"] = {"Bijim"}, ["jbn"] = {"Nafusi"}, ["jbo"] = {"Lojban"}, ["jbr"] = {"Jofotek-Bromnya"}, ["jbt"] = {"Jabutí"}, ["jbu"] = {"Jukun Takum"}, ["jbw"] = {"Yawijibaya"}, ["jcs"] = {"Jamaican Country Sign Language"}, ["jct"] = {"Krymchak"}, ["jda"] = {"Jad"}, ["jdg"] = {"Jadgali"}, ["jdt"] = {"Judeo-Tat"}, ["jeb"] = {"Jebero"}, ["jee"] = {"Jerung"}, ["jeh"] = {"Jeh"}, ["jei"] = {"Yei"}, ["jek"] = {"Jeri Kuo"}, ["jel"] = {"Yelmek"}, ["jen"] = {"Dza"}, ["jer"] = {"Jere"}, ["jet"] = {"Manem"}, ["jeu"] = {"Jonkor Bourmataguil"}, ["jgb"] = {"Ngbee"}, ["jge"] = {"Judeo-Georgian"}, ["jgk"] = {"Gwak"}, ["jgo"] = {"Ngomba"}, ["jhi"] = {"Jehai"}, ["jhs"] = {"Jhankot Sign Language"}, ["jia"] = {"Jina"}, ["jib"] = {"Jibu"}, ["jic"] = {"Tol"}, ["jid"] = {"Bu (Kaduna State)"}, ["jie"] = {"Jilbe"}, ["jig"] = {"Jingulu", "Djingili"}, ["jih"] = {"sTodsde", "Shangzhai"}, ["jii"] = {"Jiiddu"}, ["jil"] = {"Jilim"}, ["jim"] = {"Jimi (Cameroon)"}, ["jio"] = {"Jiamao"}, ["jiq"] = {"Guanyinqiao", "Lavrung"}, ["jit"] = {"Jita"}, ["jiu"] = {"Youle Jinuo"}, ["jiv"] = {"Shuar"}, ["jiy"] = {"Buyuan Jinuo"}, ["jje"] = {"Jejueo"}, ["jjr"] = {"Bankal"}, ["jka"] = {"Kaera"}, ["jkm"] = {"Mobwa Karen"}, ["jko"] = {"Kubo"}, ["jkp"] = {"Paku Karen"}, ["jkr"] = {"Koro (India)"}, ["jks"] = {"Amami Koniya Sign Language"}, ["jku"] = {"Labir"}, ["jle"] = {"Ngile"}, ["jls"] = {"Jamaican Sign Language"}, ["jma"] = {"Dima"}, ["jmb"] = {"Zumbun"}, ["jmc"] = {"Machame"}, ["jmd"] = {"Yamdena"}, ["jmi"] = {"Jimi (Nigeria)"}, ["jml"] = {"Jumli"}, ["jmn"] = {"Makuri Naga"}, ["jmr"] = {"Kamara"}, ["jms"] = {"Mashi (Nigeria)"}, ["jmw"] = {"Mouwase"}, ["jmx"] = {"Western Juxtlahuaca Mixtec"}, ["jna"] = {"Jangshung"}, ["jnd"] = {"Jandavra"}, ["jng"] = {"Yangman"}, ["jni"] = {"Janji"}, ["jnj"] = {"Yemsa"}, ["jnl"] = {"Rawat"}, ["jns"] = {"Jaunsari"}, ["job"] = {"Joba"}, ["jod"] = {"Wojenaka"}, ["jog"] = {"Jogi"}, ["jor"] = {"Jorá"}, ["jos"] = {"Jordanian Sign Language"}, ["jow"] = {"Jowulu"}, ["jpa"] = {"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"}, ["jpr"] = {"Judeo-Persian"}, ["jpx"] = {"Japanese (family)"}, ["jqr"] = {"Jaqaru"}, ["jra"] = {"Jarai"}, ["jrb"] = {"Judeo-Arabic"}, ["jrr"] = {"Jiru"}, ["jrt"] = {"Jakattoe"}, ["jru"] = {"Japrería"}, ["jsl"] = {"Japanese Sign Language"}, ["jua"] = {"Júma"}, ["jub"] = {"Wannu"}, ["juc"] = {"Jurchen"}, ["jud"] = {"Worodougou"}, ["juh"] = {"Hõne"}, ["jui"] = {"Ngadjuri"}, ["juk"] = {"Wapan"}, ["jul"] = {"Jirel"}, ["jum"] = {"Jumjum"}, ["jun"] = {"Juang"}, ["juo"] = {"Jiba"}, ["jup"] = {"Hupdë"}, ["jur"] = {"Jurúna"}, ["jus"] = {"Jumla Sign Language"}, ["jut"] = {"Jutish"}, ["juu"] = {"Ju"}, ["juw"] = {"Wãpha"}, ["juy"] = {"Juray"}, ["jvd"] = {"Javindo"}, ["jvn"] = {"Caribbean Javanese"}, ["jwi"] = {"Jwira-Pepesa"}, ["jya"] = {"Jiarong"}, ["jye"] = {"Judeo-Yemeni Arabic"}, ["jyy"] = {"Jaya"}, ["kaa"] = {"Kara-Kalpak", "Karakalpak"}, ["kab"] = {"Kabyle"}, ["kac"] = {"Kachin", "Jingpho"}, ["kad"] = {"Adara"}, ["kae"] = {"Ketangalan"}, ["kaf"] = {"Katso"}, ["kag"] = {"Kajaman"}, ["kah"] = {"Kara (Central African Republic)"}, ["kai"] = {"Karekare"}, ["kaj"] = {"Jju"}, ["kak"] = {"Kalanguya", "Kayapa Kallahan"}, ["kam"] = {"Kamba (Kenya)"}, ["kao"] = {"Xaasongaxango"}, ["kap"] = {"Bezhta"}, ["kaq"] = {"Capanahua"}, ["kar"] = {"Karen languages"}, ["kav"] = {"Katukína"}, ["kaw"] = {"Kawi"}, ["kax"] = {"Kao"}, ["kay"] = {"Kamayurá"}, ["kba"] = {"Kalarko"}, ["kbb"] = {"Kaxuiâna"}, ["kbc"] = {"Kadiwéu"}, ["kbd"] = {"Kabardian"}, ["kbe"] = {"Kanju"}, ["kbg"] = {"Khamba"}, ["kbh"] = {"Camsá"}, ["kbi"] = {"Kaptiau"}, ["kbj"] = {"Kari"}, ["kbk"] = {"Grass Koiari"}, ["kbl"] = {"Kanembu"}, ["kbm"] = {"Iwal"}, ["kbn"] = {"Kare (Central African Republic)"}, ["kbo"] = {"Keliko"}, ["kbp"] = {"Kabiyè"}, ["kbq"] = {"Kamano"}, ["kbr"] = {"Kafa"}, ["kbs"] = {"Kande"}, ["kbt"] = {"Abadi"}, ["kbu"] = {"Kabutra"}, ["kbv"] = {"Dera (Indonesia)"}, ["kbw"] = {"Kaiep"}, ["kbx"] = {"Ap Ma"}, ["kby"] = {"Manga Kanuri"}, ["kbz"] = {"Duhwa"}, ["kca"] = {"Khanty"}, ["kcb"] = {"Kawacha"}, ["kcc"] = {"Lubila"}, ["kcd"] = {"Ngkâlmpw Kanum"}, ["kce"] = {"Kaivi"}, ["kcf"] = {"Ukaan"}, ["kcg"] = {"Tyap"}, ["kch"] = {"Vono"}, ["kci"] = {"Ngyian", "Kamantan"}, ["kcj"] = {"Kobiana"}, ["kck"] = {"Kalanga"}, ["kcl"] = {"Kela (Papua New Guinea)", "Kala"}, ["kcm"] = {"Gula (Central African Republic)"}, ["kcn"] = {"Nubi"}, ["kco"] = {"Kinalakna"}, ["kcp"] = {"Kanga"}, ["kcq"] = {"Kamo"}, ["kcr"] = {"Katla"}, ["kcs"] = {"Koenoem"}, ["kct"] = {"Kaian"}, ["kcu"] = {"Kami (Tanzania)"}, ["kcv"] = {"Kete"}, ["kcw"] = {"Kabwari"}, ["kcx"] = {"Kachama-Ganjule"}, ["kcy"] = {"Korandje"}, ["kcz"] = {"Konongo"}, ["kda"] = {"Worimi"}, ["kdc"] = {"Kutu"}, ["kdd"] = {"Yankunytjatjara"}, ["kde"] = {"Makonde"}, ["kdf"] = {"Mamusi"}, ["kdg"] = {"Seba"}, ["kdh"] = {"Tem"}, ["kdi"] = {"Kumam"}, ["kdj"] = {"Karamojong"}, ["kdk"] = {"Numèè", "Kwényi"}, ["kdl"] = {"Tsikimba"}, ["kdm"] = {"Kagoma"}, ["kdn"] = {"Kunda"}, ["kdo"] = {"Kordofanian languages"}, ["kdp"] = {"Kaningdon-Nindem"}, ["kdq"] = {"Koch"}, ["kdr"] = {"Karaim"}, ["kdt"] = {"Kuy"}, ["kdu"] = {"Kadaru"}, ["kdw"] = {"Koneraw"}, ["kdx"] = {"Kam"}, ["kdy"] = {"Keder", "Keijar"}, ["kdz"] = {"Kwaja"}, ["kea"] = {"Kabuverdianu"}, ["keb"] = {"Kélé"}, ["kec"] = {"Keiga"}, ["ked"] = {"Kerewe"}, ["kee"] = {"Eastern Keres"}, ["kef"] = {"Kpessi"}, ["keg"] = {"Tese"}, ["keh"] = {"Keak"}, ["kei"] = {"Kei"}, ["kej"] = {"Kadar"}, ["kek"] = {"Kekchí"}, ["kel"] = {"Kela (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["kem"] = {"Kemak"}, ["ken"] = {"Kenyang"}, ["keo"] = {"Kakwa"}, ["kep"] = {"Kaikadi"}, ["keq"] = {"Kamar"}, ["ker"] = {"Kera"}, ["kes"] = {"Kugbo"}, ["ket"] = {"Ket"}, ["keu"] = {"Akebu"}, ["kev"] = {"Kanikkaran"}, ["kew"] = {"West Kewa"}, ["kex"] = {"Kukna"}, ["key"] = {"Kupia"}, ["kez"] = {"Kukele"}, ["kfa"] = {"Kodava"}, ["kfb"] = {"Northwestern Kolami"}, ["kfc"] = {"Konda-Dora"}, ["kfd"] = {"Korra Koraga"}, ["kfe"] = {"Kota (India)"}, ["kff"] = {"Koya"}, ["kfg"] = {"Kudiya"}, ["kfh"] = {"Kurichiya"}, ["kfi"] = {"Kannada Kurumba"}, ["kfj"] = {"Kemiehua"}, ["kfk"] = {"Kinnauri"}, ["kfl"] = {"Kung"}, ["kfm"] = {"Khunsari"}, ["kfn"] = {"Kuk"}, ["kfo"] = {"Koro (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["kfp"] = {"Korwa"}, ["kfq"] = {"Korku"}, ["kfr"] = {"Kachhi", "Kutchi"}, ["kfs"] = {"Bilaspuri"}, ["kft"] = {"Kanjari"}, ["kfu"] = {"Katkari"}, ["kfv"] = {"Kurmukar"}, ["kfw"] = {"Kharam Naga"}, ["kfx"] = {"Kullu Pahari"}, ["kfy"] = {"Kumaoni"}, ["kfz"] = {"Koromfé"}, ["kga"] = {"Koyaga"}, ["kgb"] = {"Kawe"}, ["kge"] = {"Komering"}, ["kgf"] = {"Kube"}, ["kgg"] = {"Kusunda"}, ["kgi"] = {"Selangor Sign Language"}, ["kgj"] = {"Gamale Kham"}, ["kgk"] = {"Kaiwá"}, ["kgl"] = {"Kunggari"}, ["kgn"] = {"Karingani"}, ["kgo"] = {"Krongo"}, ["kgp"] = {"Kaingang"}, ["kgq"] = {"Kamoro"}, ["kgr"] = {"Abun"}, ["kgs"] = {"Kumbainggar"}, ["kgt"] = {"Somyev"}, ["kgu"] = {"Kobol"}, ["kgv"] = {"Karas"}, ["kgw"] = {"Karon Dori"}, ["kgx"] = {"Kamaru"}, ["kgy"] = {"Kyerung"}, ["kha"] = {"Khasi"}, ["khb"] = {"Lü"}, ["khc"] = {"Tukang Besi North"}, ["khd"] = {"Bädi Kanum"}, ["khe"] = {"Korowai"}, ["khf"] = {"Khuen"}, ["khg"] = {"Khams Tibetan"}, ["khh"] = {"Kehu"}, ["khi"] = {"Khoisan languages"}, ["khj"] = {"Kuturmi"}, ["khk"] = {"Halh Mongolian"}, ["khl"] = {"Lusi"}, ["khn"] = {"Khandesi"}, ["kho"] = {"Khotanese", "Sakan"}, ["khp"] = {"Kapori", "Kapauri"}, ["khq"] = {"Koyra Chiini Songhay"}, ["khr"] = {"Kharia"}, ["khs"] = {"Kasua"}, ["kht"] = {"Khamti"}, ["khu"] = {"Nkhumbi"}, ["khv"] = {"Khvarshi"}, ["khw"] = {"Khowar"}, ["khx"] = {"Kanu"}, ["khy"] = {"Kele (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["khz"] = {"Keapara"}, ["kia"] = {"Kim"}, ["kib"] = {"Koalib"}, ["kic"] = {"Kickapoo"}, ["kid"] = {"Koshin"}, ["kie"] = {"Kibet"}, ["kif"] = {"Eastern Parbate Kham"}, ["kig"] = {"Kimaama", "Kimaghima"}, ["kih"] = {"Kilmeri"}, ["kii"] = {"Kitsai"}, ["kij"] = {"Kilivila"}, ["kil"] = {"Kariya"}, ["kim"] = {"Karagas"}, ["kio"] = {"Kiowa"}, ["kip"] = {"Sheshi Kham"}, ["kiq"] = {"Kosadle", "Kosare"}, ["kis"] = {"Kis"}, ["kit"] = {"Agob"}, ["kiu"] = {"Kirmanjki (individual language)"}, ["kiv"] = {"Kimbu"}, ["kiw"] = {"Northeast Kiwai"}, ["kix"] = {"Khiamniungan Naga"}, ["kiy"] = {"Kirikiri"}, ["kiz"] = {"Kisi"}, ["kja"] = {"Mlap"}, ["kjb"] = {"Q'anjob'al", "Kanjobal"}, ["kjc"] = {"Coastal Konjo"}, ["kjd"] = {"Southern Kiwai"}, ["kje"] = {"Kisar"}, ["kjg"] = {"Khmu"}, ["kjh"] = {"Khakas"}, ["kji"] = {"Zabana"}, ["kjj"] = {"Khinalugh"}, ["kjk"] = {"Highland Konjo"}, ["kjl"] = {"Western Parbate Kham"}, ["kjm"] = {"Kháng"}, ["kjn"] = {"Kunjen"}, ["kjo"] = {"Kinnauri Pahari"}, ["kjp"] = {"Pwo Eastern Karen"}, ["kjq"] = {"Western Keres"}, ["kjr"] = {"Kurudu"}, ["kjs"] = {"East Kewa"}, ["kjt"] = {"Phrae Pwo Karen"}, ["kju"] = {"Kashaya"}, ["kjv"] = {"Kaikavian Literary Language"}, ["kjx"] = {"Ramopa"}, ["kjy"] = {"Erave"}, ["kjz"] = {"Bumthangkha"}, ["kka"] = {"Kakanda"}, ["kkb"] = {"Kwerisa"}, ["kkc"] = {"Odoodee"}, ["kkd"] = {"Kinuku"}, ["kke"] = {"Kakabe"}, ["kkf"] = {"Kalaktang Monpa"}, ["kkg"] = {"Mabaka Valley Kalinga"}, ["kkh"] = {"Khün"}, ["kki"] = {"Kagulu"}, ["kkj"] = {"Kako"}, ["kkk"] = {"Kokota"}, ["kkl"] = {"Kosarek Yale"}, ["kkm"] = {"Kiong"}, ["kkn"] = {"Kon Keu"}, ["kko"] = {"Karko"}, ["kkp"] = {"Gugubera", "Koko-Bera"}, ["kkq"] = {"Kaeku"}, ["kkr"] = {"Kir-Balar"}, ["kks"] = {"Giiwo"}, ["kkt"] = {"Koi"}, ["kku"] = {"Tumi"}, ["kkv"] = {"Kangean"}, ["kkw"] = {"Teke-Kukuya"}, ["kkx"] = {"Kohin"}, ["kky"] = {"Guugu Yimidhirr", "Guguyimidjir"}, ["kkz"] = {"Kaska"}, ["kla"] = {"Klamath-Modoc"}, ["klb"] = {"Kiliwa"}, ["klc"] = {"Kolbila"}, ["kld"] = {"Gamilaraay"}, ["kle"] = {"Kulung (Nepal)"}, ["klf"] = {"Kendeje"}, ["klg"] = {"Tagakaulo"}, ["klh"] = {"Weliki"}, ["kli"] = {"Kalumpang"}, ["klj"] = {"Khalaj"}, ["klk"] = {"Kono (Nigeria)"}, ["kll"] = {"Kagan Kalagan"}, ["klm"] = {"Migum"}, ["kln"] = {"Kalenjin"}, ["klo"] = {"Kapya"}, ["klp"] = {"Kamasa"}, ["klq"] = {"Rumu"}, ["klr"] = {"Khaling"}, ["kls"] = {"Kalasha"}, ["klt"] = {"Nukna"}, ["klu"] = {"Klao"}, ["klv"] = {"Maskelynes"}, ["klw"] = {"Tado", "Lindu"}, ["klx"] = {"Koluwawa"}, ["kly"] = {"Kalao"}, ["klz"] = {"Kabola"}, ["kma"] = {"Konni"}, ["kmb"] = {"Kimbundu"}, ["kmc"] = {"Southern Dong"}, ["kmd"] = {"Majukayang Kalinga"}, ["kme"] = {"Bakole"}, ["kmf"] = {"Kare (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kmg"] = {"Kâte"}, ["kmh"] = {"Kalam"}, ["kmi"] = {"Kami (Nigeria)"}, ["kmj"] = {"Kumarbhag Paharia"}, ["kmk"] = {"Limos Kalinga"}, ["kml"] = {"Tanudan Kalinga"}, ["kmm"] = {"Kom (India)"}, ["kmn"] = {"Awtuw"}, ["kmo"] = {"Kwoma"}, ["kmp"] = {"Gimme"}, ["kmq"] = {"Kwama"}, ["kmr"] = {"Northern Kurdish"}, ["kms"] = {"Kamasau"}, ["kmt"] = {"Kemtuik"}, ["kmu"] = {"Kanite"}, ["kmv"] = {"Karipúna Creole French"}, ["kmw"] = {"Komo (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["kmx"] = {"Waboda"}, ["kmy"] = {"Koma"}, ["kmz"] = {"Khorasani Turkish"}, ["kna"] = {"Dera (Nigeria)"}, ["knb"] = {"Lubuagan Kalinga"}, ["knc"] = {"Central Kanuri"}, ["knd"] = {"Konda"}, ["kne"] = {"Kankanaey"}, ["knf"] = {"Mankanya"}, ["kng"] = {"Koongo"}, ["kni"] = {"Kanufi"}, ["knj"] = {"Western Kanjobal"}, ["knk"] = {"Kuranko"}, ["knl"] = {"Keninjal"}, ["knm"] = {"Kanamarí"}, ["knn"] = {"Konkani (individual language)"}, ["kno"] = {"Kono (Sierra Leone)"}, ["knp"] = {"Kwanja"}, ["knq"] = {"Kintaq"}, ["knr"] = {"Kaningra"}, ["kns"] = {"Kensiu"}, ["knt"] = {"Panoan Katukína"}, ["knu"] = {"Kono (Guinea)"}, ["knv"] = {"Tabo"}, ["knw"] = {"Kung-Ekoka"}, ["knx"] = {"Kendayan", "Salako"}, ["kny"] = {"Kanyok"}, ["knz"] = {"Kalamsé"}, ["koa"] = {"Konomala"}, ["koc"] = {"Kpati"}, ["kod"] = {"Kodi"}, ["koe"] = {"Kacipo-Bale Suri"}, ["kof"] = {"Kubi"}, ["kog"] = {"Cogui", "Kogi"}, ["koh"] = {"Koyo"}, ["koi"] = {"Komi-Permyak"}, ["kok"] = {"Konkani (macrolanguage)"}, ["kol"] = {"Kol (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["koo"] = {"Konzo"}, ["kop"] = {"Waube"}, ["koq"] = {"Kota (Gabon)"}, ["kos"] = {"Kosraean"}, ["kot"] = {"Lagwan"}, ["kou"] = {"Koke"}, ["kov"] = {"Kudu-Camo"}, ["kow"] = {"Kugama"}, ["koy"] = {"Koyukon"}, ["koz"] = {"Korak"}, ["kpa"] = {"Kutto"}, ["kpb"] = {"Mullu Kurumba"}, ["kpc"] = {"Curripaco"}, ["kpd"] = {"Koba"}, ["kpe"] = {"Kpelle"}, ["kpf"] = {"Komba"}, ["kpg"] = {"Kapingamarangi"}, ["kph"] = {"Kplang"}, ["kpi"] = {"Kofei"}, ["kpj"] = {"Karajá"}, ["kpk"] = {"Kpan"}, ["kpl"] = {"Kpala"}, ["kpm"] = {"Koho"}, ["kpn"] = {"Kepkiriwát"}, ["kpo"] = {"Ikposo"}, ["kpq"] = {"Korupun-Sela"}, ["kpr"] = {"Korafe-Yegha"}, ["kps"] = {"Tehit"}, ["kpt"] = {"Karata"}, ["kpu"] = {"Kafoa"}, ["kpv"] = {"Komi-Zyrian"}, ["kpw"] = {"Kobon"}, ["kpx"] = {"Mountain Koiali"}, ["kpy"] = {"Koryak"}, ["kpz"] = {"Kupsabiny"}, ["kqa"] = {"Mum"}, ["kqb"] = {"Kovai"}, ["kqc"] = {"Doromu-Koki"}, ["kqd"] = {"Koy Sanjaq Surat"}, ["kqe"] = {"Kalagan"}, ["kqf"] = {"Kakabai"}, ["kqg"] = {"Khe"}, ["kqh"] = {"Kisankasa"}, ["kqi"] = {"Koitabu"}, ["kqj"] = {"Koromira"}, ["kqk"] = {"Kotafon Gbe"}, ["kql"] = {"Kyenele"}, ["kqm"] = {"Khisa"}, ["kqn"] = {"Kaonde"}, ["kqo"] = {"Eastern Krahn"}, ["kqp"] = {"Kimré"}, ["kqq"] = {"Krenak"}, ["kqr"] = {"Kimaragang"}, ["kqs"] = {"Northern Kissi"}, ["kqt"] = {"Klias River Kadazan"}, ["kqu"] = {"Seroa"}, ["kqv"] = {"Okolod"}, ["kqw"] = {"Kandas"}, ["kqx"] = {"Mser"}, ["kqy"] = {"Koorete"}, ["kqz"] = {"Korana"}, ["kra"] = {"Kumhali"}, ["krb"] = {"Karkin"}, ["krc"] = {"Karachay-Balkar"}, ["krd"] = {"Kairui-Midiki"}, ["kre"] = {"Panará"}, ["krf"] = {"Koro (Vanuatu)"}, ["krh"] = {"Kurama"}, ["kri"] = {"Krio"}, ["krj"] = {"Kinaray-A"}, ["krk"] = {"Kerek"}, ["krl"] = {"Karelian"}, ["krn"] = {"Sapo"}, ["kro"] = {"Kru languages"}, ["krp"] = {"Durop"}, ["krr"] = {"Krung"}, ["krs"] = {"Gbaya (Sudan)"}, ["krt"] = {"Tumari Kanuri"}, ["kru"] = {"Kurukh"}, ["krv"] = {"Kavet"}, ["krw"] = {"Western Krahn"}, ["krx"] = {"Karon"}, ["kry"] = {"Kryts"}, ["krz"] = {"Sota Kanum"}, ["ksb"] = {"Shambala"}, ["ksc"] = {"Southern Kalinga"}, ["ksd"] = {"Kuanua"}, ["kse"] = {"Kuni"}, ["ksf"] = {"Bafia"}, ["ksg"] = {"Kusaghe"}, ["ksh"] = {"Kölsch"}, ["ksi"] = {"Krisa", "I'saka"}, ["ksj"] = {"Uare"}, ["ksk"] = {"Kansa"}, ["ksl"] = {"Kumalu"}, ["ksm"] = {"Kumba"}, ["ksn"] = {"Kasiguranin"}, ["kso"] = {"Kofa"}, ["ksp"] = {"Kaba"}, ["ksq"] = {"Kwaami"}, ["ksr"] = {"Borong"}, ["kss"] = {"Southern Kisi"}, ["kst"] = {"Winyé"}, ["ksu"] = {"Khamyang"}, ["ksv"] = {"Kusu"}, ["ksw"] = {"S'gaw Karen"}, ["ksx"] = {"Kedang"}, ["ksy"] = {"Kharia Thar"}, ["ksz"] = {"Kodaku"}, ["kta"] = {"Katua"}, ["ktb"] = {"Kambaata"}, ["ktc"] = {"Kholok"}, ["ktd"] = {"Kokata", "Kukatha"}, ["kte"] = {"Nubri"}, ["ktf"] = {"Kwami"}, ["ktg"] = {"Kalkutung"}, ["kth"] = {"Karanga"}, ["kti"] = {"North Muyu"}, ["ktj"] = {"Plapo Krumen"}, ["ktk"] = {"Kaniet"}, ["ktl"] = {"Koroshi"}, ["ktm"] = {"Kurti"}, ["ktn"] = {"Karitiâna"}, ["kto"] = {"Kuot"}, ["ktp"] = {"Kaduo"}, ["ktq"] = {"Katabaga"}, ["kts"] = {"South Muyu"}, ["ktt"] = {"Ketum"}, ["ktu"] = {"Kituba (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["ktv"] = {"Eastern Katu"}, ["ktw"] = {"Kato"}, ["ktx"] = {"Kaxararí"}, ["kty"] = {"Kango (Bas-Uélé District)"}, ["ktz"] = {"Juǀʼhoan", "Juǀʼhoansi"}, ["kub"] = {"Kutep"}, ["kuc"] = {"Kwinsu"}, ["kud"] = {"'Auhelawa"}, ["kue"] = {"Kuman (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kuf"] = {"Western Katu"}, ["kug"] = {"Kupa"}, ["kuh"] = {"Kushi"}, ["kui"] = {"Kuikúro-Kalapálo", "Kalapalo"}, ["kuj"] = {"Kuria"}, ["kuk"] = {"Kepo'"}, ["kul"] = {"Kulere"}, ["kum"] = {"Kumyk"}, ["kun"] = {"Kunama"}, ["kuo"] = {"Kumukio"}, ["kup"] = {"Kunimaipa"}, ["kuq"] = {"Karipuna"}, ["kus"] = {"Kusaal"}, ["kut"] = {"Ktunaxa", "Ksanka", "Kutenai"}, ["kuu"] = {"Upper Kuskokwim"}, ["kuv"] = {"Kur"}, ["kuw"] = {"Kpagua"}, ["kux"] = {"Kukatja"}, ["kuy"] = {"Kuuku-Ya'u"}, ["kuz"] = {"Kunza"}, ["kva"] = {"Bagvalal"}, ["kvb"] = {"Kubu"}, ["kvc"] = {"Kove"}, ["kvd"] = {"Kui (Indonesia)"}, ["kve"] = {"Kalabakan"}, ["kvf"] = {"Kabalai"}, ["kvg"] = {"Kuni-Boazi"}, ["kvh"] = {"Komodo"}, ["kvi"] = {"Kwang"}, ["kvj"] = {"Psikye"}, ["kvk"] = {"Korean Sign Language"}, ["kvl"] = {"Kayaw"}, ["kvm"] = {"Kendem"}, ["kvn"] = {"Border Kuna"}, ["kvo"] = {"Dobel"}, ["kvp"] = {"Kompane"}, ["kvq"] = {"Geba Karen"}, ["kvr"] = {"Kerinci"}, ["kvt"] = {"Lahta Karen", "Lahta"}, ["kvu"] = {"Yinbaw Karen"}, ["kvv"] = {"Kola"}, ["kvw"] = {"Wersing"}, ["kvx"] = {"Parkari Koli"}, ["kvy"] = {"Yintale Karen", "Yintale"}, ["kvz"] = {"Tsakwambo", "Tsaukambo"}, ["kwa"] = {"Dâw"}, ["kwb"] = {"Kwa"}, ["kwc"] = {"Likwala"}, ["kwd"] = {"Kwaio"}, ["kwe"] = {"Kwerba"}, ["kwf"] = {"Kwara'ae"}, ["kwg"] = {"Sara Kaba Deme"}, ["kwh"] = {"Kowiai"}, ["kwi"] = {"Awa-Cuaiquer"}, ["kwj"] = {"Kwanga"}, ["kwk"] = {"Kwak'wala", "Kwakiutl"}, ["kwl"] = {"Kofyar"}, ["kwm"] = {"Kwambi"}, ["kwn"] = {"Kwangali"}, ["kwo"] = {"Kwomtari"}, ["kwp"] = {"Kodia"}, ["kwr"] = {"Kwer"}, ["kws"] = {"Kwese"}, ["kwt"] = {"Kwesten"}, ["kwu"] = {"Kwakum"}, ["kwv"] = {"Sara Kaba Náà"}, ["kww"] = {"Kwinti"}, ["kwx"] = {"Khirwar"}, ["kwy"] = {"San Salvador Kongo"}, ["kwz"] = {"Kwadi"}, ["kxa"] = {"Kairiru"}, ["kxb"] = {"Krobu"}, ["kxc"] = {"Konso", "Khonso"}, ["kxd"] = {"Brunei"}, ["kxf"] = {"Manumanaw Karen", "Manumanaw"}, ["kxh"] = {"Karo (Ethiopia)"}, ["kxi"] = {"Keningau Murut"}, ["kxj"] = {"Kulfa"}, ["kxk"] = {"Zayein Karen"}, ["kxm"] = {"Northern Khmer"}, ["kxn"] = {"Kanowit-Tanjong Melanau"}, ["kxo"] = {"Kanoé"}, ["kxp"] = {"Wadiyara Koli"}, ["kxq"] = {"Smärky Kanum"}, ["kxr"] = {"Koro (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kxs"] = {"Kangjia"}, ["kxt"] = {"Koiwat"}, ["kxv"] = {"Kuvi"}, ["kxw"] = {"Konai"}, ["kxx"] = {"Likuba"}, ["kxy"] = {"Kayong"}, ["kxz"] = {"Kerewo"}, ["kya"] = {"Kwaya"}, ["kyb"] = {"Butbut Kalinga"}, ["kyc"] = {"Kyaka"}, ["kyd"] = {"Karey"}, ["kye"] = {"Krache"}, ["kyf"] = {"Kouya"}, ["kyg"] = {"Keyagana"}, ["kyh"] = {"Karok"}, ["kyi"] = {"Kiput"}, ["kyj"] = {"Karao"}, ["kyk"] = {"Kamayo"}, ["kyl"] = {"Kalapuya"}, ["kym"] = {"Kpatili"}, ["kyn"] = {"Northern Binukidnon"}, ["kyo"] = {"Kelon"}, ["kyp"] = {"Kang"}, ["kyq"] = {"Kenga"}, ["kyr"] = {"Kuruáya"}, ["kys"] = {"Baram Kayan"}, ["kyt"] = {"Kayagar"}, ["kyu"] = {"Western Kayah"}, ["kyv"] = {"Kayort"}, ["kyw"] = {"Kudmali"}, ["kyx"] = {"Rapoisi"}, ["kyy"] = {"Kambaira"}, ["kyz"] = {"Kayabí"}, ["kza"] = {"Western Karaboro"}, ["kzb"] = {"Kaibobo"}, ["kzc"] = {"Bondoukou Kulango"}, ["kzd"] = {"Kadai"}, ["kze"] = {"Kosena"}, ["kzf"] = {"Da'a Kaili"}, ["kzg"] = {"Kikai"}, ["kzi"] = {"Kelabit"}, ["kzk"] = {"Kazukuru"}, ["kzl"] = {"Kayeli"}, ["kzm"] = {"Kais"}, ["kzn"] = {"Kokola"}, ["kzo"] = {"Kaningi"}, ["kzp"] = {"Kaidipang"}, ["kzq"] = {"Kaike"}, ["kzr"] = {"Karang"}, ["kzs"] = {"Sugut Dusun"}, ["kzu"] = {"Kayupulau"}, ["kzv"] = {"Komyandaret"}, ["kzw"] = {"Karirí-Xocó"}, ["kzx"] = {"Kamarian"}, ["kzy"] = {"Kango (Tshopo District)"}, ["kzz"] = {"Kalabra"}, ["laa"] = {"Southern Subanen"}, ["lab"] = {"Linear A"}, ["lac"] = {"Lacandon"}, ["lad"] = {"Ladino"}, ["lae"] = {"Pattani"}, ["laf"] = {"Lafofa"}, ["lag"] = {"Rangi"}, ["lah"] = {"Lahnda"}, ["lai"] = {"Lambya"}, ["laj"] = {"Lango (Uganda)"}, ["lal"] = {"Lalia"}, ["lam"] = {"Lamba"}, ["lan"] = {"Laru"}, ["lap"] = {"Laka (Chad)"}, ["laq"] = {"Qabiao"}, ["lar"] = {"Larteh"}, ["las"] = {"Lama (Togo)"}, ["lau"] = {"Laba"}, ["law"] = {"Lauje"}, ["lax"] = {"Tiwa"}, ["lay"] = {"Lama Bai"}, ["laz"] = {"Aribwatsa"}, ["lbb"] = {"Label"}, ["lbc"] = {"Lakkia"}, ["lbe"] = {"Lak"}, ["lbf"] = {"Tinani"}, ["lbg"] = {"Laopang"}, ["lbi"] = {"La'bi"}, ["lbj"] = {"Ladakhi"}, ["lbk"] = {"Central Bontok"}, ["lbl"] = {"Libon Bikol"}, ["lbm"] = {"Lodhi"}, ["lbn"] = {"Rmeet"}, ["lbo"] = {"Laven"}, ["lbq"] = {"Wampar"}, ["lbr"] = {"Lohorung"}, ["lbs"] = {"Libyan Sign Language"}, ["lbt"] = {"Lachi"}, ["lbu"] = {"Labu"}, ["lbv"] = {"Lavatbura-Lamusong"}, ["lbw"] = {"Tolaki"}, ["lbx"] = {"Lawangan"}, ["lby"] = {"Lamalama", "Lamu-Lamu"}, ["lbz"] = {"Lardil"}, ["lcc"] = {"Legenyem"}, ["lcd"] = {"Lola"}, ["lce"] = {"Loncong", "Sekak"}, ["lcf"] = {"Lubu"}, ["lch"] = {"Luchazi"}, ["lcl"] = {"Lisela"}, ["lcm"] = {"Tungag"}, ["lcp"] = {"Western Lawa"}, ["lcq"] = {"Luhu"}, ["lcs"] = {"Lisabata-Nuniali"}, ["lda"] = {"Kla-Dan"}, ["ldb"] = {"Dũya"}, ["ldd"] = {"Luri"}, ["ldg"] = {"Lenyima"}, ["ldh"] = {"Lamja-Dengsa-Tola"}, ["ldi"] = {"Laari"}, ["ldj"] = {"Lemoro"}, ["ldk"] = {"Leelau"}, ["ldl"] = {"Kaan"}, ["ldm"] = {"Landoma"}, ["ldn"] = {"Láadan"}, ["ldo"] = {"Loo"}, ["ldp"] = {"Tso"}, ["ldq"] = {"Lufu"}, ["lea"] = {"Lega-Shabunda"}, ["leb"] = {"Lala-Bisa"}, ["lec"] = {"Leco"}, ["led"] = {"Lendu"}, ["lee"] = {"Lyélé"}, ["lef"] = {"Lelemi"}, ["leh"] = {"Lenje"}, ["lei"] = {"Lemio"}, ["lej"] = {"Lengola"}, ["lek"] = {"Leipon"}, ["lel"] = {"Lele (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["lem"] = {"Nomaande"}, ["len"] = {"Lenca"}, ["leo"] = {"Leti (Cameroon)"}, ["lep"] = {"Lepcha"}, ["leq"] = {"Lembena"}, ["ler"] = {"Lenkau"}, ["les"] = {"Lese"}, ["let"] = {"Lesing-Gelimi", "Amio-Gelimi"}, ["leu"] = {"Kara (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["lev"] = {"Lamma"}, ["lew"] = {"Ledo Kaili"}, ["lex"] = {"Luang"}, ["ley"] = {"Lemolang"}, ["lez"] = {"Lezghian"}, ["lfa"] = {"Lefa"}, ["lfb"] = {"Buu (Cameroon)"}, ["lfn"] = {"Lingua Franca Nova"}, ["lga"] = {"Lungga"}, ["lgb"] = {"Laghu"}, ["lgg"] = {"Lugbara"}, ["lgh"] = {"Laghuu"}, ["lgi"] = {"Lengilu"}, ["lgk"] = {"Lingarak", "Neverver"}, ["lgl"] = {"Wala"}, ["lgm"] = {"Lega-Mwenga"}, ["lgn"] = {"T'apo", "Opuuo"}, ["lgo"] = {"Lango (South Sudan)"}, ["lgq"] = {"Logba"}, ["lgr"] = {"Lengo"}, ["lgs"] = {"Guinea-Bissau Sign Language", "Língua Gestual Guineense"}, ["lgt"] = {"Pahi"}, ["lgu"] = {"Longgu"}, ["lgz"] = {"Ligenza"}, ["lha"] = {"Laha (Viet Nam)"}, ["lhh"] = {"Laha (Indonesia)"}, ["lhi"] = {"Lahu Shi"}, ["lhl"] = {"Lahul Lohar"}, ["lhm"] = {"Lhomi"}, ["lhn"] = {"Lahanan"}, ["lhp"] = {"Lhokpu"}, ["lhs"] = {"Mlahsö"}, ["lht"] = {"Lo-Toga"}, ["lhu"] = {"Lahu"}, ["lia"] = {"West-Central Limba"}, ["lib"] = {"Likum"}, ["lic"] = {"Hlai"}, ["lid"] = {"Nyindrou"}, ["lie"] = {"Likila"}, ["lif"] = {"Limbu"}, ["lig"] = {"Ligbi"}, ["lih"] = {"Lihir"}, ["lij"] = {"Ligurian"}, ["lik"] = {"Lika"}, ["lil"] = {"Lillooet"}, ["lio"] = {"Liki"}, ["lip"] = {"Sekpele"}, ["liq"] = {"Libido"}, ["lir"] = {"Liberian English"}, ["lis"] = {"Lisu"}, ["liu"] = {"Logorik"}, ["liv"] = {"Liv"}, ["liw"] = {"Col"}, ["lix"] = {"Liabuku"}, ["liy"] = {"Banda-Bambari"}, ["liz"] = {"Libinza"}, ["lja"] = {"Golpa"}, ["lje"] = {"Rampi"}, ["lji"] = {"Laiyolo"}, ["ljl"] = {"Li'o"}, ["ljp"] = {"Lampung Api"}, ["ljw"] = {"Yirandali"}, ["ljx"] = {"Yuru"}, ["lka"] = {"Lakalei"}, ["lkb"] = {"Kabras", "Lukabaras"}, ["lkc"] = {"Kucong"}, ["lkd"] = {"Lakondê"}, ["lke"] = {"Kenyi"}, ["lkh"] = {"Lakha"}, ["lki"] = {"Laki"}, ["lkj"] = {"Remun"}, ["lkl"] = {"Laeko-Libuat"}, ["lkm"] = {"Kalaamaya"}, ["lkn"] = {"Lakon", "Vure"}, ["lko"] = {"Khayo", "Olukhayo"}, ["lkr"] = {"Päri"}, ["lks"] = {"Kisa", "Olushisa"}, ["lkt"] = {"Lakota"}, ["lku"] = {"Kungkari"}, ["lky"] = {"Lokoya"}, ["lla"] = {"Lala-Roba"}, ["llb"] = {"Lolo"}, ["llc"] = {"Lele (Guinea)"}, ["lld"] = {"Ladin"}, ["lle"] = {"Lele (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["llf"] = {"Hermit"}, ["llg"] = {"Lole"}, ["llh"] = {"Lamu"}, ["lli"] = {"Teke-Laali"}, ["llj"] = {"Ladji Ladji"}, ["llk"] = {"Lelak"}, ["lll"] = {"Lilau"}, ["llm"] = {"Lasalimu"}, ["lln"] = {"Lele (Chad)"}, ["llp"] = {"North Efate"}, ["llq"] = {"Lolak"}, ["lls"] = {"Lithuanian Sign Language"}, ["llu"] = {"Lau"}, ["llx"] = {"Lauan"}, ["lma"] = {"East Limba"}, ["lmb"] = {"Merei"}, ["lmc"] = {"Limilngan"}, ["lmd"] = {"Lumun"}, ["lme"] = {"Pévé"}, ["lmf"] = {"South Lembata"}, ["lmg"] = {"Lamogai"}, ["lmh"] = {"Lambichhong"}, ["lmi"] = {"Lombi"}, ["lmj"] = {"West Lembata"}, ["lmk"] = {"Lamkang"}, ["lml"] = {"Hano"}, ["lmn"] = {"Lambadi"}, ["lmo"] = {"Lombard"}, ["lmp"] = {"Limbum"}, ["lmq"] = {"Lamatuka"}, ["lmr"] = {"Lamalera"}, ["lmu"] = {"Lamenu"}, ["lmv"] = {"Lomaiviti"}, ["lmw"] = {"Lake Miwok"}, ["lmx"] = {"Laimbue"}, ["lmy"] = {"Lamboya"}, ["lna"] = {"Langbashe"}, ["lnb"] = {"Mbalanhu"}, ["lnd"] = {"Lundayeh", "Lun Bawang"}, ["lng"] = {"Langobardic"}, ["lnh"] = {"Lanoh"}, ["lni"] = {"Daantanai'"}, ["lnj"] = {"Leningitij"}, ["lnl"] = {"South Central Banda"}, ["lnm"] = {"Langam"}, ["lnn"] = {"Lorediakarkar"}, ["lns"] = {"Lamnso'"}, ["lnu"] = {"Longuda"}, ["lnw"] = {"Lanima"}, ["lnz"] = {"Lonzo"}, ["loa"] = {"Loloda"}, ["lob"] = {"Lobi"}, ["loc"] = {"Inonhan"}, ["loe"] = {"Saluan"}, ["lof"] = {"Logol"}, ["log"] = {"Logo"}, ["loh"] = {"Laarim", "Narim"}, ["loi"] = {"Loma (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["loj"] = {"Lou"}, ["lok"] = {"Loko"}, ["lol"] = {"Mongo"}, ["lom"] = {"Loma (Liberia)"}, ["lon"] = {"Malawi Lomwe"}, ["loo"] = {"Lombo"}, ["lop"] = {"Lopa"}, ["loq"] = {"Lobala"}, ["lor"] = {"Téén"}, ["los"] = {"Loniu"}, ["lot"] = {"Otuho"}, ["lou"] = {"Louisiana Creole"}, ["lov"] = {"Lopi"}, ["low"] = {"Tampias Lobu"}, ["lox"] = {"Loun"}, ["loy"] = {"Loke"}, ["loz"] = {"Lozi"}, ["lpa"] = {"Lelepa"}, ["lpe"] = {"Lepki"}, ["lpn"] = {"Long Phuri Naga"}, ["lpo"] = {"Lipo"}, ["lpx"] = {"Lopit"}, ["lqr"] = {"Logir"}, ["lra"] = {"Rara Bakati'"}, ["lrc"] = {"Northern Luri"}, ["lre"] = {"Laurentian"}, ["lrg"] = {"Laragia"}, ["lri"] = {"Marachi", "Olumarachi"}, ["lrk"] = {"Loarki"}, ["lrl"] = {"Lari"}, ["lrm"] = {"Marama", "Olumarama"}, ["lrn"] = {"Lorang"}, ["lro"] = {"Laro"}, ["lrr"] = {"Southern Yamphu"}, ["lrt"] = {"Larantuka Malay"}, ["lrv"] = {"Larevat"}, ["lrz"] = {"Lemerig"}, ["lsa"] = {"Lasgerdi"}, ["lsb"] = {"Burundian Sign Language", "Langue des Signes Burundaise"}, ["lsc"] = {"Albarradas Sign Language", "Lengua de señas Albarradas"}, ["lsd"] = {"Lishana Deni"}, ["lse"] = {"Lusengo"}, ["lsh"] = {"Lish"}, ["lsi"] = {"Lashi"}, ["lsl"] = {"Latvian Sign Language"}, ["lsm"] = {"Saamia", "Olusamia"}, ["lsn"] = {"Tibetan Sign Language"}, ["lso"] = {"Laos Sign Language"}, ["lsp"] = {"Panamanian Sign Language", "Lengua de Señas Panameñas"}, ["lsr"] = {"Aruop"}, ["lss"] = {"Lasi"}, ["lst"] = {"Trinidad and Tobago Sign Language"}, ["lsv"] = {"Sivia Sign Language"}, ["lsw"] = {"Seychelles Sign Language", "Lalang Siny Seselwa", "Langue des Signes Seychelloise"}, ["lsy"] = {"Mauritian Sign Language"}, ["ltc"] = {"Late Middle Chinese"}, ["ltg"] = {"Latgalian"}, ["lth"] = {"Thur"}, ["lti"] = {"Leti (Indonesia)"}, ["ltn"] = {"Latundê"}, ["lto"] = {"Tsotso", "Olutsotso"}, ["lts"] = {"Tachoni", "Lutachoni"}, ["ltu"] = {"Latu"}, ["lua"] = {"Luba-Lulua"}, ["luc"] = {"Aringa"}, ["lud"] = {"Ludian"}, ["lue"] = {"Luvale"}, ["luf"] = {"Laua"}, ["luh"] = {"Leizhou Chinese"}, ["lui"] = {"Luiseño"}, ["luj"] = {"Luna"}, ["luk"] = {"Lunanakha"}, ["lul"] = {"Olu'bo"}, ["lum"] = {"Luimbi"}, ["lun"] = {"Lunda"}, ["luo"] = {"Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)", "Dholuo"}, ["lup"] = {"Lumbu"}, ["luq"] = {"Lucumi"}, ["lur"] = {"Laura"}, ["lus"] = {"Lushai"}, ["lut"] = {"Lushootseed"}, ["luu"] = {"Lumba-Yakkha"}, ["luv"] = {"Luwati"}, ["luw"] = {"Luo (Cameroon)"}, ["luy"] = {"Luyia", "Oluluyia"}, ["luz"] = {"Southern Luri"}, ["lva"] = {"Maku'a"}, ["lvi"] = {"Lavi"}, ["lvk"] = {"Lavukaleve"}, ["lvl"] = {"Lwel"}, ["lvs"] = {"Standard Latvian"}, ["lvu"] = {"Levuka"}, ["lwa"] = {"Lwalu"}, ["lwe"] = {"Lewo Eleng"}, ["lwg"] = {"Wanga", "Oluwanga"}, ["lwh"] = {"White Lachi"}, ["lwl"] = {"Eastern Lawa"}, ["lwm"] = {"Laomian"}, ["lwo"] = {"Luwo"}, ["lws"] = {"Malawian Sign Language"}, ["lwt"] = {"Lewotobi"}, ["lwu"] = {"Lawu"}, ["lww"] = {"Lewo"}, ["lxm"] = {"Lakurumau"}, ["lya"] = {"Layakha"}, ["lyg"] = {"Lyngngam"}, ["lyn"] = {"Luyana"}, ["lzh"] = {"Literary Chinese"}, ["lzl"] = {"Litzlitz"}, ["lzn"] = {"Leinong Naga"}, ["lzz"] = {"Laz"}, ["maa"] = {"San Jerónimo Tecóatl Mazatec"}, ["mab"] = {"Yutanduchi Mixtec"}, ["mad"] = {"Madurese"}, ["mae"] = {"Bo-Rukul"}, ["maf"] = {"Mafa"}, ["mag"] = {"Magahi"}, ["mai"] = {"Maithili"}, ["maj"] = {"Jalapa De Díaz Mazatec"}, ["mak"] = {"Makasar"}, ["mam"] = {"Mam"}, ["man"] = {"Mandingo", "Manding"}, ["map"] = {"Austronesian languages"}, ["maq"] = {"Chiquihuitlán Mazatec"}, ["mas"] = {"Masai"}, ["mat"] = {"San Francisco Matlatzinca"}, ["mau"] = {"Huautla Mazatec"}, ["mav"] = {"Sateré-Mawé"}, ["maw"] = {"Mampruli"}, ["max"] = {"North Moluccan Malay"}, ["maz"] = {"Central Mazahua"}, ["mba"] = {"Higaonon"}, ["mbb"] = {"Western Bukidnon Manobo"}, ["mbc"] = {"Macushi"}, ["mbd"] = {"Dibabawon Manobo"}, ["mbe"] = {"Molale"}, ["mbf"] = {"Baba Malay"}, ["mbh"] = {"Mangseng"}, ["mbi"] = {"Ilianen Manobo"}, ["mbj"] = {"Nadëb"}, ["mbk"] = {"Malol"}, ["mbl"] = {"Maxakalí"}, ["mbm"] = {"Ombamba"}, ["mbn"] = {"Macaguán"}, ["mbo"] = {"Mbo (Cameroon)"}, ["mbp"] = {"Malayo"}, ["mbq"] = {"Maisin"}, ["mbr"] = {"Nukak Makú"}, ["mbs"] = {"Sarangani Manobo"}, ["mbt"] = {"Matigsalug Manobo"}, ["mbu"] = {"Mbula-Bwazza"}, ["mbv"] = {"Mbulungish"}, ["mbw"] = {"Maring"}, ["mbx"] = {"Mari (East Sepik Province)"}, ["mby"] = {"Memoni"}, ["mbz"] = {"Amoltepec Mixtec"}, ["mca"] = {"Maca"}, ["mcb"] = {"Machiguenga"}, ["mcc"] = {"Bitur"}, ["mcd"] = {"Sharanahua"}, ["mce"] = {"Itundujia Mixtec"}, ["mcf"] = {"Matsés"}, ["mcg"] = {"Mapoyo"}, ["mch"] = {"Maquiritari"}, ["mci"] = {"Mese"}, ["mcj"] = {"Mvanip"}, ["mck"] = {"Mbunda"}, ["mcl"] = {"Macaguaje"}, ["mcm"] = {"Malaccan Creole Portuguese"}, ["mcn"] = {"Masana"}, ["mco"] = {"Coatlán Mixe"}, ["mcp"] = {"Makaa"}, ["mcq"] = {"Ese"}, ["mcr"] = {"Menya"}, ["mcs"] = {"Mambai"}, ["mct"] = {"Mengisa"}, ["mcu"] = {"Cameroon Mambila"}, ["mcv"] = {"Minanibai"}, ["mcw"] = {"Mawa (Chad)"}, ["mcx"] = {"Mpiemo"}, ["mcy"] = {"South Watut"}, ["mcz"] = {"Mawan"}, ["mda"] = {"Mada (Nigeria)"}, ["mdb"] = {"Morigi"}, ["mdc"] = {"Soq", "Male (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mdd"] = {"Mbum"}, ["mde"] = {"Maba (Chad)"}, ["mdf"] = {"Moksha"}, ["mdg"] = {"Massalat"}, ["mdh"] = {"Maguindanaon"}, ["mdi"] = {"Mamvu"}, ["mdj"] = {"Mangbetu"}, ["mdk"] = {"Mangbutu"}, ["mdl"] = {"Maltese Sign Language"}, ["mdm"] = {"Mayogo"}, ["mdn"] = {"Mbati"}, ["mdp"] = {"Mbala"}, ["mdq"] = {"Mbole"}, ["mdr"] = {"Mandar"}, ["mds"] = {"Maria (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mdt"] = {"Mbere"}, ["mdu"] = {"Mboko"}, ["mdv"] = {"Santa Lucía Monteverde Mixtec"}, ["mdw"] = {"Mbosi"}, ["mdx"] = {"Dizin"}, ["mdy"] = {"Male", "Male (Ethiopia)"}, ["mdz"] = {"Suruí Do Pará"}, ["mea"] = {"Menka"}, ["meb"] = {"Ikobi"}, ["mec"] = {"Marra"}, ["med"] = {"Melpa"}, ["mee"] = {"Mengen"}, ["mef"] = {"Megam"}, ["meh"] = {"Southwestern Tlaxiaco Mixtec"}, ["mei"] = {"Midob"}, ["mej"] = {"Meyah"}, ["mek"] = {"Mekeo"}, ["mel"] = {"Central Melanau"}, ["mem"] = {"Mangala"}, ["men"] = {"Mende (Sierra Leone)"}, ["meo"] = {"Kedah Malay"}, ["mep"] = {"Miriwoong"}, ["meq"] = {"Merey"}, ["mer"] = {"Meru"}, ["mes"] = {"Masmaje"}, ["met"] = {"Mato"}, ["meu"] = {"Motu"}, ["mev"] = {"Mano"}, ["mew"] = {"Maaka"}, ["mey"] = {"Hassaniyya"}, ["mez"] = {"Menominee"}, ["mfa"] = {"Pattani Malay"}, ["mfb"] = {"Bangka"}, ["mfc"] = {"Mba"}, ["mfd"] = {"Mendankwe-Nkwen"}, ["mfe"] = {"Morisyen"}, ["mff"] = {"Naki"}, ["mfg"] = {"Mogofin"}, ["mfh"] = {"Matal"}, ["mfi"] = {"Wandala"}, ["mfj"] = {"Mefele"}, ["mfk"] = {"North Mofu"}, ["mfl"] = {"Putai"}, ["mfm"] = {"Marghi South"}, ["mfn"] = {"Cross River Mbembe"}, ["mfo"] = {"Mbe"}, ["mfp"] = {"Makassar Malay"}, ["mfq"] = {"Moba"}, ["mfr"] = {"Marrithiyel"}, ["mfs"] = {"Mexican Sign Language"}, ["mft"] = {"Mokerang"}, ["mfu"] = {"Mbwela"}, ["mfv"] = {"Mandjak"}, ["mfw"] = {"Mulaha"}, ["mfx"] = {"Melo"}, ["mfy"] = {"Mayo"}, ["mfz"] = {"Mabaan"}, ["mga"] = {"Middle Irish (900-1200)"}, ["mgb"] = {"Mararit"}, ["mgc"] = {"Morokodo"}, ["mgd"] = {"Moru"}, ["mge"] = {"Mango"}, ["mgf"] = {"Maklew"}, ["mgg"] = {"Mpumpong"}, ["mgh"] = {"Makhuwa-Meetto"}, ["mgi"] = {"Lijili"}, ["mgj"] = {"Abureni"}, ["mgk"] = {"Mawes"}, ["mgl"] = {"Maleu-Kilenge"}, ["mgm"] = {"Mambae"}, ["mgn"] = {"Mbangi"}, ["mgo"] = {"Meta'"}, ["mgp"] = {"Eastern Magar"}, ["mgq"] = {"Malila"}, ["mgr"] = {"Mambwe-Lungu"}, ["mgs"] = {"Manda (Tanzania)"}, ["mgt"] = {"Mongol"}, ["mgu"] = {"Mailu"}, ["mgv"] = {"Matengo"}, ["mgw"] = {"Matumbi"}, ["mgy"] = {"Mbunga"}, ["mgz"] = {"Mbugwe"}, ["mha"] = {"Manda (India)"}, ["mhb"] = {"Mahongwe"}, ["mhc"] = {"Mocho"}, ["mhd"] = {"Mbugu"}, ["mhe"] = {"Besisi", "Mah Meri"}, ["mhf"] = {"Mamaa"}, ["mhg"] = {"Margu"}, ["mhi"] = {"Ma'di"}, ["mhj"] = {"Mogholi"}, ["mhk"] = {"Mungaka"}, ["mhl"] = {"Mauwake"}, ["mhm"] = {"Makhuwa-Moniga"}, ["mhn"] = {"Mòcheno"}, ["mho"] = {"Mashi (Zambia)"}, ["mhp"] = {"Balinese Malay"}, ["mhq"] = {"Mandan"}, ["mhr"] = {"Eastern Mari"}, ["mhs"] = {"Buru (Indonesia)"}, ["mht"] = {"Mandahuaca"}, ["mhu"] = {"Digaro-Mishmi", "Darang Deng"}, ["mhw"] = {"Mbukushu"}, ["mhx"] = {"Maru", "Lhaovo"}, ["mhy"] = {"Ma'anyan"}, ["mhz"] = {"Mor (Mor Islands)"}, ["mia"] = {"Miami"}, ["mib"] = {"Atatláhuca Mixtec"}, ["mic"] = {"Mi'kmaq", "Micmac"}, ["mid"] = {"Mandaic"}, ["mie"] = {"Ocotepec Mixtec"}, ["mif"] = {"Mofu-Gudur"}, ["mig"] = {"San Miguel El Grande Mixtec"}, ["mih"] = {"Chayuco Mixtec"}, ["mii"] = {"Chigmecatitlán Mixtec"}, ["mij"] = {"Abar", "Mungbam"}, ["mik"] = {"Mikasuki"}, ["mil"] = {"Peñoles Mixtec"}, ["mim"] = {"Alacatlatzala Mixtec"}, ["min"] = {"Minangkabau"}, ["mio"] = {"Pinotepa Nacional Mixtec"}, ["mip"] = {"Apasco-Apoala Mixtec"}, ["miq"] = {"Mískito"}, ["mir"] = {"Isthmus Mixe"}, ["mis"] = {"Uncoded languages"}, ["mit"] = {"Southern Puebla Mixtec"}, ["miu"] = {"Cacaloxtepec Mixtec"}, ["miw"] = {"Akoye"}, ["mix"] = {"Mixtepec Mixtec"}, ["miy"] = {"Ayutla Mixtec"}, ["miz"] = {"Coatzospan Mixtec"}, ["mjb"] = {"Makalero"}, ["mjc"] = {"San Juan Colorado Mixtec"}, ["mjd"] = {"Northwest Maidu"}, ["mje"] = {"Muskum"}, ["mjg"] = {"Tu"}, ["mjh"] = {"Mwera (Nyasa)"}, ["mji"] = {"Kim Mun"}, ["mjj"] = {"Mawak"}, ["mjk"] = {"Matukar"}, ["mjl"] = {"Mandeali"}, ["mjm"] = {"Medebur"}, ["mjn"] = {"Ma (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mjo"] = {"Malankuravan"}, ["mjp"] = {"Malapandaram"}, ["mjq"] = {"Malaryan"}, ["mjr"] = {"Malavedan"}, ["mjs"] = {"Miship"}, ["mjt"] = {"Sauria Paharia"}, ["mju"] = {"Manna-Dora"}, ["mjv"] = {"Mannan"}, ["mjw"] = {"Karbi"}, ["mjx"] = {"Mahali"}, ["mjy"] = {"Mahican"}, ["mjz"] = {"Majhi"}, ["mka"] = {"Mbre"}, ["mkb"] = {"Mal Paharia"}, ["mkc"] = {"Siliput"}, ["mke"] = {"Mawchi"}, ["mkf"] = {"Miya"}, ["mkg"] = {"Mak (China)"}, ["mkh"] = {"Mon-Khmer languages"}, ["mki"] = {"Dhatki"}, ["mkj"] = {"Mokilese"}, ["mkk"] = {"Byep"}, ["mkl"] = {"Mokole"}, ["mkm"] = {"Moklen"}, ["mkn"] = {"Kupang Malay"}, ["mko"] = {"Mingang Doso"}, ["mkp"] = {"Moikodi"}, ["mkq"] = {"Bay Miwok"}, ["mkr"] = {"Malas"}, ["mks"] = {"Silacayoapan Mixtec"}, ["mkt"] = {"Vamale"}, ["mku"] = {"Konyanka Maninka"}, ["mkv"] = {"Mafea"}, ["mkw"] = {"Kituba (Congo)"}, ["mkx"] = {"Kinamiging Manobo"}, ["mky"] = {"East Makian"}, ["mkz"] = {"Makasae"}, ["mla"] = {"Malo"}, ["mlb"] = {"Mbule"}, ["mlc"] = {"Cao Lan"}, ["mle"] = {"Manambu"}, ["mlf"] = {"Mal"}, ["mlh"] = {"Mape"}, ["mli"] = {"Malimpung"}, ["mlj"] = {"Miltu"}, ["mlk"] = {"Ilwana", "Kiwilwana"}, ["mll"] = {"Malua Bay"}, ["mlm"] = {"Mulam"}, ["mln"] = {"Malango"}, ["mlo"] = {"Mlomp"}, ["mlp"] = {"Bargam"}, ["mlq"] = {"Western Maninkakan"}, ["mlr"] = {"Vame"}, ["mls"] = {"Masalit"}, ["mlu"] = {"To'abaita"}, ["mlv"] = {"Motlav", "Mwotlap"}, ["mlw"] = {"Moloko"}, ["mlx"] = {"Malfaxal", "Naha'ai"}, ["mlz"] = {"Malaynon"}, ["mma"] = {"Mama"}, ["mmb"] = {"Momina"}, ["mmc"] = {"Michoacán Mazahua"}, ["mmd"] = {"Maonan"}, ["mme"] = {"Mae"}, ["mmf"] = {"Mundat"}, ["mmg"] = {"North Ambrym"}, ["mmh"] = {"Mehináku"}, ["mmi"] = {"Hember Avu", "Amben", "Musar"}, ["mmj"] = {"Majhwar"}, ["mmk"] = {"Mukha-Dora"}, ["mml"] = {"Man Met"}, ["mmm"] = {"Maii"}, ["mmn"] = {"Mamanwa"}, ["mmo"] = {"Mangga Buang"}, ["mmp"] = {"Siawi"}, ["mmq"] = {"Musak"}, ["mmr"] = {"Western Xiangxi Miao"}, ["mmt"] = {"Malalamai"}, ["mmu"] = {"Mmaala"}, ["mmv"] = {"Miriti"}, ["mmw"] = {"Emae"}, ["mmx"] = {"Madak"}, ["mmy"] = {"Migaama"}, ["mmz"] = {"Mabaale"}, ["mna"] = {"Mbula"}, ["mnb"] = {"Muna"}, ["mnc"] = {"Manchu"}, ["mnd"] = {"Mondé"}, ["mne"] = {"Naba"}, ["mnf"] = {"Mundani"}, ["mng"] = {"Eastern Mnong"}, ["mnh"] = {"Mono (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["mni"] = {"Manipuri"}, ["mnj"] = {"Munji"}, ["mnk"] = {"Mandinka"}, ["mnl"] = {"Tiale"}, ["mnm"] = {"Mapena"}, ["mnn"] = {"Southern Mnong"}, ["mno"] = {"Manobo languages"}, ["mnp"] = {"Min Bei Chinese"}, ["mnq"] = {"Minriq"}, ["mnr"] = {"Mono (USA)"}, ["mns"] = {"Mansi"}, ["mnu"] = {"Mer"}, ["mnv"] = {"Rennell-Bellona"}, ["mnw"] = {"Mon"}, ["mnx"] = {"Manikion"}, ["mny"] = {"Manyawa"}, ["mnz"] = {"Moni"}, ["moa"] = {"Mwan"}, ["moc"] = {"Mocoví"}, ["mod"] = {"Mobilian"}, ["moe"] = {"Innu", "Montagnais"}, ["mog"] = {"Mongondow"}, ["moh"] = {"Mohawk", "Kanien'kéha"}, ["moi"] = {"Mboi"}, ["moj"] = {"Monzombo"}, ["mok"] = {"Morori"}, ["mom"] = {"Mangue"}, ["moo"] = {"Monom"}, ["mop"] = {"Mopán Maya"}, ["moq"] = {"Mor (Bomberai Peninsula)"}, ["mor"] = {"Moro"}, ["mos"] = {"Mossi"}, ["mot"] = {"Barí"}, ["mou"] = {"Mogum"}, ["mov"] = {"Mohave"}, ["mow"] = {"Moi (Congo)"}, ["mox"] = {"Molima"}, ["moy"] = {"Shekkacho"}, ["moz"] = {"Mukulu", "Gergiko"}, ["mpa"] = {"Mpoto"}, ["mpb"] = {"Malak Malak", "Mullukmulluk"}, ["mpc"] = {"Mangarrayi"}, ["mpd"] = {"Machinere"}, ["mpe"] = {"Majang"}, ["mpg"] = {"Marba"}, ["mph"] = {"Maung"}, ["mpi"] = {"Mpade"}, ["mpj"] = {"Martu Wangka", "Wangkajunga"}, ["mpk"] = {"Mbara (Chad)"}, ["mpl"] = {"Middle Watut"}, ["mpm"] = {"Yosondúa Mixtec"}, ["mpn"] = {"Mindiri"}, ["mpo"] = {"Miu"}, ["mpp"] = {"Migabac"}, ["mpq"] = {"Matís"}, ["mpr"] = {"Vangunu"}, ["mps"] = {"Dadibi"}, ["mpt"] = {"Mian"}, ["mpu"] = {"Makuráp"}, ["mpv"] = {"Mungkip"}, ["mpw"] = {"Mapidian"}, ["mpx"] = {"Misima-Panaeati"}, ["mpy"] = {"Mapia"}, ["mpz"] = {"Mpi"}, ["mqa"] = {"Maba (Indonesia)"}, ["mqb"] = {"Mbuko"}, ["mqc"] = {"Mangole"}, ["mqe"] = {"Matepi"}, ["mqf"] = {"Momuna"}, ["mqg"] = {"Kota Bangun Kutai Malay"}, ["mqh"] = {"Tlazoyaltepec Mixtec"}, ["mqi"] = {"Mariri"}, ["mqj"] = {"Mamasa"}, ["mqk"] = {"Rajah Kabunsuwan Manobo"}, ["mql"] = {"Mbelime"}, ["mqm"] = {"South Marquesan"}, ["mqn"] = {"Moronene"}, ["mqo"] = {"Modole"}, ["mqp"] = {"Manipa"}, ["mqq"] = {"Minokok"}, ["mqr"] = {"Mander"}, ["mqs"] = {"West Makian"}, ["mqt"] = {"Mok"}, ["mqu"] = {"Mandari"}, ["mqv"] = {"Mosimo"}, ["mqw"] = {"Murupi"}, ["mqx"] = {"Mamuju"}, ["mqy"] = {"Manggarai"}, ["mqz"] = {"Pano"}, ["mra"] = {"Mlabri"}, ["mrb"] = {"Marino"}, ["mrc"] = {"Maricopa"}, ["mrd"] = {"Western Magar"}, ["mre"] = {"Martha's Vineyard Sign Language"}, ["mrf"] = {"Elseng"}, ["mrg"] = {"Mising"}, ["mrh"] = {"Mara Chin"}, ["mrj"] = {"Western Mari"}, ["mrk"] = {"Hmwaveke"}, ["mrl"] = {"Mortlockese"}, ["mrm"] = {"Merlav", "Mwerlap"}, ["mrn"] = {"Cheke Holo"}, ["mro"] = {"Mru"}, ["mrp"] = {"Morouas"}, ["mrq"] = {"North Marquesan"}, ["mrr"] = {"Maria (India)"}, ["mrs"] = {"Maragus"}, ["mrt"] = {"Marghi Central"}, ["mru"] = {"Mono (Cameroon)"}, ["mrv"] = {"Mangareva"}, ["mrw"] = {"Maranao"}, ["mrx"] = {"Maremgi", "Dineor"}, ["mry"] = {"Mandaya"}, ["mrz"] = {"Marind"}, ["msb"] = {"Masbatenyo"}, ["msc"] = {"Sankaran Maninka"}, ["msd"] = {"Yucatec Maya Sign Language"}, ["mse"] = {"Musey"}, ["msf"] = {"Mekwei"}, ["msg"] = {"Moraid"}, ["msh"] = {"Masikoro Malagasy"}, ["msi"] = {"Sabah Malay"}, ["msj"] = {"Ma (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["msk"] = {"Mansaka"}, ["msl"] = {"Molof", "Poule"}, ["msm"] = {"Agusan Manobo"}, ["msn"] = {"Vurës"}, ["mso"] = {"Mombum"}, ["msp"] = {"Maritsauá"}, ["msq"] = {"Caac"}, ["msr"] = {"Mongolian Sign Language"}, ["mss"] = {"West Masela"}, ["msu"] = {"Musom"}, ["msv"] = {"Maslam"}, ["msw"] = {"Mansoanka"}, ["msx"] = {"Moresada"}, ["msy"] = {"Aruamu"}, ["msz"] = {"Momare"}, ["mta"] = {"Cotabato Manobo"}, ["mtb"] = {"Anyin Morofo"}, ["mtc"] = {"Munit"}, ["mtd"] = {"Mualang"}, ["mte"] = {"Mono (Solomon Islands)"}, ["mtf"] = {"Murik (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mtg"] = {"Una"}, ["mth"] = {"Munggui"}, ["mti"] = {"Maiwa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mtj"] = {"Moskona"}, ["mtk"] = {"Mbe'"}, ["mtl"] = {"Montol"}, ["mtm"] = {"Mator"}, ["mtn"] = {"Matagalpa"}, ["mto"] = {"Totontepec Mixe"}, ["mtp"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Nocten"}, ["mtq"] = {"Muong"}, ["mtr"] = {"Mewari"}, ["mts"] = {"Yora"}, ["mtt"] = {"Mota"}, ["mtu"] = {"Tututepec Mixtec"}, ["mtv"] = {"Asaro'o"}, ["mtw"] = {"Southern Binukidnon"}, ["mtx"] = {"Tidaá Mixtec"}, ["mty"] = {"Nabi"}, ["mua"] = {"Mundang"}, ["mub"] = {"Mubi"}, ["muc"] = {"Ajumbu"}, ["mud"] = {"Mednyj Aleut"}, ["mue"] = {"Media Lengua"}, ["mug"] = {"Musgu"}, ["muh"] = {"Mündü"}, ["mui"] = {"Musi"}, ["muj"] = {"Mabire"}, ["muk"] = {"Mugom"}, ["mul"] = {"Multiple languages"}, ["mum"] = {"Maiwala"}, ["mun"] = {"Munda languages"}, ["muo"] = {"Nyong"}, ["mup"] = {"Malvi"}, ["muq"] = {"Eastern Xiangxi Miao"}, ["mur"] = {"Murle"}, ["mus"] = {"Creek"}, ["mut"] = {"Western Muria"}, ["muu"] = {"Yaaku"}, ["muv"] = {"Muthuvan"}, ["mux"] = {"Bo-Ung"}, ["muy"] = {"Muyang"}, ["muz"] = {"Mursi"}, ["mva"] = {"Manam"}, ["mvb"] = {"Mattole"}, ["mvd"] = {"Mamboru"}, ["mve"] = {"Marwari (Pakistan)"}, ["mvf"] = {"Peripheral Mongolian"}, ["mvg"] = {"Yucuañe Mixtec"}, ["mvh"] = {"Mulgi"}, ["mvi"] = {"Miyako"}, ["mvk"] = {"Mekmek"}, ["mvl"] = {"Mbara (Australia)"}, ["mvn"] = {"Minaveha"}, ["mvo"] = {"Marovo"}, ["mvp"] = {"Duri"}, ["mvq"] = {"Moere"}, ["mvr"] = {"Marau"}, ["mvs"] = {"Massep"}, ["mvt"] = {"Mpotovoro"}, ["mvu"] = {"Marfa"}, ["mvv"] = {"Tagal Murut"}, ["mvw"] = {"Machinga"}, ["mvx"] = {"Meoswar"}, ["mvy"] = {"Indus Kohistani"}, ["mvz"] = {"Mesqan"}, ["mwa"] = {"Mwatebu"}, ["mwb"] = {"Juwal"}, ["mwc"] = {"Are"}, ["mwe"] = {"Mwera (Chimwera)"}, ["mwf"] = {"Murrinh-Patha"}, ["mwg"] = {"Aiklep"}, ["mwh"] = {"Mouk-Aria"}, ["mwi"] = {"Labo", "Ninde"}, ["mwk"] = {"Kita Maninkakan"}, ["mwl"] = {"Mirandese"}, ["mwm"] = {"Sar"}, ["mwn"] = {"Nyamwanga"}, ["mwo"] = {"Central Maewo"}, ["mwp"] = {"Kala Lagaw Ya"}, ["mwq"] = {"Mün Chin"}, ["mwr"] = {"Marwari"}, ["mws"] = {"Mwimbi-Muthambi"}, ["mwt"] = {"Moken"}, ["mwu"] = {"Mittu"}, ["mwv"] = {"Mentawai"}, ["mww"] = {"Hmong Daw"}, ["mwz"] = {"Moingi"}, ["mxa"] = {"Northwest Oaxaca Mixtec"}, ["mxb"] = {"Tezoatlán Mixtec"}, ["mxc"] = {"Manyika"}, ["mxd"] = {"Modang"}, ["mxe"] = {"Mele-Fila"}, ["mxf"] = {"Malgbe"}, ["mxg"] = {"Mbangala"}, ["mxh"] = {"Mvuba"}, ["mxi"] = {"Mozarabic"}, ["mxj"] = {"Miju-Mishmi", "Geman Deng"}, ["mxk"] = {"Monumbo"}, ["mxl"] = {"Maxi Gbe"}, ["mxm"] = {"Meramera"}, ["mxn"] = {"Moi (Indonesia)"}, ["mxo"] = {"Mbowe"}, ["mxp"] = {"Tlahuitoltepec Mixe"}, ["mxq"] = {"Juquila Mixe"}, ["mxr"] = {"Murik (Malaysia)"}, ["mxs"] = {"Huitepec Mixtec"}, ["mxt"] = {"Jamiltepec Mixtec"}, ["mxu"] = {"Mada (Cameroon)"}, ["mxv"] = {"Metlatónoc Mixtec"}, ["mxw"] = {"Namo"}, ["mxx"] = {"Mahou", "Mawukakan"}, ["mxy"] = {"Southeastern Nochixtlán Mixtec"}, ["mxz"] = {"Central Masela"}, ["myb"] = {"Mbay"}, ["myc"] = {"Mayeka"}, ["mye"] = {"Myene"}, ["myf"] = {"Bambassi"}, ["myg"] = {"Manta"}, ["myh"] = {"Makah"}, ["myj"] = {"Mangayat"}, ["myk"] = {"Mamara Senoufo"}, ["myl"] = {"Moma"}, ["mym"] = {"Me'en"}, ["myn"] = {"Mayan languages"}, ["myo"] = {"Anfillo"}, ["myp"] = {"Pirahã"}, ["myr"] = {"Muniche"}, ["mys"] = {"Mesmes"}, ["myu"] = {"Mundurukú"}, ["myv"] = {"Erzya"}, ["myw"] = {"Muyuw"}, ["myx"] = {"Masaaba"}, ["myy"] = {"Macuna"}, ["myz"] = {"Classical Mandaic"}, ["mza"] = {"Santa María Zacatepec Mixtec"}, ["mzb"] = {"Tumzabt"}, ["mzc"] = {"Madagascar Sign Language"}, ["mzd"] = {"Malimba"}, ["mze"] = {"Morawa"}, ["mzg"] = {"Monastic Sign Language"}, ["mzh"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Güisnay"}, ["mzi"] = {"Ixcatlán Mazatec"}, ["mzj"] = {"Manya"}, ["mzk"] = {"Nigeria Mambila"}, ["mzl"] = {"Mazatlán Mixe"}, ["mzm"] = {"Mumuye"}, ["mzn"] = {"Mazanderani"}, ["mzo"] = {"Matipuhy"}, ["mzp"] = {"Movima"}, ["mzq"] = {"Mori Atas"}, ["mzr"] = {"Marúbo"}, ["mzs"] = {"Macanese"}, ["mzt"] = {"Mintil"}, ["mzu"] = {"Inapang"}, ["mzv"] = {"Manza"}, ["mzw"] = {"Deg"}, ["mzx"] = {"Mawayana"}, ["mzy"] = {"Mozambican Sign Language"}, ["mzz"] = {"Maiadomu"}, ["naa"] = {"Namla"}, ["nab"] = {"Southern Nambikuára"}, ["nac"] = {"Narak"}, ["nae"] = {"Naka'ela"}, ["naf"] = {"Nabak"}, ["nag"] = {"Naga Pidgin"}, ["nah"] = {"Nahuatl languages"}, ["nai"] = {"North American Indian languages"}, ["naj"] = {"Nalu"}, ["nak"] = {"Nakanai"}, ["nal"] = {"Nalik"}, ["nam"] = {"Ngan'gityemerri"}, ["nan"] = {"Min Nan Chinese"}, ["nao"] = {"Naaba"}, ["nap"] = {"Neapolitan"}, ["naq"] = {"Khoekhoe", "Nama (Namibia)"}, ["nar"] = {"Iguta"}, ["nas"] = {"Naasioi"}, ["nat"] = {"Ca̱hungwa̱rya̱", "Hungworo"}, ["naw"] = {"Nawuri"}, ["nax"] = {"Nakwi"}, ["nay"] = {"Ngarrindjeri"}, ["naz"] = {"Coatepec Nahuatl"}, ["nba"] = {"Nyemba"}, ["nbb"] = {"Ndoe"}, ["nbc"] = {"Chang Naga"}, ["nbd"] = {"Ngbinda"}, ["nbe"] = {"Konyak Naga"}, ["nbg"] = {"Nagarchal"}, ["nbh"] = {"Ngamo"}, ["nbi"] = {"Mao Naga"}, ["nbj"] = {"Ngarinyman"}, ["nbk"] = {"Nake"}, ["nbm"] = {"Ngbaka Ma'bo"}, ["nbn"] = {"Kuri"}, ["nbo"] = {"Nkukoli"}, ["nbp"] = {"Nnam"}, ["nbq"] = {"Nggem"}, ["nbr"] = {"Numana"}, ["nbs"] = {"Namibian Sign Language"}, ["nbt"] = {"Na"}, ["nbu"] = {"Rongmei Naga"}, ["nbv"] = {"Ngamambo"}, ["nbw"] = {"Southern Ngbandi"}, ["nby"] = {"Ningera"}, ["nca"] = {"Iyo"}, ["ncb"] = {"Central Nicobarese"}, ["ncc"] = {"Ponam"}, ["ncd"] = {"Nachering"}, ["nce"] = {"Yale"}, ["ncf"] = {"Notsi"}, ["ncg"] = {"Nisga'a"}, ["nch"] = {"Central Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nci"] = {"Classical Nahuatl"}, ["ncj"] = {"Northern Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["nck"] = {"Na-kara"}, ["ncl"] = {"Michoacán Nahuatl"}, ["ncm"] = {"Nambo"}, ["ncn"] = {"Nauna"}, ["nco"] = {"Sibe"}, ["ncq"] = {"Northern Katang"}, ["ncr"] = {"Ncane"}, ["ncs"] = {"Nicaraguan Sign Language"}, ["nct"] = {"Chothe Naga"}, ["ncu"] = {"Chumburung"}, ["ncx"] = {"Central Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["ncz"] = {"Natchez"}, ["nda"] = {"Ndasa"}, ["ndb"] = {"Kenswei Nsei"}, ["ndc"] = {"Ndau"}, ["ndd"] = {"Nde-Nsele-Nta"}, ["ndf"] = {"Nadruvian"}, ["ndg"] = {"Ndengereko"}, ["ndh"] = {"Ndali"}, ["ndi"] = {"Samba Leko"}, ["ndj"] = {"Ndamba"}, ["ndk"] = {"Ndaka"}, ["ndl"] = {"Ndolo"}, ["ndm"] = {"Ndam"}, ["ndn"] = {"Ngundi"}, ["ndp"] = {"Ndo"}, ["ndq"] = {"Ndombe"}, ["ndr"] = {"Ndoola"}, ["nds"] = {"Low German", "Low Saxon"}, ["ndt"] = {"Ndunga"}, ["ndu"] = {"Dugun"}, ["ndv"] = {"Ndut"}, ["ndw"] = {"Ndobo"}, ["ndx"] = {"Nduga"}, ["ndy"] = {"Lutos"}, ["ndz"] = {"Ndogo"}, ["nea"] = {"Eastern Ngad'a"}, ["neb"] = {"Toura (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["nec"] = {"Nedebang"}, ["ned"] = {"Nde-Gbite"}, ["nee"] = {"Nêlêmwa-Nixumwak"}, ["nef"] = {"Nefamese"}, ["neg"] = {"Negidal"}, ["neh"] = {"Nyenkha"}, ["nei"] = {"Neo-Hittite"}, ["nej"] = {"Neko"}, ["nek"] = {"Neku"}, ["nem"] = {"Nemi"}, ["nen"] = {"Nengone"}, ["neo"] = {"Ná-Meo"}, ["neq"] = {"North Central Mixe"}, ["ner"] = {"Yahadian"}, ["nes"] = {"Bhoti Kinnauri"}, ["net"] = {"Nete"}, ["neu"] = {"Neo"}, ["nev"] = {"Nyaheun"}, ["new"] = {"Nepal Bhasa", "Newar", "Newari"}, ["nex"] = {"Neme"}, ["ney"] = {"Neyo"}, ["nez"] = {"Nez Perce"}, ["nfa"] = {"Dhao"}, ["nfd"] = {"Ahwai"}, ["nfl"] = {"Ayiwo", "Äiwoo"}, ["nfr"] = {"Nafaanra"}, ["nfu"] = {"Mfumte"}, ["nga"] = {"Ngbaka"}, ["ngb"] = {"Northern Ngbandi"}, ["ngc"] = {"Ngombe (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["ngd"] = {"Ngando (Central African Republic)"}, ["nge"] = {"Ngemba"}, ["ngf"] = {"Trans-New Guinea languages"}, ["ngg"] = {"Ngbaka Manza"}, ["ngh"] = {"Nǁng"}, ["ngi"] = {"Ngizim"}, ["ngj"] = {"Ngie"}, ["ngk"] = {"Dalabon"}, ["ngl"] = {"Lomwe"}, ["ngm"] = {"Ngatik Men's Creole"}, ["ngn"] = {"Ngwo"}, ["ngp"] = {"Ngulu"}, ["ngq"] = {"Ngurimi", "Ngoreme"}, ["ngr"] = {"Engdewu"}, ["ngs"] = {"Gvoko"}, ["ngt"] = {"Kriang", "Ngeq"}, ["ngu"] = {"Guerrero Nahuatl"}, ["ngv"] = {"Nagumi"}, ["ngw"] = {"Ngwaba"}, ["ngx"] = {"Nggwahyi"}, ["ngy"] = {"Tibea"}, ["ngz"] = {"Ngungwel"}, ["nha"] = {"Nhanda"}, ["nhb"] = {"Beng"}, ["nhc"] = {"Tabasco Nahuatl"}, ["nhd"] = {"Chiripá", "Ava Guaraní"}, ["nhe"] = {"Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nhf"] = {"Nhuwala"}, ["nhg"] = {"Tetelcingo Nahuatl"}, ["nhh"] = {"Nahari"}, ["nhi"] = {"Zacatlán-Ahuacatlán-Tepetzintla Nahuatl"}, ["nhk"] = {"Isthmus-Cosoleacaque Nahuatl"}, ["nhm"] = {"Morelos Nahuatl"}, ["nhn"] = {"Central Nahuatl"}, ["nho"] = {"Takuu"}, ["nhp"] = {"Isthmus-Pajapan Nahuatl"}, ["nhq"] = {"Huaxcaleca Nahuatl"}, ["nhr"] = {"Naro"}, ["nht"] = {"Ometepec Nahuatl"}, ["nhu"] = {"Noone"}, ["nhv"] = {"Temascaltepec Nahuatl"}, ["nhw"] = {"Western Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nhx"] = {"Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl"}, ["nhy"] = {"Northern Oaxaca Nahuatl"}, ["nhz"] = {"Santa María La Alta Nahuatl"}, ["nia"] = {"Nias"}, ["nib"] = {"Nakame"}, ["nic"] = {"Niger-Kordofanian languages"}, ["nid"] = {"Ngandi"}, ["nie"] = {"Niellim"}, ["nif"] = {"Nek"}, ["nig"] = {"Ngalakgan"}, ["nih"] = {"Nyiha (Tanzania)"}, ["nii"] = {"Nii"}, ["nij"] = {"Ngaju"}, ["nik"] = {"Southern Nicobarese"}, ["nil"] = {"Nila"}, ["nim"] = {"Nilamba"}, ["nin"] = {"Ninzo"}, ["nio"] = {"Nganasan"}, ["niq"] = {"Nandi"}, ["nir"] = {"Nimboran"}, ["nis"] = {"Nimi"}, ["nit"] = {"Southeastern Kolami"}, ["niu"] = {"Niuean"}, ["niv"] = {"Gilyak"}, ["niw"] = {"Nimo"}, ["nix"] = {"Hema"}, ["niy"] = {"Ngiti"}, ["niz"] = {"Ningil"}, ["nja"] = {"Nzanyi"}, ["njb"] = {"Nocte Naga"}, ["njd"] = {"Ndonde Hamba"}, ["njh"] = {"Lotha Naga"}, ["nji"] = {"Gudanji"}, ["njj"] = {"Njen"}, ["njl"] = {"Njalgulgule"}, ["njm"] = {"Angami Naga"}, ["njn"] = {"Liangmai Naga"}, ["njo"] = {"Ao Naga"}, ["njr"] = {"Njerep"}, ["njs"] = {"Nisa"}, ["njt"] = {"Ndyuka-Trio Pidgin"}, ["nju"] = {"Ngadjunmaya"}, ["njx"] = {"Kunyi"}, ["njy"] = {"Njyem"}, ["njz"] = {"Nyishi"}, ["nka"] = {"Nkoya"}, ["nkb"] = {"Khoibu Naga"}, ["nkc"] = {"Nkongho"}, ["nkd"] = {"Koireng"}, ["nke"] = {"Duke"}, ["nkf"] = {"Inpui Naga"}, ["nkg"] = {"Nekgini"}, ["nkh"] = {"Khezha Naga"}, ["nki"] = {"Thangal Naga"}, ["nkj"] = {"Nakai"}, ["nkk"] = {"Nokuku"}, ["nkm"] = {"Namat"}, ["nkn"] = {"Nkangala"}, ["nko"] = {"Nkonya"}, ["nkp"] = {"Niuatoputapu"}, ["nkq"] = {"Nkami"}, ["nkr"] = {"Nukuoro"}, ["nks"] = {"North Asmat"}, ["nkt"] = {"Nyika (Tanzania)"}, ["nku"] = {"Bouna Kulango"}, ["nkv"] = {"Nyika (Malawi and Zambia)"}, ["nkw"] = {"Nkutu"}, ["nkx"] = {"Nkoroo"}, ["nkz"] = {"Nkari"}, ["nla"] = {"Ngombale"}, ["nlc"] = {"Nalca"}, ["nle"] = {"East Nyala"}, ["nlg"] = {"Gela"}, ["nli"] = {"Grangali"}, ["nlj"] = {"Nyali"}, ["nlk"] = {"Ninia Yali"}, ["nll"] = {"Nihali"}, ["nlm"] = {"Mankiyali"}, ["nlo"] = {"Ngul"}, ["nlq"] = {"Lao Naga"}, ["nlu"] = {"Nchumbulu"}, ["nlv"] = {"Orizaba Nahuatl"}, ["nlw"] = {"Walangama"}, ["nlx"] = {"Nahali"}, ["nly"] = {"Nyamal"}, ["nlz"] = {"Nalögo"}, ["nma"] = {"Maram Naga"}, ["nmb"] = {"Big Nambas", "V'ënen Taut"}, ["nmc"] = {"Ngam"}, ["nmd"] = {"Ndumu"}, ["nme"] = {"Mzieme Naga"}, ["nmf"] = {"Tangkhul Naga (India)"}, ["nmg"] = {"Kwasio"}, ["nmh"] = {"Monsang Naga"}, ["nmi"] = {"Nyam"}, ["nmj"] = {"Ngombe (Central African Republic)"}, ["nmk"] = {"Namakura"}, ["nml"] = {"Ndemli"}, ["nmm"] = {"Manangba"}, ["nmn"] = {"ǃXóõ"}, ["nmo"] = {"Moyon Naga"}, ["nmp"] = {"Nimanbur"}, ["nmq"] = {"Nambya"}, ["nmr"] = {"Nimbari"}, ["nms"] = {"Letemboi"}, ["nmt"] = {"Namonuito"}, ["nmu"] = {"Northeast Maidu"}, ["nmv"] = {"Ngamini"}, ["nmw"] = {"Nimoa", "Rifao"}, ["nmx"] = {"Nama (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["nmy"] = {"Namuyi"}, ["nmz"] = {"Nawdm"}, ["nna"] = {"Nyangumarta"}, ["nnb"] = {"Nande"}, ["nnc"] = {"Nancere"}, ["nnd"] = {"West Ambae"}, ["nne"] = {"Ngandyera"}, ["nnf"] = {"Ngaing"}, ["nng"] = {"Maring Naga"}, ["nnh"] = {"Ngiemboon"}, ["nni"] = {"North Nuaulu"}, ["nnj"] = {"Nyangatom"}, ["nnk"] = {"Nankina"}, ["nnl"] = {"Northern Rengma Naga"}, ["nnm"] = {"Namia"}, ["nnn"] = {"Ngete"}, ["nnp"] = {"Wancho Naga"}, ["nnq"] = {"Ngindo"}, ["nnr"] = {"Narungga"}, ["nnt"] = {"Nanticoke"}, ["nnu"] = {"Dwang"}, ["nnv"] = {"Nugunu (Australia)"}, ["nnw"] = {"Southern Nuni"}, ["nny"] = {"Nyangga"}, ["nnz"] = {"Nda'nda'"}, ["noa"] = {"Woun Meu"}, ["noc"] = {"Nuk"}, ["nod"] = {"Northern Thai"}, ["noe"] = {"Nimadi"}, ["nof"] = {"Nomane"}, ["nog"] = {"Nogai"}, ["noh"] = {"Nomu"}, ["noi"] = {"Noiri"}, ["noj"] = {"Nonuya"}, ["nok"] = {"Nooksack", "Lhéchelesem"}, ["nol"] = {"Nomlaki"}, ["non"] = {"Old Norse"}, ["nop"] = {"Numanggang"}, ["noq"] = {"Ngongo"}, ["nos"] = {"Eastern Nisu"}, ["not"] = {"Nomatsiguenga"}, ["nou"] = {"Ewage-Notu"}, ["nov"] = {"Novial"}, ["now"] = {"Nyambo"}, ["noy"] = {"Noy"}, ["noz"] = {"Nayi"}, ["npa"] = {"Nar Phu"}, ["npb"] = {"Nupbikha"}, ["npg"] = {"Ponyo-Gongwang Naga"}, ["nph"] = {"Phom Naga"}, ["npi"] = {"Nepali (individual language)"}, ["npl"] = {"Southeastern Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["npn"] = {"Mondropolon"}, ["npo"] = {"Pochuri Naga"}, ["nps"] = {"Nipsan"}, ["npu"] = {"Puimei Naga"}, ["npx"] = {"Noipx"}, ["npy"] = {"Napu"}, ["nqg"] = {"Southern Nago"}, ["nqk"] = {"Kura Ede Nago"}, ["nql"] = {"Ngendelengo"}, ["nqm"] = {"Ndom"}, ["nqn"] = {"Nen"}, ["nqo"] = {"N'Ko", "N’Ko"}, ["nqq"] = {"Kyan-Karyaw Naga"}, ["nqt"] = {"Nteng"}, ["nqy"] = {"Akyaung Ari Naga"}, ["nra"] = {"Ngom"}, ["nrb"] = {"Nara"}, ["nrc"] = {"Noric"}, ["nre"] = {"Southern Rengma Naga"}, ["nrf"] = {"Jèrriais", "Guernésiais", "Sercquiais"}, ["nrg"] = {"Narango"}, ["nri"] = {"Chokri Naga"}, ["nrk"] = {"Ngarla"}, ["nrl"] = {"Ngarluma"}, ["nrm"] = {"Narom"}, ["nrn"] = {"Norn"}, ["nrp"] = {"North Picene"}, ["nrr"] = {"Norra", "Nora"}, ["nrt"] = {"Northern Kalapuya"}, ["nru"] = {"Narua"}, ["nrx"] = {"Ngurmbur"}, ["nrz"] = {"Lala"}, ["nsa"] = {"Sangtam Naga"}, ["nsb"] = {"Lower Nossob"}, ["nsc"] = {"Nshi"}, ["nsd"] = {"Southern Nisu"}, ["nse"] = {"Nsenga"}, ["nsf"] = {"Northwestern Nisu"}, ["nsg"] = {"Ngasa"}, ["nsh"] = {"Ngoshie"}, ["nsi"] = {"Nigerian Sign Language"}, ["nsk"] = {"Naskapi"}, ["nsl"] = {"Norwegian Sign Language"}, ["nsm"] = {"Sumi Naga"}, ["nsn"] = {"Nehan"}, ["nso"] = {"Pedi", "Northern Sotho", "Sepedi"}, ["nsp"] = {"Nepalese Sign Language"}, ["nsq"] = {"Northern Sierra Miwok"}, ["nsr"] = {"Maritime Sign Language"}, ["nss"] = {"Nali"}, ["nst"] = {"Tase Naga"}, ["nsu"] = {"Sierra Negra Nahuatl"}, ["nsv"] = {"Southwestern Nisu"}, ["nsw"] = {"Navut"}, ["nsx"] = {"Nsongo"}, ["nsy"] = {"Nasal"}, ["nsz"] = {"Nisenan"}, ["ntd"] = {"Northern Tidung"}, ["ntg"] = {"Ngantangarra"}, ["nti"] = {"Natioro"}, ["ntj"] = {"Ngaanyatjarra"}, ["ntk"] = {"Ikoma-Nata-Isenye"}, ["ntm"] = {"Nateni"}, ["nto"] = {"Ntomba"}, ["ntp"] = {"Northern Tepehuan"}, ["ntr"] = {"Delo"}, ["ntu"] = {"Natügu"}, ["ntw"] = {"Nottoway"}, ["ntx"] = {"Tangkhul Naga (Myanmar)"}, ["nty"] = {"Mantsi"}, ["ntz"] = {"Natanzi"}, ["nua"] = {"Yuanga"}, ["nub"] = {"Nubian languages"}, ["nuc"] = {"Nukuini"}, ["nud"] = {"Ngala"}, ["nue"] = {"Ngundu"}, ["nuf"] = {"Nusu"}, ["nug"] = {"Nungali"}, ["nuh"] = {"Ndunda"}, ["nui"] = {"Ngumbi"}, ["nuj"] = {"Nyole"}, ["nuk"] = {"Nuu-chah-nulth", "Nuuchahnulth"}, ["nul"] = {"Nusa Laut"}, ["num"] = {"Niuafo'ou"}, ["nun"] = {"Anong"}, ["nuo"] = {"Nguôn"}, ["nup"] = {"Nupe-Nupe-Tako"}, ["nuq"] = {"Nukumanu"}, ["nur"] = {"Nukuria"}, ["nus"] = {"Nuer"}, ["nut"] = {"Nung (Viet Nam)"}, ["nuu"] = {"Ngbundu"}, ["nuv"] = {"Northern Nuni"}, ["nuw"] = {"Nguluwan"}, ["nux"] = {"Mehek"}, ["nuy"] = {"Nunggubuyu"}, ["nuz"] = {"Tlamacazapa Nahuatl"}, ["nvh"] = {"Nasarian"}, ["nvm"] = {"Namiae"}, ["nvo"] = {"Nyokon"}, ["nwa"] = {"Nawathinehena"}, ["nwb"] = {"Nyabwa"}, ["nwc"] = {"Classical Newari", "Classical Nepal Bhasa", "Old Newari"}, ["nwe"] = {"Ngwe"}, ["nwg"] = {"Ngayawung"}, ["nwi"] = {"Southwest Tanna"}, ["nwm"] = {"Nyamusa-Molo"}, ["nwo"] = {"Nauo"}, ["nwr"] = {"Nawaru"}, ["nww"] = {"Ndwewe"}, ["nwx"] = {"Middle Newar"}, ["nwy"] = {"Nottoway-Meherrin"}, ["nxa"] = {"Nauete"}, ["nxd"] = {"Ngando (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["nxe"] = {"Nage"}, ["nxg"] = {"Ngad'a"}, ["nxi"] = {"Nindi"}, ["nxk"] = {"Koki Naga"}, ["nxl"] = {"South Nuaulu"}, ["nxm"] = {"Numidian"}, ["nxn"] = {"Ngawun"}, ["nxo"] = {"Ndambomo"}, ["nxq"] = {"Naxi"}, ["nxr"] = {"Ninggerum"}, ["nxx"] = {"Nafri"}, ["nyb"] = {"Nyangbo"}, ["nyc"] = {"Nyanga-li"}, ["nyd"] = {"Nyore", "Olunyole"}, ["nye"] = {"Nyengo"}, ["nyf"] = {"Giryama", "Kigiryama"}, ["nyg"] = {"Nyindu"}, ["nyh"] = {"Nyikina"}, ["nyi"] = {"Ama (Sudan)"}, ["nyj"] = {"Nyanga"}, ["nyk"] = {"Nyaneka"}, ["nyl"] = {"Nyeu"}, ["nym"] = {"Nyamwezi"}, ["nyn"] = {"Nyankole"}, ["nyo"] = {"Nyoro"}, ["nyp"] = {"Nyang'i"}, ["nyq"] = {"Nayini"}, ["nyr"] = {"Nyiha (Malawi)"}, ["nys"] = {"Nyungar"}, ["nyt"] = {"Nyawaygi"}, ["nyu"] = {"Nyungwe"}, ["nyv"] = {"Nyulnyul"}, ["nyw"] = {"Nyaw"}, ["nyx"] = {"Nganyaywana"}, ["nyy"] = {"Nyakyusa-Ngonde"}, ["nza"] = {"Tigon Mbembe"}, ["nzb"] = {"Njebi"}, ["nzd"] = {"Nzadi"}, ["nzi"] = {"Nzima"}, ["nzk"] = {"Nzakara"}, ["nzm"] = {"Zeme Naga"}, ["nzr"] = {"Dir-Nyamzak-Mbarimi"}, ["nzs"] = {"New Zealand Sign Language"}, ["nzu"] = {"Teke-Nzikou"}, ["nzy"] = {"Nzakambay"}, ["nzz"] = {"Nanga Dama Dogon"}, ["oaa"] = {"Orok"}, ["oac"] = {"Oroch"}, ["oak"] = {"Noakhali", "Noakhailla"}, ["oar"] = {"Old Aramaic (up to 700 BCE)", "Ancient Aramaic (up to 700 BCE)"}, ["oav"] = {"Old Avar"}, ["obi"] = {"Obispeño"}, ["obk"] = {"Southern Bontok"}, ["obl"] = {"Oblo"}, ["obm"] = {"Moabite"}, ["obo"] = {"Obo Manobo"}, ["obr"] = {"Old Burmese"}, ["obt"] = {"Old Breton"}, ["obu"] = {"Obulom"}, ["oca"] = {"Ocaina"}, ["och"] = {"Old Chinese"}, ["ocm"] = {"Old Cham"}, ["oco"] = {"Old Cornish"}, ["ocu"] = {"Atzingo Matlatzinca"}, ["oda"] = {"Odut"}, ["odk"] = {"Od"}, ["odt"] = {"Old Dutch"}, ["odu"] = {"Odual"}, ["ofo"] = {"Ofo"}, ["ofs"] = {"Old Frisian"}, ["ofu"] = {"Efutop"}, ["ogb"] = {"Ogbia"}, ["ogc"] = {"Ogbah"}, ["oge"] = {"Old Georgian"}, ["ogg"] = {"Ogbogolo"}, ["ogo"] = {"Khana"}, ["ogu"] = {"Ogbronuagum"}, ["oht"] = {"Old Hittite"}, ["ohu"] = {"Old Hungarian"}, ["oia"] = {"Oirata"}, ["oie"] = {"Okolie"}, ["oin"] = {"Inebu One"}, ["ojb"] = {"Northwestern Ojibwa"}, ["ojc"] = {"Central Ojibwa"}, ["ojg"] = {"Eastern Ojibwa"}, ["ojp"] = {"Old Japanese"}, ["ojs"] = {"Severn Ojibwa"}, ["ojv"] = {"Ontong Java"}, ["ojw"] = {"Western Ojibwa"}, ["oka"] = {"Okanagan"}, ["okb"] = {"Okobo"}, ["okc"] = {"Kobo"}, ["okd"] = {"Okodia"}, ["oke"] = {"Okpe (Southwestern Edo)"}, ["okg"] = {"Koko Babangk"}, ["okh"] = {"Koresh-e Rostam"}, ["oki"] = {"Okiek"}, ["okj"] = {"Oko-Juwoi"}, ["okk"] = {"Kwamtim One"}, ["okl"] = {"Old Kentish Sign Language"}, ["okm"] = {"Middle Korean (10th-16th cent.)"}, ["okn"] = {"Oki-No-Erabu"}, ["oko"] = {"Old Korean (3rd-9th cent.)"}, ["okr"] = {"Kirike"}, ["oks"] = {"Oko-Eni-Osayen"}, ["oku"] = {"Oku"}, ["okv"] = {"Orokaiva"}, ["okx"] = {"Okpe (Northwestern Edo)"}, ["okz"] = {"Old Khmer"}, ["ola"] = {"Walungge"}, ["olb"] = {"Oli-Bodiman"}, ["old"] = {"Mochi"}, ["ole"] = {"Olekha"}, ["olk"] = {"Olkol"}, ["olm"] = {"Oloma"}, ["olo"] = {"Livvi"}, ["olr"] = {"Olrat"}, ["olt"] = {"Old Lithuanian"}, ["olu"] = {"Kuvale"}, ["oma"] = {"Omaha-Ponca"}, ["omb"] = {"East Ambae"}, ["omc"] = {"Mochica"}, ["omg"] = {"Omagua"}, ["omi"] = {"Omi"}, ["omk"] = {"Omok"}, ["oml"] = {"Ombo"}, ["omn"] = {"Minoan"}, ["omo"] = {"Utarmbung"}, ["omp"] = {"Old Manipuri"}, ["omq"] = {"Oto-Manguean languages"}, ["omr"] = {"Old Marathi"}, ["omt"] = {"Omotik"}, ["omu"] = {"Omurano"}, ["omv"] = {"Omotic languages"}, ["omw"] = {"South Tairora"}, ["omx"] = {"Old Mon"}, ["omy"] = {"Old Malay"}, ["ona"] = {"Ona"}, ["onb"] = {"Lingao"}, ["one"] = {"Oneida"}, ["ong"] = {"Olo"}, ["oni"] = {"Onin"}, ["onj"] = {"Onjob"}, ["onk"] = {"Kabore One"}, ["onn"] = {"Onobasulu"}, ["ono"] = {"Onondaga"}, ["onp"] = {"Sartang"}, ["onr"] = {"Northern One"}, ["ons"] = {"Ono"}, ["ont"] = {"Ontenu"}, ["onu"] = {"Unua"}, ["onw"] = {"Old Nubian"}, ["onx"] = {"Onin Based Pidgin"}, ["ood"] = {"Tohono O'odham"}, ["oog"] = {"Ong"}, ["oon"] = {"Önge"}, ["oor"] = {"Oorlams"}, ["oos"] = {"Old Ossetic"}, ["opa"] = {"Okpamheri"}, ["opk"] = {"Kopkaka"}, ["opm"] = {"Oksapmin"}, ["opo"] = {"Opao"}, ["opt"] = {"Opata"}, ["opy"] = {"Ofayé"}, ["ora"] = {"Oroha"}, ["orc"] = {"Orma"}, ["ore"] = {"Orejón"}, ["org"] = {"Oring"}, ["orh"] = {"Oroqen"}, ["orn"] = {"Orang Kanaq"}, ["oro"] = {"Orokolo"}, ["orr"] = {"Oruma"}, ["ors"] = {"Orang Seletar"}, ["ort"] = {"Adivasi Oriya"}, ["oru"] = {"Ormuri"}, ["orv"] = {"Old Russian"}, ["orw"] = {"Oro Win"}, ["orx"] = {"Oro"}, ["ory"] = {"Odia (individual language)", "Oriya (individual language)"}, ["orz"] = {"Ormu"}, ["osa"] = {"Osage"}, ["osc"] = {"Oscan"}, ["osd"] = {"Digor Ossetic", "Digor", "Digor Ossetian"}, ["osi"] = {"Osing"}, ["osn"] = {"Old Sundanese"}, ["oso"] = {"Ososo"}, ["osp"] = {"Old Spanish"}, ["ost"] = {"Osatu"}, ["osu"] = {"Southern One"}, ["osx"] = {"Old Saxon"}, ["ota"] = {"Ottoman Turkish (1500-1928)"}, ["otb"] = {"Old Tibetan"}, ["otd"] = {"Ot Danum"}, ["ote"] = {"Mezquital Otomi"}, ["oti"] = {"Oti"}, ["otk"] = {"Old Turkish"}, ["otl"] = {"Tilapa Otomi"}, ["otm"] = {"Eastern Highland Otomi"}, ["otn"] = {"Tenango Otomi"}, ["oto"] = {"Otomian languages"}, ["otq"] = {"Querétaro Otomi"}, ["otr"] = {"Otoro"}, ["ots"] = {"Estado de México Otomi"}, ["ott"] = {"Temoaya Otomi"}, ["otu"] = {"Otuke"}, ["otw"] = {"Ottawa"}, ["otx"] = {"Texcatepec Otomi"}, ["oty"] = {"Old Tamil"}, ["otz"] = {"Ixtenco Otomi"}, ["oua"] = {"Tagargrent"}, ["oub"] = {"Glio-Oubi"}, ["oue"] = {"Oune"}, ["oui"] = {"Old Uighur"}, ["oum"] = {"Ouma"}, ["ovd"] = {"Elfdalian", "Övdalian"}, ["owi"] = {"Owiniga"}, ["owl"] = {"Old Welsh"}, ["oyb"] = {"Oy"}, ["oyd"] = {"Oyda"}, ["oym"] = {"Wayampi"}, ["oyy"] = {"Oya'oya"}, ["ozm"] = {"Koonzime"}, ["paa"] = {"Papuan languages"}, ["pab"] = {"Parecís"}, ["pac"] = {"Pacoh"}, ["pad"] = {"Paumarí"}, ["pae"] = {"Pagibete"}, ["paf"] = {"Paranawát"}, ["pag"] = {"Pangasinan"}, ["pah"] = {"Tenharim"}, ["pai"] = {"Pe"}, ["pak"] = {"Parakanã"}, ["pal"] = {"Pahlavi"}, ["pam"] = {"Pampanga", "Kapampangan"}, ["pao"] = {"Northern Paiute"}, ["pap"] = {"Papiamento"}, ["paq"] = {"Parya"}, ["par"] = {"Panamint", "Timbisha"}, ["pas"] = {"Papasena"}, ["pau"] = {"Palauan"}, ["pav"] = {"Pakaásnovos"}, ["paw"] = {"Pawnee"}, ["pax"] = {"Pankararé"}, ["pay"] = {"Pech"}, ["paz"] = {"Pankararú"}, ["pbb"] = {"Páez"}, ["pbc"] = {"Patamona"}, ["pbe"] = {"Mezontla Popoloca"}, ["pbf"] = {"Coyotepec Popoloca"}, ["pbg"] = {"Paraujano"}, ["pbh"] = {"E'ñapa Woromaipu"}, ["pbi"] = {"Parkwa"}, ["pbl"] = {"Mak (Nigeria)"}, ["pbm"] = {"Puebla Mazatec"}, ["pbn"] = {"Kpasam"}, ["pbo"] = {"Papel"}, ["pbp"] = {"Badyara"}, ["pbr"] = {"Pangwa"}, ["pbs"] = {"Central Pame"}, ["pbt"] = {"Southern Pashto"}, ["pbu"] = {"Northern Pashto"}, ["pbv"] = {"Pnar"}, ["pby"] = {"Pyu (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["pca"] = {"Santa Inés Ahuatempan Popoloca"}, ["pcb"] = {"Pear"}, ["pcc"] = {"Bouyei"}, ["pcd"] = {"Picard"}, ["pce"] = {"Ruching Palaung"}, ["pcf"] = {"Paliyan"}, ["pcg"] = {"Paniya"}, ["pch"] = {"Pardhan"}, ["pci"] = {"Duruwa"}, ["pcj"] = {"Parenga"}, ["pck"] = {"Paite Chin"}, ["pcl"] = {"Pardhi"}, ["pcm"] = {"Nigerian Pidgin"}, ["pcn"] = {"Piti"}, ["pcp"] = {"Pacahuara"}, ["pcw"] = {"Pyapun"}, ["pda"] = {"Anam"}, ["pdc"] = {"Pennsylvania German"}, ["pdi"] = {"Pa Di"}, ["pdn"] = {"Podena", "Fedan"}, ["pdo"] = {"Padoe"}, ["pdt"] = {"Plautdietsch"}, ["pdu"] = {"Kayan"}, ["pea"] = {"Peranakan Indonesian"}, ["peb"] = {"Eastern Pomo"}, ["ped"] = {"Mala (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["pee"] = {"Taje"}, ["pef"] = {"Northeastern Pomo"}, ["peg"] = {"Pengo"}, ["peh"] = {"Bonan"}, ["pei"] = {"Chichimeca-Jonaz"}, ["pej"] = {"Northern Pomo"}, ["pek"] = {"Penchal"}, ["pel"] = {"Pekal"}, ["pem"] = {"Phende"}, ["peo"] = {"Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)"}, ["pep"] = {"Kunja"}, ["peq"] = {"Southern Pomo"}, ["pes"] = {"Iranian Persian"}, ["pev"] = {"Pémono"}, ["pex"] = {"Petats"}, ["pey"] = {"Petjo"}, ["pez"] = {"Eastern Penan"}, ["pfa"] = {"Pááfang"}, ["pfe"] = {"Pere"}, ["pfl"] = {"Pfaelzisch"}, ["pga"] = {"Sudanese Creole Arabic"}, ["pgd"] = {"Gāndhārī"}, ["pgg"] = {"Pangwali"}, ["pgi"] = {"Pagi"}, ["pgk"] = {"Rerep"}, ["pgl"] = {"Primitive Irish"}, ["pgn"] = {"Paelignian"}, ["pgs"] = {"Pangseng"}, ["pgu"] = {"Pagu"}, ["pgz"] = {"Papua New Guinean Sign Language"}, ["pha"] = {"Pa-Hng"}, ["phd"] = {"Phudagi"}, ["phg"] = {"Phuong"}, ["phh"] = {"Phukha"}, ["phi"] = {"Philippine languages"}, ["phj"] = {"Pahari"}, ["phk"] = {"Phake"}, ["phl"] = {"Phalura", "Palula"}, ["phm"] = {"Phimbi"}, ["phn"] = {"Phoenician"}, ["pho"] = {"Phunoi"}, ["phq"] = {"Phana'"}, ["phr"] = {"Pahari-Potwari"}, ["pht"] = {"Phu Thai"}, ["phu"] = {"Phuan"}, ["phv"] = {"Pahlavani"}, ["phw"] = {"Phangduwali"}, ["pia"] = {"Pima Bajo"}, ["pib"] = {"Yine"}, ["pic"] = {"Pinji"}, ["pid"] = {"Piaroa"}, ["pie"] = {"Piro"}, ["pif"] = {"Pingelapese"}, ["pig"] = {"Pisabo"}, ["pih"] = {"Pitcairn-Norfolk"}, ["pij"] = {"Pijao"}, ["pil"] = {"Yom"}, ["pim"] = {"Powhatan"}, ["pin"] = {"Piame"}, ["pio"] = {"Piapoco"}, ["pip"] = {"Pero"}, ["pir"] = {"Piratapuyo"}, ["pis"] = {"Pijin"}, ["pit"] = {"Pitta Pitta"}, ["piu"] = {"Pintupi-Luritja"}, ["piv"] = {"Pileni", "Vaeakau-Taumako"}, ["piw"] = {"Pimbwe"}, ["pix"] = {"Piu"}, ["piy"] = {"Piya-Kwonci"}, ["piz"] = {"Pije"}, ["pjt"] = {"Pitjantjatjara"}, ["pka"] = {"Ardhamāgadhī Prākrit"}, ["pkb"] = {"Pokomo", "Kipfokomo"}, ["pkc"] = {"Paekche"}, ["pkg"] = {"Pak-Tong"}, ["pkh"] = {"Pankhu"}, ["pkn"] = {"Pakanha"}, ["pko"] = {"Pökoot"}, ["pkp"] = {"Pukapuka"}, ["pkr"] = {"Attapady Kurumba"}, ["pks"] = {"Pakistan Sign Language"}, ["pkt"] = {"Maleng"}, ["pku"] = {"Paku"}, ["pla"] = {"Miani"}, ["plb"] = {"Polonombauk"}, ["plc"] = {"Central Palawano"}, ["pld"] = {"Polari"}, ["ple"] = {"Palu'e"}, ["plf"] = {"Central Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["plg"] = {"Pilagá"}, ["plh"] = {"Paulohi"}, ["plk"] = {"Kohistani Shina"}, ["pll"] = {"Shwe Palaung"}, ["pln"] = {"Palenquero"}, ["plo"] = {"Oluta Popoluca"}, ["plq"] = {"Palaic"}, ["plr"] = {"Palaka Senoufo"}, ["pls"] = {"San Marcos Tlacoyalco Popoloca", "San Marcos Tlalcoyalco Popoloca"}, ["plt"] = {"Plateau Malagasy"}, ["plu"] = {"Palikúr"}, ["plv"] = {"Southwest Palawano"}, ["plw"] = {"Brooke's Point Palawano"}, ["ply"] = {"Bolyu"}, ["plz"] = {"Paluan"}, ["pma"] = {"Paama"}, ["pmb"] = {"Pambia"}, ["pmd"] = {"Pallanganmiddang"}, ["pme"] = {"Pwaamei"}, ["pmf"] = {"Pamona"}, ["pmh"] = {"Māhārāṣṭri Prākrit"}, ["pmi"] = {"Northern Pumi"}, ["pmj"] = {"Southern Pumi"}, ["pml"] = {"Lingua Franca"}, ["pmm"] = {"Pomo"}, ["pmn"] = {"Pam"}, ["pmo"] = {"Pom"}, ["pmq"] = {"Northern Pame"}, ["pmr"] = {"Paynamar"}, ["pms"] = {"Piemontese"}, ["pmt"] = {"Tuamotuan"}, ["pmw"] = {"Plains Miwok"}, ["pmx"] = {"Poumei Naga"}, ["pmy"] = {"Papuan Malay"}, ["pmz"] = {"Southern Pame"}, ["pna"] = {"Punan Bah-Biau"}, ["pnb"] = {"Western Panjabi"}, ["pnc"] = {"Pannei"}, ["pnd"] = {"Mpinda"}, ["pne"] = {"Western Penan"}, ["png"] = {"Pangu", "Pongu"}, ["pnh"] = {"Penrhyn"}, ["pni"] = {"Aoheng"}, ["pnj"] = {"Pinjarup"}, ["pnk"] = {"Paunaka"}, ["pnl"] = {"Paleni"}, ["pnm"] = {"Punan Batu 1"}, ["pnn"] = {"Pinai-Hagahai"}, ["pno"] = {"Panobo"}, ["pnp"] = {"Pancana"}, ["pnq"] = {"Pana (Burkina Faso)"}, ["pnr"] = {"Panim"}, ["pns"] = {"Ponosakan"}, ["pnt"] = {"Pontic"}, ["pnu"] = {"Jiongnai Bunu"}, ["pnv"] = {"Pinigura"}, ["pnw"] = {"Banyjima", "Panytyima"}, ["pnx"] = {"Phong-Kniang"}, ["pny"] = {"Pinyin"}, ["pnz"] = {"Pana (Central African Republic)"}, ["poc"] = {"Poqomam"}, ["poe"] = {"San Juan Atzingo Popoloca"}, ["pof"] = {"Poke"}, ["pog"] = {"Potiguára"}, ["poh"] = {"Poqomchi'"}, ["poi"] = {"Highland Popoluca"}, ["pok"] = {"Pokangá"}, ["pom"] = {"Southeastern Pomo"}, ["pon"] = {"Pohnpeian"}, ["poo"] = {"Central Pomo"}, ["pop"] = {"Pwapwâ"}, ["poq"] = {"Texistepec Popoluca"}, ["pos"] = {"Sayula Popoluca"}, ["pot"] = {"Potawatomi"}, ["pov"] = {"Upper Guinea Crioulo"}, ["pow"] = {"San Felipe Otlaltepec Popoloca"}, ["pox"] = {"Polabian"}, ["poy"] = {"Pogolo"}, ["poz"] = {"Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["ppe"] = {"Papi"}, ["ppi"] = {"Paipai"}, ["ppk"] = {"Uma"}, ["ppl"] = {"Pipil", "Nicarao"}, ["ppm"] = {"Papuma"}, ["ppn"] = {"Papapana"}, ["ppo"] = {"Folopa"}, ["ppp"] = {"Pelende"}, ["ppq"] = {"Pei"}, ["pps"] = {"San Luís Temalacayuca Popoloca"}, ["ppt"] = {"Pare"}, ["ppu"] = {"Papora"}, ["pqa"] = {"Pa'a"}, ["pqe"] = {"Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["pqm"] = {"Malecite-Passamaquoddy"}, ["pqw"] = {"Western Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["pra"] = {"Prakrit languages"}, ["prc"] = {"Parachi"}, ["prd"] = {"Parsi-Dari"}, ["pre"] = {"Principense"}, ["prf"] = {"Paranan"}, ["prg"] = {"Prussian"}, ["prh"] = {"Porohanon"}, ["pri"] = {"Paicî"}, ["prk"] = {"Parauk"}, ["prl"] = {"Peruvian Sign Language"}, ["prm"] = {"Kibiri"}, ["prn"] = {"Prasuni"}, ["pro"] = {"Old Provençal (to 1500)", "Old Occitan (to 1500)"}, ["prq"] = {"Ashéninka Perené"}, ["prr"] = {"Puri"}, ["prs"] = {"Dari", "Afghan Persian"}, ["prt"] = {"Phai"}, ["pru"] = {"Puragi"}, ["prw"] = {"Parawen"}, ["prx"] = {"Purik"}, ["prz"] = {"Providencia Sign Language"}, ["psa"] = {"Asue Awyu"}, ["psc"] = {"Iranian Sign Language", "Persian Sign Language"}, ["psd"] = {"Plains Indian Sign Language"}, ["pse"] = {"Central Malay"}, ["psg"] = {"Penang Sign Language"}, ["psh"] = {"Southwest Pashai", "Southwest Pashayi"}, ["psi"] = {"Southeast Pashai", "Southeast Pashayi"}, ["psl"] = {"Puerto Rican Sign Language"}, ["psm"] = {"Pauserna"}, ["psn"] = {"Panasuan"}, ["pso"] = {"Polish Sign Language"}, ["psp"] = {"Philippine Sign Language"}, ["psq"] = {"Pasi"}, ["psr"] = {"Portuguese Sign Language"}, ["pss"] = {"Kaulong"}, ["pst"] = {"Central Pashto"}, ["psu"] = {"Sauraseni Prākrit"}, ["psw"] = {"Port Sandwich"}, ["psy"] = {"Piscataway"}, ["pta"] = {"Pai Tavytera"}, ["pth"] = {"Pataxó Hã-Ha-Hãe"}, ["pti"] = {"Pindiini", "Wangkatha"}, ["ptn"] = {"Patani"}, ["pto"] = {"Zo'é"}, ["ptp"] = {"Patep"}, ["ptq"] = {"Pattapu"}, ["ptr"] = {"Piamatsina"}, ["ptt"] = {"Enrekang"}, ["ptu"] = {"Bambam"}, ["ptv"] = {"Port Vato"}, ["ptw"] = {"Pentlatch"}, ["pty"] = {"Pathiya"}, ["pua"] = {"Western Highland Purepecha"}, ["pub"] = {"Purum"}, ["puc"] = {"Punan Merap"}, ["pud"] = {"Punan Aput"}, ["pue"] = {"Puelche"}, ["puf"] = {"Punan Merah"}, ["pug"] = {"Phuie"}, ["pui"] = {"Puinave"}, ["puj"] = {"Punan Tubu"}, ["pum"] = {"Puma"}, ["puo"] = {"Puoc"}, ["pup"] = {"Pulabu"}, ["puq"] = {"Puquina"}, ["pur"] = {"Puruborá"}, ["put"] = {"Putoh"}, ["puu"] = {"Punu"}, ["puw"] = {"Puluwatese"}, ["pux"] = {"Puare"}, ["puy"] = {"Purisimeño"}, ["pwa"] = {"Pawaia"}, ["pwb"] = {"Panawa"}, ["pwg"] = {"Gapapaiwa"}, ["pwi"] = {"Patwin"}, ["pwm"] = {"Molbog"}, ["pwn"] = {"Paiwan"}, ["pwo"] = {"Pwo Western Karen"}, ["pwr"] = {"Powari"}, ["pww"] = {"Pwo Northern Karen"}, ["pxm"] = {"Quetzaltepec Mixe"}, ["pye"] = {"Pye Krumen"}, ["pym"] = {"Fyam"}, ["pyn"] = {"Poyanáwa"}, ["pys"] = {"Paraguayan Sign Language", "Lengua de Señas del Paraguay"}, ["pyu"] = {"Puyuma"}, ["pyx"] = {"Pyu (Myanmar)"}, ["pyy"] = {"Pyen"}, ["pze"] = {"Pesse"}, ["pzh"] = {"Pazeh"}, ["pzn"] = {"Jejara Naga", "Para Naga"}, ["qua"] = {"Quapaw"}, ["qub"] = {"Huallaga Huánuco Quechua"}, ["quc"] = {"K'iche'", "Quiché"}, ["qud"] = {"Calderón Highland Quichua"}, ["quf"] = {"Lambayeque Quechua"}, ["qug"] = {"Chimborazo Highland Quichua"}, ["quh"] = {"South Bolivian Quechua"}, ["qui"] = {"Quileute"}, ["quk"] = {"Chachapoyas Quechua"}, ["qul"] = {"North Bolivian Quechua"}, ["qum"] = {"Sipacapense"}, ["qun"] = {"Quinault"}, ["qup"] = {"Southern Pastaza Quechua"}, ["quq"] = {"Quinqui"}, ["qur"] = {"Yanahuanca Pasco Quechua"}, ["qus"] = {"Santiago del Estero Quichua"}, ["quv"] = {"Sacapulteco"}, ["quw"] = {"Tena Lowland Quichua"}, ["qux"] = {"Yauyos Quechua"}, ["quy"] = {"Ayacucho Quechua"}, ["quz"] = {"Cusco Quechua"}, ["qva"] = {"Ambo-Pasco Quechua"}, ["qvc"] = {"Cajamarca Quechua"}, ["qve"] = {"Eastern Apurímac Quechua"}, ["qvh"] = {"Huamalíes-Dos de Mayo Huánuco Quechua"}, ["qvi"] = {"Imbabura Highland Quichua"}, ["qvj"] = {"Loja Highland Quichua"}, ["qvl"] = {"Cajatambo North Lima Quechua"}, ["qvm"] = {"Margos-Yarowilca-Lauricocha Quechua"}, ["qvn"] = {"North Junín Quechua"}, ["qvo"] = {"Napo Lowland Quechua"}, ["qvp"] = {"Pacaraos Quechua"}, ["qvs"] = {"San Martín Quechua"}, ["qvw"] = {"Huaylla Wanca Quechua"}, ["qvy"] = {"Queyu"}, ["qvz"] = {"Northern Pastaza Quichua"}, ["qwa"] = {"Corongo Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwc"] = {"Classical Quechua"}, ["qwe"] = {"Quechuan (family)"}, ["qwh"] = {"Huaylas Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwm"] = {"Kuman (Russia)"}, ["qws"] = {"Sihuas Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwt"] = {"Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai"}, ["qxa"] = {"Chiquián Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxc"] = {"Chincha Quechua"}, ["qxh"] = {"Panao Huánuco Quechua"}, ["qxl"] = {"Salasaca Highland Quichua"}, ["qxn"] = {"Northern Conchucos Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxo"] = {"Southern Conchucos Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxp"] = {"Puno Quechua"}, ["qxq"] = {"Qashqa'i"}, ["qxr"] = {"Cañar Highland Quichua"}, ["qxs"] = {"Southern Qiang"}, ["qxt"] = {"Santa Ana de Tusi Pasco Quechua"}, ["qxu"] = {"Arequipa-La Unión Quechua"}, ["qxw"] = {"Jauja Wanca Quechua"}, ["qya"] = {"Quenya"}, ["qyp"] = {"Quiripi"}, ["raa"] = {"Dungmali"}, ["rab"] = {"Camling"}, ["rac"] = {"Rasawa"}, ["rad"] = {"Rade"}, ["raf"] = {"Western Meohang"}, ["rag"] = {"Logooli", "Lulogooli"}, ["rah"] = {"Rabha"}, ["rai"] = {"Ramoaaina"}, ["raj"] = {"Rajasthani"}, ["rak"] = {"Tulu-Bohuai"}, ["ral"] = {"Ralte"}, ["ram"] = {"Canela"}, ["ran"] = {"Riantana"}, ["rao"] = {"Rao"}, ["rap"] = {"Rapanui"}, ["raq"] = {"Saam"}, ["rar"] = {"Rarotongan", "Cook Islands Maori"}, ["ras"] = {"Tegali"}, ["rat"] = {"Razajerdi"}, ["rau"] = {"Raute"}, ["rav"] = {"Sampang"}, ["raw"] = {"Rawang"}, ["rax"] = {"Rang"}, ["ray"] = {"Rapa"}, ["raz"] = {"Rahambuu"}, ["rbb"] = {"Rumai Palaung"}, ["rbk"] = {"Northern Bontok"}, ["rbl"] = {"Miraya Bikol"}, ["rbp"] = {"Barababaraba"}, ["rcf"] = {"Réunion Creole French"}, ["rdb"] = {"Rudbari"}, ["rea"] = {"Rerau"}, ["reb"] = {"Rembong"}, ["ree"] = {"Rejang Kayan"}, ["reg"] = {"Kara (Tanzania)"}, ["rei"] = {"Reli"}, ["rej"] = {"Rejang"}, ["rel"] = {"Rendille"}, ["rem"] = {"Remo"}, ["ren"] = {"Rengao"}, ["rer"] = {"Rer Bare"}, ["res"] = {"Reshe"}, ["ret"] = {"Retta"}, ["rey"] = {"Reyesano"}, ["rga"] = {"Roria"}, ["rge"] = {"Romano-Greek"}, ["rgk"] = {"Rangkas"}, ["rgn"] = {"Romagnol"}, ["rgr"] = {"Resígaro"}, ["rgs"] = {"Southern Roglai"}, ["rgu"] = {"Ringgou"}, ["rhg"] = {"Rohingya"}, ["rhp"] = {"Yahang"}, ["ria"] = {"Riang (India)"}, ["rib"] = {"Bribri Sign Language"}, ["rif"] = {"Tarifit"}, ["ril"] = {"Riang Lang", "Riang (Myanmar)"}, ["rim"] = {"Nyaturu"}, ["rin"] = {"Nungu"}, ["rir"] = {"Ribun"}, ["rit"] = {"Ritharrngu"}, ["riu"] = {"Riung"}, ["rjg"] = {"Rajong"}, ["rji"] = {"Raji"}, ["rjs"] = {"Rajbanshi"}, ["rka"] = {"Kraol"}, ["rkb"] = {"Rikbaktsa"}, ["rkh"] = {"Rakahanga-Manihiki"}, ["rki"] = {"Rakhine"}, ["rkm"] = {"Marka"}, ["rkt"] = {"Rangpuri", "Kamta"}, ["rkw"] = {"Arakwal"}, ["rma"] = {"Rama"}, ["rmb"] = {"Rembarrnga"}, ["rmc"] = {"Carpathian Romani"}, ["rmd"] = {"Traveller Danish"}, ["rme"] = {"Angloromani"}, ["rmf"] = {"Kalo Finnish Romani"}, ["rmg"] = {"Traveller Norwegian"}, ["rmh"] = {"Murkim"}, ["rmi"] = {"Lomavren"}, ["rmk"] = {"Romkun"}, ["rml"] = {"Baltic Romani"}, ["rmm"] = {"Roma"}, ["rmn"] = {"Balkan Romani"}, ["rmo"] = {"Sinte Romani"}, ["rmp"] = {"Rempi"}, ["rmq"] = {"Caló"}, ["rms"] = {"Romanian Sign Language"}, ["rmt"] = {"Domari"}, ["rmu"] = {"Tavringer Romani"}, ["rmv"] = {"Romanova"}, ["rmw"] = {"Welsh Romani"}, ["rmx"] = {"Romam"}, ["rmy"] = {"Vlax Romani"}, ["rmz"] = {"Marma"}, ["rnb"] = {"Brunca Sign Language"}, ["rnd"] = {"Ruund"}, ["rng"] = {"Ronga"}, ["rnl"] = {"Ranglong"}, ["rnn"] = {"Roon"}, ["rnp"] = {"Rongpo"}, ["rnr"] = {"Nari Nari"}, ["rnw"] = {"Rungwa"}, ["roa"] = {"Romance languages"}, ["rob"] = {"Tae'"}, ["roc"] = {"Cacgia Roglai"}, ["rod"] = {"Rogo"}, ["roe"] = {"Ronji"}, ["rof"] = {"Rombo"}, ["rog"] = {"Northern Roglai"}, ["rol"] = {"Romblomanon"}, ["rom"] = {"Romany"}, ["roo"] = {"Rotokas"}, ["rop"] = {"Kriol"}, ["ror"] = {"Rongga"}, ["rou"] = {"Runga"}, ["row"] = {"Dela-Oenale"}, ["rpn"] = {"Repanbitip"}, ["rpt"] = {"Rapting"}, ["rri"] = {"Ririo"}, ["rrm"] = {"Moriori"}, ["rro"] = {"Waima"}, ["rrt"] = {"Arritinngithigh"}, ["rsb"] = {"Romano-Serbian"}, ["rsk"] = {"Ruthenian", "Rusnak"}, ["rsl"] = {"Russian Sign Language"}, ["rsm"] = {"Miriwoong Sign Language"}, ["rsn"] = {"Rwandan Sign Language"}, ["rsw"] = {"Rishiwa"}, ["rtc"] = {"Rungtu Chin"}, ["rth"] = {"Ratahan"}, ["rtm"] = {"Rotuman"}, ["rts"] = {"Yurats"}, ["rtw"] = {"Rathawi"}, ["rub"] = {"Gungu"}, ["ruc"] = {"Ruuli"}, ["rue"] = {"Rusyn"}, ["ruf"] = {"Luguru"}, ["rug"] = {"Roviana"}, ["ruh"] = {"Ruga"}, ["rui"] = {"Rufiji"}, ["ruk"] = {"Che"}, ["ruo"] = {"Istro Romanian"}, ["rup"] = {"Macedo-Romanian", "Aromanian", "Arumanian"}, ["ruq"] = {"Megleno Romanian"}, ["rut"] = {"Rutul"}, ["ruu"] = {"Lanas Lobu"}, ["ruy"] = {"Mala (Nigeria)"}, ["ruz"] = {"Ruma"}, ["rwa"] = {"Rawo"}, ["rwk"] = {"Rwa"}, ["rwl"] = {"Ruwila"}, ["rwm"] = {"Amba (Uganda)"}, ["rwo"] = {"Rawa"}, ["rwr"] = {"Marwari (India)"}, ["rxd"] = {"Ngardi"}, ["rxw"] = {"Karuwali", "Garuwali"}, ["ryn"] = {"Northern Amami-Oshima"}, ["rys"] = {"Yaeyama"}, ["ryu"] = {"Central Okinawan"}, ["rzh"] = {"Rāziḥī"}, ["saa"] = {"Saba"}, ["sab"] = {"Buglere"}, ["sac"] = {"Meskwaki"}, ["sad"] = {"Sandawe"}, ["sae"] = {"Sabanê"}, ["saf"] = {"Safaliba"}, ["sah"] = {"Yakut"}, ["sai"] = {"South American Indian languages"}, ["saj"] = {"Sahu"}, ["sak"] = {"Sake"}, ["sal"] = {"Salishan languages"}, ["sam"] = {"Samaritan Aramaic"}, ["sao"] = {"Sause"}, ["saq"] = {"Samburu"}, ["sar"] = {"Saraveca"}, ["sas"] = {"Sasak"}, ["sat"] = {"Santali"}, ["sau"] = {"Saleman"}, ["sav"] = {"Saafi-Saafi"}, ["saw"] = {"Sawi"}, ["sax"] = {"Sa"}, ["say"] = {"Saya"}, ["saz"] = {"Saurashtra"}, ["sba"] = {"Ngambay"}, ["sbb"] = {"Simbo"}, ["sbc"] = {"Kele (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["sbd"] = {"Southern Samo"}, ["sbe"] = {"Saliba"}, ["sbf"] = {"Chabu", "Shabo"}, ["sbg"] = {"Seget"}, ["sbh"] = {"Sori-Harengan"}, ["sbi"] = {"Seti"}, ["sbj"] = {"Surbakhal"}, ["sbk"] = {"Safwa"}, ["sbl"] = {"Botolan Sambal"}, ["sbm"] = {"Sagala"}, ["sbn"] = {"Sindhi Bhil"}, ["sbo"] = {"Sabüm"}, ["sbp"] = {"Sangu (Tanzania)"}, ["sbq"] = {"Sileibi"}, ["sbr"] = {"Sembakung Murut"}, ["sbs"] = {"Subiya"}, ["sbt"] = {"Kimki"}, ["sbu"] = {"Stod Bhoti"}, ["sbv"] = {"Sabine"}, ["sbw"] = {"Simba"}, ["sbx"] = {"Seberuang"}, ["sby"] = {"Soli"}, ["sbz"] = {"Sara Kaba"}, ["scb"] = {"Chut"}, ["sce"] = {"Dongxiang"}, ["scf"] = {"San Miguel Creole French"}, ["scg"] = {"Sanggau"}, ["sch"] = {"Sakachep"}, ["sci"] = {"Sri Lankan Creole Malay"}, ["sck"] = {"Sadri"}, ["scl"] = {"Shina"}, ["scn"] = {"Sicilian"}, ["sco"] = {"Scots"}, ["scp"] = {"Hyolmo", "Helambu Sherpa"}, ["scq"] = {"Sa'och"}, ["scs"] = {"North Slavey"}, ["sct"] = {"Southern Katang"}, ["scu"] = {"Shumcho"}, ["scv"] = {"Sheni"}, ["scw"] = {"Sha"}, ["scx"] = {"Sicel"}, ["scz"] = {"Shaetlan"}, ["sda"] = {"Toraja-Sa'dan"}, ["sdb"] = {"Shabak"}, ["sdc"] = {"Sassarese Sardinian"}, ["sde"] = {"Surubu"}, ["sdf"] = {"Sarli"}, ["sdg"] = {"Savi"}, ["sdh"] = {"Southern Kurdish"}, ["sdj"] = {"Suundi"}, ["sdk"] = {"Sos Kundi"}, ["sdl"] = {"Saudi Arabian Sign Language"}, ["sdn"] = {"Gallurese Sardinian"}, ["sdo"] = {"Bukar-Sadung Bidayuh"}, ["sdp"] = {"Sherdukpen"}, ["sdq"] = {"Semandang"}, ["sdr"] = {"Oraon Sadri"}, ["sds"] = {"Sened"}, ["sdt"] = {"Shuadit"}, ["sdu"] = {"Sarudu"}, ["sdv"] = {"Eastern Sudanic languages"}, ["sdx"] = {"Sibu Melanau"}, ["sdz"] = {"Sallands"}, ["sea"] = {"Semai"}, ["seb"] = {"Shempire Senoufo"}, ["sec"] = {"Sechelt", "She shashishalhem"}, ["sed"] = {"Sedang"}, ["see"] = {"Seneca"}, ["sef"] = {"Cebaara Senoufo"}, ["seg"] = {"Segeju"}, ["seh"] = {"Sena"}, ["sei"] = {"Seri"}, ["sej"] = {"Sene"}, ["sek"] = {"Sekani"}, ["sel"] = {"Selkup"}, ["sem"] = {"Semitic languages"}, ["sen"] = {"Nanerigé Sénoufo"}, ["seo"] = {"Suarmin"}, ["sep"] = {"Sìcìté Sénoufo"}, ["seq"] = {"Senara Sénoufo"}, ["ser"] = {"Serrano"}, ["ses"] = {"Koyraboro Senni Songhai"}, ["set"] = {"Sentani"}, ["seu"] = {"Serui-Laut"}, ["sev"] = {"Nyarafolo Senoufo"}, ["sew"] = {"Sewa Bay"}, ["sey"] = {"Secoya"}, ["sez"] = {"Senthang Chin"}, ["sfb"] = {"Langue des signes de Belgique Francophone", "French Belgian Sign Language"}, ["sfe"] = {"Eastern Subanen"}, ["sfm"] = {"Small Flowery Miao"}, ["sfs"] = {"South African Sign Language"}, ["sfw"] = {"Sehwi"}, ["sga"] = {"Old Irish (to 900)"}, ["sgb"] = {"Mag-antsi Ayta"}, ["sgc"] = {"Kipsigis"}, ["sgd"] = {"Surigaonon"}, ["sge"] = {"Segai"}, ["sgg"] = {"Swiss-German Sign Language"}, ["sgh"] = {"Shughni"}, ["sgi"] = {"Suga"}, ["sgj"] = {"Surgujia"}, ["sgk"] = {"Sangkong"}, ["sgm"] = {"Singa"}, ["sgn"] = {"Sign languages"}, ["sgp"] = {"Singpho"}, ["sgr"] = {"Sangisari"}, ["sgs"] = {"Samogitian"}, ["sgt"] = {"Brokpake"}, ["sgu"] = {"Salas"}, ["sgw"] = {"Sebat Bet Gurage"}, ["sgx"] = {"Sierra Leone Sign Language"}, ["sgy"] = {"Sanglechi"}, ["sgz"] = {"Sursurunga"}, ["sha"] = {"Shall-Zwall"}, ["shb"] = {"Ninam"}, ["shc"] = {"Sonde"}, ["shd"] = {"Kundal Shahi"}, ["she"] = {"Sheko"}, ["shg"] = {"Shua"}, ["shh"] = {"Shoshoni"}, ["shi"] = {"Tachelhit"}, ["shj"] = {"Shatt"}, ["shk"] = {"Shilluk"}, ["shl"] = {"Shendu"}, ["shm"] = {"Shahrudi"}, ["shn"] = {"Shan"}, ["sho"] = {"Shanga"}, ["shp"] = {"Shipibo-Conibo"}, ["shq"] = {"Sala"}, ["shr"] = {"Shi"}, ["shs"] = {"Shuswap", "Secwepemctsín"}, ["sht"] = {"Shasta"}, ["shu"] = {"Chadian Arabic"}, ["shv"] = {"Shehri"}, ["shw"] = {"Shwai"}, ["shx"] = {"She"}, ["shy"] = {"Tachawit"}, ["shz"] = {"Syenara Senoufo"}, ["sia"] = {"Akkala Sami"}, ["sib"] = {"Sebop"}, ["sid"] = {"Sidamo"}, ["sie"] = {"Simaa"}, ["sif"] = {"Siamou"}, ["sig"] = {"Paasaal"}, ["sih"] = {"Zire", "Sîshëë"}, ["sii"] = {"Shom Peng"}, ["sij"] = {"Numbami"}, ["sik"] = {"Sikiana"}, ["sil"] = {"Tumulung Sisaala"}, ["sim"] = {"Mende (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["sio"] = {"Siouan languages"}, ["sip"] = {"Sikkimese"}, ["siq"] = {"Sonia"}, ["sir"] = {"Siri"}, ["sis"] = {"Siuslaw"}, ["sit"] = {"Sino-Tibetan languages"}, ["siu"] = {"Sinagen"}, ["siv"] = {"Sumariup"}, ["siw"] = {"Siwai"}, ["six"] = {"Sumau"}, ["siy"] = {"Sivandi"}, ["siz"] = {"Siwi"}, ["sja"] = {"Epena"}, ["sjb"] = {"Sajau Basap"}, ["sjc"] = {"Shaojiang Chinese"}, ["sjd"] = {"Kildin Sami"}, ["sje"] = {"Pite Sami"}, ["sjg"] = {"Assangori"}, ["sjk"] = {"Kemi Sami"}, ["sjl"] = {"Sajalong", "Miji"}, ["sjm"] = {"Mapun"}, ["sjn"] = {"Sindarin"}, ["sjo"] = {"Xibe"}, ["sjp"] = {"Surjapuri"}, ["sjr"] = {"Siar-Lak"}, ["sjs"] = {"Senhaja De Srair"}, ["sjt"] = {"Ter Sami"}, ["sju"] = {"Ume Sami"}, ["sjw"] = {"Shawnee"}, ["ska"] = {"Skagit"}, ["skb"] = {"Saek"}, ["skc"] = {"Ma Manda"}, ["skd"] = {"Southern Sierra Miwok"}, ["ske"] = {"Seke (Vanuatu)"}, ["skf"] = {"Sakirabiá"}, ["skg"] = {"Sakalava Malagasy"}, ["skh"] = {"Sikule"}, ["ski"] = {"Sika"}, ["skj"] = {"Seke (Nepal)"}, ["skm"] = {"Kutong"}, ["skn"] = {"Kolibugan Subanon"}, ["sko"] = {"Seko Tengah"}, ["skp"] = {"Sekapan"}, ["skq"] = {"Sininkere"}, ["skr"] = {"Saraiki", "Seraiki"}, ["sks"] = {"Maia"}, ["skt"] = {"Sakata"}, ["sku"] = {"Sakao"}, ["skv"] = {"Skou"}, ["skw"] = {"Skepi Creole Dutch"}, ["skx"] = {"Seko Padang"}, ["sky"] = {"Sikaiana"}, ["skz"] = {"Sekar"}, ["sla"] = {"Slavic languages"}, ["slc"] = {"Sáliba"}, ["sld"] = {"Sissala"}, ["sle"] = {"Sholaga"}, ["slf"] = {"Swiss-Italian Sign Language"}, ["slg"] = {"Selungai Murut"}, ["slh"] = {"Southern Puget Sound Salish"}, ["sli"] = {"Lower Silesian"}, ["slj"] = {"Salumá"}, ["sll"] = {"Salt-Yui"}, ["slm"] = {"Pangutaran Sama"}, ["sln"] = {"Salinan"}, ["slp"] = {"Lamaholot"}, ["slr"] = {"Salar"}, ["sls"] = {"Singapore Sign Language"}, ["slt"] = {"Sila"}, ["slu"] = {"Selaru"}, ["slw"] = {"Sialum"}, ["slx"] = {"Salampasu"}, ["sly"] = {"Selayar"}, ["slz"] = {"Ma'ya"}, ["sma"] = {"Southern Sami"}, ["smb"] = {"Simbari"}, ["smc"] = {"Som"}, ["smf"] = {"Auwe"}, ["smg"] = {"Simbali"}, ["smh"] = {"Samei"}, ["smi"] = {"Sami languages"}, ["smj"] = {"Lule Sami"}, ["smk"] = {"Bolinao"}, ["sml"] = {"Central Sama"}, ["smm"] = {"Musasa"}, ["smn"] = {"Inari Sami"}, ["smp"] = {"Samaritan"}, ["smq"] = {"Samo"}, ["smr"] = {"Simeulue"}, ["sms"] = {"Skolt Sami"}, ["smt"] = {"Simte"}, ["smu"] = {"Somray"}, ["smv"] = {"Samvedi"}, ["smw"] = {"Sumbawa"}, ["smx"] = {"Samba"}, ["smy"] = {"Semnani"}, ["smz"] = {"Simeku"}, ["snc"] = {"Sinaugoro"}, ["sne"] = {"Bau Bidayuh"}, ["snf"] = {"Noon"}, ["sng"] = {"Sanga (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["sni"] = {"Sensi"}, ["snj"] = {"Riverain Sango"}, ["snk"] = {"Soninke"}, ["snl"] = {"Sangil"}, ["snm"] = {"Southern Ma'di"}, ["snn"] = {"Siona"}, ["sno"] = {"Snohomish"}, ["snp"] = {"Siane"}, ["snq"] = {"Sangu (Gabon)"}, ["snr"] = {"Sihan"}, ["sns"] = {"South West Bay", "Nahavaq"}, ["snu"] = {"Senggi", "Viid"}, ["snv"] = {"Sa'ban"}, ["snw"] = {"Selee"}, ["snx"] = {"Sam"}, ["sny"] = {"Saniyo-Hiyewe"}, ["snz"] = {"Kou"}, ["soa"] = {"Thai Song"}, ["sob"] = {"Sobei"}, ["soc"] = {"So (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["sod"] = {"Songoora"}, ["soe"] = {"Songomeno"}, ["sog"] = {"Sogdian"}, ["soh"] = {"Aka"}, ["soi"] = {"Sonha"}, ["soj"] = {"Soi"}, ["sok"] = {"Sokoro"}, ["sol"] = {"Solos"}, ["son"] = {"Songhai languages"}, ["soo"] = {"Songo"}, ["sop"] = {"Songe"}, ["soq"] = {"Kanasi"}, ["sor"] = {"Somrai"}, ["sos"] = {"Seeku"}, ["sou"] = {"Southern Thai"}, ["sov"] = {"Sonsorol"}, ["sow"] = {"Sowanda"}, ["sox"] = {"Swo"}, ["soy"] = {"Miyobe"}, ["soz"] = {"Temi"}, ["spb"] = {"Sepa (Indonesia)"}, ["spc"] = {"Sapé"}, ["spd"] = {"Saep"}, ["spe"] = {"Sepa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["spg"] = {"Sian"}, ["spi"] = {"Saponi"}, ["spk"] = {"Sengo"}, ["spl"] = {"Selepet"}, ["spm"] = {"Akukem"}, ["spn"] = {"Sanapaná"}, ["spo"] = {"Spokane"}, ["spp"] = {"Supyire Senoufo"}, ["spq"] = {"Loreto-Ucayali Spanish"}, ["spr"] = {"Saparua"}, ["sps"] = {"Saposa"}, ["spt"] = {"Spiti Bhoti"}, ["spu"] = {"Sapuan"}, ["spv"] = {"Sambalpuri", "Kosli"}, ["spx"] = {"South Picene"}, ["spy"] = {"Sabaot"}, ["sqa"] = {"Shama-Sambuga"}, ["sqh"] = {"Shau"}, ["sqj"] = {"Albanian languages"}, ["sqk"] = {"Albanian Sign Language"}, ["sqm"] = {"Suma"}, ["sqn"] = {"Susquehannock"}, ["sqo"] = {"Sorkhei"}, ["sqq"] = {"Sou"}, ["sqr"] = {"Siculo Arabic"}, ["sqs"] = {"Sri Lankan Sign Language"}, ["sqt"] = {"Soqotri"}, ["squ"] = {"Squamish", "Sḵwx̱wú7mesh sníchim"}, ["sqx"] = {"Kufr Qassem Sign Language (KQSL)"}, ["sra"] = {"Saruga"}, ["srb"] = {"Sora"}, ["src"] = {"Logudorese Sardinian"}, ["sre"] = {"Sara"}, ["srf"] = {"Nafi"}, ["srg"] = {"Sulod"}, ["srh"] = {"Sarikoli"}, ["sri"] = {"Siriano"}, ["srk"] = {"Serudung Murut"}, ["srl"] = {"Isirawa"}, ["srm"] = {"Saramaccan"}, ["srn"] = {"Sranan Tongo"}, ["sro"] = {"Campidanese Sardinian"}, ["srq"] = {"Sirionó"}, ["srr"] = {"Serer"}, ["srs"] = {"Tsuut'ina", "Sarsi"}, ["srt"] = {"Sauri"}, ["sru"] = {"Suruí"}, ["srv"] = {"Southern Sorsoganon"}, ["srw"] = {"Serua"}, ["srx"] = {"Sirmauri"}, ["sry"] = {"Sera"}, ["srz"] = {"Shahmirzadi"}, ["ssa"] = {"Nilo-Saharan languages"}, ["ssb"] = {"Southern Sama"}, ["ssc"] = {"Suba-Simbiti"}, ["ssd"] = {"Siroi"}, ["sse"] = {"Balangingi", "Bangingih Sama"}, ["ssf"] = {"Thao"}, ["ssg"] = {"Seimat"}, ["ssh"] = {"Shihhi Arabic"}, ["ssi"] = {"Sansi"}, ["ssj"] = {"Sausi"}, ["ssk"] = {"Sunam"}, ["ssl"] = {"Western Sisaala"}, ["ssm"] = {"Semnam"}, ["ssn"] = {"Waata"}, ["sso"] = {"Sissano"}, ["ssp"] = {"Spanish Sign Language"}, ["ssq"] = {"So'a"}, ["ssr"] = {"Swiss-French Sign Language"}, ["sss"] = {"Sô"}, ["sst"] = {"Sinasina"}, ["ssu"] = {"Susuami"}, ["ssv"] = {"Shark Bay"}, ["ssx"] = {"Samberigi"}, ["ssy"] = {"Saho"}, ["ssz"] = {"Sengseng"}, ["sta"] = {"Settla"}, ["stb"] = {"Northern Subanen"}, ["std"] = {"Sentinel"}, ["ste"] = {"Liana-Seti"}, ["stf"] = {"Seta"}, ["stg"] = {"Trieng"}, ["sth"] = {"Shelta"}, ["sti"] = {"Bulo Stieng"}, ["stj"] = {"Matya Samo"}, ["stk"] = {"Arammba"}, ["stl"] = {"Stellingwerfs"}, ["stm"] = {"Setaman"}, ["stn"] = {"Owa"}, ["sto"] = {"Stoney"}, ["stp"] = {"Southeastern Tepehuan"}, ["stq"] = {"Saterfriesisch"}, ["str"] = {"Straits Salish"}, ["sts"] = {"Shumashti"}, ["stt"] = {"Budeh Stieng"}, ["stu"] = {"Samtao"}, ["stv"] = {"Silt'e"}, ["stw"] = {"Satawalese"}, ["sty"] = {"Siberian Tatar"}, ["sua"] = {"Sulka"}, ["sub"] = {"Suku"}, ["suc"] = {"Western Subanon"}, ["sue"] = {"Suena"}, ["sug"] = {"Suganga"}, ["sui"] = {"Suki"}, ["suj"] = {"Shubi"}, ["suk"] = {"Sukuma"}, ["suo"] = {"Bouni"}, ["suq"] = {"Tirmaga-Chai Suri", "Suri"}, ["sur"] = {"Mwaghavul"}, ["sus"] = {"Susu"}, ["sut"] = {"Subtiaba"}, ["suv"] = {"Puroik"}, ["suw"] = {"Sumbwa"}, ["sux"] = {"Sumerian"}, ["suy"] = {"Suyá"}, ["suz"] = {"Sunwar"}, ["sva"] = {"Svan"}, ["svb"] = {"Ulau-Suain"}, ["svc"] = {"Vincentian Creole English"}, ["sve"] = {"Serili"}, ["svk"] = {"Slovakian Sign Language"}, ["svm"] = {"Slavomolisano"}, ["svs"] = {"Savosavo"}, ["svx"] = {"Skalvian"}, ["swb"] = {"Maore Comorian"}, ["swc"] = {"Congo Swahili"}, ["swf"] = {"Sere"}, ["swg"] = {"Swabian"}, ["swh"] = {"Swahili (individual language)", "Kiswahili"}, ["swi"] = {"Sui"}, ["swj"] = {"Sira"}, ["swk"] = {"Malawi Sena"}, ["swl"] = {"Swedish Sign Language"}, ["swm"] = {"Samosa"}, ["swn"] = {"Sawknah"}, ["swo"] = {"Shanenawa"}, ["swp"] = {"Suau"}, ["swq"] = {"Sharwa"}, ["swr"] = {"Saweru"}, ["sws"] = {"Seluwasan"}, ["swt"] = {"Sawila"}, ["swu"] = {"Suwawa"}, ["swv"] = {"Shekhawati"}, ["sww"] = {"Sowa"}, ["swx"] = {"Suruahá"}, ["swy"] = {"Sarua"}, ["sxb"] = {"Suba"}, ["sxc"] = {"Sicanian"}, ["sxe"] = {"Sighu"}, ["sxg"] = {"Shuhi", "Shixing"}, ["sxk"] = {"Southern Kalapuya"}, ["sxl"] = {"Selian"}, ["sxm"] = {"Samre"}, ["sxn"] = {"Sangir"}, ["sxo"] = {"Sorothaptic"}, ["sxr"] = {"Saaroa"}, ["sxs"] = {"Sasaru"}, ["sxu"] = {"Upper Saxon"}, ["sxw"] = {"Saxwe Gbe"}, ["sya"] = {"Siang"}, ["syb"] = {"Central Subanen"}, ["syc"] = {"Classical Syriac"}, ["syd"] = {"Samoyedic languages"}, ["syi"] = {"Seki"}, ["syk"] = {"Sukur"}, ["syl"] = {"Sylheti"}, ["sym"] = {"Maya Samo"}, ["syn"] = {"Senaya"}, ["syo"] = {"Suoy"}, ["syr"] = {"Syriac"}, ["sys"] = {"Sinyar"}, ["syw"] = {"Kagate"}, ["syx"] = {"Samay"}, ["syy"] = {"Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language"}, ["sza"] = {"Semelai"}, ["szb"] = {"Ngalum"}, ["szc"] = {"Semaq Beri"}, ["sze"] = {"Seze"}, ["szg"] = {"Sengele"}, ["szl"] = {"Silesian"}, ["szn"] = {"Sula"}, ["szp"] = {"Suabo"}, ["szs"] = {"Solomon Islands Sign Language"}, ["szv"] = {"Isubu", "Isu (Fako Division)"}, ["szw"] = {"Sawai"}, ["szy"] = {"Sakizaya"}, ["taa"] = {"Lower Tanana"}, ["tab"] = {"Tabassaran"}, ["tac"] = {"Lowland Tarahumara"}, ["tad"] = {"Tause"}, ["tae"] = {"Tariana"}, ["taf"] = {"Tapirapé"}, ["tag"] = {"Tagoi"}, ["tai"] = {"Tai languages"}, ["taj"] = {"Eastern Tamang"}, ["tak"] = {"Tala"}, ["tal"] = {"Tal"}, ["tan"] = {"Tangale"}, ["tao"] = {"Yami"}, ["tap"] = {"Taabwa"}, ["taq"] = {"Tamasheq"}, ["tar"] = {"Central Tarahumara"}, ["tas"] = {"Tay Boi"}, ["tau"] = {"Upper Tanana"}, ["tav"] = {"Tatuyo"}, ["taw"] = {"Tai"}, ["tax"] = {"Tamki"}, ["tay"] = {"Atayal"}, ["taz"] = {"Tocho"}, ["tba"] = {"Aikanã"}, ["tbc"] = {"Takia"}, ["tbd"] = {"Kaki Ae"}, ["tbe"] = {"Tanimbili"}, ["tbf"] = {"Mandara"}, ["tbg"] = {"North Tairora"}, ["tbh"] = {"Dharawal", "Thurawal"}, ["tbi"] = {"Gaam"}, ["tbj"] = {"Tiang"}, ["tbk"] = {"Calamian Tagbanwa"}, ["tbl"] = {"Tboli"}, ["tbm"] = {"Tagbu"}, ["tbn"] = {"Barro Negro Tunebo"}, ["tbo"] = {"Tawala"}, ["tbp"] = {"Taworta", "Diebroud"}, ["tbq"] = {"Tibeto-Burman languages"}, ["tbr"] = {"Tumtum"}, ["tbs"] = {"Tanguat"}, ["tbt"] = {"Tembo (Kitembo)"}, ["tbu"] = {"Tubar"}, ["tbv"] = {"Tobo"}, ["tbw"] = {"Tagbanwa"}, ["tbx"] = {"Kapin"}, ["tby"] = {"Tabaru"}, ["tbz"] = {"Ditammari"}, ["tca"] = {"Ticuna"}, ["tcb"] = {"Tanacross"}, ["tcc"] = {"Datooga"}, ["tcd"] = {"Tafi"}, ["tce"] = {"Southern Tutchone"}, ["tcf"] = {"Malinaltepec Me'phaa", "Malinaltepec Tlapanec"}, ["tcg"] = {"Tamagario"}, ["tch"] = {"Turks And Caicos Creole English"}, ["tci"] = {"Wára"}, ["tck"] = {"Tchitchege"}, ["tcl"] = {"Taman (Myanmar)"}, ["tcm"] = {"Tanahmerah"}, ["tcn"] = {"Tichurong"}, ["tco"] = {"Taungyo"}, ["tcp"] = {"Tawr Chin"}, ["tcq"] = {"Kaiy"}, ["tcs"] = {"Torres Strait Creole", "Yumplatok"}, ["tct"] = {"T'en"}, ["tcu"] = {"Southeastern Tarahumara"}, ["tcw"] = {"Tecpatlán Totonac"}, ["tcx"] = {"Toda"}, ["tcy"] = {"Tulu"}, ["tcz"] = {"Thado Chin"}, ["tda"] = {"Tagdal"}, ["tdb"] = {"Panchpargania"}, ["tdc"] = {"Emberá-Tadó"}, ["tdd"] = {"Tai Nüa"}, ["tde"] = {"Tiranige Diga Dogon"}, ["tdf"] = {"Talieng"}, ["tdg"] = {"Western Tamang"}, ["tdh"] = {"Thulung"}, ["tdi"] = {"Tomadino"}, ["tdj"] = {"Tajio"}, ["tdk"] = {"Tambas"}, ["tdl"] = {"Sur"}, ["tdm"] = {"Taruma"}, ["tdn"] = {"Tondano"}, ["tdo"] = {"Teme"}, ["tdq"] = {"Tita"}, ["tdr"] = {"Todrah"}, ["tds"] = {"Doutai"}, ["tdt"] = {"Tetun Dili"}, ["tdv"] = {"Toro"}, ["tdx"] = {"Tandroy-Mahafaly Malagasy"}, ["tdy"] = {"Tadyawan"}, ["tea"] = {"Temiar"}, ["teb"] = {"Tetete"}, ["tec"] = {"Terik"}, ["ted"] = {"Tepo Krumen"}, ["tee"] = {"Huehuetla Tepehua"}, ["tef"] = {"Teressa"}, ["teg"] = {"Teke-Tege"}, ["teh"] = {"Tehuelche"}, ["tei"] = {"Torricelli"}, ["tek"] = {"Ibali Teke"}, ["tem"] = {"Timne"}, ["ten"] = {"Tama (Colombia)"}, ["teo"] = {"Teso"}, ["tep"] = {"Tepecano"}, ["teq"] = {"Temein"}, ["ter"] = {"Tereno"}, ["tes"] = {"Tengger"}, ["tet"] = {"Tetum"}, ["teu"] = {"Soo"}, ["tev"] = {"Teor"}, ["tew"] = {"Tewa (USA)"}, ["tex"] = {"Tennet"}, ["tey"] = {"Tulishi"}, ["tez"] = {"Tetserret"}, ["tfi"] = {"Tofin Gbe"}, ["tfn"] = {"Tanaina"}, ["tfo"] = {"Tefaro"}, ["tfr"] = {"Teribe"}, ["tft"] = {"Ternate"}, ["tga"] = {"Sagalla"}, ["tgb"] = {"Tobilung"}, ["tgc"] = {"Tigak"}, ["tgd"] = {"Ciwogai"}, ["tge"] = {"Eastern Gorkha Tamang"}, ["tgf"] = {"Chalikha"}, ["tgh"] = {"Tobagonian Creole English"}, ["tgi"] = {"Lawunuia"}, ["tgj"] = {"Tagin"}, ["tgn"] = {"Tandaganon"}, ["tgo"] = {"Sudest"}, ["tgp"] = {"Tangoa"}, ["tgq"] = {"Tring"}, ["tgr"] = {"Tareng"}, ["tgs"] = {"Nume"}, ["tgt"] = {"Central Tagbanwa"}, ["tgu"] = {"Tanggu"}, ["tgv"] = {"Tingui-Boto"}, ["tgw"] = {"Tagwana Senoufo"}, ["tgx"] = {"Tagish"}, ["tgy"] = {"Togoyo"}, ["tgz"] = {"Tagalaka"}, ["thd"] = {"Kuuk Thaayorre", "Thayore"}, ["the"] = {"Chitwania Tharu"}, ["thf"] = {"Thangmi"}, ["thh"] = {"Northern Tarahumara"}, ["thi"] = {"Tai Long"}, ["thk"] = {"Tharaka", "Kitharaka"}, ["thl"] = {"Dangaura Tharu"}, ["thm"] = {"Aheu"}, ["thn"] = {"Thachanadan"}, ["thp"] = {"Thompson", "Nłeʔkepmxcín", "Thompson River Salish"}, ["thq"] = {"Kochila Tharu"}, ["thr"] = {"Rana Tharu"}, ["ths"] = {"Thakali"}, ["tht"] = {"Tahltan", "Tāłtān"}, ["thu"] = {"Thuri"}, ["thv"] = {"Tahaggart Tamahaq"}, ["thy"] = {"Tha"}, ["thz"] = {"Tayart Tamajeq"}, ["tia"] = {"Tidikelt Tamazight"}, ["tic"] = {"Tira"}, ["tif"] = {"Tifal"}, ["tig"] = {"Tigre"}, ["tih"] = {"Timugon Murut"}, ["tii"] = {"Tiene"}, ["tij"] = {"Tilung"}, ["tik"] = {"Tikar"}, ["til"] = {"Tillamook"}, ["tim"] = {"Timbe"}, ["tin"] = {"Tindi"}, ["tio"] = {"Teop"}, ["tip"] = {"Trimuris"}, ["tiq"] = {"Tiéfo"}, ["tis"] = {"Masadiit Itneg"}, ["tit"] = {"Tinigua"}, ["tiu"] = {"Adasen"}, ["tiv"] = {"Tiv"}, ["tiw"] = {"Tiwi"}, ["tix"] = {"Southern Tiwa"}, ["tiy"] = {"Tiruray"}, ["tiz"] = {"Tai Hongjin"}, ["tja"] = {"Tajuasohn"}, ["tjg"] = {"Tunjung"}, ["tji"] = {"Northern Tujia"}, ["tjj"] = {"Tjungundji"}, ["tjl"] = {"Tai Laing"}, ["tjm"] = {"Timucua"}, ["tjn"] = {"Tonjon"}, ["tjo"] = {"Temacine Tamazight"}, ["tjp"] = {"Tjupany"}, ["tjs"] = {"Southern Tujia"}, ["tju"] = {"Tjurruru"}, ["tjw"] = {"Djabwurrung"}, ["tka"] = {"Truká"}, ["tkb"] = {"Buksa"}, ["tkd"] = {"Tukudede"}, ["tke"] = {"Takwane"}, ["tkf"] = {"Tukumanféd"}, ["tkg"] = {"Tesaka Malagasy"}, ["tkl"] = {"Tokelau"}, ["tkm"] = {"Takelma"}, ["tkn"] = {"Toku-No-Shima"}, ["tkp"] = {"Tikopia"}, ["tkq"] = {"Tee"}, ["tkr"] = {"Tsakhur"}, ["tks"] = {"Takestani"}, ["tkt"] = {"Kathoriya Tharu"}, ["tku"] = {"Upper Necaxa Totonac"}, ["tkv"] = {"Mur Pano"}, ["tkw"] = {"Teanu"}, ["tkx"] = {"Tangko"}, ["tkz"] = {"Takua"}, ["tla"] = {"Southwestern Tepehuan"}, ["tlb"] = {"Tobelo"}, ["tlc"] = {"Yecuatla Totonac"}, ["tld"] = {"Talaud"}, ["tlf"] = {"Telefol"}, ["tlg"] = {"Tofanma"}, ["tlh"] = {"Klingon", "tlhIngan Hol"}, ["tli"] = {"Tlingit"}, ["tlj"] = {"Talinga-Bwisi"}, ["tlk"] = {"Taloki"}, ["tll"] = {"Tetela"}, ["tlm"] = {"Tolomako"}, ["tln"] = {"Talondo'"}, ["tlo"] = {"Talodi"}, ["tlp"] = {"Filomena Mata-Coahuitlán Totonac"}, ["tlq"] = {"Tai Loi"}, ["tlr"] = {"Talise"}, ["tls"] = {"Tambotalo"}, ["tlt"] = {"Sou Nama", "Teluti"}, ["tlu"] = {"Tulehu"}, ["tlv"] = {"Taliabu"}, ["tlx"] = {"Khehek"}, ["tly"] = {"Talysh"}, ["tma"] = {"Tama (Chad)"}, ["tmb"] = {"Katbol", "Avava"}, ["tmc"] = {"Tumak"}, ["tmd"] = {"Haruai"}, ["tme"] = {"Tremembé"}, ["tmf"] = {"Toba-Maskoy"}, ["tmg"] = {"Ternateño"}, ["tmh"] = {"Tamashek"}, ["tmi"] = {"Tutuba"}, ["tmj"] = {"Samarokena"}, ["tml"] = {"Tamnim Citak"}, ["tmm"] = {"Tai Thanh"}, ["tmn"] = {"Taman (Indonesia)"}, ["tmo"] = {"Temoq"}, ["tmq"] = {"Tumleo"}, ["tmr"] = {"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)"}, ["tms"] = {"Tima"}, ["tmt"] = {"Tasmate"}, ["tmu"] = {"Iau"}, ["tmv"] = {"Tembo (Motembo)"}, ["tmw"] = {"Temuan"}, ["tmy"] = {"Tami"}, ["tmz"] = {"Tamanaku"}, ["tna"] = {"Tacana"}, ["tnb"] = {"Western Tunebo"}, ["tnc"] = {"Tanimuca-Retuarã"}, ["tnd"] = {"Angosturas Tunebo"}, ["tng"] = {"Tobanga"}, ["tnh"] = {"Maiani"}, ["tni"] = {"Tandia"}, ["tnk"] = {"Kwamera"}, ["tnl"] = {"Lenakel"}, ["tnm"] = {"Tabla"}, ["tnn"] = {"North Tanna"}, ["tno"] = {"Toromono"}, ["tnp"] = {"Whitesands"}, ["tnq"] = {"Taino"}, ["tnr"] = {"Ménik"}, ["tns"] = {"Tenis"}, ["tnt"] = {"Tontemboan"}, ["tnu"] = {"Tay Khang"}, ["tnv"] = {"Tangchangya"}, ["tnw"] = {"Tonsawang"}, ["tnx"] = {"Tanema"}, ["tny"] = {"Tongwe"}, ["tnz"] = {"Ten'edn"}, ["tob"] = {"Toba"}, ["toc"] = {"Coyutla Totonac"}, ["tod"] = {"Toma"}, ["tof"] = {"Gizrra"}, ["tog"] = {"Tonga (Nyasa)"}, ["toh"] = {"Gitonga"}, ["toi"] = {"Tonga (Zambia)"}, ["toj"] = {"Tojolabal"}, ["tok"] = {"Toki Pona"}, ["tol"] = {"Tolowa"}, ["tom"] = {"Tombulu"}, ["too"] = {"Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac"}, ["top"] = {"Papantla Totonac"}, ["toq"] = {"Toposa"}, ["tor"] = {"Togbo-Vara Banda"}, ["tos"] = {"Highland Totonac"}, ["tou"] = {"Tho"}, ["tov"] = {"Upper Taromi"}, ["tow"] = {"Jemez"}, ["tox"] = {"Tobian"}, ["toy"] = {"Topoiyo"}, ["toz"] = {"To"}, ["tpa"] = {"Taupota"}, ["tpc"] = {"Azoyú Me'phaa", "Azoyú Tlapanec"}, ["tpe"] = {"Tippera"}, ["tpf"] = {"Tarpia"}, ["tpg"] = {"Kula"}, ["tpi"] = {"Tok Pisin"}, ["tpj"] = {"Tapieté"}, ["tpk"] = {"Tupinikin"}, ["tpl"] = {"Tlacoapa Me'phaa", "Tlacoapa Tlapanec"}, ["tpm"] = {"Tampulma"}, ["tpn"] = {"Tupinambá"}, ["tpo"] = {"Tai Pao"}, ["tpp"] = {"Pisaflores Tepehua"}, ["tpq"] = {"Tukpa"}, ["tpr"] = {"Tuparí"}, ["tpt"] = {"Tlachichilco Tepehua"}, ["tpu"] = {"Tampuan"}, ["tpv"] = {"Tanapag"}, ["tpx"] = {"Acatepec Me'phaa", "Acatepec Tlapanec"}, ["tpy"] = {"Trumai"}, ["tpz"] = {"Tinputz"}, ["tqb"] = {"Tembé"}, ["tql"] = {"Lehali"}, ["tqm"] = {"Turumsa"}, ["tqn"] = {"Tenino"}, ["tqo"] = {"Toaripi"}, ["tqp"] = {"Tomoip"}, ["tqq"] = {"Tunni"}, ["tqr"] = {"Torona"}, ["tqt"] = {"Western Totonac"}, ["tqu"] = {"Touo"}, ["tqw"] = {"Tonkawa"}, ["tra"] = {"Tirahi"}, ["trb"] = {"Terebu"}, ["trc"] = {"Copala Triqui"}, ["trd"] = {"Turi"}, ["tre"] = {"East Tarangan"}, ["trf"] = {"Trinidadian Creole English"}, ["trg"] = {"Lishán Didán"}, ["trh"] = {"Turaka"}, ["tri"] = {"Trió"}, ["trj"] = {"Toram"}, ["trk"] = {"Turkic languages"}, ["trl"] = {"Traveller Scottish"}, ["trm"] = {"Tregami"}, ["trn"] = {"Trinitario"}, ["tro"] = {"Tarao Naga"}, ["trp"] = {"Kok Borok"}, ["trq"] = {"San Martín Itunyoso Triqui"}, ["trr"] = {"Taushiro"}, ["trs"] = {"Chicahuaxtla Triqui"}, ["trt"] = {"Tunggare"}, ["tru"] = {"Turoyo", "Surayt"}, ["trv"] = {"Sediq", "Seediq", "Taroko"}, ["trw"] = {"Torwali"}, ["trx"] = {"Tringgus-Sembaan Bidayuh"}, ["try"] = {"Turung"}, ["trz"] = {"Torá"}, ["tsa"] = {"Tsaangi"}, ["tsb"] = {"Tsamai"}, ["tsc"] = {"Tswa"}, ["tsd"] = {"Tsakonian"}, ["tse"] = {"Tunisian Sign Language"}, ["tsg"] = {"Tausug"}, ["tsh"] = {"Tsuvan"}, ["tsi"] = {"Tsimshian"}, ["tsj"] = {"Tshangla"}, ["tsk"] = {"Tseku"}, ["tsl"] = {"Ts'ün-Lao"}, ["tsm"] = {"Turkish Sign Language", "Türk İşaret Dili"}, ["tsp"] = {"Northern Toussian"}, ["tsq"] = {"Thai Sign Language"}, ["tsr"] = {"Akei"}, ["tss"] = {"Taiwan Sign Language"}, ["tst"] = {"Tondi Songway Kiini"}, ["tsu"] = {"Tsou"}, ["tsv"] = {"Tsogo"}, ["tsw"] = {"Tsishingini"}, ["tsx"] = {"Mubami"}, ["tsy"] = {"Tebul Sign Language"}, ["tsz"] = {"Purepecha"}, ["tta"] = {"Tutelo"}, ["ttb"] = {"Gaa"}, ["ttc"] = {"Tektiteko"}, ["ttd"] = {"Tauade"}, ["tte"] = {"Bwanabwana"}, ["ttf"] = {"Tuotomb"}, ["ttg"] = {"Tutong"}, ["tth"] = {"Upper Ta'oih"}, ["tti"] = {"Tobati"}, ["ttj"] = {"Tooro"}, ["ttk"] = {"Totoro"}, ["ttl"] = {"Totela"}, ["ttm"] = {"Northern Tutchone"}, ["ttn"] = {"Towei"}, ["tto"] = {"Lower Ta'oih"}, ["ttp"] = {"Tombelala"}, ["ttq"] = {"Tawallammat Tamajaq"}, ["ttr"] = {"Tera"}, ["tts"] = {"Northeastern Thai"}, ["ttt"] = {"Muslim Tat"}, ["ttu"] = {"Torau"}, ["ttv"] = {"Titan"}, ["ttw"] = {"Long Wat"}, ["tty"] = {"Sikaritai"}, ["ttz"] = {"Tsum"}, ["tua"] = {"Wiarumus"}, ["tub"] = {"Tübatulabal"}, ["tuc"] = {"Mutu"}, ["tud"] = {"Tuxá"}, ["tue"] = {"Tuyuca"}, ["tuf"] = {"Central Tunebo"}, ["tug"] = {"Tunia"}, ["tuh"] = {"Taulil"}, ["tui"] = {"Tupuri"}, ["tuj"] = {"Tugutil"}, ["tul"] = {"Tula"}, ["tum"] = {"Tumbuka"}, ["tun"] = {"Tunica"}, ["tuo"] = {"Tucano"}, ["tup"] = {"Tupi languages"}, ["tuq"] = {"Tedaga"}, ["tus"] = {"Tuscarora"}, ["tut"] = {"Altaic languages"}, ["tuu"] = {"Tututni"}, ["tuv"] = {"Turkana"}, ["tuw"] = {"Tungus languages"}, ["tux"] = {"Tuxináwa"}, ["tuy"] = {"Tugen"}, ["tuz"] = {"Turka"}, ["tva"] = {"Vaghua"}, ["tvd"] = {"Tsuvadi"}, ["tve"] = {"Te'un"}, ["tvg"] = {"Tugunese", "Batavian Portuguese Creole", "Mardijker Creole"}, ["tvi"] = {"Tulai"}, ["tvk"] = {"Southeast Ambrym"}, ["tvl"] = {"Tuvalu"}, ["tvm"] = {"Tela-Masbuar"}, ["tvn"] = {"Tavoyan"}, ["tvo"] = {"Tidore"}, ["tvs"] = {"Taveta"}, ["tvt"] = {"Tutsa Naga"}, ["tvu"] = {"Tunen"}, ["tvw"] = {"Sedoa"}, ["tvx"] = {"Taivoan"}, ["tvy"] = {"Timor Pidgin"}, ["twa"] = {"Twana"}, ["twb"] = {"Western Tawbuid"}, ["twc"] = {"Teshenawa"}, ["twd"] = {"Twents"}, ["twe"] = {"Tewa (Indonesia)"}, ["twf"] = {"Northern Tiwa"}, ["twg"] = {"Tereweng"}, ["twh"] = {"Tai Dón"}, ["twl"] = {"Tawara"}, ["twm"] = {"Tawang Monpa"}, ["twn"] = {"Twendi"}, ["two"] = {"Tswapong"}, ["twp"] = {"Ere"}, ["twq"] = {"Tasawaq"}, ["twr"] = {"Southwestern Tarahumara"}, ["twt"] = {"Turiwára"}, ["twu"] = {"Termanu"}, ["tww"] = {"Tuwari"}, ["twx"] = {"Tewe"}, ["twy"] = {"Tawoyan"}, ["txa"] = {"Tombonuo"}, ["txb"] = {"Tokharian B"}, ["txc"] = {"Tsetsaut"}, ["txe"] = {"Totoli"}, ["txg"] = {"Tangut"}, ["txh"] = {"Thracian"}, ["txi"] = {"Ikpeng"}, ["txj"] = {"Tarjumo"}, ["txm"] = {"Tomini"}, ["txn"] = {"West Tarangan"}, ["txo"] = {"Toto"}, ["txq"] = {"Tii"}, ["txr"] = {"Tartessian"}, ["txs"] = {"Tonsea"}, ["txt"] = {"Citak"}, ["txu"] = {"Kayapó"}, ["txx"] = {"Tatana"}, ["txy"] = {"Tanosy Malagasy"}, ["tya"] = {"Tauya"}, ["tye"] = {"Kyanga"}, ["tyh"] = {"O'du"}, ["tyi"] = {"Teke-Tsaayi"}, ["tyj"] = {"Tai Do", "Tai Yo"}, ["tyl"] = {"Thu Lao"}, ["tyn"] = {"Kombai"}, ["typ"] = {"Thaypan"}, ["tyr"] = {"Tai Daeng"}, ["tys"] = {"Tày Sa Pa"}, ["tyt"] = {"Tày Tac"}, ["tyu"] = {"Kua"}, ["tyv"] = {"Tuvinian"}, ["tyx"] = {"Teke-Tyee"}, ["tyy"] = {"Tiyaa"}, ["tyz"] = {"Tày"}, ["tza"] = {"Tanzanian Sign Language"}, ["tzh"] = {"Tzeltal"}, ["tzj"] = {"Tz'utujil"}, ["tzl"] = {"Talossan"}, ["tzm"] = {"Central Atlas Tamazight"}, ["tzn"] = {"Tugun"}, ["tzo"] = {"Tzotzil"}, ["tzx"] = {"Tabriak"}, ["uam"] = {"Uamué"}, ["uan"] = {"Kuan"}, ["uar"] = {"Tairuma"}, ["uba"] = {"Ubang"}, ["ubi"] = {"Ubi"}, ["ubl"] = {"Buhi'non Bikol"}, ["ubr"] = {"Ubir"}, ["ubu"] = {"Umbu-Ungu"}, ["uby"] = {"Ubykh"}, ["uda"] = {"Uda"}, ["ude"] = {"Udihe"}, ["udg"] = {"Muduga"}, ["udi"] = {"Udi"}, ["udj"] = {"Ujir"}, ["udl"] = {"Wuzlam"}, ["udm"] = {"Udmurt"}, ["udu"] = {"Uduk"}, ["ues"] = {"Kioko"}, ["ufi"] = {"Ufim"}, ["uga"] = {"Ugaritic"}, ["ugb"] = {"Kuku-Ugbanh"}, ["uge"] = {"Ughele"}, ["ugh"] = {"Kubachi"}, ["ugn"] = {"Ugandan Sign Language"}, ["ugo"] = {"Ugong"}, ["ugy"] = {"Uruguayan Sign Language"}, ["uha"] = {"Uhami"}, ["uhn"] = {"Damal"}, ["uis"] = {"Uisai"}, ["uiv"] = {"Iyive"}, ["uji"] = {"Tanjijili"}, ["uka"] = {"Kaburi"}, ["ukg"] = {"Ukuriguma"}, ["ukh"] = {"Ukhwejo"}, ["uki"] = {"Kui (India)"}, ["ukk"] = {"Muak Sa-aak"}, ["ukl"] = {"Ukrainian Sign Language"}, ["ukp"] = {"Ukpe-Bayobiri"}, ["ukq"] = {"Ukwa"}, ["uks"] = {"Urubú-Kaapor Sign Language", "Kaapor Sign Language"}, ["uku"] = {"Ukue"}, ["ukv"] = {"Kuku"}, ["ukw"] = {"Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni"}, ["uky"] = {"Kuuk-Yak"}, ["ula"] = {"Fungwa"}, ["ulb"] = {"Ulukwumi"}, ["ulc"] = {"Ulch"}, ["ule"] = {"Lule"}, ["ulf"] = {"Usku", "Afra"}, ["uli"] = {"Ulithian"}, ["ulk"] = {"Meriam Mir"}, ["ull"] = {"Ullatan"}, ["ulm"] = {"Ulumanda'"}, ["uln"] = {"Unserdeutsch"}, ["ulu"] = {"Uma' Lung"}, ["ulw"] = {"Ulwa"}, ["uly"] = {"Buli"}, ["uma"] = {"Umatilla"}, ["umb"] = {"Umbundu"}, ["umc"] = {"Marrucinian"}, ["umd"] = {"Umbindhamu"}, ["umg"] = {"Morrobalama", "Umbuygamu"}, ["umi"] = {"Ukit"}, ["umm"] = {"Umon"}, ["umn"] = {"Makyan Naga"}, ["umo"] = {"Umotína"}, ["ump"] = {"Umpila"}, ["umr"] = {"Umbugarla"}, ["ums"] = {"Pendau"}, ["umu"] = {"Munsee"}, ["una"] = {"North Watut"}, ["und"] = {"Undetermined"}, ["une"] = {"Uneme"}, ["ung"] = {"Ngarinyin"}, ["uni"] = {"Uni"}, ["unk"] = {"Enawené-Nawé"}, ["unm"] = {"Unami"}, ["unn"] = {"Kurnai"}, ["unr"] = {"Mundari"}, ["unu"] = {"Unubahe"}, ["unx"] = {"Munda"}, ["unz"] = {"Unde Kaili"}, ["uon"] = {"Kulon"}, ["upi"] = {"Umeda"}, ["upv"] = {"Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin"}, ["ura"] = {"Urarina"}, ["urb"] = {"Urubú-Kaapor", "Kaapor"}, ["urc"] = {"Urningangg"}, ["ure"] = {"Uru"}, ["urf"] = {"Uradhi"}, ["urg"] = {"Urigina"}, ["urh"] = {"Urhobo"}, ["uri"] = {"Urim"}, ["urj"] = {"Uralic languages"}, ["urk"] = {"Urak Lawoi'"}, ["url"] = {"Urali"}, ["urm"] = {"Urapmin"}, ["urn"] = {"Uruangnirin"}, ["uro"] = {"Ura (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["urp"] = {"Uru-Pa-In"}, ["urr"] = {"Lehalurup", "Löyöp"}, ["urt"] = {"Urat"}, ["uru"] = {"Urumi"}, ["urv"] = {"Uruava"}, ["urw"] = {"Sop"}, ["urx"] = {"Urimo"}, ["ury"] = {"Orya"}, ["urz"] = {"Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau"}, ["usa"] = {"Usarufa"}, ["ush"] = {"Ushojo"}, ["usi"] = {"Usui"}, ["usk"] = {"Usaghade"}, ["usp"] = {"Uspanteco"}, ["uss"] = {"us-Saare"}, ["usu"] = {"Uya"}, ["uta"] = {"Otank"}, ["ute"] = {"Ute-Southern Paiute"}, ["uth"] = {"ut-Hun"}, ["utp"] = {"Amba (Solomon Islands)"}, ["utr"] = {"Etulo"}, ["utu"] = {"Utu"}, ["uum"] = {"Urum"}, ["uur"] = {"Ura (Vanuatu)"}, ["uuu"] = {"U"}, ["uve"] = {"West Uvean", "Fagauvea"}, ["uvh"] = {"Uri"}, ["uvl"] = {"Lote"}, ["uwa"] = {"Kuku-Uwanh"}, ["uya"] = {"Doko-Uyanga"}, ["uzn"] = {"Northern Uzbek"}, ["uzs"] = {"Southern Uzbek"}, ["vaa"] = {"Vaagri Booli"}, ["vae"] = {"Vale"}, ["vaf"] = {"Vafsi"}, ["vag"] = {"Vagla"}, ["vah"] = {"Varhadi-Nagpuri"}, ["vai"] = {"Vai"}, ["vaj"] = {"Sekele", "Northwestern ǃKung", "Vasekele"}, ["val"] = {"Vehes"}, ["vam"] = {"Vanimo"}, ["van"] = {"Valman"}, ["vao"] = {"Vao"}, ["vap"] = {"Vaiphei"}, ["var"] = {"Huarijio"}, ["vas"] = {"Vasavi"}, ["vau"] = {"Vanuma"}, ["vav"] = {"Varli"}, ["vay"] = {"Wayu"}, ["vbb"] = {"Southeast Babar"}, ["vbk"] = {"Southwestern Bontok"}, ["vec"] = {"Venetian"}, ["ved"] = {"Veddah"}, ["vel"] = {"Veluws"}, ["vem"] = {"Vemgo-Mabas"}, ["veo"] = {"Ventureño"}, ["vep"] = {"Veps"}, ["ver"] = {"Mom Jango"}, ["vgr"] = {"Vaghri"}, ["vgt"] = {"Vlaamse Gebarentaal", "Flemish Sign Language"}, ["vic"] = {"Virgin Islands Creole English"}, ["vid"] = {"Vidunda"}, ["vif"] = {"Vili"}, ["vig"] = {"Viemo"}, ["vil"] = {"Vilela"}, ["vin"] = {"Vinza"}, ["vis"] = {"Vishavan"}, ["vit"] = {"Viti"}, ["viv"] = {"Iduna"}, ["vjk"] = {"Bajjika"}, ["vka"] = {"Kariyarra"}, ["vkj"] = {"Kujarge"}, ["vkk"] = {"Kaur"}, ["vkl"] = {"Kulisusu"}, ["vkm"] = {"Kamakan"}, ["vkn"] = {"Koro Nulu"}, ["vko"] = {"Kodeoha"}, ["vkp"] = {"Korlai Creole Portuguese"}, ["vkt"] = {"Tenggarong Kutai Malay"}, ["vku"] = {"Kurrama"}, ["vkz"] = {"Koro Zuba"}, ["vlp"] = {"Valpei"}, ["vls"] = {"Vlaams"}, ["vma"] = {"Martuyhunira"}, ["vmb"] = {"Barbaram"}, ["vmc"] = {"Juxtlahuaca Mixtec"}, ["vmd"] = {"Mudu Koraga"}, ["vme"] = {"East Masela"}, ["vmf"] = {"Mainfränkisch"}, ["vmg"] = {"Lungalunga"}, ["vmh"] = {"Maraghei"}, ["vmi"] = {"Miwa"}, ["vmj"] = {"Ixtayutla Mixtec"}, ["vmk"] = {"Makhuwa-Shirima"}, ["vml"] = {"Malgana"}, ["vmm"] = {"Mitlatongo Mixtec"}, ["vmp"] = {"Soyaltepec Mazatec"}, ["vmq"] = {"Soyaltepec Mixtec"}, ["vmr"] = {"Marenje"}, ["vms"] = {"Moksela"}, ["vmu"] = {"Muluridyi"}, ["vmv"] = {"Valley Maidu"}, ["vmw"] = {"Makhuwa"}, ["vmx"] = {"Tamazola Mixtec"}, ["vmy"] = {"Ayautla Mazatec"}, ["vmz"] = {"Mazatlán Mazatec"}, ["vnk"] = {"Vano", "Lovono"}, ["vnm"] = {"Vinmavis", "Neve'ei"}, ["vnp"] = {"Vunapu"}, ["vor"] = {"Voro"}, ["vot"] = {"Votic"}, ["vra"] = {"Vera'a"}, ["vro"] = {"Võro"}, ["vrs"] = {"Varisi"}, ["vrt"] = {"Burmbar", "Banam Bay"}, ["vsi"] = {"Moldova Sign Language"}, ["vsl"] = {"Venezuelan Sign Language"}, ["vsn"] = {"Vedic Sanskrit"}, ["vsv"] = {"Valencian Sign Language", "Llengua de signes valenciana"}, ["vto"] = {"Vitou"}, ["vum"] = {"Vumbu"}, ["vun"] = {"Vunjo"}, ["vut"] = {"Vute"}, ["vwa"] = {"Awa (China)"}, ["waa"] = {"Walla Walla"}, ["wab"] = {"Yote", "Wab"}, ["wac"] = {"Wasco-Wishram"}, ["wad"] = {"Wamesa", "Wondama"}, ["wae"] = {"Walser"}, ["waf"] = {"Wakoná"}, ["wag"] = {"Wa'ema"}, ["wah"] = {"Watubela"}, ["wai"] = {"Wares"}, ["waj"] = {"Waffa"}, ["wak"] = {"Wakashan languages"}, ["wal"] = {"Wolaytta", "Wolaitta"}, ["wam"] = {"Wampanoag"}, ["wan"] = {"Wan"}, ["wao"] = {"Wappo"}, ["wap"] = {"Wapishana"}, ["waq"] = {"Wagiman"}, ["war"] = {"Waray (Philippines)"}, ["was"] = {"Washo"}, ["wat"] = {"Kaninuwa"}, ["wau"] = {"Waurá"}, ["wav"] = {"Waka"}, ["waw"] = {"Waiwai"}, ["wax"] = {"Watam", "Marangis"}, ["way"] = {"Wayana"}, ["waz"] = {"Wampur"}, ["wba"] = {"Warao"}, ["wbb"] = {"Wabo"}, ["wbe"] = {"Waritai"}, ["wbf"] = {"Wara"}, ["wbh"] = {"Wanda"}, ["wbi"] = {"Vwanji"}, ["wbj"] = {"Alagwa"}, ["wbk"] = {"Waigali"}, ["wbl"] = {"Wakhi"}, ["wbm"] = {"Wa"}, ["wbp"] = {"Warlpiri"}, ["wbq"] = {"Waddar"}, ["wbr"] = {"Wagdi"}, ["wbs"] = {"West Bengal Sign Language"}, ["wbt"] = {"Warnman"}, ["wbv"] = {"Wajarri"}, ["wbw"] = {"Woi"}, ["wca"] = {"Yanomámi"}, ["wci"] = {"Waci Gbe"}, ["wdd"] = {"Wandji"}, ["wdg"] = {"Wadaginam"}, ["wdj"] = {"Wadjiginy"}, ["wdk"] = {"Wadikali"}, ["wdt"] = {"Wendat"}, ["wdu"] = {"Wadjigu"}, ["wdy"] = {"Wadjabangayi"}, ["wea"] = {"Wewaw"}, ["wec"] = {"Wè Western"}, ["wed"] = {"Wedau"}, ["weg"] = {"Wergaia"}, ["weh"] = {"Weh"}, ["wei"] = {"Kiunum"}, ["wem"] = {"Weme Gbe"}, ["wen"] = {"Sorbian languages"}, ["weo"] = {"Wemale"}, ["wep"] = {"Westphalien"}, ["wer"] = {"Weri"}, ["wes"] = {"Cameroon Pidgin"}, ["wet"] = {"Perai"}, ["weu"] = {"Rawngtu Chin"}, ["wew"] = {"Wejewa"}, ["wfg"] = {"Yafi", "Zorop"}, ["wga"] = {"Wagaya"}, ["wgb"] = {"Wagawaga"}, ["wgg"] = {"Wangkangurru", "Wangganguru"}, ["wgi"] = {"Wahgi"}, ["wgo"] = {"Waigeo"}, ["wgu"] = {"Wirangu"}, ["wgy"] = {"Warrgamay"}, ["wha"] = {"Sou Upaa", "Manusela"}, ["whg"] = {"North Wahgi"}, ["whk"] = {"Wahau Kenyah"}, ["whu"] = {"Wahau Kayan"}, ["wib"] = {"Southern Toussian"}, ["wic"] = {"Wichita"}, ["wie"] = {"Wik-Epa"}, ["wif"] = {"Wik-Keyangan"}, ["wig"] = {"Wik Ngathan"}, ["wih"] = {"Wik-Me'anha"}, ["wii"] = {"Minidien"}, ["wij"] = {"Wik-Iiyanh"}, ["wik"] = {"Wikalkan"}, ["wil"] = {"Wilawila"}, ["wim"] = {"Wik-Mungkan"}, ["win"] = {"Ho-Chunk"}, ["wir"] = {"Wiraféd"}, ["wiu"] = {"Wiru"}, ["wiv"] = {"Vitu"}, ["wiy"] = {"Wiyot"}, ["wja"] = {"Waja"}, ["wji"] = {"Warji"}, ["wka"] = {"Kw'adza"}, ["wkb"] = {"Kumbaran"}, ["wkd"] = {"Wakde", "Mo"}, ["wkl"] = {"Kalanadi"}, ["wkr"] = {"Keerray-Woorroong"}, ["wku"] = {"Kunduvadi"}, ["wkw"] = {"Wakawaka"}, ["wky"] = {"Wangkayutyuru"}, ["wla"] = {"Walio"}, ["wlc"] = {"Mwali Comorian"}, ["wle"] = {"Wolane"}, ["wlg"] = {"Kunbarlang"}, ["wlh"] = {"Welaun"}, ["wli"] = {"Waioli"}, ["wlk"] = {"Wailaki"}, ["wll"] = {"Wali (Sudan)"}, ["wlm"] = {"Middle Welsh"}, ["wlo"] = {"Wolio"}, ["wlr"] = {"Wailapa"}, ["wls"] = {"Wallisian"}, ["wlu"] = {"Wuliwuli"}, ["wlv"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Vejoz"}, ["wlw"] = {"Walak"}, ["wlx"] = {"Wali (Ghana)"}, ["wly"] = {"Waling"}, ["wma"] = {"Mawa (Nigeria)"}, ["wmb"] = {"Wambaya"}, ["wmc"] = {"Wamas"}, ["wmd"] = {"Mamaindé"}, ["wme"] = {"Wambule"}, ["wmg"] = {"Western Minyag"}, ["wmh"] = {"Waima'a"}, ["wmi"] = {"Wamin"}, ["wmm"] = {"Maiwa (Indonesia)"}, ["wmn"] = {"Waamwang"}, ["wmo"] = {"Wom (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["wms"] = {"Wambon"}, ["wmt"] = {"Walmajarri"}, ["wmw"] = {"Mwani"}, ["wmx"] = {"Womo"}, ["wnb"] = {"Mokati"}, ["wnc"] = {"Wantoat"}, ["wnd"] = {"Wandarang"}, ["wne"] = {"Waneci"}, ["wng"] = {"Wanggom"}, ["wni"] = {"Ndzwani Comorian"}, ["wnk"] = {"Wanukaka"}, ["wnm"] = {"Wanggamala"}, ["wnn"] = {"Wunumara"}, ["wno"] = {"Wano"}, ["wnp"] = {"Wanap"}, ["wnu"] = {"Usan"}, ["wnw"] = {"Wintu"}, ["wny"] = {"Wanyi", "Waanyi"}, ["woa"] = {"Kuwema", "Tyaraity"}, ["wob"] = {"Wè Northern"}, ["woc"] = {"Wogeo"}, ["wod"] = {"Wolani"}, ["woe"] = {"Woleaian"}, ["wof"] = {"Gambian Wolof"}, ["wog"] = {"Wogamusin"}, ["woi"] = {"Kamang"}, ["wok"] = {"Longto"}, ["wom"] = {"Wom (Nigeria)"}, ["won"] = {"Wongo"}, ["woo"] = {"Manombai"}, ["wor"] = {"Woria"}, ["wos"] = {"Hanga Hundi"}, ["wow"] = {"Wawonii"}, ["woy"] = {"Weyto"}, ["wpc"] = {"Maco"}, ["wrb"] = {"Waluwarra", "Warluwara"}, ["wrg"] = {"Warungu", "Gudjal"}, ["wrh"] = {"Wiradjuri"}, ["wri"] = {"Wariyangga"}, ["wrk"] = {"Garrwa"}, ["wrl"] = {"Warlmanpa"}, ["wrm"] = {"Warumungu"}, ["wrn"] = {"Warnang"}, ["wro"] = {"Worrorra"}, ["wrp"] = {"Waropen"}, ["wrr"] = {"Wardaman"}, ["wrs"] = {"Waris"}, ["wru"] = {"Waru"}, ["wrv"] = {"Waruna"}, ["wrw"] = {"Gugu Warra"}, ["wrx"] = {"Wae Rana"}, ["wry"] = {"Merwari"}, ["wrz"] = {"Waray (Australia)"}, ["wsa"] = {"Warembori"}, ["wsg"] = {"Adilabad Gondi"}, ["wsi"] = {"Wusi"}, ["wsk"] = {"Waskia"}, ["wsr"] = {"Owenia"}, ["wss"] = {"Wasa"}, ["wsu"] = {"Wasu"}, ["wsv"] = {"Wotapuri-Katarqalai"}, ["wtb"] = {"Matambwe"}, ["wtf"] = {"Watiwa"}, ["wth"] = {"Wathawurrung"}, ["wti"] = {"Berta"}, ["wtk"] = {"Watakataui"}, ["wtm"] = {"Mewati"}, ["wtw"] = {"Wotu"}, ["wua"] = {"Wikngenchera"}, ["wub"] = {"Wunambal"}, ["wud"] = {"Wudu"}, ["wuh"] = {"Wutunhua"}, ["wul"] = {"Silimo"}, ["wum"] = {"Wumbvu"}, ["wun"] = {"Bungu"}, ["wur"] = {"Wurrugu"}, ["wut"] = {"Wutung"}, ["wuu"] = {"Wu Chinese"}, ["wuv"] = {"Wuvulu-Aua"}, ["wux"] = {"Wulna"}, ["wuy"] = {"Wauyai"}, ["wwa"] = {"Waama"}, ["wwb"] = {"Wakabunga"}, ["wwo"] = {"Wetamut", "Dorig"}, ["wwr"] = {"Warrwa"}, ["www"] = {"Wawa"}, ["wxa"] = {"Waxianghua"}, ["wxw"] = {"Wardandi"}, ["wyb"] = {"Wangaaybuwan-Ngiyambaa"}, ["wyi"] = {"Woiwurrung"}, ["wym"] = {"Wymysorys"}, ["wyn"] = {"Wyandot"}, ["wyr"] = {"Wayoró"}, ["wyy"] = {"Western Fijian"}, ["xaa"] = {"Andalusian Arabic"}, ["xab"] = {"Sambe"}, ["xac"] = {"Kachari"}, ["xad"] = {"Adai"}, ["xae"] = {"Aequian"}, ["xag"] = {"Aghwan"}, ["xai"] = {"Kaimbé"}, ["xaj"] = {"Ararandewára"}, ["xak"] = {"Máku"}, ["xal"] = {"Kalmyk", "Oirat"}, ["xam"] = {"ǀXam"}, ["xan"] = {"Xamtanga"}, ["xao"] = {"Khao"}, ["xap"] = {"Apalachee"}, ["xaq"] = {"Aquitanian"}, ["xar"] = {"Karami"}, ["xas"] = {"Kamas"}, ["xat"] = {"Katawixi"}, ["xau"] = {"Kauwera"}, ["xav"] = {"Xavánte"}, ["xaw"] = {"Kawaiisu"}, ["xay"] = {"Kayan Mahakam"}, ["xbb"] = {"Lower Burdekin"}, ["xbc"] = {"Bactrian"}, ["xbd"] = {"Bindal"}, ["xbe"] = {"Bigambal"}, ["xbg"] = {"Bunganditj"}, ["xbi"] = {"Kombio"}, ["xbj"] = {"Birrpayi"}, ["xbm"] = {"Middle Breton"}, ["xbn"] = {"Kenaboi"}, ["xbo"] = {"Bolgarian"}, ["xbp"] = {"Bibbulman"}, ["xbr"] = {"Kambera"}, ["xbw"] = {"Kambiwá"}, ["xby"] = {"Batjala", "Batyala"}, ["xcb"] = {"Cumbric"}, ["xcc"] = {"Camunic"}, ["xce"] = {"Celtiberian"}, ["xcg"] = {"Cisalpine Gaulish"}, ["xch"] = {"Chemakum", "Chimakum"}, ["xcl"] = {"Classical Armenian"}, ["xcm"] = {"Comecrudo"}, ["xcn"] = {"Cotoname"}, ["xco"] = {"Chorasmian"}, ["xcr"] = {"Carian"}, ["xct"] = {"Classical Tibetan"}, ["xcu"] = {"Curonian"}, ["xcv"] = {"Chuvantsy"}, ["xcw"] = {"Coahuilteco"}, ["xcy"] = {"Cayuse"}, ["xda"] = {"Darkinyung"}, ["xdc"] = {"Dacian"}, ["xdk"] = {"Dharuk"}, ["xdm"] = {"Edomite"}, ["xdo"] = {"Kwandu"}, ["xdq"] = {"Kaitag"}, ["xdy"] = {"Malayic Dayak"}, ["xeb"] = {"Eblan"}, ["xed"] = {"Hdi"}, ["xeg"] = {"ǁXegwi"}, ["xel"] = {"Kelo"}, ["xem"] = {"Kembayan"}, ["xep"] = {"Epi-Olmec"}, ["xer"] = {"Xerénte"}, ["xes"] = {"Kesawai"}, ["xet"] = {"Xetá"}, ["xeu"] = {"Keoru-Ahia"}, ["xfa"] = {"Faliscan"}, ["xga"] = {"Galatian"}, ["xgb"] = {"Gbin"}, ["xgd"] = {"Gudang"}, ["xgf"] = {"Gabrielino-Fernandeño"}, ["xgg"] = {"Goreng"}, ["xgi"] = {"Garingbal"}, ["xgl"] = {"Galindan"}, ["xgm"] = {"Dharumbal", "Guwinmal"}, ["xgn"] = {"Mongolian languages"}, ["xgr"] = {"Garza"}, ["xgu"] = {"Unggumi"}, ["xgw"] = {"Guwa"}, ["xha"] = {"Harami"}, ["xhc"] = {"Hunnic"}, ["xhd"] = {"Hadrami"}, ["xhe"] = {"Khetrani"}, ["xhm"] = {"Middle Khmer (1400 to 1850 CE)"}, ["xhr"] = {"Hernican"}, ["xht"] = {"Hattic"}, ["xhu"] = {"Hurrian"}, ["xhv"] = {"Khua"}, ["xib"] = {"Iberian"}, ["xii"] = {"Xiri"}, ["xil"] = {"Illyrian"}, ["xin"] = {"Xinca"}, ["xir"] = {"Xiriâna"}, ["xis"] = {"Kisan"}, ["xiv"] = {"Indus Valley Language"}, ["xiy"] = {"Xipaya"}, ["xjb"] = {"Minjungbal"}, ["xjt"] = {"Jaitmatang"}, ["xka"] = {"Kalkoti"}, ["xkb"] = {"Northern Nago"}, ["xkc"] = {"Kho'ini"}, ["xkd"] = {"Mendalam Kayan"}, ["xke"] = {"Kereho"}, ["xkf"] = {"Khengkha"}, ["xkg"] = {"Kagoro"}, ["xki"] = {"Kenyan Sign Language"}, ["xkj"] = {"Kajali"}, ["xkk"] = {"Kachok", "Kaco'"}, ["xkl"] = {"Mainstream Kenyah"}, ["xkn"] = {"Kayan River Kayan"}, ["xko"] = {"Kiorr"}, ["xkp"] = {"Kabatei"}, ["xkq"] = {"Koroni"}, ["xkr"] = {"Xakriabá"}, ["xks"] = {"Kumbewaha"}, ["xkt"] = {"Kantosi"}, ["xku"] = {"Kaamba"}, ["xkv"] = {"Kgalagadi"}, ["xkw"] = {"Kembra"}, ["xkx"] = {"Karore"}, ["xky"] = {"Uma' Lasan"}, ["xkz"] = {"Kurtokha"}, ["xla"] = {"Kamula"}, ["xlb"] = {"Loup B"}, ["xlc"] = {"Lycian"}, ["xld"] = {"Lydian"}, ["xle"] = {"Lemnian"}, ["xlg"] = {"Ligurian (Ancient)"}, ["xli"] = {"Liburnian"}, ["xln"] = {"Alanic"}, ["xlo"] = {"Loup A"}, ["xlp"] = {"Lepontic"}, ["xls"] = {"Lusitanian"}, ["xlu"] = {"Cuneiform Luwian"}, ["xly"] = {"Elymian"}, ["xma"] = {"Mushungulu"}, ["xmb"] = {"Mbonga"}, ["xmc"] = {"Makhuwa-Marrevone"}, ["xmd"] = {"Mbudum"}, ["xme"] = {"Median"}, ["xmf"] = {"Mingrelian"}, ["xmg"] = {"Mengaka"}, ["xmh"] = {"Kugu-Muminh"}, ["xmj"] = {"Majera"}, ["xmk"] = {"Ancient Macedonian"}, ["xml"] = {"Malaysian Sign Language"}, ["xmm"] = {"Manado Malay"}, ["xmn"] = {"Manichaean Middle Persian"}, ["xmo"] = {"Morerebi"}, ["xmp"] = {"Kuku-Mu'inh"}, ["xmq"] = {"Kuku-Mangk"}, ["xmr"] = {"Meroitic"}, ["xms"] = {"Moroccan Sign Language"}, ["xmt"] = {"Matbat"}, ["xmu"] = {"Kamu"}, ["xmv"] = {"Antankarana Malagasy", "Tankarana Malagasy"}, ["xmw"] = {"Tsimihety Malagasy"}, ["xmx"] = {"Salawati", "Maden"}, ["xmy"] = {"Mayaguduna"}, ["xmz"] = {"Mori Bawah"}, ["xna"] = {"Ancient North Arabian"}, ["xnb"] = {"Kanakanabu"}, ["xnd"] = {"Na-Dene languages"}, ["xng"] = {"Middle Mongolian"}, ["xnh"] = {"Kuanhua"}, ["xni"] = {"Ngarigu"}, ["xnj"] = {"Ngoni (Tanzania)"}, ["xnk"] = {"Nganakarti"}, ["xnm"] = {"Ngumbarl"}, ["xnn"] = {"Northern Kankanay"}, ["xno"] = {"Anglo-Norman"}, ["xnq"] = {"Ngoni (Mozambique)"}, ["xnr"] = {"Kangri"}, ["xns"] = {"Kanashi"}, ["xnt"] = {"Narragansett"}, ["xnu"] = {"Nukunul"}, ["xny"] = {"Nyiyaparli"}, ["xnz"] = {"Kenzi", "Mattoki"}, ["xoc"] = {"O'chi'chi'"}, ["xod"] = {"Kokoda"}, ["xog"] = {"Soga"}, ["xoi"] = {"Kominimung"}, ["xok"] = {"Xokleng"}, ["xom"] = {"Komo (Sudan)"}, ["xon"] = {"Konkomba"}, ["xoo"] = {"Xukurú"}, ["xop"] = {"Kopar"}, ["xor"] = {"Korubo"}, ["xow"] = {"Kowaki"}, ["xpa"] = {"Pirriya"}, ["xpb"] = {"Northeastern Tasmanian", "Pyemmairrener"}, ["xpc"] = {"Pecheneg"}, ["xpd"] = {"Oyster Bay Tasmanian"}, ["xpe"] = {"Liberia Kpelle"}, ["xpf"] = {"Southeast Tasmanian", "Nuenonne"}, ["xpg"] = {"Phrygian"}, ["xph"] = {"North Midlands Tasmanian", "Tyerrenoterpanner"}, ["xpi"] = {"Pictish"}, ["xpj"] = {"Mpalitjanh"}, ["xpk"] = {"Kulina Pano"}, ["xpl"] = {"Port Sorell Tasmanian"}, ["xpm"] = {"Pumpokol"}, ["xpn"] = {"Kapinawá"}, ["xpo"] = {"Pochutec"}, ["xpp"] = {"Puyo-Paekche"}, ["xpq"] = {"Mohegan-Pequot"}, ["xpr"] = {"Parthian"}, ["xps"] = {"Pisidian"}, ["xpt"] = {"Punthamara"}, ["xpu"] = {"Punic"}, ["xpv"] = {"Northern Tasmanian", "Tommeginne"}, ["xpw"] = {"Northwestern Tasmanian", "Peerapper"}, ["xpx"] = {"Southwestern Tasmanian", "Toogee"}, ["xpy"] = {"Puyo"}, ["xpz"] = {"Bruny Island Tasmanian"}, ["xqa"] = {"Karakhanid"}, ["xqt"] = {"Qatabanian"}, ["xra"] = {"Krahô"}, ["xrb"] = {"Eastern Karaboro"}, ["xrd"] = {"Gundungurra"}, ["xre"] = {"Kreye"}, ["xrg"] = {"Minang"}, ["xri"] = {"Krikati-Timbira"}, ["xrm"] = {"Armazic"}, ["xrn"] = {"Arin"}, ["xrr"] = {"Raetic"}, ["xrt"] = {"Aranama-Tamique"}, ["xru"] = {"Marriammu"}, ["xrw"] = {"Karawa"}, ["xsa"] = {"Sabaean"}, ["xsb"] = {"Sambal"}, ["xsc"] = {"Scythian"}, ["xsd"] = {"Sidetic"}, ["xse"] = {"Sempan"}, ["xsh"] = {"Shamang"}, ["xsi"] = {"Sio"}, ["xsj"] = {"Subi"}, ["xsl"] = {"South Slavey"}, ["xsm"] = {"Kasem"}, ["xsn"] = {"Sanga (Nigeria)"}, ["xso"] = {"Solano"}, ["xsp"] = {"Silopi"}, ["xsq"] = {"Makhuwa-Saka"}, ["xsr"] = {"Sherpa"}, ["xsu"] = {"Sanumá"}, ["xsv"] = {"Sudovian"}, ["xsy"] = {"Saisiyat"}, ["xta"] = {"Alcozauca Mixtec"}, ["xtb"] = {"Chazumba Mixtec"}, ["xtc"] = {"Katcha-Kadugli-Miri"}, ["xtd"] = {"Diuxi-Tilantongo Mixtec"}, ["xte"] = {"Ketengban"}, ["xtg"] = {"Transalpine Gaulish"}, ["xth"] = {"Yitha Yitha"}, ["xti"] = {"Sinicahua Mixtec"}, ["xtj"] = {"San Juan Teita Mixtec"}, ["xtl"] = {"Tijaltepec Mixtec"}, ["xtm"] = {"Magdalena Peñasco Mixtec"}, ["xtn"] = {"Northern Tlaxiaco Mixtec"}, ["xto"] = {"Tokharian A"}, ["xtp"] = {"San Miguel Piedras Mixtec"}, ["xtq"] = {"Tumshuqese"}, ["xtr"] = {"Early Tripuri"}, ["xts"] = {"Sindihui Mixtec"}, ["xtt"] = {"Tacahua Mixtec"}, ["xtu"] = {"Cuyamecalco Mixtec"}, ["xtv"] = {"Thawa"}, ["xtw"] = {"Tawandê"}, ["xty"] = {"Yoloxochitl Mixtec"}, ["xua"] = {"Alu Kurumba"}, ["xub"] = {"Betta Kurumba"}, ["xud"] = {"Umiida"}, ["xug"] = {"Kunigami"}, ["xuj"] = {"Jennu Kurumba"}, ["xul"] = {"Ngunawal", "Nunukul"}, ["xum"] = {"Umbrian"}, ["xun"] = {"Unggaranggu"}, ["xuo"] = {"Kuo"}, ["xup"] = {"Upper Umpqua"}, ["xur"] = {"Urartian"}, ["xut"] = {"Kuthant"}, ["xuu"] = {"Kxoe", "Khwedam"}, ["xve"] = {"Venetic"}, ["xvi"] = {"Kamviri"}, ["xvn"] = {"Vandalic"}, ["xvo"] = {"Volscian"}, ["xvs"] = {"Vestinian"}, ["xwa"] = {"Kwaza"}, ["xwc"] = {"Woccon"}, ["xwd"] = {"Wadi Wadi"}, ["xwe"] = {"Xwela Gbe"}, ["xwg"] = {"Kwegu"}, ["xwj"] = {"Wajuk"}, ["xwk"] = {"Wangkumara"}, ["xwl"] = {"Western Xwla Gbe"}, ["xwo"] = {"Written Oirat"}, ["xwr"] = {"Kwerba Mamberamo"}, ["xwt"] = {"Wotjobaluk"}, ["xww"] = {"Wemba Wemba"}, ["xxb"] = {"Boro (Ghana)"}, ["xxk"] = {"Ke'o"}, ["xxm"] = {"Minkin"}, ["xxr"] = {"Koropó"}, ["xxt"] = {"Tambora"}, ["xya"] = {"Yaygir"}, ["xyb"] = {"Yandjibara"}, ["xyj"] = {"Mayi-Yapi"}, ["xyk"] = {"Mayi-Kulan"}, ["xyl"] = {"Yalakalore"}, ["xyt"] = {"Mayi-Thakurti"}, ["xyy"] = {"Yorta Yorta"}, ["xzh"] = {"Zhang-Zhung"}, ["xzm"] = {"Zemgalian"}, ["xzp"] = {"Ancient Zapotec"}, ["yaa"] = {"Yaminahua"}, ["yab"] = {"Yuhup"}, ["yac"] = {"Pass Valley Yali"}, ["yad"] = {"Yagua"}, ["yae"] = {"Pumé"}, ["yaf"] = {"Yaka (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["yag"] = {"Yámana"}, ["yah"] = {"Yazgulyam"}, ["yai"] = {"Yagnobi"}, ["yaj"] = {"Banda-Yangere"}, ["yak"] = {"Yakama"}, ["yal"] = {"Yalunka"}, ["yam"] = {"Yamba"}, ["yan"] = {"Mayangna"}, ["yao"] = {"Yao"}, ["yap"] = {"Yapese"}, ["yaq"] = {"Yaqui"}, ["yar"] = {"Yabarana"}, ["yas"] = {"Nugunu (Cameroon)"}, ["yat"] = {"Yambeta"}, ["yau"] = {"Yuwana"}, ["yav"] = {"Yangben"}, ["yaw"] = {"Yawalapití"}, ["yax"] = {"Yauma"}, ["yay"] = {"Agwagwune"}, ["yaz"] = {"Lokaa"}, ["yba"] = {"Yala"}, ["ybb"] = {"Yemba"}, ["ybe"] = {"West Yugur"}, ["ybh"] = {"Yakha"}, ["ybi"] = {"Yamphu"}, ["ybj"] = {"Hasha"}, ["ybk"] = {"Bokha"}, ["ybl"] = {"Yukuben"}, ["ybm"] = {"Yaben"}, ["ybn"] = {"Yabaâna"}, ["ybo"] = {"Yabong"}, ["ybx"] = {"Yawiyo"}, ["yby"] = {"Yaweyuha"}, ["ych"] = {"Chesu"}, ["ycl"] = {"Lolopo"}, ["ycn"] = {"Yucuna"}, ["ycp"] = {"Chepya"}, ["ycr"] = {"Yilan Creole"}, ["yda"] = {"Yanda"}, ["ydd"] = {"Eastern Yiddish"}, ["yde"] = {"Yangum Dey"}, ["ydg"] = {"Yidgha"}, ["ydk"] = {"Yoidik"}, ["yea"] = {"Ravula"}, ["yec"] = {"Yeniche"}, ["yee"] = {"Yimas"}, ["yei"] = {"Yeni"}, ["yej"] = {"Yevanic"}, ["yel"] = {"Yela"}, ["yer"] = {"Tarok"}, ["yes"] = {"Nyankpa"}, ["yet"] = {"Yetfa"}, ["yeu"] = {"Yerukula"}, ["yev"] = {"Yapunda"}, ["yey"] = {"Yeyi"}, ["yga"] = {"Malyangapa"}, ["ygi"] = {"Yiningayi"}, ["ygl"] = {"Yangum Gel"}, ["ygm"] = {"Yagomi"}, ["ygp"] = {"Gepo"}, ["ygr"] = {"Yagaria"}, ["ygs"] = {"Yolŋu Sign Language"}, ["ygu"] = {"Yugul"}, ["ygw"] = {"Yagwoia"}, ["yha"] = {"Baha Buyang"}, ["yhd"] = {"Judeo-Iraqi Arabic"}, ["yhl"] = {"Hlepho Phowa"}, ["yhs"] = {"Yan-nhaŋu Sign Language"}, ["yia"] = {"Yinggarda"}, ["yif"] = {"Ache"}, ["yig"] = {"Wusa Nasu"}, ["yih"] = {"Western Yiddish"}, ["yii"] = {"Yidiny"}, ["yij"] = {"Yindjibarndi"}, ["yik"] = {"Dongshanba Lalo"}, ["yil"] = {"Yindjilandji"}, ["yim"] = {"Yimchungru Naga"}, ["yin"] = {"Riang Lai", "Yinchia"}, ["yip"] = {"Pholo"}, ["yiq"] = {"Miqie"}, ["yir"] = {"North Awyu"}, ["yis"] = {"Yis"}, ["yit"] = {"Eastern Lalu"}, ["yiu"] = {"Awu"}, ["yiv"] = {"Northern Nisu"}, ["yix"] = {"Axi Yi"}, ["yiz"] = {"Azhe"}, ["yka"] = {"Yakan"}, ["ykg"] = {"Northern Yukaghir"}, ["ykh"] = {"Khamnigan Mongol"}, ["yki"] = {"Yoke"}, ["ykk"] = {"Yakaikeke"}, ["ykl"] = {"Khlula"}, ["ykm"] = {"Kap"}, ["ykn"] = {"Kua-nsi"}, ["yko"] = {"Iyasa", "Yasa"}, ["ykr"] = {"Yekora"}, ["ykt"] = {"Kathu"}, ["yku"] = {"Kuamasi"}, ["yky"] = {"Yakoma"}, ["yla"] = {"Yaul"}, ["ylb"] = {"Yaleba"}, ["yle"] = {"Yele"}, ["ylg"] = {"Yelogu"}, ["yli"] = {"Angguruk Yali"}, ["yll"] = {"Yil"}, ["ylm"] = {"Limi"}, ["yln"] = {"Langnian Buyang"}, ["ylo"] = {"Naluo Yi"}, ["ylr"] = {"Yalarnnga"}, ["ylu"] = {"Aribwaung"}, ["yly"] = {"Nyâlayu", "Nyelâyu"}, ["ymb"] = {"Yambes"}, ["ymc"] = {"Southern Muji"}, ["ymd"] = {"Muda"}, ["yme"] = {"Yameo"}, ["ymg"] = {"Yamongeri"}, ["ymh"] = {"Mili"}, ["ymi"] = {"Moji"}, ["ymk"] = {"Makwe"}, ["yml"] = {"Iamalele"}, ["ymm"] = {"Maay"}, ["ymn"] = {"Yamna", "Sunum"}, ["ymo"] = {"Yangum Mon"}, ["ymp"] = {"Yamap"}, ["ymq"] = {"Qila Muji"}, ["ymr"] = {"Malasar"}, ["yms"] = {"Mysian"}, ["ymx"] = {"Northern Muji"}, ["ymz"] = {"Muzi"}, ["yna"] = {"Aluo"}, ["ynb"] = {"Yamben"}, ["ynd"] = {"Yandruwandha"}, ["yne"] = {"Lang'e"}, ["yng"] = {"Yango"}, ["ynk"] = {"Naukan Yupik"}, ["ynl"] = {"Yangulam"}, ["ynn"] = {"Yana"}, ["yno"] = {"Yong"}, ["ynq"] = {"Yendang"}, ["yns"] = {"Yansi"}, ["ynu"] = {"Yahuna"}, ["yob"] = {"Yoba"}, ["yog"] = {"Yogad"}, ["yoi"] = {"Yonaguni"}, ["yok"] = {"Yokuts"}, ["yom"] = {"Yombe"}, ["yon"] = {"Yongkom"}, ["yot"] = {"Yotti"}, ["yox"] = {"Yoron"}, ["yoy"] = {"Yoy"}, ["ypa"] = {"Phala"}, ["ypb"] = {"Labo Phowa"}, ["ypg"] = {"Phola"}, ["yph"] = {"Phupha"}, ["ypk"] = {"Yupik languages"}, ["ypm"] = {"Phuma"}, ["ypn"] = {"Ani Phowa"}, ["ypo"] = {"Alo Phola"}, ["ypp"] = {"Phupa"}, ["ypz"] = {"Phuza"}, ["yra"] = {"Yerakai"}, ["yrb"] = {"Yareba"}, ["yre"] = {"Yaouré"}, ["yrk"] = {"Nenets"}, ["yrl"] = {"Nhengatu"}, ["yrm"] = {"Yirrk-Mel"}, ["yrn"] = {"Yerong"}, ["yro"] = {"Yaroamë"}, ["yrs"] = {"Yarsun"}, ["yrw"] = {"Yarawata"}, ["yry"] = {"Yarluyandi"}, ["ysc"] = {"Yassic"}, ["ysd"] = {"Samatao"}, ["ysg"] = {"Sonaga"}, ["ysl"] = {"Yugoslavian Sign Language"}, ["ysm"] = {"Myanmar Sign Language"}, ["ysn"] = {"Sani"}, ["yso"] = {"Nisi (China)"}, ["ysp"] = {"Southern Lolopo"}, ["ysr"] = {"Sirenik Yupik"}, ["yss"] = {"Yessan-Mayo"}, ["ysy"] = {"Sanie"}, ["yta"] = {"Talu"}, ["ytl"] = {"Tanglang"}, ["ytp"] = {"Thopho"}, ["ytw"] = {"Yout Wam"}, ["yty"] = {"Yatay"}, ["yua"] = {"Yucateco", "Yucatec Maya"}, ["yub"] = {"Yugambal"}, ["yuc"] = {"Yuchi"}, ["yud"] = {"Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic"}, ["yue"] = {"Yue Chinese", "Cantonese"}, ["yuf"] = {"Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai"}, ["yug"] = {"Yug"}, ["yui"] = {"Yurutí"}, ["yuj"] = {"Karkar-Yuri"}, ["yuk"] = {"Yuki"}, ["yul"] = {"Yulu"}, ["yum"] = {"Quechan"}, ["yun"] = {"Bena (Nigeria)"}, ["yup"] = {"Yukpa"}, ["yuq"] = {"Yuqui"}, ["yur"] = {"Yurok"}, ["yut"] = {"Yopno"}, ["yuw"] = {"Yau (Morobe Province)"}, ["yux"] = {"Southern Yukaghir"}, ["yuy"] = {"East Yugur"}, ["yuz"] = {"Yuracare"}, ["yva"] = {"Yawa"}, ["yvt"] = {"Yavitero"}, ["ywa"] = {"Kalou"}, ["ywg"] = {"Yinhawangka"}, ["ywl"] = {"Western Lalu"}, ["ywn"] = {"Yawanawa"}, ["ywq"] = {"Wuding-Luquan Yi"}, ["ywr"] = {"Yawuru"}, ["ywt"] = {"Xishanba Lalo", "Central Lalo"}, ["ywu"] = {"Wumeng Nasu"}, ["yww"] = {"Yawarawarga"}, ["yxa"] = {"Mayawali"}, ["yxg"] = {"Yagara"}, ["yxl"] = {"Yardliyawarra"}, ["yxm"] = {"Yinwum"}, ["yxu"] = {"Yuyu"}, ["yxy"] = {"Yabula Yabula"}, ["yyr"] = {"Yir Yoront"}, ["yyu"] = {"Yau (Sandaun Province)"}, ["yyz"] = {"Ayizi"}, ["yzg"] = {"E'ma Buyang"}, ["yzk"] = {"Zokhuo"}, ["zaa"] = {"Sierra de Juárez Zapotec"}, ["zab"] = {"Western Tlacolula Valley Zapotec", "San Juan Guelavía Zapotec"}, ["zac"] = {"Ocotlán Zapotec"}, ["zad"] = {"Cajonos Zapotec"}, ["zae"] = {"Yareni Zapotec"}, ["zaf"] = {"Ayoquesco Zapotec"}, ["zag"] = {"Zaghawa"}, ["zah"] = {"Zangwal"}, ["zai"] = {"Isthmus Zapotec"}, ["zaj"] = {"Zaramo"}, ["zak"] = {"Zanaki"}, ["zal"] = {"Zauzou"}, ["zam"] = {"Miahuatlán Zapotec"}, ["zao"] = {"Ozolotepec Zapotec"}, ["zap"] = {"Zapotec"}, ["zaq"] = {"Aloápam Zapotec"}, ["zar"] = {"Rincón Zapotec"}, ["zas"] = {"Santo Domingo Albarradas Zapotec"}, ["zat"] = {"Tabaa Zapotec"}, ["zau"] = {"Zangskari"}, ["zav"] = {"Yatzachi Zapotec"}, ["zaw"] = {"Mitla Zapotec"}, ["zax"] = {"Xadani Zapotec"}, ["zay"] = {"Zayse-Zergulla", "Zaysete"}, ["zaz"] = {"Zari"}, ["zba"] = {"Balaibalan"}, ["zbc"] = {"Central Berawan"}, ["zbe"] = {"East Berawan"}, ["zbl"] = {"Blissymbols", "Bliss", "Blissymbolics"}, ["zbt"] = {"Batui"}, ["zbu"] = {"Bu (Bauchi State)"}, ["zbw"] = {"West Berawan"}, ["zca"] = {"Coatecas Altas Zapotec"}, ["zcd"] = {"Las Delicias Zapotec"}, ["zch"] = {"Central Hongshuihe Zhuang"}, ["zdj"] = {"Ngazidja Comorian"}, ["zea"] = {"Zeeuws"}, ["zeg"] = {"Zenag"}, ["zeh"] = {"Eastern Hongshuihe Zhuang"}, ["zem"] = {"Zeem"}, ["zen"] = {"Zenaga"}, ["zga"] = {"Kinga"}, ["zgb"] = {"Guibei Zhuang"}, ["zgh"] = {"Standard Moroccan Tamazight"}, ["zgm"] = {"Minz Zhuang"}, ["zgn"] = {"Guibian Zhuang"}, ["zgr"] = {"Magori"}, ["zhb"] = {"Zhaba"}, ["zhd"] = {"Dai Zhuang"}, ["zhi"] = {"Zhire"}, ["zhk"] = {"Kurdish Sign Language"}, ["zhn"] = {"Nong Zhuang"}, ["zhw"] = {"Zhoa"}, ["zhx"] = {"Chinese (family)"}, ["zia"] = {"Zia"}, ["zib"] = {"Zimbabwe Sign Language"}, ["zik"] = {"Zimakani"}, ["zil"] = {"Zialo"}, ["zim"] = {"Mesme"}, ["zin"] = {"Zinza"}, ["ziw"] = {"Zigula"}, ["ziz"] = {"Zizilivakan"}, ["zka"] = {"Kaimbulawa"}, ["zkd"] = {"Kadu"}, ["zkg"] = {"Koguryo"}, ["zkh"] = {"Khorezmian"}, ["zkk"] = {"Karankawa"}, ["zkn"] = {"Kanan"}, ["zko"] = {"Kott"}, ["zkp"] = {"São Paulo Kaingáng"}, ["zkr"] = {"Zakhring"}, ["zkt"] = {"Kitan"}, ["zku"] = {"Kaurna"}, ["zkv"] = {"Krevinian"}, ["zkz"] = {"Khazar"}, ["zla"] = {"Zula"}, ["zle"] = {"East Slavic languages"}, ["zlj"] = {"Liujiang Zhuang"}, ["zlm"] = {"Malay (individual language)"}, ["zln"] = {"Lianshan Zhuang"}, ["zlq"] = {"Liuqian Zhuang"}, ["zls"] = {"South Slavic languages"}, ["zlu"] = {"Zul"}, ["zlw"] = {"West Slavic languages"}, ["zma"] = {"Manda (Australia)"}, ["zmb"] = {"Zimba"}, ["zmc"] = {"Margany"}, ["zmd"] = {"Maridan"}, ["zme"] = {"Mangerr"}, ["zmf"] = {"Mfinu"}, ["zmg"] = {"Marti Ke"}, ["zmh"] = {"Makolkol"}, ["zmi"] = {"Negeri Sembilan Malay"}, ["zmj"] = {"Maridjabin"}, ["zmk"] = {"Mandandanyi"}, ["zml"] = {"Matngala"}, ["zmm"] = {"Marimanindji", "Marramaninyshi"}, ["zmn"] = {"Mbangwe"}, ["zmo"] = {"Molo"}, ["zmp"] = {"Mbuun"}, ["zmq"] = {"Mituku"}, ["zmr"] = {"Maranunggu"}, ["zms"] = {"Mbesa"}, ["zmt"] = {"Maringarr"}, ["zmu"] = {"Muruwari"}, ["zmv"] = {"Mbariman-Gudhinma"}, ["zmw"] = {"Mbo (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["zmx"] = {"Bomitaba"}, ["zmy"] = {"Mariyedi"}, ["zmz"] = {"Mbandja"}, ["zna"] = {"Zan Gula"}, ["znd"] = {"Zande languages"}, ["zne"] = {"Zande (individual language)"}, ["zng"] = {"Mang"}, ["znk"] = {"Manangkari"}, ["zns"] = {"Mangas"}, ["zoc"] = {"Copainalá Zoque"}, ["zoh"] = {"Chimalapa Zoque"}, ["zom"] = {"Zou"}, ["zoo"] = {"Asunción Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["zoq"] = {"Tabasco Zoque"}, ["zor"] = {"Rayón Zoque"}, ["zos"] = {"Francisco León Zoque"}, ["zpa"] = {"Lachiguiri Zapotec"}, ["zpb"] = {"Yautepec Zapotec"}, ["zpc"] = {"Choapan Zapotec"}, ["zpd"] = {"Southeastern Ixtlán Zapotec"}, ["zpe"] = {"Petapa Zapotec"}, ["zpf"] = {"San Pedro Quiatoni Zapotec"}, ["zpg"] = {"Guevea De Humboldt Zapotec"}, ["zph"] = {"Totomachapan Zapotec"}, ["zpi"] = {"Santa María Quiegolani Zapotec"}, ["zpj"] = {"Quiavicuzas Zapotec"}, ["zpk"] = {"Tlacolulita Zapotec"}, ["zpl"] = {"Lachixío Zapotec"}, ["zpm"] = {"Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["zpn"] = {"Santa Inés Yatzechi Zapotec"}, ["zpo"] = {"Amatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpp"] = {"El Alto Zapotec"}, ["zpq"] = {"Zoogocho Zapotec"}, ["zpr"] = {"Santiago Xanica Zapotec"}, ["zps"] = {"Coatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpt"] = {"San Vicente Coatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpu"] = {"Yalálag Zapotec"}, ["zpv"] = {"Chichicapan Zapotec"}, ["zpw"] = {"Zaniza Zapotec"}, ["zpx"] = {"San Baltazar Loxicha Zapotec"}, ["zpy"] = {"Mazaltepec Zapotec"}, ["zpz"] = {"Texmelucan Zapotec"}, ["zqe"] = {"Qiubei Zhuang"}, ["zra"] = {"Kara (Korea)"}, ["zrg"] = {"Mirgan"}, ["zrn"] = {"Zerenkel"}, ["zro"] = {"Záparo"}, ["zrp"] = {"Zarphatic"}, ["zrs"] = {"Mairasi"}, ["zsa"] = {"Sarasira"}, ["zsk"] = {"Kaskean"}, ["zsl"] = {"Zambian Sign Language"}, ["zsm"] = {"Standard Malay"}, ["zsr"] = {"Southern Rincon Zapotec"}, ["zsu"] = {"Sukurum"}, ["zte"] = {"Elotepec Zapotec"}, ["ztg"] = {"Xanaguía Zapotec"}, ["ztl"] = {"Lapaguía-Guivini Zapotec"}, ["ztm"] = {"San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["ztn"] = {"Santa Catarina Albarradas Zapotec"}, ["ztp"] = {"Loxicha Zapotec"}, ["ztq"] = {"Quioquitani-Quierí Zapotec"}, ["zts"] = {"Tilquiapan Zapotec"}, ["ztt"] = {"Tejalapan Zapotec"}, ["ztu"] = {"Güilá Zapotec"}, ["ztx"] = {"Zaachila Zapotec"}, ["zty"] = {"Yatee Zapotec"}, ["zuh"] = {"Tokano"}, ["zum"] = {"Kumzari"}, ["zun"] = {"Zuni"}, ["zuy"] = {"Zumaya"}, ["zwa"] = {"Zay"}, ["zxx"] = {"No linguistic content", "Not applicable"}, ["zyb"] = {"Yongbei Zhuang"}, ["zyg"] = {"Yang Zhuang"}, ["zyj"] = {"Youjiang Zhuang"}, ["zyn"] = {"Yongnan Zhuang"}, ["zyp"] = {"Zyphe Chin"}, ["zza"] = {"Zaza", "Dimili", "Dimli (macrolanguage)", "Kirdki", "Kirmanjki (macrolanguage)", "Zazaki"}, ["zzj"] = {"Zuojiang Zhuang"} } local deprecated = { ["bh"] = {"Bihari languages"}, ["in"] = {"Indonesian"}, ["iw"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["ji"] = {"Yiddish"}, ["jw"] = {"Javanese"}, ["mo"] = {"Moldavian", "Moldovan"}, ["aam"] = {"Aramanik"}, ["adp"] = {"Adap"}, ["agp"] = {"Paranan"}, ["ais"] = {"Nataoran Amis"}, ["ajp"] = {"South Levantine Arabic"}, ["ajt"] = {"Judeo-Tunisian Arabic"}, ["aoh"] = {"Arma"}, ["asd"] = {"Asas"}, ["aue"] = {"ǂKxʼauǁʼein"}, ["ayx"] = {"Ayi (China)"}, ["ayy"] = {"Tayabas Ayta"}, ["baz"] = {"Tunen"}, ["bbz"] = {"Babalia Creole Arabic"}, ["bgm"] = {"Baga Mboteni"}, ["bhk"] = {"Albay Bicolano"}, ["bic"] = {"Bikaru"}, ["bij"] = {"Vaghat-Ya-Bijim-Legeri"}, ["bjd"] = {"Bandjigali"}, ["bjq"] = {"Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bkb"] = {"Finallig"}, ["blg"] = {"Balau"}, ["bmy"] = {"Bemba (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bpb"] = {"Barbacoas"}, ["btb"] = {"Beti (Cameroon)"}, ["btl"] = {"Bhatola"}, ["bxx"] = {"Borna (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["byy"] = {"Buya"}, ["cbe"] = {"Chipiajes"}, ["cbh"] = {"Cagua"}, ["cca"] = {"Cauca"}, ["ccq"] = {"Chaungtha"}, ["cdg"] = {"Chamari"}, ["cjr"] = {"Chorotega"}, ["cka"] = {"Khumi Awa Chin"}, ["cmk"] = {"Chimakum"}, ["coy"] = {"Coyaima"}, ["cqu"] = {"Chilean Quechua"}, ["cug"] = {"Chungmboko", "Cung"}, ["cum"] = {"Cumeral"}, ["daf"] = {"Dan"}, ["dap"] = {"Nisi (India)"}, ["dek"] = {"Dek"}, ["dgu"] = {"Degaru"}, ["dha"] = {"Dhanwar (India)"}, ["dit"] = {"Dirari"}, ["djl"] = {"Djiwarli"}, ["dkl"] = {"Kolum So Dogon"}, ["drh"] = {"Darkhat"}, ["drr"] = {"Dororo"}, ["drw"] = {"Darwazi"}, ["dud"] = {"Hun-Saare"}, ["duj"] = {"Dhuwal"}, ["dwl"] = {"Walo Kumbe Dogon"}, ["ekc"] = {"Eastern Karnic"}, ["elp"] = {"Elpaputih"}, ["emo"] = {"Emok"}, ["gav"] = {"Gabutamon"}, ["gbc"] = {"Garawa"}, ["gfx"] = {"Mangetti Dune ǃXung"}, ["ggn"] = {"Eastern Gurung"}, ["ggo"] = {"Southern Gondi"}, ["ggr"] = {"Aghu Tharnggalu"}, ["gio"] = {"Gelao"}, ["gji"] = {"Geji"}, ["gli"] = {"Guliguli"}, ["gti"] = {"Gbati-ri"}, ["guv"] = {"Gey"}, ["hrr"] = {"Horuru"}, ["iap"] = {"Iapama"}, ["ibi"] = {"Ibilo"}, ["ill"] = {"Iranun"}, ["ilw"] = {"Talur"}, ["ime"] = {"Imeraguen"}, ["izi"] = {"Izi-Ezaa-Ikwo-Mgbo"}, ["jar"] = {"Jarawa (Nigeria)"}, ["jeg"] = {"Jeng"}, ["kbf"] = {"Kakauhua"}, ["kdv"] = {"Kado"}, ["kgc"] = {"Kasseng"}, ["kgd"] = {"Kataang"}, ["kgh"] = {"Upper Tanudan Kalinga"}, ["kgm"] = {"Karipúna"}, ["kjf"] = {"Khalaj [Indo-Iranian]"}, ["koj"] = {"Sara Dunjo"}, ["kox"] = {"Coxima"}, ["kpp"] = {"Paku Karen"}, ["krm"] = {"Krim"}, ["ksa"] = {"Shuwa-Zamani"}, ["ktr"] = {"Kota Marudu Tinagas"}, ["kvs"] = {"Kunggara"}, ["kwq"] = {"Kwak"}, ["kxe"] = {"Kakihum"}, ["kxl"] = {"Nepali Kurux"}, ["kxu"] = {"Kui (India)"}, ["kzh"] = {"Kenuzi-Dongola"}, ["kzj"] = {"Coastal Kadazan"}, ["kzt"] = {"Tambunan Dusun"}, ["lak"] = {"Laka (Nigeria)"}, ["lba"] = {"Lui"}, ["leg"] = {"Lengua"}, ["lii"] = {"Lingkhim"}, ["llo"] = {"Khlor"}, ["lmm"] = {"Lamam"}, ["lmz"] = {"Lumbee"}, ["lno"] = {"Lango (South Sudan)"}, ["lsg"] = {"Lyons Sign Language"}, ["meg"] = {"Mea"}, ["mgx"] = {"Omati"}, ["mhh"] = {"Maskoy Pidgin"}, ["mja"] = {"Mahei"}, ["mld"] = {"Malakhel"}, ["mnt"] = {"Maykulan"}, ["mof"] = {"Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett"}, ["mst"] = {"Cataelano Mandaya"}, ["mvm"] = {"Muya"}, ["mwd"] = {"Mudbura"}, ["mwj"] = {"Maligo"}, ["mwx"] = {"Mediak"}, ["mwy"] = {"Mosiro"}, ["myd"] = {"Maramba"}, ["myi"] = {"Mina (India)"}, ["myq"] = {"Forest Maninka"}, ["myt"] = {"Sangab Mandaya"}, ["nad"] = {"Nijadali"}, ["nbf"] = {"Naxi"}, ["nbx"] = {"Ngura"}, ["ncp"] = {"Ndaktup"}, ["ngo"] = {"Ngoni"}, ["nln"] = {"Durango Nahuatl"}, ["nlr"] = {"Ngarla"}, ["nns"] = {"Ningye"}, ["nnx"] = {"Ngong"}, ["nom"] = {"Nocamán"}, ["noo"] = {"Nootka"}, ["nte"] = {"Nathembo"}, ["nts"] = {"Natagaimas"}, ["nxu"] = {"Narau"}, ["ome"] = {"Omejes"}, ["oun"] = {"ǃOǃung"}, ["pat"] = {"Papitalai"}, ["pbz"] = {"Palu"}, ["pcr"] = {"Panang"}, ["pgy"] = {"Pongyong"}, ["pii"] = {"Pini"}, ["plj"] = {"Polci"}, ["plp"] = {"Palpa"}, ["pmc"] = {"Palumata"}, ["pmk"] = {"Pamlico"}, ["pmu"] = {"Mirpur Panjabi"}, ["pod"] = {"Ponares"}, ["ppa"] = {"Pao"}, ["ppr"] = {"Piru"}, ["prb"] = {"Lua'"}, ["prp"] = {"Parsi"}, ["pry"] = {"Pray 3"}, ["puk"] = {"Pu Ko"}, ["puz"] = {"Purum Naga"}, ["rie"] = {"Rien"}, ["rmr"] = {"Caló"}, ["rna"] = {"Runa"}, ["rsi"] = {"Rennellese Sign Language"}, ["sap"] = {"Sanapaná"}, ["sca"] = {"Sansu"}, ["sdm"] = {"Semandang"}, ["sgl"] = {"Sanglechi-Ishkashimi"}, ["sgo"] = {"Songa"}, ["skk"] = {"Sok"}, ["slq"] = {"Salchuq"}, ["smd"] = {"Sama"}, ["snb"] = {"Sebuyau"}, ["snh"] = {"Shinabo"}, ["sul"] = {"Surigaonon"}, ["sum"] = {"Sumo-Mayangna"}, ["svr"] = {"Savara"}, ["szd"] = {"Seru"}, ["tbb"] = {"Tapeba"}, ["tdu"] = {"Tempasuk Dusun"}, ["tgg"] = {"Tangga"}, ["thc"] = {"Tai Hang Tong"}, ["thw"] = {"Thudam"}, ["thx"] = {"The"}, ["tid"] = {"Tidong"}, ["tie"] = {"Tingal"}, ["tkk"] = {"Takpa"}, ["tlw"] = {"South Wemale"}, ["tmk"] = {"Northwestern Tamang"}, ["tmp"] = {"Tai Mène"}, ["tne"] = {"Tinoc Kallahan"}, ["tnf"] = {"Tangshewi"}, ["toe"] = {"Tomedes"}, ["tpw"] = {"Tupí"}, ["tsf"] = {"Southwestern Tamang"}, ["unp"] = {"Worora"}, ["uok"] = {"Uokha"}, ["uun"] = {"Kulon-Pazeh"}, ["vki"] = {"Ija-Zuba"}, ["wgw"] = {"Wagawaga"}, ["wit"] = {"Wintu"}, ["wiw"] = {"Wirangu"}, ["wra"] = {"Warapu"}, ["wrd"] = {"Warduji"}, ["wya"] = {"Wyandot"}, ["xba"] = {"Kamba (Brazil)"}, ["xbx"] = {"Kabixí"}, ["xia"] = {"Xiandao"}, ["xip"] = {"Xipináwa"}, ["xkh"] = {"Karahawyana"}, ["xrq"] = {"Karranga"}, ["xss"] = {"Assan"}, ["xtz"] = {"Tasmanian"}, ["ybd"] = {"Yangbye"}, ["yds"] = {"Yiddish Sign Language"}, ["yen"] = {"Yendang"}, ["yiy"] = {"Yir Yoront"}, ["yma"] = {"Yamphe"}, ["ymt"] = {"Mator-Taygi-Karagas"}, ["ynh"] = {"Yangho"}, ["yol"] = {"Yola"}, ["yos"] = {"Yos"}, ["yri"] = {"Yarí"}, ["yuu"] = {"Yugh"}, ["zir"] = {"Ziriya"}, ["zkb"] = {"Koibal"}, ["zua"] = {"Zeem"} } return { active = active, deprecated = deprecated, } 7maeu8qldugwz5oxm6jkg7gdan5few7 687918 687917 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/iana_languages]] 687917 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 local active = { ["aa"] = {"Afar"}, ["ab"] = {"Abkhazian"}, ["ae"] = {"Avestan"}, ["af"] = {"Afrikaans"}, ["ak"] = {"Akan"}, ["am"] = {"Amharic"}, ["an"] = {"Aragonese"}, ["ar"] = {"Arabic"}, ["as"] = {"Assamese"}, ["av"] = {"Avaric"}, ["ay"] = {"Aymara"}, ["az"] = {"Azerbaijani"}, ["ba"] = {"Bashkir"}, ["be"] = {"Belarusian"}, ["bg"] = {"Bulgarian"}, ["bi"] = {"Bislama"}, ["bm"] = {"Bambara"}, ["bn"] = {"Bengali", "Bangla"}, ["bo"] = {"Tibetan"}, ["br"] = {"Breton"}, ["bs"] = {"Bosnian"}, ["ca"] = {"Catalan", "Valencian"}, ["ce"] = {"Chechen"}, ["ch"] = {"Chamorro"}, ["co"] = {"Corsican"}, ["cr"] = {"Cree"}, ["cs"] = {"Czech"}, ["cu"] = {"Church Slavic", "Church Slavonic", "Old Bulgarian", "Old Church Slavonic", "Old Slavonic"}, ["cv"] = {"Chuvash"}, ["cy"] = {"Welsh"}, ["da"] = {"Danish"}, ["de"] = {"German"}, ["dv"] = {"Dhivehi", "Divehi", "Maldivian"}, ["dz"] = {"Dzongkha"}, ["ee"] = {"Ewe"}, ["el"] = {"Modern Greek (1453-)"}, ["en"] = {"English"}, ["eo"] = {"Esperanto"}, ["es"] = {"Spanish", "Castilian"}, ["et"] = {"Estonian"}, ["eu"] = {"Basque"}, ["fa"] = {"Persian"}, ["ff"] = {"Fulah"}, ["fi"] = {"Finnish"}, ["fj"] = {"Fijian"}, ["fo"] = {"Faroese"}, ["fr"] = {"French"}, ["fy"] = {"Western Frisian"}, ["ga"] = {"Irish"}, ["gd"] = {"Scottish Gaelic", "Gaelic"}, ["gl"] = {"Galician"}, ["gn"] = {"Guarani"}, ["gu"] = {"Gujarati"}, ["gv"] = {"Manx"}, ["ha"] = {"Hausa"}, ["he"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["hi"] = {"Hindi"}, ["ho"] = {"Hiri Motu"}, ["hr"] = {"Croatian"}, ["ht"] = {"Haitian", "Haitian Creole"}, ["hu"] = {"Hungarian"}, ["hy"] = {"Armenian"}, ["hz"] = {"Herero"}, ["ia"] = {"Interlingua (IALA)", "Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association)"}, ["id"] = {"Indonesian"}, ["ie"] = {"Interlingue", "Occidental"}, ["ig"] = {"Igbo"}, ["ii"] = {"Sichuan Yi", "Nuosu"}, ["ik"] = {"Inupiaq"}, ["io"] = {"Ido"}, ["is"] = {"Icelandic"}, ["it"] = {"Italian"}, ["iu"] = {"Inuktitut"}, ["ja"] = {"Japanese"}, ["jv"] = {"Javanese"}, ["ka"] = {"Georgian"}, ["kg"] = {"Kongo"}, ["ki"] = {"Kikuyu", "Gikuyu"}, ["kj"] = {"Kuanyama", "Kwanyama"}, ["kk"] = {"Kazakh"}, ["kl"] = {"Kalaallisut", "Greenlandic"}, ["km"] = {"Khmer", "Central Khmer"}, ["kn"] = {"Kannada"}, ["ko"] = {"Korean"}, ["kr"] = {"Kanuri"}, ["ks"] = {"Kashmiri"}, ["ku"] = {"Kurdish"}, ["kv"] = {"Komi"}, ["kw"] = {"Cornish"}, ["ky"] = {"Kirghiz", "Kyrgyz"}, ["la"] = {"Latin"}, ["lb"] = {"Luxembourgish", "Letzeburgesch"}, ["lg"] = {"Ganda", "Luganda"}, ["li"] = {"Limburgan", "Limburger", "Limburgish"}, ["ln"] = {"Lingala"}, ["lo"] = {"Lao"}, ["lt"] = {"Lithuanian"}, ["lu"] = {"Luba-Katanga"}, ["lv"] = {"Latvian"}, ["mg"] = {"Malagasy"}, ["mh"] = {"Marshallese"}, ["mi"] = {"Maori"}, ["mk"] = {"Macedonian"}, ["ml"] = {"Malayalam"}, ["mn"] = {"Mongolian"}, ["mr"] = {"Marathi"}, ["ms"] = {"Malay (macrolanguage)"}, ["mt"] = {"Maltese"}, ["my"] = {"Burmese"}, ["na"] = {"Nauru"}, ["nb"] = {"Norwegian Bokmål"}, ["nd"] = {"North Ndebele"}, ["ne"] = {"Nepali (macrolanguage)"}, ["ng"] = {"Ndonga"}, ["nl"] = {"Dutch", "Flemish"}, ["nn"] = {"Norwegian Nynorsk"}, ["no"] = {"Norwegian"}, ["nr"] = {"South Ndebele"}, ["nv"] = {"Navajo", "Navaho"}, ["ny"] = {"Chichewa", "Chewa", "Nyanja"}, ["oc"] = {"Occitan (post 1500)"}, ["oj"] = {"Ojibwa"}, ["om"] = {"Oromo"}, ["or"] = {"Oriya (macrolanguage)", "Odia (macrolanguage)"}, ["os"] = {"Iron Ossetic", "Iron", "Iron Ossetian", "Ossetian", "Ossetic"}, ["pa"] = {"Panjabi", "Punjabi"}, ["pi"] = {"Pali"}, ["pl"] = {"Polish"}, ["ps"] = {"Pushto", "Pashto"}, ["pt"] = {"Portuguese"}, ["qu"] = {"Quechua"}, ["rm"] = {"Romansh"}, ["rn"] = {"Rundi"}, ["ro"] = {"Romanian", "Moldavian", "Moldovan"}, ["ru"] = {"Russian"}, ["rw"] = {"Kinyarwanda"}, ["sa"] = {"Sanskrit"}, ["sc"] = {"Sardinian"}, ["sd"] = {"Sindhi"}, ["se"] = {"Northern Sami"}, ["sg"] = {"Sango"}, ["sh"] = {"Serbo-Croatian"}, ["si"] = {"Sinhala", "Sinhalese"}, ["sk"] = {"Slovak"}, ["sl"] = {"Slovenian"}, ["sm"] = {"Samoan"}, ["sn"] = {"Shona"}, ["so"] = {"Somali"}, ["sq"] = {"Albanian"}, ["sr"] = {"Serbian"}, ["ss"] = {"Swati"}, ["st"] = {"Southern Sotho"}, ["su"] = {"Sundanese"}, ["sv"] = {"Swedish"}, ["sw"] = {"Swahili (macrolanguage)"}, ["ta"] = {"Tamil"}, ["te"] = {"Telugu"}, ["tg"] = {"Tajik"}, ["th"] = {"Thai"}, ["ti"] = {"Tigrinya"}, ["tk"] = {"Turkmen"}, ["tl"] = {"Tagalog"}, ["tn"] = {"Tswana"}, ["to"] = {"Tonga (Tonga Islands)"}, ["tr"] = {"Turkish"}, ["ts"] = {"Tsonga"}, ["tt"] = {"Tatar"}, ["tw"] = {"Twi"}, ["ty"] = {"Tahitian"}, ["ug"] = {"Uighur", "Uyghur"}, ["uk"] = {"Ukrainian"}, ["ur"] = {"Urdu"}, ["uz"] = {"Uzbek"}, ["ve"] = {"Venda"}, ["vi"] = {"Vietnamese"}, ["vo"] = {"Volapük"}, ["wa"] = {"Walloon"}, ["wo"] = {"Wolof"}, ["xh"] = {"Xhosa"}, ["yi"] = {"Yiddish"}, ["yo"] = {"Yoruba"}, ["za"] = {"Zhuang", "Chuang"}, ["zh"] = {"Chinese"}, ["zu"] = {"Zulu"}, ["aaa"] = {"Ghotuo"}, ["aab"] = {"Alumu-Tesu"}, ["aac"] = {"Ari"}, ["aad"] = {"Amal"}, ["aae"] = {"Arbëreshë Albanian"}, ["aaf"] = {"Aranadan"}, ["aag"] = {"Ambrak"}, ["aah"] = {"Abu' Arapesh"}, ["aai"] = {"Arifama-Miniafia"}, ["aak"] = {"Ankave"}, ["aal"] = {"Afade"}, ["aan"] = {"Anambé"}, ["aao"] = {"Algerian Saharan Arabic"}, ["aap"] = {"Pará Arára"}, ["aaq"] = {"Eastern Abnaki"}, ["aas"] = {"Aasáx"}, ["aat"] = {"Arvanitika Albanian"}, ["aau"] = {"Abau"}, ["aav"] = {"Austro-Asiatic languages"}, ["aaw"] = {"Solong"}, ["aax"] = {"Mandobo Atas"}, ["aaz"] = {"Amarasi"}, ["aba"] = {"Abé"}, ["abb"] = {"Bankon"}, ["abc"] = {"Ambala Ayta"}, ["abd"] = {"Manide"}, ["abe"] = {"Western Abnaki"}, ["abf"] = {"Abai Sungai"}, ["abg"] = {"Abaga"}, ["abh"] = {"Tajiki Arabic"}, ["abi"] = {"Abidji"}, ["abj"] = {"Aka-Bea"}, ["abl"] = {"Lampung Nyo"}, ["abm"] = {"Abanyom"}, ["abn"] = {"Abua"}, ["abo"] = {"Abon"}, ["abp"] = {"Abellen Ayta"}, ["abq"] = {"Abaza"}, ["abr"] = {"Abron"}, ["abs"] = {"Ambonese Malay"}, ["abt"] = {"Ambulas"}, ["abu"] = {"Abure"}, ["abv"] = {"Baharna Arabic"}, ["abw"] = {"Pal"}, ["abx"] = {"Inabaknon"}, ["aby"] = {"Aneme Wake"}, ["abz"] = {"Abui"}, ["aca"] = {"Achagua"}, ["acb"] = {"Áncá"}, ["acd"] = {"Gikyode"}, ["ace"] = {"Achinese"}, ["acf"] = {"Saint Lucian Creole French"}, ["ach"] = {"Acoli"}, ["aci"] = {"Aka-Cari"}, ["ack"] = {"Aka-Kora"}, ["acl"] = {"Akar-Bale"}, ["acm"] = {"Mesopotamian Arabic"}, ["acn"] = {"Achang"}, ["acp"] = {"Eastern Acipa"}, ["acq"] = {"Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic"}, ["acr"] = {"Achi"}, ["acs"] = {"Acroá"}, ["act"] = {"Achterhoeks"}, ["acu"] = {"Achuar-Shiwiar"}, ["acv"] = {"Achumawi"}, ["acw"] = {"Hijazi Arabic"}, ["acx"] = {"Omani Arabic"}, ["acy"] = {"Cypriot Arabic"}, ["acz"] = {"Acheron"}, ["ada"] = {"Adangme"}, ["adb"] = {"Atauran"}, ["add"] = {"Lidzonka", "Dzodinka"}, ["ade"] = {"Adele"}, ["adf"] = {"Dhofari Arabic"}, ["adg"] = {"Andegerebinha"}, ["adh"] = {"Adhola"}, ["adi"] = {"Adi"}, ["adj"] = {"Adioukrou"}, ["adl"] = {"Galo"}, ["adn"] = {"Adang"}, ["ado"] = {"Abu"}, ["adq"] = {"Adangbe"}, ["adr"] = {"Adonara"}, ["ads"] = {"Adamorobe Sign Language"}, ["adt"] = {"Adnyamathanha"}, ["adu"] = {"Aduge"}, ["adw"] = {"Amundava"}, ["adx"] = {"Amdo Tibetan"}, ["ady"] = {"Adyghe", "Adygei"}, ["adz"] = {"Adzera"}, ["aea"] = {"Areba"}, ["aeb"] = {"Tunisian Arabic"}, ["aec"] = {"Saidi Arabic"}, ["aed"] = {"Argentine Sign Language"}, ["aee"] = {"Northeast Pashai", "Northeast Pashayi"}, ["aek"] = {"Haeke"}, ["ael"] = {"Ambele"}, ["aem"] = {"Arem"}, ["aen"] = {"Armenian Sign Language"}, ["aeq"] = {"Aer"}, ["aer"] = {"Eastern Arrernte"}, ["aes"] = {"Alsea"}, ["aeu"] = {"Akeu"}, ["aew"] = {"Ambakich"}, ["aey"] = {"Amele"}, ["aez"] = {"Aeka"}, ["afa"] = {"Afro-Asiatic languages"}, ["afb"] = {"Gulf Arabic"}, ["afd"] = {"Andai"}, ["afe"] = {"Putukwam"}, ["afg"] = {"Afghan Sign Language"}, ["afh"] = {"Afrihili"}, ["afi"] = {"Akrukay", "Chini"}, ["afk"] = {"Nanubae"}, ["afn"] = {"Defaka"}, ["afo"] = {"Eloyi"}, ["afp"] = {"Tapei"}, ["afs"] = {"Afro-Seminole Creole"}, ["aft"] = {"Afitti"}, ["afu"] = {"Awutu"}, ["afz"] = {"Obokuitai"}, ["aga"] = {"Aguano"}, ["agb"] = {"Legbo"}, ["agc"] = {"Agatu"}, ["agd"] = {"Agarabi"}, ["age"] = {"Angal"}, ["agf"] = {"Arguni"}, ["agg"] = {"Angor"}, ["agh"] = {"Ngelima"}, ["agi"] = {"Agariya"}, ["agj"] = {"Argobba"}, ["agk"] = {"Isarog Agta"}, ["agl"] = {"Fembe"}, ["agm"] = {"Angaataha"}, ["agn"] = {"Agutaynen"}, ["ago"] = {"Tainae"}, ["agq"] = {"Aghem"}, ["agr"] = {"Aguaruna"}, ["ags"] = {"Esimbi"}, ["agt"] = {"Central Cagayan Agta"}, ["agu"] = {"Aguacateco"}, ["agv"] = {"Remontado Dumagat"}, ["agw"] = {"Kahua"}, ["agx"] = {"Aghul"}, ["agy"] = {"Southern Alta"}, ["agz"] = {"Mt. Iriga Agta"}, ["aha"] = {"Ahanta"}, ["ahb"] = {"Axamb"}, ["ahg"] = {"Qimant"}, ["ahh"] = {"Aghu"}, ["ahi"] = {"Tiagbamrin Aizi"}, ["ahk"] = {"Akha"}, ["ahl"] = {"Igo"}, ["ahm"] = {"Mobumrin Aizi"}, ["ahn"] = {"Àhàn"}, ["aho"] = {"Ahom"}, ["ahp"] = {"Aproumu Aizi"}, ["ahr"] = {"Ahirani"}, ["ahs"] = {"Ashe"}, ["aht"] = {"Ahtena"}, ["aia"] = {"Arosi"}, ["aib"] = {"Ainu (China)"}, ["aic"] = {"Ainbai"}, ["aid"] = {"Alngith"}, ["aie"] = {"Amara"}, ["aif"] = {"Agi"}, ["aig"] = {"Antigua and Barbuda Creole English"}, ["aih"] = {"Ai-Cham"}, ["aii"] = {"Assyrian Neo-Aramaic"}, ["aij"] = {"Lishanid Noshan"}, ["aik"] = {"Ake"}, ["ail"] = {"Aimele"}, ["aim"] = {"Aimol"}, ["ain"] = {"Ainu (Japan)"}, ["aio"] = {"Aiton"}, ["aip"] = {"Burumakok"}, ["aiq"] = {"Aimaq"}, ["air"] = {"Airoran"}, ["ait"] = {"Arikem"}, ["aiw"] = {"Aari"}, ["aix"] = {"Aighon"}, ["aiy"] = {"Ali"}, ["aja"] = {"Aja (South Sudan)"}, ["ajg"] = {"Aja (Benin)"}, ["aji"] = {"Ajië"}, ["ajn"] = {"Andajin"}, ["ajs"] = {"Algerian Jewish Sign Language"}, ["aju"] = {"Judeo-Moroccan Arabic"}, ["ajw"] = {"Ajawa"}, ["ajz"] = {"Amri Karbi"}, ["akb"] = {"Batak Angkola"}, ["akc"] = {"Mpur"}, ["akd"] = {"Ukpet-Ehom"}, ["ake"] = {"Akawaio"}, ["akf"] = {"Akpa"}, ["akg"] = {"Anakalangu"}, ["akh"] = {"Angal Heneng"}, ["aki"] = {"Aiome"}, ["akj"] = {"Aka-Jeru"}, ["akk"] = {"Akkadian"}, ["akl"] = {"Aklanon"}, ["akm"] = {"Aka-Bo"}, ["ako"] = {"Akurio"}, ["akp"] = {"Siwu"}, ["akq"] = {"Ak"}, ["akr"] = {"Araki"}, ["aks"] = {"Akaselem"}, ["akt"] = {"Akolet"}, ["aku"] = {"Akum"}, ["akv"] = {"Akhvakh"}, ["akw"] = {"Akwa"}, ["akx"] = {"Aka-Kede"}, ["aky"] = {"Aka-Kol"}, ["akz"] = {"Alabama"}, ["ala"] = {"Alago"}, ["alc"] = {"Qawasqar"}, ["ald"] = {"Alladian"}, ["ale"] = {"Aleut"}, ["alf"] = {"Alege"}, ["alg"] = {"Algonquian languages"}, ["alh"] = {"Alawa"}, ["ali"] = {"Amaimon"}, ["alj"] = {"Alangan"}, ["alk"] = {"Alak"}, ["all"] = {"Allar"}, ["alm"] = {"Amblong"}, ["aln"] = {"Gheg Albanian"}, ["alo"] = {"Larike-Wakasihu"}, ["alp"] = {"Alune"}, ["alq"] = {"Algonquin"}, ["alr"] = {"Alutor"}, ["als"] = {"Tosk Albanian"}, ["alt"] = {"Southern Altai"}, ["alu"] = {"'Are'are"}, ["alv"] = {"Atlantic-Congo languages"}, ["alw"] = {"Alaba-K’abeena", "Wanbasana"}, ["alx"] = {"Amol"}, ["aly"] = {"Alyawarr"}, ["alz"] = {"Alur"}, ["ama"] = {"Amanayé"}, ["amb"] = {"Ambo"}, ["amc"] = {"Amahuaca"}, ["ame"] = {"Yanesha'"}, ["amf"] = {"Hamer-Banna"}, ["amg"] = {"Amurdak"}, ["ami"] = {"Amis"}, ["amj"] = {"Amdang"}, ["amk"] = {"Ambai"}, ["aml"] = {"War-Jaintia"}, ["amm"] = {"Ama (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["amn"] = {"Amanab"}, ["amo"] = {"Amo"}, ["amp"] = {"Alamblak"}, ["amq"] = {"Amahai"}, ["amr"] = {"Amarakaeri"}, ["ams"] = {"Southern Amami-Oshima"}, ["amt"] = {"Amto"}, ["amu"] = {"Guerrero Amuzgo"}, ["amv"] = {"Ambelau"}, ["amw"] = {"Western Neo-Aramaic"}, ["amx"] = {"Anmatyerre"}, ["amy"] = {"Ami"}, ["amz"] = {"Atampaya"}, ["ana"] = {"Andaqui"}, ["anb"] = {"Andoa"}, ["anc"] = {"Ngas"}, ["and"] = {"Ansus"}, ["ane"] = {"Xârâcùù"}, ["anf"] = {"Animere"}, ["ang"] = {"Old English (ca. 450-1100)"}, ["anh"] = {"Nend"}, ["ani"] = {"Andi"}, ["anj"] = {"Anor"}, ["ank"] = {"Goemai"}, ["anl"] = {"Anu-Hkongso Chin"}, ["anm"] = {"Anal"}, ["ann"] = {"Obolo"}, ["ano"] = {"Andoque"}, ["anp"] = {"Angika"}, ["anq"] = {"Jarawa (India)"}, ["anr"] = {"Andh"}, ["ans"] = {"Anserma"}, ["ant"] = {"Antakarinya", "Antikarinya"}, ["anu"] = {"Anuak"}, ["anv"] = {"Denya"}, ["anw"] = {"Anaang"}, ["anx"] = {"Andra-Hus"}, ["any"] = {"Anyin"}, ["anz"] = {"Anem"}, ["aoa"] = {"Angolar"}, ["aob"] = {"Abom"}, ["aoc"] = {"Pemon"}, ["aod"] = {"Andarum"}, ["aoe"] = {"Angal Enen"}, ["aof"] = {"Bragat"}, ["aog"] = {"Angoram"}, ["aoi"] = {"Anindilyakwa"}, ["aoj"] = {"Mufian"}, ["aok"] = {"Arhö"}, ["aol"] = {"Alor"}, ["aom"] = {"Ömie"}, ["aon"] = {"Bumbita Arapesh"}, ["aor"] = {"Aore"}, ["aos"] = {"Taikat"}, ["aot"] = {"Atong (India)", "A'tong"}, ["aou"] = {"A'ou"}, ["aox"] = {"Atorada"}, ["aoz"] = {"Uab Meto"}, ["apa"] = {"Apache languages"}, ["apb"] = {"Sa'a"}, ["apc"] = {"Levantine Arabic"}, ["apd"] = {"Sudanese Arabic"}, ["ape"] = {"Bukiyip"}, ["apf"] = {"Pahanan Agta"}, ["apg"] = {"Ampanang"}, ["aph"] = {"Athpariya"}, ["api"] = {"Apiaká"}, ["apj"] = {"Jicarilla Apache"}, ["apk"] = {"Kiowa Apache"}, ["apl"] = {"Lipan Apache"}, ["apm"] = {"Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache"}, ["apn"] = {"Apinayé"}, ["apo"] = {"Ambul"}, ["app"] = {"Apma"}, ["apq"] = {"A-Pucikwar"}, ["apr"] = {"Arop-Lokep"}, ["aps"] = {"Arop-Sissano"}, ["apt"] = {"Apatani"}, ["apu"] = {"Apurinã"}, ["apv"] = {"Alapmunte"}, ["apw"] = {"Western Apache"}, ["apx"] = {"Aputai"}, ["apy"] = {"Apalaí"}, ["apz"] = {"Safeyoka"}, ["aqa"] = {"Alacalufan languages"}, ["aqc"] = {"Archi"}, ["aqd"] = {"Ampari Dogon"}, ["aqg"] = {"Arigidi"}, ["aqk"] = {"Aninka"}, ["aql"] = {"Algic languages"}, ["aqm"] = {"Atohwaim"}, ["aqn"] = {"Northern Alta"}, ["aqp"] = {"Atakapa"}, ["aqr"] = {"Arhâ"}, ["aqt"] = {"Angaité"}, ["aqz"] = {"Akuntsu"}, ["arb"] = {"Standard Arabic"}, ["arc"] = {"Official Aramaic (700-300 BCE)", "Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)"}, ["ard"] = {"Arabana"}, ["are"] = {"Western Arrarnta"}, ["arh"] = {"Arhuaco"}, ["ari"] = {"Arikara"}, ["arj"] = {"Arapaso"}, ["ark"] = {"Arikapú"}, ["arl"] = {"Arabela"}, ["arn"] = {"Mapudungun", "Mapuche"}, ["aro"] = {"Araona"}, ["arp"] = {"Arapaho"}, ["arq"] = {"Algerian Arabic"}, ["arr"] = {"Karo (Brazil)"}, ["ars"] = {"Najdi Arabic"}, ["art"] = {"Artificial languages"}, ["aru"] = {"Aruá (Amazonas State)", "Arawá"}, ["arv"] = {"Arbore"}, ["arw"] = {"Arawak"}, ["arx"] = {"Aruá (Rodonia State)"}, ["ary"] = {"Moroccan Arabic"}, ["arz"] = {"Egyptian Arabic"}, ["asa"] = {"Asu (Tanzania)"}, ["asb"] = {"Assiniboine", "Nakoda Assiniboine"}, ["asc"] = {"Casuarina Coast Asmat"}, ["ase"] = {"American Sign Language"}, ["asf"] = {"Auslan", "Australian Sign Language"}, ["asg"] = {"Cishingini"}, ["ash"] = {"Abishira"}, ["asi"] = {"Buruwai"}, ["asj"] = {"Sari"}, ["ask"] = {"Ashkun"}, ["asl"] = {"Asilulu"}, ["asn"] = {"Xingú Asuriní"}, ["aso"] = {"Dano"}, ["asp"] = {"Algerian Sign Language"}, ["asq"] = {"Austrian Sign Language"}, ["asr"] = {"Asuri"}, ["ass"] = {"Ipulo"}, ["ast"] = {"Asturian", "Asturleonese", "Bable", "Leonese"}, ["asu"] = {"Tocantins Asurini"}, ["asv"] = {"Asoa"}, ["asw"] = {"Australian Aborigines Sign Language"}, ["asx"] = {"Muratayak"}, ["asy"] = {"Yaosakor Asmat"}, ["asz"] = {"As"}, ["ata"] = {"Pele-Ata"}, ["atb"] = {"Zaiwa"}, ["atc"] = {"Atsahuaca"}, ["atd"] = {"Ata Manobo"}, ["ate"] = {"Atemble"}, ["atg"] = {"Ivbie North-Okpela-Arhe"}, ["ath"] = {"Athapascan languages"}, ["ati"] = {"Attié"}, ["atj"] = {"Atikamekw", "Nehirowimowin"}, ["atk"] = {"Ati"}, ["atl"] = {"Mt. Iraya Agta"}, ["atm"] = {"Ata"}, ["atn"] = {"Ashtiani"}, ["ato"] = {"Atong (Cameroon)"}, ["atp"] = {"Pudtol Atta"}, ["atq"] = {"Aralle-Tabulahan"}, ["atr"] = {"Waimiri-Atroari"}, ["ats"] = {"Gros Ventre"}, ["att"] = {"Pamplona Atta"}, ["atu"] = {"Reel"}, ["atv"] = {"Northern Altai"}, ["atw"] = {"Atsugewi"}, ["atx"] = {"Arutani"}, ["aty"] = {"Aneityum"}, ["atz"] = {"Arta"}, ["aua"] = {"Asumboa"}, ["aub"] = {"Alugu"}, ["auc"] = {"Waorani"}, ["aud"] = {"Anuta"}, ["auf"] = {"Arauan languages"}, ["aug"] = {"Aguna"}, ["auh"] = {"Aushi"}, ["aui"] = {"Anuki"}, ["auj"] = {"Awjilah"}, ["auk"] = {"Heyo"}, ["aul"] = {"Aulua"}, ["aum"] = {"Asu (Nigeria)"}, ["aun"] = {"Molmo One"}, ["auo"] = {"Auyokawa"}, ["aup"] = {"Makayam"}, ["auq"] = {"Anus", "Korur"}, ["aur"] = {"Aruek"}, ["aus"] = {"Australian languages"}, ["aut"] = {"Austral"}, ["auu"] = {"Auye"}, ["auw"] = {"Awyi"}, ["aux"] = {"Aurá"}, ["auy"] = {"Awiyaana"}, ["auz"] = {"Uzbeki Arabic"}, ["avb"] = {"Avau"}, ["avd"] = {"Alviri-Vidari"}, ["avi"] = {"Avikam"}, ["avk"] = {"Kotava"}, ["avl"] = {"Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic"}, ["avm"] = {"Angkamuthi"}, ["avn"] = {"Avatime"}, ["avo"] = {"Agavotaguerra"}, ["avs"] = {"Aushiri"}, ["avt"] = {"Au"}, ["avu"] = {"Avokaya"}, ["avv"] = {"Avá-Canoeiro"}, ["awa"] = {"Awadhi"}, ["awb"] = {"Awa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["awc"] = {"Cicipu"}, ["awd"] = {"Arawakan languages"}, ["awe"] = {"Awetí"}, ["awg"] = {"Anguthimri"}, ["awh"] = {"Awbono"}, ["awi"] = {"Aekyom"}, ["awk"] = {"Awabakal"}, ["awm"] = {"Arawum"}, ["awn"] = {"Awngi"}, ["awo"] = {"Awak"}, ["awr"] = {"Awera"}, ["aws"] = {"South Awyu"}, ["awt"] = {"Araweté"}, ["awu"] = {"Central Awyu"}, ["awv"] = {"Jair Awyu"}, ["aww"] = {"Awun"}, ["awx"] = {"Awara"}, ["awy"] = {"Edera Awyu"}, ["axb"] = {"Abipon"}, ["axe"] = {"Ayerrerenge"}, ["axg"] = {"Mato Grosso Arára"}, ["axk"] = {"Yaka (Central African Republic)"}, ["axl"] = {"Lower Southern Aranda"}, ["axm"] = {"Middle Armenian"}, ["axx"] = {"Xârâgurè"}, ["aya"] = {"Awar"}, ["ayb"] = {"Ayizo Gbe"}, ["ayc"] = {"Southern Aymara"}, ["ayd"] = {"Ayabadhu"}, ["aye"] = {"Ayere"}, ["ayg"] = {"Ginyanga"}, ["ayh"] = {"Hadrami Arabic"}, ["ayi"] = {"Leyigha"}, ["ayk"] = {"Akuku"}, ["ayl"] = {"Libyan Arabic"}, ["ayn"] = {"Sanaani Arabic"}, ["ayo"] = {"Ayoreo"}, ["ayp"] = {"North Mesopotamian Arabic"}, ["ayq"] = {"Ayi (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["ayr"] = {"Central Aymara"}, ["ays"] = {"Sorsogon Ayta"}, ["ayt"] = {"Magbukun Ayta"}, ["ayu"] = {"Ayu"}, ["ayz"] = {"Mai Brat"}, ["aza"] = {"Azha"}, ["azb"] = {"South Azerbaijani"}, ["azc"] = {"Uto-Aztecan languages"}, ["azd"] = {"Eastern Durango Nahuatl"}, ["azg"] = {"San Pedro Amuzgos Amuzgo"}, ["azj"] = {"North Azerbaijani"}, ["azm"] = {"Ipalapa Amuzgo"}, ["azn"] = {"Western Durango Nahuatl"}, ["azo"] = {"Awing"}, ["azt"] = {"Faire Atta"}, ["azz"] = {"Highland Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["baa"] = {"Babatana"}, ["bab"] = {"Bainouk-Gunyuño"}, ["bac"] = {"Badui"}, ["bad"] = {"Banda languages"}, ["bae"] = {"Baré"}, ["baf"] = {"Nubaca"}, ["bag"] = {"Tuki"}, ["bah"] = {"Bahamas Creole English"}, ["bai"] = {"Bamileke languages"}, ["baj"] = {"Barakai"}, ["bal"] = {"Baluchi"}, ["ban"] = {"Balinese"}, ["bao"] = {"Waimaha"}, ["bap"] = {"Bantawa"}, ["bar"] = {"Bavarian"}, ["bas"] = {"Basa (Cameroon)"}, ["bat"] = {"Baltic languages"}, ["bau"] = {"Bada (Nigeria)"}, ["bav"] = {"Vengo"}, ["baw"] = {"Bambili-Bambui"}, ["bax"] = {"Bamun"}, ["bay"] = {"Batuley"}, ["bba"] = {"Baatonum"}, ["bbb"] = {"Barai"}, ["bbc"] = {"Batak Toba"}, ["bbd"] = {"Bau"}, ["bbe"] = {"Bangba"}, ["bbf"] = {"Baibai"}, ["bbg"] = {"Barama"}, ["bbh"] = {"Bugan"}, ["bbi"] = {"Barombi"}, ["bbj"] = {"Ghomálá'"}, ["bbk"] = {"Babanki"}, ["bbl"] = {"Bats"}, ["bbm"] = {"Babango"}, ["bbn"] = {"Uneapa"}, ["bbo"] = {"Northern Bobo Madaré", "Konabéré"}, ["bbp"] = {"West Central Banda"}, ["bbq"] = {"Bamali"}, ["bbr"] = {"Girawa"}, ["bbs"] = {"Bakpinka"}, ["bbt"] = {"Mburku"}, ["bbu"] = {"Kulung (Nigeria)"}, ["bbv"] = {"Karnai"}, ["bbw"] = {"Baba"}, ["bbx"] = {"Bubia"}, ["bby"] = {"Befang"}, ["bca"] = {"Central Bai"}, ["bcb"] = {"Bainouk-Samik"}, ["bcc"] = {"Southern Balochi"}, ["bcd"] = {"North Babar"}, ["bce"] = {"Bamenyam"}, ["bcf"] = {"Bamu"}, ["bcg"] = {"Baga Pokur"}, ["bch"] = {"Bariai"}, ["bci"] = {"Baoulé"}, ["bcj"] = {"Bardi"}, ["bck"] = {"Bunuba"}, ["bcl"] = {"Central Bikol"}, ["bcm"] = {"Bannoni"}, ["bcn"] = {"Bali (Nigeria)"}, ["bco"] = {"Kaluli"}, ["bcp"] = {"Bali (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bcq"] = {"Bench"}, ["bcr"] = {"Babine"}, ["bcs"] = {"Kohumono"}, ["bct"] = {"Bendi"}, ["bcu"] = {"Awad Bing"}, ["bcv"] = {"Shoo-Minda-Nye"}, ["bcw"] = {"Bana"}, ["bcy"] = {"Bacama"}, ["bcz"] = {"Bainouk-Gunyaamolo"}, ["bda"] = {"Bayot"}, ["bdb"] = {"Basap"}, ["bdc"] = {"Emberá-Baudó"}, ["bdd"] = {"Bunama"}, ["bde"] = {"Bade"}, ["bdf"] = {"Biage"}, ["bdg"] = {"Bonggi"}, ["bdh"] = {"Baka (South Sudan)"}, ["bdi"] = {"Burun"}, ["bdj"] = {"Bai (South Sudan)", "Bai"}, ["bdk"] = {"Budukh"}, ["bdl"] = {"Indonesian Bajau"}, ["bdm"] = {"Buduma"}, ["bdn"] = {"Baldemu"}, ["bdo"] = {"Morom"}, ["bdp"] = {"Bende"}, ["bdq"] = {"Bahnar"}, ["bdr"] = {"West Coast Bajau"}, ["bds"] = {"Burunge"}, ["bdt"] = {"Bokoto"}, ["bdu"] = {"Oroko"}, ["bdv"] = {"Bodo Parja"}, ["bdw"] = {"Baham"}, ["bdx"] = {"Budong-Budong"}, ["bdy"] = {"Bandjalang"}, ["bdz"] = {"Badeshi"}, ["bea"] = {"Beaver"}, ["beb"] = {"Bebele"}, ["bec"] = {"Iceve-Maci"}, ["bed"] = {"Bedoanas"}, ["bee"] = {"Byangsi"}, ["bef"] = {"Benabena"}, ["beg"] = {"Belait"}, ["beh"] = {"Biali"}, ["bei"] = {"Bekati'"}, ["bej"] = {"Beja", "Bedawiyet"}, ["bek"] = {"Bebeli"}, ["bem"] = {"Bemba (Zambia)"}, ["beo"] = {"Beami"}, ["bep"] = {"Besoa"}, ["beq"] = {"Beembe"}, ["ber"] = {"Berber languages"}, ["bes"] = {"Besme"}, ["bet"] = {"Guiberoua Béte"}, ["beu"] = {"Blagar"}, ["bev"] = {"Daloa Bété"}, ["bew"] = {"Betawi"}, ["bex"] = {"Jur Modo"}, ["bey"] = {"Beli (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bez"] = {"Bena (Tanzania)"}, ["bfa"] = {"Bari"}, ["bfb"] = {"Pauri Bareli"}, ["bfc"] = {"Panyi Bai", "Northern Bai"}, ["bfd"] = {"Bafut"}, ["bfe"] = {"Betaf", "Tena"}, ["bff"] = {"Bofi"}, ["bfg"] = {"Busang Kayan"}, ["bfh"] = {"Blafe"}, ["bfi"] = {"British Sign Language"}, ["bfj"] = {"Bafanji"}, ["bfk"] = {"Ban Khor Sign Language"}, ["bfl"] = {"Banda-Ndélé"}, ["bfm"] = {"Mmen"}, ["bfn"] = {"Bunak"}, ["bfo"] = {"Malba Birifor"}, ["bfp"] = {"Beba"}, ["bfq"] = {"Badaga"}, ["bfr"] = {"Bazigar"}, ["bfs"] = {"Southern Bai"}, ["bft"] = {"Balti"}, ["bfu"] = {"Gahri"}, ["bfw"] = {"Bondo"}, ["bfx"] = {"Bantayanon"}, ["bfy"] = {"Bagheli"}, ["bfz"] = {"Mahasu Pahari"}, ["bga"] = {"Gwamhi-Wuri"}, ["bgb"] = {"Bobongko"}, ["bgc"] = {"Haryanvi"}, ["bgd"] = {"Rathwi Bareli"}, ["bge"] = {"Bauria"}, ["bgf"] = {"Bangandu"}, ["bgg"] = {"Bugun"}, ["bgi"] = {"Giangan"}, ["bgj"] = {"Bangolan"}, ["bgk"] = {"Bit", "Buxinhua"}, ["bgl"] = {"Bo (Laos)"}, ["bgn"] = {"Western Balochi"}, ["bgo"] = {"Baga Koga"}, ["bgp"] = {"Eastern Balochi"}, ["bgq"] = {"Bagri"}, ["bgr"] = {"Bawm Chin"}, ["bgs"] = {"Tagabawa"}, ["bgt"] = {"Bughotu"}, ["bgu"] = {"Mbongno"}, ["bgv"] = {"Warkay-Bipim"}, ["bgw"] = {"Bhatri"}, ["bgx"] = {"Balkan Gagauz Turkish"}, ["bgy"] = {"Benggoi"}, ["bgz"] = {"Banggai"}, ["bha"] = {"Bharia"}, ["bhb"] = {"Bhili"}, ["bhc"] = {"Biga"}, ["bhd"] = {"Bhadrawahi"}, ["bhe"] = {"Bhaya"}, ["bhf"] = {"Odiai"}, ["bhg"] = {"Binandere"}, ["bhh"] = {"Bukharic"}, ["bhi"] = {"Bhilali"}, ["bhj"] = {"Bahing"}, ["bhl"] = {"Bimin"}, ["bhm"] = {"Bathari"}, ["bhn"] = {"Bohtan Neo-Aramaic"}, ["bho"] = {"Bhojpuri"}, ["bhp"] = {"Bima"}, ["bhq"] = {"Tukang Besi South"}, ["bhr"] = {"Bara Malagasy"}, ["bhs"] = {"Buwal"}, ["bht"] = {"Bhattiyali"}, ["bhu"] = {"Bhunjia"}, ["bhv"] = {"Bahau"}, ["bhw"] = {"Biak"}, ["bhx"] = {"Bhalay"}, ["bhy"] = {"Bhele"}, ["bhz"] = {"Bada (Indonesia)"}, ["bia"] = {"Badimaya"}, ["bib"] = {"Bissa", "Bisa"}, ["bid"] = {"Bidiyo"}, ["bie"] = {"Bepour"}, ["bif"] = {"Biafada"}, ["big"] = {"Biangai"}, ["bih"] = {"Bihari languages"}, ["bik"] = {"Bikol"}, ["bil"] = {"Bile"}, ["bim"] = {"Bimoba"}, ["bin"] = {"Bini", "Edo"}, ["bio"] = {"Nai"}, ["bip"] = {"Bila"}, ["biq"] = {"Bipi"}, ["bir"] = {"Bisorio"}, ["bit"] = {"Berinomo"}, ["biu"] = {"Biete"}, ["biv"] = {"Southern Birifor"}, ["biw"] = {"Kol (Cameroon)"}, ["bix"] = {"Bijori"}, ["biy"] = {"Birhor"}, ["biz"] = {"Baloi"}, ["bja"] = {"Budza"}, ["bjb"] = {"Banggarla"}, ["bjc"] = {"Bariji"}, ["bje"] = {"Biao-Jiao Mien"}, ["bjf"] = {"Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic"}, ["bjg"] = {"Bidyogo"}, ["bjh"] = {"Bahinemo"}, ["bji"] = {"Burji"}, ["bjj"] = {"Kanauji"}, ["bjk"] = {"Barok"}, ["bjl"] = {"Bulu (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bjm"] = {"Bajelani"}, ["bjn"] = {"Banjar"}, ["bjo"] = {"Mid-Southern Banda"}, ["bjp"] = {"Fanamaket"}, ["bjr"] = {"Binumarien"}, ["bjs"] = {"Bajan"}, ["bjt"] = {"Balanta-Ganja"}, ["bju"] = {"Busuu"}, ["bjv"] = {"Bedjond"}, ["bjw"] = {"Bakwé"}, ["bjx"] = {"Banao Itneg"}, ["bjy"] = {"Bayali"}, ["bjz"] = {"Baruga"}, ["bka"] = {"Kyak"}, ["bkc"] = {"Baka (Cameroon)"}, ["bkd"] = {"Binukid", "Talaandig"}, ["bkf"] = {"Beeke"}, ["bkg"] = {"Buraka"}, ["bkh"] = {"Bakoko"}, ["bki"] = {"Baki"}, ["bkj"] = {"Pande"}, ["bkk"] = {"Brokskat"}, ["bkl"] = {"Berik"}, ["bkm"] = {"Kom (Cameroon)"}, ["bkn"] = {"Bukitan"}, ["bko"] = {"Kwa'"}, ["bkp"] = {"Boko (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bkq"] = {"Bakairí"}, ["bkr"] = {"Bakumpai"}, ["bks"] = {"Northern Sorsoganon"}, ["bkt"] = {"Boloki"}, ["bku"] = {"Buhid"}, ["bkv"] = {"Bekwarra"}, ["bkw"] = {"Bekwel"}, ["bkx"] = {"Baikeno"}, ["bky"] = {"Bokyi"}, ["bkz"] = {"Bungku"}, ["bla"] = {"Siksika"}, ["blb"] = {"Bilua"}, ["blc"] = {"Bella Coola"}, ["bld"] = {"Bolango"}, ["ble"] = {"Balanta-Kentohe"}, ["blf"] = {"Buol"}, ["blh"] = {"Kuwaa"}, ["bli"] = {"Bolia"}, ["blj"] = {"Bolongan"}, ["blk"] = {"Pa'o Karen", "Pa'O"}, ["bll"] = {"Biloxi"}, ["blm"] = {"Beli (South Sudan)"}, ["bln"] = {"Southern Catanduanes Bikol"}, ["blo"] = {"Anii"}, ["blp"] = {"Blablanga"}, ["blq"] = {"Baluan-Pam"}, ["blr"] = {"Blang"}, ["bls"] = {"Balaesang"}, ["blt"] = {"Tai Dam"}, ["blv"] = {"Kibala", "Bolo"}, ["blw"] = {"Balangao"}, ["blx"] = {"Mag-Indi Ayta"}, ["bly"] = {"Notre"}, ["blz"] = {"Balantak"}, ["bma"] = {"Lame"}, ["bmb"] = {"Bembe"}, ["bmc"] = {"Biem"}, ["bmd"] = {"Baga Manduri"}, ["bme"] = {"Limassa"}, ["bmf"] = {"Bom-Kim"}, ["bmg"] = {"Bamwe"}, ["bmh"] = {"Kein"}, ["bmi"] = {"Bagirmi"}, ["bmj"] = {"Bote-Majhi"}, ["bmk"] = {"Ghayavi"}, ["bml"] = {"Bomboli"}, ["bmm"] = {"Northern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bmn"] = {"Bina (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bmo"] = {"Bambalang"}, ["bmp"] = {"Bulgebi"}, ["bmq"] = {"Bomu"}, ["bmr"] = {"Muinane"}, ["bms"] = {"Bilma Kanuri"}, ["bmt"] = {"Biao Mon"}, ["bmu"] = {"Somba-Siawari"}, ["bmv"] = {"Bum"}, ["bmw"] = {"Bomwali"}, ["bmx"] = {"Baimak"}, ["bmz"] = {"Baramu"}, ["bna"] = {"Bonerate"}, ["bnb"] = {"Bookan"}, ["bnc"] = {"Bontok"}, ["bnd"] = {"Banda (Indonesia)"}, ["bne"] = {"Bintauna"}, ["bnf"] = {"Masiwang"}, ["bng"] = {"Benga"}, ["bni"] = {"Bangi"}, ["bnj"] = {"Eastern Tawbuid"}, ["bnk"] = {"Bierebo"}, ["bnl"] = {"Boon"}, ["bnm"] = {"Batanga"}, ["bnn"] = {"Bunun"}, ["bno"] = {"Bantoanon"}, ["bnp"] = {"Bola"}, ["bnq"] = {"Bantik"}, ["bnr"] = {"Butmas-Tur"}, ["bns"] = {"Bundeli"}, ["bnt"] = {"Bantu languages"}, ["bnu"] = {"Bentong"}, ["bnv"] = {"Bonerif", "Beneraf", "Edwas"}, ["bnw"] = {"Bisis"}, ["bnx"] = {"Bangubangu"}, ["bny"] = {"Bintulu"}, ["bnz"] = {"Beezen"}, ["boa"] = {"Bora"}, ["bob"] = {"Aweer"}, ["boe"] = {"Mundabli-Mufu"}, ["bof"] = {"Bolon"}, ["bog"] = {"Bamako Sign Language"}, ["boh"] = {"Boma"}, ["boi"] = {"Barbareño"}, ["boj"] = {"Anjam"}, ["bok"] = {"Bonjo"}, ["bol"] = {"Bole"}, ["bom"] = {"Berom"}, ["bon"] = {"Bine"}, ["boo"] = {"Tiemacèwè Bozo"}, ["bop"] = {"Bonkiman"}, ["boq"] = {"Bogaya"}, ["bor"] = {"Borôro"}, ["bot"] = {"Bongo"}, ["bou"] = {"Bondei"}, ["bov"] = {"Tuwuli"}, ["bow"] = {"Rema"}, ["box"] = {"Buamu"}, ["boy"] = {"Bodo (Central African Republic)"}, ["boz"] = {"Tiéyaxo Bozo"}, ["bpa"] = {"Daakaka"}, ["bpc"] = {"Mbuk"}, ["bpd"] = {"Banda-Banda"}, ["bpe"] = {"Bauni"}, ["bpg"] = {"Bonggo"}, ["bph"] = {"Botlikh"}, ["bpi"] = {"Bagupi"}, ["bpj"] = {"Binji"}, ["bpk"] = {"Orowe", "'Ôrôê"}, ["bpl"] = {"Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin"}, ["bpm"] = {"Biyom"}, ["bpn"] = {"Dzao Min"}, ["bpo"] = {"Anasi"}, ["bpp"] = {"Kaure"}, ["bpq"] = {"Banda Malay"}, ["bpr"] = {"Koronadal Blaan"}, ["bps"] = {"Sarangani Blaan"}, ["bpt"] = {"Barrow Point"}, ["bpu"] = {"Bongu"}, ["bpv"] = {"Bian Marind"}, ["bpw"] = {"Bo (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["bpx"] = {"Palya Bareli"}, ["bpy"] = {"Bishnupriya"}, ["bpz"] = {"Bilba"}, ["bqa"] = {"Tchumbuli"}, ["bqb"] = {"Bagusa"}, ["bqc"] = {"Boko (Benin)", "Boo"}, ["bqd"] = {"Bung"}, ["bqf"] = {"Baga Kaloum"}, ["bqg"] = {"Bago-Kusuntu"}, ["bqh"] = {"Baima"}, ["bqi"] = {"Bakhtiari"}, ["bqj"] = {"Bandial"}, ["bqk"] = {"Banda-Mbrès"}, ["bql"] = {"Karian", "Bilakura"}, ["bqm"] = {"Wumboko"}, ["bqn"] = {"Bulgarian Sign Language"}, ["bqo"] = {"Balo"}, ["bqp"] = {"Busa"}, ["bqq"] = {"Biritai"}, ["bqr"] = {"Burusu"}, ["bqs"] = {"Bosngun"}, ["bqt"] = {"Bamukumbit"}, ["bqu"] = {"Boguru"}, ["bqv"] = {"Koro Wachi", "Begbere-Ejar"}, ["bqw"] = {"Buru (Nigeria)"}, ["bqx"] = {"Baangi"}, ["bqy"] = {"Bengkala Sign Language"}, ["bqz"] = {"Bakaka"}, ["bra"] = {"Braj"}, ["brb"] = {"Brao", "Lave"}, ["brc"] = {"Berbice Creole Dutch"}, ["brd"] = {"Baraamu"}, ["brf"] = {"Bira"}, ["brg"] = {"Baure"}, ["brh"] = {"Brahui"}, ["bri"] = {"Mokpwe"}, ["brj"] = {"Bieria"}, ["brk"] = {"Birked"}, ["brl"] = {"Birwa"}, ["brm"] = {"Barambu"}, ["brn"] = {"Boruca"}, ["bro"] = {"Brokkat"}, ["brp"] = {"Barapasi"}, ["brq"] = {"Breri"}, ["brr"] = {"Birao"}, ["brs"] = {"Baras"}, ["brt"] = {"Bitare"}, ["bru"] = {"Eastern Bru"}, ["brv"] = {"Western Bru"}, ["brw"] = {"Bellari"}, ["brx"] = {"Bodo (India)"}, ["bry"] = {"Burui"}, ["brz"] = {"Bilbil"}, ["bsa"] = {"Abinomn"}, ["bsb"] = {"Brunei Bisaya"}, ["bsc"] = {"Bassari", "Oniyan"}, ["bse"] = {"Wushi"}, ["bsf"] = {"Bauchi"}, ["bsg"] = {"Bashkardi"}, ["bsh"] = {"Kati"}, ["bsi"] = {"Bassossi"}, ["bsj"] = {"Bangwinji"}, ["bsk"] = {"Burushaski"}, ["bsl"] = {"Basa-Gumna"}, ["bsm"] = {"Busami"}, ["bsn"] = {"Barasana-Eduria"}, ["bso"] = {"Buso"}, ["bsp"] = {"Baga Sitemu"}, ["bsq"] = {"Bassa"}, ["bsr"] = {"Bassa-Kontagora"}, ["bss"] = {"Akoose"}, ["bst"] = {"Basketo"}, ["bsu"] = {"Bahonsuai"}, ["bsv"] = {"Baga Sobané"}, ["bsw"] = {"Baiso"}, ["bsx"] = {"Yangkam"}, ["bsy"] = {"Sabah Bisaya"}, ["bta"] = {"Bata"}, ["btc"] = {"Bati (Cameroon)"}, ["btd"] = {"Batak Dairi"}, ["bte"] = {"Gamo-Ningi"}, ["btf"] = {"Birgit"}, ["btg"] = {"Gagnoa Bété"}, ["bth"] = {"Biatah Bidayuh"}, ["bti"] = {"Burate"}, ["btj"] = {"Bacanese Malay"}, ["btk"] = {"Batak languages"}, ["btm"] = {"Batak Mandailing"}, ["btn"] = {"Ratagnon"}, ["bto"] = {"Rinconada Bikol"}, ["btp"] = {"Budibud"}, ["btq"] = {"Batek"}, ["btr"] = {"Baetora"}, ["bts"] = {"Batak Simalungun"}, ["btt"] = {"Bete-Bendi"}, ["btu"] = {"Batu"}, ["btv"] = {"Bateri"}, ["btw"] = {"Butuanon"}, ["btx"] = {"Batak Karo"}, ["bty"] = {"Bobot"}, ["btz"] = {"Batak Alas-Kluet"}, ["bua"] = {"Buriat"}, ["bub"] = {"Bua"}, ["buc"] = {"Bushi"}, ["bud"] = {"Ntcham"}, ["bue"] = {"Beothuk"}, ["buf"] = {"Bushoong"}, ["bug"] = {"Buginese"}, ["buh"] = {"Younuo Bunu"}, ["bui"] = {"Bongili"}, ["buj"] = {"Basa-Gurmana"}, ["buk"] = {"Bugawac"}, ["bum"] = {"Bulu (Cameroon)"}, ["bun"] = {"Sherbro"}, ["buo"] = {"Terei"}, ["bup"] = {"Busoa"}, ["buq"] = {"Brem"}, ["bus"] = {"Bokobaru"}, ["but"] = {"Bungain"}, ["buu"] = {"Budu"}, ["buv"] = {"Bun"}, ["buw"] = {"Bubi"}, ["bux"] = {"Boghom"}, ["buy"] = {"Bullom So"}, ["buz"] = {"Bukwen"}, ["bva"] = {"Barein"}, ["bvb"] = {"Bube"}, ["bvc"] = {"Baelelea"}, ["bvd"] = {"Baeggu"}, ["bve"] = {"Berau Malay"}, ["bvf"] = {"Boor"}, ["bvg"] = {"Bonkeng"}, ["bvh"] = {"Bure"}, ["bvi"] = {"Belanda Viri"}, ["bvj"] = {"Baan"}, ["bvk"] = {"Bukat"}, ["bvl"] = {"Bolivian Sign Language"}, ["bvm"] = {"Bamunka"}, ["bvn"] = {"Buna"}, ["bvo"] = {"Bolgo"}, ["bvp"] = {"Bumang"}, ["bvq"] = {"Birri"}, ["bvr"] = {"Burarra"}, ["bvt"] = {"Bati (Indonesia)"}, ["bvu"] = {"Bukit Malay"}, ["bvv"] = {"Baniva"}, ["bvw"] = {"Boga"}, ["bvx"] = {"Dibole"}, ["bvy"] = {"Baybayanon"}, ["bvz"] = {"Bauzi"}, ["bwa"] = {"Bwatoo"}, ["bwb"] = {"Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua"}, ["bwc"] = {"Bwile"}, ["bwd"] = {"Bwaidoka"}, ["bwe"] = {"Bwe Karen"}, ["bwf"] = {"Boselewa"}, ["bwg"] = {"Barwe"}, ["bwh"] = {"Bishuo"}, ["bwi"] = {"Baniwa"}, ["bwj"] = {"Láá Láá Bwamu"}, ["bwk"] = {"Bauwaki"}, ["bwl"] = {"Bwela"}, ["bwm"] = {"Biwat"}, ["bwn"] = {"Wunai Bunu"}, ["bwo"] = {"Boro (Ethiopia)", "Borna (Ethiopia)"}, ["bwp"] = {"Mandobo Bawah"}, ["bwq"] = {"Southern Bobo Madaré"}, ["bwr"] = {"Bura-Pabir"}, ["bws"] = {"Bomboma"}, ["bwt"] = {"Bafaw-Balong"}, ["bwu"] = {"Buli (Ghana)"}, ["bww"] = {"Bwa"}, ["bwx"] = {"Bu-Nao Bunu"}, ["bwy"] = {"Cwi Bwamu"}, ["bwz"] = {"Bwisi"}, ["bxa"] = {"Tairaha"}, ["bxb"] = {"Belanda Bor"}, ["bxc"] = {"Molengue"}, ["bxd"] = {"Pela"}, ["bxe"] = {"Birale"}, ["bxf"] = {"Bilur", "Minigir"}, ["bxg"] = {"Bangala"}, ["bxh"] = {"Buhutu"}, ["bxi"] = {"Pirlatapa"}, ["bxj"] = {"Bayungu"}, ["bxk"] = {"Bukusu", "Lubukusu"}, ["bxl"] = {"Jalkunan"}, ["bxm"] = {"Mongolia Buriat"}, ["bxn"] = {"Burduna"}, ["bxo"] = {"Barikanchi"}, ["bxp"] = {"Bebil"}, ["bxq"] = {"Beele"}, ["bxr"] = {"Russia Buriat"}, ["bxs"] = {"Busam"}, ["bxu"] = {"China Buriat"}, ["bxv"] = {"Berakou"}, ["bxw"] = {"Bankagooma"}, ["bxz"] = {"Binahari"}, ["bya"] = {"Batak"}, ["byb"] = {"Bikya"}, ["byc"] = {"Ubaghara"}, ["byd"] = {"Benyadu'"}, ["bye"] = {"Pouye"}, ["byf"] = {"Bete"}, ["byg"] = {"Baygo"}, ["byh"] = {"Bhujel"}, ["byi"] = {"Buyu"}, ["byj"] = {"Bina (Nigeria)"}, ["byk"] = {"Biao"}, ["byl"] = {"Bayono"}, ["bym"] = {"Bidjara"}, ["byn"] = {"Bilin", "Blin"}, ["byo"] = {"Biyo"}, ["byp"] = {"Bumaji"}, ["byq"] = {"Basay"}, ["byr"] = {"Baruya", "Yipma"}, ["bys"] = {"Burak"}, ["byt"] = {"Berti"}, ["byv"] = {"Medumba"}, ["byw"] = {"Belhariya"}, ["byx"] = {"Qaqet"}, ["byz"] = {"Banaro"}, ["bza"] = {"Bandi"}, ["bzb"] = {"Andio"}, ["bzc"] = {"Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bzd"] = {"Bribri"}, ["bze"] = {"Jenaama Bozo"}, ["bzf"] = {"Boikin"}, ["bzg"] = {"Babuza"}, ["bzh"] = {"Mapos Buang"}, ["bzi"] = {"Bisu"}, ["bzj"] = {"Belize Kriol English"}, ["bzk"] = {"Nicaragua Creole English"}, ["bzl"] = {"Boano (Sulawesi)"}, ["bzm"] = {"Bolondo"}, ["bzn"] = {"Boano (Maluku)"}, ["bzo"] = {"Bozaba"}, ["bzp"] = {"Kemberano"}, ["bzq"] = {"Buli (Indonesia)"}, ["bzr"] = {"Biri"}, ["bzs"] = {"Brazilian Sign Language"}, ["bzt"] = {"Brithenig"}, ["bzu"] = {"Burmeso"}, ["bzv"] = {"Naami"}, ["bzw"] = {"Basa (Nigeria)"}, ["bzx"] = {"Kɛlɛngaxo Bozo"}, ["bzy"] = {"Obanliku"}, ["bzz"] = {"Evant"}, ["caa"] = {"Chortí"}, ["cab"] = {"Garifuna"}, ["cac"] = {"Chuj"}, ["cad"] = {"Caddo"}, ["cae"] = {"Lehar", "Laalaa"}, ["caf"] = {"Southern Carrier"}, ["cag"] = {"Nivaclé"}, ["cah"] = {"Cahuarano"}, ["cai"] = {"Central American Indian languages"}, ["caj"] = {"Chané"}, ["cak"] = {"Kaqchikel", "Cakchiquel"}, ["cal"] = {"Carolinian"}, ["cam"] = {"Cemuhî"}, ["can"] = {"Chambri"}, ["cao"] = {"Chácobo"}, ["cap"] = {"Chipaya"}, ["caq"] = {"Car Nicobarese"}, ["car"] = {"Galibi Carib"}, ["cas"] = {"Tsimané"}, ["cau"] = {"Caucasian languages"}, ["cav"] = {"Cavineña"}, ["caw"] = {"Callawalla"}, ["cax"] = {"Chiquitano"}, ["cay"] = {"Cayuga"}, ["caz"] = {"Canichana"}, ["cba"] = {"Chibchan languages"}, ["cbb"] = {"Cabiyarí"}, ["cbc"] = {"Carapana"}, ["cbd"] = {"Carijona"}, ["cbg"] = {"Chimila"}, ["cbi"] = {"Chachi"}, ["cbj"] = {"Ede Cabe"}, ["cbk"] = {"Chavacano"}, ["cbl"] = {"Bualkhaw Chin"}, ["cbn"] = {"Nyahkur"}, ["cbo"] = {"Izora"}, ["cbq"] = {"Tsucuba", "Cuba"}, ["cbr"] = {"Cashibo-Cacataibo"}, ["cbs"] = {"Cashinahua"}, ["cbt"] = {"Chayahuita"}, ["cbu"] = {"Candoshi-Shapra"}, ["cbv"] = {"Cacua"}, ["cbw"] = {"Kinabalian"}, ["cby"] = {"Carabayo"}, ["ccc"] = {"Chamicuro"}, ["ccd"] = {"Cafundo Creole"}, ["cce"] = {"Chopi"}, ["ccg"] = {"Samba Daka"}, ["cch"] = {"Atsam"}, ["ccj"] = {"Kasanga"}, ["ccl"] = {"Cutchi-Swahili"}, ["ccm"] = {"Malaccan Creole Malay"}, ["ccn"] = {"North Caucasian languages"}, ["cco"] = {"Comaltepec Chinantec"}, ["ccp"] = {"Chakma"}, ["ccr"] = {"Cacaopera"}, ["ccs"] = {"South Caucasian languages"}, ["cda"] = {"Choni"}, ["cdc"] = {"Chadic languages"}, ["cdd"] = {"Caddoan languages"}, ["cde"] = {"Chenchu"}, ["cdf"] = {"Chiru"}, ["cdh"] = {"Chambeali"}, ["cdi"] = {"Chodri"}, ["cdj"] = {"Churahi"}, ["cdm"] = {"Chepang"}, ["cdn"] = {"Chaudangsi"}, ["cdo"] = {"Min Dong Chinese"}, ["cdr"] = {"Cinda-Regi-Tiyal"}, ["cds"] = {"Chadian Sign Language"}, ["cdy"] = {"Chadong"}, ["cdz"] = {"Koda"}, ["cea"] = {"Lower Chehalis"}, ["ceb"] = {"Cebuano"}, ["ceg"] = {"Chamacoco"}, ["cek"] = {"Eastern Khumi Chin"}, ["cel"] = {"Celtic languages"}, ["cen"] = {"Cen"}, ["cet"] = {"Centúúm"}, ["cey"] = {"Ekai Chin"}, ["cfa"] = {"Dijim-Bwilim"}, ["cfd"] = {"Cara"}, ["cfg"] = {"Como Karim"}, ["cfm"] = {"Falam Chin"}, ["cga"] = {"Changriwa"}, ["cgc"] = {"Kagayanen"}, ["cgg"] = {"Chiga"}, ["cgk"] = {"Chocangacakha"}, ["chb"] = {"Chibcha"}, ["chc"] = {"Catawba"}, ["chd"] = {"Highland Oaxaca Chontal"}, ["chf"] = {"Tabasco Chontal"}, ["chg"] = {"Chagatai"}, ["chh"] = {"Chinook"}, ["chj"] = {"Ojitlán Chinantec"}, ["chk"] = {"Chuukese"}, ["chl"] = {"Cahuilla"}, ["chm"] = {"Mari (Russia)"}, ["chn"] = {"Chinook jargon"}, ["cho"] = {"Choctaw"}, ["chp"] = {"Chipewyan", "Dene Suline"}, ["chq"] = {"Quiotepec Chinantec"}, ["chr"] = {"Cherokee"}, ["cht"] = {"Cholón"}, ["chw"] = {"Chuwabu"}, ["chx"] = {"Chantyal"}, ["chy"] = {"Cheyenne"}, ["chz"] = {"Ozumacín Chinantec"}, ["cia"] = {"Cia-Cia"}, ["cib"] = {"Ci Gbe"}, ["cic"] = {"Chickasaw"}, ["cid"] = {"Chimariko"}, ["cie"] = {"Cineni"}, ["cih"] = {"Chinali"}, ["cik"] = {"Chitkuli Kinnauri"}, ["cim"] = {"Cimbrian"}, ["cin"] = {"Cinta Larga"}, ["cip"] = {"Chiapanec"}, ["cir"] = {"Tiri", "Haméa", "Méa"}, ["ciw"] = {"Chippewa"}, ["ciy"] = {"Chaima"}, ["cja"] = {"Western Cham"}, ["cje"] = {"Chru"}, ["cjh"] = {"Upper Chehalis"}, ["cji"] = {"Chamalal"}, ["cjk"] = {"Chokwe"}, ["cjm"] = {"Eastern Cham"}, ["cjn"] = {"Chenapian"}, ["cjo"] = {"Ashéninka Pajonal"}, ["cjp"] = {"Cabécar"}, ["cjs"] = {"Shor"}, ["cjv"] = {"Chuave"}, ["cjy"] = {"Jinyu Chinese"}, ["ckb"] = {"Central Kurdish"}, ["ckh"] = {"Chak"}, ["ckl"] = {"Cibak"}, ["ckm"] = {"Chakavian"}, ["ckn"] = {"Kaang Chin"}, ["cko"] = {"Anufo"}, ["ckq"] = {"Kajakse"}, ["ckr"] = {"Kairak"}, ["cks"] = {"Tayo"}, ["ckt"] = {"Chukot"}, ["cku"] = {"Koasati"}, ["ckv"] = {"Kavalan"}, ["ckx"] = {"Caka"}, ["cky"] = {"Cakfem-Mushere"}, ["ckz"] = {"Cakchiquel-Quiché Mixed Language"}, ["cla"] = {"Ron"}, ["clc"] = {"Chilcotin", "Tsilhqot’in"}, ["cld"] = {"Chaldean Neo-Aramaic"}, ["cle"] = {"Lealao Chinantec"}, ["clh"] = {"Chilisso"}, ["cli"] = {"Chakali"}, ["clj"] = {"Laitu Chin"}, ["clk"] = {"Idu-Mishmi"}, ["cll"] = {"Chala"}, ["clm"] = {"Klallam", "Clallam"}, ["clo"] = {"Lowland Oaxaca Chontal"}, ["cls"] = {"Classical Sanskrit"}, ["clt"] = {"Lautu Chin"}, ["clu"] = {"Caluyanun"}, ["clw"] = {"Chulym"}, ["cly"] = {"Eastern Highland Chatino"}, ["cma"] = {"Maa"}, ["cmc"] = {"Chamic languages"}, ["cme"] = {"Cerma"}, ["cmg"] = {"Classical Mongolian"}, ["cmi"] = {"Emberá-Chamí"}, ["cml"] = {"Campalagian"}, ["cmm"] = {"Michigamea"}, ["cmn"] = {"Mandarin Chinese"}, ["cmo"] = {"Central Mnong"}, ["cmr"] = {"Mro-Khimi Chin"}, ["cms"] = {"Messapic"}, ["cmt"] = {"Camtho"}, ["cna"] = {"Changthang"}, ["cnb"] = {"Chinbon Chin"}, ["cnc"] = {"Côông"}, ["cng"] = {"Northern Qiang"}, ["cnh"] = {"Hakha Chin", "Haka Chin"}, ["cni"] = {"Asháninka"}, ["cnk"] = {"Khumi Chin"}, ["cnl"] = {"Lalana Chinantec"}, ["cno"] = {"Con"}, ["cnp"] = {"Northern Ping Chinese", "Northern Pinghua"}, ["cnq"] = {"Chung"}, ["cnr"] = {"Montenegrin"}, ["cns"] = {"Central Asmat"}, ["cnt"] = {"Tepetotutla Chinantec"}, ["cnu"] = {"Chenoua"}, ["cnw"] = {"Ngawn Chin"}, ["cnx"] = {"Middle Cornish"}, ["coa"] = {"Cocos Islands Malay"}, ["cob"] = {"Chicomuceltec"}, ["coc"] = {"Cocopa"}, ["cod"] = {"Cocama-Cocamilla"}, ["coe"] = {"Koreguaje"}, ["cof"] = {"Colorado"}, ["cog"] = {"Chong"}, ["coh"] = {"Chonyi-Dzihana-Kauma", "Chichonyi-Chidzihana-Chikauma"}, ["coj"] = {"Cochimi"}, ["cok"] = {"Santa Teresa Cora"}, ["col"] = {"Columbia-Wenatchi"}, ["com"] = {"Comanche"}, ["con"] = {"Cofán"}, ["coo"] = {"Comox"}, ["cop"] = {"Coptic"}, ["coq"] = {"Coquille"}, ["cot"] = {"Caquinte"}, ["cou"] = {"Wamey"}, ["cov"] = {"Cao Miao"}, ["cow"] = {"Cowlitz"}, ["cox"] = {"Nanti"}, ["coz"] = {"Chochotec"}, ["cpa"] = {"Palantla Chinantec"}, ["cpb"] = {"Ucayali-Yurúa Ashéninka"}, ["cpc"] = {"Ajyíninka Apurucayali"}, ["cpe"] = {"English-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cpf"] = {"French-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cpg"] = {"Cappadocian Greek"}, ["cpi"] = {"Chinese Pidgin English"}, ["cpn"] = {"Cherepon"}, ["cpo"] = {"Kpeego"}, ["cpp"] = {"Portuguese-based creoles and pidgins"}, ["cps"] = {"Capiznon"}, ["cpu"] = {"Pichis Ashéninka"}, ["cpx"] = {"Pu-Xian Chinese"}, ["cpy"] = {"South Ucayali Ashéninka"}, ["cqd"] = {"Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao"}, ["cra"] = {"Chara"}, ["crb"] = {"Island Carib"}, ["crc"] = {"Lonwolwol"}, ["crd"] = {"Coeur d'Alene"}, ["crf"] = {"Caramanta"}, ["crg"] = {"Michif"}, ["crh"] = {"Crimean Tatar", "Crimean Turkish"}, ["cri"] = {"Sãotomense"}, ["crj"] = {"Southern East Cree"}, ["crk"] = {"Plains Cree"}, ["crl"] = {"Northern East Cree"}, ["crm"] = {"Moose Cree"}, ["crn"] = {"El Nayar Cora"}, ["cro"] = {"Crow"}, ["crp"] = {"Creoles and pidgins"}, ["crq"] = {"Iyo'wujwa Chorote"}, ["crr"] = {"Carolina Algonquian"}, ["crs"] = {"Seselwa Creole French"}, ["crt"] = {"Iyojwa'ja Chorote"}, ["crv"] = {"Chaura"}, ["crw"] = {"Chrau"}, ["crx"] = {"Carrier"}, ["cry"] = {"Cori"}, ["crz"] = {"Cruzeño"}, ["csa"] = {"Chiltepec Chinantec"}, ["csb"] = {"Kashubian"}, ["csc"] = {"Catalan Sign Language", "Lengua de señas catalana", "Llengua de Signes Catalana"}, ["csd"] = {"Chiangmai Sign Language"}, ["cse"] = {"Czech Sign Language"}, ["csf"] = {"Cuba Sign Language"}, ["csg"] = {"Chilean Sign Language"}, ["csh"] = {"Asho Chin"}, ["csi"] = {"Coast Miwok"}, ["csj"] = {"Songlai Chin"}, ["csk"] = {"Jola-Kasa"}, ["csl"] = {"Chinese Sign Language"}, ["csm"] = {"Central Sierra Miwok"}, ["csn"] = {"Colombian Sign Language"}, ["cso"] = {"Sochiapam Chinantec", "Sochiapan Chinantec"}, ["csp"] = {"Southern Ping Chinese", "Southern Pinghua"}, ["csq"] = {"Croatia Sign Language"}, ["csr"] = {"Costa Rican Sign Language"}, ["css"] = {"Southern Ohlone"}, ["cst"] = {"Northern Ohlone"}, ["csu"] = {"Central Sudanic languages"}, ["csv"] = {"Sumtu Chin"}, ["csw"] = {"Swampy Cree"}, ["csx"] = {"Cambodian Sign Language"}, ["csy"] = {"Siyin Chin"}, ["csz"] = {"Coos"}, ["cta"] = {"Tataltepec Chatino"}, ["ctc"] = {"Chetco"}, ["ctd"] = {"Tedim Chin"}, ["cte"] = {"Tepinapa Chinantec"}, ["ctg"] = {"Chittagonian"}, ["cth"] = {"Thaiphum Chin"}, ["ctl"] = {"Tlacoatzintepec Chinantec"}, ["ctm"] = {"Chitimacha"}, ["ctn"] = {"Chhintange"}, ["cto"] = {"Emberá-Catío"}, ["ctp"] = {"Western Highland Chatino"}, ["cts"] = {"Northern Catanduanes Bikol"}, ["ctt"] = {"Wayanad Chetti"}, ["ctu"] = {"Chol"}, ["cty"] = {"Moundadan Chetty"}, ["ctz"] = {"Zacatepec Chatino"}, ["cua"] = {"Cua"}, ["cub"] = {"Cubeo"}, ["cuc"] = {"Usila Chinantec"}, ["cuh"] = {"Chuka", "Gichuka"}, ["cui"] = {"Cuiba"}, ["cuj"] = {"Mashco Piro"}, ["cuk"] = {"San Blas Kuna"}, ["cul"] = {"Culina", "Kulina"}, ["cuo"] = {"Cumanagoto"}, ["cup"] = {"Cupeño"}, ["cuq"] = {"Cun"}, ["cur"] = {"Chhulung"}, ["cus"] = {"Cushitic languages"}, ["cut"] = {"Teutila Cuicatec"}, ["cuu"] = {"Tai Ya"}, ["cuv"] = {"Cuvok"}, ["cuw"] = {"Chukwa"}, ["cux"] = {"Tepeuxila Cuicatec"}, ["cuy"] = {"Cuitlatec"}, ["cvg"] = {"Chug"}, ["cvn"] = {"Valle Nacional Chinantec"}, ["cwa"] = {"Kabwa"}, ["cwb"] = {"Maindo"}, ["cwd"] = {"Woods Cree"}, ["cwe"] = {"Kwere"}, ["cwg"] = {"Chewong", "Cheq Wong"}, ["cwt"] = {"Kuwaataay"}, ["cxh"] = {"Cha'ari"}, ["cya"] = {"Nopala Chatino"}, ["cyb"] = {"Cayubaba"}, ["cyo"] = {"Cuyonon"}, ["czh"] = {"Huizhou Chinese"}, ["czk"] = {"Knaanic"}, ["czn"] = {"Zenzontepec Chatino"}, ["czo"] = {"Min Zhong Chinese"}, ["czt"] = {"Zotung Chin"}, ["daa"] = {"Dangaléat"}, ["dac"] = {"Dambi"}, ["dad"] = {"Marik"}, ["dae"] = {"Duupa"}, ["dag"] = {"Dagbani"}, ["dah"] = {"Gwahatike"}, ["dai"] = {"Day"}, ["daj"] = {"Dar Fur Daju"}, ["dak"] = {"Dakota"}, ["dal"] = {"Dahalo"}, ["dam"] = {"Damakawa"}, ["dao"] = {"Daai Chin"}, ["daq"] = {"Dandami Maria"}, ["dar"] = {"Dargwa"}, ["das"] = {"Daho-Doo"}, ["dau"] = {"Dar Sila Daju"}, ["dav"] = {"Taita", "Dawida"}, ["daw"] = {"Davawenyo"}, ["dax"] = {"Dayi"}, ["day"] = {"Land Dayak languages"}, ["daz"] = {"Moi-Wadea", "Dao"}, ["dba"] = {"Bangime"}, ["dbb"] = {"Deno"}, ["dbd"] = {"Dadiya"}, ["dbe"] = {"Dabe"}, ["dbf"] = {"Edopi"}, ["dbg"] = {"Dogul Dom Dogon"}, ["dbi"] = {"Doka"}, ["dbj"] = {"Ida'an"}, ["dbl"] = {"Dyirbal"}, ["dbm"] = {"Duguri"}, ["dbn"] = {"Duriankere"}, ["dbo"] = {"Dulbu"}, ["dbp"] = {"Duwai"}, ["dbq"] = {"Daba"}, ["dbr"] = {"Dabarre"}, ["dbt"] = {"Ben Tey Dogon"}, ["dbu"] = {"Bondum Dom Dogon"}, ["dbv"] = {"Dungu"}, ["dbw"] = {"Bankan Tey Dogon"}, ["dby"] = {"Dibiyaso"}, ["dcc"] = {"Deccan"}, ["dcr"] = {"Negerhollands"}, ["dda"] = {"Dadi Dadi"}, ["ddd"] = {"Dongotono"}, ["dde"] = {"Doondo"}, ["ddg"] = {"Fataluku"}, ["ddi"] = {"West Goodenough"}, ["ddj"] = {"Jaru"}, ["ddn"] = {"Dendi (Benin)"}, ["ddo"] = {"Dido"}, ["ddr"] = {"Dhudhuroa"}, ["dds"] = {"Donno So Dogon"}, ["ddw"] = {"Dawera-Daweloor"}, ["dec"] = {"Dagik"}, ["ded"] = {"Dedua"}, ["dee"] = {"Dewoin"}, ["def"] = {"Dezfuli"}, ["deg"] = {"Degema"}, ["deh"] = {"Dehwari"}, ["dei"] = {"Demisa"}, ["del"] = {"Delaware"}, ["dem"] = {"Dem"}, ["den"] = {"Slavey"}, ["dep"] = {"Pidgin Delaware"}, ["deq"] = {"Dendi (Central African Republic)"}, ["der"] = {"Deori"}, ["des"] = {"Desano"}, ["dev"] = {"Domung"}, ["dez"] = {"Dengese"}, ["dga"] = {"Southern Dagaare"}, ["dgb"] = {"Bunoge Dogon"}, ["dgc"] = {"Casiguran Dumagat Agta"}, ["dgd"] = {"Dagaari Dioula"}, ["dge"] = {"Degenan"}, ["dgg"] = {"Doga"}, ["dgh"] = {"Dghwede"}, ["dgi"] = {"Northern Dagara"}, ["dgk"] = {"Dagba"}, ["dgl"] = {"Andaandi", "Dongolawi"}, ["dgn"] = {"Dagoman"}, ["dgo"] = {"Dogri (individual language)"}, ["dgr"] = {"Tlicho", "Dogrib", "Tłı̨chǫ"}, ["dgs"] = {"Dogoso"}, ["dgt"] = {"Ndra'ngith"}, ["dgw"] = {"Daungwurrung"}, ["dgx"] = {"Doghoro"}, ["dgz"] = {"Daga"}, ["dhd"] = {"Dhundari"}, ["dhg"] = {"Dhangu-Djangu", "Dhangu", "Djangu"}, ["dhi"] = {"Dhimal"}, ["dhl"] = {"Dhalandji"}, ["dhm"] = {"Zemba"}, ["dhn"] = {"Dhanki"}, ["dho"] = {"Dhodia"}, ["dhr"] = {"Dhargari"}, ["dhs"] = {"Dhaiso"}, ["dhu"] = {"Dhurga"}, ["dhv"] = {"Dehu", "Drehu"}, ["dhw"] = {"Dhanwar (Nepal)"}, ["dhx"] = {"Dhungaloo"}, ["dia"] = {"Dia"}, ["dib"] = {"South Central Dinka"}, ["dic"] = {"Lakota Dida"}, ["did"] = {"Didinga"}, ["dif"] = {"Dieri", "Diyari"}, ["dig"] = {"Digo", "Chidigo"}, ["dih"] = {"Kumiai"}, ["dii"] = {"Dimbong"}, ["dij"] = {"Dai"}, ["dik"] = {"Southwestern Dinka"}, ["dil"] = {"Dilling"}, ["dim"] = {"Dime"}, ["din"] = {"Dinka"}, ["dio"] = {"Dibo"}, ["dip"] = {"Northeastern Dinka"}, ["diq"] = {"Dimli (individual language)"}, ["dir"] = {"Dirim"}, ["dis"] = {"Dimasa"}, ["diu"] = {"Diriku"}, ["diw"] = {"Northwestern Dinka"}, ["dix"] = {"Dixon Reef"}, ["diy"] = {"Diuwe"}, ["diz"] = {"Ding"}, ["dja"] = {"Djadjawurrung"}, ["djb"] = {"Djinba"}, ["djc"] = {"Dar Daju Daju"}, ["djd"] = {"Djamindjung", "Ngaliwurru"}, ["dje"] = {"Zarma"}, ["djf"] = {"Djangun"}, ["dji"] = {"Djinang"}, ["djj"] = {"Djeebbana"}, ["djk"] = {"Eastern Maroon Creole", "Businenge Tongo", "Nenge"}, ["djm"] = {"Jamsay Dogon"}, ["djn"] = {"Jawoyn", "Djauan"}, ["djo"] = {"Jangkang"}, ["djr"] = {"Djambarrpuyngu"}, ["dju"] = {"Kapriman"}, ["djw"] = {"Djawi"}, ["dka"] = {"Dakpakha"}, ["dkg"] = {"Kadung"}, ["dkk"] = {"Dakka"}, ["dkr"] = {"Kuijau"}, ["dks"] = {"Southeastern Dinka"}, ["dkx"] = {"Mazagway"}, ["dlg"] = {"Dolgan"}, ["dlk"] = {"Dahalik"}, ["dlm"] = {"Dalmatian"}, ["dln"] = {"Darlong"}, ["dma"] = {"Duma"}, ["dmb"] = {"Mombo Dogon"}, ["dmc"] = {"Gavak"}, ["dmd"] = {"Madhi Madhi"}, ["dme"] = {"Dugwor"}, ["dmf"] = {"Medefaidrin"}, ["dmg"] = {"Upper Kinabatangan"}, ["dmk"] = {"Domaaki"}, ["dml"] = {"Dameli"}, ["dmm"] = {"Dama"}, ["dmn"] = {"Mande languages"}, ["dmo"] = {"Kemedzung"}, ["dmr"] = {"East Damar"}, ["dms"] = {"Dampelas"}, ["dmu"] = {"Dubu", "Tebi"}, ["dmv"] = {"Dumpas"}, ["dmw"] = {"Mudburra"}, ["dmx"] = {"Dema"}, ["dmy"] = {"Demta", "Sowari"}, ["dna"] = {"Upper Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnd"] = {"Daonda"}, ["dne"] = {"Ndendeule"}, ["dng"] = {"Dungan"}, ["dni"] = {"Lower Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnj"] = {"Dan"}, ["dnk"] = {"Dengka"}, ["dnn"] = {"Dzùùngoo"}, ["dno"] = {"Ndrulo", "Northern Lendu"}, ["dnr"] = {"Danaru"}, ["dnt"] = {"Mid Grand Valley Dani"}, ["dnu"] = {"Danau"}, ["dnv"] = {"Danu"}, ["dnw"] = {"Western Dani"}, ["dny"] = {"Dení"}, ["doa"] = {"Dom"}, ["dob"] = {"Dobu"}, ["doc"] = {"Northern Dong"}, ["doe"] = {"Doe"}, ["dof"] = {"Domu"}, ["doh"] = {"Dong"}, ["doi"] = {"Dogri (macrolanguage)"}, ["dok"] = {"Dondo"}, ["dol"] = {"Doso"}, ["don"] = {"Toura (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["doo"] = {"Dongo"}, ["dop"] = {"Lukpa"}, ["doq"] = {"Dominican Sign Language"}, ["dor"] = {"Dori'o"}, ["dos"] = {"Dogosé"}, ["dot"] = {"Dass"}, ["dov"] = {"Dombe"}, ["dow"] = {"Doyayo"}, ["dox"] = {"Bussa"}, ["doy"] = {"Dompo"}, ["doz"] = {"Dorze"}, ["dpp"] = {"Papar"}, ["dra"] = {"Dravidian languages"}, ["drb"] = {"Dair"}, ["drc"] = {"Minderico"}, ["drd"] = {"Darmiya"}, ["dre"] = {"Dolpo"}, ["drg"] = {"Rungus"}, ["dri"] = {"C'Lela"}, ["drl"] = {"Paakantyi"}, ["drn"] = {"West Damar"}, ["dro"] = {"Daro-Matu Melanau"}, ["drq"] = {"Dura"}, ["drs"] = {"Gedeo"}, ["drt"] = {"Drents"}, ["dru"] = {"Rukai"}, ["dry"] = {"Darai"}, ["dsb"] = {"Lower Sorbian"}, ["dse"] = {"Dutch Sign Language"}, ["dsh"] = {"Daasanach"}, ["dsi"] = {"Disa"}, ["dsk"] = {"Dokshi"}, ["dsl"] = {"Danish Sign Language"}, ["dsn"] = {"Dusner"}, ["dso"] = {"Desiya"}, ["dsq"] = {"Tadaksahak"}, ["dsz"] = {"Mardin Sign Language"}, ["dta"] = {"Daur"}, ["dtb"] = {"Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan"}, ["dtd"] = {"Ditidaht"}, ["dth"] = {"Adithinngithigh"}, ["dti"] = {"Ana Tinga Dogon"}, ["dtk"] = {"Tene Kan Dogon"}, ["dtm"] = {"Tomo Kan Dogon"}, ["dtn"] = {"Daatsʼíin"}, ["dto"] = {"Tommo So Dogon"}, ["dtp"] = {"Kadazan Dusun", "Central Dusun"}, ["dtr"] = {"Lotud"}, ["dts"] = {"Toro So Dogon"}, ["dtt"] = {"Toro Tegu Dogon"}, ["dtu"] = {"Tebul Ure Dogon"}, ["dty"] = {"Dotyali"}, ["dua"] = {"Duala"}, ["dub"] = {"Dubli"}, ["duc"] = {"Duna"}, ["due"] = {"Umiray Dumaget Agta"}, ["duf"] = {"Dumbea", "Drubea"}, ["dug"] = {"Duruma", "Chiduruma"}, ["duh"] = {"Dungra Bhil"}, ["dui"] = {"Dumun"}, ["duk"] = {"Uyajitaya"}, ["dul"] = {"Alabat Island Agta"}, ["dum"] = {"Middle Dutch (ca. 1050-1350)"}, ["dun"] = {"Dusun Deyah"}, ["duo"] = {"Dupaninan Agta"}, ["dup"] = {"Duano"}, ["duq"] = {"Dusun Malang"}, ["dur"] = {"Dii"}, ["dus"] = {"Dumi"}, ["duu"] = {"Drung"}, ["duv"] = {"Duvle"}, ["duw"] = {"Dusun Witu"}, ["dux"] = {"Duungooma"}, ["duy"] = {"Dicamay Agta"}, ["duz"] = {"Duli-Gey"}, ["dva"] = {"Duau"}, ["dwa"] = {"Diri"}, ["dwk"] = {"Dawik Kui"}, ["dwr"] = {"Dawro"}, ["dws"] = {"Dutton World Speedwords"}, ["dwu"] = {"Dhuwal"}, ["dww"] = {"Dawawa"}, ["dwy"] = {"Dhuwaya"}, ["dwz"] = {"Dewas Rai"}, ["dya"] = {"Dyan"}, ["dyb"] = {"Dyaberdyaber"}, ["dyd"] = {"Dyugun"}, ["dyg"] = {"Villa Viciosa Agta"}, ["dyi"] = {"Djimini Senoufo"}, ["dyl"] = {"Bhutanese Sign Language"}, ["dym"] = {"Yanda Dom Dogon"}, ["dyn"] = {"Dyangadi", "Dhanggatti"}, ["dyo"] = {"Jola-Fonyi"}, ["dyr"] = {"Dyarim"}, ["dyu"] = {"Dyula"}, ["dyy"] = {"Djabugay", "Dyaabugay"}, ["dza"] = {"Tunzu"}, ["dzd"] = {"Daza"}, ["dze"] = {"Djiwarli"}, ["dzg"] = {"Dazaga"}, ["dzl"] = {"Dzalakha"}, ["dzn"] = {"Dzando"}, ["eaa"] = {"Karenggapa"}, ["ebc"] = {"Beginci"}, ["ebg"] = {"Ebughu"}, ["ebk"] = {"Eastern Bontok"}, ["ebo"] = {"Teke-Ebo"}, ["ebr"] = {"Ebrié"}, ["ebu"] = {"Embu", "Kiembu"}, ["ecr"] = {"Eteocretan"}, ["ecs"] = {"Ecuadorian Sign Language"}, ["ecy"] = {"Eteocypriot"}, ["eee"] = {"E"}, ["efa"] = {"Efai"}, ["efe"] = {"Efe"}, ["efi"] = {"Efik"}, ["ega"] = {"Ega"}, ["egl"] = {"Emilian"}, ["egm"] = {"Benamanga"}, ["ego"] = {"Eggon"}, ["egx"] = {"Egyptian languages"}, ["egy"] = {"Egyptian (Ancient)"}, ["ehs"] = {"Miyakubo Sign Language"}, ["ehu"] = {"Ehueun"}, ["eip"] = {"Eipomek"}, ["eit"] = {"Eitiep"}, ["eiv"] = {"Askopan"}, ["eja"] = {"Ejamat"}, ["eka"] = {"Ekajuk"}, ["eke"] = {"Ekit"}, ["ekg"] = {"Ekari"}, ["eki"] = {"Eki"}, ["ekk"] = {"Standard Estonian"}, ["ekl"] = {"Kol (Bangladesh)", "Kol"}, ["ekm"] = {"Elip"}, ["eko"] = {"Koti"}, ["ekp"] = {"Ekpeye"}, ["ekr"] = {"Yace"}, ["eky"] = {"Eastern Kayah"}, ["ele"] = {"Elepi"}, ["elh"] = {"El Hugeirat"}, ["eli"] = {"Nding"}, ["elk"] = {"Elkei"}, ["elm"] = {"Eleme"}, ["elo"] = {"El Molo"}, ["elu"] = {"Elu"}, ["elx"] = {"Elamite"}, ["ema"] = {"Emai-Iuleha-Ora"}, ["emb"] = {"Embaloh"}, ["eme"] = {"Emerillon"}, ["emg"] = {"Eastern Meohang"}, ["emi"] = {"Mussau-Emira"}, ["emk"] = {"Eastern Maninkakan"}, ["emm"] = {"Mamulique"}, ["emn"] = {"Eman"}, ["emp"] = {"Northern Emberá"}, ["emq"] = {"Eastern Minyag"}, ["ems"] = {"Pacific Gulf Yupik"}, ["emu"] = {"Eastern Muria"}, ["emw"] = {"Emplawas"}, ["emx"] = {"Erromintxela"}, ["emy"] = {"Epigraphic Mayan"}, ["emz"] = {"Mbessa"}, ["ena"] = {"Apali"}, ["enb"] = {"Markweeta"}, ["enc"] = {"En"}, ["end"] = {"Ende"}, ["enf"] = {"Forest Enets"}, ["enh"] = {"Tundra Enets"}, ["enl"] = {"Enlhet"}, ["enm"] = {"Middle English (1100-1500)"}, ["enn"] = {"Engenni"}, ["eno"] = {"Enggano"}, ["enq"] = {"Enga"}, ["enr"] = {"Emumu", "Emem"}, ["enu"] = {"Enu"}, ["env"] = {"Enwan (Edo State)"}, ["enw"] = {"Enwan (Akwa Ibom State)"}, ["enx"] = {"Enxet"}, ["eot"] = {"Beti (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["epi"] = {"Epie"}, ["era"] = {"Eravallan"}, ["erg"] = {"Sie"}, ["erh"] = {"Eruwa"}, ["eri"] = {"Ogea"}, ["erk"] = {"South Efate"}, ["ero"] = {"Horpa"}, ["err"] = {"Erre"}, ["ers"] = {"Ersu"}, ["ert"] = {"Eritai"}, ["erw"] = {"Erokwanas"}, ["ese"] = {"Ese Ejja"}, ["esg"] = {"Aheri Gondi"}, ["esh"] = {"Eshtehardi"}, ["esi"] = {"North Alaskan Inupiatun"}, ["esk"] = {"Northwest Alaska Inupiatun"}, ["esl"] = {"Egypt Sign Language"}, ["esm"] = {"Esuma"}, ["esn"] = {"Salvadoran Sign Language"}, ["eso"] = {"Estonian Sign Language"}, ["esq"] = {"Esselen"}, ["ess"] = {"Central Siberian Yupik"}, ["esu"] = {"Central Yupik"}, ["esx"] = {"Eskimo-Aleut languages"}, ["esy"] = {"Eskayan"}, ["etb"] = {"Etebi"}, ["etc"] = {"Etchemin"}, ["eth"] = {"Ethiopian Sign Language"}, ["etn"] = {"Eton (Vanuatu)"}, ["eto"] = {"Eton (Cameroon)"}, ["etr"] = {"Edolo"}, ["ets"] = {"Yekhee"}, ["ett"] = {"Etruscan"}, ["etu"] = {"Ejagham"}, ["etx"] = {"Eten"}, ["etz"] = {"Semimi"}, ["eud"] = {"Eudeve"}, ["euq"] = {"Basque (family)"}, ["eve"] = {"Even"}, ["evh"] = {"Uvbie"}, ["evn"] = {"Evenki"}, ["ewo"] = {"Ewondo"}, ["ext"] = {"Extremaduran"}, ["eya"] = {"Eyak"}, ["eyo"] = {"Keiyo"}, ["eza"] = {"Ezaa"}, ["eze"] = {"Uzekwe"}, ["faa"] = {"Fasu"}, ["fab"] = {"Fa d'Ambu"}, ["fad"] = {"Wagi"}, ["faf"] = {"Fagani"}, ["fag"] = {"Finongan"}, ["fah"] = {"Baissa Fali"}, ["fai"] = {"Faiwol"}, ["faj"] = {"Faita"}, ["fak"] = {"Fang (Cameroon)"}, ["fal"] = {"South Fali"}, ["fam"] = {"Fam"}, ["fan"] = {"Fang (Equatorial Guinea)"}, ["fap"] = {"Paloor"}, ["far"] = {"Fataleka"}, ["fat"] = {"Fanti"}, ["fau"] = {"Fayu"}, ["fax"] = {"Fala"}, ["fay"] = {"Southwestern Fars"}, ["faz"] = {"Northwestern Fars"}, ["fbl"] = {"West Albay Bikol"}, ["fcs"] = {"Quebec Sign Language"}, ["fer"] = {"Feroge"}, ["ffi"] = {"Foia Foia"}, ["ffm"] = {"Maasina Fulfulde"}, ["fgr"] = {"Fongoro"}, ["fia"] = {"Nobiin"}, ["fie"] = {"Fyer"}, ["fif"] = {"Faifi"}, ["fil"] = {"Filipino", "Pilipino"}, ["fip"] = {"Fipa"}, ["fir"] = {"Firan"}, ["fit"] = {"Tornedalen Finnish", "Meänkieli"}, ["fiu"] = {"Finno-Ugrian languages"}, ["fiw"] = {"Fiwaga"}, ["fkk"] = {"Kirya-Konzəl"}, ["fkv"] = {"Kven Finnish"}, ["fla"] = {"Kalispel-Pend d'Oreille"}, ["flh"] = {"Foau"}, ["fli"] = {"Fali"}, ["fll"] = {"North Fali"}, ["fln"] = {"Flinders Island"}, ["flr"] = {"Fuliiru"}, ["fly"] = {"Flaaitaal", "Tsotsitaal"}, ["fmp"] = {"Fe'fe'"}, ["fmu"] = {"Far Western Muria"}, ["fnb"] = {"Fanbak"}, ["fng"] = {"Fanagalo"}, ["fni"] = {"Fania"}, ["fod"] = {"Foodo"}, ["foi"] = {"Foi"}, ["fom"] = {"Foma"}, ["fon"] = {"Fon"}, ["for"] = {"Fore"}, ["fos"] = {"Siraya"}, ["fox"] = {"Formosan languages"}, ["fpe"] = {"Fernando Po Creole English"}, ["fqs"] = {"Fas"}, ["frc"] = {"Cajun French"}, ["frd"] = {"Fordata"}, ["frk"] = {"Frankish"}, ["frm"] = {"Middle French (ca. 1400-1600)"}, ["fro"] = {"Old French (842-ca. 1400)"}, ["frp"] = {"Arpitan", "Francoprovençal"}, ["frq"] = {"Forak"}, ["frr"] = {"Northern Frisian"}, ["frs"] = {"Eastern Frisian"}, ["frt"] = {"Fortsenal"}, ["fse"] = {"Finnish Sign Language"}, ["fsl"] = {"French Sign Language"}, ["fss"] = {"Finland-Swedish Sign Language", "finlandssvenskt teckenspråk", "suomenruotsalainen viittomakieli"}, ["fub"] = {"Adamawa Fulfulde"}, ["fuc"] = {"Pulaar"}, ["fud"] = {"East Futuna"}, ["fue"] = {"Borgu Fulfulde"}, ["fuf"] = {"Pular"}, ["fuh"] = {"Western Niger Fulfulde"}, ["fui"] = {"Bagirmi Fulfulde"}, ["fuj"] = {"Ko"}, ["fum"] = {"Fum"}, ["fun"] = {"Fulniô"}, ["fuq"] = {"Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde"}, ["fur"] = {"Friulian"}, ["fut"] = {"Futuna-Aniwa"}, ["fuu"] = {"Furu"}, ["fuv"] = {"Nigerian Fulfulde"}, ["fuy"] = {"Fuyug"}, ["fvr"] = {"Fur"}, ["fwa"] = {"Fwâi"}, ["fwe"] = {"Fwe"}, ["gaa"] = {"Ga"}, ["gab"] = {"Gabri"}, ["gac"] = {"Mixed Great Andamanese"}, ["gad"] = {"Gaddang"}, ["gae"] = {"Guarequena"}, ["gaf"] = {"Gende"}, ["gag"] = {"Gagauz"}, ["gah"] = {"Alekano"}, ["gai"] = {"Borei"}, ["gaj"] = {"Gadsup"}, ["gak"] = {"Gamkonora"}, ["gal"] = {"Galolen"}, ["gam"] = {"Kandawo"}, ["gan"] = {"Gan Chinese"}, ["gao"] = {"Gants"}, ["gap"] = {"Gal"}, ["gaq"] = {"Gata'"}, ["gar"] = {"Galeya"}, ["gas"] = {"Adiwasi Garasia"}, ["gat"] = {"Kenati"}, ["gau"] = {"Mudhili Gadaba"}, ["gaw"] = {"Nobonob"}, ["gax"] = {"Borana-Arsi-Guji Oromo"}, ["gay"] = {"Gayo"}, ["gaz"] = {"West Central Oromo"}, ["gba"] = {"Gbaya (Central African Republic)"}, ["gbb"] = {"Kaytetye"}, ["gbd"] = {"Karajarri"}, ["gbe"] = {"Niksek"}, ["gbf"] = {"Gaikundi"}, ["gbg"] = {"Gbanziri"}, ["gbh"] = {"Defi Gbe"}, ["gbi"] = {"Galela"}, ["gbj"] = {"Bodo Gadaba"}, ["gbk"] = {"Gaddi"}, ["gbl"] = {"Gamit"}, ["gbm"] = {"Garhwali"}, ["gbn"] = {"Mo'da"}, ["gbo"] = {"Northern Grebo"}, ["gbp"] = {"Gbaya-Bossangoa"}, ["gbq"] = {"Gbaya-Bozoum"}, ["gbr"] = {"Gbagyi"}, ["gbs"] = {"Gbesi Gbe"}, ["gbu"] = {"Gagadu"}, ["gbv"] = {"Gbanu"}, ["gbw"] = {"Gabi-Gabi"}, ["gbx"] = {"Eastern Xwla Gbe"}, ["gby"] = {"Gbari"}, ["gbz"] = {"Zoroastrian Dari"}, ["gcc"] = {"Mali"}, ["gcd"] = {"Ganggalida"}, ["gce"] = {"Galice"}, ["gcf"] = {"Guadeloupean Creole French"}, ["gcl"] = {"Grenadian Creole English"}, ["gcn"] = {"Gaina"}, ["gcr"] = {"Guianese Creole French"}, ["gct"] = {"Colonia Tovar German"}, ["gda"] = {"Gade Lohar"}, ["gdb"] = {"Pottangi Ollar Gadaba"}, ["gdc"] = {"Gugu Badhun"}, ["gdd"] = {"Gedaged"}, ["gde"] = {"Gude"}, ["gdf"] = {"Guduf-Gava"}, ["gdg"] = {"Ga'dang"}, ["gdh"] = {"Gadjerawang", "Gajirrabeng"}, ["gdi"] = {"Gundi"}, ["gdj"] = {"Gurdjar"}, ["gdk"] = {"Gadang"}, ["gdl"] = {"Dirasha"}, ["gdm"] = {"Laal"}, ["gdn"] = {"Umanakaina"}, ["gdo"] = {"Ghodoberi"}, ["gdq"] = {"Mehri"}, ["gdr"] = {"Wipi"}, ["gds"] = {"Ghandruk Sign Language"}, ["gdt"] = {"Kungardutyi"}, ["gdu"] = {"Gudu"}, ["gdx"] = {"Godwari"}, ["gea"] = {"Geruma"}, ["geb"] = {"Kire"}, ["gec"] = {"Gboloo Grebo"}, ["ged"] = {"Gade"}, ["gef"] = {"Gerai"}, ["geg"] = {"Gengle"}, ["geh"] = {"Hutterite German", "Hutterisch"}, ["gei"] = {"Gebe"}, ["gej"] = {"Gen"}, ["gek"] = {"Ywom"}, ["gel"] = {"ut-Ma'in"}, ["gem"] = {"Germanic languages"}, ["geq"] = {"Geme"}, ["ges"] = {"Geser-Gorom"}, ["gev"] = {"Eviya"}, ["gew"] = {"Gera"}, ["gex"] = {"Garre"}, ["gey"] = {"Enya"}, ["gez"] = {"Geez"}, ["gfk"] = {"Patpatar"}, ["gft"] = {"Gafat"}, ["gga"] = {"Gao"}, ["ggb"] = {"Gbii"}, ["ggd"] = {"Gugadj"}, ["gge"] = {"Gurr-goni"}, ["ggg"] = {"Gurgula"}, ["ggk"] = {"Kungarakany"}, ["ggl"] = {"Ganglau"}, ["ggt"] = {"Gitua"}, ["ggu"] = {"Gagu", "Gban"}, ["ggw"] = {"Gogodala"}, ["gha"] = {"Ghadamès"}, ["ghc"] = {"Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic"}, ["ghe"] = {"Southern Ghale"}, ["ghh"] = {"Northern Ghale"}, ["ghk"] = {"Geko Karen"}, ["ghl"] = {"Ghulfan"}, ["ghn"] = {"Ghanongga"}, ["gho"] = {"Ghomara"}, ["ghr"] = {"Ghera"}, ["ghs"] = {"Guhu-Samane"}, ["ght"] = {"Kuke", "Kutang Ghale"}, ["gia"] = {"Kija"}, ["gib"] = {"Gibanawa"}, ["gic"] = {"Gail"}, ["gid"] = {"Gidar"}, ["gie"] = {"Gaɓogbo", "Guébie"}, ["gig"] = {"Goaria"}, ["gih"] = {"Githabul"}, ["gii"] = {"Girirra"}, ["gil"] = {"Gilbertese"}, ["gim"] = {"Gimi (Eastern Highlands)"}, ["gin"] = {"Hinukh"}, ["gip"] = {"Gimi (West New Britain)"}, ["giq"] = {"Green Gelao"}, ["gir"] = {"Red Gelao"}, ["gis"] = {"North Giziga"}, ["git"] = {"Gitxsan"}, ["giu"] = {"Mulao"}, ["giw"] = {"White Gelao"}, ["gix"] = {"Gilima"}, ["giy"] = {"Giyug"}, ["giz"] = {"South Giziga"}, ["gjk"] = {"Kachi Koli"}, ["gjm"] = {"Gunditjmara"}, ["gjn"] = {"Gonja"}, ["gjr"] = {"Gurindji Kriol"}, ["gju"] = {"Gujari"}, ["gka"] = {"Guya"}, ["gkd"] = {"Magɨ (Madang Province)"}, ["gke"] = {"Ndai"}, ["gkn"] = {"Gokana"}, ["gko"] = {"Kok-Nar"}, ["gkp"] = {"Guinea Kpelle"}, ["gku"] = {"ǂUngkue"}, ["glb"] = {"Belning"}, ["glc"] = {"Bon Gula"}, ["gld"] = {"Nanai"}, ["glh"] = {"Northwest Pashai", "Northwest Pashayi"}, ["glj"] = {"Gula Iro"}, ["glk"] = {"Gilaki"}, ["gll"] = {"Garlali"}, ["glo"] = {"Galambu"}, ["glr"] = {"Glaro-Twabo"}, ["glu"] = {"Gula (Chad)"}, ["glw"] = {"Glavda"}, ["gly"] = {"Gule"}, ["gma"] = {"Gambera"}, ["gmb"] = {"Gula'alaa"}, ["gmd"] = {"Mághdì"}, ["gme"] = {"East Germanic languages"}, ["gmg"] = {"Magɨyi"}, ["gmh"] = {"Middle High German (ca. 1050-1500)"}, ["gml"] = {"Middle Low German"}, ["gmm"] = {"Gbaya-Mbodomo"}, ["gmn"] = {"Gimnime"}, ["gmq"] = {"North Germanic languages"}, ["gmr"] = {"Mirning", "Mirniny"}, ["gmu"] = {"Gumalu"}, ["gmv"] = {"Gamo"}, ["gmw"] = {"West Germanic languages"}, ["gmx"] = {"Magoma"}, ["gmy"] = {"Mycenaean Greek"}, ["gmz"] = {"Mgbolizhia"}, ["gna"] = {"Kaansa"}, ["gnb"] = {"Gangte"}, ["gnc"] = {"Guanche"}, ["gnd"] = {"Zulgo-Gemzek"}, ["gne"] = {"Ganang"}, ["gng"] = {"Ngangam"}, ["gnh"] = {"Lere"}, ["gni"] = {"Gooniyandi"}, ["gnj"] = {"Ngen"}, ["gnk"] = {"ǁGana"}, ["gnl"] = {"Gangulu"}, ["gnm"] = {"Ginuman"}, ["gnn"] = {"Gumatj"}, ["gno"] = {"Northern Gondi"}, ["gnq"] = {"Gana"}, ["gnr"] = {"Gureng Gureng"}, ["gnt"] = {"Guntai"}, ["gnu"] = {"Gnau"}, ["gnw"] = {"Western Bolivian Guaraní"}, ["gnz"] = {"Ganzi"}, ["goa"] = {"Guro"}, ["gob"] = {"Playero"}, ["goc"] = {"Gorakor"}, ["god"] = {"Godié"}, ["goe"] = {"Gongduk"}, ["gof"] = {"Gofa"}, ["gog"] = {"Gogo"}, ["goh"] = {"Old High German (ca. 750-1050)"}, ["goi"] = {"Gobasi"}, ["goj"] = {"Gowlan"}, ["gok"] = {"Gowli"}, ["gol"] = {"Gola"}, ["gom"] = {"Goan Konkani"}, ["gon"] = {"Gondi"}, ["goo"] = {"Gone Dau"}, ["gop"] = {"Yeretuar"}, ["goq"] = {"Gorap"}, ["gor"] = {"Gorontalo"}, ["gos"] = {"Gronings"}, ["got"] = {"Gothic"}, ["gou"] = {"Gavar"}, ["gov"] = {"Goo"}, ["gow"] = {"Gorowa"}, ["gox"] = {"Gobu"}, ["goy"] = {"Goundo"}, ["goz"] = {"Gozarkhani"}, ["gpa"] = {"Gupa-Abawa"}, ["gpe"] = {"Ghanaian Pidgin English"}, ["gpn"] = {"Taiap"}, ["gqa"] = {"Ga'anda"}, ["gqi"] = {"Guiqiong"}, ["gqn"] = {"Guana (Brazil)"}, ["gqr"] = {"Gor"}, ["gqu"] = {"Qau"}, ["gra"] = {"Rajput Garasia"}, ["grb"] = {"Grebo"}, ["grc"] = {"Ancient Greek (to 1453)"}, ["grd"] = {"Guruntum-Mbaaru"}, ["grg"] = {"Madi"}, ["grh"] = {"Gbiri-Niragu"}, ["gri"] = {"Ghari"}, ["grj"] = {"Southern Grebo"}, ["grk"] = {"Greek languages"}, ["grm"] = {"Kota Marudu Talantang"}, ["gro"] = {"Groma"}, ["grq"] = {"Gorovu"}, ["grr"] = {"Taznatit"}, ["grs"] = {"Gresi"}, ["grt"] = {"Garo"}, ["gru"] = {"Kistane"}, ["grv"] = {"Central Grebo"}, ["grw"] = {"Gweda"}, ["grx"] = {"Guriaso"}, ["gry"] = {"Barclayville Grebo"}, ["grz"] = {"Guramalum"}, ["gse"] = {"Ghanaian Sign Language"}, ["gsg"] = {"German Sign Language"}, ["gsl"] = {"Gusilay"}, ["gsm"] = {"Guatemalan Sign Language"}, ["gsn"] = {"Nema", "Gusan"}, ["gso"] = {"Southwest Gbaya"}, ["gsp"] = {"Wasembo"}, ["gss"] = {"Greek Sign Language"}, ["gsw"] = {"Swiss German", "Alemannic", "Alsatian"}, ["gta"] = {"Guató"}, ["gtu"] = {"Aghu-Tharnggala"}, ["gua"] = {"Shiki"}, ["gub"] = {"Guajajára"}, ["guc"] = {"Wayuu"}, ["gud"] = {"Yocoboué Dida"}, ["gue"] = {"Gurindji"}, ["guf"] = {"Gupapuyngu"}, ["gug"] = {"Paraguayan Guaraní"}, ["guh"] = {"Guahibo"}, ["gui"] = {"Eastern Bolivian Guaraní"}, ["guk"] = {"Gumuz"}, ["gul"] = {"Sea Island Creole English"}, ["gum"] = {"Guambiano"}, ["gun"] = {"Mbyá Guaraní"}, ["guo"] = {"Guayabero"}, ["gup"] = {"Gunwinggu"}, ["guq"] = {"Aché"}, ["gur"] = {"Farefare"}, ["gus"] = {"Guinean Sign Language"}, ["gut"] = {"Maléku Jaíka"}, ["guu"] = {"Yanomamö"}, ["guw"] = {"Gun"}, ["gux"] = {"Gourmanchéma"}, ["guz"] = {"Gusii", "Ekegusii"}, ["gva"] = {"Guana (Paraguay)"}, ["gvc"] = {"Guanano"}, ["gve"] = {"Duwet"}, ["gvf"] = {"Golin"}, ["gvj"] = {"Guajá"}, ["gvl"] = {"Gulay"}, ["gvm"] = {"Gurmana"}, ["gvn"] = {"Kuku-Yalanji"}, ["gvo"] = {"Gavião Do Jiparaná"}, ["gvp"] = {"Pará Gavião"}, ["gvr"] = {"Gurung"}, ["gvs"] = {"Gumawana"}, ["gvy"] = {"Guyani"}, ["gwa"] = {"Mbato"}, ["gwb"] = {"Gwa"}, ["gwc"] = {"Gawri", "Kalami"}, ["gwd"] = {"Gawwada"}, ["gwe"] = {"Gweno"}, ["gwf"] = {"Gowro"}, ["gwg"] = {"Moo"}, ["gwi"] = {"Gwichʼin"}, ["gwj"] = {"ǀGwi"}, ["gwm"] = {"Awngthim"}, ["gwn"] = {"Gwandara"}, ["gwr"] = {"Gwere"}, ["gwt"] = {"Gawar-Bati"}, ["gwu"] = {"Guwamu"}, ["gww"] = {"Kwini"}, ["gwx"] = {"Gua"}, ["gxx"] = {"Wè Southern"}, ["gya"] = {"Northwest Gbaya"}, ["gyb"] = {"Garus"}, ["gyd"] = {"Kayardild"}, ["gye"] = {"Gyem"}, ["gyf"] = {"Gungabula"}, ["gyg"] = {"Gbayi"}, ["gyi"] = {"Gyele"}, ["gyl"] = {"Gayil"}, ["gym"] = {"Ngäbere"}, ["gyn"] = {"Guyanese Creole English"}, ["gyo"] = {"Gyalsumdo"}, ["gyr"] = {"Guarayu"}, ["gyy"] = {"Gunya"}, ["gyz"] = {"Geji", "Gyaazi"}, ["gza"] = {"Ganza"}, ["gzi"] = {"Gazi"}, ["gzn"] = {"Gane"}, ["haa"] = {"Hän"}, ["hab"] = {"Hanoi Sign Language"}, ["hac"] = {"Gurani"}, ["had"] = {"Hatam"}, ["hae"] = {"Eastern Oromo"}, ["haf"] = {"Haiphong Sign Language"}, ["hag"] = {"Hanga"}, ["hah"] = {"Hahon"}, ["hai"] = {"Haida"}, ["haj"] = {"Hajong"}, ["hak"] = {"Hakka Chinese"}, ["hal"] = {"Halang"}, ["ham"] = {"Hewa"}, ["han"] = {"Hangaza"}, ["hao"] = {"Hakö"}, ["hap"] = {"Hupla"}, ["haq"] = {"Ha"}, ["har"] = {"Harari"}, ["has"] = {"Haisla"}, ["hav"] = {"Havu"}, ["haw"] = {"Hawaiian"}, ["hax"] = {"Southern Haida"}, ["hay"] = {"Haya"}, ["haz"] = {"Hazaragi"}, ["hba"] = {"Hamba"}, ["hbb"] = {"Huba"}, ["hbn"] = {"Heiban"}, ["hbo"] = {"Ancient Hebrew"}, ["hbu"] = {"Habu"}, ["hca"] = {"Andaman Creole Hindi"}, ["hch"] = {"Huichol"}, ["hdn"] = {"Northern Haida"}, ["hds"] = {"Honduras Sign Language"}, ["hdy"] = {"Hadiyya"}, ["hea"] = {"Northern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hed"] = {"Herdé"}, ["heg"] = {"Helong"}, ["heh"] = {"Hehe"}, ["hei"] = {"Heiltsuk"}, ["hem"] = {"Hemba"}, ["hgm"] = {"Haiǁom"}, ["hgw"] = {"Haigwai"}, ["hhi"] = {"Hoia Hoia"}, ["hhr"] = {"Kerak"}, ["hhy"] = {"Hoyahoya"}, ["hia"] = {"Lamang"}, ["hib"] = {"Hibito"}, ["hid"] = {"Hidatsa"}, ["hif"] = {"Fiji Hindi"}, ["hig"] = {"Kamwe"}, ["hih"] = {"Pamosu"}, ["hii"] = {"Hinduri"}, ["hij"] = {"Hijuk"}, ["hik"] = {"Seit-Kaitetu"}, ["hil"] = {"Hiligaynon"}, ["him"] = {"Himachali languages", "Western Pahari languages"}, ["hio"] = {"Tsoa"}, ["hir"] = {"Himarimã"}, ["hit"] = {"Hittite"}, ["hiw"] = {"Hiw"}, ["hix"] = {"Hixkaryána"}, ["hji"] = {"Haji"}, ["hka"] = {"Kahe"}, ["hke"] = {"Hunde"}, ["hkh"] = {"Khah", "Poguli"}, ["hkk"] = {"Hunjara-Kaina Ke"}, ["hkn"] = {"Mel-Khaonh"}, ["hks"] = {"Hong Kong Sign Language", "Heung Kong Sau Yue"}, ["hla"] = {"Halia"}, ["hlb"] = {"Halbi"}, ["hld"] = {"Halang Doan"}, ["hle"] = {"Hlersu"}, ["hlt"] = {"Matu Chin"}, ["hlu"] = {"Hieroglyphic Luwian"}, ["hma"] = {"Southern Mashan Hmong", "Southern Mashan Miao"}, ["hmb"] = {"Humburi Senni Songhay"}, ["hmc"] = {"Central Huishui Hmong", "Central Huishui Miao"}, ["hmd"] = {"Large Flowery Miao", "A-hmaos", "Da-Hua Miao"}, ["hme"] = {"Eastern Huishui Hmong", "Eastern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmf"] = {"Hmong Don"}, ["hmg"] = {"Southwestern Guiyang Hmong"}, ["hmh"] = {"Southwestern Huishui Hmong", "Southwestern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmi"] = {"Northern Huishui Hmong", "Northern Huishui Miao"}, ["hmj"] = {"Ge", "Gejia"}, ["hmk"] = {"Maek"}, ["hml"] = {"Luopohe Hmong", "Luopohe Miao"}, ["hmm"] = {"Central Mashan Hmong", "Central Mashan Miao"}, ["hmn"] = {"Hmong", "Mong"}, ["hmp"] = {"Northern Mashan Hmong", "Northern Mashan Miao"}, ["hmq"] = {"Eastern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hmr"] = {"Hmar"}, ["hms"] = {"Southern Qiandong Miao"}, ["hmt"] = {"Hamtai"}, ["hmu"] = {"Hamap"}, ["hmv"] = {"Hmong Dô"}, ["hmw"] = {"Western Mashan Hmong", "Western Mashan Miao"}, ["hmx"] = {"Hmong-Mien languages"}, ["hmy"] = {"Southern Guiyang Hmong", "Southern Guiyang Miao"}, ["hmz"] = {"Hmong Shua", "Sinicized Miao"}, ["hna"] = {"Mina (Cameroon)"}, ["hnd"] = {"Southern Hindko"}, ["hne"] = {"Chhattisgarhi"}, ["hng"] = {"Hungu"}, ["hnh"] = {"ǁAni"}, ["hni"] = {"Hani"}, ["hnj"] = {"Hmong Njua", "Mong Leng", "Mong Njua"}, ["hnm"] = {"Hainanese"}, ["hnn"] = {"Hanunoo"}, ["hno"] = {"Northern Hindko"}, ["hns"] = {"Caribbean Hindustani"}, ["hnu"] = {"Hung"}, ["hoa"] = {"Hoava"}, ["hob"] = {"Mari (Madang Province)"}, ["hoc"] = {"Ho"}, ["hod"] = {"Holma"}, ["hoe"] = {"Horom"}, ["hoh"] = {"Hobyót"}, ["hoi"] = {"Holikachuk"}, ["hoj"] = {"Hadothi", "Haroti"}, ["hok"] = {"Hokan languages"}, ["hol"] = {"Holu"}, ["hom"] = {"Homa"}, ["hoo"] = {"Holoholo"}, ["hop"] = {"Hopi"}, ["hor"] = {"Horo"}, ["hos"] = {"Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language"}, ["hot"] = {"Hote", "Malê"}, ["hov"] = {"Hovongan"}, ["how"] = {"Honi"}, ["hoy"] = {"Holiya"}, ["hoz"] = {"Hozo"}, ["hpo"] = {"Hpon"}, ["hps"] = {"Hawai'i Sign Language (HSL)", "Hawai'i Pidgin Sign Language"}, ["hra"] = {"Hrangkhol"}, ["hrc"] = {"Niwer Mil"}, ["hre"] = {"Hre"}, ["hrk"] = {"Haruku"}, ["hrm"] = {"Horned Miao"}, ["hro"] = {"Haroi"}, ["hrp"] = {"Nhirrpi"}, ["hrt"] = {"Hértevin"}, ["hru"] = {"Hruso"}, ["hrw"] = {"Warwar Feni"}, ["hrx"] = {"Hunsrik"}, ["hrz"] = {"Harzani"}, ["hsb"] = {"Upper Sorbian"}, ["hsh"] = {"Hungarian Sign Language"}, ["hsl"] = {"Hausa Sign Language"}, ["hsn"] = {"Xiang Chinese"}, ["hss"] = {"Harsusi"}, ["hti"] = {"Hoti"}, ["hto"] = {"Minica Huitoto"}, ["hts"] = {"Hadza"}, ["htu"] = {"Hitu"}, ["htx"] = {"Middle Hittite"}, ["hub"] = {"Huambisa"}, ["huc"] = {"ǂHua", "ǂʼAmkhoe"}, ["hud"] = {"Huaulu"}, ["hue"] = {"San Francisco Del Mar Huave"}, ["huf"] = {"Humene"}, ["hug"] = {"Huachipaeri"}, ["huh"] = {"Huilliche"}, ["hui"] = {"Huli"}, ["huj"] = {"Northern Guiyang Hmong", "Northern Guiyang Miao"}, ["huk"] = {"Hulung"}, ["hul"] = {"Hula"}, ["hum"] = {"Hungana"}, ["huo"] = {"Hu"}, ["hup"] = {"Hupa"}, ["huq"] = {"Tsat"}, ["hur"] = {"Halkomelem"}, ["hus"] = {"Huastec"}, ["hut"] = {"Humla"}, ["huu"] = {"Murui Huitoto"}, ["huv"] = {"San Mateo Del Mar Huave"}, ["huw"] = {"Hukumina"}, ["hux"] = {"Nüpode Huitoto"}, ["huy"] = {"Hulaulá"}, ["huz"] = {"Hunzib"}, ["hvc"] = {"Haitian Vodoun Culture Language"}, ["hve"] = {"San Dionisio Del Mar Huave"}, ["hvk"] = {"Haveke"}, ["hvn"] = {"Sabu"}, ["hvv"] = {"Santa María Del Mar Huave"}, ["hwa"] = {"Wané"}, ["hwc"] = {"Hawai'i Creole English", "Hawai'i Pidgin"}, ["hwo"] = {"Hwana"}, ["hya"] = {"Hya"}, ["hyw"] = {"Western Armenian"}, ["hyx"] = {"Armenian (family)"}, ["iai"] = {"Iaai"}, ["ian"] = {"Iatmul"}, ["iar"] = {"Purari"}, ["iba"] = {"Iban"}, ["ibb"] = {"Ibibio"}, ["ibd"] = {"Iwaidja"}, ["ibe"] = {"Akpes"}, ["ibg"] = {"Ibanag"}, ["ibh"] = {"Bih"}, ["ibl"] = {"Ibaloi"}, ["ibm"] = {"Agoi"}, ["ibn"] = {"Ibino"}, ["ibr"] = {"Ibuoro"}, ["ibu"] = {"Ibu"}, ["iby"] = {"Ibani"}, ["ica"] = {"Ede Ica"}, ["ich"] = {"Etkywan"}, ["icl"] = {"Icelandic Sign Language"}, ["icr"] = {"Islander Creole English"}, ["ida"] = {"Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki", "Luidakho-Luisukha-Lutirichi"}, ["idb"] = {"Indo-Portuguese"}, ["idc"] = {"Idon", "Ajiya"}, ["idd"] = {"Ede Idaca"}, ["ide"] = {"Idere"}, ["idi"] = {"Idi"}, ["idr"] = {"Indri"}, ["ids"] = {"Idesa"}, ["idt"] = {"Idaté"}, ["idu"] = {"Idoma"}, ["ifa"] = {"Amganad Ifugao"}, ["ifb"] = {"Batad Ifugao", "Ayangan Ifugao"}, ["ife"] = {"Ifè"}, ["iff"] = {"Ifo"}, ["ifk"] = {"Tuwali Ifugao"}, ["ifm"] = {"Teke-Fuumu"}, ["ifu"] = {"Mayoyao Ifugao"}, ["ify"] = {"Keley-I Kallahan"}, ["igb"] = {"Ebira"}, ["ige"] = {"Igede"}, ["igg"] = {"Igana"}, ["igl"] = {"Igala"}, ["igm"] = {"Kanggape"}, ["ign"] = {"Ignaciano"}, ["igo"] = {"Isebe"}, ["igs"] = {"Interglossa"}, ["igw"] = {"Igwe"}, ["ihb"] = {"Iha Based Pidgin"}, ["ihi"] = {"Ihievbe"}, ["ihp"] = {"Iha"}, ["ihw"] = {"Bidhawal"}, ["iin"] = {"Thiin"}, ["iir"] = {"Indo-Iranian languages"}, ["ijc"] = {"Izon"}, ["ije"] = {"Biseni"}, ["ijj"] = {"Ede Ije"}, ["ijn"] = {"Kalabari"}, ["ijo"] = {"Ijo languages"}, ["ijs"] = {"Southeast Ijo"}, ["ike"] = {"Eastern Canadian Inuktitut"}, ["ikh"] = {"Ikhin-Arokho"}, ["iki"] = {"Iko"}, ["ikk"] = {"Ika"}, ["ikl"] = {"Ikulu"}, ["iko"] = {"Olulumo-Ikom"}, ["ikp"] = {"Ikpeshi"}, ["ikr"] = {"Ikaranggal"}, ["iks"] = {"Inuit Sign Language"}, ["ikt"] = {"Inuinnaqtun", "Western Canadian Inuktitut"}, ["ikv"] = {"Iku-Gora-Ankwa"}, ["ikw"] = {"Ikwere"}, ["ikx"] = {"Ik"}, ["ikz"] = {"Ikizu"}, ["ila"] = {"Ile Ape"}, ["ilb"] = {"Ila"}, ["ilg"] = {"Garig-Ilgar"}, ["ili"] = {"Ili Turki"}, ["ilk"] = {"Ilongot"}, ["ilm"] = {"Iranun (Malaysia)"}, ["ilo"] = {"Iloko"}, ["ilp"] = {"Iranun (Philippines)"}, ["ils"] = {"International Sign"}, ["ilu"] = {"Ili'uun"}, ["ilv"] = {"Ilue"}, ["ima"] = {"Mala Malasar"}, ["imi"] = {"Anamgura"}, ["iml"] = {"Miluk"}, ["imn"] = {"Imonda"}, ["imo"] = {"Imbongu"}, ["imr"] = {"Imroing"}, ["ims"] = {"Marsian"}, ["imt"] = {"Imotong"}, ["imy"] = {"Milyan"}, ["inb"] = {"Inga"}, ["inc"] = {"Indic languages"}, ["ine"] = {"Indo-European languages"}, ["ing"] = {"Degexit'an"}, ["inh"] = {"Ingush"}, ["inj"] = {"Jungle Inga"}, ["inl"] = {"Indonesian Sign Language"}, ["inm"] = {"Minaean"}, ["inn"] = {"Isinai"}, ["ino"] = {"Inoke-Yate"}, ["inp"] = {"Iñapari"}, ["ins"] = {"Indian Sign Language"}, ["int"] = {"Intha"}, ["inz"] = {"Ineseño"}, ["ior"] = {"Inor"}, ["iou"] = {"Tuma-Irumu"}, ["iow"] = {"Iowa-Oto"}, ["ipi"] = {"Ipili"}, ["ipo"] = {"Ipiko"}, ["iqu"] = {"Iquito"}, ["iqw"] = {"Ikwo"}, ["ira"] = {"Iranian languages"}, ["ire"] = {"Iresim"}, ["irh"] = {"Irarutu"}, ["iri"] = {"Rigwe", "Irigwe"}, ["irk"] = {"Iraqw"}, ["irn"] = {"Irántxe"}, ["iro"] = {"Iroquoian languages"}, ["irr"] = {"Ir"}, ["iru"] = {"Irula"}, ["irx"] = {"Kamberau"}, ["iry"] = {"Iraya"}, ["isa"] = {"Isabi"}, ["isc"] = {"Isconahua"}, ["isd"] = {"Isnag"}, ["ise"] = {"Italian Sign Language"}, ["isg"] = {"Irish Sign Language"}, ["ish"] = {"Esan"}, ["isi"] = {"Nkem-Nkum"}, ["isk"] = {"Ishkashimi"}, ["ism"] = {"Masimasi"}, ["isn"] = {"Isanzu"}, ["iso"] = {"Isoko"}, ["isr"] = {"Israeli Sign Language"}, ["ist"] = {"Istriot"}, ["isu"] = {"Isu", "Isu (Menchum Division)"}, ["isv"] = {"Interslavic"}, ["itb"] = {"Binongan Itneg"}, ["itc"] = {"Italic languages"}, ["itd"] = {"Southern Tidung"}, ["ite"] = {"Itene"}, ["iti"] = {"Inlaod Itneg"}, ["itk"] = {"Judeo-Italian"}, ["itl"] = {"Itelmen"}, ["itm"] = {"Itu Mbon Uzo"}, ["ito"] = {"Itonama"}, ["itr"] = {"Iteri"}, ["its"] = {"Isekiri"}, ["itt"] = {"Maeng Itneg"}, ["itv"] = {"Itawit"}, ["itw"] = {"Ito"}, ["itx"] = {"Itik"}, ["ity"] = {"Moyadan Itneg"}, ["itz"] = {"Itzá"}, ["ium"] = {"Iu Mien"}, ["ivb"] = {"Ibatan"}, ["ivv"] = {"Ivatan"}, ["iwk"] = {"I-Wak"}, ["iwm"] = {"Iwam"}, ["iwo"] = {"Iwur"}, ["iws"] = {"Sepik Iwam"}, ["ixc"] = {"Ixcatec"}, ["ixl"] = {"Ixil"}, ["iya"] = {"Iyayu"}, ["iyo"] = {"Mesaka"}, ["iyx"] = {"Yaka (Congo)"}, ["izh"] = {"Ingrian"}, ["izm"] = {"Kizamani"}, ["izr"] = {"Izere"}, ["izz"] = {"Izii"}, ["jaa"] = {"Jamamadí"}, ["jab"] = {"Hyam"}, ["jac"] = {"Popti'", "Jakalteko"}, ["jad"] = {"Jahanka"}, ["jae"] = {"Yabem"}, ["jaf"] = {"Jara"}, ["jah"] = {"Jah Hut"}, ["jaj"] = {"Zazao"}, ["jak"] = {"Jakun"}, ["jal"] = {"Yalahatan"}, ["jam"] = {"Jamaican Creole English"}, ["jan"] = {"Jandai"}, ["jao"] = {"Yanyuwa"}, ["jaq"] = {"Yaqay"}, ["jas"] = {"New Caledonian Javanese"}, ["jat"] = {"Jakati"}, ["jau"] = {"Yaur"}, ["jax"] = {"Jambi Malay"}, ["jay"] = {"Yan-nhangu", "Nhangu"}, ["jaz"] = {"Jawe"}, ["jbe"] = {"Judeo-Berber"}, ["jbi"] = {"Badjiri"}, ["jbj"] = {"Arandai"}, ["jbk"] = {"Barikewa"}, ["jbm"] = {"Bijim"}, ["jbn"] = {"Nafusi"}, ["jbo"] = {"Lojban"}, ["jbr"] = {"Jofotek-Bromnya"}, ["jbt"] = {"Jabutí"}, ["jbu"] = {"Jukun Takum"}, ["jbw"] = {"Yawijibaya"}, ["jcs"] = {"Jamaican Country Sign Language"}, ["jct"] = {"Krymchak"}, ["jda"] = {"Jad"}, ["jdg"] = {"Jadgali"}, ["jdt"] = {"Judeo-Tat"}, ["jeb"] = {"Jebero"}, ["jee"] = {"Jerung"}, ["jeh"] = {"Jeh"}, ["jei"] = {"Yei"}, ["jek"] = {"Jeri Kuo"}, ["jel"] = {"Yelmek"}, ["jen"] = {"Dza"}, ["jer"] = {"Jere"}, ["jet"] = {"Manem"}, ["jeu"] = {"Jonkor Bourmataguil"}, ["jgb"] = {"Ngbee"}, ["jge"] = {"Judeo-Georgian"}, ["jgk"] = {"Gwak"}, ["jgo"] = {"Ngomba"}, ["jhi"] = {"Jehai"}, ["jhs"] = {"Jhankot Sign Language"}, ["jia"] = {"Jina"}, ["jib"] = {"Jibu"}, ["jic"] = {"Tol"}, ["jid"] = {"Bu (Kaduna State)"}, ["jie"] = {"Jilbe"}, ["jig"] = {"Jingulu", "Djingili"}, ["jih"] = {"sTodsde", "Shangzhai"}, ["jii"] = {"Jiiddu"}, ["jil"] = {"Jilim"}, ["jim"] = {"Jimi (Cameroon)"}, ["jio"] = {"Jiamao"}, ["jiq"] = {"Guanyinqiao", "Lavrung"}, ["jit"] = {"Jita"}, ["jiu"] = {"Youle Jinuo"}, ["jiv"] = {"Shuar"}, ["jiy"] = {"Buyuan Jinuo"}, ["jje"] = {"Jejueo"}, ["jjr"] = {"Bankal"}, ["jka"] = {"Kaera"}, ["jkm"] = {"Mobwa Karen"}, ["jko"] = {"Kubo"}, ["jkp"] = {"Paku Karen"}, ["jkr"] = {"Koro (India)"}, ["jks"] = {"Amami Koniya Sign Language"}, ["jku"] = {"Labir"}, ["jle"] = {"Ngile"}, ["jls"] = {"Jamaican Sign Language"}, ["jma"] = {"Dima"}, ["jmb"] = {"Zumbun"}, ["jmc"] = {"Machame"}, ["jmd"] = {"Yamdena"}, ["jmi"] = {"Jimi (Nigeria)"}, ["jml"] = {"Jumli"}, ["jmn"] = {"Makuri Naga"}, ["jmr"] = {"Kamara"}, ["jms"] = {"Mashi (Nigeria)"}, ["jmw"] = {"Mouwase"}, ["jmx"] = {"Western Juxtlahuaca Mixtec"}, ["jna"] = {"Jangshung"}, ["jnd"] = {"Jandavra"}, ["jng"] = {"Yangman"}, ["jni"] = {"Janji"}, ["jnj"] = {"Yemsa"}, ["jnl"] = {"Rawat"}, ["jns"] = {"Jaunsari"}, ["job"] = {"Joba"}, ["jod"] = {"Wojenaka"}, ["jog"] = {"Jogi"}, ["jor"] = {"Jorá"}, ["jos"] = {"Jordanian Sign Language"}, ["jow"] = {"Jowulu"}, ["jpa"] = {"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"}, ["jpr"] = {"Judeo-Persian"}, ["jpx"] = {"Japanese (family)"}, ["jqr"] = {"Jaqaru"}, ["jra"] = {"Jarai"}, ["jrb"] = {"Judeo-Arabic"}, ["jrr"] = {"Jiru"}, ["jrt"] = {"Jakattoe"}, ["jru"] = {"Japrería"}, ["jsl"] = {"Japanese Sign Language"}, ["jua"] = {"Júma"}, ["jub"] = {"Wannu"}, ["juc"] = {"Jurchen"}, ["jud"] = {"Worodougou"}, ["juh"] = {"Hõne"}, ["jui"] = {"Ngadjuri"}, ["juk"] = {"Wapan"}, ["jul"] = {"Jirel"}, ["jum"] = {"Jumjum"}, ["jun"] = {"Juang"}, ["juo"] = {"Jiba"}, ["jup"] = {"Hupdë"}, ["jur"] = {"Jurúna"}, ["jus"] = {"Jumla Sign Language"}, ["jut"] = {"Jutish"}, ["juu"] = {"Ju"}, ["juw"] = {"Wãpha"}, ["juy"] = {"Juray"}, ["jvd"] = {"Javindo"}, ["jvn"] = {"Caribbean Javanese"}, ["jwi"] = {"Jwira-Pepesa"}, ["jya"] = {"Jiarong"}, ["jye"] = {"Judeo-Yemeni Arabic"}, ["jyy"] = {"Jaya"}, ["kaa"] = {"Kara-Kalpak", "Karakalpak"}, ["kab"] = {"Kabyle"}, ["kac"] = {"Kachin", "Jingpho"}, ["kad"] = {"Adara"}, ["kae"] = {"Ketangalan"}, ["kaf"] = {"Katso"}, ["kag"] = {"Kajaman"}, ["kah"] = {"Kara (Central African Republic)"}, ["kai"] = {"Karekare"}, ["kaj"] = {"Jju"}, ["kak"] = {"Kalanguya", "Kayapa Kallahan"}, ["kam"] = {"Kamba (Kenya)"}, ["kao"] = {"Xaasongaxango"}, ["kap"] = {"Bezhta"}, ["kaq"] = {"Capanahua"}, ["kar"] = {"Karen languages"}, ["kav"] = {"Katukína"}, ["kaw"] = {"Kawi"}, ["kax"] = {"Kao"}, ["kay"] = {"Kamayurá"}, ["kba"] = {"Kalarko"}, ["kbb"] = {"Kaxuiâna"}, ["kbc"] = {"Kadiwéu"}, ["kbd"] = {"Kabardian"}, ["kbe"] = {"Kanju"}, ["kbg"] = {"Khamba"}, ["kbh"] = {"Camsá"}, ["kbi"] = {"Kaptiau"}, ["kbj"] = {"Kari"}, ["kbk"] = {"Grass Koiari"}, ["kbl"] = {"Kanembu"}, ["kbm"] = {"Iwal"}, ["kbn"] = {"Kare (Central African Republic)"}, ["kbo"] = {"Keliko"}, ["kbp"] = {"Kabiyè"}, ["kbq"] = {"Kamano"}, ["kbr"] = {"Kafa"}, ["kbs"] = {"Kande"}, ["kbt"] = {"Abadi"}, ["kbu"] = {"Kabutra"}, ["kbv"] = {"Dera (Indonesia)"}, ["kbw"] = {"Kaiep"}, ["kbx"] = {"Ap Ma"}, ["kby"] = {"Manga Kanuri"}, ["kbz"] = {"Duhwa"}, ["kca"] = {"Khanty"}, ["kcb"] = {"Kawacha"}, ["kcc"] = {"Lubila"}, ["kcd"] = {"Ngkâlmpw Kanum"}, ["kce"] = {"Kaivi"}, ["kcf"] = {"Ukaan"}, ["kcg"] = {"Tyap"}, ["kch"] = {"Vono"}, ["kci"] = {"Ngyian", "Kamantan"}, ["kcj"] = {"Kobiana"}, ["kck"] = {"Kalanga"}, ["kcl"] = {"Kela (Papua New Guinea)", "Kala"}, ["kcm"] = {"Gula (Central African Republic)"}, ["kcn"] = {"Nubi"}, ["kco"] = {"Kinalakna"}, ["kcp"] = {"Kanga"}, ["kcq"] = {"Kamo"}, ["kcr"] = {"Katla"}, ["kcs"] = {"Koenoem"}, ["kct"] = {"Kaian"}, ["kcu"] = {"Kami (Tanzania)"}, ["kcv"] = {"Kete"}, ["kcw"] = {"Kabwari"}, ["kcx"] = {"Kachama-Ganjule"}, ["kcy"] = {"Korandje"}, ["kcz"] = {"Konongo"}, ["kda"] = {"Worimi"}, ["kdc"] = {"Kutu"}, ["kdd"] = {"Yankunytjatjara"}, ["kde"] = {"Makonde"}, ["kdf"] = {"Mamusi"}, ["kdg"] = {"Seba"}, ["kdh"] = {"Tem"}, ["kdi"] = {"Kumam"}, ["kdj"] = {"Karamojong"}, ["kdk"] = {"Numèè", "Kwényi"}, ["kdl"] = {"Tsikimba"}, ["kdm"] = {"Kagoma"}, ["kdn"] = {"Kunda"}, ["kdo"] = {"Kordofanian languages"}, ["kdp"] = {"Kaningdon-Nindem"}, ["kdq"] = {"Koch"}, ["kdr"] = {"Karaim"}, ["kdt"] = {"Kuy"}, ["kdu"] = {"Kadaru"}, ["kdw"] = {"Koneraw"}, ["kdx"] = {"Kam"}, ["kdy"] = {"Keder", "Keijar"}, ["kdz"] = {"Kwaja"}, ["kea"] = {"Kabuverdianu"}, ["keb"] = {"Kélé"}, ["kec"] = {"Keiga"}, ["ked"] = {"Kerewe"}, ["kee"] = {"Eastern Keres"}, ["kef"] = {"Kpessi"}, ["keg"] = {"Tese"}, ["keh"] = {"Keak"}, ["kei"] = {"Kei"}, ["kej"] = {"Kadar"}, ["kek"] = {"Kekchí"}, ["kel"] = {"Kela (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["kem"] = {"Kemak"}, ["ken"] = {"Kenyang"}, ["keo"] = {"Kakwa"}, ["kep"] = {"Kaikadi"}, ["keq"] = {"Kamar"}, ["ker"] = {"Kera"}, ["kes"] = {"Kugbo"}, ["ket"] = {"Ket"}, ["keu"] = {"Akebu"}, ["kev"] = {"Kanikkaran"}, ["kew"] = {"West Kewa"}, ["kex"] = {"Kukna"}, ["key"] = {"Kupia"}, ["kez"] = {"Kukele"}, ["kfa"] = {"Kodava"}, ["kfb"] = {"Northwestern Kolami"}, ["kfc"] = {"Konda-Dora"}, ["kfd"] = {"Korra Koraga"}, ["kfe"] = {"Kota (India)"}, ["kff"] = {"Koya"}, ["kfg"] = {"Kudiya"}, ["kfh"] = {"Kurichiya"}, ["kfi"] = {"Kannada Kurumba"}, ["kfj"] = {"Kemiehua"}, ["kfk"] = {"Kinnauri"}, ["kfl"] = {"Kung"}, ["kfm"] = {"Khunsari"}, ["kfn"] = {"Kuk"}, ["kfo"] = {"Koro (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["kfp"] = {"Korwa"}, ["kfq"] = {"Korku"}, ["kfr"] = {"Kachhi", "Kutchi"}, ["kfs"] = {"Bilaspuri"}, ["kft"] = {"Kanjari"}, ["kfu"] = {"Katkari"}, ["kfv"] = {"Kurmukar"}, ["kfw"] = {"Kharam Naga"}, ["kfx"] = {"Kullu Pahari"}, ["kfy"] = {"Kumaoni"}, ["kfz"] = {"Koromfé"}, ["kga"] = {"Koyaga"}, ["kgb"] = {"Kawe"}, ["kge"] = {"Komering"}, ["kgf"] = {"Kube"}, ["kgg"] = {"Kusunda"}, ["kgi"] = {"Selangor Sign Language"}, ["kgj"] = {"Gamale Kham"}, ["kgk"] = {"Kaiwá"}, ["kgl"] = {"Kunggari"}, ["kgn"] = {"Karingani"}, ["kgo"] = {"Krongo"}, ["kgp"] = {"Kaingang"}, ["kgq"] = {"Kamoro"}, ["kgr"] = {"Abun"}, ["kgs"] = {"Kumbainggar"}, ["kgt"] = {"Somyev"}, ["kgu"] = {"Kobol"}, ["kgv"] = {"Karas"}, ["kgw"] = {"Karon Dori"}, ["kgx"] = {"Kamaru"}, ["kgy"] = {"Kyerung"}, ["kha"] = {"Khasi"}, ["khb"] = {"Lü"}, ["khc"] = {"Tukang Besi North"}, ["khd"] = {"Bädi Kanum"}, ["khe"] = {"Korowai"}, ["khf"] = {"Khuen"}, ["khg"] = {"Khams Tibetan"}, ["khh"] = {"Kehu"}, ["khi"] = {"Khoisan languages"}, ["khj"] = {"Kuturmi"}, ["khk"] = {"Halh Mongolian"}, ["khl"] = {"Lusi"}, ["khn"] = {"Khandesi"}, ["kho"] = {"Khotanese", "Sakan"}, ["khp"] = {"Kapori", "Kapauri"}, ["khq"] = {"Koyra Chiini Songhay"}, ["khr"] = {"Kharia"}, ["khs"] = {"Kasua"}, ["kht"] = {"Khamti"}, ["khu"] = {"Nkhumbi"}, ["khv"] = {"Khvarshi"}, ["khw"] = {"Khowar"}, ["khx"] = {"Kanu"}, ["khy"] = {"Kele (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["khz"] = {"Keapara"}, ["kia"] = {"Kim"}, ["kib"] = {"Koalib"}, ["kic"] = {"Kickapoo"}, ["kid"] = {"Koshin"}, ["kie"] = {"Kibet"}, ["kif"] = {"Eastern Parbate Kham"}, ["kig"] = {"Kimaama", "Kimaghima"}, ["kih"] = {"Kilmeri"}, ["kii"] = {"Kitsai"}, ["kij"] = {"Kilivila"}, ["kil"] = {"Kariya"}, ["kim"] = {"Karagas"}, ["kio"] = {"Kiowa"}, ["kip"] = {"Sheshi Kham"}, ["kiq"] = {"Kosadle", "Kosare"}, ["kis"] = {"Kis"}, ["kit"] = {"Agob"}, ["kiu"] = {"Kirmanjki (individual language)"}, ["kiv"] = {"Kimbu"}, ["kiw"] = {"Northeast Kiwai"}, ["kix"] = {"Khiamniungan Naga"}, ["kiy"] = {"Kirikiri"}, ["kiz"] = {"Kisi"}, ["kja"] = {"Mlap"}, ["kjb"] = {"Q'anjob'al", "Kanjobal"}, ["kjc"] = {"Coastal Konjo"}, ["kjd"] = {"Southern Kiwai"}, ["kje"] = {"Kisar"}, ["kjg"] = {"Khmu"}, ["kjh"] = {"Khakas"}, ["kji"] = {"Zabana"}, ["kjj"] = {"Khinalugh"}, ["kjk"] = {"Highland Konjo"}, ["kjl"] = {"Western Parbate Kham"}, ["kjm"] = {"Kháng"}, ["kjn"] = {"Kunjen"}, ["kjo"] = {"Kinnauri Pahari"}, ["kjp"] = {"Pwo Eastern Karen"}, ["kjq"] = {"Western Keres"}, ["kjr"] = {"Kurudu"}, ["kjs"] = {"East Kewa"}, ["kjt"] = {"Phrae Pwo Karen"}, ["kju"] = {"Kashaya"}, ["kjv"] = {"Kaikavian Literary Language"}, ["kjx"] = {"Ramopa"}, ["kjy"] = {"Erave"}, ["kjz"] = {"Bumthangkha"}, ["kka"] = {"Kakanda"}, ["kkb"] = {"Kwerisa"}, ["kkc"] = {"Odoodee"}, ["kkd"] = {"Kinuku"}, ["kke"] = {"Kakabe"}, ["kkf"] = {"Kalaktang Monpa"}, ["kkg"] = {"Mabaka Valley Kalinga"}, ["kkh"] = {"Khün"}, ["kki"] = {"Kagulu"}, ["kkj"] = {"Kako"}, ["kkk"] = {"Kokota"}, ["kkl"] = {"Kosarek Yale"}, ["kkm"] = {"Kiong"}, ["kkn"] = {"Kon Keu"}, ["kko"] = {"Karko"}, ["kkp"] = {"Gugubera", "Koko-Bera"}, ["kkq"] = {"Kaeku"}, ["kkr"] = {"Kir-Balar"}, ["kks"] = {"Giiwo"}, ["kkt"] = {"Koi"}, ["kku"] = {"Tumi"}, ["kkv"] = {"Kangean"}, ["kkw"] = {"Teke-Kukuya"}, ["kkx"] = {"Kohin"}, ["kky"] = {"Guugu Yimidhirr", "Guguyimidjir"}, ["kkz"] = {"Kaska"}, ["kla"] = {"Klamath-Modoc"}, ["klb"] = {"Kiliwa"}, ["klc"] = {"Kolbila"}, ["kld"] = {"Gamilaraay"}, ["kle"] = {"Kulung (Nepal)"}, ["klf"] = {"Kendeje"}, ["klg"] = {"Tagakaulo"}, ["klh"] = {"Weliki"}, ["kli"] = {"Kalumpang"}, ["klj"] = {"Khalaj"}, ["klk"] = {"Kono (Nigeria)"}, ["kll"] = {"Kagan Kalagan"}, ["klm"] = {"Migum"}, ["kln"] = {"Kalenjin"}, ["klo"] = {"Kapya"}, ["klp"] = {"Kamasa"}, ["klq"] = {"Rumu"}, ["klr"] = {"Khaling"}, ["kls"] = {"Kalasha"}, ["klt"] = {"Nukna"}, ["klu"] = {"Klao"}, ["klv"] = {"Maskelynes"}, ["klw"] = {"Tado", "Lindu"}, ["klx"] = {"Koluwawa"}, ["kly"] = {"Kalao"}, ["klz"] = {"Kabola"}, ["kma"] = {"Konni"}, ["kmb"] = {"Kimbundu"}, ["kmc"] = {"Southern Dong"}, ["kmd"] = {"Majukayang Kalinga"}, ["kme"] = {"Bakole"}, ["kmf"] = {"Kare (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kmg"] = {"Kâte"}, ["kmh"] = {"Kalam"}, ["kmi"] = {"Kami (Nigeria)"}, ["kmj"] = {"Kumarbhag Paharia"}, ["kmk"] = {"Limos Kalinga"}, ["kml"] = {"Tanudan Kalinga"}, ["kmm"] = {"Kom (India)"}, ["kmn"] = {"Awtuw"}, ["kmo"] = {"Kwoma"}, ["kmp"] = {"Gimme"}, ["kmq"] = {"Kwama"}, ["kmr"] = {"Northern Kurdish"}, ["kms"] = {"Kamasau"}, ["kmt"] = {"Kemtuik"}, ["kmu"] = {"Kanite"}, ["kmv"] = {"Karipúna Creole French"}, ["kmw"] = {"Komo (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["kmx"] = {"Waboda"}, ["kmy"] = {"Koma"}, ["kmz"] = {"Khorasani Turkish"}, ["kna"] = {"Dera (Nigeria)"}, ["knb"] = {"Lubuagan Kalinga"}, ["knc"] = {"Central Kanuri"}, ["knd"] = {"Konda"}, ["kne"] = {"Kankanaey"}, ["knf"] = {"Mankanya"}, ["kng"] = {"Koongo"}, ["kni"] = {"Kanufi"}, ["knj"] = {"Western Kanjobal"}, ["knk"] = {"Kuranko"}, ["knl"] = {"Keninjal"}, ["knm"] = {"Kanamarí"}, ["knn"] = {"Konkani (individual language)"}, ["kno"] = {"Kono (Sierra Leone)"}, ["knp"] = {"Kwanja"}, ["knq"] = {"Kintaq"}, ["knr"] = {"Kaningra"}, ["kns"] = {"Kensiu"}, ["knt"] = {"Panoan Katukína"}, ["knu"] = {"Kono (Guinea)"}, ["knv"] = {"Tabo"}, ["knw"] = {"Kung-Ekoka"}, ["knx"] = {"Kendayan", "Salako"}, ["kny"] = {"Kanyok"}, ["knz"] = {"Kalamsé"}, ["koa"] = {"Konomala"}, ["koc"] = {"Kpati"}, ["kod"] = {"Kodi"}, ["koe"] = {"Kacipo-Bale Suri"}, ["kof"] = {"Kubi"}, ["kog"] = {"Cogui", "Kogi"}, ["koh"] = {"Koyo"}, ["koi"] = {"Komi-Permyak"}, ["kok"] = {"Konkani (macrolanguage)"}, ["kol"] = {"Kol (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["koo"] = {"Konzo"}, ["kop"] = {"Waube"}, ["koq"] = {"Kota (Gabon)"}, ["kos"] = {"Kosraean"}, ["kot"] = {"Lagwan"}, ["kou"] = {"Koke"}, ["kov"] = {"Kudu-Camo"}, ["kow"] = {"Kugama"}, ["koy"] = {"Koyukon"}, ["koz"] = {"Korak"}, ["kpa"] = {"Kutto"}, ["kpb"] = {"Mullu Kurumba"}, ["kpc"] = {"Curripaco"}, ["kpd"] = {"Koba"}, ["kpe"] = {"Kpelle"}, ["kpf"] = {"Komba"}, ["kpg"] = {"Kapingamarangi"}, ["kph"] = {"Kplang"}, ["kpi"] = {"Kofei"}, ["kpj"] = {"Karajá"}, ["kpk"] = {"Kpan"}, ["kpl"] = {"Kpala"}, ["kpm"] = {"Koho"}, ["kpn"] = {"Kepkiriwát"}, ["kpo"] = {"Ikposo"}, ["kpq"] = {"Korupun-Sela"}, ["kpr"] = {"Korafe-Yegha"}, ["kps"] = {"Tehit"}, ["kpt"] = {"Karata"}, ["kpu"] = {"Kafoa"}, ["kpv"] = {"Komi-Zyrian"}, ["kpw"] = {"Kobon"}, ["kpx"] = {"Mountain Koiali"}, ["kpy"] = {"Koryak"}, ["kpz"] = {"Kupsabiny"}, ["kqa"] = {"Mum"}, ["kqb"] = {"Kovai"}, ["kqc"] = {"Doromu-Koki"}, ["kqd"] = {"Koy Sanjaq Surat"}, ["kqe"] = {"Kalagan"}, ["kqf"] = {"Kakabai"}, ["kqg"] = {"Khe"}, ["kqh"] = {"Kisankasa"}, ["kqi"] = {"Koitabu"}, ["kqj"] = {"Koromira"}, ["kqk"] = {"Kotafon Gbe"}, ["kql"] = {"Kyenele"}, ["kqm"] = {"Khisa"}, ["kqn"] = {"Kaonde"}, ["kqo"] = {"Eastern Krahn"}, ["kqp"] = {"Kimré"}, ["kqq"] = {"Krenak"}, ["kqr"] = {"Kimaragang"}, ["kqs"] = {"Northern Kissi"}, ["kqt"] = {"Klias River Kadazan"}, ["kqu"] = {"Seroa"}, ["kqv"] = {"Okolod"}, ["kqw"] = {"Kandas"}, ["kqx"] = {"Mser"}, ["kqy"] = {"Koorete"}, ["kqz"] = {"Korana"}, ["kra"] = {"Kumhali"}, ["krb"] = {"Karkin"}, ["krc"] = {"Karachay-Balkar"}, ["krd"] = {"Kairui-Midiki"}, ["kre"] = {"Panará"}, ["krf"] = {"Koro (Vanuatu)"}, ["krh"] = {"Kurama"}, ["kri"] = {"Krio"}, ["krj"] = {"Kinaray-A"}, ["krk"] = {"Kerek"}, ["krl"] = {"Karelian"}, ["krn"] = {"Sapo"}, ["kro"] = {"Kru languages"}, ["krp"] = {"Durop"}, ["krr"] = {"Krung"}, ["krs"] = {"Gbaya (Sudan)"}, ["krt"] = {"Tumari Kanuri"}, ["kru"] = {"Kurukh"}, ["krv"] = {"Kavet"}, ["krw"] = {"Western Krahn"}, ["krx"] = {"Karon"}, ["kry"] = {"Kryts"}, ["krz"] = {"Sota Kanum"}, ["ksb"] = {"Shambala"}, ["ksc"] = {"Southern Kalinga"}, ["ksd"] = {"Kuanua"}, ["kse"] = {"Kuni"}, ["ksf"] = {"Bafia"}, ["ksg"] = {"Kusaghe"}, ["ksh"] = {"Kölsch"}, ["ksi"] = {"Krisa", "I'saka"}, ["ksj"] = {"Uare"}, ["ksk"] = {"Kansa"}, ["ksl"] = {"Kumalu"}, ["ksm"] = {"Kumba"}, ["ksn"] = {"Kasiguranin"}, ["kso"] = {"Kofa"}, ["ksp"] = {"Kaba"}, ["ksq"] = {"Kwaami"}, ["ksr"] = {"Borong"}, ["kss"] = {"Southern Kisi"}, ["kst"] = {"Winyé"}, ["ksu"] = {"Khamyang"}, ["ksv"] = {"Kusu"}, ["ksw"] = {"S'gaw Karen"}, ["ksx"] = {"Kedang"}, ["ksy"] = {"Kharia Thar"}, ["ksz"] = {"Kodaku"}, ["kta"] = {"Katua"}, ["ktb"] = {"Kambaata"}, ["ktc"] = {"Kholok"}, ["ktd"] = {"Kokata", "Kukatha"}, ["kte"] = {"Nubri"}, ["ktf"] = {"Kwami"}, ["ktg"] = {"Kalkutung"}, ["kth"] = {"Karanga"}, ["kti"] = {"North Muyu"}, ["ktj"] = {"Plapo Krumen"}, ["ktk"] = {"Kaniet"}, ["ktl"] = {"Koroshi"}, ["ktm"] = {"Kurti"}, ["ktn"] = {"Karitiâna"}, ["kto"] = {"Kuot"}, ["ktp"] = {"Kaduo"}, ["ktq"] = {"Katabaga"}, ["kts"] = {"South Muyu"}, ["ktt"] = {"Ketum"}, ["ktu"] = {"Kituba (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["ktv"] = {"Eastern Katu"}, ["ktw"] = {"Kato"}, ["ktx"] = {"Kaxararí"}, ["kty"] = {"Kango (Bas-Uélé District)"}, ["ktz"] = {"Juǀʼhoan", "Juǀʼhoansi"}, ["kub"] = {"Kutep"}, ["kuc"] = {"Kwinsu"}, ["kud"] = {"'Auhelawa"}, ["kue"] = {"Kuman (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kuf"] = {"Western Katu"}, ["kug"] = {"Kupa"}, ["kuh"] = {"Kushi"}, ["kui"] = {"Kuikúro-Kalapálo", "Kalapalo"}, ["kuj"] = {"Kuria"}, ["kuk"] = {"Kepo'"}, ["kul"] = {"Kulere"}, ["kum"] = {"Kumyk"}, ["kun"] = {"Kunama"}, ["kuo"] = {"Kumukio"}, ["kup"] = {"Kunimaipa"}, ["kuq"] = {"Karipuna"}, ["kus"] = {"Kusaal"}, ["kut"] = {"Ktunaxa", "Ksanka", "Kutenai"}, ["kuu"] = {"Upper Kuskokwim"}, ["kuv"] = {"Kur"}, ["kuw"] = {"Kpagua"}, ["kux"] = {"Kukatja"}, ["kuy"] = {"Kuuku-Ya'u"}, ["kuz"] = {"Kunza"}, ["kva"] = {"Bagvalal"}, ["kvb"] = {"Kubu"}, ["kvc"] = {"Kove"}, ["kvd"] = {"Kui (Indonesia)"}, ["kve"] = {"Kalabakan"}, ["kvf"] = {"Kabalai"}, ["kvg"] = {"Kuni-Boazi"}, ["kvh"] = {"Komodo"}, ["kvi"] = {"Kwang"}, ["kvj"] = {"Psikye"}, ["kvk"] = {"Korean Sign Language"}, ["kvl"] = {"Kayaw"}, ["kvm"] = {"Kendem"}, ["kvn"] = {"Border Kuna"}, ["kvo"] = {"Dobel"}, ["kvp"] = {"Kompane"}, ["kvq"] = {"Geba Karen"}, ["kvr"] = {"Kerinci"}, ["kvt"] = {"Lahta Karen", "Lahta"}, ["kvu"] = {"Yinbaw Karen"}, ["kvv"] = {"Kola"}, ["kvw"] = {"Wersing"}, ["kvx"] = {"Parkari Koli"}, ["kvy"] = {"Yintale Karen", "Yintale"}, ["kvz"] = {"Tsakwambo", "Tsaukambo"}, ["kwa"] = {"Dâw"}, ["kwb"] = {"Kwa"}, ["kwc"] = {"Likwala"}, ["kwd"] = {"Kwaio"}, ["kwe"] = {"Kwerba"}, ["kwf"] = {"Kwara'ae"}, ["kwg"] = {"Sara Kaba Deme"}, ["kwh"] = {"Kowiai"}, ["kwi"] = {"Awa-Cuaiquer"}, ["kwj"] = {"Kwanga"}, ["kwk"] = {"Kwak'wala", "Kwakiutl"}, ["kwl"] = {"Kofyar"}, ["kwm"] = {"Kwambi"}, ["kwn"] = {"Kwangali"}, ["kwo"] = {"Kwomtari"}, ["kwp"] = {"Kodia"}, ["kwr"] = {"Kwer"}, ["kws"] = {"Kwese"}, ["kwt"] = {"Kwesten"}, ["kwu"] = {"Kwakum"}, ["kwv"] = {"Sara Kaba Náà"}, ["kww"] = {"Kwinti"}, ["kwx"] = {"Khirwar"}, ["kwy"] = {"San Salvador Kongo"}, ["kwz"] = {"Kwadi"}, ["kxa"] = {"Kairiru"}, ["kxb"] = {"Krobu"}, ["kxc"] = {"Konso", "Khonso"}, ["kxd"] = {"Brunei"}, ["kxf"] = {"Manumanaw Karen", "Manumanaw"}, ["kxh"] = {"Karo (Ethiopia)"}, ["kxi"] = {"Keningau Murut"}, ["kxj"] = {"Kulfa"}, ["kxk"] = {"Zayein Karen"}, ["kxm"] = {"Northern Khmer"}, ["kxn"] = {"Kanowit-Tanjong Melanau"}, ["kxo"] = {"Kanoé"}, ["kxp"] = {"Wadiyara Koli"}, ["kxq"] = {"Smärky Kanum"}, ["kxr"] = {"Koro (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["kxs"] = {"Kangjia"}, ["kxt"] = {"Koiwat"}, ["kxv"] = {"Kuvi"}, ["kxw"] = {"Konai"}, ["kxx"] = {"Likuba"}, ["kxy"] = {"Kayong"}, ["kxz"] = {"Kerewo"}, ["kya"] = {"Kwaya"}, ["kyb"] = {"Butbut Kalinga"}, ["kyc"] = {"Kyaka"}, ["kyd"] = {"Karey"}, ["kye"] = {"Krache"}, ["kyf"] = {"Kouya"}, ["kyg"] = {"Keyagana"}, ["kyh"] = {"Karok"}, ["kyi"] = {"Kiput"}, ["kyj"] = {"Karao"}, ["kyk"] = {"Kamayo"}, ["kyl"] = {"Kalapuya"}, ["kym"] = {"Kpatili"}, ["kyn"] = {"Northern Binukidnon"}, ["kyo"] = {"Kelon"}, ["kyp"] = {"Kang"}, ["kyq"] = {"Kenga"}, ["kyr"] = {"Kuruáya"}, ["kys"] = {"Baram Kayan"}, ["kyt"] = {"Kayagar"}, ["kyu"] = {"Western Kayah"}, ["kyv"] = {"Kayort"}, ["kyw"] = {"Kudmali"}, ["kyx"] = {"Rapoisi"}, ["kyy"] = {"Kambaira"}, ["kyz"] = {"Kayabí"}, ["kza"] = {"Western Karaboro"}, ["kzb"] = {"Kaibobo"}, ["kzc"] = {"Bondoukou Kulango"}, ["kzd"] = {"Kadai"}, ["kze"] = {"Kosena"}, ["kzf"] = {"Da'a Kaili"}, ["kzg"] = {"Kikai"}, ["kzi"] = {"Kelabit"}, ["kzk"] = {"Kazukuru"}, ["kzl"] = {"Kayeli"}, ["kzm"] = {"Kais"}, ["kzn"] = {"Kokola"}, ["kzo"] = {"Kaningi"}, ["kzp"] = {"Kaidipang"}, ["kzq"] = {"Kaike"}, ["kzr"] = {"Karang"}, ["kzs"] = {"Sugut Dusun"}, ["kzu"] = {"Kayupulau"}, ["kzv"] = {"Komyandaret"}, ["kzw"] = {"Karirí-Xocó"}, ["kzx"] = {"Kamarian"}, ["kzy"] = {"Kango (Tshopo District)"}, ["kzz"] = {"Kalabra"}, ["laa"] = {"Southern Subanen"}, ["lab"] = {"Linear A"}, ["lac"] = {"Lacandon"}, ["lad"] = {"Ladino"}, ["lae"] = {"Pattani"}, ["laf"] = {"Lafofa"}, ["lag"] = {"Rangi"}, ["lah"] = {"Lahnda"}, ["lai"] = {"Lambya"}, ["laj"] = {"Lango (Uganda)"}, ["lal"] = {"Lalia"}, ["lam"] = {"Lamba"}, ["lan"] = {"Laru"}, ["lap"] = {"Laka (Chad)"}, ["laq"] = {"Qabiao"}, ["lar"] = {"Larteh"}, ["las"] = {"Lama (Togo)"}, ["lau"] = {"Laba"}, ["law"] = {"Lauje"}, ["lax"] = {"Tiwa"}, ["lay"] = {"Lama Bai"}, ["laz"] = {"Aribwatsa"}, ["lbb"] = {"Label"}, ["lbc"] = {"Lakkia"}, ["lbe"] = {"Lak"}, ["lbf"] = {"Tinani"}, ["lbg"] = {"Laopang"}, ["lbi"] = {"La'bi"}, ["lbj"] = {"Ladakhi"}, ["lbk"] = {"Central Bontok"}, ["lbl"] = {"Libon Bikol"}, ["lbm"] = {"Lodhi"}, ["lbn"] = {"Rmeet"}, ["lbo"] = {"Laven"}, ["lbq"] = {"Wampar"}, ["lbr"] = {"Lohorung"}, ["lbs"] = {"Libyan Sign Language"}, ["lbt"] = {"Lachi"}, ["lbu"] = {"Labu"}, ["lbv"] = {"Lavatbura-Lamusong"}, ["lbw"] = {"Tolaki"}, ["lbx"] = {"Lawangan"}, ["lby"] = {"Lamalama", "Lamu-Lamu"}, ["lbz"] = {"Lardil"}, ["lcc"] = {"Legenyem"}, ["lcd"] = {"Lola"}, ["lce"] = {"Loncong", "Sekak"}, ["lcf"] = {"Lubu"}, ["lch"] = {"Luchazi"}, ["lcl"] = {"Lisela"}, ["lcm"] = {"Tungag"}, ["lcp"] = {"Western Lawa"}, ["lcq"] = {"Luhu"}, ["lcs"] = {"Lisabata-Nuniali"}, ["lda"] = {"Kla-Dan"}, ["ldb"] = {"Dũya"}, ["ldd"] = {"Luri"}, ["ldg"] = {"Lenyima"}, ["ldh"] = {"Lamja-Dengsa-Tola"}, ["ldi"] = {"Laari"}, ["ldj"] = {"Lemoro"}, ["ldk"] = {"Leelau"}, ["ldl"] = {"Kaan"}, ["ldm"] = {"Landoma"}, ["ldn"] = {"Láadan"}, ["ldo"] = {"Loo"}, ["ldp"] = {"Tso"}, ["ldq"] = {"Lufu"}, ["lea"] = {"Lega-Shabunda"}, ["leb"] = {"Lala-Bisa"}, ["lec"] = {"Leco"}, ["led"] = {"Lendu"}, ["lee"] = {"Lyélé"}, ["lef"] = {"Lelemi"}, ["leh"] = {"Lenje"}, ["lei"] = {"Lemio"}, ["lej"] = {"Lengola"}, ["lek"] = {"Leipon"}, ["lel"] = {"Lele (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["lem"] = {"Nomaande"}, ["len"] = {"Lenca"}, ["leo"] = {"Leti (Cameroon)"}, ["lep"] = {"Lepcha"}, ["leq"] = {"Lembena"}, ["ler"] = {"Lenkau"}, ["les"] = {"Lese"}, ["let"] = {"Lesing-Gelimi", "Amio-Gelimi"}, ["leu"] = {"Kara (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["lev"] = {"Lamma"}, ["lew"] = {"Ledo Kaili"}, ["lex"] = {"Luang"}, ["ley"] = {"Lemolang"}, ["lez"] = {"Lezghian"}, ["lfa"] = {"Lefa"}, ["lfb"] = {"Buu (Cameroon)"}, ["lfn"] = {"Lingua Franca Nova"}, ["lga"] = {"Lungga"}, ["lgb"] = {"Laghu"}, ["lgg"] = {"Lugbara"}, ["lgh"] = {"Laghuu"}, ["lgi"] = {"Lengilu"}, ["lgk"] = {"Lingarak", "Neverver"}, ["lgl"] = {"Wala"}, ["lgm"] = {"Lega-Mwenga"}, ["lgn"] = {"T'apo", "Opuuo"}, ["lgo"] = {"Lango (South Sudan)"}, ["lgq"] = {"Logba"}, ["lgr"] = {"Lengo"}, ["lgs"] = {"Guinea-Bissau Sign Language", "Língua Gestual Guineense"}, ["lgt"] = {"Pahi"}, ["lgu"] = {"Longgu"}, ["lgz"] = {"Ligenza"}, ["lha"] = {"Laha (Viet Nam)"}, ["lhh"] = {"Laha (Indonesia)"}, ["lhi"] = {"Lahu Shi"}, ["lhl"] = {"Lahul Lohar"}, ["lhm"] = {"Lhomi"}, ["lhn"] = {"Lahanan"}, ["lhp"] = {"Lhokpu"}, ["lhs"] = {"Mlahsö"}, ["lht"] = {"Lo-Toga"}, ["lhu"] = {"Lahu"}, ["lia"] = {"West-Central Limba"}, ["lib"] = {"Likum"}, ["lic"] = {"Hlai"}, ["lid"] = {"Nyindrou"}, ["lie"] = {"Likila"}, ["lif"] = {"Limbu"}, ["lig"] = {"Ligbi"}, ["lih"] = {"Lihir"}, ["lij"] = {"Ligurian"}, ["lik"] = {"Lika"}, ["lil"] = {"Lillooet"}, ["lio"] = {"Liki"}, ["lip"] = {"Sekpele"}, ["liq"] = {"Libido"}, ["lir"] = {"Liberian English"}, ["lis"] = {"Lisu"}, ["liu"] = {"Logorik"}, ["liv"] = {"Liv"}, ["liw"] = {"Col"}, ["lix"] = {"Liabuku"}, ["liy"] = {"Banda-Bambari"}, ["liz"] = {"Libinza"}, ["lja"] = {"Golpa"}, ["lje"] = {"Rampi"}, ["lji"] = {"Laiyolo"}, ["ljl"] = {"Li'o"}, ["ljp"] = {"Lampung Api"}, ["ljw"] = {"Yirandali"}, ["ljx"] = {"Yuru"}, ["lka"] = {"Lakalei"}, ["lkb"] = {"Kabras", "Lukabaras"}, ["lkc"] = {"Kucong"}, ["lkd"] = {"Lakondê"}, ["lke"] = {"Kenyi"}, ["lkh"] = {"Lakha"}, ["lki"] = {"Laki"}, ["lkj"] = {"Remun"}, ["lkl"] = {"Laeko-Libuat"}, ["lkm"] = {"Kalaamaya"}, ["lkn"] = {"Lakon", "Vure"}, ["lko"] = {"Khayo", "Olukhayo"}, ["lkr"] = {"Päri"}, ["lks"] = {"Kisa", "Olushisa"}, ["lkt"] = {"Lakota"}, ["lku"] = {"Kungkari"}, ["lky"] = {"Lokoya"}, ["lla"] = {"Lala-Roba"}, ["llb"] = {"Lolo"}, ["llc"] = {"Lele (Guinea)"}, ["lld"] = {"Ladin"}, ["lle"] = {"Lele (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["llf"] = {"Hermit"}, ["llg"] = {"Lole"}, ["llh"] = {"Lamu"}, ["lli"] = {"Teke-Laali"}, ["llj"] = {"Ladji Ladji"}, ["llk"] = {"Lelak"}, ["lll"] = {"Lilau"}, ["llm"] = {"Lasalimu"}, ["lln"] = {"Lele (Chad)"}, ["llp"] = {"North Efate"}, ["llq"] = {"Lolak"}, ["lls"] = {"Lithuanian Sign Language"}, ["llu"] = {"Lau"}, ["llx"] = {"Lauan"}, ["lma"] = {"East Limba"}, ["lmb"] = {"Merei"}, ["lmc"] = {"Limilngan"}, ["lmd"] = {"Lumun"}, ["lme"] = {"Pévé"}, ["lmf"] = {"South Lembata"}, ["lmg"] = {"Lamogai"}, ["lmh"] = {"Lambichhong"}, ["lmi"] = {"Lombi"}, ["lmj"] = {"West Lembata"}, ["lmk"] = {"Lamkang"}, ["lml"] = {"Hano"}, ["lmn"] = {"Lambadi"}, ["lmo"] = {"Lombard"}, ["lmp"] = {"Limbum"}, ["lmq"] = {"Lamatuka"}, ["lmr"] = {"Lamalera"}, ["lmu"] = {"Lamenu"}, ["lmv"] = {"Lomaiviti"}, ["lmw"] = {"Lake Miwok"}, ["lmx"] = {"Laimbue"}, ["lmy"] = {"Lamboya"}, ["lna"] = {"Langbashe"}, ["lnb"] = {"Mbalanhu"}, ["lnd"] = {"Lundayeh", "Lun Bawang"}, ["lng"] = {"Langobardic"}, ["lnh"] = {"Lanoh"}, ["lni"] = {"Daantanai'"}, ["lnj"] = {"Leningitij"}, ["lnl"] = {"South Central Banda"}, ["lnm"] = {"Langam"}, ["lnn"] = {"Lorediakarkar"}, ["lns"] = {"Lamnso'"}, ["lnu"] = {"Longuda"}, ["lnw"] = {"Lanima"}, ["lnz"] = {"Lonzo"}, ["loa"] = {"Loloda"}, ["lob"] = {"Lobi"}, ["loc"] = {"Inonhan"}, ["loe"] = {"Saluan"}, ["lof"] = {"Logol"}, ["log"] = {"Logo"}, ["loh"] = {"Laarim", "Narim"}, ["loi"] = {"Loma (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["loj"] = {"Lou"}, ["lok"] = {"Loko"}, ["lol"] = {"Mongo"}, ["lom"] = {"Loma (Liberia)"}, ["lon"] = {"Malawi Lomwe"}, ["loo"] = {"Lombo"}, ["lop"] = {"Lopa"}, ["loq"] = {"Lobala"}, ["lor"] = {"Téén"}, ["los"] = {"Loniu"}, ["lot"] = {"Otuho"}, ["lou"] = {"Louisiana Creole"}, ["lov"] = {"Lopi"}, ["low"] = {"Tampias Lobu"}, ["lox"] = {"Loun"}, ["loy"] = {"Loke"}, ["loz"] = {"Lozi"}, ["lpa"] = {"Lelepa"}, ["lpe"] = {"Lepki"}, ["lpn"] = {"Long Phuri Naga"}, ["lpo"] = {"Lipo"}, ["lpx"] = {"Lopit"}, ["lqr"] = {"Logir"}, ["lra"] = {"Rara Bakati'"}, ["lrc"] = {"Northern Luri"}, ["lre"] = {"Laurentian"}, ["lrg"] = {"Laragia"}, ["lri"] = {"Marachi", "Olumarachi"}, ["lrk"] = {"Loarki"}, ["lrl"] = {"Lari"}, ["lrm"] = {"Marama", "Olumarama"}, ["lrn"] = {"Lorang"}, ["lro"] = {"Laro"}, ["lrr"] = {"Southern Yamphu"}, ["lrt"] = {"Larantuka Malay"}, ["lrv"] = {"Larevat"}, ["lrz"] = {"Lemerig"}, ["lsa"] = {"Lasgerdi"}, ["lsb"] = {"Burundian Sign Language", "Langue des Signes Burundaise"}, ["lsc"] = {"Albarradas Sign Language", "Lengua de señas Albarradas"}, ["lsd"] = {"Lishana Deni"}, ["lse"] = {"Lusengo"}, ["lsh"] = {"Lish"}, ["lsi"] = {"Lashi"}, ["lsl"] = {"Latvian Sign Language"}, ["lsm"] = {"Saamia", "Olusamia"}, ["lsn"] = {"Tibetan Sign Language"}, ["lso"] = {"Laos Sign Language"}, ["lsp"] = {"Panamanian Sign Language", "Lengua de Señas Panameñas"}, ["lsr"] = {"Aruop"}, ["lss"] = {"Lasi"}, ["lst"] = {"Trinidad and Tobago Sign Language"}, ["lsv"] = {"Sivia Sign Language"}, ["lsw"] = {"Seychelles Sign Language", "Lalang Siny Seselwa", "Langue des Signes Seychelloise"}, ["lsy"] = {"Mauritian Sign Language"}, ["ltc"] = {"Late Middle Chinese"}, ["ltg"] = {"Latgalian"}, ["lth"] = {"Thur"}, ["lti"] = {"Leti (Indonesia)"}, ["ltn"] = {"Latundê"}, ["lto"] = {"Tsotso", "Olutsotso"}, ["lts"] = {"Tachoni", "Lutachoni"}, ["ltu"] = {"Latu"}, ["lua"] = {"Luba-Lulua"}, ["luc"] = {"Aringa"}, ["lud"] = {"Ludian"}, ["lue"] = {"Luvale"}, ["luf"] = {"Laua"}, ["luh"] = {"Leizhou Chinese"}, ["lui"] = {"Luiseño"}, ["luj"] = {"Luna"}, ["luk"] = {"Lunanakha"}, ["lul"] = {"Olu'bo"}, ["lum"] = {"Luimbi"}, ["lun"] = {"Lunda"}, ["luo"] = {"Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)", "Dholuo"}, ["lup"] = {"Lumbu"}, ["luq"] = {"Lucumi"}, ["lur"] = {"Laura"}, ["lus"] = {"Lushai"}, ["lut"] = {"Lushootseed"}, ["luu"] = {"Lumba-Yakkha"}, ["luv"] = {"Luwati"}, ["luw"] = {"Luo (Cameroon)"}, ["luy"] = {"Luyia", "Oluluyia"}, ["luz"] = {"Southern Luri"}, ["lva"] = {"Maku'a"}, ["lvi"] = {"Lavi"}, ["lvk"] = {"Lavukaleve"}, ["lvl"] = {"Lwel"}, ["lvs"] = {"Standard Latvian"}, ["lvu"] = {"Levuka"}, ["lwa"] = {"Lwalu"}, ["lwe"] = {"Lewo Eleng"}, ["lwg"] = {"Wanga", "Oluwanga"}, ["lwh"] = {"White Lachi"}, ["lwl"] = {"Eastern Lawa"}, ["lwm"] = {"Laomian"}, ["lwo"] = {"Luwo"}, ["lws"] = {"Malawian Sign Language"}, ["lwt"] = {"Lewotobi"}, ["lwu"] = {"Lawu"}, ["lww"] = {"Lewo"}, ["lxm"] = {"Lakurumau"}, ["lya"] = {"Layakha"}, ["lyg"] = {"Lyngngam"}, ["lyn"] = {"Luyana"}, ["lzh"] = {"Literary Chinese"}, ["lzl"] = {"Litzlitz"}, ["lzn"] = {"Leinong Naga"}, ["lzz"] = {"Laz"}, ["maa"] = {"San Jerónimo Tecóatl Mazatec"}, ["mab"] = {"Yutanduchi Mixtec"}, ["mad"] = {"Madurese"}, ["mae"] = {"Bo-Rukul"}, ["maf"] = {"Mafa"}, ["mag"] = {"Magahi"}, ["mai"] = {"Maithili"}, ["maj"] = {"Jalapa De Díaz Mazatec"}, ["mak"] = {"Makasar"}, ["mam"] = {"Mam"}, ["man"] = {"Mandingo", "Manding"}, ["map"] = {"Austronesian languages"}, ["maq"] = {"Chiquihuitlán Mazatec"}, ["mas"] = {"Masai"}, ["mat"] = {"San Francisco Matlatzinca"}, ["mau"] = {"Huautla Mazatec"}, ["mav"] = {"Sateré-Mawé"}, ["maw"] = {"Mampruli"}, ["max"] = {"North Moluccan Malay"}, ["maz"] = {"Central Mazahua"}, ["mba"] = {"Higaonon"}, ["mbb"] = {"Western Bukidnon Manobo"}, ["mbc"] = {"Macushi"}, ["mbd"] = {"Dibabawon Manobo"}, ["mbe"] = {"Molale"}, ["mbf"] = {"Baba Malay"}, ["mbh"] = {"Mangseng"}, ["mbi"] = {"Ilianen Manobo"}, ["mbj"] = {"Nadëb"}, ["mbk"] = {"Malol"}, ["mbl"] = {"Maxakalí"}, ["mbm"] = {"Ombamba"}, ["mbn"] = {"Macaguán"}, ["mbo"] = {"Mbo (Cameroon)"}, ["mbp"] = {"Malayo"}, ["mbq"] = {"Maisin"}, ["mbr"] = {"Nukak Makú"}, ["mbs"] = {"Sarangani Manobo"}, ["mbt"] = {"Matigsalug Manobo"}, ["mbu"] = {"Mbula-Bwazza"}, ["mbv"] = {"Mbulungish"}, ["mbw"] = {"Maring"}, ["mbx"] = {"Mari (East Sepik Province)"}, ["mby"] = {"Memoni"}, ["mbz"] = {"Amoltepec Mixtec"}, ["mca"] = {"Maca"}, ["mcb"] = {"Machiguenga"}, ["mcc"] = {"Bitur"}, ["mcd"] = {"Sharanahua"}, ["mce"] = {"Itundujia Mixtec"}, ["mcf"] = {"Matsés"}, ["mcg"] = {"Mapoyo"}, ["mch"] = {"Maquiritari"}, ["mci"] = {"Mese"}, ["mcj"] = {"Mvanip"}, ["mck"] = {"Mbunda"}, ["mcl"] = {"Macaguaje"}, ["mcm"] = {"Malaccan Creole Portuguese"}, ["mcn"] = {"Masana"}, ["mco"] = {"Coatlán Mixe"}, ["mcp"] = {"Makaa"}, ["mcq"] = {"Ese"}, ["mcr"] = {"Menya"}, ["mcs"] = {"Mambai"}, ["mct"] = {"Mengisa"}, ["mcu"] = {"Cameroon Mambila"}, ["mcv"] = {"Minanibai"}, ["mcw"] = {"Mawa (Chad)"}, ["mcx"] = {"Mpiemo"}, ["mcy"] = {"South Watut"}, ["mcz"] = {"Mawan"}, ["mda"] = {"Mada (Nigeria)"}, ["mdb"] = {"Morigi"}, ["mdc"] = {"Soq", "Male (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mdd"] = {"Mbum"}, ["mde"] = {"Maba (Chad)"}, ["mdf"] = {"Moksha"}, ["mdg"] = {"Massalat"}, ["mdh"] = {"Maguindanaon"}, ["mdi"] = {"Mamvu"}, ["mdj"] = {"Mangbetu"}, ["mdk"] = {"Mangbutu"}, ["mdl"] = {"Maltese Sign Language"}, ["mdm"] = {"Mayogo"}, ["mdn"] = {"Mbati"}, ["mdp"] = {"Mbala"}, ["mdq"] = {"Mbole"}, ["mdr"] = {"Mandar"}, ["mds"] = {"Maria (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mdt"] = {"Mbere"}, ["mdu"] = {"Mboko"}, ["mdv"] = {"Santa Lucía Monteverde Mixtec"}, ["mdw"] = {"Mbosi"}, ["mdx"] = {"Dizin"}, ["mdy"] = {"Male", "Male (Ethiopia)"}, ["mdz"] = {"Suruí Do Pará"}, ["mea"] = {"Menka"}, ["meb"] = {"Ikobi"}, ["mec"] = {"Marra"}, ["med"] = {"Melpa"}, ["mee"] = {"Mengen"}, ["mef"] = {"Megam"}, ["meh"] = {"Southwestern Tlaxiaco Mixtec"}, ["mei"] = {"Midob"}, ["mej"] = {"Meyah"}, ["mek"] = {"Mekeo"}, ["mel"] = {"Central Melanau"}, ["mem"] = {"Mangala"}, ["men"] = {"Mende (Sierra Leone)"}, ["meo"] = {"Kedah Malay"}, ["mep"] = {"Miriwoong"}, ["meq"] = {"Merey"}, ["mer"] = {"Meru"}, ["mes"] = {"Masmaje"}, ["met"] = {"Mato"}, ["meu"] = {"Motu"}, ["mev"] = {"Mano"}, ["mew"] = {"Maaka"}, ["mey"] = {"Hassaniyya"}, ["mez"] = {"Menominee"}, ["mfa"] = {"Pattani Malay"}, ["mfb"] = {"Bangka"}, ["mfc"] = {"Mba"}, ["mfd"] = {"Mendankwe-Nkwen"}, ["mfe"] = {"Morisyen"}, ["mff"] = {"Naki"}, ["mfg"] = {"Mogofin"}, ["mfh"] = {"Matal"}, ["mfi"] = {"Wandala"}, ["mfj"] = {"Mefele"}, ["mfk"] = {"North Mofu"}, ["mfl"] = {"Putai"}, ["mfm"] = {"Marghi South"}, ["mfn"] = {"Cross River Mbembe"}, ["mfo"] = {"Mbe"}, ["mfp"] = {"Makassar Malay"}, ["mfq"] = {"Moba"}, ["mfr"] = {"Marrithiyel"}, ["mfs"] = {"Mexican Sign Language"}, ["mft"] = {"Mokerang"}, ["mfu"] = {"Mbwela"}, ["mfv"] = {"Mandjak"}, ["mfw"] = {"Mulaha"}, ["mfx"] = {"Melo"}, ["mfy"] = {"Mayo"}, ["mfz"] = {"Mabaan"}, ["mga"] = {"Middle Irish (900-1200)"}, ["mgb"] = {"Mararit"}, ["mgc"] = {"Morokodo"}, ["mgd"] = {"Moru"}, ["mge"] = {"Mango"}, ["mgf"] = {"Maklew"}, ["mgg"] = {"Mpumpong"}, ["mgh"] = {"Makhuwa-Meetto"}, ["mgi"] = {"Lijili"}, ["mgj"] = {"Abureni"}, ["mgk"] = {"Mawes"}, ["mgl"] = {"Maleu-Kilenge"}, ["mgm"] = {"Mambae"}, ["mgn"] = {"Mbangi"}, ["mgo"] = {"Meta'"}, ["mgp"] = {"Eastern Magar"}, ["mgq"] = {"Malila"}, ["mgr"] = {"Mambwe-Lungu"}, ["mgs"] = {"Manda (Tanzania)"}, ["mgt"] = {"Mongol"}, ["mgu"] = {"Mailu"}, ["mgv"] = {"Matengo"}, ["mgw"] = {"Matumbi"}, ["mgy"] = {"Mbunga"}, ["mgz"] = {"Mbugwe"}, ["mha"] = {"Manda (India)"}, ["mhb"] = {"Mahongwe"}, ["mhc"] = {"Mocho"}, ["mhd"] = {"Mbugu"}, ["mhe"] = {"Besisi", "Mah Meri"}, ["mhf"] = {"Mamaa"}, ["mhg"] = {"Margu"}, ["mhi"] = {"Ma'di"}, ["mhj"] = {"Mogholi"}, ["mhk"] = {"Mungaka"}, ["mhl"] = {"Mauwake"}, ["mhm"] = {"Makhuwa-Moniga"}, ["mhn"] = {"Mòcheno"}, ["mho"] = {"Mashi (Zambia)"}, ["mhp"] = {"Balinese Malay"}, ["mhq"] = {"Mandan"}, ["mhr"] = {"Eastern Mari"}, ["mhs"] = {"Buru (Indonesia)"}, ["mht"] = {"Mandahuaca"}, ["mhu"] = {"Digaro-Mishmi", "Darang Deng"}, ["mhw"] = {"Mbukushu"}, ["mhx"] = {"Maru", "Lhaovo"}, ["mhy"] = {"Ma'anyan"}, ["mhz"] = {"Mor (Mor Islands)"}, ["mia"] = {"Miami"}, ["mib"] = {"Atatláhuca Mixtec"}, ["mic"] = {"Mi'kmaq", "Micmac"}, ["mid"] = {"Mandaic"}, ["mie"] = {"Ocotepec Mixtec"}, ["mif"] = {"Mofu-Gudur"}, ["mig"] = {"San Miguel El Grande Mixtec"}, ["mih"] = {"Chayuco Mixtec"}, ["mii"] = {"Chigmecatitlán Mixtec"}, ["mij"] = {"Abar", "Mungbam"}, ["mik"] = {"Mikasuki"}, ["mil"] = {"Peñoles Mixtec"}, ["mim"] = {"Alacatlatzala Mixtec"}, ["min"] = {"Minangkabau"}, ["mio"] = {"Pinotepa Nacional Mixtec"}, ["mip"] = {"Apasco-Apoala Mixtec"}, ["miq"] = {"Mískito"}, ["mir"] = {"Isthmus Mixe"}, ["mis"] = {"Uncoded languages"}, ["mit"] = {"Southern Puebla Mixtec"}, ["miu"] = {"Cacaloxtepec Mixtec"}, ["miw"] = {"Akoye"}, ["mix"] = {"Mixtepec Mixtec"}, ["miy"] = {"Ayutla Mixtec"}, ["miz"] = {"Coatzospan Mixtec"}, ["mjb"] = {"Makalero"}, ["mjc"] = {"San Juan Colorado Mixtec"}, ["mjd"] = {"Northwest Maidu"}, ["mje"] = {"Muskum"}, ["mjg"] = {"Tu"}, ["mjh"] = {"Mwera (Nyasa)"}, ["mji"] = {"Kim Mun"}, ["mjj"] = {"Mawak"}, ["mjk"] = {"Matukar"}, ["mjl"] = {"Mandeali"}, ["mjm"] = {"Medebur"}, ["mjn"] = {"Ma (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mjo"] = {"Malankuravan"}, ["mjp"] = {"Malapandaram"}, ["mjq"] = {"Malaryan"}, ["mjr"] = {"Malavedan"}, ["mjs"] = {"Miship"}, ["mjt"] = {"Sauria Paharia"}, ["mju"] = {"Manna-Dora"}, ["mjv"] = {"Mannan"}, ["mjw"] = {"Karbi"}, ["mjx"] = {"Mahali"}, ["mjy"] = {"Mahican"}, ["mjz"] = {"Majhi"}, ["mka"] = {"Mbre"}, ["mkb"] = {"Mal Paharia"}, ["mkc"] = {"Siliput"}, ["mke"] = {"Mawchi"}, ["mkf"] = {"Miya"}, ["mkg"] = {"Mak (China)"}, ["mkh"] = {"Mon-Khmer languages"}, ["mki"] = {"Dhatki"}, ["mkj"] = {"Mokilese"}, ["mkk"] = {"Byep"}, ["mkl"] = {"Mokole"}, ["mkm"] = {"Moklen"}, ["mkn"] = {"Kupang Malay"}, ["mko"] = {"Mingang Doso"}, ["mkp"] = {"Moikodi"}, ["mkq"] = {"Bay Miwok"}, ["mkr"] = {"Malas"}, ["mks"] = {"Silacayoapan Mixtec"}, ["mkt"] = {"Vamale"}, ["mku"] = {"Konyanka Maninka"}, ["mkv"] = {"Mafea"}, ["mkw"] = {"Kituba (Congo)"}, ["mkx"] = {"Kinamiging Manobo"}, ["mky"] = {"East Makian"}, ["mkz"] = {"Makasae"}, ["mla"] = {"Malo"}, ["mlb"] = {"Mbule"}, ["mlc"] = {"Cao Lan"}, ["mle"] = {"Manambu"}, ["mlf"] = {"Mal"}, ["mlh"] = {"Mape"}, ["mli"] = {"Malimpung"}, ["mlj"] = {"Miltu"}, ["mlk"] = {"Ilwana", "Kiwilwana"}, ["mll"] = {"Malua Bay"}, ["mlm"] = {"Mulam"}, ["mln"] = {"Malango"}, ["mlo"] = {"Mlomp"}, ["mlp"] = {"Bargam"}, ["mlq"] = {"Western Maninkakan"}, ["mlr"] = {"Vame"}, ["mls"] = {"Masalit"}, ["mlu"] = {"To'abaita"}, ["mlv"] = {"Motlav", "Mwotlap"}, ["mlw"] = {"Moloko"}, ["mlx"] = {"Malfaxal", "Naha'ai"}, ["mlz"] = {"Malaynon"}, ["mma"] = {"Mama"}, ["mmb"] = {"Momina"}, ["mmc"] = {"Michoacán Mazahua"}, ["mmd"] = {"Maonan"}, ["mme"] = {"Mae"}, ["mmf"] = {"Mundat"}, ["mmg"] = {"North Ambrym"}, ["mmh"] = {"Mehináku"}, ["mmi"] = {"Hember Avu", "Amben", "Musar"}, ["mmj"] = {"Majhwar"}, ["mmk"] = {"Mukha-Dora"}, ["mml"] = {"Man Met"}, ["mmm"] = {"Maii"}, ["mmn"] = {"Mamanwa"}, ["mmo"] = {"Mangga Buang"}, ["mmp"] = {"Siawi"}, ["mmq"] = {"Musak"}, ["mmr"] = {"Western Xiangxi Miao"}, ["mmt"] = {"Malalamai"}, ["mmu"] = {"Mmaala"}, ["mmv"] = {"Miriti"}, ["mmw"] = {"Emae"}, ["mmx"] = {"Madak"}, ["mmy"] = {"Migaama"}, ["mmz"] = {"Mabaale"}, ["mna"] = {"Mbula"}, ["mnb"] = {"Muna"}, ["mnc"] = {"Manchu"}, ["mnd"] = {"Mondé"}, ["mne"] = {"Naba"}, ["mnf"] = {"Mundani"}, ["mng"] = {"Eastern Mnong"}, ["mnh"] = {"Mono (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["mni"] = {"Manipuri"}, ["mnj"] = {"Munji"}, ["mnk"] = {"Mandinka"}, ["mnl"] = {"Tiale"}, ["mnm"] = {"Mapena"}, ["mnn"] = {"Southern Mnong"}, ["mno"] = {"Manobo languages"}, ["mnp"] = {"Min Bei Chinese"}, ["mnq"] = {"Minriq"}, ["mnr"] = {"Mono (USA)"}, ["mns"] = {"Mansi"}, ["mnu"] = {"Mer"}, ["mnv"] = {"Rennell-Bellona"}, ["mnw"] = {"Mon"}, ["mnx"] = {"Manikion"}, ["mny"] = {"Manyawa"}, ["mnz"] = {"Moni"}, ["moa"] = {"Mwan"}, ["moc"] = {"Mocoví"}, ["mod"] = {"Mobilian"}, ["moe"] = {"Innu", "Montagnais"}, ["mog"] = {"Mongondow"}, ["moh"] = {"Mohawk", "Kanien'kéha"}, ["moi"] = {"Mboi"}, ["moj"] = {"Monzombo"}, ["mok"] = {"Morori"}, ["mom"] = {"Mangue"}, ["moo"] = {"Monom"}, ["mop"] = {"Mopán Maya"}, ["moq"] = {"Mor (Bomberai Peninsula)"}, ["mor"] = {"Moro"}, ["mos"] = {"Mossi"}, ["mot"] = {"Barí"}, ["mou"] = {"Mogum"}, ["mov"] = {"Mohave"}, ["mow"] = {"Moi (Congo)"}, ["mox"] = {"Molima"}, ["moy"] = {"Shekkacho"}, ["moz"] = {"Mukulu", "Gergiko"}, ["mpa"] = {"Mpoto"}, ["mpb"] = {"Malak Malak", "Mullukmulluk"}, ["mpc"] = {"Mangarrayi"}, ["mpd"] = {"Machinere"}, ["mpe"] = {"Majang"}, ["mpg"] = {"Marba"}, ["mph"] = {"Maung"}, ["mpi"] = {"Mpade"}, ["mpj"] = {"Martu Wangka", "Wangkajunga"}, ["mpk"] = {"Mbara (Chad)"}, ["mpl"] = {"Middle Watut"}, ["mpm"] = {"Yosondúa Mixtec"}, ["mpn"] = {"Mindiri"}, ["mpo"] = {"Miu"}, ["mpp"] = {"Migabac"}, ["mpq"] = {"Matís"}, ["mpr"] = {"Vangunu"}, ["mps"] = {"Dadibi"}, ["mpt"] = {"Mian"}, ["mpu"] = {"Makuráp"}, ["mpv"] = {"Mungkip"}, ["mpw"] = {"Mapidian"}, ["mpx"] = {"Misima-Panaeati"}, ["mpy"] = {"Mapia"}, ["mpz"] = {"Mpi"}, ["mqa"] = {"Maba (Indonesia)"}, ["mqb"] = {"Mbuko"}, ["mqc"] = {"Mangole"}, ["mqe"] = {"Matepi"}, ["mqf"] = {"Momuna"}, ["mqg"] = {"Kota Bangun Kutai Malay"}, ["mqh"] = {"Tlazoyaltepec Mixtec"}, ["mqi"] = {"Mariri"}, ["mqj"] = {"Mamasa"}, ["mqk"] = {"Rajah Kabunsuwan Manobo"}, ["mql"] = {"Mbelime"}, ["mqm"] = {"South Marquesan"}, ["mqn"] = {"Moronene"}, ["mqo"] = {"Modole"}, ["mqp"] = {"Manipa"}, ["mqq"] = {"Minokok"}, ["mqr"] = {"Mander"}, ["mqs"] = {"West Makian"}, ["mqt"] = {"Mok"}, ["mqu"] = {"Mandari"}, ["mqv"] = {"Mosimo"}, ["mqw"] = {"Murupi"}, ["mqx"] = {"Mamuju"}, ["mqy"] = {"Manggarai"}, ["mqz"] = {"Pano"}, ["mra"] = {"Mlabri"}, ["mrb"] = {"Marino"}, ["mrc"] = {"Maricopa"}, ["mrd"] = {"Western Magar"}, ["mre"] = {"Martha's Vineyard Sign Language"}, ["mrf"] = {"Elseng"}, ["mrg"] = {"Mising"}, ["mrh"] = {"Mara Chin"}, ["mrj"] = {"Western Mari"}, ["mrk"] = {"Hmwaveke"}, ["mrl"] = {"Mortlockese"}, ["mrm"] = {"Merlav", "Mwerlap"}, ["mrn"] = {"Cheke Holo"}, ["mro"] = {"Mru"}, ["mrp"] = {"Morouas"}, ["mrq"] = {"North Marquesan"}, ["mrr"] = {"Maria (India)"}, ["mrs"] = {"Maragus"}, ["mrt"] = {"Marghi Central"}, ["mru"] = {"Mono (Cameroon)"}, ["mrv"] = {"Mangareva"}, ["mrw"] = {"Maranao"}, ["mrx"] = {"Maremgi", "Dineor"}, ["mry"] = {"Mandaya"}, ["mrz"] = {"Marind"}, ["msb"] = {"Masbatenyo"}, ["msc"] = {"Sankaran Maninka"}, ["msd"] = {"Yucatec Maya Sign Language"}, ["mse"] = {"Musey"}, ["msf"] = {"Mekwei"}, ["msg"] = {"Moraid"}, ["msh"] = {"Masikoro Malagasy"}, ["msi"] = {"Sabah Malay"}, ["msj"] = {"Ma (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["msk"] = {"Mansaka"}, ["msl"] = {"Molof", "Poule"}, ["msm"] = {"Agusan Manobo"}, ["msn"] = {"Vurës"}, ["mso"] = {"Mombum"}, ["msp"] = {"Maritsauá"}, ["msq"] = {"Caac"}, ["msr"] = {"Mongolian Sign Language"}, ["mss"] = {"West Masela"}, ["msu"] = {"Musom"}, ["msv"] = {"Maslam"}, ["msw"] = {"Mansoanka"}, ["msx"] = {"Moresada"}, ["msy"] = {"Aruamu"}, ["msz"] = {"Momare"}, ["mta"] = {"Cotabato Manobo"}, ["mtb"] = {"Anyin Morofo"}, ["mtc"] = {"Munit"}, ["mtd"] = {"Mualang"}, ["mte"] = {"Mono (Solomon Islands)"}, ["mtf"] = {"Murik (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mtg"] = {"Una"}, ["mth"] = {"Munggui"}, ["mti"] = {"Maiwa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["mtj"] = {"Moskona"}, ["mtk"] = {"Mbe'"}, ["mtl"] = {"Montol"}, ["mtm"] = {"Mator"}, ["mtn"] = {"Matagalpa"}, ["mto"] = {"Totontepec Mixe"}, ["mtp"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Nocten"}, ["mtq"] = {"Muong"}, ["mtr"] = {"Mewari"}, ["mts"] = {"Yora"}, ["mtt"] = {"Mota"}, ["mtu"] = {"Tututepec Mixtec"}, ["mtv"] = {"Asaro'o"}, ["mtw"] = {"Southern Binukidnon"}, ["mtx"] = {"Tidaá Mixtec"}, ["mty"] = {"Nabi"}, ["mua"] = {"Mundang"}, ["mub"] = {"Mubi"}, ["muc"] = {"Ajumbu"}, ["mud"] = {"Mednyj Aleut"}, ["mue"] = {"Media Lengua"}, ["mug"] = {"Musgu"}, ["muh"] = {"Mündü"}, ["mui"] = {"Musi"}, ["muj"] = {"Mabire"}, ["muk"] = {"Mugom"}, ["mul"] = {"Multiple languages"}, ["mum"] = {"Maiwala"}, ["mun"] = {"Munda languages"}, ["muo"] = {"Nyong"}, ["mup"] = {"Malvi"}, ["muq"] = {"Eastern Xiangxi Miao"}, ["mur"] = {"Murle"}, ["mus"] = {"Creek"}, ["mut"] = {"Western Muria"}, ["muu"] = {"Yaaku"}, ["muv"] = {"Muthuvan"}, ["mux"] = {"Bo-Ung"}, ["muy"] = {"Muyang"}, ["muz"] = {"Mursi"}, ["mva"] = {"Manam"}, ["mvb"] = {"Mattole"}, ["mvd"] = {"Mamboru"}, ["mve"] = {"Marwari (Pakistan)"}, ["mvf"] = {"Peripheral Mongolian"}, ["mvg"] = {"Yucuañe Mixtec"}, ["mvh"] = {"Mulgi"}, ["mvi"] = {"Miyako"}, ["mvk"] = {"Mekmek"}, ["mvl"] = {"Mbara (Australia)"}, ["mvn"] = {"Minaveha"}, ["mvo"] = {"Marovo"}, ["mvp"] = {"Duri"}, ["mvq"] = {"Moere"}, ["mvr"] = {"Marau"}, ["mvs"] = {"Massep"}, ["mvt"] = {"Mpotovoro"}, ["mvu"] = {"Marfa"}, ["mvv"] = {"Tagal Murut"}, ["mvw"] = {"Machinga"}, ["mvx"] = {"Meoswar"}, ["mvy"] = {"Indus Kohistani"}, ["mvz"] = {"Mesqan"}, ["mwa"] = {"Mwatebu"}, ["mwb"] = {"Juwal"}, ["mwc"] = {"Are"}, ["mwe"] = {"Mwera (Chimwera)"}, ["mwf"] = {"Murrinh-Patha"}, ["mwg"] = {"Aiklep"}, ["mwh"] = {"Mouk-Aria"}, ["mwi"] = {"Labo", "Ninde"}, ["mwk"] = {"Kita Maninkakan"}, ["mwl"] = {"Mirandese"}, ["mwm"] = {"Sar"}, ["mwn"] = {"Nyamwanga"}, ["mwo"] = {"Central Maewo"}, ["mwp"] = {"Kala Lagaw Ya"}, ["mwq"] = {"Mün Chin"}, ["mwr"] = {"Marwari"}, ["mws"] = {"Mwimbi-Muthambi"}, ["mwt"] = {"Moken"}, ["mwu"] = {"Mittu"}, ["mwv"] = {"Mentawai"}, ["mww"] = {"Hmong Daw"}, ["mwz"] = {"Moingi"}, ["mxa"] = {"Northwest Oaxaca Mixtec"}, ["mxb"] = {"Tezoatlán Mixtec"}, ["mxc"] = {"Manyika"}, ["mxd"] = {"Modang"}, ["mxe"] = {"Mele-Fila"}, ["mxf"] = {"Malgbe"}, ["mxg"] = {"Mbangala"}, ["mxh"] = {"Mvuba"}, ["mxi"] = {"Mozarabic"}, ["mxj"] = {"Miju-Mishmi", "Geman Deng"}, ["mxk"] = {"Monumbo"}, ["mxl"] = {"Maxi Gbe"}, ["mxm"] = {"Meramera"}, ["mxn"] = {"Moi (Indonesia)"}, ["mxo"] = {"Mbowe"}, ["mxp"] = {"Tlahuitoltepec Mixe"}, ["mxq"] = {"Juquila Mixe"}, ["mxr"] = {"Murik (Malaysia)"}, ["mxs"] = {"Huitepec Mixtec"}, ["mxt"] = {"Jamiltepec Mixtec"}, ["mxu"] = {"Mada (Cameroon)"}, ["mxv"] = {"Metlatónoc Mixtec"}, ["mxw"] = {"Namo"}, ["mxx"] = {"Mahou", "Mawukakan"}, ["mxy"] = {"Southeastern Nochixtlán Mixtec"}, ["mxz"] = {"Central Masela"}, ["myb"] = {"Mbay"}, ["myc"] = {"Mayeka"}, ["mye"] = {"Myene"}, ["myf"] = {"Bambassi"}, ["myg"] = {"Manta"}, ["myh"] = {"Makah"}, ["myj"] = {"Mangayat"}, ["myk"] = {"Mamara Senoufo"}, ["myl"] = {"Moma"}, ["mym"] = {"Me'en"}, ["myn"] = {"Mayan languages"}, ["myo"] = {"Anfillo"}, ["myp"] = {"Pirahã"}, ["myr"] = {"Muniche"}, ["mys"] = {"Mesmes"}, ["myu"] = {"Mundurukú"}, ["myv"] = {"Erzya"}, ["myw"] = {"Muyuw"}, ["myx"] = {"Masaaba"}, ["myy"] = {"Macuna"}, ["myz"] = {"Classical Mandaic"}, ["mza"] = {"Santa María Zacatepec Mixtec"}, ["mzb"] = {"Tumzabt"}, ["mzc"] = {"Madagascar Sign Language"}, ["mzd"] = {"Malimba"}, ["mze"] = {"Morawa"}, ["mzg"] = {"Monastic Sign Language"}, ["mzh"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Güisnay"}, ["mzi"] = {"Ixcatlán Mazatec"}, ["mzj"] = {"Manya"}, ["mzk"] = {"Nigeria Mambila"}, ["mzl"] = {"Mazatlán Mixe"}, ["mzm"] = {"Mumuye"}, ["mzn"] = {"Mazanderani"}, ["mzo"] = {"Matipuhy"}, ["mzp"] = {"Movima"}, ["mzq"] = {"Mori Atas"}, ["mzr"] = {"Marúbo"}, ["mzs"] = {"Macanese"}, ["mzt"] = {"Mintil"}, ["mzu"] = {"Inapang"}, ["mzv"] = {"Manza"}, ["mzw"] = {"Deg"}, ["mzx"] = {"Mawayana"}, ["mzy"] = {"Mozambican Sign Language"}, ["mzz"] = {"Maiadomu"}, ["naa"] = {"Namla"}, ["nab"] = {"Southern Nambikuára"}, ["nac"] = {"Narak"}, ["nae"] = {"Naka'ela"}, ["naf"] = {"Nabak"}, ["nag"] = {"Naga Pidgin"}, ["nah"] = {"Nahuatl languages"}, ["nai"] = {"North American Indian languages"}, ["naj"] = {"Nalu"}, ["nak"] = {"Nakanai"}, ["nal"] = {"Nalik"}, ["nam"] = {"Ngan'gityemerri"}, ["nan"] = {"Min Nan Chinese"}, ["nao"] = {"Naaba"}, ["nap"] = {"Neapolitan"}, ["naq"] = {"Khoekhoe", "Nama (Namibia)"}, ["nar"] = {"Iguta"}, ["nas"] = {"Naasioi"}, ["nat"] = {"Ca̱hungwa̱rya̱", "Hungworo"}, ["naw"] = {"Nawuri"}, ["nax"] = {"Nakwi"}, ["nay"] = {"Ngarrindjeri"}, ["naz"] = {"Coatepec Nahuatl"}, ["nba"] = {"Nyemba"}, ["nbb"] = {"Ndoe"}, ["nbc"] = {"Chang Naga"}, ["nbd"] = {"Ngbinda"}, ["nbe"] = {"Konyak Naga"}, ["nbg"] = {"Nagarchal"}, ["nbh"] = {"Ngamo"}, ["nbi"] = {"Mao Naga"}, ["nbj"] = {"Ngarinyman"}, ["nbk"] = {"Nake"}, ["nbm"] = {"Ngbaka Ma'bo"}, ["nbn"] = {"Kuri"}, ["nbo"] = {"Nkukoli"}, ["nbp"] = {"Nnam"}, ["nbq"] = {"Nggem"}, ["nbr"] = {"Numana"}, ["nbs"] = {"Namibian Sign Language"}, ["nbt"] = {"Na"}, ["nbu"] = {"Rongmei Naga"}, ["nbv"] = {"Ngamambo"}, ["nbw"] = {"Southern Ngbandi"}, ["nby"] = {"Ningera"}, ["nca"] = {"Iyo"}, ["ncb"] = {"Central Nicobarese"}, ["ncc"] = {"Ponam"}, ["ncd"] = {"Nachering"}, ["nce"] = {"Yale"}, ["ncf"] = {"Notsi"}, ["ncg"] = {"Nisga'a"}, ["nch"] = {"Central Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nci"] = {"Classical Nahuatl"}, ["ncj"] = {"Northern Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["nck"] = {"Na-kara"}, ["ncl"] = {"Michoacán Nahuatl"}, ["ncm"] = {"Nambo"}, ["ncn"] = {"Nauna"}, ["nco"] = {"Sibe"}, ["ncq"] = {"Northern Katang"}, ["ncr"] = {"Ncane"}, ["ncs"] = {"Nicaraguan Sign Language"}, ["nct"] = {"Chothe Naga"}, ["ncu"] = {"Chumburung"}, ["ncx"] = {"Central Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["ncz"] = {"Natchez"}, ["nda"] = {"Ndasa"}, ["ndb"] = {"Kenswei Nsei"}, ["ndc"] = {"Ndau"}, ["ndd"] = {"Nde-Nsele-Nta"}, ["ndf"] = {"Nadruvian"}, ["ndg"] = {"Ndengereko"}, ["ndh"] = {"Ndali"}, ["ndi"] = {"Samba Leko"}, ["ndj"] = {"Ndamba"}, ["ndk"] = {"Ndaka"}, ["ndl"] = {"Ndolo"}, ["ndm"] = {"Ndam"}, ["ndn"] = {"Ngundi"}, ["ndp"] = {"Ndo"}, ["ndq"] = {"Ndombe"}, ["ndr"] = {"Ndoola"}, ["nds"] = {"Low German", "Low Saxon"}, ["ndt"] = {"Ndunga"}, ["ndu"] = {"Dugun"}, ["ndv"] = {"Ndut"}, ["ndw"] = {"Ndobo"}, ["ndx"] = {"Nduga"}, ["ndy"] = {"Lutos"}, ["ndz"] = {"Ndogo"}, ["nea"] = {"Eastern Ngad'a"}, ["neb"] = {"Toura (Côte d'Ivoire)"}, ["nec"] = {"Nedebang"}, ["ned"] = {"Nde-Gbite"}, ["nee"] = {"Nêlêmwa-Nixumwak"}, ["nef"] = {"Nefamese"}, ["neg"] = {"Negidal"}, ["neh"] = {"Nyenkha"}, ["nei"] = {"Neo-Hittite"}, ["nej"] = {"Neko"}, ["nek"] = {"Neku"}, ["nem"] = {"Nemi"}, ["nen"] = {"Nengone"}, ["neo"] = {"Ná-Meo"}, ["neq"] = {"North Central Mixe"}, ["ner"] = {"Yahadian"}, ["nes"] = {"Bhoti Kinnauri"}, ["net"] = {"Nete"}, ["neu"] = {"Neo"}, ["nev"] = {"Nyaheun"}, ["new"] = {"Nepal Bhasa", "Newar", "Newari"}, ["nex"] = {"Neme"}, ["ney"] = {"Neyo"}, ["nez"] = {"Nez Perce"}, ["nfa"] = {"Dhao"}, ["nfd"] = {"Ahwai"}, ["nfl"] = {"Ayiwo", "Äiwoo"}, ["nfr"] = {"Nafaanra"}, ["nfu"] = {"Mfumte"}, ["nga"] = {"Ngbaka"}, ["ngb"] = {"Northern Ngbandi"}, ["ngc"] = {"Ngombe (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["ngd"] = {"Ngando (Central African Republic)"}, ["nge"] = {"Ngemba"}, ["ngf"] = {"Trans-New Guinea languages"}, ["ngg"] = {"Ngbaka Manza"}, ["ngh"] = {"Nǁng"}, ["ngi"] = {"Ngizim"}, ["ngj"] = {"Ngie"}, ["ngk"] = {"Dalabon"}, ["ngl"] = {"Lomwe"}, ["ngm"] = {"Ngatik Men's Creole"}, ["ngn"] = {"Ngwo"}, ["ngp"] = {"Ngulu"}, ["ngq"] = {"Ngurimi", "Ngoreme"}, ["ngr"] = {"Engdewu"}, ["ngs"] = {"Gvoko"}, ["ngt"] = {"Kriang", "Ngeq"}, ["ngu"] = {"Guerrero Nahuatl"}, ["ngv"] = {"Nagumi"}, ["ngw"] = {"Ngwaba"}, ["ngx"] = {"Nggwahyi"}, ["ngy"] = {"Tibea"}, ["ngz"] = {"Ngungwel"}, ["nha"] = {"Nhanda"}, ["nhb"] = {"Beng"}, ["nhc"] = {"Tabasco Nahuatl"}, ["nhd"] = {"Chiripá", "Ava Guaraní"}, ["nhe"] = {"Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nhf"] = {"Nhuwala"}, ["nhg"] = {"Tetelcingo Nahuatl"}, ["nhh"] = {"Nahari"}, ["nhi"] = {"Zacatlán-Ahuacatlán-Tepetzintla Nahuatl"}, ["nhk"] = {"Isthmus-Cosoleacaque Nahuatl"}, ["nhm"] = {"Morelos Nahuatl"}, ["nhn"] = {"Central Nahuatl"}, ["nho"] = {"Takuu"}, ["nhp"] = {"Isthmus-Pajapan Nahuatl"}, ["nhq"] = {"Huaxcaleca Nahuatl"}, ["nhr"] = {"Naro"}, ["nht"] = {"Ometepec Nahuatl"}, ["nhu"] = {"Noone"}, ["nhv"] = {"Temascaltepec Nahuatl"}, ["nhw"] = {"Western Huasteca Nahuatl"}, ["nhx"] = {"Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl"}, ["nhy"] = {"Northern Oaxaca Nahuatl"}, ["nhz"] = {"Santa María La Alta Nahuatl"}, ["nia"] = {"Nias"}, ["nib"] = {"Nakame"}, ["nic"] = {"Niger-Kordofanian languages"}, ["nid"] = {"Ngandi"}, ["nie"] = {"Niellim"}, ["nif"] = {"Nek"}, ["nig"] = {"Ngalakgan"}, ["nih"] = {"Nyiha (Tanzania)"}, ["nii"] = {"Nii"}, ["nij"] = {"Ngaju"}, ["nik"] = {"Southern Nicobarese"}, ["nil"] = {"Nila"}, ["nim"] = {"Nilamba"}, ["nin"] = {"Ninzo"}, ["nio"] = {"Nganasan"}, ["niq"] = {"Nandi"}, ["nir"] = {"Nimboran"}, ["nis"] = {"Nimi"}, ["nit"] = {"Southeastern Kolami"}, ["niu"] = {"Niuean"}, ["niv"] = {"Gilyak"}, ["niw"] = {"Nimo"}, ["nix"] = {"Hema"}, ["niy"] = {"Ngiti"}, ["niz"] = {"Ningil"}, ["nja"] = {"Nzanyi"}, ["njb"] = {"Nocte Naga"}, ["njd"] = {"Ndonde Hamba"}, ["njh"] = {"Lotha Naga"}, ["nji"] = {"Gudanji"}, ["njj"] = {"Njen"}, ["njl"] = {"Njalgulgule"}, ["njm"] = {"Angami Naga"}, ["njn"] = {"Liangmai Naga"}, ["njo"] = {"Ao Naga"}, ["njr"] = {"Njerep"}, ["njs"] = {"Nisa"}, ["njt"] = {"Ndyuka-Trio Pidgin"}, ["nju"] = {"Ngadjunmaya"}, ["njx"] = {"Kunyi"}, ["njy"] = {"Njyem"}, ["njz"] = {"Nyishi"}, ["nka"] = {"Nkoya"}, ["nkb"] = {"Khoibu Naga"}, ["nkc"] = {"Nkongho"}, ["nkd"] = {"Koireng"}, ["nke"] = {"Duke"}, ["nkf"] = {"Inpui Naga"}, ["nkg"] = {"Nekgini"}, ["nkh"] = {"Khezha Naga"}, ["nki"] = {"Thangal Naga"}, ["nkj"] = {"Nakai"}, ["nkk"] = {"Nokuku"}, ["nkm"] = {"Namat"}, ["nkn"] = {"Nkangala"}, ["nko"] = {"Nkonya"}, ["nkp"] = {"Niuatoputapu"}, ["nkq"] = {"Nkami"}, ["nkr"] = {"Nukuoro"}, ["nks"] = {"North Asmat"}, ["nkt"] = {"Nyika (Tanzania)"}, ["nku"] = {"Bouna Kulango"}, ["nkv"] = {"Nyika (Malawi and Zambia)"}, ["nkw"] = {"Nkutu"}, ["nkx"] = {"Nkoroo"}, ["nkz"] = {"Nkari"}, ["nla"] = {"Ngombale"}, ["nlc"] = {"Nalca"}, ["nle"] = {"East Nyala"}, ["nlg"] = {"Gela"}, ["nli"] = {"Grangali"}, ["nlj"] = {"Nyali"}, ["nlk"] = {"Ninia Yali"}, ["nll"] = {"Nihali"}, ["nlm"] = {"Mankiyali"}, ["nlo"] = {"Ngul"}, ["nlq"] = {"Lao Naga"}, ["nlu"] = {"Nchumbulu"}, ["nlv"] = {"Orizaba Nahuatl"}, ["nlw"] = {"Walangama"}, ["nlx"] = {"Nahali"}, ["nly"] = {"Nyamal"}, ["nlz"] = {"Nalögo"}, ["nma"] = {"Maram Naga"}, ["nmb"] = {"Big Nambas", "V'ënen Taut"}, ["nmc"] = {"Ngam"}, ["nmd"] = {"Ndumu"}, ["nme"] = {"Mzieme Naga"}, ["nmf"] = {"Tangkhul Naga (India)"}, ["nmg"] = {"Kwasio"}, ["nmh"] = {"Monsang Naga"}, ["nmi"] = {"Nyam"}, ["nmj"] = {"Ngombe (Central African Republic)"}, ["nmk"] = {"Namakura"}, ["nml"] = {"Ndemli"}, ["nmm"] = {"Manangba"}, ["nmn"] = {"ǃXóõ"}, ["nmo"] = {"Moyon Naga"}, ["nmp"] = {"Nimanbur"}, ["nmq"] = {"Nambya"}, ["nmr"] = {"Nimbari"}, ["nms"] = {"Letemboi"}, ["nmt"] = {"Namonuito"}, ["nmu"] = {"Northeast Maidu"}, ["nmv"] = {"Ngamini"}, ["nmw"] = {"Nimoa", "Rifao"}, ["nmx"] = {"Nama (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["nmy"] = {"Namuyi"}, ["nmz"] = {"Nawdm"}, ["nna"] = {"Nyangumarta"}, ["nnb"] = {"Nande"}, ["nnc"] = {"Nancere"}, ["nnd"] = {"West Ambae"}, ["nne"] = {"Ngandyera"}, ["nnf"] = {"Ngaing"}, ["nng"] = {"Maring Naga"}, ["nnh"] = {"Ngiemboon"}, ["nni"] = {"North Nuaulu"}, ["nnj"] = {"Nyangatom"}, ["nnk"] = {"Nankina"}, ["nnl"] = {"Northern Rengma Naga"}, ["nnm"] = {"Namia"}, ["nnn"] = {"Ngete"}, ["nnp"] = {"Wancho Naga"}, ["nnq"] = {"Ngindo"}, ["nnr"] = {"Narungga"}, ["nnt"] = {"Nanticoke"}, ["nnu"] = {"Dwang"}, ["nnv"] = {"Nugunu (Australia)"}, ["nnw"] = {"Southern Nuni"}, ["nny"] = {"Nyangga"}, ["nnz"] = {"Nda'nda'"}, ["noa"] = {"Woun Meu"}, ["noc"] = {"Nuk"}, ["nod"] = {"Northern Thai"}, ["noe"] = {"Nimadi"}, ["nof"] = {"Nomane"}, ["nog"] = {"Nogai"}, ["noh"] = {"Nomu"}, ["noi"] = {"Noiri"}, ["noj"] = {"Nonuya"}, ["nok"] = {"Nooksack", "Lhéchelesem"}, ["nol"] = {"Nomlaki"}, ["non"] = {"Old Norse"}, ["nop"] = {"Numanggang"}, ["noq"] = {"Ngongo"}, ["nos"] = {"Eastern Nisu"}, ["not"] = {"Nomatsiguenga"}, ["nou"] = {"Ewage-Notu"}, ["nov"] = {"Novial"}, ["now"] = {"Nyambo"}, ["noy"] = {"Noy"}, ["noz"] = {"Nayi"}, ["npa"] = {"Nar Phu"}, ["npb"] = {"Nupbikha"}, ["npg"] = {"Ponyo-Gongwang Naga"}, ["nph"] = {"Phom Naga"}, ["npi"] = {"Nepali (individual language)"}, ["npl"] = {"Southeastern Puebla Nahuatl"}, ["npn"] = {"Mondropolon"}, ["npo"] = {"Pochuri Naga"}, ["nps"] = {"Nipsan"}, ["npu"] = {"Puimei Naga"}, ["npx"] = {"Noipx"}, ["npy"] = {"Napu"}, ["nqg"] = {"Southern Nago"}, ["nqk"] = {"Kura Ede Nago"}, ["nql"] = {"Ngendelengo"}, ["nqm"] = {"Ndom"}, ["nqn"] = {"Nen"}, ["nqo"] = {"N'Ko", "N’Ko"}, ["nqq"] = {"Kyan-Karyaw Naga"}, ["nqt"] = {"Nteng"}, ["nqy"] = {"Akyaung Ari Naga"}, ["nra"] = {"Ngom"}, ["nrb"] = {"Nara"}, ["nrc"] = {"Noric"}, ["nre"] = {"Southern Rengma Naga"}, ["nrf"] = {"Jèrriais", "Guernésiais", "Sercquiais"}, ["nrg"] = {"Narango"}, ["nri"] = {"Chokri Naga"}, ["nrk"] = {"Ngarla"}, ["nrl"] = {"Ngarluma"}, ["nrm"] = {"Narom"}, ["nrn"] = {"Norn"}, ["nrp"] = {"North Picene"}, ["nrr"] = {"Norra", "Nora"}, ["nrt"] = {"Northern Kalapuya"}, ["nru"] = {"Narua"}, ["nrx"] = {"Ngurmbur"}, ["nrz"] = {"Lala"}, ["nsa"] = {"Sangtam Naga"}, ["nsb"] = {"Lower Nossob"}, ["nsc"] = {"Nshi"}, ["nsd"] = {"Southern Nisu"}, ["nse"] = {"Nsenga"}, ["nsf"] = {"Northwestern Nisu"}, ["nsg"] = {"Ngasa"}, ["nsh"] = {"Ngoshie"}, ["nsi"] = {"Nigerian Sign Language"}, ["nsk"] = {"Naskapi"}, ["nsl"] = {"Norwegian Sign Language"}, ["nsm"] = {"Sumi Naga"}, ["nsn"] = {"Nehan"}, ["nso"] = {"Pedi", "Northern Sotho", "Sepedi"}, ["nsp"] = {"Nepalese Sign Language"}, ["nsq"] = {"Northern Sierra Miwok"}, ["nsr"] = {"Maritime Sign Language"}, ["nss"] = {"Nali"}, ["nst"] = {"Tase Naga"}, ["nsu"] = {"Sierra Negra Nahuatl"}, ["nsv"] = {"Southwestern Nisu"}, ["nsw"] = {"Navut"}, ["nsx"] = {"Nsongo"}, ["nsy"] = {"Nasal"}, ["nsz"] = {"Nisenan"}, ["ntd"] = {"Northern Tidung"}, ["ntg"] = {"Ngantangarra"}, ["nti"] = {"Natioro"}, ["ntj"] = {"Ngaanyatjarra"}, ["ntk"] = {"Ikoma-Nata-Isenye"}, ["ntm"] = {"Nateni"}, ["nto"] = {"Ntomba"}, ["ntp"] = {"Northern Tepehuan"}, ["ntr"] = {"Delo"}, ["ntu"] = {"Natügu"}, ["ntw"] = {"Nottoway"}, ["ntx"] = {"Tangkhul Naga (Myanmar)"}, ["nty"] = {"Mantsi"}, ["ntz"] = {"Natanzi"}, ["nua"] = {"Yuanga"}, ["nub"] = {"Nubian languages"}, ["nuc"] = {"Nukuini"}, ["nud"] = {"Ngala"}, ["nue"] = {"Ngundu"}, ["nuf"] = {"Nusu"}, ["nug"] = {"Nungali"}, ["nuh"] = {"Ndunda"}, ["nui"] = {"Ngumbi"}, ["nuj"] = {"Nyole"}, ["nuk"] = {"Nuu-chah-nulth", "Nuuchahnulth"}, ["nul"] = {"Nusa Laut"}, ["num"] = {"Niuafo'ou"}, ["nun"] = {"Anong"}, ["nuo"] = {"Nguôn"}, ["nup"] = {"Nupe-Nupe-Tako"}, ["nuq"] = {"Nukumanu"}, ["nur"] = {"Nukuria"}, ["nus"] = {"Nuer"}, ["nut"] = {"Nung (Viet Nam)"}, ["nuu"] = {"Ngbundu"}, ["nuv"] = {"Northern Nuni"}, ["nuw"] = {"Nguluwan"}, ["nux"] = {"Mehek"}, ["nuy"] = {"Nunggubuyu"}, ["nuz"] = {"Tlamacazapa Nahuatl"}, ["nvh"] = {"Nasarian"}, ["nvm"] = {"Namiae"}, ["nvo"] = {"Nyokon"}, ["nwa"] = {"Nawathinehena"}, ["nwb"] = {"Nyabwa"}, ["nwc"] = {"Classical Newari", "Classical Nepal Bhasa", "Old Newari"}, ["nwe"] = {"Ngwe"}, ["nwg"] = {"Ngayawung"}, ["nwi"] = {"Southwest Tanna"}, ["nwm"] = {"Nyamusa-Molo"}, ["nwo"] = {"Nauo"}, ["nwr"] = {"Nawaru"}, ["nww"] = {"Ndwewe"}, ["nwx"] = {"Middle Newar"}, ["nwy"] = {"Nottoway-Meherrin"}, ["nxa"] = {"Nauete"}, ["nxd"] = {"Ngando (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["nxe"] = {"Nage"}, ["nxg"] = {"Ngad'a"}, ["nxi"] = {"Nindi"}, ["nxk"] = {"Koki Naga"}, ["nxl"] = {"South Nuaulu"}, ["nxm"] = {"Numidian"}, ["nxn"] = {"Ngawun"}, ["nxo"] = {"Ndambomo"}, ["nxq"] = {"Naxi"}, ["nxr"] = {"Ninggerum"}, ["nxx"] = {"Nafri"}, ["nyb"] = {"Nyangbo"}, ["nyc"] = {"Nyanga-li"}, ["nyd"] = {"Nyore", "Olunyole"}, ["nye"] = {"Nyengo"}, ["nyf"] = {"Giryama", "Kigiryama"}, ["nyg"] = {"Nyindu"}, ["nyh"] = {"Nyikina"}, ["nyi"] = {"Ama (Sudan)"}, ["nyj"] = {"Nyanga"}, ["nyk"] = {"Nyaneka"}, ["nyl"] = {"Nyeu"}, ["nym"] = {"Nyamwezi"}, ["nyn"] = {"Nyankole"}, ["nyo"] = {"Nyoro"}, ["nyp"] = {"Nyang'i"}, ["nyq"] = {"Nayini"}, ["nyr"] = {"Nyiha (Malawi)"}, ["nys"] = {"Nyungar"}, ["nyt"] = {"Nyawaygi"}, ["nyu"] = {"Nyungwe"}, ["nyv"] = {"Nyulnyul"}, ["nyw"] = {"Nyaw"}, ["nyx"] = {"Nganyaywana"}, ["nyy"] = {"Nyakyusa-Ngonde"}, ["nza"] = {"Tigon Mbembe"}, ["nzb"] = {"Njebi"}, ["nzd"] = {"Nzadi"}, ["nzi"] = {"Nzima"}, ["nzk"] = {"Nzakara"}, ["nzm"] = {"Zeme Naga"}, ["nzr"] = {"Dir-Nyamzak-Mbarimi"}, ["nzs"] = {"New Zealand Sign Language"}, ["nzu"] = {"Teke-Nzikou"}, ["nzy"] = {"Nzakambay"}, ["nzz"] = {"Nanga Dama Dogon"}, ["oaa"] = {"Orok"}, ["oac"] = {"Oroch"}, ["oak"] = {"Noakhali", "Noakhailla"}, ["oar"] = {"Old Aramaic (up to 700 BCE)", "Ancient Aramaic (up to 700 BCE)"}, ["oav"] = {"Old Avar"}, ["obi"] = {"Obispeño"}, ["obk"] = {"Southern Bontok"}, ["obl"] = {"Oblo"}, ["obm"] = {"Moabite"}, ["obo"] = {"Obo Manobo"}, ["obr"] = {"Old Burmese"}, ["obt"] = {"Old Breton"}, ["obu"] = {"Obulom"}, ["oca"] = {"Ocaina"}, ["och"] = {"Old Chinese"}, ["ocm"] = {"Old Cham"}, ["oco"] = {"Old Cornish"}, ["ocu"] = {"Atzingo Matlatzinca"}, ["oda"] = {"Odut"}, ["odk"] = {"Od"}, ["odt"] = {"Old Dutch"}, ["odu"] = {"Odual"}, ["ofo"] = {"Ofo"}, ["ofs"] = {"Old Frisian"}, ["ofu"] = {"Efutop"}, ["ogb"] = {"Ogbia"}, ["ogc"] = {"Ogbah"}, ["oge"] = {"Old Georgian"}, ["ogg"] = {"Ogbogolo"}, ["ogo"] = {"Khana"}, ["ogu"] = {"Ogbronuagum"}, ["oht"] = {"Old Hittite"}, ["ohu"] = {"Old Hungarian"}, ["oia"] = {"Oirata"}, ["oie"] = {"Okolie"}, ["oin"] = {"Inebu One"}, ["ojb"] = {"Northwestern Ojibwa"}, ["ojc"] = {"Central Ojibwa"}, ["ojg"] = {"Eastern Ojibwa"}, ["ojp"] = {"Old Japanese"}, ["ojs"] = {"Severn Ojibwa"}, ["ojv"] = {"Ontong Java"}, ["ojw"] = {"Western Ojibwa"}, ["oka"] = {"Okanagan"}, ["okb"] = {"Okobo"}, ["okc"] = {"Kobo"}, ["okd"] = {"Okodia"}, ["oke"] = {"Okpe (Southwestern Edo)"}, ["okg"] = {"Koko Babangk"}, ["okh"] = {"Koresh-e Rostam"}, ["oki"] = {"Okiek"}, ["okj"] = {"Oko-Juwoi"}, ["okk"] = {"Kwamtim One"}, ["okl"] = {"Old Kentish Sign Language"}, ["okm"] = {"Middle Korean (10th-16th cent.)"}, ["okn"] = {"Oki-No-Erabu"}, ["oko"] = {"Old Korean (3rd-9th cent.)"}, ["okr"] = {"Kirike"}, ["oks"] = {"Oko-Eni-Osayen"}, ["oku"] = {"Oku"}, ["okv"] = {"Orokaiva"}, ["okx"] = {"Okpe (Northwestern Edo)"}, ["okz"] = {"Old Khmer"}, ["ola"] = {"Walungge"}, ["olb"] = {"Oli-Bodiman"}, ["old"] = {"Mochi"}, ["ole"] = {"Olekha"}, ["olk"] = {"Olkol"}, ["olm"] = {"Oloma"}, ["olo"] = {"Livvi"}, ["olr"] = {"Olrat"}, ["olt"] = {"Old Lithuanian"}, ["olu"] = {"Kuvale"}, ["oma"] = {"Omaha-Ponca"}, ["omb"] = {"East Ambae"}, ["omc"] = {"Mochica"}, ["omg"] = {"Omagua"}, ["omi"] = {"Omi"}, ["omk"] = {"Omok"}, ["oml"] = {"Ombo"}, ["omn"] = {"Minoan"}, ["omo"] = {"Utarmbung"}, ["omp"] = {"Old Manipuri"}, ["omq"] = {"Oto-Manguean languages"}, ["omr"] = {"Old Marathi"}, ["omt"] = {"Omotik"}, ["omu"] = {"Omurano"}, ["omv"] = {"Omotic languages"}, ["omw"] = {"South Tairora"}, ["omx"] = {"Old Mon"}, ["omy"] = {"Old Malay"}, ["ona"] = {"Ona"}, ["onb"] = {"Lingao"}, ["one"] = {"Oneida"}, ["ong"] = {"Olo"}, ["oni"] = {"Onin"}, ["onj"] = {"Onjob"}, ["onk"] = {"Kabore One"}, ["onn"] = {"Onobasulu"}, ["ono"] = {"Onondaga"}, ["onp"] = {"Sartang"}, ["onr"] = {"Northern One"}, ["ons"] = {"Ono"}, ["ont"] = {"Ontenu"}, ["onu"] = {"Unua"}, ["onw"] = {"Old Nubian"}, ["onx"] = {"Onin Based Pidgin"}, ["ood"] = {"Tohono O'odham"}, ["oog"] = {"Ong"}, ["oon"] = {"Önge"}, ["oor"] = {"Oorlams"}, ["oos"] = {"Old Ossetic"}, ["opa"] = {"Okpamheri"}, ["opk"] = {"Kopkaka"}, ["opm"] = {"Oksapmin"}, ["opo"] = {"Opao"}, ["opt"] = {"Opata"}, ["opy"] = {"Ofayé"}, ["ora"] = {"Oroha"}, ["orc"] = {"Orma"}, ["ore"] = {"Orejón"}, ["org"] = {"Oring"}, ["orh"] = {"Oroqen"}, ["orn"] = {"Orang Kanaq"}, ["oro"] = {"Orokolo"}, ["orr"] = {"Oruma"}, ["ors"] = {"Orang Seletar"}, ["ort"] = {"Adivasi Oriya"}, ["oru"] = {"Ormuri"}, ["orv"] = {"Old Russian"}, ["orw"] = {"Oro Win"}, ["orx"] = {"Oro"}, ["ory"] = {"Odia (individual language)", "Oriya (individual language)"}, ["orz"] = {"Ormu"}, ["osa"] = {"Osage"}, ["osc"] = {"Oscan"}, ["osd"] = {"Digor Ossetic", "Digor", "Digor Ossetian"}, ["osi"] = {"Osing"}, ["osn"] = {"Old Sundanese"}, ["oso"] = {"Ososo"}, ["osp"] = {"Old Spanish"}, ["ost"] = {"Osatu"}, ["osu"] = {"Southern One"}, ["osx"] = {"Old Saxon"}, ["ota"] = {"Ottoman Turkish (1500-1928)"}, ["otb"] = {"Old Tibetan"}, ["otd"] = {"Ot Danum"}, ["ote"] = {"Mezquital Otomi"}, ["oti"] = {"Oti"}, ["otk"] = {"Old Turkish"}, ["otl"] = {"Tilapa Otomi"}, ["otm"] = {"Eastern Highland Otomi"}, ["otn"] = {"Tenango Otomi"}, ["oto"] = {"Otomian languages"}, ["otq"] = {"Querétaro Otomi"}, ["otr"] = {"Otoro"}, ["ots"] = {"Estado de México Otomi"}, ["ott"] = {"Temoaya Otomi"}, ["otu"] = {"Otuke"}, ["otw"] = {"Ottawa"}, ["otx"] = {"Texcatepec Otomi"}, ["oty"] = {"Old Tamil"}, ["otz"] = {"Ixtenco Otomi"}, ["oua"] = {"Tagargrent"}, ["oub"] = {"Glio-Oubi"}, ["oue"] = {"Oune"}, ["oui"] = {"Old Uighur"}, ["oum"] = {"Ouma"}, ["ovd"] = {"Elfdalian", "Övdalian"}, ["owi"] = {"Owiniga"}, ["owl"] = {"Old Welsh"}, ["oyb"] = {"Oy"}, ["oyd"] = {"Oyda"}, ["oym"] = {"Wayampi"}, ["oyy"] = {"Oya'oya"}, ["ozm"] = {"Koonzime"}, ["paa"] = {"Papuan languages"}, ["pab"] = {"Parecís"}, ["pac"] = {"Pacoh"}, ["pad"] = {"Paumarí"}, ["pae"] = {"Pagibete"}, ["paf"] = {"Paranawát"}, ["pag"] = {"Pangasinan"}, ["pah"] = {"Tenharim"}, ["pai"] = {"Pe"}, ["pak"] = {"Parakanã"}, ["pal"] = {"Pahlavi"}, ["pam"] = {"Pampanga", "Kapampangan"}, ["pao"] = {"Northern Paiute"}, ["pap"] = {"Papiamento"}, ["paq"] = {"Parya"}, ["par"] = {"Panamint", "Timbisha"}, ["pas"] = {"Papasena"}, ["pau"] = {"Palauan"}, ["pav"] = {"Pakaásnovos"}, ["paw"] = {"Pawnee"}, ["pax"] = {"Pankararé"}, ["pay"] = {"Pech"}, ["paz"] = {"Pankararú"}, ["pbb"] = {"Páez"}, ["pbc"] = {"Patamona"}, ["pbe"] = {"Mezontla Popoloca"}, ["pbf"] = {"Coyotepec Popoloca"}, ["pbg"] = {"Paraujano"}, ["pbh"] = {"E'ñapa Woromaipu"}, ["pbi"] = {"Parkwa"}, ["pbl"] = {"Mak (Nigeria)"}, ["pbm"] = {"Puebla Mazatec"}, ["pbn"] = {"Kpasam"}, ["pbo"] = {"Papel"}, ["pbp"] = {"Badyara"}, ["pbr"] = {"Pangwa"}, ["pbs"] = {"Central Pame"}, ["pbt"] = {"Southern Pashto"}, ["pbu"] = {"Northern Pashto"}, ["pbv"] = {"Pnar"}, ["pby"] = {"Pyu (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["pca"] = {"Santa Inés Ahuatempan Popoloca"}, ["pcb"] = {"Pear"}, ["pcc"] = {"Bouyei"}, ["pcd"] = {"Picard"}, ["pce"] = {"Ruching Palaung"}, ["pcf"] = {"Paliyan"}, ["pcg"] = {"Paniya"}, ["pch"] = {"Pardhan"}, ["pci"] = {"Duruwa"}, ["pcj"] = {"Parenga"}, ["pck"] = {"Paite Chin"}, ["pcl"] = {"Pardhi"}, ["pcm"] = {"Nigerian Pidgin"}, ["pcn"] = {"Piti"}, ["pcp"] = {"Pacahuara"}, ["pcw"] = {"Pyapun"}, ["pda"] = {"Anam"}, ["pdc"] = {"Pennsylvania German"}, ["pdi"] = {"Pa Di"}, ["pdn"] = {"Podena", "Fedan"}, ["pdo"] = {"Padoe"}, ["pdt"] = {"Plautdietsch"}, ["pdu"] = {"Kayan"}, ["pea"] = {"Peranakan Indonesian"}, ["peb"] = {"Eastern Pomo"}, ["ped"] = {"Mala (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["pee"] = {"Taje"}, ["pef"] = {"Northeastern Pomo"}, ["peg"] = {"Pengo"}, ["peh"] = {"Bonan"}, ["pei"] = {"Chichimeca-Jonaz"}, ["pej"] = {"Northern Pomo"}, ["pek"] = {"Penchal"}, ["pel"] = {"Pekal"}, ["pem"] = {"Phende"}, ["peo"] = {"Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)"}, ["pep"] = {"Kunja"}, ["peq"] = {"Southern Pomo"}, ["pes"] = {"Iranian Persian"}, ["pev"] = {"Pémono"}, ["pex"] = {"Petats"}, ["pey"] = {"Petjo"}, ["pez"] = {"Eastern Penan"}, ["pfa"] = {"Pááfang"}, ["pfe"] = {"Pere"}, ["pfl"] = {"Pfaelzisch"}, ["pga"] = {"Sudanese Creole Arabic"}, ["pgd"] = {"Gāndhārī"}, ["pgg"] = {"Pangwali"}, ["pgi"] = {"Pagi"}, ["pgk"] = {"Rerep"}, ["pgl"] = {"Primitive Irish"}, ["pgn"] = {"Paelignian"}, ["pgs"] = {"Pangseng"}, ["pgu"] = {"Pagu"}, ["pgz"] = {"Papua New Guinean Sign Language"}, ["pha"] = {"Pa-Hng"}, ["phd"] = {"Phudagi"}, ["phg"] = {"Phuong"}, ["phh"] = {"Phukha"}, ["phi"] = {"Philippine languages"}, ["phj"] = {"Pahari"}, ["phk"] = {"Phake"}, ["phl"] = {"Phalura", "Palula"}, ["phm"] = {"Phimbi"}, ["phn"] = {"Phoenician"}, ["pho"] = {"Phunoi"}, ["phq"] = {"Phana'"}, ["phr"] = {"Pahari-Potwari"}, ["pht"] = {"Phu Thai"}, ["phu"] = {"Phuan"}, ["phv"] = {"Pahlavani"}, ["phw"] = {"Phangduwali"}, ["pia"] = {"Pima Bajo"}, ["pib"] = {"Yine"}, ["pic"] = {"Pinji"}, ["pid"] = {"Piaroa"}, ["pie"] = {"Piro"}, ["pif"] = {"Pingelapese"}, ["pig"] = {"Pisabo"}, ["pih"] = {"Pitcairn-Norfolk"}, ["pij"] = {"Pijao"}, ["pil"] = {"Yom"}, ["pim"] = {"Powhatan"}, ["pin"] = {"Piame"}, ["pio"] = {"Piapoco"}, ["pip"] = {"Pero"}, ["pir"] = {"Piratapuyo"}, ["pis"] = {"Pijin"}, ["pit"] = {"Pitta Pitta"}, ["piu"] = {"Pintupi-Luritja"}, ["piv"] = {"Pileni", "Vaeakau-Taumako"}, ["piw"] = {"Pimbwe"}, ["pix"] = {"Piu"}, ["piy"] = {"Piya-Kwonci"}, ["piz"] = {"Pije"}, ["pjt"] = {"Pitjantjatjara"}, ["pka"] = {"Ardhamāgadhī Prākrit"}, ["pkb"] = {"Pokomo", "Kipfokomo"}, ["pkc"] = {"Paekche"}, ["pkg"] = {"Pak-Tong"}, ["pkh"] = {"Pankhu"}, ["pkn"] = {"Pakanha"}, ["pko"] = {"Pökoot"}, ["pkp"] = {"Pukapuka"}, ["pkr"] = {"Attapady Kurumba"}, ["pks"] = {"Pakistan Sign Language"}, ["pkt"] = {"Maleng"}, ["pku"] = {"Paku"}, ["pla"] = {"Miani"}, ["plb"] = {"Polonombauk"}, ["plc"] = {"Central Palawano"}, ["pld"] = {"Polari"}, ["ple"] = {"Palu'e"}, ["plf"] = {"Central Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["plg"] = {"Pilagá"}, ["plh"] = {"Paulohi"}, ["plk"] = {"Kohistani Shina"}, ["pll"] = {"Shwe Palaung"}, ["pln"] = {"Palenquero"}, ["plo"] = {"Oluta Popoluca"}, ["plq"] = {"Palaic"}, ["plr"] = {"Palaka Senoufo"}, ["pls"] = {"San Marcos Tlacoyalco Popoloca", "San Marcos Tlalcoyalco Popoloca"}, ["plt"] = {"Plateau Malagasy"}, ["plu"] = {"Palikúr"}, ["plv"] = {"Southwest Palawano"}, ["plw"] = {"Brooke's Point Palawano"}, ["ply"] = {"Bolyu"}, ["plz"] = {"Paluan"}, ["pma"] = {"Paama"}, ["pmb"] = {"Pambia"}, ["pmd"] = {"Pallanganmiddang"}, ["pme"] = {"Pwaamei"}, ["pmf"] = {"Pamona"}, ["pmh"] = {"Māhārāṣṭri Prākrit"}, ["pmi"] = {"Northern Pumi"}, ["pmj"] = {"Southern Pumi"}, ["pml"] = {"Lingua Franca"}, ["pmm"] = {"Pomo"}, ["pmn"] = {"Pam"}, ["pmo"] = {"Pom"}, ["pmq"] = {"Northern Pame"}, ["pmr"] = {"Paynamar"}, ["pms"] = {"Piemontese"}, ["pmt"] = {"Tuamotuan"}, ["pmw"] = {"Plains Miwok"}, ["pmx"] = {"Poumei Naga"}, ["pmy"] = {"Papuan Malay"}, ["pmz"] = {"Southern Pame"}, ["pna"] = {"Punan Bah-Biau"}, ["pnb"] = {"Western Panjabi"}, ["pnc"] = {"Pannei"}, ["pnd"] = {"Mpinda"}, ["pne"] = {"Western Penan"}, ["png"] = {"Pangu", "Pongu"}, ["pnh"] = {"Penrhyn"}, ["pni"] = {"Aoheng"}, ["pnj"] = {"Pinjarup"}, ["pnk"] = {"Paunaka"}, ["pnl"] = {"Paleni"}, ["pnm"] = {"Punan Batu 1"}, ["pnn"] = {"Pinai-Hagahai"}, ["pno"] = {"Panobo"}, ["pnp"] = {"Pancana"}, ["pnq"] = {"Pana (Burkina Faso)"}, ["pnr"] = {"Panim"}, ["pns"] = {"Ponosakan"}, ["pnt"] = {"Pontic"}, ["pnu"] = {"Jiongnai Bunu"}, ["pnv"] = {"Pinigura"}, ["pnw"] = {"Banyjima", "Panytyima"}, ["pnx"] = {"Phong-Kniang"}, ["pny"] = {"Pinyin"}, ["pnz"] = {"Pana (Central African Republic)"}, ["poc"] = {"Poqomam"}, ["poe"] = {"San Juan Atzingo Popoloca"}, ["pof"] = {"Poke"}, ["pog"] = {"Potiguára"}, ["poh"] = {"Poqomchi'"}, ["poi"] = {"Highland Popoluca"}, ["pok"] = {"Pokangá"}, ["pom"] = {"Southeastern Pomo"}, ["pon"] = {"Pohnpeian"}, ["poo"] = {"Central Pomo"}, ["pop"] = {"Pwapwâ"}, ["poq"] = {"Texistepec Popoluca"}, ["pos"] = {"Sayula Popoluca"}, ["pot"] = {"Potawatomi"}, ["pov"] = {"Upper Guinea Crioulo"}, ["pow"] = {"San Felipe Otlaltepec Popoloca"}, ["pox"] = {"Polabian"}, ["poy"] = {"Pogolo"}, ["poz"] = {"Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["ppe"] = {"Papi"}, ["ppi"] = {"Paipai"}, ["ppk"] = {"Uma"}, ["ppl"] = {"Pipil", "Nicarao"}, ["ppm"] = {"Papuma"}, ["ppn"] = {"Papapana"}, ["ppo"] = {"Folopa"}, ["ppp"] = {"Pelende"}, ["ppq"] = {"Pei"}, ["pps"] = {"San Luís Temalacayuca Popoloca"}, ["ppt"] = {"Pare"}, ["ppu"] = {"Papora"}, ["pqa"] = {"Pa'a"}, ["pqe"] = {"Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["pqm"] = {"Malecite-Passamaquoddy"}, ["pqw"] = {"Western Malayo-Polynesian languages"}, ["pra"] = {"Prakrit languages"}, ["prc"] = {"Parachi"}, ["prd"] = {"Parsi-Dari"}, ["pre"] = {"Principense"}, ["prf"] = {"Paranan"}, ["prg"] = {"Prussian"}, ["prh"] = {"Porohanon"}, ["pri"] = {"Paicî"}, ["prk"] = {"Parauk"}, ["prl"] = {"Peruvian Sign Language"}, ["prm"] = {"Kibiri"}, ["prn"] = {"Prasuni"}, ["pro"] = {"Old Provençal (to 1500)", "Old Occitan (to 1500)"}, ["prq"] = {"Ashéninka Perené"}, ["prr"] = {"Puri"}, ["prs"] = {"Dari", "Afghan Persian"}, ["prt"] = {"Phai"}, ["pru"] = {"Puragi"}, ["prw"] = {"Parawen"}, ["prx"] = {"Purik"}, ["prz"] = {"Providencia Sign Language"}, ["psa"] = {"Asue Awyu"}, ["psc"] = {"Iranian Sign Language", "Persian Sign Language"}, ["psd"] = {"Plains Indian Sign Language"}, ["pse"] = {"Central Malay"}, ["psg"] = {"Penang Sign Language"}, ["psh"] = {"Southwest Pashai", "Southwest Pashayi"}, ["psi"] = {"Southeast Pashai", "Southeast Pashayi"}, ["psl"] = {"Puerto Rican Sign Language"}, ["psm"] = {"Pauserna"}, ["psn"] = {"Panasuan"}, ["pso"] = {"Polish Sign Language"}, ["psp"] = {"Philippine Sign Language"}, ["psq"] = {"Pasi"}, ["psr"] = {"Portuguese Sign Language"}, ["pss"] = {"Kaulong"}, ["pst"] = {"Central Pashto"}, ["psu"] = {"Sauraseni Prākrit"}, ["psw"] = {"Port Sandwich"}, ["psy"] = {"Piscataway"}, ["pta"] = {"Pai Tavytera"}, ["pth"] = {"Pataxó Hã-Ha-Hãe"}, ["pti"] = {"Pindiini", "Wangkatha"}, ["ptn"] = {"Patani"}, ["pto"] = {"Zo'é"}, ["ptp"] = {"Patep"}, ["ptq"] = {"Pattapu"}, ["ptr"] = {"Piamatsina"}, ["ptt"] = {"Enrekang"}, ["ptu"] = {"Bambam"}, ["ptv"] = {"Port Vato"}, ["ptw"] = {"Pentlatch"}, ["pty"] = {"Pathiya"}, ["pua"] = {"Western Highland Purepecha"}, ["pub"] = {"Purum"}, ["puc"] = {"Punan Merap"}, ["pud"] = {"Punan Aput"}, ["pue"] = {"Puelche"}, ["puf"] = {"Punan Merah"}, ["pug"] = {"Phuie"}, ["pui"] = {"Puinave"}, ["puj"] = {"Punan Tubu"}, ["pum"] = {"Puma"}, ["puo"] = {"Puoc"}, ["pup"] = {"Pulabu"}, ["puq"] = {"Puquina"}, ["pur"] = {"Puruborá"}, ["put"] = {"Putoh"}, ["puu"] = {"Punu"}, ["puw"] = {"Puluwatese"}, ["pux"] = {"Puare"}, ["puy"] = {"Purisimeño"}, ["pwa"] = {"Pawaia"}, ["pwb"] = {"Panawa"}, ["pwg"] = {"Gapapaiwa"}, ["pwi"] = {"Patwin"}, ["pwm"] = {"Molbog"}, ["pwn"] = {"Paiwan"}, ["pwo"] = {"Pwo Western Karen"}, ["pwr"] = {"Powari"}, ["pww"] = {"Pwo Northern Karen"}, ["pxm"] = {"Quetzaltepec Mixe"}, ["pye"] = {"Pye Krumen"}, ["pym"] = {"Fyam"}, ["pyn"] = {"Poyanáwa"}, ["pys"] = {"Paraguayan Sign Language", "Lengua de Señas del Paraguay"}, ["pyu"] = {"Puyuma"}, ["pyx"] = {"Pyu (Myanmar)"}, ["pyy"] = {"Pyen"}, ["pze"] = {"Pesse"}, ["pzh"] = {"Pazeh"}, ["pzn"] = {"Jejara Naga", "Para Naga"}, ["qua"] = {"Quapaw"}, ["qub"] = {"Huallaga Huánuco Quechua"}, ["quc"] = {"K'iche'", "Quiché"}, ["qud"] = {"Calderón Highland Quichua"}, ["quf"] = {"Lambayeque Quechua"}, ["qug"] = {"Chimborazo Highland Quichua"}, ["quh"] = {"South Bolivian Quechua"}, ["qui"] = {"Quileute"}, ["quk"] = {"Chachapoyas Quechua"}, ["qul"] = {"North Bolivian Quechua"}, ["qum"] = {"Sipacapense"}, ["qun"] = {"Quinault"}, ["qup"] = {"Southern Pastaza Quechua"}, ["quq"] = {"Quinqui"}, ["qur"] = {"Yanahuanca Pasco Quechua"}, ["qus"] = {"Santiago del Estero Quichua"}, ["quv"] = {"Sacapulteco"}, ["quw"] = {"Tena Lowland Quichua"}, ["qux"] = {"Yauyos Quechua"}, ["quy"] = {"Ayacucho Quechua"}, ["quz"] = {"Cusco Quechua"}, ["qva"] = {"Ambo-Pasco Quechua"}, ["qvc"] = {"Cajamarca Quechua"}, ["qve"] = {"Eastern Apurímac Quechua"}, ["qvh"] = {"Huamalíes-Dos de Mayo Huánuco Quechua"}, ["qvi"] = {"Imbabura Highland Quichua"}, ["qvj"] = {"Loja Highland Quichua"}, ["qvl"] = {"Cajatambo North Lima Quechua"}, ["qvm"] = {"Margos-Yarowilca-Lauricocha Quechua"}, ["qvn"] = {"North Junín Quechua"}, ["qvo"] = {"Napo Lowland Quechua"}, ["qvp"] = {"Pacaraos Quechua"}, ["qvs"] = {"San Martín Quechua"}, ["qvw"] = {"Huaylla Wanca Quechua"}, ["qvy"] = {"Queyu"}, ["qvz"] = {"Northern Pastaza Quichua"}, ["qwa"] = {"Corongo Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwc"] = {"Classical Quechua"}, ["qwe"] = {"Quechuan (family)"}, ["qwh"] = {"Huaylas Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwm"] = {"Kuman (Russia)"}, ["qws"] = {"Sihuas Ancash Quechua"}, ["qwt"] = {"Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai"}, ["qxa"] = {"Chiquián Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxc"] = {"Chincha Quechua"}, ["qxh"] = {"Panao Huánuco Quechua"}, ["qxl"] = {"Salasaca Highland Quichua"}, ["qxn"] = {"Northern Conchucos Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxo"] = {"Southern Conchucos Ancash Quechua"}, ["qxp"] = {"Puno Quechua"}, ["qxq"] = {"Qashqa'i"}, ["qxr"] = {"Cañar Highland Quichua"}, ["qxs"] = {"Southern Qiang"}, ["qxt"] = {"Santa Ana de Tusi Pasco Quechua"}, ["qxu"] = {"Arequipa-La Unión Quechua"}, ["qxw"] = {"Jauja Wanca Quechua"}, ["qya"] = {"Quenya"}, ["qyp"] = {"Quiripi"}, ["raa"] = {"Dungmali"}, ["rab"] = {"Camling"}, ["rac"] = {"Rasawa"}, ["rad"] = {"Rade"}, ["raf"] = {"Western Meohang"}, ["rag"] = {"Logooli", "Lulogooli"}, ["rah"] = {"Rabha"}, ["rai"] = {"Ramoaaina"}, ["raj"] = {"Rajasthani"}, ["rak"] = {"Tulu-Bohuai"}, ["ral"] = {"Ralte"}, ["ram"] = {"Canela"}, ["ran"] = {"Riantana"}, ["rao"] = {"Rao"}, ["rap"] = {"Rapanui"}, ["raq"] = {"Saam"}, ["rar"] = {"Rarotongan", "Cook Islands Maori"}, ["ras"] = {"Tegali"}, ["rat"] = {"Razajerdi"}, ["rau"] = {"Raute"}, ["rav"] = {"Sampang"}, ["raw"] = {"Rawang"}, ["rax"] = {"Rang"}, ["ray"] = {"Rapa"}, ["raz"] = {"Rahambuu"}, ["rbb"] = {"Rumai Palaung"}, ["rbk"] = {"Northern Bontok"}, ["rbl"] = {"Miraya Bikol"}, ["rbp"] = {"Barababaraba"}, ["rcf"] = {"Réunion Creole French"}, ["rdb"] = {"Rudbari"}, ["rea"] = {"Rerau"}, ["reb"] = {"Rembong"}, ["ree"] = {"Rejang Kayan"}, ["reg"] = {"Kara (Tanzania)"}, ["rei"] = {"Reli"}, ["rej"] = {"Rejang"}, ["rel"] = {"Rendille"}, ["rem"] = {"Remo"}, ["ren"] = {"Rengao"}, ["rer"] = {"Rer Bare"}, ["res"] = {"Reshe"}, ["ret"] = {"Retta"}, ["rey"] = {"Reyesano"}, ["rga"] = {"Roria"}, ["rge"] = {"Romano-Greek"}, ["rgk"] = {"Rangkas"}, ["rgn"] = {"Romagnol"}, ["rgr"] = {"Resígaro"}, ["rgs"] = {"Southern Roglai"}, ["rgu"] = {"Ringgou"}, ["rhg"] = {"Rohingya"}, ["rhp"] = {"Yahang"}, ["ria"] = {"Riang (India)"}, ["rib"] = {"Bribri Sign Language"}, ["rif"] = {"Tarifit"}, ["ril"] = {"Riang Lang", "Riang (Myanmar)"}, ["rim"] = {"Nyaturu"}, ["rin"] = {"Nungu"}, ["rir"] = {"Ribun"}, ["rit"] = {"Ritharrngu"}, ["riu"] = {"Riung"}, ["rjg"] = {"Rajong"}, ["rji"] = {"Raji"}, ["rjs"] = {"Rajbanshi"}, ["rka"] = {"Kraol"}, ["rkb"] = {"Rikbaktsa"}, ["rkh"] = {"Rakahanga-Manihiki"}, ["rki"] = {"Rakhine"}, ["rkm"] = {"Marka"}, ["rkt"] = {"Rangpuri", "Kamta"}, ["rkw"] = {"Arakwal"}, ["rma"] = {"Rama"}, ["rmb"] = {"Rembarrnga"}, ["rmc"] = {"Carpathian Romani"}, ["rmd"] = {"Traveller Danish"}, ["rme"] = {"Angloromani"}, ["rmf"] = {"Kalo Finnish Romani"}, ["rmg"] = {"Traveller Norwegian"}, ["rmh"] = {"Murkim"}, ["rmi"] = {"Lomavren"}, ["rmk"] = {"Romkun"}, ["rml"] = {"Baltic Romani"}, ["rmm"] = {"Roma"}, ["rmn"] = {"Balkan Romani"}, ["rmo"] = {"Sinte Romani"}, ["rmp"] = {"Rempi"}, ["rmq"] = {"Caló"}, ["rms"] = {"Romanian Sign Language"}, ["rmt"] = {"Domari"}, ["rmu"] = {"Tavringer Romani"}, ["rmv"] = {"Romanova"}, ["rmw"] = {"Welsh Romani"}, ["rmx"] = {"Romam"}, ["rmy"] = {"Vlax Romani"}, ["rmz"] = {"Marma"}, ["rnb"] = {"Brunca Sign Language"}, ["rnd"] = {"Ruund"}, ["rng"] = {"Ronga"}, ["rnl"] = {"Ranglong"}, ["rnn"] = {"Roon"}, ["rnp"] = {"Rongpo"}, ["rnr"] = {"Nari Nari"}, ["rnw"] = {"Rungwa"}, ["roa"] = {"Romance languages"}, ["rob"] = {"Tae'"}, ["roc"] = {"Cacgia Roglai"}, ["rod"] = {"Rogo"}, ["roe"] = {"Ronji"}, ["rof"] = {"Rombo"}, ["rog"] = {"Northern Roglai"}, ["rol"] = {"Romblomanon"}, ["rom"] = {"Romany"}, ["roo"] = {"Rotokas"}, ["rop"] = {"Kriol"}, ["ror"] = {"Rongga"}, ["rou"] = {"Runga"}, ["row"] = {"Dela-Oenale"}, ["rpn"] = {"Repanbitip"}, ["rpt"] = {"Rapting"}, ["rri"] = {"Ririo"}, ["rrm"] = {"Moriori"}, ["rro"] = {"Waima"}, ["rrt"] = {"Arritinngithigh"}, ["rsb"] = {"Romano-Serbian"}, ["rsk"] = {"Ruthenian", "Rusnak"}, ["rsl"] = {"Russian Sign Language"}, ["rsm"] = {"Miriwoong Sign Language"}, ["rsn"] = {"Rwandan Sign Language"}, ["rsw"] = {"Rishiwa"}, ["rtc"] = {"Rungtu Chin"}, ["rth"] = {"Ratahan"}, ["rtm"] = {"Rotuman"}, ["rts"] = {"Yurats"}, ["rtw"] = {"Rathawi"}, ["rub"] = {"Gungu"}, ["ruc"] = {"Ruuli"}, ["rue"] = {"Rusyn"}, ["ruf"] = {"Luguru"}, ["rug"] = {"Roviana"}, ["ruh"] = {"Ruga"}, ["rui"] = {"Rufiji"}, ["ruk"] = {"Che"}, ["ruo"] = {"Istro Romanian"}, ["rup"] = {"Macedo-Romanian", "Aromanian", "Arumanian"}, ["ruq"] = {"Megleno Romanian"}, ["rut"] = {"Rutul"}, ["ruu"] = {"Lanas Lobu"}, ["ruy"] = {"Mala (Nigeria)"}, ["ruz"] = {"Ruma"}, ["rwa"] = {"Rawo"}, ["rwk"] = {"Rwa"}, ["rwl"] = {"Ruwila"}, ["rwm"] = {"Amba (Uganda)"}, ["rwo"] = {"Rawa"}, ["rwr"] = {"Marwari (India)"}, ["rxd"] = {"Ngardi"}, ["rxw"] = {"Karuwali", "Garuwali"}, ["ryn"] = {"Northern Amami-Oshima"}, ["rys"] = {"Yaeyama"}, ["ryu"] = {"Central Okinawan"}, ["rzh"] = {"Rāziḥī"}, ["saa"] = {"Saba"}, ["sab"] = {"Buglere"}, ["sac"] = {"Meskwaki"}, ["sad"] = {"Sandawe"}, ["sae"] = {"Sabanê"}, ["saf"] = {"Safaliba"}, ["sah"] = {"Yakut"}, ["sai"] = {"South American Indian languages"}, ["saj"] = {"Sahu"}, ["sak"] = {"Sake"}, ["sal"] = {"Salishan languages"}, ["sam"] = {"Samaritan Aramaic"}, ["sao"] = {"Sause"}, ["saq"] = {"Samburu"}, ["sar"] = {"Saraveca"}, ["sas"] = {"Sasak"}, ["sat"] = {"Santali"}, ["sau"] = {"Saleman"}, ["sav"] = {"Saafi-Saafi"}, ["saw"] = {"Sawi"}, ["sax"] = {"Sa"}, ["say"] = {"Saya"}, ["saz"] = {"Saurashtra"}, ["sba"] = {"Ngambay"}, ["sbb"] = {"Simbo"}, ["sbc"] = {"Kele (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["sbd"] = {"Southern Samo"}, ["sbe"] = {"Saliba"}, ["sbf"] = {"Chabu", "Shabo"}, ["sbg"] = {"Seget"}, ["sbh"] = {"Sori-Harengan"}, ["sbi"] = {"Seti"}, ["sbj"] = {"Surbakhal"}, ["sbk"] = {"Safwa"}, ["sbl"] = {"Botolan Sambal"}, ["sbm"] = {"Sagala"}, ["sbn"] = {"Sindhi Bhil"}, ["sbo"] = {"Sabüm"}, ["sbp"] = {"Sangu (Tanzania)"}, ["sbq"] = {"Sileibi"}, ["sbr"] = {"Sembakung Murut"}, ["sbs"] = {"Subiya"}, ["sbt"] = {"Kimki"}, ["sbu"] = {"Stod Bhoti"}, ["sbv"] = {"Sabine"}, ["sbw"] = {"Simba"}, ["sbx"] = {"Seberuang"}, ["sby"] = {"Soli"}, ["sbz"] = {"Sara Kaba"}, ["scb"] = {"Chut"}, ["sce"] = {"Dongxiang"}, ["scf"] = {"San Miguel Creole French"}, ["scg"] = {"Sanggau"}, ["sch"] = {"Sakachep"}, ["sci"] = {"Sri Lankan Creole Malay"}, ["sck"] = {"Sadri"}, ["scl"] = {"Shina"}, ["scn"] = {"Sicilian"}, ["sco"] = {"Scots"}, ["scp"] = {"Hyolmo", "Helambu Sherpa"}, ["scq"] = {"Sa'och"}, ["scs"] = {"North Slavey"}, ["sct"] = {"Southern Katang"}, ["scu"] = {"Shumcho"}, ["scv"] = {"Sheni"}, ["scw"] = {"Sha"}, ["scx"] = {"Sicel"}, ["scz"] = {"Shaetlan"}, ["sda"] = {"Toraja-Sa'dan"}, ["sdb"] = {"Shabak"}, ["sdc"] = {"Sassarese Sardinian"}, ["sde"] = {"Surubu"}, ["sdf"] = {"Sarli"}, ["sdg"] = {"Savi"}, ["sdh"] = {"Southern Kurdish"}, ["sdj"] = {"Suundi"}, ["sdk"] = {"Sos Kundi"}, ["sdl"] = {"Saudi Arabian Sign Language"}, ["sdn"] = {"Gallurese Sardinian"}, ["sdo"] = {"Bukar-Sadung Bidayuh"}, ["sdp"] = {"Sherdukpen"}, ["sdq"] = {"Semandang"}, ["sdr"] = {"Oraon Sadri"}, ["sds"] = {"Sened"}, ["sdt"] = {"Shuadit"}, ["sdu"] = {"Sarudu"}, ["sdv"] = {"Eastern Sudanic languages"}, ["sdx"] = {"Sibu Melanau"}, ["sdz"] = {"Sallands"}, ["sea"] = {"Semai"}, ["seb"] = {"Shempire Senoufo"}, ["sec"] = {"Sechelt", "She shashishalhem"}, ["sed"] = {"Sedang"}, ["see"] = {"Seneca"}, ["sef"] = {"Cebaara Senoufo"}, ["seg"] = {"Segeju"}, ["seh"] = {"Sena"}, ["sei"] = {"Seri"}, ["sej"] = {"Sene"}, ["sek"] = {"Sekani"}, ["sel"] = {"Selkup"}, ["sem"] = {"Semitic languages"}, ["sen"] = {"Nanerigé Sénoufo"}, ["seo"] = {"Suarmin"}, ["sep"] = {"Sìcìté Sénoufo"}, ["seq"] = {"Senara Sénoufo"}, ["ser"] = {"Serrano"}, ["ses"] = {"Koyraboro Senni Songhai"}, ["set"] = {"Sentani"}, ["seu"] = {"Serui-Laut"}, ["sev"] = {"Nyarafolo Senoufo"}, ["sew"] = {"Sewa Bay"}, ["sey"] = {"Secoya"}, ["sez"] = {"Senthang Chin"}, ["sfb"] = {"Langue des signes de Belgique Francophone", "French Belgian Sign Language"}, ["sfe"] = {"Eastern Subanen"}, ["sfm"] = {"Small Flowery Miao"}, ["sfs"] = {"South African Sign Language"}, ["sfw"] = {"Sehwi"}, ["sga"] = {"Old Irish (to 900)"}, ["sgb"] = {"Mag-antsi Ayta"}, ["sgc"] = {"Kipsigis"}, ["sgd"] = {"Surigaonon"}, ["sge"] = {"Segai"}, ["sgg"] = {"Swiss-German Sign Language"}, ["sgh"] = {"Shughni"}, ["sgi"] = {"Suga"}, ["sgj"] = {"Surgujia"}, ["sgk"] = {"Sangkong"}, ["sgm"] = {"Singa"}, ["sgn"] = {"Sign languages"}, ["sgp"] = {"Singpho"}, ["sgr"] = {"Sangisari"}, ["sgs"] = {"Samogitian"}, ["sgt"] = {"Brokpake"}, ["sgu"] = {"Salas"}, ["sgw"] = {"Sebat Bet Gurage"}, ["sgx"] = {"Sierra Leone Sign Language"}, ["sgy"] = {"Sanglechi"}, ["sgz"] = {"Sursurunga"}, ["sha"] = {"Shall-Zwall"}, ["shb"] = {"Ninam"}, ["shc"] = {"Sonde"}, ["shd"] = {"Kundal Shahi"}, ["she"] = {"Sheko"}, ["shg"] = {"Shua"}, ["shh"] = {"Shoshoni"}, ["shi"] = {"Tachelhit"}, ["shj"] = {"Shatt"}, ["shk"] = {"Shilluk"}, ["shl"] = {"Shendu"}, ["shm"] = {"Shahrudi"}, ["shn"] = {"Shan"}, ["sho"] = {"Shanga"}, ["shp"] = {"Shipibo-Conibo"}, ["shq"] = {"Sala"}, ["shr"] = {"Shi"}, ["shs"] = {"Shuswap", "Secwepemctsín"}, ["sht"] = {"Shasta"}, ["shu"] = {"Chadian Arabic"}, ["shv"] = {"Shehri"}, ["shw"] = {"Shwai"}, ["shx"] = {"She"}, ["shy"] = {"Tachawit"}, ["shz"] = {"Syenara Senoufo"}, ["sia"] = {"Akkala Sami"}, ["sib"] = {"Sebop"}, ["sid"] = {"Sidamo"}, ["sie"] = {"Simaa"}, ["sif"] = {"Siamou"}, ["sig"] = {"Paasaal"}, ["sih"] = {"Zire", "Sîshëë"}, ["sii"] = {"Shom Peng"}, ["sij"] = {"Numbami"}, ["sik"] = {"Sikiana"}, ["sil"] = {"Tumulung Sisaala"}, ["sim"] = {"Mende (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["sio"] = {"Siouan languages"}, ["sip"] = {"Sikkimese"}, ["siq"] = {"Sonia"}, ["sir"] = {"Siri"}, ["sis"] = {"Siuslaw"}, ["sit"] = {"Sino-Tibetan languages"}, ["siu"] = {"Sinagen"}, ["siv"] = {"Sumariup"}, ["siw"] = {"Siwai"}, ["six"] = {"Sumau"}, ["siy"] = {"Sivandi"}, ["siz"] = {"Siwi"}, ["sja"] = {"Epena"}, ["sjb"] = {"Sajau Basap"}, ["sjc"] = {"Shaojiang Chinese"}, ["sjd"] = {"Kildin Sami"}, ["sje"] = {"Pite Sami"}, ["sjg"] = {"Assangori"}, ["sjk"] = {"Kemi Sami"}, ["sjl"] = {"Sajalong", "Miji"}, ["sjm"] = {"Mapun"}, ["sjn"] = {"Sindarin"}, ["sjo"] = {"Xibe"}, ["sjp"] = {"Surjapuri"}, ["sjr"] = {"Siar-Lak"}, ["sjs"] = {"Senhaja De Srair"}, ["sjt"] = {"Ter Sami"}, ["sju"] = {"Ume Sami"}, ["sjw"] = {"Shawnee"}, ["ska"] = {"Skagit"}, ["skb"] = {"Saek"}, ["skc"] = {"Ma Manda"}, ["skd"] = {"Southern Sierra Miwok"}, ["ske"] = {"Seke (Vanuatu)"}, ["skf"] = {"Sakirabiá"}, ["skg"] = {"Sakalava Malagasy"}, ["skh"] = {"Sikule"}, ["ski"] = {"Sika"}, ["skj"] = {"Seke (Nepal)"}, ["skm"] = {"Kutong"}, ["skn"] = {"Kolibugan Subanon"}, ["sko"] = {"Seko Tengah"}, ["skp"] = {"Sekapan"}, ["skq"] = {"Sininkere"}, ["skr"] = {"Saraiki", "Seraiki"}, ["sks"] = {"Maia"}, ["skt"] = {"Sakata"}, ["sku"] = {"Sakao"}, ["skv"] = {"Skou"}, ["skw"] = {"Skepi Creole Dutch"}, ["skx"] = {"Seko Padang"}, ["sky"] = {"Sikaiana"}, ["skz"] = {"Sekar"}, ["sla"] = {"Slavic languages"}, ["slc"] = {"Sáliba"}, ["sld"] = {"Sissala"}, ["sle"] = {"Sholaga"}, ["slf"] = {"Swiss-Italian Sign Language"}, ["slg"] = {"Selungai Murut"}, ["slh"] = {"Southern Puget Sound Salish"}, ["sli"] = {"Lower Silesian"}, ["slj"] = {"Salumá"}, ["sll"] = {"Salt-Yui"}, ["slm"] = {"Pangutaran Sama"}, ["sln"] = {"Salinan"}, ["slp"] = {"Lamaholot"}, ["slr"] = {"Salar"}, ["sls"] = {"Singapore Sign Language"}, ["slt"] = {"Sila"}, ["slu"] = {"Selaru"}, ["slw"] = {"Sialum"}, ["slx"] = {"Salampasu"}, ["sly"] = {"Selayar"}, ["slz"] = {"Ma'ya"}, ["sma"] = {"Southern Sami"}, ["smb"] = {"Simbari"}, ["smc"] = {"Som"}, ["smf"] = {"Auwe"}, ["smg"] = {"Simbali"}, ["smh"] = {"Samei"}, ["smi"] = {"Sami languages"}, ["smj"] = {"Lule Sami"}, ["smk"] = {"Bolinao"}, ["sml"] = {"Central Sama"}, ["smm"] = {"Musasa"}, ["smn"] = {"Inari Sami"}, ["smp"] = {"Samaritan"}, ["smq"] = {"Samo"}, ["smr"] = {"Simeulue"}, ["sms"] = {"Skolt Sami"}, ["smt"] = {"Simte"}, ["smu"] = {"Somray"}, ["smv"] = {"Samvedi"}, ["smw"] = {"Sumbawa"}, ["smx"] = {"Samba"}, ["smy"] = {"Semnani"}, ["smz"] = {"Simeku"}, ["snc"] = {"Sinaugoro"}, ["sne"] = {"Bau Bidayuh"}, ["snf"] = {"Noon"}, ["sng"] = {"Sanga (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["sni"] = {"Sensi"}, ["snj"] = {"Riverain Sango"}, ["snk"] = {"Soninke"}, ["snl"] = {"Sangil"}, ["snm"] = {"Southern Ma'di"}, ["snn"] = {"Siona"}, ["sno"] = {"Snohomish"}, ["snp"] = {"Siane"}, ["snq"] = {"Sangu (Gabon)"}, ["snr"] = {"Sihan"}, ["sns"] = {"South West Bay", "Nahavaq"}, ["snu"] = {"Senggi", "Viid"}, ["snv"] = {"Sa'ban"}, ["snw"] = {"Selee"}, ["snx"] = {"Sam"}, ["sny"] = {"Saniyo-Hiyewe"}, ["snz"] = {"Kou"}, ["soa"] = {"Thai Song"}, ["sob"] = {"Sobei"}, ["soc"] = {"So (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["sod"] = {"Songoora"}, ["soe"] = {"Songomeno"}, ["sog"] = {"Sogdian"}, ["soh"] = {"Aka"}, ["soi"] = {"Sonha"}, ["soj"] = {"Soi"}, ["sok"] = {"Sokoro"}, ["sol"] = {"Solos"}, ["son"] = {"Songhai languages"}, ["soo"] = {"Songo"}, ["sop"] = {"Songe"}, ["soq"] = {"Kanasi"}, ["sor"] = {"Somrai"}, ["sos"] = {"Seeku"}, ["sou"] = {"Southern Thai"}, ["sov"] = {"Sonsorol"}, ["sow"] = {"Sowanda"}, ["sox"] = {"Swo"}, ["soy"] = {"Miyobe"}, ["soz"] = {"Temi"}, ["spb"] = {"Sepa (Indonesia)"}, ["spc"] = {"Sapé"}, ["spd"] = {"Saep"}, ["spe"] = {"Sepa (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["spg"] = {"Sian"}, ["spi"] = {"Saponi"}, ["spk"] = {"Sengo"}, ["spl"] = {"Selepet"}, ["spm"] = {"Akukem"}, ["spn"] = {"Sanapaná"}, ["spo"] = {"Spokane"}, ["spp"] = {"Supyire Senoufo"}, ["spq"] = {"Loreto-Ucayali Spanish"}, ["spr"] = {"Saparua"}, ["sps"] = {"Saposa"}, ["spt"] = {"Spiti Bhoti"}, ["spu"] = {"Sapuan"}, ["spv"] = {"Sambalpuri", "Kosli"}, ["spx"] = {"South Picene"}, ["spy"] = {"Sabaot"}, ["sqa"] = {"Shama-Sambuga"}, ["sqh"] = {"Shau"}, ["sqj"] = {"Albanian languages"}, ["sqk"] = {"Albanian Sign Language"}, ["sqm"] = {"Suma"}, ["sqn"] = {"Susquehannock"}, ["sqo"] = {"Sorkhei"}, ["sqq"] = {"Sou"}, ["sqr"] = {"Siculo Arabic"}, ["sqs"] = {"Sri Lankan Sign Language"}, ["sqt"] = {"Soqotri"}, ["squ"] = {"Squamish", "Sḵwx̱wú7mesh sníchim"}, ["sqx"] = {"Kufr Qassem Sign Language (KQSL)"}, ["sra"] = {"Saruga"}, ["srb"] = {"Sora"}, ["src"] = {"Logudorese Sardinian"}, ["sre"] = {"Sara"}, ["srf"] = {"Nafi"}, ["srg"] = {"Sulod"}, ["srh"] = {"Sarikoli"}, ["sri"] = {"Siriano"}, ["srk"] = {"Serudung Murut"}, ["srl"] = {"Isirawa"}, ["srm"] = {"Saramaccan"}, ["srn"] = {"Sranan Tongo"}, ["sro"] = {"Campidanese Sardinian"}, ["srq"] = {"Sirionó"}, ["srr"] = {"Serer"}, ["srs"] = {"Tsuut'ina", "Sarsi"}, ["srt"] = {"Sauri"}, ["sru"] = {"Suruí"}, ["srv"] = {"Southern Sorsoganon"}, ["srw"] = {"Serua"}, ["srx"] = {"Sirmauri"}, ["sry"] = {"Sera"}, ["srz"] = {"Shahmirzadi"}, ["ssa"] = {"Nilo-Saharan languages"}, ["ssb"] = {"Southern Sama"}, ["ssc"] = {"Suba-Simbiti"}, ["ssd"] = {"Siroi"}, ["sse"] = {"Balangingi", "Bangingih Sama"}, ["ssf"] = {"Thao"}, ["ssg"] = {"Seimat"}, ["ssh"] = {"Shihhi Arabic"}, ["ssi"] = {"Sansi"}, ["ssj"] = {"Sausi"}, ["ssk"] = {"Sunam"}, ["ssl"] = {"Western Sisaala"}, ["ssm"] = {"Semnam"}, ["ssn"] = {"Waata"}, ["sso"] = {"Sissano"}, ["ssp"] = {"Spanish Sign Language"}, ["ssq"] = {"So'a"}, ["ssr"] = {"Swiss-French Sign Language"}, ["sss"] = {"Sô"}, ["sst"] = {"Sinasina"}, ["ssu"] = {"Susuami"}, ["ssv"] = {"Shark Bay"}, ["ssx"] = {"Samberigi"}, ["ssy"] = {"Saho"}, ["ssz"] = {"Sengseng"}, ["sta"] = {"Settla"}, ["stb"] = {"Northern Subanen"}, ["std"] = {"Sentinel"}, ["ste"] = {"Liana-Seti"}, ["stf"] = {"Seta"}, ["stg"] = {"Trieng"}, ["sth"] = {"Shelta"}, ["sti"] = {"Bulo Stieng"}, ["stj"] = {"Matya Samo"}, ["stk"] = {"Arammba"}, ["stl"] = {"Stellingwerfs"}, ["stm"] = {"Setaman"}, ["stn"] = {"Owa"}, ["sto"] = {"Stoney"}, ["stp"] = {"Southeastern Tepehuan"}, ["stq"] = {"Saterfriesisch"}, ["str"] = {"Straits Salish"}, ["sts"] = {"Shumashti"}, ["stt"] = {"Budeh Stieng"}, ["stu"] = {"Samtao"}, ["stv"] = {"Silt'e"}, ["stw"] = {"Satawalese"}, ["sty"] = {"Siberian Tatar"}, ["sua"] = {"Sulka"}, ["sub"] = {"Suku"}, ["suc"] = {"Western Subanon"}, ["sue"] = {"Suena"}, ["sug"] = {"Suganga"}, ["sui"] = {"Suki"}, ["suj"] = {"Shubi"}, ["suk"] = {"Sukuma"}, ["suo"] = {"Bouni"}, ["suq"] = {"Tirmaga-Chai Suri", "Suri"}, ["sur"] = {"Mwaghavul"}, ["sus"] = {"Susu"}, ["sut"] = {"Subtiaba"}, ["suv"] = {"Puroik"}, ["suw"] = {"Sumbwa"}, ["sux"] = {"Sumerian"}, ["suy"] = {"Suyá"}, ["suz"] = {"Sunwar"}, ["sva"] = {"Svan"}, ["svb"] = {"Ulau-Suain"}, ["svc"] = {"Vincentian Creole English"}, ["sve"] = {"Serili"}, ["svk"] = {"Slovakian Sign Language"}, ["svm"] = {"Slavomolisano"}, ["svs"] = {"Savosavo"}, ["svx"] = {"Skalvian"}, ["swb"] = {"Maore Comorian"}, ["swc"] = {"Congo Swahili"}, ["swf"] = {"Sere"}, ["swg"] = {"Swabian"}, ["swh"] = {"Swahili (individual language)", "Kiswahili"}, ["swi"] = {"Sui"}, ["swj"] = {"Sira"}, ["swk"] = {"Malawi Sena"}, ["swl"] = {"Swedish Sign Language"}, ["swm"] = {"Samosa"}, ["swn"] = {"Sawknah"}, ["swo"] = {"Shanenawa"}, ["swp"] = {"Suau"}, ["swq"] = {"Sharwa"}, ["swr"] = {"Saweru"}, ["sws"] = {"Seluwasan"}, ["swt"] = {"Sawila"}, ["swu"] = {"Suwawa"}, ["swv"] = {"Shekhawati"}, ["sww"] = {"Sowa"}, ["swx"] = {"Suruahá"}, ["swy"] = {"Sarua"}, ["sxb"] = {"Suba"}, ["sxc"] = {"Sicanian"}, ["sxe"] = {"Sighu"}, ["sxg"] = {"Shuhi", "Shixing"}, ["sxk"] = {"Southern Kalapuya"}, ["sxl"] = {"Selian"}, ["sxm"] = {"Samre"}, ["sxn"] = {"Sangir"}, ["sxo"] = {"Sorothaptic"}, ["sxr"] = {"Saaroa"}, ["sxs"] = {"Sasaru"}, ["sxu"] = {"Upper Saxon"}, ["sxw"] = {"Saxwe Gbe"}, ["sya"] = {"Siang"}, ["syb"] = {"Central Subanen"}, ["syc"] = {"Classical Syriac"}, ["syd"] = {"Samoyedic languages"}, ["syi"] = {"Seki"}, ["syk"] = {"Sukur"}, ["syl"] = {"Sylheti"}, ["sym"] = {"Maya Samo"}, ["syn"] = {"Senaya"}, ["syo"] = {"Suoy"}, ["syr"] = {"Syriac"}, ["sys"] = {"Sinyar"}, ["syw"] = {"Kagate"}, ["syx"] = {"Samay"}, ["syy"] = {"Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language"}, ["sza"] = {"Semelai"}, ["szb"] = {"Ngalum"}, ["szc"] = {"Semaq Beri"}, ["sze"] = {"Seze"}, ["szg"] = {"Sengele"}, ["szl"] = {"Silesian"}, ["szn"] = {"Sula"}, ["szp"] = {"Suabo"}, ["szs"] = {"Solomon Islands Sign Language"}, ["szv"] = {"Isubu", "Isu (Fako Division)"}, ["szw"] = {"Sawai"}, ["szy"] = {"Sakizaya"}, ["taa"] = {"Lower Tanana"}, ["tab"] = {"Tabassaran"}, ["tac"] = {"Lowland Tarahumara"}, ["tad"] = {"Tause"}, ["tae"] = {"Tariana"}, ["taf"] = {"Tapirapé"}, ["tag"] = {"Tagoi"}, ["tai"] = {"Tai languages"}, ["taj"] = {"Eastern Tamang"}, ["tak"] = {"Tala"}, ["tal"] = {"Tal"}, ["tan"] = {"Tangale"}, ["tao"] = {"Yami"}, ["tap"] = {"Taabwa"}, ["taq"] = {"Tamasheq"}, ["tar"] = {"Central Tarahumara"}, ["tas"] = {"Tay Boi"}, ["tau"] = {"Upper Tanana"}, ["tav"] = {"Tatuyo"}, ["taw"] = {"Tai"}, ["tax"] = {"Tamki"}, ["tay"] = {"Atayal"}, ["taz"] = {"Tocho"}, ["tba"] = {"Aikanã"}, ["tbc"] = {"Takia"}, ["tbd"] = {"Kaki Ae"}, ["tbe"] = {"Tanimbili"}, ["tbf"] = {"Mandara"}, ["tbg"] = {"North Tairora"}, ["tbh"] = {"Dharawal", "Thurawal"}, ["tbi"] = {"Gaam"}, ["tbj"] = {"Tiang"}, ["tbk"] = {"Calamian Tagbanwa"}, ["tbl"] = {"Tboli"}, ["tbm"] = {"Tagbu"}, ["tbn"] = {"Barro Negro Tunebo"}, ["tbo"] = {"Tawala"}, ["tbp"] = {"Taworta", "Diebroud"}, ["tbq"] = {"Tibeto-Burman languages"}, ["tbr"] = {"Tumtum"}, ["tbs"] = {"Tanguat"}, ["tbt"] = {"Tembo (Kitembo)"}, ["tbu"] = {"Tubar"}, ["tbv"] = {"Tobo"}, ["tbw"] = {"Tagbanwa"}, ["tbx"] = {"Kapin"}, ["tby"] = {"Tabaru"}, ["tbz"] = {"Ditammari"}, ["tca"] = {"Ticuna"}, ["tcb"] = {"Tanacross"}, ["tcc"] = {"Datooga"}, ["tcd"] = {"Tafi"}, ["tce"] = {"Southern Tutchone"}, ["tcf"] = {"Malinaltepec Me'phaa", "Malinaltepec Tlapanec"}, ["tcg"] = {"Tamagario"}, ["tch"] = {"Turks And Caicos Creole English"}, ["tci"] = {"Wára"}, ["tck"] = {"Tchitchege"}, ["tcl"] = {"Taman (Myanmar)"}, ["tcm"] = {"Tanahmerah"}, ["tcn"] = {"Tichurong"}, ["tco"] = {"Taungyo"}, ["tcp"] = {"Tawr Chin"}, ["tcq"] = {"Kaiy"}, ["tcs"] = {"Torres Strait Creole", "Yumplatok"}, ["tct"] = {"T'en"}, ["tcu"] = {"Southeastern Tarahumara"}, ["tcw"] = {"Tecpatlán Totonac"}, ["tcx"] = {"Toda"}, ["tcy"] = {"Tulu"}, ["tcz"] = {"Thado Chin"}, ["tda"] = {"Tagdal"}, ["tdb"] = {"Panchpargania"}, ["tdc"] = {"Emberá-Tadó"}, ["tdd"] = {"Tai Nüa"}, ["tde"] = {"Tiranige Diga Dogon"}, ["tdf"] = {"Talieng"}, ["tdg"] = {"Western Tamang"}, ["tdh"] = {"Thulung"}, ["tdi"] = {"Tomadino"}, ["tdj"] = {"Tajio"}, ["tdk"] = {"Tambas"}, ["tdl"] = {"Sur"}, ["tdm"] = {"Taruma"}, ["tdn"] = {"Tondano"}, ["tdo"] = {"Teme"}, ["tdq"] = {"Tita"}, ["tdr"] = {"Todrah"}, ["tds"] = {"Doutai"}, ["tdt"] = {"Tetun Dili"}, ["tdv"] = {"Toro"}, ["tdx"] = {"Tandroy-Mahafaly Malagasy"}, ["tdy"] = {"Tadyawan"}, ["tea"] = {"Temiar"}, ["teb"] = {"Tetete"}, ["tec"] = {"Terik"}, ["ted"] = {"Tepo Krumen"}, ["tee"] = {"Huehuetla Tepehua"}, ["tef"] = {"Teressa"}, ["teg"] = {"Teke-Tege"}, ["teh"] = {"Tehuelche"}, ["tei"] = {"Torricelli"}, ["tek"] = {"Ibali Teke"}, ["tem"] = {"Timne"}, ["ten"] = {"Tama (Colombia)"}, ["teo"] = {"Teso"}, ["tep"] = {"Tepecano"}, ["teq"] = {"Temein"}, ["ter"] = {"Tereno"}, ["tes"] = {"Tengger"}, ["tet"] = {"Tetum"}, ["teu"] = {"Soo"}, ["tev"] = {"Teor"}, ["tew"] = {"Tewa (USA)"}, ["tex"] = {"Tennet"}, ["tey"] = {"Tulishi"}, ["tez"] = {"Tetserret"}, ["tfi"] = {"Tofin Gbe"}, ["tfn"] = {"Tanaina"}, ["tfo"] = {"Tefaro"}, ["tfr"] = {"Teribe"}, ["tft"] = {"Ternate"}, ["tga"] = {"Sagalla"}, ["tgb"] = {"Tobilung"}, ["tgc"] = {"Tigak"}, ["tgd"] = {"Ciwogai"}, ["tge"] = {"Eastern Gorkha Tamang"}, ["tgf"] = {"Chalikha"}, ["tgh"] = {"Tobagonian Creole English"}, ["tgi"] = {"Lawunuia"}, ["tgj"] = {"Tagin"}, ["tgn"] = {"Tandaganon"}, ["tgo"] = {"Sudest"}, ["tgp"] = {"Tangoa"}, ["tgq"] = {"Tring"}, ["tgr"] = {"Tareng"}, ["tgs"] = {"Nume"}, ["tgt"] = {"Central Tagbanwa"}, ["tgu"] = {"Tanggu"}, ["tgv"] = {"Tingui-Boto"}, ["tgw"] = {"Tagwana Senoufo"}, ["tgx"] = {"Tagish"}, ["tgy"] = {"Togoyo"}, ["tgz"] = {"Tagalaka"}, ["thd"] = {"Kuuk Thaayorre", "Thayore"}, ["the"] = {"Chitwania Tharu"}, ["thf"] = {"Thangmi"}, ["thh"] = {"Northern Tarahumara"}, ["thi"] = {"Tai Long"}, ["thk"] = {"Tharaka", "Kitharaka"}, ["thl"] = {"Dangaura Tharu"}, ["thm"] = {"Aheu"}, ["thn"] = {"Thachanadan"}, ["thp"] = {"Thompson", "Nłeʔkepmxcín", "Thompson River Salish"}, ["thq"] = {"Kochila Tharu"}, ["thr"] = {"Rana Tharu"}, ["ths"] = {"Thakali"}, ["tht"] = {"Tahltan", "Tāłtān"}, ["thu"] = {"Thuri"}, ["thv"] = {"Tahaggart Tamahaq"}, ["thy"] = {"Tha"}, ["thz"] = {"Tayart Tamajeq"}, ["tia"] = {"Tidikelt Tamazight"}, ["tic"] = {"Tira"}, ["tif"] = {"Tifal"}, ["tig"] = {"Tigre"}, ["tih"] = {"Timugon Murut"}, ["tii"] = {"Tiene"}, ["tij"] = {"Tilung"}, ["tik"] = {"Tikar"}, ["til"] = {"Tillamook"}, ["tim"] = {"Timbe"}, ["tin"] = {"Tindi"}, ["tio"] = {"Teop"}, ["tip"] = {"Trimuris"}, ["tiq"] = {"Tiéfo"}, ["tis"] = {"Masadiit Itneg"}, ["tit"] = {"Tinigua"}, ["tiu"] = {"Adasen"}, ["tiv"] = {"Tiv"}, ["tiw"] = {"Tiwi"}, ["tix"] = {"Southern Tiwa"}, ["tiy"] = {"Tiruray"}, ["tiz"] = {"Tai Hongjin"}, ["tja"] = {"Tajuasohn"}, ["tjg"] = {"Tunjung"}, ["tji"] = {"Northern Tujia"}, ["tjj"] = {"Tjungundji"}, ["tjl"] = {"Tai Laing"}, ["tjm"] = {"Timucua"}, ["tjn"] = {"Tonjon"}, ["tjo"] = {"Temacine Tamazight"}, ["tjp"] = {"Tjupany"}, ["tjs"] = {"Southern Tujia"}, ["tju"] = {"Tjurruru"}, ["tjw"] = {"Djabwurrung"}, ["tka"] = {"Truká"}, ["tkb"] = {"Buksa"}, ["tkd"] = {"Tukudede"}, ["tke"] = {"Takwane"}, ["tkf"] = {"Tukumanféd"}, ["tkg"] = {"Tesaka Malagasy"}, ["tkl"] = {"Tokelau"}, ["tkm"] = {"Takelma"}, ["tkn"] = {"Toku-No-Shima"}, ["tkp"] = {"Tikopia"}, ["tkq"] = {"Tee"}, ["tkr"] = {"Tsakhur"}, ["tks"] = {"Takestani"}, ["tkt"] = {"Kathoriya Tharu"}, ["tku"] = {"Upper Necaxa Totonac"}, ["tkv"] = {"Mur Pano"}, ["tkw"] = {"Teanu"}, ["tkx"] = {"Tangko"}, ["tkz"] = {"Takua"}, ["tla"] = {"Southwestern Tepehuan"}, ["tlb"] = {"Tobelo"}, ["tlc"] = {"Yecuatla Totonac"}, ["tld"] = {"Talaud"}, ["tlf"] = {"Telefol"}, ["tlg"] = {"Tofanma"}, ["tlh"] = {"Klingon", "tlhIngan Hol"}, ["tli"] = {"Tlingit"}, ["tlj"] = {"Talinga-Bwisi"}, ["tlk"] = {"Taloki"}, ["tll"] = {"Tetela"}, ["tlm"] = {"Tolomako"}, ["tln"] = {"Talondo'"}, ["tlo"] = {"Talodi"}, ["tlp"] = {"Filomena Mata-Coahuitlán Totonac"}, ["tlq"] = {"Tai Loi"}, ["tlr"] = {"Talise"}, ["tls"] = {"Tambotalo"}, ["tlt"] = {"Sou Nama", "Teluti"}, ["tlu"] = {"Tulehu"}, ["tlv"] = {"Taliabu"}, ["tlx"] = {"Khehek"}, ["tly"] = {"Talysh"}, ["tma"] = {"Tama (Chad)"}, ["tmb"] = {"Katbol", "Avava"}, ["tmc"] = {"Tumak"}, ["tmd"] = {"Haruai"}, ["tme"] = {"Tremembé"}, ["tmf"] = {"Toba-Maskoy"}, ["tmg"] = {"Ternateño"}, ["tmh"] = {"Tamashek"}, ["tmi"] = {"Tutuba"}, ["tmj"] = {"Samarokena"}, ["tml"] = {"Tamnim Citak"}, ["tmm"] = {"Tai Thanh"}, ["tmn"] = {"Taman (Indonesia)"}, ["tmo"] = {"Temoq"}, ["tmq"] = {"Tumleo"}, ["tmr"] = {"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)"}, ["tms"] = {"Tima"}, ["tmt"] = {"Tasmate"}, ["tmu"] = {"Iau"}, ["tmv"] = {"Tembo (Motembo)"}, ["tmw"] = {"Temuan"}, ["tmy"] = {"Tami"}, ["tmz"] = {"Tamanaku"}, ["tna"] = {"Tacana"}, ["tnb"] = {"Western Tunebo"}, ["tnc"] = {"Tanimuca-Retuarã"}, ["tnd"] = {"Angosturas Tunebo"}, ["tng"] = {"Tobanga"}, ["tnh"] = {"Maiani"}, ["tni"] = {"Tandia"}, ["tnk"] = {"Kwamera"}, ["tnl"] = {"Lenakel"}, ["tnm"] = {"Tabla"}, ["tnn"] = {"North Tanna"}, ["tno"] = {"Toromono"}, ["tnp"] = {"Whitesands"}, ["tnq"] = {"Taino"}, ["tnr"] = {"Ménik"}, ["tns"] = {"Tenis"}, ["tnt"] = {"Tontemboan"}, ["tnu"] = {"Tay Khang"}, ["tnv"] = {"Tangchangya"}, ["tnw"] = {"Tonsawang"}, ["tnx"] = {"Tanema"}, ["tny"] = {"Tongwe"}, ["tnz"] = {"Ten'edn"}, ["tob"] = {"Toba"}, ["toc"] = {"Coyutla Totonac"}, ["tod"] = {"Toma"}, ["tof"] = {"Gizrra"}, ["tog"] = {"Tonga (Nyasa)"}, ["toh"] = {"Gitonga"}, ["toi"] = {"Tonga (Zambia)"}, ["toj"] = {"Tojolabal"}, ["tok"] = {"Toki Pona"}, ["tol"] = {"Tolowa"}, ["tom"] = {"Tombulu"}, ["too"] = {"Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac"}, ["top"] = {"Papantla Totonac"}, ["toq"] = {"Toposa"}, ["tor"] = {"Togbo-Vara Banda"}, ["tos"] = {"Highland Totonac"}, ["tou"] = {"Tho"}, ["tov"] = {"Upper Taromi"}, ["tow"] = {"Jemez"}, ["tox"] = {"Tobian"}, ["toy"] = {"Topoiyo"}, ["toz"] = {"To"}, ["tpa"] = {"Taupota"}, ["tpc"] = {"Azoyú Me'phaa", "Azoyú Tlapanec"}, ["tpe"] = {"Tippera"}, ["tpf"] = {"Tarpia"}, ["tpg"] = {"Kula"}, ["tpi"] = {"Tok Pisin"}, ["tpj"] = {"Tapieté"}, ["tpk"] = {"Tupinikin"}, ["tpl"] = {"Tlacoapa Me'phaa", "Tlacoapa Tlapanec"}, ["tpm"] = {"Tampulma"}, ["tpn"] = {"Tupinambá"}, ["tpo"] = {"Tai Pao"}, ["tpp"] = {"Pisaflores Tepehua"}, ["tpq"] = {"Tukpa"}, ["tpr"] = {"Tuparí"}, ["tpt"] = {"Tlachichilco Tepehua"}, ["tpu"] = {"Tampuan"}, ["tpv"] = {"Tanapag"}, ["tpx"] = {"Acatepec Me'phaa", "Acatepec Tlapanec"}, ["tpy"] = {"Trumai"}, ["tpz"] = {"Tinputz"}, ["tqb"] = {"Tembé"}, ["tql"] = {"Lehali"}, ["tqm"] = {"Turumsa"}, ["tqn"] = {"Tenino"}, ["tqo"] = {"Toaripi"}, ["tqp"] = {"Tomoip"}, ["tqq"] = {"Tunni"}, ["tqr"] = {"Torona"}, ["tqt"] = {"Western Totonac"}, ["tqu"] = {"Touo"}, ["tqw"] = {"Tonkawa"}, ["tra"] = {"Tirahi"}, ["trb"] = {"Terebu"}, ["trc"] = {"Copala Triqui"}, ["trd"] = {"Turi"}, ["tre"] = {"East Tarangan"}, ["trf"] = {"Trinidadian Creole English"}, ["trg"] = {"Lishán Didán"}, ["trh"] = {"Turaka"}, ["tri"] = {"Trió"}, ["trj"] = {"Toram"}, ["trk"] = {"Turkic languages"}, ["trl"] = {"Traveller Scottish"}, ["trm"] = {"Tregami"}, ["trn"] = {"Trinitario"}, ["tro"] = {"Tarao Naga"}, ["trp"] = {"Kok Borok"}, ["trq"] = {"San Martín Itunyoso Triqui"}, ["trr"] = {"Taushiro"}, ["trs"] = {"Chicahuaxtla Triqui"}, ["trt"] = {"Tunggare"}, ["tru"] = {"Turoyo", "Surayt"}, ["trv"] = {"Sediq", "Seediq", "Taroko"}, ["trw"] = {"Torwali"}, ["trx"] = {"Tringgus-Sembaan Bidayuh"}, ["try"] = {"Turung"}, ["trz"] = {"Torá"}, ["tsa"] = {"Tsaangi"}, ["tsb"] = {"Tsamai"}, ["tsc"] = {"Tswa"}, ["tsd"] = {"Tsakonian"}, ["tse"] = {"Tunisian Sign Language"}, ["tsg"] = {"Tausug"}, ["tsh"] = {"Tsuvan"}, ["tsi"] = {"Tsimshian"}, ["tsj"] = {"Tshangla"}, ["tsk"] = {"Tseku"}, ["tsl"] = {"Ts'ün-Lao"}, ["tsm"] = {"Turkish Sign Language", "Türk İşaret Dili"}, ["tsp"] = {"Northern Toussian"}, ["tsq"] = {"Thai Sign Language"}, ["tsr"] = {"Akei"}, ["tss"] = {"Taiwan Sign Language"}, ["tst"] = {"Tondi Songway Kiini"}, ["tsu"] = {"Tsou"}, ["tsv"] = {"Tsogo"}, ["tsw"] = {"Tsishingini"}, ["tsx"] = {"Mubami"}, ["tsy"] = {"Tebul Sign Language"}, ["tsz"] = {"Purepecha"}, ["tta"] = {"Tutelo"}, ["ttb"] = {"Gaa"}, ["ttc"] = {"Tektiteko"}, ["ttd"] = {"Tauade"}, ["tte"] = {"Bwanabwana"}, ["ttf"] = {"Tuotomb"}, ["ttg"] = {"Tutong"}, ["tth"] = {"Upper Ta'oih"}, ["tti"] = {"Tobati"}, ["ttj"] = {"Tooro"}, ["ttk"] = {"Totoro"}, ["ttl"] = {"Totela"}, ["ttm"] = {"Northern Tutchone"}, ["ttn"] = {"Towei"}, ["tto"] = {"Lower Ta'oih"}, ["ttp"] = {"Tombelala"}, ["ttq"] = {"Tawallammat Tamajaq"}, ["ttr"] = {"Tera"}, ["tts"] = {"Northeastern Thai"}, ["ttt"] = {"Muslim Tat"}, ["ttu"] = {"Torau"}, ["ttv"] = {"Titan"}, ["ttw"] = {"Long Wat"}, ["tty"] = {"Sikaritai"}, ["ttz"] = {"Tsum"}, ["tua"] = {"Wiarumus"}, ["tub"] = {"Tübatulabal"}, ["tuc"] = {"Mutu"}, ["tud"] = {"Tuxá"}, ["tue"] = {"Tuyuca"}, ["tuf"] = {"Central Tunebo"}, ["tug"] = {"Tunia"}, ["tuh"] = {"Taulil"}, ["tui"] = {"Tupuri"}, ["tuj"] = {"Tugutil"}, ["tul"] = {"Tula"}, ["tum"] = {"Tumbuka"}, ["tun"] = {"Tunica"}, ["tuo"] = {"Tucano"}, ["tup"] = {"Tupi languages"}, ["tuq"] = {"Tedaga"}, ["tus"] = {"Tuscarora"}, ["tut"] = {"Altaic languages"}, ["tuu"] = {"Tututni"}, ["tuv"] = {"Turkana"}, ["tuw"] = {"Tungus languages"}, ["tux"] = {"Tuxináwa"}, ["tuy"] = {"Tugen"}, ["tuz"] = {"Turka"}, ["tva"] = {"Vaghua"}, ["tvd"] = {"Tsuvadi"}, ["tve"] = {"Te'un"}, ["tvg"] = {"Tugunese", "Batavian Portuguese Creole", "Mardijker Creole"}, ["tvi"] = {"Tulai"}, ["tvk"] = {"Southeast Ambrym"}, ["tvl"] = {"Tuvalu"}, ["tvm"] = {"Tela-Masbuar"}, ["tvn"] = {"Tavoyan"}, ["tvo"] = {"Tidore"}, ["tvs"] = {"Taveta"}, ["tvt"] = {"Tutsa Naga"}, ["tvu"] = {"Tunen"}, ["tvw"] = {"Sedoa"}, ["tvx"] = {"Taivoan"}, ["tvy"] = {"Timor Pidgin"}, ["twa"] = {"Twana"}, ["twb"] = {"Western Tawbuid"}, ["twc"] = {"Teshenawa"}, ["twd"] = {"Twents"}, ["twe"] = {"Tewa (Indonesia)"}, ["twf"] = {"Northern Tiwa"}, ["twg"] = {"Tereweng"}, ["twh"] = {"Tai Dón"}, ["twl"] = {"Tawara"}, ["twm"] = {"Tawang Monpa"}, ["twn"] = {"Twendi"}, ["two"] = {"Tswapong"}, ["twp"] = {"Ere"}, ["twq"] = {"Tasawaq"}, ["twr"] = {"Southwestern Tarahumara"}, ["twt"] = {"Turiwára"}, ["twu"] = {"Termanu"}, ["tww"] = {"Tuwari"}, ["twx"] = {"Tewe"}, ["twy"] = {"Tawoyan"}, ["txa"] = {"Tombonuo"}, ["txb"] = {"Tokharian B"}, ["txc"] = {"Tsetsaut"}, ["txe"] = {"Totoli"}, ["txg"] = {"Tangut"}, ["txh"] = {"Thracian"}, ["txi"] = {"Ikpeng"}, ["txj"] = {"Tarjumo"}, ["txm"] = {"Tomini"}, ["txn"] = {"West Tarangan"}, ["txo"] = {"Toto"}, ["txq"] = {"Tii"}, ["txr"] = {"Tartessian"}, ["txs"] = {"Tonsea"}, ["txt"] = {"Citak"}, ["txu"] = {"Kayapó"}, ["txx"] = {"Tatana"}, ["txy"] = {"Tanosy Malagasy"}, ["tya"] = {"Tauya"}, ["tye"] = {"Kyanga"}, ["tyh"] = {"O'du"}, ["tyi"] = {"Teke-Tsaayi"}, ["tyj"] = {"Tai Do", "Tai Yo"}, ["tyl"] = {"Thu Lao"}, ["tyn"] = {"Kombai"}, ["typ"] = {"Thaypan"}, ["tyr"] = {"Tai Daeng"}, ["tys"] = {"Tày Sa Pa"}, ["tyt"] = {"Tày Tac"}, ["tyu"] = {"Kua"}, ["tyv"] = {"Tuvinian"}, ["tyx"] = {"Teke-Tyee"}, ["tyy"] = {"Tiyaa"}, ["tyz"] = {"Tày"}, ["tza"] = {"Tanzanian Sign Language"}, ["tzh"] = {"Tzeltal"}, ["tzj"] = {"Tz'utujil"}, ["tzl"] = {"Talossan"}, ["tzm"] = {"Central Atlas Tamazight"}, ["tzn"] = {"Tugun"}, ["tzo"] = {"Tzotzil"}, ["tzx"] = {"Tabriak"}, ["uam"] = {"Uamué"}, ["uan"] = {"Kuan"}, ["uar"] = {"Tairuma"}, ["uba"] = {"Ubang"}, ["ubi"] = {"Ubi"}, ["ubl"] = {"Buhi'non Bikol"}, ["ubr"] = {"Ubir"}, ["ubu"] = {"Umbu-Ungu"}, ["uby"] = {"Ubykh"}, ["uda"] = {"Uda"}, ["ude"] = {"Udihe"}, ["udg"] = {"Muduga"}, ["udi"] = {"Udi"}, ["udj"] = {"Ujir"}, ["udl"] = {"Wuzlam"}, ["udm"] = {"Udmurt"}, ["udu"] = {"Uduk"}, ["ues"] = {"Kioko"}, ["ufi"] = {"Ufim"}, ["uga"] = {"Ugaritic"}, ["ugb"] = {"Kuku-Ugbanh"}, ["uge"] = {"Ughele"}, ["ugh"] = {"Kubachi"}, ["ugn"] = {"Ugandan Sign Language"}, ["ugo"] = {"Ugong"}, ["ugy"] = {"Uruguayan Sign Language"}, ["uha"] = {"Uhami"}, ["uhn"] = {"Damal"}, ["uis"] = {"Uisai"}, ["uiv"] = {"Iyive"}, ["uji"] = {"Tanjijili"}, ["uka"] = {"Kaburi"}, ["ukg"] = {"Ukuriguma"}, ["ukh"] = {"Ukhwejo"}, ["uki"] = {"Kui (India)"}, ["ukk"] = {"Muak Sa-aak"}, ["ukl"] = {"Ukrainian Sign Language"}, ["ukp"] = {"Ukpe-Bayobiri"}, ["ukq"] = {"Ukwa"}, ["uks"] = {"Urubú-Kaapor Sign Language", "Kaapor Sign Language"}, ["uku"] = {"Ukue"}, ["ukv"] = {"Kuku"}, ["ukw"] = {"Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni"}, ["uky"] = {"Kuuk-Yak"}, ["ula"] = {"Fungwa"}, ["ulb"] = {"Ulukwumi"}, ["ulc"] = {"Ulch"}, ["ule"] = {"Lule"}, ["ulf"] = {"Usku", "Afra"}, ["uli"] = {"Ulithian"}, ["ulk"] = {"Meriam Mir"}, ["ull"] = {"Ullatan"}, ["ulm"] = {"Ulumanda'"}, ["uln"] = {"Unserdeutsch"}, ["ulu"] = {"Uma' Lung"}, ["ulw"] = {"Ulwa"}, ["uly"] = {"Buli"}, ["uma"] = {"Umatilla"}, ["umb"] = {"Umbundu"}, ["umc"] = {"Marrucinian"}, ["umd"] = {"Umbindhamu"}, ["umg"] = {"Morrobalama", "Umbuygamu"}, ["umi"] = {"Ukit"}, ["umm"] = {"Umon"}, ["umn"] = {"Makyan Naga"}, ["umo"] = {"Umotína"}, ["ump"] = {"Umpila"}, ["umr"] = {"Umbugarla"}, ["ums"] = {"Pendau"}, ["umu"] = {"Munsee"}, ["una"] = {"North Watut"}, ["und"] = {"Undetermined"}, ["une"] = {"Uneme"}, ["ung"] = {"Ngarinyin"}, ["uni"] = {"Uni"}, ["unk"] = {"Enawené-Nawé"}, ["unm"] = {"Unami"}, ["unn"] = {"Kurnai"}, ["unr"] = {"Mundari"}, ["unu"] = {"Unubahe"}, ["unx"] = {"Munda"}, ["unz"] = {"Unde Kaili"}, ["uon"] = {"Kulon"}, ["upi"] = {"Umeda"}, ["upv"] = {"Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin"}, ["ura"] = {"Urarina"}, ["urb"] = {"Urubú-Kaapor", "Kaapor"}, ["urc"] = {"Urningangg"}, ["ure"] = {"Uru"}, ["urf"] = {"Uradhi"}, ["urg"] = {"Urigina"}, ["urh"] = {"Urhobo"}, ["uri"] = {"Urim"}, ["urj"] = {"Uralic languages"}, ["urk"] = {"Urak Lawoi'"}, ["url"] = {"Urali"}, ["urm"] = {"Urapmin"}, ["urn"] = {"Uruangnirin"}, ["uro"] = {"Ura (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["urp"] = {"Uru-Pa-In"}, ["urr"] = {"Lehalurup", "Löyöp"}, ["urt"] = {"Urat"}, ["uru"] = {"Urumi"}, ["urv"] = {"Uruava"}, ["urw"] = {"Sop"}, ["urx"] = {"Urimo"}, ["ury"] = {"Orya"}, ["urz"] = {"Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau"}, ["usa"] = {"Usarufa"}, ["ush"] = {"Ushojo"}, ["usi"] = {"Usui"}, ["usk"] = {"Usaghade"}, ["usp"] = {"Uspanteco"}, ["uss"] = {"us-Saare"}, ["usu"] = {"Uya"}, ["uta"] = {"Otank"}, ["ute"] = {"Ute-Southern Paiute"}, ["uth"] = {"ut-Hun"}, ["utp"] = {"Amba (Solomon Islands)"}, ["utr"] = {"Etulo"}, ["utu"] = {"Utu"}, ["uum"] = {"Urum"}, ["uur"] = {"Ura (Vanuatu)"}, ["uuu"] = {"U"}, ["uve"] = {"West Uvean", "Fagauvea"}, ["uvh"] = {"Uri"}, ["uvl"] = {"Lote"}, ["uwa"] = {"Kuku-Uwanh"}, ["uya"] = {"Doko-Uyanga"}, ["uzn"] = {"Northern Uzbek"}, ["uzs"] = {"Southern Uzbek"}, ["vaa"] = {"Vaagri Booli"}, ["vae"] = {"Vale"}, ["vaf"] = {"Vafsi"}, ["vag"] = {"Vagla"}, ["vah"] = {"Varhadi-Nagpuri"}, ["vai"] = {"Vai"}, ["vaj"] = {"Sekele", "Northwestern ǃKung", "Vasekele"}, ["val"] = {"Vehes"}, ["vam"] = {"Vanimo"}, ["van"] = {"Valman"}, ["vao"] = {"Vao"}, ["vap"] = {"Vaiphei"}, ["var"] = {"Huarijio"}, ["vas"] = {"Vasavi"}, ["vau"] = {"Vanuma"}, ["vav"] = {"Varli"}, ["vay"] = {"Wayu"}, ["vbb"] = {"Southeast Babar"}, ["vbk"] = {"Southwestern Bontok"}, ["vec"] = {"Venetian"}, ["ved"] = {"Veddah"}, ["vel"] = {"Veluws"}, ["vem"] = {"Vemgo-Mabas"}, ["veo"] = {"Ventureño"}, ["vep"] = {"Veps"}, ["ver"] = {"Mom Jango"}, ["vgr"] = {"Vaghri"}, ["vgt"] = {"Vlaamse Gebarentaal", "Flemish Sign Language"}, ["vic"] = {"Virgin Islands Creole English"}, ["vid"] = {"Vidunda"}, ["vif"] = {"Vili"}, ["vig"] = {"Viemo"}, ["vil"] = {"Vilela"}, ["vin"] = {"Vinza"}, ["vis"] = {"Vishavan"}, ["vit"] = {"Viti"}, ["viv"] = {"Iduna"}, ["vjk"] = {"Bajjika"}, ["vka"] = {"Kariyarra"}, ["vkj"] = {"Kujarge"}, ["vkk"] = {"Kaur"}, ["vkl"] = {"Kulisusu"}, ["vkm"] = {"Kamakan"}, ["vkn"] = {"Koro Nulu"}, ["vko"] = {"Kodeoha"}, ["vkp"] = {"Korlai Creole Portuguese"}, ["vkt"] = {"Tenggarong Kutai Malay"}, ["vku"] = {"Kurrama"}, ["vkz"] = {"Koro Zuba"}, ["vlp"] = {"Valpei"}, ["vls"] = {"Vlaams"}, ["vma"] = {"Martuyhunira"}, ["vmb"] = {"Barbaram"}, ["vmc"] = {"Juxtlahuaca Mixtec"}, ["vmd"] = {"Mudu Koraga"}, ["vme"] = {"East Masela"}, ["vmf"] = {"Mainfränkisch"}, ["vmg"] = {"Lungalunga"}, ["vmh"] = {"Maraghei"}, ["vmi"] = {"Miwa"}, ["vmj"] = {"Ixtayutla Mixtec"}, ["vmk"] = {"Makhuwa-Shirima"}, ["vml"] = {"Malgana"}, ["vmm"] = {"Mitlatongo Mixtec"}, ["vmp"] = {"Soyaltepec Mazatec"}, ["vmq"] = {"Soyaltepec Mixtec"}, ["vmr"] = {"Marenje"}, ["vms"] = {"Moksela"}, ["vmu"] = {"Muluridyi"}, ["vmv"] = {"Valley Maidu"}, ["vmw"] = {"Makhuwa"}, ["vmx"] = {"Tamazola Mixtec"}, ["vmy"] = {"Ayautla Mazatec"}, ["vmz"] = {"Mazatlán Mazatec"}, ["vnk"] = {"Vano", "Lovono"}, ["vnm"] = {"Vinmavis", "Neve'ei"}, ["vnp"] = {"Vunapu"}, ["vor"] = {"Voro"}, ["vot"] = {"Votic"}, ["vra"] = {"Vera'a"}, ["vro"] = {"Võro"}, ["vrs"] = {"Varisi"}, ["vrt"] = {"Burmbar", "Banam Bay"}, ["vsi"] = {"Moldova Sign Language"}, ["vsl"] = {"Venezuelan Sign Language"}, ["vsn"] = {"Vedic Sanskrit"}, ["vsv"] = {"Valencian Sign Language", "Llengua de signes valenciana"}, ["vto"] = {"Vitou"}, ["vum"] = {"Vumbu"}, ["vun"] = {"Vunjo"}, ["vut"] = {"Vute"}, ["vwa"] = {"Awa (China)"}, ["waa"] = {"Walla Walla"}, ["wab"] = {"Yote", "Wab"}, ["wac"] = {"Wasco-Wishram"}, ["wad"] = {"Wamesa", "Wondama"}, ["wae"] = {"Walser"}, ["waf"] = {"Wakoná"}, ["wag"] = {"Wa'ema"}, ["wah"] = {"Watubela"}, ["wai"] = {"Wares"}, ["waj"] = {"Waffa"}, ["wak"] = {"Wakashan languages"}, ["wal"] = {"Wolaytta", "Wolaitta"}, ["wam"] = {"Wampanoag"}, ["wan"] = {"Wan"}, ["wao"] = {"Wappo"}, ["wap"] = {"Wapishana"}, ["waq"] = {"Wagiman"}, ["war"] = {"Waray (Philippines)"}, ["was"] = {"Washo"}, ["wat"] = {"Kaninuwa"}, ["wau"] = {"Waurá"}, ["wav"] = {"Waka"}, ["waw"] = {"Waiwai"}, ["wax"] = {"Watam", "Marangis"}, ["way"] = {"Wayana"}, ["waz"] = {"Wampur"}, ["wba"] = {"Warao"}, ["wbb"] = {"Wabo"}, ["wbe"] = {"Waritai"}, ["wbf"] = {"Wara"}, ["wbh"] = {"Wanda"}, ["wbi"] = {"Vwanji"}, ["wbj"] = {"Alagwa"}, ["wbk"] = {"Waigali"}, ["wbl"] = {"Wakhi"}, ["wbm"] = {"Wa"}, ["wbp"] = {"Warlpiri"}, ["wbq"] = {"Waddar"}, ["wbr"] = {"Wagdi"}, ["wbs"] = {"West Bengal Sign Language"}, ["wbt"] = {"Warnman"}, ["wbv"] = {"Wajarri"}, ["wbw"] = {"Woi"}, ["wca"] = {"Yanomámi"}, ["wci"] = {"Waci Gbe"}, ["wdd"] = {"Wandji"}, ["wdg"] = {"Wadaginam"}, ["wdj"] = {"Wadjiginy"}, ["wdk"] = {"Wadikali"}, ["wdt"] = {"Wendat"}, ["wdu"] = {"Wadjigu"}, ["wdy"] = {"Wadjabangayi"}, ["wea"] = {"Wewaw"}, ["wec"] = {"Wè Western"}, ["wed"] = {"Wedau"}, ["weg"] = {"Wergaia"}, ["weh"] = {"Weh"}, ["wei"] = {"Kiunum"}, ["wem"] = {"Weme Gbe"}, ["wen"] = {"Sorbian languages"}, ["weo"] = {"Wemale"}, ["wep"] = {"Westphalien"}, ["wer"] = {"Weri"}, ["wes"] = {"Cameroon Pidgin"}, ["wet"] = {"Perai"}, ["weu"] = {"Rawngtu Chin"}, ["wew"] = {"Wejewa"}, ["wfg"] = {"Yafi", "Zorop"}, ["wga"] = {"Wagaya"}, ["wgb"] = {"Wagawaga"}, ["wgg"] = {"Wangkangurru", "Wangganguru"}, ["wgi"] = {"Wahgi"}, ["wgo"] = {"Waigeo"}, ["wgu"] = {"Wirangu"}, ["wgy"] = {"Warrgamay"}, ["wha"] = {"Sou Upaa", "Manusela"}, ["whg"] = {"North Wahgi"}, ["whk"] = {"Wahau Kenyah"}, ["whu"] = {"Wahau Kayan"}, ["wib"] = {"Southern Toussian"}, ["wic"] = {"Wichita"}, ["wie"] = {"Wik-Epa"}, ["wif"] = {"Wik-Keyangan"}, ["wig"] = {"Wik Ngathan"}, ["wih"] = {"Wik-Me'anha"}, ["wii"] = {"Minidien"}, ["wij"] = {"Wik-Iiyanh"}, ["wik"] = {"Wikalkan"}, ["wil"] = {"Wilawila"}, ["wim"] = {"Wik-Mungkan"}, ["win"] = {"Ho-Chunk"}, ["wir"] = {"Wiraféd"}, ["wiu"] = {"Wiru"}, ["wiv"] = {"Vitu"}, ["wiy"] = {"Wiyot"}, ["wja"] = {"Waja"}, ["wji"] = {"Warji"}, ["wka"] = {"Kw'adza"}, ["wkb"] = {"Kumbaran"}, ["wkd"] = {"Wakde", "Mo"}, ["wkl"] = {"Kalanadi"}, ["wkr"] = {"Keerray-Woorroong"}, ["wku"] = {"Kunduvadi"}, ["wkw"] = {"Wakawaka"}, ["wky"] = {"Wangkayutyuru"}, ["wla"] = {"Walio"}, ["wlc"] = {"Mwali Comorian"}, ["wle"] = {"Wolane"}, ["wlg"] = {"Kunbarlang"}, ["wlh"] = {"Welaun"}, ["wli"] = {"Waioli"}, ["wlk"] = {"Wailaki"}, ["wll"] = {"Wali (Sudan)"}, ["wlm"] = {"Middle Welsh"}, ["wlo"] = {"Wolio"}, ["wlr"] = {"Wailapa"}, ["wls"] = {"Wallisian"}, ["wlu"] = {"Wuliwuli"}, ["wlv"] = {"Wichí Lhamtés Vejoz"}, ["wlw"] = {"Walak"}, ["wlx"] = {"Wali (Ghana)"}, ["wly"] = {"Waling"}, ["wma"] = {"Mawa (Nigeria)"}, ["wmb"] = {"Wambaya"}, ["wmc"] = {"Wamas"}, ["wmd"] = {"Mamaindé"}, ["wme"] = {"Wambule"}, ["wmg"] = {"Western Minyag"}, ["wmh"] = {"Waima'a"}, ["wmi"] = {"Wamin"}, ["wmm"] = {"Maiwa (Indonesia)"}, ["wmn"] = {"Waamwang"}, ["wmo"] = {"Wom (Papua New Guinea)"}, ["wms"] = {"Wambon"}, ["wmt"] = {"Walmajarri"}, ["wmw"] = {"Mwani"}, ["wmx"] = {"Womo"}, ["wnb"] = {"Mokati"}, ["wnc"] = {"Wantoat"}, ["wnd"] = {"Wandarang"}, ["wne"] = {"Waneci"}, ["wng"] = {"Wanggom"}, ["wni"] = {"Ndzwani Comorian"}, ["wnk"] = {"Wanukaka"}, ["wnm"] = {"Wanggamala"}, ["wnn"] = {"Wunumara"}, ["wno"] = {"Wano"}, ["wnp"] = {"Wanap"}, ["wnu"] = {"Usan"}, ["wnw"] = {"Wintu"}, ["wny"] = {"Wanyi", "Waanyi"}, ["woa"] = {"Kuwema", "Tyaraity"}, ["wob"] = {"Wè Northern"}, ["woc"] = {"Wogeo"}, ["wod"] = {"Wolani"}, ["woe"] = {"Woleaian"}, ["wof"] = {"Gambian Wolof"}, ["wog"] = {"Wogamusin"}, ["woi"] = {"Kamang"}, ["wok"] = {"Longto"}, ["wom"] = {"Wom (Nigeria)"}, ["won"] = {"Wongo"}, ["woo"] = {"Manombai"}, ["wor"] = {"Woria"}, ["wos"] = {"Hanga Hundi"}, ["wow"] = {"Wawonii"}, ["woy"] = {"Weyto"}, ["wpc"] = {"Maco"}, ["wrb"] = {"Waluwarra", "Warluwara"}, ["wrg"] = {"Warungu", "Gudjal"}, ["wrh"] = {"Wiradjuri"}, ["wri"] = {"Wariyangga"}, ["wrk"] = {"Garrwa"}, ["wrl"] = {"Warlmanpa"}, ["wrm"] = {"Warumungu"}, ["wrn"] = {"Warnang"}, ["wro"] = {"Worrorra"}, ["wrp"] = {"Waropen"}, ["wrr"] = {"Wardaman"}, ["wrs"] = {"Waris"}, ["wru"] = {"Waru"}, ["wrv"] = {"Waruna"}, ["wrw"] = {"Gugu Warra"}, ["wrx"] = {"Wae Rana"}, ["wry"] = {"Merwari"}, ["wrz"] = {"Waray (Australia)"}, ["wsa"] = {"Warembori"}, ["wsg"] = {"Adilabad Gondi"}, ["wsi"] = {"Wusi"}, ["wsk"] = {"Waskia"}, ["wsr"] = {"Owenia"}, ["wss"] = {"Wasa"}, ["wsu"] = {"Wasu"}, ["wsv"] = {"Wotapuri-Katarqalai"}, ["wtb"] = {"Matambwe"}, ["wtf"] = {"Watiwa"}, ["wth"] = {"Wathawurrung"}, ["wti"] = {"Berta"}, ["wtk"] = {"Watakataui"}, ["wtm"] = {"Mewati"}, ["wtw"] = {"Wotu"}, ["wua"] = {"Wikngenchera"}, ["wub"] = {"Wunambal"}, ["wud"] = {"Wudu"}, ["wuh"] = {"Wutunhua"}, ["wul"] = {"Silimo"}, ["wum"] = {"Wumbvu"}, ["wun"] = {"Bungu"}, ["wur"] = {"Wurrugu"}, ["wut"] = {"Wutung"}, ["wuu"] = {"Wu Chinese"}, ["wuv"] = {"Wuvulu-Aua"}, ["wux"] = {"Wulna"}, ["wuy"] = {"Wauyai"}, ["wwa"] = {"Waama"}, ["wwb"] = {"Wakabunga"}, ["wwo"] = {"Wetamut", "Dorig"}, ["wwr"] = {"Warrwa"}, ["www"] = {"Wawa"}, ["wxa"] = {"Waxianghua"}, ["wxw"] = {"Wardandi"}, ["wyb"] = {"Wangaaybuwan-Ngiyambaa"}, ["wyi"] = {"Woiwurrung"}, ["wym"] = {"Wymysorys"}, ["wyn"] = {"Wyandot"}, ["wyr"] = {"Wayoró"}, ["wyy"] = {"Western Fijian"}, ["xaa"] = {"Andalusian Arabic"}, ["xab"] = {"Sambe"}, ["xac"] = {"Kachari"}, ["xad"] = {"Adai"}, ["xae"] = {"Aequian"}, ["xag"] = {"Aghwan"}, ["xai"] = {"Kaimbé"}, ["xaj"] = {"Ararandewára"}, ["xak"] = {"Máku"}, ["xal"] = {"Kalmyk", "Oirat"}, ["xam"] = {"ǀXam"}, ["xan"] = {"Xamtanga"}, ["xao"] = {"Khao"}, ["xap"] = {"Apalachee"}, ["xaq"] = {"Aquitanian"}, ["xar"] = {"Karami"}, ["xas"] = {"Kamas"}, ["xat"] = {"Katawixi"}, ["xau"] = {"Kauwera"}, ["xav"] = {"Xavánte"}, ["xaw"] = {"Kawaiisu"}, ["xay"] = {"Kayan Mahakam"}, ["xbb"] = {"Lower Burdekin"}, ["xbc"] = {"Bactrian"}, ["xbd"] = {"Bindal"}, ["xbe"] = {"Bigambal"}, ["xbg"] = {"Bunganditj"}, ["xbi"] = {"Kombio"}, ["xbj"] = {"Birrpayi"}, ["xbm"] = {"Middle Breton"}, ["xbn"] = {"Kenaboi"}, ["xbo"] = {"Bolgarian"}, ["xbp"] = {"Bibbulman"}, ["xbr"] = {"Kambera"}, ["xbw"] = {"Kambiwá"}, ["xby"] = {"Batjala", "Batyala"}, ["xcb"] = {"Cumbric"}, ["xcc"] = {"Camunic"}, ["xce"] = {"Celtiberian"}, ["xcg"] = {"Cisalpine Gaulish"}, ["xch"] = {"Chemakum", "Chimakum"}, ["xcl"] = {"Classical Armenian"}, ["xcm"] = {"Comecrudo"}, ["xcn"] = {"Cotoname"}, ["xco"] = {"Chorasmian"}, ["xcr"] = {"Carian"}, ["xct"] = {"Classical Tibetan"}, ["xcu"] = {"Curonian"}, ["xcv"] = {"Chuvantsy"}, ["xcw"] = {"Coahuilteco"}, ["xcy"] = {"Cayuse"}, ["xda"] = {"Darkinyung"}, ["xdc"] = {"Dacian"}, ["xdk"] = {"Dharuk"}, ["xdm"] = {"Edomite"}, ["xdo"] = {"Kwandu"}, ["xdq"] = {"Kaitag"}, ["xdy"] = {"Malayic Dayak"}, ["xeb"] = {"Eblan"}, ["xed"] = {"Hdi"}, ["xeg"] = {"ǁXegwi"}, ["xel"] = {"Kelo"}, ["xem"] = {"Kembayan"}, ["xep"] = {"Epi-Olmec"}, ["xer"] = {"Xerénte"}, ["xes"] = {"Kesawai"}, ["xet"] = {"Xetá"}, ["xeu"] = {"Keoru-Ahia"}, ["xfa"] = {"Faliscan"}, ["xga"] = {"Galatian"}, ["xgb"] = {"Gbin"}, ["xgd"] = {"Gudang"}, ["xgf"] = {"Gabrielino-Fernandeño"}, ["xgg"] = {"Goreng"}, ["xgi"] = {"Garingbal"}, ["xgl"] = {"Galindan"}, ["xgm"] = {"Dharumbal", "Guwinmal"}, ["xgn"] = {"Mongolian languages"}, ["xgr"] = {"Garza"}, ["xgu"] = {"Unggumi"}, ["xgw"] = {"Guwa"}, ["xha"] = {"Harami"}, ["xhc"] = {"Hunnic"}, ["xhd"] = {"Hadrami"}, ["xhe"] = {"Khetrani"}, ["xhm"] = {"Middle Khmer (1400 to 1850 CE)"}, ["xhr"] = {"Hernican"}, ["xht"] = {"Hattic"}, ["xhu"] = {"Hurrian"}, ["xhv"] = {"Khua"}, ["xib"] = {"Iberian"}, ["xii"] = {"Xiri"}, ["xil"] = {"Illyrian"}, ["xin"] = {"Xinca"}, ["xir"] = {"Xiriâna"}, ["xis"] = {"Kisan"}, ["xiv"] = {"Indus Valley Language"}, ["xiy"] = {"Xipaya"}, ["xjb"] = {"Minjungbal"}, ["xjt"] = {"Jaitmatang"}, ["xka"] = {"Kalkoti"}, ["xkb"] = {"Northern Nago"}, ["xkc"] = {"Kho'ini"}, ["xkd"] = {"Mendalam Kayan"}, ["xke"] = {"Kereho"}, ["xkf"] = {"Khengkha"}, ["xkg"] = {"Kagoro"}, ["xki"] = {"Kenyan Sign Language"}, ["xkj"] = {"Kajali"}, ["xkk"] = {"Kachok", "Kaco'"}, ["xkl"] = {"Mainstream Kenyah"}, ["xkn"] = {"Kayan River Kayan"}, ["xko"] = {"Kiorr"}, ["xkp"] = {"Kabatei"}, ["xkq"] = {"Koroni"}, ["xkr"] = {"Xakriabá"}, ["xks"] = {"Kumbewaha"}, ["xkt"] = {"Kantosi"}, ["xku"] = {"Kaamba"}, ["xkv"] = {"Kgalagadi"}, ["xkw"] = {"Kembra"}, ["xkx"] = {"Karore"}, ["xky"] = {"Uma' Lasan"}, ["xkz"] = {"Kurtokha"}, ["xla"] = {"Kamula"}, ["xlb"] = {"Loup B"}, ["xlc"] = {"Lycian"}, ["xld"] = {"Lydian"}, ["xle"] = {"Lemnian"}, ["xlg"] = {"Ligurian (Ancient)"}, ["xli"] = {"Liburnian"}, ["xln"] = {"Alanic"}, ["xlo"] = {"Loup A"}, ["xlp"] = {"Lepontic"}, ["xls"] = {"Lusitanian"}, ["xlu"] = {"Cuneiform Luwian"}, ["xly"] = {"Elymian"}, ["xma"] = {"Mushungulu"}, ["xmb"] = {"Mbonga"}, ["xmc"] = {"Makhuwa-Marrevone"}, ["xmd"] = {"Mbudum"}, ["xme"] = {"Median"}, ["xmf"] = {"Mingrelian"}, ["xmg"] = {"Mengaka"}, ["xmh"] = {"Kugu-Muminh"}, ["xmj"] = {"Majera"}, ["xmk"] = {"Ancient Macedonian"}, ["xml"] = {"Malaysian Sign Language"}, ["xmm"] = {"Manado Malay"}, ["xmn"] = {"Manichaean Middle Persian"}, ["xmo"] = {"Morerebi"}, ["xmp"] = {"Kuku-Mu'inh"}, ["xmq"] = {"Kuku-Mangk"}, ["xmr"] = {"Meroitic"}, ["xms"] = {"Moroccan Sign Language"}, ["xmt"] = {"Matbat"}, ["xmu"] = {"Kamu"}, ["xmv"] = {"Antankarana Malagasy", "Tankarana Malagasy"}, ["xmw"] = {"Tsimihety Malagasy"}, ["xmx"] = {"Salawati", "Maden"}, ["xmy"] = {"Mayaguduna"}, ["xmz"] = {"Mori Bawah"}, ["xna"] = {"Ancient North Arabian"}, ["xnb"] = {"Kanakanabu"}, ["xnd"] = {"Na-Dene languages"}, ["xng"] = {"Middle Mongolian"}, ["xnh"] = {"Kuanhua"}, ["xni"] = {"Ngarigu"}, ["xnj"] = {"Ngoni (Tanzania)"}, ["xnk"] = {"Nganakarti"}, ["xnm"] = {"Ngumbarl"}, ["xnn"] = {"Northern Kankanay"}, ["xno"] = {"Anglo-Norman"}, ["xnq"] = {"Ngoni (Mozambique)"}, ["xnr"] = {"Kangri"}, ["xns"] = {"Kanashi"}, ["xnt"] = {"Narragansett"}, ["xnu"] = {"Nukunul"}, ["xny"] = {"Nyiyaparli"}, ["xnz"] = {"Kenzi", "Mattoki"}, ["xoc"] = {"O'chi'chi'"}, ["xod"] = {"Kokoda"}, ["xog"] = {"Soga"}, ["xoi"] = {"Kominimung"}, ["xok"] = {"Xokleng"}, ["xom"] = {"Komo (Sudan)"}, ["xon"] = {"Konkomba"}, ["xoo"] = {"Xukurú"}, ["xop"] = {"Kopar"}, ["xor"] = {"Korubo"}, ["xow"] = {"Kowaki"}, ["xpa"] = {"Pirriya"}, ["xpb"] = {"Northeastern Tasmanian", "Pyemmairrener"}, ["xpc"] = {"Pecheneg"}, ["xpd"] = {"Oyster Bay Tasmanian"}, ["xpe"] = {"Liberia Kpelle"}, ["xpf"] = {"Southeast Tasmanian", "Nuenonne"}, ["xpg"] = {"Phrygian"}, ["xph"] = {"North Midlands Tasmanian", "Tyerrenoterpanner"}, ["xpi"] = {"Pictish"}, ["xpj"] = {"Mpalitjanh"}, ["xpk"] = {"Kulina Pano"}, ["xpl"] = {"Port Sorell Tasmanian"}, ["xpm"] = {"Pumpokol"}, ["xpn"] = {"Kapinawá"}, ["xpo"] = {"Pochutec"}, ["xpp"] = {"Puyo-Paekche"}, ["xpq"] = {"Mohegan-Pequot"}, ["xpr"] = {"Parthian"}, ["xps"] = {"Pisidian"}, ["xpt"] = {"Punthamara"}, ["xpu"] = {"Punic"}, ["xpv"] = {"Northern Tasmanian", "Tommeginne"}, ["xpw"] = {"Northwestern Tasmanian", "Peerapper"}, ["xpx"] = {"Southwestern Tasmanian", "Toogee"}, ["xpy"] = {"Puyo"}, ["xpz"] = {"Bruny Island Tasmanian"}, ["xqa"] = {"Karakhanid"}, ["xqt"] = {"Qatabanian"}, ["xra"] = {"Krahô"}, ["xrb"] = {"Eastern Karaboro"}, ["xrd"] = {"Gundungurra"}, ["xre"] = {"Kreye"}, ["xrg"] = {"Minang"}, ["xri"] = {"Krikati-Timbira"}, ["xrm"] = {"Armazic"}, ["xrn"] = {"Arin"}, ["xrr"] = {"Raetic"}, ["xrt"] = {"Aranama-Tamique"}, ["xru"] = {"Marriammu"}, ["xrw"] = {"Karawa"}, ["xsa"] = {"Sabaean"}, ["xsb"] = {"Sambal"}, ["xsc"] = {"Scythian"}, ["xsd"] = {"Sidetic"}, ["xse"] = {"Sempan"}, ["xsh"] = {"Shamang"}, ["xsi"] = {"Sio"}, ["xsj"] = {"Subi"}, ["xsl"] = {"South Slavey"}, ["xsm"] = {"Kasem"}, ["xsn"] = {"Sanga (Nigeria)"}, ["xso"] = {"Solano"}, ["xsp"] = {"Silopi"}, ["xsq"] = {"Makhuwa-Saka"}, ["xsr"] = {"Sherpa"}, ["xsu"] = {"Sanumá"}, ["xsv"] = {"Sudovian"}, ["xsy"] = {"Saisiyat"}, ["xta"] = {"Alcozauca Mixtec"}, ["xtb"] = {"Chazumba Mixtec"}, ["xtc"] = {"Katcha-Kadugli-Miri"}, ["xtd"] = {"Diuxi-Tilantongo Mixtec"}, ["xte"] = {"Ketengban"}, ["xtg"] = {"Transalpine Gaulish"}, ["xth"] = {"Yitha Yitha"}, ["xti"] = {"Sinicahua Mixtec"}, ["xtj"] = {"San Juan Teita Mixtec"}, ["xtl"] = {"Tijaltepec Mixtec"}, ["xtm"] = {"Magdalena Peñasco Mixtec"}, ["xtn"] = {"Northern Tlaxiaco Mixtec"}, ["xto"] = {"Tokharian A"}, ["xtp"] = {"San Miguel Piedras Mixtec"}, ["xtq"] = {"Tumshuqese"}, ["xtr"] = {"Early Tripuri"}, ["xts"] = {"Sindihui Mixtec"}, ["xtt"] = {"Tacahua Mixtec"}, ["xtu"] = {"Cuyamecalco Mixtec"}, ["xtv"] = {"Thawa"}, ["xtw"] = {"Tawandê"}, ["xty"] = {"Yoloxochitl Mixtec"}, ["xua"] = {"Alu Kurumba"}, ["xub"] = {"Betta Kurumba"}, ["xud"] = {"Umiida"}, ["xug"] = {"Kunigami"}, ["xuj"] = {"Jennu Kurumba"}, ["xul"] = {"Ngunawal", "Nunukul"}, ["xum"] = {"Umbrian"}, ["xun"] = {"Unggaranggu"}, ["xuo"] = {"Kuo"}, ["xup"] = {"Upper Umpqua"}, ["xur"] = {"Urartian"}, ["xut"] = {"Kuthant"}, ["xuu"] = {"Kxoe", "Khwedam"}, ["xve"] = {"Venetic"}, ["xvi"] = {"Kamviri"}, ["xvn"] = {"Vandalic"}, ["xvo"] = {"Volscian"}, ["xvs"] = {"Vestinian"}, ["xwa"] = {"Kwaza"}, ["xwc"] = {"Woccon"}, ["xwd"] = {"Wadi Wadi"}, ["xwe"] = {"Xwela Gbe"}, ["xwg"] = {"Kwegu"}, ["xwj"] = {"Wajuk"}, ["xwk"] = {"Wangkumara"}, ["xwl"] = {"Western Xwla Gbe"}, ["xwo"] = {"Written Oirat"}, ["xwr"] = {"Kwerba Mamberamo"}, ["xwt"] = {"Wotjobaluk"}, ["xww"] = {"Wemba Wemba"}, ["xxb"] = {"Boro (Ghana)"}, ["xxk"] = {"Ke'o"}, ["xxm"] = {"Minkin"}, ["xxr"] = {"Koropó"}, ["xxt"] = {"Tambora"}, ["xya"] = {"Yaygir"}, ["xyb"] = {"Yandjibara"}, ["xyj"] = {"Mayi-Yapi"}, ["xyk"] = {"Mayi-Kulan"}, ["xyl"] = {"Yalakalore"}, ["xyt"] = {"Mayi-Thakurti"}, ["xyy"] = {"Yorta Yorta"}, ["xzh"] = {"Zhang-Zhung"}, ["xzm"] = {"Zemgalian"}, ["xzp"] = {"Ancient Zapotec"}, ["yaa"] = {"Yaminahua"}, ["yab"] = {"Yuhup"}, ["yac"] = {"Pass Valley Yali"}, ["yad"] = {"Yagua"}, ["yae"] = {"Pumé"}, ["yaf"] = {"Yaka (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["yag"] = {"Yámana"}, ["yah"] = {"Yazgulyam"}, ["yai"] = {"Yagnobi"}, ["yaj"] = {"Banda-Yangere"}, ["yak"] = {"Yakama"}, ["yal"] = {"Yalunka"}, ["yam"] = {"Yamba"}, ["yan"] = {"Mayangna"}, ["yao"] = {"Yao"}, ["yap"] = {"Yapese"}, ["yaq"] = {"Yaqui"}, ["yar"] = {"Yabarana"}, ["yas"] = {"Nugunu (Cameroon)"}, ["yat"] = {"Yambeta"}, ["yau"] = {"Yuwana"}, ["yav"] = {"Yangben"}, ["yaw"] = {"Yawalapití"}, ["yax"] = {"Yauma"}, ["yay"] = {"Agwagwune"}, ["yaz"] = {"Lokaa"}, ["yba"] = {"Yala"}, ["ybb"] = {"Yemba"}, ["ybe"] = {"West Yugur"}, ["ybh"] = {"Yakha"}, ["ybi"] = {"Yamphu"}, ["ybj"] = {"Hasha"}, ["ybk"] = {"Bokha"}, ["ybl"] = {"Yukuben"}, ["ybm"] = {"Yaben"}, ["ybn"] = {"Yabaâna"}, ["ybo"] = {"Yabong"}, ["ybx"] = {"Yawiyo"}, ["yby"] = {"Yaweyuha"}, ["ych"] = {"Chesu"}, ["ycl"] = {"Lolopo"}, ["ycn"] = {"Yucuna"}, ["ycp"] = {"Chepya"}, ["ycr"] = {"Yilan Creole"}, ["yda"] = {"Yanda"}, ["ydd"] = {"Eastern Yiddish"}, ["yde"] = {"Yangum Dey"}, ["ydg"] = {"Yidgha"}, ["ydk"] = {"Yoidik"}, ["yea"] = {"Ravula"}, ["yec"] = {"Yeniche"}, ["yee"] = {"Yimas"}, ["yei"] = {"Yeni"}, ["yej"] = {"Yevanic"}, ["yel"] = {"Yela"}, ["yer"] = {"Tarok"}, ["yes"] = {"Nyankpa"}, ["yet"] = {"Yetfa"}, ["yeu"] = {"Yerukula"}, ["yev"] = {"Yapunda"}, ["yey"] = {"Yeyi"}, ["yga"] = {"Malyangapa"}, ["ygi"] = {"Yiningayi"}, ["ygl"] = {"Yangum Gel"}, ["ygm"] = {"Yagomi"}, ["ygp"] = {"Gepo"}, ["ygr"] = {"Yagaria"}, ["ygs"] = {"Yolŋu Sign Language"}, ["ygu"] = {"Yugul"}, ["ygw"] = {"Yagwoia"}, ["yha"] = {"Baha Buyang"}, ["yhd"] = {"Judeo-Iraqi Arabic"}, ["yhl"] = {"Hlepho Phowa"}, ["yhs"] = {"Yan-nhaŋu Sign Language"}, ["yia"] = {"Yinggarda"}, ["yif"] = {"Ache"}, ["yig"] = {"Wusa Nasu"}, ["yih"] = {"Western Yiddish"}, ["yii"] = {"Yidiny"}, ["yij"] = {"Yindjibarndi"}, ["yik"] = {"Dongshanba Lalo"}, ["yil"] = {"Yindjilandji"}, ["yim"] = {"Yimchungru Naga"}, ["yin"] = {"Riang Lai", "Yinchia"}, ["yip"] = {"Pholo"}, ["yiq"] = {"Miqie"}, ["yir"] = {"North Awyu"}, ["yis"] = {"Yis"}, ["yit"] = {"Eastern Lalu"}, ["yiu"] = {"Awu"}, ["yiv"] = {"Northern Nisu"}, ["yix"] = {"Axi Yi"}, ["yiz"] = {"Azhe"}, ["yka"] = {"Yakan"}, ["ykg"] = {"Northern Yukaghir"}, ["ykh"] = {"Khamnigan Mongol"}, ["yki"] = {"Yoke"}, ["ykk"] = {"Yakaikeke"}, ["ykl"] = {"Khlula"}, ["ykm"] = {"Kap"}, ["ykn"] = {"Kua-nsi"}, ["yko"] = {"Iyasa", "Yasa"}, ["ykr"] = {"Yekora"}, ["ykt"] = {"Kathu"}, ["yku"] = {"Kuamasi"}, ["yky"] = {"Yakoma"}, ["yla"] = {"Yaul"}, ["ylb"] = {"Yaleba"}, ["yle"] = {"Yele"}, ["ylg"] = {"Yelogu"}, ["yli"] = {"Angguruk Yali"}, ["yll"] = {"Yil"}, ["ylm"] = {"Limi"}, ["yln"] = {"Langnian Buyang"}, ["ylo"] = {"Naluo Yi"}, ["ylr"] = {"Yalarnnga"}, ["ylu"] = {"Aribwaung"}, ["yly"] = {"Nyâlayu", "Nyelâyu"}, ["ymb"] = {"Yambes"}, ["ymc"] = {"Southern Muji"}, ["ymd"] = {"Muda"}, ["yme"] = {"Yameo"}, ["ymg"] = {"Yamongeri"}, ["ymh"] = {"Mili"}, ["ymi"] = {"Moji"}, ["ymk"] = {"Makwe"}, ["yml"] = {"Iamalele"}, ["ymm"] = {"Maay"}, ["ymn"] = {"Yamna", "Sunum"}, ["ymo"] = {"Yangum Mon"}, ["ymp"] = {"Yamap"}, ["ymq"] = {"Qila Muji"}, ["ymr"] = {"Malasar"}, ["yms"] = {"Mysian"}, ["ymx"] = {"Northern Muji"}, ["ymz"] = {"Muzi"}, ["yna"] = {"Aluo"}, ["ynb"] = {"Yamben"}, ["ynd"] = {"Yandruwandha"}, ["yne"] = {"Lang'e"}, ["yng"] = {"Yango"}, ["ynk"] = {"Naukan Yupik"}, ["ynl"] = {"Yangulam"}, ["ynn"] = {"Yana"}, ["yno"] = {"Yong"}, ["ynq"] = {"Yendang"}, ["yns"] = {"Yansi"}, ["ynu"] = {"Yahuna"}, ["yob"] = {"Yoba"}, ["yog"] = {"Yogad"}, ["yoi"] = {"Yonaguni"}, ["yok"] = {"Yokuts"}, ["yom"] = {"Yombe"}, ["yon"] = {"Yongkom"}, ["yot"] = {"Yotti"}, ["yox"] = {"Yoron"}, ["yoy"] = {"Yoy"}, ["ypa"] = {"Phala"}, ["ypb"] = {"Labo Phowa"}, ["ypg"] = {"Phola"}, ["yph"] = {"Phupha"}, ["ypk"] = {"Yupik languages"}, ["ypm"] = {"Phuma"}, ["ypn"] = {"Ani Phowa"}, ["ypo"] = {"Alo Phola"}, ["ypp"] = {"Phupa"}, ["ypz"] = {"Phuza"}, ["yra"] = {"Yerakai"}, ["yrb"] = {"Yareba"}, ["yre"] = {"Yaouré"}, ["yrk"] = {"Nenets"}, ["yrl"] = {"Nhengatu"}, ["yrm"] = {"Yirrk-Mel"}, ["yrn"] = {"Yerong"}, ["yro"] = {"Yaroamë"}, ["yrs"] = {"Yarsun"}, ["yrw"] = {"Yarawata"}, ["yry"] = {"Yarluyandi"}, ["ysc"] = {"Yassic"}, ["ysd"] = {"Samatao"}, ["ysg"] = {"Sonaga"}, ["ysl"] = {"Yugoslavian Sign Language"}, ["ysm"] = {"Myanmar Sign Language"}, ["ysn"] = {"Sani"}, ["yso"] = {"Nisi (China)"}, ["ysp"] = {"Southern Lolopo"}, ["ysr"] = {"Sirenik Yupik"}, ["yss"] = {"Yessan-Mayo"}, ["ysy"] = {"Sanie"}, ["yta"] = {"Talu"}, ["ytl"] = {"Tanglang"}, ["ytp"] = {"Thopho"}, ["ytw"] = {"Yout Wam"}, ["yty"] = {"Yatay"}, ["yua"] = {"Yucateco", "Yucatec Maya"}, ["yub"] = {"Yugambal"}, ["yuc"] = {"Yuchi"}, ["yud"] = {"Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic"}, ["yue"] = {"Yue Chinese", "Cantonese"}, ["yuf"] = {"Havasupai-Walapai-Yavapai"}, ["yug"] = {"Yug"}, ["yui"] = {"Yurutí"}, ["yuj"] = {"Karkar-Yuri"}, ["yuk"] = {"Yuki"}, ["yul"] = {"Yulu"}, ["yum"] = {"Quechan"}, ["yun"] = {"Bena (Nigeria)"}, ["yup"] = {"Yukpa"}, ["yuq"] = {"Yuqui"}, ["yur"] = {"Yurok"}, ["yut"] = {"Yopno"}, ["yuw"] = {"Yau (Morobe Province)"}, ["yux"] = {"Southern Yukaghir"}, ["yuy"] = {"East Yugur"}, ["yuz"] = {"Yuracare"}, ["yva"] = {"Yawa"}, ["yvt"] = {"Yavitero"}, ["ywa"] = {"Kalou"}, ["ywg"] = {"Yinhawangka"}, ["ywl"] = {"Western Lalu"}, ["ywn"] = {"Yawanawa"}, ["ywq"] = {"Wuding-Luquan Yi"}, ["ywr"] = {"Yawuru"}, ["ywt"] = {"Xishanba Lalo", "Central Lalo"}, ["ywu"] = {"Wumeng Nasu"}, ["yww"] = {"Yawarawarga"}, ["yxa"] = {"Mayawali"}, ["yxg"] = {"Yagara"}, ["yxl"] = {"Yardliyawarra"}, ["yxm"] = {"Yinwum"}, ["yxu"] = {"Yuyu"}, ["yxy"] = {"Yabula Yabula"}, ["yyr"] = {"Yir Yoront"}, ["yyu"] = {"Yau (Sandaun Province)"}, ["yyz"] = {"Ayizi"}, ["yzg"] = {"E'ma Buyang"}, ["yzk"] = {"Zokhuo"}, ["zaa"] = {"Sierra de Juárez Zapotec"}, ["zab"] = {"Western Tlacolula Valley Zapotec", "San Juan Guelavía Zapotec"}, ["zac"] = {"Ocotlán Zapotec"}, ["zad"] = {"Cajonos Zapotec"}, ["zae"] = {"Yareni Zapotec"}, ["zaf"] = {"Ayoquesco Zapotec"}, ["zag"] = {"Zaghawa"}, ["zah"] = {"Zangwal"}, ["zai"] = {"Isthmus Zapotec"}, ["zaj"] = {"Zaramo"}, ["zak"] = {"Zanaki"}, ["zal"] = {"Zauzou"}, ["zam"] = {"Miahuatlán Zapotec"}, ["zao"] = {"Ozolotepec Zapotec"}, ["zap"] = {"Zapotec"}, ["zaq"] = {"Aloápam Zapotec"}, ["zar"] = {"Rincón Zapotec"}, ["zas"] = {"Santo Domingo Albarradas Zapotec"}, ["zat"] = {"Tabaa Zapotec"}, ["zau"] = {"Zangskari"}, ["zav"] = {"Yatzachi Zapotec"}, ["zaw"] = {"Mitla Zapotec"}, ["zax"] = {"Xadani Zapotec"}, ["zay"] = {"Zayse-Zergulla", "Zaysete"}, ["zaz"] = {"Zari"}, ["zba"] = {"Balaibalan"}, ["zbc"] = {"Central Berawan"}, ["zbe"] = {"East Berawan"}, ["zbl"] = {"Blissymbols", "Bliss", "Blissymbolics"}, ["zbt"] = {"Batui"}, ["zbu"] = {"Bu (Bauchi State)"}, ["zbw"] = {"West Berawan"}, ["zca"] = {"Coatecas Altas Zapotec"}, ["zcd"] = {"Las Delicias Zapotec"}, ["zch"] = {"Central Hongshuihe Zhuang"}, ["zdj"] = {"Ngazidja Comorian"}, ["zea"] = {"Zeeuws"}, ["zeg"] = {"Zenag"}, ["zeh"] = {"Eastern Hongshuihe Zhuang"}, ["zem"] = {"Zeem"}, ["zen"] = {"Zenaga"}, ["zga"] = {"Kinga"}, ["zgb"] = {"Guibei Zhuang"}, ["zgh"] = {"Standard Moroccan Tamazight"}, ["zgm"] = {"Minz Zhuang"}, ["zgn"] = {"Guibian Zhuang"}, ["zgr"] = {"Magori"}, ["zhb"] = {"Zhaba"}, ["zhd"] = {"Dai Zhuang"}, ["zhi"] = {"Zhire"}, ["zhk"] = {"Kurdish Sign Language"}, ["zhn"] = {"Nong Zhuang"}, ["zhw"] = {"Zhoa"}, ["zhx"] = {"Chinese (family)"}, ["zia"] = {"Zia"}, ["zib"] = {"Zimbabwe Sign Language"}, ["zik"] = {"Zimakani"}, ["zil"] = {"Zialo"}, ["zim"] = {"Mesme"}, ["zin"] = {"Zinza"}, ["ziw"] = {"Zigula"}, ["ziz"] = {"Zizilivakan"}, ["zka"] = {"Kaimbulawa"}, ["zkd"] = {"Kadu"}, ["zkg"] = {"Koguryo"}, ["zkh"] = {"Khorezmian"}, ["zkk"] = {"Karankawa"}, ["zkn"] = {"Kanan"}, ["zko"] = {"Kott"}, ["zkp"] = {"São Paulo Kaingáng"}, ["zkr"] = {"Zakhring"}, ["zkt"] = {"Kitan"}, ["zku"] = {"Kaurna"}, ["zkv"] = {"Krevinian"}, ["zkz"] = {"Khazar"}, ["zla"] = {"Zula"}, ["zle"] = {"East Slavic languages"}, ["zlj"] = {"Liujiang Zhuang"}, ["zlm"] = {"Malay (individual language)"}, ["zln"] = {"Lianshan Zhuang"}, ["zlq"] = {"Liuqian Zhuang"}, ["zls"] = {"South Slavic languages"}, ["zlu"] = {"Zul"}, ["zlw"] = {"West Slavic languages"}, ["zma"] = {"Manda (Australia)"}, ["zmb"] = {"Zimba"}, ["zmc"] = {"Margany"}, ["zmd"] = {"Maridan"}, ["zme"] = {"Mangerr"}, ["zmf"] = {"Mfinu"}, ["zmg"] = {"Marti Ke"}, ["zmh"] = {"Makolkol"}, ["zmi"] = {"Negeri Sembilan Malay"}, ["zmj"] = {"Maridjabin"}, ["zmk"] = {"Mandandanyi"}, ["zml"] = {"Matngala"}, ["zmm"] = {"Marimanindji", "Marramaninyshi"}, ["zmn"] = {"Mbangwe"}, ["zmo"] = {"Molo"}, ["zmp"] = {"Mbuun"}, ["zmq"] = {"Mituku"}, ["zmr"] = {"Maranunggu"}, ["zms"] = {"Mbesa"}, ["zmt"] = {"Maringarr"}, ["zmu"] = {"Muruwari"}, ["zmv"] = {"Mbariman-Gudhinma"}, ["zmw"] = {"Mbo (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["zmx"] = {"Bomitaba"}, ["zmy"] = {"Mariyedi"}, ["zmz"] = {"Mbandja"}, ["zna"] = {"Zan Gula"}, ["znd"] = {"Zande languages"}, ["zne"] = {"Zande (individual language)"}, ["zng"] = {"Mang"}, ["znk"] = {"Manangkari"}, ["zns"] = {"Mangas"}, ["zoc"] = {"Copainalá Zoque"}, ["zoh"] = {"Chimalapa Zoque"}, ["zom"] = {"Zou"}, ["zoo"] = {"Asunción Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["zoq"] = {"Tabasco Zoque"}, ["zor"] = {"Rayón Zoque"}, ["zos"] = {"Francisco León Zoque"}, ["zpa"] = {"Lachiguiri Zapotec"}, ["zpb"] = {"Yautepec Zapotec"}, ["zpc"] = {"Choapan Zapotec"}, ["zpd"] = {"Southeastern Ixtlán Zapotec"}, ["zpe"] = {"Petapa Zapotec"}, ["zpf"] = {"San Pedro Quiatoni Zapotec"}, ["zpg"] = {"Guevea De Humboldt Zapotec"}, ["zph"] = {"Totomachapan Zapotec"}, ["zpi"] = {"Santa María Quiegolani Zapotec"}, ["zpj"] = {"Quiavicuzas Zapotec"}, ["zpk"] = {"Tlacolulita Zapotec"}, ["zpl"] = {"Lachixío Zapotec"}, ["zpm"] = {"Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["zpn"] = {"Santa Inés Yatzechi Zapotec"}, ["zpo"] = {"Amatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpp"] = {"El Alto Zapotec"}, ["zpq"] = {"Zoogocho Zapotec"}, ["zpr"] = {"Santiago Xanica Zapotec"}, ["zps"] = {"Coatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpt"] = {"San Vicente Coatlán Zapotec"}, ["zpu"] = {"Yalálag Zapotec"}, ["zpv"] = {"Chichicapan Zapotec"}, ["zpw"] = {"Zaniza Zapotec"}, ["zpx"] = {"San Baltazar Loxicha Zapotec"}, ["zpy"] = {"Mazaltepec Zapotec"}, ["zpz"] = {"Texmelucan Zapotec"}, ["zqe"] = {"Qiubei Zhuang"}, ["zra"] = {"Kara (Korea)"}, ["zrg"] = {"Mirgan"}, ["zrn"] = {"Zerenkel"}, ["zro"] = {"Záparo"}, ["zrp"] = {"Zarphatic"}, ["zrs"] = {"Mairasi"}, ["zsa"] = {"Sarasira"}, ["zsk"] = {"Kaskean"}, ["zsl"] = {"Zambian Sign Language"}, ["zsm"] = {"Standard Malay"}, ["zsr"] = {"Southern Rincon Zapotec"}, ["zsu"] = {"Sukurum"}, ["zte"] = {"Elotepec Zapotec"}, ["ztg"] = {"Xanaguía Zapotec"}, ["ztl"] = {"Lapaguía-Guivini Zapotec"}, ["ztm"] = {"San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec"}, ["ztn"] = {"Santa Catarina Albarradas Zapotec"}, ["ztp"] = {"Loxicha Zapotec"}, ["ztq"] = {"Quioquitani-Quierí Zapotec"}, ["zts"] = {"Tilquiapan Zapotec"}, ["ztt"] = {"Tejalapan Zapotec"}, ["ztu"] = {"Güilá Zapotec"}, ["ztx"] = {"Zaachila Zapotec"}, ["zty"] = {"Yatee Zapotec"}, ["zuh"] = {"Tokano"}, ["zum"] = {"Kumzari"}, ["zun"] = {"Zuni"}, ["zuy"] = {"Zumaya"}, ["zwa"] = {"Zay"}, ["zxx"] = {"No linguistic content", "Not applicable"}, ["zyb"] = {"Yongbei Zhuang"}, ["zyg"] = {"Yang Zhuang"}, ["zyj"] = {"Youjiang Zhuang"}, ["zyn"] = {"Yongnan Zhuang"}, ["zyp"] = {"Zyphe Chin"}, ["zza"] = {"Zaza", "Dimili", "Dimli (macrolanguage)", "Kirdki", "Kirmanjki (macrolanguage)", "Zazaki"}, ["zzj"] = {"Zuojiang Zhuang"} } local deprecated = { ["bh"] = {"Bihari languages"}, ["in"] = {"Indonesian"}, ["iw"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["ji"] = {"Yiddish"}, ["jw"] = {"Javanese"}, ["mo"] = {"Moldavian", "Moldovan"}, ["aam"] = {"Aramanik"}, ["adp"] = {"Adap"}, ["agp"] = {"Paranan"}, ["ais"] = {"Nataoran Amis"}, ["ajp"] = {"South Levantine Arabic"}, ["ajt"] = {"Judeo-Tunisian Arabic"}, ["aoh"] = {"Arma"}, ["asd"] = {"Asas"}, ["aue"] = {"ǂKxʼauǁʼein"}, ["ayx"] = {"Ayi (China)"}, ["ayy"] = {"Tayabas Ayta"}, ["baz"] = {"Tunen"}, ["bbz"] = {"Babalia Creole Arabic"}, ["bgm"] = {"Baga Mboteni"}, ["bhk"] = {"Albay Bicolano"}, ["bic"] = {"Bikaru"}, ["bij"] = {"Vaghat-Ya-Bijim-Legeri"}, ["bjd"] = {"Bandjigali"}, ["bjq"] = {"Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy"}, ["bkb"] = {"Finallig"}, ["blg"] = {"Balau"}, ["bmy"] = {"Bemba (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["bpb"] = {"Barbacoas"}, ["btb"] = {"Beti (Cameroon)"}, ["btl"] = {"Bhatola"}, ["bxx"] = {"Borna (Democratic Republic of Congo)"}, ["byy"] = {"Buya"}, ["cbe"] = {"Chipiajes"}, ["cbh"] = {"Cagua"}, ["cca"] = {"Cauca"}, ["ccq"] = {"Chaungtha"}, ["cdg"] = {"Chamari"}, ["cjr"] = {"Chorotega"}, ["cka"] = {"Khumi Awa Chin"}, ["cmk"] = {"Chimakum"}, ["coy"] = {"Coyaima"}, ["cqu"] = {"Chilean Quechua"}, ["cug"] = {"Chungmboko", "Cung"}, ["cum"] = {"Cumeral"}, ["daf"] = {"Dan"}, ["dap"] = {"Nisi (India)"}, ["dek"] = {"Dek"}, ["dgu"] = {"Degaru"}, ["dha"] = {"Dhanwar (India)"}, ["dit"] = {"Dirari"}, ["djl"] = {"Djiwarli"}, ["dkl"] = {"Kolum So Dogon"}, ["drh"] = {"Darkhat"}, ["drr"] = {"Dororo"}, ["drw"] = {"Darwazi"}, ["dud"] = {"Hun-Saare"}, ["duj"] = {"Dhuwal"}, ["dwl"] = {"Walo Kumbe Dogon"}, ["ekc"] = {"Eastern Karnic"}, ["elp"] = {"Elpaputih"}, ["emo"] = {"Emok"}, ["gav"] = {"Gabutamon"}, ["gbc"] = {"Garawa"}, ["gfx"] = {"Mangetti Dune ǃXung"}, ["ggn"] = {"Eastern Gurung"}, ["ggo"] = {"Southern Gondi"}, ["ggr"] = {"Aghu Tharnggalu"}, ["gio"] = {"Gelao"}, ["gji"] = {"Geji"}, ["gli"] = {"Guliguli"}, ["gti"] = {"Gbati-ri"}, ["guv"] = {"Gey"}, ["hrr"] = {"Horuru"}, ["iap"] = {"Iapama"}, ["ibi"] = {"Ibilo"}, ["ill"] = {"Iranun"}, ["ilw"] = {"Talur"}, ["ime"] = {"Imeraguen"}, ["izi"] = {"Izi-Ezaa-Ikwo-Mgbo"}, ["jar"] = {"Jarawa (Nigeria)"}, ["jeg"] = {"Jeng"}, ["kbf"] = {"Kakauhua"}, ["kdv"] = {"Kado"}, ["kgc"] = {"Kasseng"}, ["kgd"] = {"Kataang"}, ["kgh"] = {"Upper Tanudan Kalinga"}, ["kgm"] = {"Karipúna"}, ["kjf"] = {"Khalaj [Indo-Iranian]"}, ["koj"] = {"Sara Dunjo"}, ["kox"] = {"Coxima"}, ["kpp"] = {"Paku Karen"}, ["krm"] = {"Krim"}, ["ksa"] = {"Shuwa-Zamani"}, ["ktr"] = {"Kota Marudu Tinagas"}, ["kvs"] = {"Kunggara"}, ["kwq"] = {"Kwak"}, ["kxe"] = {"Kakihum"}, ["kxl"] = {"Nepali Kurux"}, ["kxu"] = {"Kui (India)"}, ["kzh"] = {"Kenuzi-Dongola"}, ["kzj"] = {"Coastal Kadazan"}, ["kzt"] = {"Tambunan Dusun"}, ["lak"] = {"Laka (Nigeria)"}, ["lba"] = {"Lui"}, ["leg"] = {"Lengua"}, ["lii"] = {"Lingkhim"}, ["llo"] = {"Khlor"}, ["lmm"] = {"Lamam"}, ["lmz"] = {"Lumbee"}, ["lno"] = {"Lango (South Sudan)"}, ["lsg"] = {"Lyons Sign Language"}, ["meg"] = {"Mea"}, ["mgx"] = {"Omati"}, ["mhh"] = {"Maskoy Pidgin"}, ["mja"] = {"Mahei"}, ["mld"] = {"Malakhel"}, ["mnt"] = {"Maykulan"}, ["mof"] = {"Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett"}, ["mst"] = {"Cataelano Mandaya"}, ["mvm"] = {"Muya"}, ["mwd"] = {"Mudbura"}, ["mwj"] = {"Maligo"}, ["mwx"] = {"Mediak"}, ["mwy"] = {"Mosiro"}, ["myd"] = {"Maramba"}, ["myi"] = {"Mina (India)"}, ["myq"] = {"Forest Maninka"}, ["myt"] = {"Sangab Mandaya"}, ["nad"] = {"Nijadali"}, ["nbf"] = {"Naxi"}, ["nbx"] = {"Ngura"}, ["ncp"] = {"Ndaktup"}, ["ngo"] = {"Ngoni"}, ["nln"] = {"Durango Nahuatl"}, ["nlr"] = {"Ngarla"}, ["nns"] = {"Ningye"}, ["nnx"] = {"Ngong"}, ["nom"] = {"Nocamán"}, ["noo"] = {"Nootka"}, ["nte"] = {"Nathembo"}, ["nts"] = {"Natagaimas"}, ["nxu"] = {"Narau"}, ["ome"] = {"Omejes"}, ["oun"] = {"ǃOǃung"}, ["pat"] = {"Papitalai"}, ["pbz"] = {"Palu"}, ["pcr"] = {"Panang"}, ["pgy"] = {"Pongyong"}, ["pii"] = {"Pini"}, ["plj"] = {"Polci"}, ["plp"] = {"Palpa"}, ["pmc"] = {"Palumata"}, ["pmk"] = {"Pamlico"}, ["pmu"] = {"Mirpur Panjabi"}, ["pod"] = {"Ponares"}, ["ppa"] = {"Pao"}, ["ppr"] = {"Piru"}, ["prb"] = {"Lua'"}, ["prp"] = {"Parsi"}, ["pry"] = {"Pray 3"}, ["puk"] = {"Pu Ko"}, ["puz"] = {"Purum Naga"}, ["rie"] = {"Rien"}, ["rmr"] = {"Caló"}, ["rna"] = {"Runa"}, ["rsi"] = {"Rennellese Sign Language"}, ["sap"] = {"Sanapaná"}, ["sca"] = {"Sansu"}, ["sdm"] = {"Semandang"}, ["sgl"] = {"Sanglechi-Ishkashimi"}, ["sgo"] = {"Songa"}, ["skk"] = {"Sok"}, ["slq"] = {"Salchuq"}, ["smd"] = {"Sama"}, ["snb"] = {"Sebuyau"}, ["snh"] = {"Shinabo"}, ["sul"] = {"Surigaonon"}, ["sum"] = {"Sumo-Mayangna"}, ["svr"] = {"Savara"}, ["szd"] = {"Seru"}, ["tbb"] = {"Tapeba"}, ["tdu"] = {"Tempasuk Dusun"}, ["tgg"] = {"Tangga"}, ["thc"] = {"Tai Hang Tong"}, ["thw"] = {"Thudam"}, ["thx"] = {"The"}, ["tid"] = {"Tidong"}, ["tie"] = {"Tingal"}, ["tkk"] = {"Takpa"}, ["tlw"] = {"South Wemale"}, ["tmk"] = {"Northwestern Tamang"}, ["tmp"] = {"Tai Mène"}, ["tne"] = {"Tinoc Kallahan"}, ["tnf"] = {"Tangshewi"}, ["toe"] = {"Tomedes"}, ["tpw"] = {"Tupí"}, ["tsf"] = {"Southwestern Tamang"}, ["unp"] = {"Worora"}, ["uok"] = {"Uokha"}, ["uun"] = {"Kulon-Pazeh"}, ["vki"] = {"Ija-Zuba"}, ["wgw"] = {"Wagawaga"}, ["wit"] = {"Wintu"}, ["wiw"] = {"Wirangu"}, ["wra"] = {"Warapu"}, ["wrd"] = {"Warduji"}, ["wya"] = {"Wyandot"}, ["xba"] = {"Kamba (Brazil)"}, ["xbx"] = {"Kabixí"}, ["xia"] = {"Xiandao"}, ["xip"] = {"Xipináwa"}, ["xkh"] = {"Karahawyana"}, ["xrq"] = {"Karranga"}, ["xss"] = {"Assan"}, ["xtz"] = {"Tasmanian"}, ["ybd"] = {"Yangbye"}, ["yds"] = {"Yiddish Sign Language"}, ["yen"] = {"Yendang"}, ["yiy"] = {"Yir Yoront"}, ["yma"] = {"Yamphe"}, ["ymt"] = {"Mator-Taygi-Karagas"}, ["ynh"] = {"Yangho"}, ["yol"] = {"Yola"}, ["yos"] = {"Yos"}, ["yri"] = {"Yarí"}, ["yuu"] = {"Yugh"}, ["zir"] = {"Ziriya"}, ["zkb"] = {"Koibal"}, ["zua"] = {"Zeem"} } return { active = active, deprecated = deprecated, } 7maeu8qldugwz5oxm6jkg7gdan5few7 Module:Lang/data/iana scripts 828 62722 687919 439093 2026-06-22T16:56:28Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to 2026-06-14 data; 687919 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["Adlm"] = {"Adlam"}, ["Afak"] = {"Afaka"}, ["Aghb"] = {"Caucasian Albanian"}, ["Ahom"] = {"Ahom", "Tai Ahom"}, ["Arab"] = {"Arabic"}, ["Aran"] = {"Arabic (Nastaliq variant)"}, ["Armi"] = {"Imperial Aramaic"}, ["Armn"] = {"Armenian"}, ["Avst"] = {"Avestan"}, ["Bali"] = {"Balinese"}, ["Bamu"] = {"Bamum"}, ["Bass"] = {"Bassa Vah"}, ["Batk"] = {"Batak"}, ["Beng"] = {"Bengali", "Bangla"}, ["Berf"] = {"Beria Erfe"}, ["Bhks"] = {"Bhaiksuki"}, ["Blis"] = {"Blissymbols"}, ["Bopo"] = {"Bopomofo"}, ["Brah"] = {"Brahmi"}, ["Brai"] = {"Braille"}, ["Bugi"] = {"Buginese"}, ["Buhd"] = {"Buhid"}, ["Cakm"] = {"Chakma"}, ["Cans"] = {"Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics"}, ["Cari"] = {"Carian"}, ["Cham"] = {"Cham"}, ["Cher"] = {"Cherokee"}, ["Chis"] = {"Chisoi"}, ["Chrs"] = {"Chorasmian"}, ["Cirt"] = {"Cirth"}, ["Copt"] = {"Coptic"}, ["Cpmn"] = {"Cypro-Minoan"}, ["Cprt"] = {"Cypriot syllabary"}, ["Cyrl"] = {"Cyrillic"}, ["Cyrs"] = {"Cyrillic (Old Church Slavonic variant)"}, ["Deva"] = {"Devanagari", "Nagari"}, ["Diak"] = {"Dives Akuru"}, ["Dogr"] = {"Dogra"}, ["Dsrt"] = {"Deseret", "Mormon"}, ["Dupl"] = {"Duployan shorthand", "Duployan stenography"}, ["Egyd"] = {"Egyptian demotic"}, ["Egyh"] = {"Egyptian hieratic"}, ["Egyp"] = {"Egyptian hieroglyphs"}, ["Elba"] = {"Elbasan"}, ["Elym"] = {"Elymaic"}, ["Ethi"] = {"Ethiopic", "Geʻez", "Ge'ez"}, ["Gara"] = {"Garay"}, ["Geok"] = {"Khutsuri (Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri)"}, ["Geor"] = {"Georgian (Mkhedruli and Mtavruli)"}, ["Glag"] = {"Glagolitic"}, ["Gong"] = {"Gunjala Gondi"}, ["Gonm"] = {"Masaram Gondi"}, ["Goth"] = {"Gothic"}, ["Gran"] = {"Grantha"}, ["Grek"] = {"Greek"}, ["Gujr"] = {"Gujarati"}, ["Gukh"] = {"Gurung Khema"}, ["Guru"] = {"Gurmukhi"}, ["Hanb"] = {"Han with Bopomofo (alias for Han + Bopomofo)"}, ["Hang"] = {"Hangul", "Hangŭl", "Hangeul"}, ["Hani"] = {"Han", "Hanzi", "Kanji", "Hanja"}, ["Hano"] = {"Hanunoo", "Hanunóo"}, ["Hans"] = {"Han (Simplified variant)"}, ["Hant"] = {"Han (Traditional variant)"}, ["Hatr"] = {"Hatran"}, ["Hebr"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["Hira"] = {"Hiragana"}, ["Hluw"] = {"Anatolian Hieroglyphs", "Luwian Hieroglyphs", "Hittite Hieroglyphs"}, ["Hmng"] = {"Pahawh Hmong"}, ["Hmnp"] = {"Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong"}, ["Hntl"] = {"Han (Traditional variant) with Latin (alias for Hant + Latn)"}, ["Hrkt"] = {"Japanese syllabaries (alias for Hiragana + Katakana)"}, ["Hung"] = {"Old Hungarian", "Hungarian Runic"}, ["Inds"] = {"Indus", "Harappan"}, ["Ital"] = {"Old Italic (Etruscan, Oscan, etc.)"}, ["Jamo"] = {"Jamo (alias for Jamo subset of Hangul)"}, ["Java"] = {"Javanese"}, ["Jpan"] = {"Japanese (alias for Han + Hiragana + Katakana)"}, ["Jurc"] = {"Jurchen"}, ["Kali"] = {"Kayah Li"}, ["Kana"] = {"Katakana"}, ["Kawi"] = {"Kawi"}, ["Khar"] = {"Kharoshthi"}, ["Khmr"] = {"Khmer"}, ["Khoj"] = {"Khojki"}, ["Kitl"] = {"Khitan large script"}, ["Kits"] = {"Khitan small script"}, ["Knda"] = {"Kannada"}, ["Kore"] = {"Korean (alias for Hangul + Han)"}, ["Kpel"] = {"Kpelle"}, ["Krai"] = {"Kirat Rai"}, ["Kthi"] = {"Kaithi"}, ["Lana"] = {"Tai Tham", "Lanna"}, ["Laoo"] = {"Lao"}, ["Latf"] = {"Latin (Fraktur variant)"}, ["Latg"] = {"Latin (Gaelic variant)"}, ["Latn"] = {"Latin"}, ["Leke"] = {"Leke"}, ["Lepc"] = {"Lepcha", "Róng"}, ["Limb"] = {"Limbu"}, ["Lina"] = {"Linear A"}, ["Linb"] = {"Linear B"}, ["Lisu"] = {"Lisu", "Fraser"}, ["Loma"] = {"Loma"}, ["Lyci"] = {"Lycian"}, ["Lydi"] = {"Lydian"}, ["Mahj"] = {"Mahajani"}, ["Maka"] = {"Makasar"}, ["Mand"] = {"Mandaic", "Mandaean"}, ["Mani"] = {"Manichaean"}, ["Marc"] = {"Marchen"}, ["Maya"] = {"Mayan hieroglyphs"}, ["Medf"] = {"Medefaidrin", "Oberi Okaime", "Oberi Ɔkaimɛ"}, ["Mend"] = {"Mende Kikakui"}, ["Merc"] = {"Meroitic Cursive"}, ["Mero"] = {"Meroitic Hieroglyphs"}, ["Mlym"] = {"Malayalam"}, ["Modi"] = {"Modi", "Moḍī"}, ["Mong"] = {"Mongolian"}, ["Moon"] = {"Moon", "Moon code", "Moon script", "Moon type"}, ["Mroo"] = {"Mro", "Mru"}, ["Mtei"] = {"Meitei Mayek", "Meithei", "Meetei"}, ["Mult"] = {"Multani"}, ["Mymr"] = {"Myanmar", "Burmese"}, ["Nagm"] = {"Nag Mundari"}, ["Nand"] = {"Nandinagari"}, ["Narb"] = {"Old North Arabian", "Ancient North Arabian"}, ["Nbat"] = {"Nabataean"}, ["Newa"] = {"Newa", "Newar", "Newari", "Nepāla lipi"}, ["Nkdb"] = {"Naxi Dongba", "na²¹ɕi³³ to³³ba²¹", "Nakhi Tomba"}, ["Nkgb"] = {"Naxi Geba", "na²¹ɕi³³ gʌ²¹ba²¹", "'Na-'Khi ²Ggŏ-¹baw", "Nakhi Geba"}, ["Nkoo"] = {"N’Ko", "N'Ko"}, ["Nshu"] = {"Nüshu"}, ["Ogam"] = {"Ogham"}, ["Olck"] = {"Ol Chiki", "Ol Cemet'", "Ol", "Santali"}, ["Onao"] = {"Ol Onal"}, ["Orkh"] = {"Old Turkic", "Orkhon Runic"}, ["Orya"] = {"Oriya", "Odia"}, ["Osge"] = {"Osage"}, ["Osma"] = {"Osmanya"}, ["Ougr"] = {"Old Uyghur"}, ["Palm"] = {"Palmyrene"}, ["Pauc"] = {"Pau Cin Hau"}, ["Pcun"] = {"Proto-Cuneiform"}, ["Pelm"] = {"Proto-Elamite"}, ["Perm"] = {"Old Permic"}, ["Phag"] = {"Phags-pa"}, ["Phli"] = {"Inscriptional Pahlavi"}, ["Phlp"] = {"Psalter Pahlavi"}, ["Phlv"] = {"Book Pahlavi"}, ["Phnx"] = {"Phoenician"}, ["Piqd"] = {"Klingon (KLI pIqaD)"}, ["Plrd"] = {"Miao", "Pollard"}, ["Prti"] = {"Inscriptional Parthian"}, ["Psin"] = {"Proto-Sinaitic"}, ["Ranj"] = {"Ranjana"}, ["Rjng"] = {"Rejang", "Redjang", "Kaganga"}, ["Rohg"] = {"Hanifi Rohingya"}, ["Roro"] = {"Rongorongo"}, ["Runr"] = {"Runic"}, ["Samr"] = {"Samaritan"}, ["Sara"] = {"Sarati"}, ["Sarb"] = {"Old South Arabian"}, ["Saur"] = {"Saurashtra"}, ["Seal"] = {"Seal", "Small Seal"}, ["Sgnw"] = {"SignWriting"}, ["Shaw"] = {"Shavian", "Shaw"}, ["Shrd"] = {"Sharada", "Śāradā"}, ["Shui"] = {"Shuishu"}, ["Sidd"] = {"Siddham", "Siddhaṃ", "Siddhamātṛkā"}, ["Sidt"] = {"Sidetic"}, ["Sind"] = {"Khudawadi", "Sindhi"}, ["Sinh"] = {"Sinhala"}, ["Sogd"] = {"Sogdian"}, ["Sogo"] = {"Old Sogdian"}, ["Sora"] = {"Sora Sompeng"}, ["Soyo"] = {"Soyombo"}, ["Sund"] = {"Sundanese"}, ["Sunu"] = {"Sunuwar"}, ["Sylo"] = {"Syloti Nagri"}, ["Syrc"] = {"Syriac"}, ["Syre"] = {"Syriac (Estrangelo variant)"}, ["Syrj"] = {"Syriac (Western variant)"}, ["Syrn"] = {"Syriac (Eastern variant)"}, ["Tagb"] = {"Tagbanwa"}, ["Takr"] = {"Takri", "Ṭākrī", "Ṭāṅkrī"}, ["Tale"] = {"Tai Le"}, ["Talu"] = {"New Tai Lue"}, ["Taml"] = {"Tamil"}, ["Tang"] = {"Tangut"}, ["Tavt"] = {"Tai Viet"}, ["Tayo"] = {"Tai Yo"}, ["Telu"] = {"Telugu"}, ["Teng"] = {"Tengwar"}, ["Tfng"] = {"Tifinagh", "Berber"}, ["Tglg"] = {"Tagalog", "Baybayin", "Alibata"}, ["Thaa"] = {"Thaana"}, ["Thai"] = {"Thai"}, ["Tibt"] = {"Tibetan"}, ["Tirh"] = {"Tirhuta"}, ["Tnsa"] = {"Tangsa"}, ["Todr"] = {"Todhri"}, ["Tols"] = {"Tolong Siki"}, ["Toto"] = {"Toto"}, ["Tutg"] = {"Tulu-Tigalari"}, ["Ugar"] = {"Ugaritic"}, ["Vaii"] = {"Vai"}, ["Visp"] = {"Visible Speech"}, ["Vith"] = {"Vithkuqi"}, ["Wara"] = {"Warang Citi", "Varang Kshiti"}, ["Wcho"] = {"Wancho"}, ["Wole"] = {"Woleai"}, ["Xpeo"] = {"Old Persian"}, ["Xsux"] = {"Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform"}, ["Yezi"] = {"Yezidi"}, ["Yiii"] = {"Yi"}, ["Zanb"] = {"Zanabazar Square", "Zanabazarin Dörböljin Useg", "Xewtee Dörböljin Bicig", "Horizontal Square Script"}, ["Zinh"] = {"Code for inherited script"}, ["Zmth"] = {"Mathematical notation"}, ["Zsye"] = {"Symbols (Emoji variant)"}, ["Zsym"] = {"Symbols"}, ["Zxxx"] = {"Code for unwritten documents"}, ["Zyyy"] = {"Code for undetermined script"}, ["Zzzz"] = {"Code for uncoded script"} } opa2icedd77qcon6wkrhxtmgbquj2gt 687920 687919 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/iana_scripts]] 687919 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["Adlm"] = {"Adlam"}, ["Afak"] = {"Afaka"}, ["Aghb"] = {"Caucasian Albanian"}, ["Ahom"] = {"Ahom", "Tai Ahom"}, ["Arab"] = {"Arabic"}, ["Aran"] = {"Arabic (Nastaliq variant)"}, ["Armi"] = {"Imperial Aramaic"}, ["Armn"] = {"Armenian"}, ["Avst"] = {"Avestan"}, ["Bali"] = {"Balinese"}, ["Bamu"] = {"Bamum"}, ["Bass"] = {"Bassa Vah"}, ["Batk"] = {"Batak"}, ["Beng"] = {"Bengali", "Bangla"}, ["Berf"] = {"Beria Erfe"}, ["Bhks"] = {"Bhaiksuki"}, ["Blis"] = {"Blissymbols"}, ["Bopo"] = {"Bopomofo"}, ["Brah"] = {"Brahmi"}, ["Brai"] = {"Braille"}, ["Bugi"] = {"Buginese"}, ["Buhd"] = {"Buhid"}, ["Cakm"] = {"Chakma"}, ["Cans"] = {"Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics"}, ["Cari"] = {"Carian"}, ["Cham"] = {"Cham"}, ["Cher"] = {"Cherokee"}, ["Chis"] = {"Chisoi"}, ["Chrs"] = {"Chorasmian"}, ["Cirt"] = {"Cirth"}, ["Copt"] = {"Coptic"}, ["Cpmn"] = {"Cypro-Minoan"}, ["Cprt"] = {"Cypriot syllabary"}, ["Cyrl"] = {"Cyrillic"}, ["Cyrs"] = {"Cyrillic (Old Church Slavonic variant)"}, ["Deva"] = {"Devanagari", "Nagari"}, ["Diak"] = {"Dives Akuru"}, ["Dogr"] = {"Dogra"}, ["Dsrt"] = {"Deseret", "Mormon"}, ["Dupl"] = {"Duployan shorthand", "Duployan stenography"}, ["Egyd"] = {"Egyptian demotic"}, ["Egyh"] = {"Egyptian hieratic"}, ["Egyp"] = {"Egyptian hieroglyphs"}, ["Elba"] = {"Elbasan"}, ["Elym"] = {"Elymaic"}, ["Ethi"] = {"Ethiopic", "Geʻez", "Ge'ez"}, ["Gara"] = {"Garay"}, ["Geok"] = {"Khutsuri (Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri)"}, ["Geor"] = {"Georgian (Mkhedruli and Mtavruli)"}, ["Glag"] = {"Glagolitic"}, ["Gong"] = {"Gunjala Gondi"}, ["Gonm"] = {"Masaram Gondi"}, ["Goth"] = {"Gothic"}, ["Gran"] = {"Grantha"}, ["Grek"] = {"Greek"}, ["Gujr"] = {"Gujarati"}, ["Gukh"] = {"Gurung Khema"}, ["Guru"] = {"Gurmukhi"}, ["Hanb"] = {"Han with Bopomofo (alias for Han + Bopomofo)"}, ["Hang"] = {"Hangul", "Hangŭl", "Hangeul"}, ["Hani"] = {"Han", "Hanzi", "Kanji", "Hanja"}, ["Hano"] = {"Hanunoo", "Hanunóo"}, ["Hans"] = {"Han (Simplified variant)"}, ["Hant"] = {"Han (Traditional variant)"}, ["Hatr"] = {"Hatran"}, ["Hebr"] = {"Hebrew"}, ["Hira"] = {"Hiragana"}, ["Hluw"] = {"Anatolian Hieroglyphs", "Luwian Hieroglyphs", "Hittite Hieroglyphs"}, ["Hmng"] = {"Pahawh Hmong"}, ["Hmnp"] = {"Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong"}, ["Hntl"] = {"Han (Traditional variant) with Latin (alias for Hant + Latn)"}, ["Hrkt"] = {"Japanese syllabaries (alias for Hiragana + Katakana)"}, ["Hung"] = {"Old Hungarian", "Hungarian Runic"}, ["Inds"] = {"Indus", "Harappan"}, ["Ital"] = {"Old Italic (Etruscan, Oscan, etc.)"}, ["Jamo"] = {"Jamo (alias for Jamo subset of Hangul)"}, ["Java"] = {"Javanese"}, ["Jpan"] = {"Japanese (alias for Han + Hiragana + Katakana)"}, ["Jurc"] = {"Jurchen"}, ["Kali"] = {"Kayah Li"}, ["Kana"] = {"Katakana"}, ["Kawi"] = {"Kawi"}, ["Khar"] = {"Kharoshthi"}, ["Khmr"] = {"Khmer"}, ["Khoj"] = {"Khojki"}, ["Kitl"] = {"Khitan large script"}, ["Kits"] = {"Khitan small script"}, ["Knda"] = {"Kannada"}, ["Kore"] = {"Korean (alias for Hangul + Han)"}, ["Kpel"] = {"Kpelle"}, ["Krai"] = {"Kirat Rai"}, ["Kthi"] = {"Kaithi"}, ["Lana"] = {"Tai Tham", "Lanna"}, ["Laoo"] = {"Lao"}, ["Latf"] = {"Latin (Fraktur variant)"}, ["Latg"] = {"Latin (Gaelic variant)"}, ["Latn"] = {"Latin"}, ["Leke"] = {"Leke"}, ["Lepc"] = {"Lepcha", "Róng"}, ["Limb"] = {"Limbu"}, ["Lina"] = {"Linear A"}, ["Linb"] = {"Linear B"}, ["Lisu"] = {"Lisu", "Fraser"}, ["Loma"] = {"Loma"}, ["Lyci"] = {"Lycian"}, ["Lydi"] = {"Lydian"}, ["Mahj"] = {"Mahajani"}, ["Maka"] = {"Makasar"}, ["Mand"] = {"Mandaic", "Mandaean"}, ["Mani"] = {"Manichaean"}, ["Marc"] = {"Marchen"}, ["Maya"] = {"Mayan hieroglyphs"}, ["Medf"] = {"Medefaidrin", "Oberi Okaime", "Oberi Ɔkaimɛ"}, ["Mend"] = {"Mende Kikakui"}, ["Merc"] = {"Meroitic Cursive"}, ["Mero"] = {"Meroitic Hieroglyphs"}, ["Mlym"] = {"Malayalam"}, ["Modi"] = {"Modi", "Moḍī"}, ["Mong"] = {"Mongolian"}, ["Moon"] = {"Moon", "Moon code", "Moon script", "Moon type"}, ["Mroo"] = {"Mro", "Mru"}, ["Mtei"] = {"Meitei Mayek", "Meithei", "Meetei"}, ["Mult"] = {"Multani"}, ["Mymr"] = {"Myanmar", "Burmese"}, ["Nagm"] = {"Nag Mundari"}, ["Nand"] = {"Nandinagari"}, ["Narb"] = {"Old North Arabian", "Ancient North Arabian"}, ["Nbat"] = {"Nabataean"}, ["Newa"] = {"Newa", "Newar", "Newari", "Nepāla lipi"}, ["Nkdb"] = {"Naxi Dongba", "na²¹ɕi³³ to³³ba²¹", "Nakhi Tomba"}, ["Nkgb"] = {"Naxi Geba", "na²¹ɕi³³ gʌ²¹ba²¹", "'Na-'Khi ²Ggŏ-¹baw", "Nakhi Geba"}, ["Nkoo"] = {"N’Ko", "N'Ko"}, ["Nshu"] = {"Nüshu"}, ["Ogam"] = {"Ogham"}, ["Olck"] = {"Ol Chiki", "Ol Cemet'", "Ol", "Santali"}, ["Onao"] = {"Ol Onal"}, ["Orkh"] = {"Old Turkic", "Orkhon Runic"}, ["Orya"] = {"Oriya", "Odia"}, ["Osge"] = {"Osage"}, ["Osma"] = {"Osmanya"}, ["Ougr"] = {"Old Uyghur"}, ["Palm"] = {"Palmyrene"}, ["Pauc"] = {"Pau Cin Hau"}, ["Pcun"] = {"Proto-Cuneiform"}, ["Pelm"] = {"Proto-Elamite"}, ["Perm"] = {"Old Permic"}, ["Phag"] = {"Phags-pa"}, ["Phli"] = {"Inscriptional Pahlavi"}, ["Phlp"] = {"Psalter Pahlavi"}, ["Phlv"] = {"Book Pahlavi"}, ["Phnx"] = {"Phoenician"}, ["Piqd"] = {"Klingon (KLI pIqaD)"}, ["Plrd"] = {"Miao", "Pollard"}, ["Prti"] = {"Inscriptional Parthian"}, ["Psin"] = {"Proto-Sinaitic"}, ["Ranj"] = {"Ranjana"}, ["Rjng"] = {"Rejang", "Redjang", "Kaganga"}, ["Rohg"] = {"Hanifi Rohingya"}, ["Roro"] = {"Rongorongo"}, ["Runr"] = {"Runic"}, ["Samr"] = {"Samaritan"}, ["Sara"] = {"Sarati"}, ["Sarb"] = {"Old South Arabian"}, ["Saur"] = {"Saurashtra"}, ["Seal"] = {"Seal", "Small Seal"}, ["Sgnw"] = {"SignWriting"}, ["Shaw"] = {"Shavian", "Shaw"}, ["Shrd"] = {"Sharada", "Śāradā"}, ["Shui"] = {"Shuishu"}, ["Sidd"] = {"Siddham", "Siddhaṃ", "Siddhamātṛkā"}, ["Sidt"] = {"Sidetic"}, ["Sind"] = {"Khudawadi", "Sindhi"}, ["Sinh"] = {"Sinhala"}, ["Sogd"] = {"Sogdian"}, ["Sogo"] = {"Old Sogdian"}, ["Sora"] = {"Sora Sompeng"}, ["Soyo"] = {"Soyombo"}, ["Sund"] = {"Sundanese"}, ["Sunu"] = {"Sunuwar"}, ["Sylo"] = {"Syloti Nagri"}, ["Syrc"] = {"Syriac"}, ["Syre"] = {"Syriac (Estrangelo variant)"}, ["Syrj"] = {"Syriac (Western variant)"}, ["Syrn"] = {"Syriac (Eastern variant)"}, ["Tagb"] = {"Tagbanwa"}, ["Takr"] = {"Takri", "Ṭākrī", "Ṭāṅkrī"}, ["Tale"] = {"Tai Le"}, ["Talu"] = {"New Tai Lue"}, ["Taml"] = {"Tamil"}, ["Tang"] = {"Tangut"}, ["Tavt"] = {"Tai Viet"}, ["Tayo"] = {"Tai Yo"}, ["Telu"] = {"Telugu"}, ["Teng"] = {"Tengwar"}, ["Tfng"] = {"Tifinagh", "Berber"}, ["Tglg"] = {"Tagalog", "Baybayin", "Alibata"}, ["Thaa"] = {"Thaana"}, ["Thai"] = {"Thai"}, ["Tibt"] = {"Tibetan"}, ["Tirh"] = {"Tirhuta"}, ["Tnsa"] = {"Tangsa"}, ["Todr"] = {"Todhri"}, ["Tols"] = {"Tolong Siki"}, ["Toto"] = {"Toto"}, ["Tutg"] = {"Tulu-Tigalari"}, ["Ugar"] = {"Ugaritic"}, ["Vaii"] = {"Vai"}, ["Visp"] = {"Visible Speech"}, ["Vith"] = {"Vithkuqi"}, ["Wara"] = {"Warang Citi", "Varang Kshiti"}, ["Wcho"] = {"Wancho"}, ["Wole"] = {"Woleai"}, ["Xpeo"] = {"Old Persian"}, ["Xsux"] = {"Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform"}, ["Yezi"] = {"Yezidi"}, ["Yiii"] = {"Yi"}, ["Zanb"] = {"Zanabazar Square", "Zanabazarin Dörböljin Useg", "Xewtee Dörböljin Bicig", "Horizontal Square Script"}, ["Zinh"] = {"Code for inherited script"}, ["Zmth"] = {"Mathematical notation"}, ["Zsye"] = {"Symbols (Emoji variant)"}, ["Zsym"] = {"Symbols"}, ["Zxxx"] = {"Code for unwritten documents"}, ["Zyyy"] = {"Code for undetermined script"}, ["Zzzz"] = {"Code for uncoded script"} } opa2icedd77qcon6wkrhxtmgbquj2gt Module:Lang/data/iana regions 828 62723 687921 439095 2026-06-22T16:56:30Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to 2026-06-14 data; 687921 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["AC"] = {"Ascension Island"}, ["AD"] = {"Andorra"}, ["AE"] = {"United Arab Emirates"}, ["AF"] = {"Afghanistan"}, ["AG"] = {"Antigua and Barbuda"}, ["AI"] = {"Anguilla"}, ["AL"] = {"Albania"}, ["AM"] = {"Armenia"}, ["AO"] = {"Angola"}, ["AQ"] = {"Antarctica"}, ["AR"] = {"Argentina"}, ["AS"] = {"American Samoa"}, ["AT"] = {"Austria"}, ["AU"] = {"Australia"}, ["AW"] = {"Aruba"}, ["AX"] = {"Åland Islands"}, ["AZ"] = {"Azerbaijan"}, ["BA"] = {"Bosnia and Herzegovina"}, ["BB"] = {"Barbados"}, ["BD"] = {"Bangladesh"}, ["BE"] = {"Belgium"}, ["BF"] = {"Burkina Faso"}, ["BG"] = {"Bulgaria"}, ["BH"] = {"Bahrain"}, ["BI"] = {"Burundi"}, ["BJ"] = {"Benin"}, ["BL"] = {"Saint Barthélemy"}, ["BM"] = {"Bermuda"}, ["BN"] = {"Brunei Darussalam"}, ["BO"] = {"Bolivia"}, ["BQ"] = {"Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba"}, ["BR"] = {"Brazil"}, ["BS"] = {"Bahamas"}, ["BT"] = {"Bhutan"}, ["BV"] = {"Bouvet Island"}, ["BW"] = {"Botswana"}, ["BY"] = {"Belarus"}, ["BZ"] = {"Belize"}, ["CA"] = {"Canada"}, ["CC"] = {"Cocos (Keeling) Islands"}, ["CD"] = {"The Democratic Republic of the Congo"}, ["CF"] = {"Central African Republic"}, ["CG"] = {"Congo"}, ["CH"] = {"Switzerland"}, ["CI"] = {"Côte d'Ivoire"}, ["CK"] = {"Cook Islands"}, ["CL"] = {"Chile"}, ["CM"] = {"Cameroon"}, ["CN"] = {"China"}, ["CO"] = {"Colombia"}, ["CP"] = {"Clipperton Island"}, ["CQ"] = {"Sark"}, ["CR"] = {"Costa Rica"}, ["CU"] = {"Cuba"}, ["CV"] = {"Cabo Verde", "Cape Verde"}, ["CW"] = {"Curaçao"}, ["CX"] = {"Christmas Island"}, ["CY"] = {"Cyprus"}, ["CZ"] = {"Czechia", "Czech Republic"}, ["DE"] = {"Germany"}, ["DG"] = {"Diego Garcia"}, ["DJ"] = {"Djibouti"}, ["DK"] = {"Denmark"}, ["DM"] = {"Dominica"}, ["DO"] = {"Dominican Republic"}, ["DZ"] = {"Algeria"}, ["EA"] = {"Ceuta, Melilla"}, ["EC"] = {"Ecuador"}, ["EE"] = {"Estonia"}, ["EG"] = {"Egypt"}, ["EH"] = {"Western Sahara"}, ["ER"] = {"Eritrea"}, ["ES"] = {"Spain"}, ["ET"] = {"Ethiopia"}, ["EU"] = {"European Union"}, ["EZ"] = {"Eurozone"}, ["FI"] = {"Finland"}, ["FJ"] = {"Fiji"}, ["FK"] = {"Falkland Islands (Malvinas)"}, ["FM"] = {"Federated States of Micronesia"}, ["FO"] = {"Faroe Islands"}, ["FR"] = {"France"}, ["GA"] = {"Gabon"}, ["GB"] = {"United Kingdom"}, ["GD"] = {"Grenada"}, ["GE"] = {"Georgia"}, ["GF"] = {"French Guiana"}, ["GG"] = {"Guernsey"}, ["GH"] = {"Ghana"}, ["GI"] = {"Gibraltar"}, ["GL"] = {"Greenland"}, ["GM"] = {"Gambia"}, ["GN"] = {"Guinea"}, ["GP"] = {"Guadeloupe"}, ["GQ"] = {"Equatorial Guinea"}, ["GR"] = {"Greece"}, ["GS"] = {"South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands"}, ["GT"] = {"Guatemala"}, ["GU"] = {"Guam"}, ["GW"] = {"Guinea-Bissau"}, ["GY"] = {"Guyana"}, ["HK"] = {"Hong Kong"}, ["HM"] = {"Heard Island and McDonald Islands"}, ["HN"] = {"Honduras"}, ["HR"] = {"Croatia"}, ["HT"] = {"Haiti"}, ["HU"] = {"Hungary"}, ["IC"] = {"Canary Islands"}, ["ID"] = {"Indonesia"}, ["IE"] = {"Ireland"}, ["IL"] = {"Israel"}, ["IM"] = {"Isle of Man"}, ["IN"] = {"India"}, ["IO"] = {"British Indian Ocean Territory"}, ["IQ"] = {"Iraq"}, ["IR"] = {"Islamic Republic of Iran"}, ["IS"] = {"Iceland"}, ["IT"] = {"Italy"}, ["JE"] = {"Jersey"}, ["JM"] = {"Jamaica"}, ["JO"] = {"Jordan"}, ["JP"] = {"Japan"}, ["KE"] = {"Kenya"}, ["KG"] = {"Kyrgyzstan"}, ["KH"] = {"Cambodia"}, ["KI"] = {"Kiribati"}, ["KM"] = {"Comoros"}, ["KN"] = {"Saint Kitts and Nevis"}, ["KP"] = {"Democratic People's Republic of Korea"}, ["KR"] = {"Republic of Korea"}, ["KW"] = {"Kuwait"}, ["KY"] = {"Cayman Islands"}, ["KZ"] = {"Kazakhstan"}, ["LA"] = {"Lao People's Democratic Republic"}, ["LB"] = {"Lebanon"}, ["LC"] = {"Saint Lucia"}, ["LI"] = {"Liechtenstein"}, ["LK"] = {"Sri Lanka"}, ["LR"] = {"Liberia"}, ["LS"] = {"Lesotho"}, ["LT"] = {"Lithuania"}, ["LU"] = {"Luxembourg"}, ["LV"] = {"Latvia"}, ["LY"] = {"Libya"}, ["MA"] = {"Morocco"}, ["MC"] = {"Monaco"}, ["MD"] = {"Moldova"}, ["ME"] = {"Montenegro"}, ["MF"] = {"Saint Martin (French part)"}, ["MG"] = {"Madagascar"}, ["MH"] = {"Marshall Islands"}, ["MK"] = {"North Macedonia"}, ["ML"] = {"Mali"}, ["MM"] = {"Myanmar"}, ["MN"] = {"Mongolia"}, ["MO"] = {"Macao"}, ["MP"] = {"Northern Mariana Islands"}, ["MQ"] = {"Martinique"}, ["MR"] = {"Mauritania"}, ["MS"] = {"Montserrat"}, ["MT"] = {"Malta"}, ["MU"] = {"Mauritius"}, ["MV"] = {"Maldives"}, ["MW"] = {"Malawi"}, ["MX"] = {"Mexico"}, ["MY"] = {"Malaysia"}, ["MZ"] = {"Mozambique"}, ["NA"] = {"Namibia"}, ["NC"] = {"New Caledonia"}, ["NE"] = {"Niger"}, ["NF"] = {"Norfolk Island"}, ["NG"] = {"Nigeria"}, ["NI"] = {"Nicaragua"}, ["NL"] = {"Netherlands"}, ["NO"] = {"Norway"}, ["NP"] = {"Nepal"}, ["NR"] = {"Nauru"}, ["NU"] = {"Niue"}, ["NZ"] = {"New Zealand"}, ["OM"] = {"Oman"}, ["PA"] = {"Panama"}, ["PE"] = {"Peru"}, ["PF"] = {"French Polynesia"}, ["PG"] = {"Papua New Guinea"}, ["PH"] = {"Philippines"}, ["PK"] = {"Pakistan"}, ["PL"] = {"Poland"}, ["PM"] = {"Saint Pierre and Miquelon"}, ["PN"] = {"Pitcairn"}, ["PR"] = {"Puerto Rico"}, ["PS"] = {"State of Palestine"}, ["PT"] = {"Portugal"}, ["PW"] = {"Palau"}, ["PY"] = {"Paraguay"}, ["QA"] = {"Qatar"}, ["RE"] = {"Réunion"}, ["RO"] = {"Romania"}, ["RS"] = {"Serbia"}, ["RU"] = {"Russian Federation"}, ["RW"] = {"Rwanda"}, ["SA"] = {"Saudi Arabia"}, ["SB"] = {"Solomon Islands"}, ["SC"] = {"Seychelles"}, ["SD"] = {"Sudan"}, ["SE"] = {"Sweden"}, ["SG"] = {"Singapore"}, ["SH"] = {"Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha"}, ["SI"] = {"Slovenia"}, ["SJ"] = {"Svalbard and Jan Mayen"}, ["SK"] = {"Slovakia"}, ["SL"] = {"Sierra Leone"}, ["SM"] = {"San Marino"}, ["SN"] = {"Senegal"}, ["SO"] = {"Somalia"}, ["SR"] = {"Suriname"}, ["SS"] = {"South Sudan"}, ["ST"] = {"Sao Tome and Principe"}, ["SV"] = {"El Salvador"}, ["SX"] = {"Sint Maarten (Dutch part)"}, ["SY"] = {"Syrian Arab Republic"}, ["SZ"] = {"Eswatini", "eSwatini", "Swaziland"}, ["TA"] = {"Tristan da Cunha"}, ["TC"] = {"Turks and Caicos Islands"}, ["TD"] = {"Chad"}, ["TF"] = {"French Southern Territories"}, ["TG"] = {"Togo"}, ["TH"] = {"Thailand"}, ["TJ"] = {"Tajikistan"}, ["TK"] = {"Tokelau"}, ["TL"] = {"Timor-Leste"}, ["TM"] = {"Turkmenistan"}, ["TN"] = {"Tunisia"}, ["TO"] = {"Tonga"}, ["TR"] = {"Türkiye", "Turkey"}, ["TT"] = {"Trinidad and Tobago"}, ["TV"] = {"Tuvalu"}, ["TW"] = {"Taiwan, Province of China"}, ["TZ"] = {"United Republic of Tanzania"}, ["UA"] = {"Ukraine"}, ["UG"] = {"Uganda"}, ["UM"] = {"United States Minor Outlying Islands"}, ["UN"] = {"United Nations"}, ["US"] = {"United States"}, ["UY"] = {"Uruguay"}, ["UZ"] = {"Uzbekistan"}, ["VA"] = {"Holy See (Vatican City State)"}, ["VC"] = {"Saint Vincent and the Grenadines"}, ["VE"] = {"Venezuela"}, ["VG"] = {"British Virgin Islands"}, ["VI"] = {"U.S. Virgin Islands"}, ["VN"] = {"Viet Nam"}, ["VU"] = {"Vanuatu"}, ["WF"] = {"Wallis and Futuna"}, ["WS"] = {"Samoa"}, ["YE"] = {"Yemen"}, ["YT"] = {"Mayotte"}, ["ZA"] = {"South Africa"}, ["ZM"] = {"Zambia"}, ["ZW"] = {"Zimbabwe"}, ["001"] = {"World"}, ["002"] = {"Africa"}, ["003"] = {"North America"}, ["005"] = {"South America"}, ["009"] = {"Oceania"}, ["011"] = {"Western Africa"}, ["013"] = {"Central America"}, ["014"] = {"Eastern Africa"}, ["015"] = {"Northern Africa"}, ["017"] = {"Middle Africa"}, ["018"] = {"Southern Africa"}, ["019"] = {"Americas"}, ["021"] = {"Northern America"}, ["029"] = {"Caribbean"}, ["030"] = {"Eastern Asia"}, ["034"] = {"Southern Asia"}, ["035"] = {"South-Eastern Asia"}, ["039"] = {"Southern Europe"}, ["053"] = {"Australia and New Zealand"}, ["054"] = {"Melanesia"}, ["057"] = {"Micronesia"}, ["061"] = {"Polynesia"}, ["142"] = {"Asia"}, ["143"] = {"Central Asia"}, ["145"] = {"Western Asia"}, ["150"] = {"Europe"}, ["151"] = {"Eastern Europe"}, ["154"] = {"Northern Europe"}, ["155"] = {"Western Europe"}, ["202"] = {"Sub-Saharan Africa"}, ["419"] = {"Latin America and the Caribbean"} } az5uweykk88bvuuol7yikutrw3jafzq 687922 687921 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/iana_regions]] 687921 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["AC"] = {"Ascension Island"}, ["AD"] = {"Andorra"}, ["AE"] = {"United Arab Emirates"}, ["AF"] = {"Afghanistan"}, ["AG"] = {"Antigua and Barbuda"}, ["AI"] = {"Anguilla"}, ["AL"] = {"Albania"}, ["AM"] = {"Armenia"}, ["AO"] = {"Angola"}, ["AQ"] = {"Antarctica"}, ["AR"] = {"Argentina"}, ["AS"] = {"American Samoa"}, ["AT"] = {"Austria"}, ["AU"] = {"Australia"}, ["AW"] = {"Aruba"}, ["AX"] = {"Åland Islands"}, ["AZ"] = {"Azerbaijan"}, ["BA"] = {"Bosnia and Herzegovina"}, ["BB"] = {"Barbados"}, ["BD"] = {"Bangladesh"}, ["BE"] = {"Belgium"}, ["BF"] = {"Burkina Faso"}, ["BG"] = {"Bulgaria"}, ["BH"] = {"Bahrain"}, ["BI"] = {"Burundi"}, ["BJ"] = {"Benin"}, ["BL"] = {"Saint Barthélemy"}, ["BM"] = {"Bermuda"}, ["BN"] = {"Brunei Darussalam"}, ["BO"] = {"Bolivia"}, ["BQ"] = {"Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba"}, ["BR"] = {"Brazil"}, ["BS"] = {"Bahamas"}, ["BT"] = {"Bhutan"}, ["BV"] = {"Bouvet Island"}, ["BW"] = {"Botswana"}, ["BY"] = {"Belarus"}, ["BZ"] = {"Belize"}, ["CA"] = {"Canada"}, ["CC"] = {"Cocos (Keeling) Islands"}, ["CD"] = {"The Democratic Republic of the Congo"}, ["CF"] = {"Central African Republic"}, ["CG"] = {"Congo"}, ["CH"] = {"Switzerland"}, ["CI"] = {"Côte d'Ivoire"}, ["CK"] = {"Cook Islands"}, ["CL"] = {"Chile"}, ["CM"] = {"Cameroon"}, ["CN"] = {"China"}, ["CO"] = {"Colombia"}, ["CP"] = {"Clipperton Island"}, ["CQ"] = {"Sark"}, ["CR"] = {"Costa Rica"}, ["CU"] = {"Cuba"}, ["CV"] = {"Cabo Verde", "Cape Verde"}, ["CW"] = {"Curaçao"}, ["CX"] = {"Christmas Island"}, ["CY"] = {"Cyprus"}, ["CZ"] = {"Czechia", "Czech Republic"}, ["DE"] = {"Germany"}, ["DG"] = {"Diego Garcia"}, ["DJ"] = {"Djibouti"}, ["DK"] = {"Denmark"}, ["DM"] = {"Dominica"}, ["DO"] = {"Dominican Republic"}, ["DZ"] = {"Algeria"}, ["EA"] = {"Ceuta, Melilla"}, ["EC"] = {"Ecuador"}, ["EE"] = {"Estonia"}, ["EG"] = {"Egypt"}, ["EH"] = {"Western Sahara"}, ["ER"] = {"Eritrea"}, ["ES"] = {"Spain"}, ["ET"] = {"Ethiopia"}, ["EU"] = {"European Union"}, ["EZ"] = {"Eurozone"}, ["FI"] = {"Finland"}, ["FJ"] = {"Fiji"}, ["FK"] = {"Falkland Islands (Malvinas)"}, ["FM"] = {"Federated States of Micronesia"}, ["FO"] = {"Faroe Islands"}, ["FR"] = {"France"}, ["GA"] = {"Gabon"}, ["GB"] = {"United Kingdom"}, ["GD"] = {"Grenada"}, ["GE"] = {"Georgia"}, ["GF"] = {"French Guiana"}, ["GG"] = {"Guernsey"}, ["GH"] = {"Ghana"}, ["GI"] = {"Gibraltar"}, ["GL"] = {"Greenland"}, ["GM"] = {"Gambia"}, ["GN"] = {"Guinea"}, ["GP"] = {"Guadeloupe"}, ["GQ"] = {"Equatorial Guinea"}, ["GR"] = {"Greece"}, ["GS"] = {"South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands"}, ["GT"] = {"Guatemala"}, ["GU"] = {"Guam"}, ["GW"] = {"Guinea-Bissau"}, ["GY"] = {"Guyana"}, ["HK"] = {"Hong Kong"}, ["HM"] = {"Heard Island and McDonald Islands"}, ["HN"] = {"Honduras"}, ["HR"] = {"Croatia"}, ["HT"] = {"Haiti"}, ["HU"] = {"Hungary"}, ["IC"] = {"Canary Islands"}, ["ID"] = {"Indonesia"}, ["IE"] = {"Ireland"}, ["IL"] = {"Israel"}, ["IM"] = {"Isle of Man"}, ["IN"] = {"India"}, ["IO"] = {"British Indian Ocean Territory"}, ["IQ"] = {"Iraq"}, ["IR"] = {"Islamic Republic of Iran"}, ["IS"] = {"Iceland"}, ["IT"] = {"Italy"}, ["JE"] = {"Jersey"}, ["JM"] = {"Jamaica"}, ["JO"] = {"Jordan"}, ["JP"] = {"Japan"}, ["KE"] = {"Kenya"}, ["KG"] = {"Kyrgyzstan"}, ["KH"] = {"Cambodia"}, ["KI"] = {"Kiribati"}, ["KM"] = {"Comoros"}, ["KN"] = {"Saint Kitts and Nevis"}, ["KP"] = {"Democratic People's Republic of Korea"}, ["KR"] = {"Republic of Korea"}, ["KW"] = {"Kuwait"}, ["KY"] = {"Cayman Islands"}, ["KZ"] = {"Kazakhstan"}, ["LA"] = {"Lao People's Democratic Republic"}, ["LB"] = {"Lebanon"}, ["LC"] = {"Saint Lucia"}, ["LI"] = {"Liechtenstein"}, ["LK"] = {"Sri Lanka"}, ["LR"] = {"Liberia"}, ["LS"] = {"Lesotho"}, ["LT"] = {"Lithuania"}, ["LU"] = {"Luxembourg"}, ["LV"] = {"Latvia"}, ["LY"] = {"Libya"}, ["MA"] = {"Morocco"}, ["MC"] = {"Monaco"}, ["MD"] = {"Moldova"}, ["ME"] = {"Montenegro"}, ["MF"] = {"Saint Martin (French part)"}, ["MG"] = {"Madagascar"}, ["MH"] = {"Marshall Islands"}, ["MK"] = {"North Macedonia"}, ["ML"] = {"Mali"}, ["MM"] = {"Myanmar"}, ["MN"] = {"Mongolia"}, ["MO"] = {"Macao"}, ["MP"] = {"Northern Mariana Islands"}, ["MQ"] = {"Martinique"}, ["MR"] = {"Mauritania"}, ["MS"] = {"Montserrat"}, ["MT"] = {"Malta"}, ["MU"] = {"Mauritius"}, ["MV"] = {"Maldives"}, ["MW"] = {"Malawi"}, ["MX"] = {"Mexico"}, ["MY"] = {"Malaysia"}, ["MZ"] = {"Mozambique"}, ["NA"] = {"Namibia"}, ["NC"] = {"New Caledonia"}, ["NE"] = {"Niger"}, ["NF"] = {"Norfolk Island"}, ["NG"] = {"Nigeria"}, ["NI"] = {"Nicaragua"}, ["NL"] = {"Netherlands"}, ["NO"] = {"Norway"}, ["NP"] = {"Nepal"}, ["NR"] = {"Nauru"}, ["NU"] = {"Niue"}, ["NZ"] = {"New Zealand"}, ["OM"] = {"Oman"}, ["PA"] = {"Panama"}, ["PE"] = {"Peru"}, ["PF"] = {"French Polynesia"}, ["PG"] = {"Papua New Guinea"}, ["PH"] = {"Philippines"}, ["PK"] = {"Pakistan"}, ["PL"] = {"Poland"}, ["PM"] = {"Saint Pierre and Miquelon"}, ["PN"] = {"Pitcairn"}, ["PR"] = {"Puerto Rico"}, ["PS"] = {"State of Palestine"}, ["PT"] = {"Portugal"}, ["PW"] = {"Palau"}, ["PY"] = {"Paraguay"}, ["QA"] = {"Qatar"}, ["RE"] = {"Réunion"}, ["RO"] = {"Romania"}, ["RS"] = {"Serbia"}, ["RU"] = {"Russian Federation"}, ["RW"] = {"Rwanda"}, ["SA"] = {"Saudi Arabia"}, ["SB"] = {"Solomon Islands"}, ["SC"] = {"Seychelles"}, ["SD"] = {"Sudan"}, ["SE"] = {"Sweden"}, ["SG"] = {"Singapore"}, ["SH"] = {"Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha"}, ["SI"] = {"Slovenia"}, ["SJ"] = {"Svalbard and Jan Mayen"}, ["SK"] = {"Slovakia"}, ["SL"] = {"Sierra Leone"}, ["SM"] = {"San Marino"}, ["SN"] = {"Senegal"}, ["SO"] = {"Somalia"}, ["SR"] = {"Suriname"}, ["SS"] = {"South Sudan"}, ["ST"] = {"Sao Tome and Principe"}, ["SV"] = {"El Salvador"}, ["SX"] = {"Sint Maarten (Dutch part)"}, ["SY"] = {"Syrian Arab Republic"}, ["SZ"] = {"Eswatini", "eSwatini", "Swaziland"}, ["TA"] = {"Tristan da Cunha"}, ["TC"] = {"Turks and Caicos Islands"}, ["TD"] = {"Chad"}, ["TF"] = {"French Southern Territories"}, ["TG"] = {"Togo"}, ["TH"] = {"Thailand"}, ["TJ"] = {"Tajikistan"}, ["TK"] = {"Tokelau"}, ["TL"] = {"Timor-Leste"}, ["TM"] = {"Turkmenistan"}, ["TN"] = {"Tunisia"}, ["TO"] = {"Tonga"}, ["TR"] = {"Türkiye", "Turkey"}, ["TT"] = {"Trinidad and Tobago"}, ["TV"] = {"Tuvalu"}, ["TW"] = {"Taiwan, Province of China"}, ["TZ"] = {"United Republic of Tanzania"}, ["UA"] = {"Ukraine"}, ["UG"] = {"Uganda"}, ["UM"] = {"United States Minor Outlying Islands"}, ["UN"] = {"United Nations"}, ["US"] = {"United States"}, ["UY"] = {"Uruguay"}, ["UZ"] = {"Uzbekistan"}, ["VA"] = {"Holy See (Vatican City State)"}, ["VC"] = {"Saint Vincent and the Grenadines"}, ["VE"] = {"Venezuela"}, ["VG"] = {"British Virgin Islands"}, ["VI"] = {"U.S. Virgin Islands"}, ["VN"] = {"Viet Nam"}, ["VU"] = {"Vanuatu"}, ["WF"] = {"Wallis and Futuna"}, ["WS"] = {"Samoa"}, ["YE"] = {"Yemen"}, ["YT"] = {"Mayotte"}, ["ZA"] = {"South Africa"}, ["ZM"] = {"Zambia"}, ["ZW"] = {"Zimbabwe"}, ["001"] = {"World"}, ["002"] = {"Africa"}, ["003"] = {"North America"}, ["005"] = {"South America"}, ["009"] = {"Oceania"}, ["011"] = {"Western Africa"}, ["013"] = {"Central America"}, ["014"] = {"Eastern Africa"}, ["015"] = {"Northern Africa"}, ["017"] = {"Middle Africa"}, ["018"] = {"Southern Africa"}, ["019"] = {"Americas"}, ["021"] = {"Northern America"}, ["029"] = {"Caribbean"}, ["030"] = {"Eastern Asia"}, ["034"] = {"Southern Asia"}, ["035"] = {"South-Eastern Asia"}, ["039"] = {"Southern Europe"}, ["053"] = {"Australia and New Zealand"}, ["054"] = {"Melanesia"}, ["057"] = {"Micronesia"}, ["061"] = {"Polynesia"}, ["142"] = {"Asia"}, ["143"] = {"Central Asia"}, ["145"] = {"Western Asia"}, ["150"] = {"Europe"}, ["151"] = {"Eastern Europe"}, ["154"] = {"Northern Europe"}, ["155"] = {"Western Europe"}, ["202"] = {"Sub-Saharan Africa"}, ["419"] = {"Latin America and the Caribbean"} } az5uweykk88bvuuol7yikutrw3jafzq Module:Lang/data/iana variants 828 62724 687923 439097 2026-06-22T16:56:54Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to 2026-06-14 data; 687923 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["1606nict"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Late Middle French (to 1606)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"frm"}, }, ["1694acad"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Early Modern French"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fr"}, }, ["1901"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Traditional German orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["1959acad"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"\"Academic\" (\"governmental\") variant of Belarusian as codified in 1959"}, ["prefixes"] = {"be"}, }, ["1994"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standardized Resian orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj", "sl-rozaj-biske", "sl-rozaj-njiva", "sl-rozaj-osojs", "sl-rozaj-solba"}, }, ["1996"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"German orthography of 1996"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["abl1943"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Orthographic formulation of 1943 - Official in Brazil (Formulário Ortográfico de 1943 - Oficial no Brasil)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt-br"}, }, ["akhmimic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Akhmimic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["akuapem"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Akuapem Twi"}, ["prefixes"] = {"tw"}, }, ["alalc97"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"ALA-LC Romanization, 1997 edition"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["aluku"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Aluku dialect", "Boni dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["anpezo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Anpezo standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["ao1990"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 (Acordo Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa de 1990)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt", "gl"}, }, ["aranes"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Aranese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["arkaika"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Arcaicam Esperantom", "Arkaika Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, }, ["asante"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Asante Twi", "Ashanti Twi"}, ["prefixes"] = {"tw"}, }, ["auvern"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Auvergnat"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["baku1926"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Turkic Latin Alphabet (Historical)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"az", "ba", "crh", "kk", "krc", "ky", "sah", "tk", "tt", "uz"}, }, ["balanka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Balanka dialect of Anii"}, ["prefixes"] = {"blo"}, }, ["barla"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Barlavento dialect group of Kabuverdianu"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kea"}, }, ["basiceng"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Basic English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["bauddha"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sa"}, }, ["bciav"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"BCI Blissymbolics AV"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zbl"}, }, ["bcizbl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"BCI Blissymbolics"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zbl"}, }, ["biscayan"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Biscayan dialect of Basque"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eu"}, }, ["biske"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The San Giorgio dialect of Resian", "The Bila dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["blasl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Black American Sign Language dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ase", "sgn-ase"}, }, ["bohairic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bohairic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["bohoric"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Bohorič alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["boont"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Boontling"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["bornholm"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bornholmsk"}, ["prefixes"] = {"da"}, }, ["cisaup"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Cisalpine"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["colb1945"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Portuguese-Brazilian Orthographic Convention of 1945 (Convenção Ortográfica Luso-Brasileira de 1945)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt"}, }, ["cornu"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Cornu-English", "Cornish English", "Anglo-Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["creiss"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Occitan variants of the Croissant area"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["dajnko"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Dajnko alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["ekavsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Serbian with Ekavian pronunciation"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sr", "sr-latn", "sr-cyrl"}, }, ["emodeng"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Early Modern English (1500-1700)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["fascia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fascia standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["fayyumic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fayyumic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["fodom"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fodom standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["fonipa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"International Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonkirsh"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Kirshenbaum Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonnapa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"North American Phonetic Alphabet", "Americanist Phonetic Notation"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonupa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Uralic Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonxsamp"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"X-SAMPA transcription"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["gallo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gallo"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fr"}, }, ["gascon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gascon"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["gherd"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gherdëina standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["grclass"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Classical Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-aranes", "oc-auvern", "oc-cisaup", "oc-creiss", "oc-gascon", "oc-lemosin", "oc-lengadoc", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc", "oc-vivaraup"}, }, ["grital"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Italian-inspired Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-cisaup", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc"}, }, ["grmistr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Mistralian or Mistralian-inspired Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-aranes", "oc-auvern", "oc-cisaup", "oc-creiss", "oc-gascon", "oc-lemosin", "oc-lengadoc", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc", "oc-vivaraup"}, }, ["hanoi"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Hà Nội variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["hepburn"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Hepburn romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ja-latn"}, }, ["hognorsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Norwegian in Høgnorsk (High Norwegian) orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nn"}, }, ["hsistemo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard H-system orthographic fallback for spelling Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, }, ["huett"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Huế (province Thừa Thiên) variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["ijekavsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Serbian with Ijekavian pronunciation"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sr", "sr-latn", "sr-cyrl"}, }, ["itihasa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Epic Sanskrit"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sa"}, }, ["ivanchov"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bulgarian in 1899 orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"bg"}, }, ["jauer"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Jauer dialect of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["jyutping"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Jyutping Cantonese Romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"yue"}, }, ["kkcor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Common Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["kleinsch"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Kleinschmidt orthography", "Allattaasitaamut"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kl", "kl-tunumiit"}, }, ["kociewie"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Kociewie dialect of Polish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pl"}, }, ["kscor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish", "Kernowek Standard"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["leidentr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian in Leiden Unified Transliteration"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["lemosin"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Limousin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["lengadoc"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Languedocien"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["lipaw"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Lipovaz dialect of Resian", "The Lipovec dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["ltg1929"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Latgalian language orthography codified in 1929"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ltg"}, }, ["ltg2007"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Latgalian language orthography codified in the language law in 2007"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ltg"}, }, ["luna1918"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Post-1917 Russian orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ru"}, }, ["lycopol"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Lycopolitan alias Subakhmimic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["mdcegyp"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs encoded in Manuel de Codage"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["mdctrans"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian transliteration encoded in Manuel de Codage"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["mesokem"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Mesokemic alias Oxyrhynchite dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["metelko"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Metelko alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["moderat"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The moderate (conservative, i.e. Danish-like) spelling variant of Bokmål"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nb"}, }, ["monoton"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Monotonic Greek"}, ["prefixes"] = {"el"}, }, ["ndyuka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ndyuka dialect", "Aukan dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["nedis"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Natisone dialect", "Nadiza dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["newfound"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Newfoundland English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en-ca"}, }, ["nicard"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Niçard"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["njiva"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Gniva dialect of Resian", "The Njiva dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["nulik"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Volapük nulik", "Volapük perevidöl", "Volapük nulädik", "de Jong's Volapük", "New Volapük", "Revised Volapük", "Modern Volapük"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vo"}, }, ["osojs"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Oseacco dialect of Resian", "The Osojane dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["oxendict"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Oxford English Dictionary spelling"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["pahawh2"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Second Stage Reduced orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pahawh3"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Third Stage Reduced orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pahawh4"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Final Version orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pamaka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pamaka dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["peano"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Latino Sine Flexione", "Interlingua de API", "Interlingua de Peano"}, ["prefixes"] = {"la"}, }, ["pehoeji"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Hokkien Vernacular Romanization System", "Pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography/romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nan-latn"}, }, ["petr1708"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Petrine orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ru"}, }, ["pinyin"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pinyin romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn", "bo-latn"}, }, ["polyton"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Polytonic Greek"}, ["prefixes"] = {"el"}, }, ["provenc"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Provençal"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["puter"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Puter idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["radikalt"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Radical (i.e. Nynorsk-like) spelling variant of Bokmål"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nb"}, }, ["rigik"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Volapük rigik", "Schleyer's Volapük", "Original Volapük", "Classic Volapük"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vo"}, }, ["rozaj"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Resian", "Resianic", "Rezijan"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["rumgr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Rumantsch Grischun"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sahidic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sahidic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["saigon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Sài Gòn variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["scotland"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Scottish Standard English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["scouse"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Scouse"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["simple"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Simplified form"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["slepe"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sorbian dialect of Schleife"}, ["prefixes"] = {"dsb"}, }, ["solba"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Stolvizza dialect of Resian", "The Solbica dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["sotav"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Sotavento dialect group of Kabuverdianu"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kea"}, }, ["spanglis"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Spanglish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "es"}, }, ["stadi"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The \"Stadin slangi\" dialect of Finnish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fi"}, }, ["surmiran"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Surmiran idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sursilv"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sursilvan idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sutsilv"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sutsilvan idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["synnejyl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Synnejysk", "South Jutish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"da"}, }, ["taglish"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tagalog-English code-switching"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "tl", "fil"}, }, ["tailo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Taiwanese Hokkien Romanization System for Hokkien languages", "Tâi-lô orthography/romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nan-latn"}, }, ["tarask"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Belarusian in Taraskievica orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"be"}, }, ["tongyong"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tongyong Pinyin romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn"}, }, ["tunumiit"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tunumiisiut", "East Greenlandic", "Østgrønlandsk"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kl"}, }, ["uccor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["ucrcor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Cornish Revised orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["ulster"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ulster dialect of Scots"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sco"}, }, ["unifon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unifon phonetic alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "hup", "kyh", "tol", "yur"}, }, ["valbadia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Val Badia standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["valencia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Valencian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ca"}, }, ["vallader"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Vallader idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["vecdruka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Latvian orthography used before 1920s (\"vecā druka\")"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lv"}, }, ["viennese"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Viennese dialect of German"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["vivaraup"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Vivaro-Alpine"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["wadegile"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Wade-Giles romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn"}, }, ["xsistemo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard X-system orthographic fallback for spelling Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, } } m8ui1ahgr00min1dqt7anpuxgznnw0u 687924 687923 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/iana_variants]] 687923 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["1606nict"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Late Middle French (to 1606)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"frm"}, }, ["1694acad"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Early Modern French"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fr"}, }, ["1901"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Traditional German orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["1959acad"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"\"Academic\" (\"governmental\") variant of Belarusian as codified in 1959"}, ["prefixes"] = {"be"}, }, ["1994"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standardized Resian orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj", "sl-rozaj-biske", "sl-rozaj-njiva", "sl-rozaj-osojs", "sl-rozaj-solba"}, }, ["1996"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"German orthography of 1996"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["abl1943"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Orthographic formulation of 1943 - Official in Brazil (Formulário Ortográfico de 1943 - Oficial no Brasil)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt-br"}, }, ["akhmimic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Akhmimic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["akuapem"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Akuapem Twi"}, ["prefixes"] = {"tw"}, }, ["alalc97"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"ALA-LC Romanization, 1997 edition"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["aluku"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Aluku dialect", "Boni dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["anpezo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Anpezo standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["ao1990"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 (Acordo Ortográfico da Língua Portuguesa de 1990)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt", "gl"}, }, ["aranes"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Aranese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["arkaika"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Arcaicam Esperantom", "Arkaika Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, }, ["asante"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Asante Twi", "Ashanti Twi"}, ["prefixes"] = {"tw"}, }, ["auvern"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Auvergnat"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["baku1926"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Turkic Latin Alphabet (Historical)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"az", "ba", "crh", "kk", "krc", "ky", "sah", "tk", "tt", "uz"}, }, ["balanka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Balanka dialect of Anii"}, ["prefixes"] = {"blo"}, }, ["barla"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Barlavento dialect group of Kabuverdianu"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kea"}, }, ["basiceng"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Basic English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["bauddha"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sa"}, }, ["bciav"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"BCI Blissymbolics AV"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zbl"}, }, ["bcizbl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"BCI Blissymbolics"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zbl"}, }, ["biscayan"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Biscayan dialect of Basque"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eu"}, }, ["biske"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The San Giorgio dialect of Resian", "The Bila dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["blasl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Black American Sign Language dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ase", "sgn-ase"}, }, ["bohairic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bohairic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["bohoric"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Bohorič alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["boont"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Boontling"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["bornholm"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bornholmsk"}, ["prefixes"] = {"da"}, }, ["cisaup"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Cisalpine"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["colb1945"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Portuguese-Brazilian Orthographic Convention of 1945 (Convenção Ortográfica Luso-Brasileira de 1945)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pt"}, }, ["cornu"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Cornu-English", "Cornish English", "Anglo-Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["creiss"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Occitan variants of the Croissant area"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["dajnko"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Dajnko alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["ekavsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Serbian with Ekavian pronunciation"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sr", "sr-latn", "sr-cyrl"}, }, ["emodeng"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Early Modern English (1500-1700)"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["fascia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fascia standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["fayyumic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fayyumic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["fodom"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Fodom standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["fonipa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"International Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonkirsh"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Kirshenbaum Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonnapa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"North American Phonetic Alphabet", "Americanist Phonetic Notation"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonupa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Uralic Phonetic Alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["fonxsamp"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"X-SAMPA transcription"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["gallo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gallo"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fr"}, }, ["gascon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gascon"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["gherd"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Gherdëina standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["grclass"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Classical Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-aranes", "oc-auvern", "oc-cisaup", "oc-creiss", "oc-gascon", "oc-lemosin", "oc-lengadoc", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc", "oc-vivaraup"}, }, ["grital"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Italian-inspired Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-cisaup", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc"}, }, ["grmistr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Mistralian or Mistralian-inspired Occitan orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc", "oc-aranes", "oc-auvern", "oc-cisaup", "oc-creiss", "oc-gascon", "oc-lemosin", "oc-lengadoc", "oc-nicard", "oc-provenc", "oc-vivaraup"}, }, ["hanoi"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Hà Nội variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["hepburn"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Hepburn romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ja-latn"}, }, ["hognorsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Norwegian in Høgnorsk (High Norwegian) orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nn"}, }, ["hsistemo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard H-system orthographic fallback for spelling Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, }, ["huett"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Huế (province Thừa Thiên) variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["ijekavsk"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Serbian with Ijekavian pronunciation"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sr", "sr-latn", "sr-cyrl"}, }, ["itihasa"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Epic Sanskrit"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sa"}, }, ["ivanchov"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Bulgarian in 1899 orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"bg"}, }, ["jauer"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Jauer dialect of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["jyutping"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Jyutping Cantonese Romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"yue"}, }, ["kkcor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Common Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["kleinsch"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Kleinschmidt orthography", "Allattaasitaamut"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kl", "kl-tunumiit"}, }, ["kociewie"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Kociewie dialect of Polish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"pl"}, }, ["kscor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish", "Kernowek Standard"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["leidentr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian in Leiden Unified Transliteration"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["lemosin"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Limousin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["lengadoc"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Languedocien"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["lipaw"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Lipovaz dialect of Resian", "The Lipovec dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["ltg1929"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Latgalian language orthography codified in 1929"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ltg"}, }, ["ltg2007"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Latgalian language orthography codified in the language law in 2007"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ltg"}, }, ["luna1918"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Post-1917 Russian orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ru"}, }, ["lycopol"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Lycopolitan alias Subakhmimic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["mdcegyp"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs encoded in Manuel de Codage"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["mdctrans"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ancient Egyptian transliteration encoded in Manuel de Codage"}, ["prefixes"] = {"egy"}, }, ["mesokem"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Mesokemic alias Oxyrhynchite dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["metelko"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Slovene in Metelko alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["moderat"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The moderate (conservative, i.e. Danish-like) spelling variant of Bokmål"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nb"}, }, ["monoton"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Monotonic Greek"}, ["prefixes"] = {"el"}, }, ["ndyuka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ndyuka dialect", "Aukan dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["nedis"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Natisone dialect", "Nadiza dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["newfound"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Newfoundland English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en-ca"}, }, ["nicard"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Niçard"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["njiva"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Gniva dialect of Resian", "The Njiva dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["nulik"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Volapük nulik", "Volapük perevidöl", "Volapük nulädik", "de Jong's Volapük", "New Volapük", "Revised Volapük", "Modern Volapük"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vo"}, }, ["osojs"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Oseacco dialect of Resian", "The Osojane dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["oxendict"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Oxford English Dictionary spelling"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["pahawh2"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Second Stage Reduced orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pahawh3"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Third Stage Reduced orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pahawh4"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pahawh Hmong Final Version orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"mww", "hnj"}, }, ["pamaka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pamaka dialect"}, ["prefixes"] = {"djk"}, }, ["peano"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Latino Sine Flexione", "Interlingua de API", "Interlingua de Peano"}, ["prefixes"] = {"la"}, }, ["pehoeji"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Hokkien Vernacular Romanization System", "Pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography/romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nan-latn"}, }, ["petr1708"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Petrine orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ru"}, }, ["pinyin"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Pinyin romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn", "bo-latn"}, }, ["polyton"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Polytonic Greek"}, ["prefixes"] = {"el"}, }, ["provenc"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Provençal"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["puter"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Puter idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["radikalt"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Radical (i.e. Nynorsk-like) spelling variant of Bokmål"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nb"}, }, ["rigik"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Volapük rigik", "Schleyer's Volapük", "Original Volapük", "Classic Volapük"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vo"}, }, ["rozaj"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Resian", "Resianic", "Rezijan"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl"}, }, ["rumgr"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Rumantsch Grischun"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sahidic"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sahidic dialect of Coptic"}, ["prefixes"] = {"cop"}, }, ["saigon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Sài Gòn variant of Vietnamese"}, ["prefixes"] = {"vi"}, }, ["scotland"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Scottish Standard English"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["scouse"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Scouse"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en"}, }, ["simple"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Simplified form"}, ["prefixes"] = {}, }, ["slepe"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sorbian dialect of Schleife"}, ["prefixes"] = {"dsb"}, }, ["solba"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Stolvizza dialect of Resian", "The Solbica dialect of Resian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sl-rozaj"}, }, ["sotav"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Sotavento dialect group of Kabuverdianu"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kea"}, }, ["spanglis"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Spanglish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "es"}, }, ["stadi"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The \"Stadin slangi\" dialect of Finnish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"fi"}, }, ["surmiran"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Surmiran idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sursilv"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sursilvan idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["sutsilv"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Sutsilvan idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["synnejyl"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Synnejysk", "South Jutish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"da"}, }, ["taglish"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tagalog-English code-switching"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "tl", "fil"}, }, ["tailo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Taiwanese Hokkien Romanization System for Hokkien languages", "Tâi-lô orthography/romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"nan-latn"}, }, ["tarask"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Belarusian in Taraskievica orthography"}, ["prefixes"] = {"be"}, }, ["tongyong"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tongyong Pinyin romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn"}, }, ["tunumiit"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Tunumiisiut", "East Greenlandic", "Østgrønlandsk"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kl"}, }, ["uccor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Cornish orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["ucrcor"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unified Cornish Revised orthography of Revived Cornish"}, ["prefixes"] = {"kw"}, }, ["ulster"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Ulster dialect of Scots"}, ["prefixes"] = {"sco"}, }, ["unifon"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Unifon phonetic alphabet"}, ["prefixes"] = {"en", "hup", "kyh", "tol", "yur"}, }, ["valbadia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Val Badia standard of Ladin"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lld"}, }, ["valencia"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Valencian"}, ["prefixes"] = {"ca"}, }, ["vallader"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Vallader idiom of Romansh"}, ["prefixes"] = {"rm"}, }, ["vecdruka"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Latvian orthography used before 1920s (\"vecā druka\")"}, ["prefixes"] = {"lv"}, }, ["viennese"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"The Viennese dialect of German"}, ["prefixes"] = {"de"}, }, ["vivaraup"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Vivaro-Alpine"}, ["prefixes"] = {"oc"}, }, ["wadegile"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Wade-Giles romanization"}, ["prefixes"] = {"zh-latn"}, }, ["xsistemo"] = { ["descriptions"] = {"Standard X-system orthographic fallback for spelling Esperanto"}, ["prefixes"] = {"eo"}, } } m8ui1ahgr00min1dqt7anpuxgznnw0u Module:Lang/data/iana suppressed scripts 828 62725 687925 439099 2026-06-22T16:56:57Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to 2026-06-14 data; 687925 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["Arab"] = {"ar", "fa", "ps", "ur"}, ["Armn"] = {"hy"}, ["Beng"] = {"as", "bn"}, ["Blis"] = {"zbl"}, ["Cyrl"] = {"ab", "be", "bg", "kk", "mk", "ru", "uk"}, ["Deva"] = {"hi", "mr", "ne", "kok", "mai"}, ["Ethi"] = {"am", "ti"}, ["Geor"] = {"ka"}, ["Grek"] = {"el"}, ["Gujr"] = {"gu"}, ["Guru"] = {"pa"}, ["Hebr"] = {"he", "iw", "yi"}, ["Jpan"] = {"ja"}, ["Khmr"] = {"km"}, ["Knda"] = {"kn"}, ["Kore"] = {"ko"}, ["Laoo"] = {"lo"}, ["Latn"] = {"af", "ay", "bs", "ca", "ch", "cs", "cy", "da", "de", "en", "eo", "es", "et", "eu", "fi", "fj", "fo", "fr", "fy", "ga", "gl", "gn", "gv", "hr", "ht", "hu", "id", "in", "is", "it", "kl", "la", "lb", "ln", "lt", "lv", "mg", "mh", "mo", "ms", "mt", "na", "nb", "nd", "nl", "nn", "no", "nr", "ny", "om", "pl", "pt", "qu", "rm", "rn", "ro", "rw", "sg", "sk", "sl", "sm", "so", "sq", "ss", "st", "sv", "sw", "tl", "tn", "to", "tr", "ts", "ve", "vi", "xh", "zu", "dsb", "frr", "frs", "gsw", "hsb", "men", "nds", "niu", "nso", "tem", "tkl", "tmh", "tpi", "tvl"}, ["Mlym"] = {"ml"}, ["Mymr"] = {"my"}, ["Nkoo"] = {"nqo"}, ["Orya"] = {"or"}, ["Sinh"] = {"si"}, ["Taml"] = {"ta"}, ["Telu"] = {"te"}, ["Thaa"] = {"dv"}, ["Thai"] = {"th"}, ["Tibt"] = {"dz"} } f9hhpglpg7ffutti13f8zyf7lxr3fq5 687926 687925 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/iana_suppressed_scripts]] 687925 Scribunto text/plain -- File-Date: 2026-06-14 return { ["Arab"] = {"ar", "fa", "ps", "ur"}, ["Armn"] = {"hy"}, ["Beng"] = {"as", "bn"}, ["Blis"] = {"zbl"}, ["Cyrl"] = {"ab", "be", "bg", "kk", "mk", "ru", "uk"}, ["Deva"] = {"hi", "mr", "ne", "kok", "mai"}, ["Ethi"] = {"am", "ti"}, ["Geor"] = {"ka"}, ["Grek"] = {"el"}, ["Gujr"] = {"gu"}, ["Guru"] = {"pa"}, ["Hebr"] = {"he", "iw", "yi"}, ["Jpan"] = {"ja"}, ["Khmr"] = {"km"}, ["Knda"] = {"kn"}, ["Kore"] = {"ko"}, ["Laoo"] = {"lo"}, ["Latn"] = {"af", "ay", "bs", "ca", "ch", "cs", "cy", "da", "de", "en", "eo", "es", "et", "eu", "fi", "fj", "fo", "fr", "fy", "ga", "gl", "gn", "gv", "hr", "ht", "hu", "id", "in", "is", "it", "kl", "la", "lb", "ln", "lt", "lv", "mg", "mh", "mo", "ms", "mt", "na", "nb", "nd", "nl", "nn", "no", "nr", "ny", "om", "pl", "pt", "qu", "rm", "rn", "ro", "rw", "sg", "sk", "sl", "sm", "so", "sq", "ss", "st", "sv", "sw", "tl", "tn", "to", "tr", "ts", "ve", "vi", "xh", "zu", "dsb", "frr", "frs", "gsw", "hsb", "men", "nds", "niu", "nso", "tem", "tkl", "tmh", "tpi", "tvl"}, ["Mlym"] = {"ml"}, ["Mymr"] = {"my"}, ["Nkoo"] = {"nqo"}, ["Orya"] = {"or"}, ["Sinh"] = {"si"}, ["Taml"] = {"ta"}, ["Telu"] = {"te"}, ["Thaa"] = {"dv"}, ["Thai"] = {"th"}, ["Tibt"] = {"dz"} } f9hhpglpg7ffutti13f8zyf7lxr3fq5 Module:Lang/configuration 828 62727 687927 284832 2026-07-07T22:37:46Z Pppery 14521 Rename category per CFDS 687927 Scribunto text/plain --[[--------------------------< T E M P L A T E S _ T >-------------------------------------------------------- ]] local templates_t = { lang = 'Lang', langx = 'Langx', langxx = 'Lang-xx', transliteration = 'Transliteration', } --[[--------------------------< K N O W N _ P A R A M S >------------------------------------------------------ lists of all parameters known to {{lang}}, {{langx}}, {{lang-xx}} templates. Exception: |fn= is known to {{lang}} but is not a 'lang' template; that parameter causes the module to call the specified lang(), lang_xx_inherit(), or lang_xx_italic() function. These separate functions set |fn= to nill and then do the known-param checking on the other template parameters ]] local known_params_t = { ['common_params_all_t'] = { -- these parameters common to {{lang}}, {{langx}}, and {{lang-xx}} ['code'] = true, ['text'] = true, ['rtl'] = true, ['italic'] = true, ['italics'] = true, ['i'] = true, ['size'] = true, ['proto'] = true, ['nocat'] = true, ['cat'] = true, ['template'] = true, -- supplied by external templates to provide template name for error messaging ({{nihongo}}, etc) }, ['params_lang_t'] = { -- unique to {{lang}} [1] = true, -- alias of |code= [2] = true, -- alias of |text= }, ['params_x_t'] = { -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} ['translit'] = true, ['translit-std'] = true, ['translit-script'] = true, ['translation'] = true, ['lit='] = true, ['label'] = true, ['link'] = true, ['links'] = true, ['lit'] = true, ['engvar'] = true, }, ['params_langx_t'] = { -- unique to {{langx}} [1] = true, -- alias of |code= [2] = true, -- alias of |text= [3] = true, -- alias of |translit= [4] = true, -- alias of |translation= }, ['params_lang_xx_t'] = { -- unique to {{lang-xx}} [1] = true, -- alias of |text= [2] = true, -- alias of |translit= [3] = true, -- alias of |translation= ['script'] = true, -- these needed to override default params in {{lang-??}} templates ['region'] = true, ['variant'] = true, }, } --[[--------------------------< E N G _ V A R >---------------------------------------------------------------- Used at en.wiki so that spelling of 'romanized' (US, default) can be changed to 'romanised' to match the envar specified by a {{Use xxx English}}. Not likely useful outside of en.wiki This is accomplished by setting |engvar=gb; can, should be omitted in articles that use American English; no need for the clutter. ]] local engvar_sel_t = { -- select either UK English or US English ['au'] = 'gb_t', -- these match IANA region codes (except in lower case) ['ca'] = 'us_t', ['gb'] = 'gb_t', ['ie'] = 'gb_t', ['in'] = 'gb_t', ['nz'] = 'gb_t', ['us'] = 'us_t', -- default engvar ['za'] = 'gb_t' }; local engvar_t = { ['gb_t'] = { ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanisation', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanisation', -- upper case; unused can be deleted ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanised', -- past tense }, ['us_t'] = { -- default engvar ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanization', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanization', -- upper case; unused can be deleted ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanized', -- past tense } } local default_engvar = 'us_t'; --[[ =============================<< M E S S A G I N G T A B L E S >>============================================= these tables are for internationalization. Messages or fragments thereof are mostly grouped by function name. Some messages are shared by functions other than the function table that lists the message or fragment. ]] --[[--------------------------< K E Y W O R D S _ T >---------------------------------------------------------- ]] local keywords_t = { ['affirmative'] = 'yes', ['negative'] = 'no', ['unset'] = 'unset', ['invert'] = 'invert', ['default'] = 'default', } --[[--------------------------< M I S C _ T E X T _ T >-------------------------------------------------------- ]] local misc_text_t = { ['error'] = 'Error', -- make_error_msg(), tag_from_name() ['language'] = 'language', -- make_translit(), lang_xx(), name_from_tag() ['help'] = 'help', } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ M S G _ T >---------------------------------------------- ]] local make_error_msg_t = { ['xlit_err_cat'] = 'Transliteration template errors', ['lang_err_cat'] = 'Lang and lang-xx template errors', ['undefined'] = 'undefined', } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local parameter_validate_t = { ['invalid_param'] = 'invalid parameter: &#124;$1=', -- $1 is parameter name } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local validate_italic_t = { ['multi_italic'] = 'only one of &#124;italic=, &#124;italics=, or &#124;i= can be specified', } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ T E X T _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local validate_text_t = { ['no_text'] = 'no text', ['malformed_markup'] = 'text has malformed markup', ['italic_markup'] = 'text has italic markup', } --[[--------------------------< T E X T _ S C R I P T _ M A T C H _ T E S T _ T >------------------------------ ]] local text_script_match_test_t = { ['latn_txt_mismatch'] = 'Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch', ['latn_scr_mismatch'] = 'Non-latn text (pos $1: $2)/Latn script subtag mismatch', -- $1 identifies offending character's position; $2 is the character } --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ T >------------------------------------------------------------------ ]] local lang_t = { ['conflict_n_param'] = 'conflicting: {{{$1}}} and &#124;$2=', -- $1 is positional param number, $2 is named param; shared with _lang_xx() ['conflict_n_param_types'] = { ['code'] = 'code', ['text'] = 'text', ['translit'] = 'translit', }, ['invalid_proto'] = 'invalid &#124;proto=: $1', -- _lang_xx also emits this message } --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ T >------------------------------------------------------------ ]] local lang_xx_t = { ['conflict_n_lit'] = 'conflicting: {{{$1}}} and &#124;lit= or &#124;translation=', -- $1 is positional parameter; can be either 3 ({{lang-??}}) or 4 ({{langx}}) ['conflict_lit'] = 'conflicting: &#124;lit= and &#124;translation=', ['conflict_link'] = 'conflicting: &#124;links= and &#124;link=', ['invalid_xlit_std'] = 'invalid translit-std', ['romanization'] = 'Romanization of', ['translit_nonlatn'] = 'transliteration text not Latin script (pos $1: $2)', -- _xlit() also emits this message; $1 identifies offending character's position; $2 is the character ['xlit_of_latn'] = 'transliteration of latn script', } --[[--------------------------< T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local tag_from_name_t = { ['lang_not_found'] = 'language: $1 not found', -- $1 is language name parameter value ['missing_lang_name'] = 'missing language name', } --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L _ T >-------------------------------------------------------------- ]] local transl_t = { ['unrecog_xlit_std'] = 'unrecognized transliteration standard: $1', -- $1 is |translit_std- parameter value ['no_text'] = 'no text', ['missing_lang_scr'] = 'missing language / script code', ['unrecog_lang_scr'] = 'unrecognized language / script code: $1', -- $1 is the language/script code } --[[--------------------------< G E T _ I E T F _ P A R T S _ T >---------------------------------------------- ]] local get_ietf_parts_t = { ['maint_promo_cat'] = 'Lang and lang-xx code promoted to ISO 639-1|$1', -- $1 is ISO 639-2/3 subtag ['maint_promo_msg'] = 'code: $1 promoted to code: $2', -- $1 is ISO 639-2/3 subtag, $2 is synonymous ISO 639-1 subtag ['missing_lang_tag'] = 'missing language tag', -- also used in _langx() ['redundant_scr'] = 'redundant script tag', ['redundant_reg'] = 'redundant region tag', ['redundant_var'] = 'redundant variant tag', ['unrecog_tag'] = 'unrecognized language tag: $1', -- $1 is the whole language tag ['unrecog_code'] = 'unrecognized language code: $1', -- $1 is code ['unrecog_reg_code'] = 'unrecognized region: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is region, $2 is code ['unrecog_scr_code'] = 'unrecognized script: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is script, $2 is code ['script_code'] = 'script: $1 not supported for code: $2', -- $1 is script, $2 is code ['unrecog_var'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1', -- $1 is variant ['unrecog_var_code'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code ['unrecog_var_code_scr'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code-script pair: $2-$3', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code, $3 is script ['unrecog_var_code_reg'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code-region pair: $2-$3', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code, $3 is region ['unrecog_pri'] = 'unrecognized private tag: $1', -- $1 is private tag } --[[--------------------------< L A N G U A G E _ N A M E _ G E T _ T >---------------------------------------- ]] local language_name_get_t = { ['deprecated_cat'] = 'Lang and langx using deprecated ISO 639 codes|$1', -- $1 is deprecated ISO 639 subtag ['deprecated_msg'] = 'code: $1 is deprecated', -- $1 is deprecated ISO 639 subtag } --[[--------------------------< H T M L _ T I T L E _ T E X T _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local make_text_html_t = { ['zxx'] = 'text', -- for zxx no linguistic content ['collective'] = 'collective text', -- for collective languages ['individual'] = 'language text', -- for individual languages } --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L A T I O N _ M A K E _ T >------------------------------------------ ]] local translation_make_t = { ['lit_xlation'] = 'Literal translation', -- article title fragment and HTML title attribute ['lit_abbr'] = 'lit.', } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ C A T E G O R Y _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local make_category_t = { ['collective_cat'] = 'Category:Articles with text in', -- for collective languages ['cat_prefix'] = 'Category:Articles containing', -- prefix for explicitly cited and individual languages ['explicit_cat'] = 'explicitly cited', -- for explicitly citing this wiki's language ['cat_postfix'] = 'language text', -- postfix for individual languages } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T R A N S L I T _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local make_translit_t = { ['script'] = 'script', ['transliteration'] = 'transliteration', } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >---------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { known_params_t = known_params_t, templates_t = templates_t, default_engvar = default_engvar, -- engvar support not likely useful outside of en.wiki engvar_t = engvar_t, engvar_sel_t = engvar_sel_t, get_ietf_parts_t = get_ietf_parts_t, -- messaging tables keywords_t = keywords_t, lang_t = lang_t, lang_xx_t = lang_xx_t, language_name_get_t = language_name_get_t, make_category_t = make_category_t, make_error_msg_t = make_error_msg_t, make_text_html_t = make_text_html_t, make_translit_t = make_translit_t, misc_text_t = misc_text_t, parameter_validate_t = parameter_validate_t, tag_from_name_t = tag_from_name_t, text_script_match_test_t = text_script_match_test_t, transl_t = transl_t, translation_make_t = translation_make_t, validate_italic_t = validate_italic_t, validate_text_t = validate_text_t, } 0grapkhfltfc8vltv99ir6fmysp0gia 687928 687927 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/configuration]] 687927 Scribunto text/plain --[[--------------------------< T E M P L A T E S _ T >-------------------------------------------------------- ]] local templates_t = { lang = 'Lang', langx = 'Langx', langxx = 'Lang-xx', transliteration = 'Transliteration', } --[[--------------------------< K N O W N _ P A R A M S >------------------------------------------------------ lists of all parameters known to {{lang}}, {{langx}}, {{lang-xx}} templates. Exception: |fn= is known to {{lang}} but is not a 'lang' template; that parameter causes the module to call the specified lang(), lang_xx_inherit(), or lang_xx_italic() function. These separate functions set |fn= to nill and then do the known-param checking on the other template parameters ]] local known_params_t = { ['common_params_all_t'] = { -- these parameters common to {{lang}}, {{langx}}, and {{lang-xx}} ['code'] = true, ['text'] = true, ['rtl'] = true, ['italic'] = true, ['italics'] = true, ['i'] = true, ['size'] = true, ['proto'] = true, ['nocat'] = true, ['cat'] = true, ['template'] = true, -- supplied by external templates to provide template name for error messaging ({{nihongo}}, etc) }, ['params_lang_t'] = { -- unique to {{lang}} [1] = true, -- alias of |code= [2] = true, -- alias of |text= }, ['params_x_t'] = { -- common to {{langx}} and {{lang-xx}} ['translit'] = true, ['translit-std'] = true, ['translit-script'] = true, ['translation'] = true, ['lit='] = true, ['label'] = true, ['link'] = true, ['links'] = true, ['lit'] = true, ['engvar'] = true, }, ['params_langx_t'] = { -- unique to {{langx}} [1] = true, -- alias of |code= [2] = true, -- alias of |text= [3] = true, -- alias of |translit= [4] = true, -- alias of |translation= }, ['params_lang_xx_t'] = { -- unique to {{lang-xx}} [1] = true, -- alias of |text= [2] = true, -- alias of |translit= [3] = true, -- alias of |translation= ['script'] = true, -- these needed to override default params in {{lang-??}} templates ['region'] = true, ['variant'] = true, }, } --[[--------------------------< E N G _ V A R >---------------------------------------------------------------- Used at en.wiki so that spelling of 'romanized' (US, default) can be changed to 'romanised' to match the envar specified by a {{Use xxx English}}. Not likely useful outside of en.wiki This is accomplished by setting |engvar=gb; can, should be omitted in articles that use American English; no need for the clutter. ]] local engvar_sel_t = { -- select either UK English or US English ['au'] = 'gb_t', -- these match IANA region codes (except in lower case) ['ca'] = 'us_t', ['gb'] = 'gb_t', ['ie'] = 'gb_t', ['in'] = 'gb_t', ['nz'] = 'gb_t', ['us'] = 'us_t', -- default engvar ['za'] = 'gb_t' }; local engvar_t = { ['gb_t'] = { ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanisation', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanisation', -- upper case; unused can be deleted ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanised', -- past tense }, ['us_t'] = { -- default engvar ['romanisz_lc'] = 'romanization', -- lower case ['romanisz_uc'] = 'Romanization', -- upper case; unused can be deleted ['romanisz_pt'] = 'romanized', -- past tense } } local default_engvar = 'us_t'; --[[ =============================<< M E S S A G I N G T A B L E S >>============================================= these tables are for internationalization. Messages or fragments thereof are mostly grouped by function name. Some messages are shared by functions other than the function table that lists the message or fragment. ]] --[[--------------------------< K E Y W O R D S _ T >---------------------------------------------------------- ]] local keywords_t = { ['affirmative'] = 'yes', ['negative'] = 'no', ['unset'] = 'unset', ['invert'] = 'invert', ['default'] = 'default', } --[[--------------------------< M I S C _ T E X T _ T >-------------------------------------------------------- ]] local misc_text_t = { ['error'] = 'Error', -- make_error_msg(), tag_from_name() ['language'] = 'language', -- make_translit(), lang_xx(), name_from_tag() ['help'] = 'help', } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ E R R O R _ M S G _ T >---------------------------------------------- ]] local make_error_msg_t = { ['xlit_err_cat'] = 'Transliteration template errors', ['lang_err_cat'] = 'Lang and lang-xx template errors', ['undefined'] = 'undefined', } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local parameter_validate_t = { ['invalid_param'] = 'invalid parameter: &#124;$1=', -- $1 is parameter name } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ I T A L I C _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local validate_italic_t = { ['multi_italic'] = 'only one of &#124;italic=, &#124;italics=, or &#124;i= can be specified', } --[[--------------------------< V A L I D A T E _ T E X T _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local validate_text_t = { ['no_text'] = 'no text', ['malformed_markup'] = 'text has malformed markup', ['italic_markup'] = 'text has italic markup', } --[[--------------------------< T E X T _ S C R I P T _ M A T C H _ T E S T _ T >------------------------------ ]] local text_script_match_test_t = { ['latn_txt_mismatch'] = 'Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch', ['latn_scr_mismatch'] = 'Non-latn text (pos $1: $2)/Latn script subtag mismatch', -- $1 identifies offending character's position; $2 is the character } --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ T >------------------------------------------------------------------ ]] local lang_t = { ['conflict_n_param'] = 'conflicting: {{{$1}}} and &#124;$2=', -- $1 is positional param number, $2 is named param; shared with _lang_xx() ['conflict_n_param_types'] = { ['code'] = 'code', ['text'] = 'text', ['translit'] = 'translit', }, ['invalid_proto'] = 'invalid &#124;proto=: $1', -- _lang_xx also emits this message } --[[--------------------------< L A N G _ X X _ T >------------------------------------------------------------ ]] local lang_xx_t = { ['conflict_n_lit'] = 'conflicting: {{{$1}}} and &#124;lit= or &#124;translation=', -- $1 is positional parameter; can be either 3 ({{lang-??}}) or 4 ({{langx}}) ['conflict_lit'] = 'conflicting: &#124;lit= and &#124;translation=', ['conflict_link'] = 'conflicting: &#124;links= and &#124;link=', ['invalid_xlit_std'] = 'invalid translit-std', ['romanization'] = 'Romanization of', ['translit_nonlatn'] = 'transliteration text not Latin script (pos $1: $2)', -- _xlit() also emits this message; $1 identifies offending character's position; $2 is the character ['xlit_of_latn'] = 'transliteration of latn script', } --[[--------------------------< T A G _ F R O M _ N A M E _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local tag_from_name_t = { ['lang_not_found'] = 'language: $1 not found', -- $1 is language name parameter value ['missing_lang_name'] = 'missing language name', } --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L _ T >-------------------------------------------------------------- ]] local transl_t = { ['unrecog_xlit_std'] = 'unrecognized transliteration standard: $1', -- $1 is |translit_std- parameter value ['no_text'] = 'no text', ['missing_lang_scr'] = 'missing language / script code', ['unrecog_lang_scr'] = 'unrecognized language / script code: $1', -- $1 is the language/script code } --[[--------------------------< G E T _ I E T F _ P A R T S _ T >---------------------------------------------- ]] local get_ietf_parts_t = { ['maint_promo_cat'] = 'Lang and lang-xx code promoted to ISO 639-1|$1', -- $1 is ISO 639-2/3 subtag ['maint_promo_msg'] = 'code: $1 promoted to code: $2', -- $1 is ISO 639-2/3 subtag, $2 is synonymous ISO 639-1 subtag ['missing_lang_tag'] = 'missing language tag', -- also used in _langx() ['redundant_scr'] = 'redundant script tag', ['redundant_reg'] = 'redundant region tag', ['redundant_var'] = 'redundant variant tag', ['unrecog_tag'] = 'unrecognized language tag: $1', -- $1 is the whole language tag ['unrecog_code'] = 'unrecognized language code: $1', -- $1 is code ['unrecog_reg_code'] = 'unrecognized region: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is region, $2 is code ['unrecog_scr_code'] = 'unrecognized script: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is script, $2 is code ['script_code'] = 'script: $1 not supported for code: $2', -- $1 is script, $2 is code ['unrecog_var'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1', -- $1 is variant ['unrecog_var_code'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code: $2', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code ['unrecog_var_code_scr'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code-script pair: $2-$3', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code, $3 is script ['unrecog_var_code_reg'] = 'unrecognized variant: $1 for code-region pair: $2-$3', -- $1 is variant, $2 is code, $3 is region ['unrecog_pri'] = 'unrecognized private tag: $1', -- $1 is private tag } --[[--------------------------< L A N G U A G E _ N A M E _ G E T _ T >---------------------------------------- ]] local language_name_get_t = { ['deprecated_cat'] = 'Lang and langx using deprecated ISO 639 codes|$1', -- $1 is deprecated ISO 639 subtag ['deprecated_msg'] = 'code: $1 is deprecated', -- $1 is deprecated ISO 639 subtag } --[[--------------------------< H T M L _ T I T L E _ T E X T _ T >-------------------------------------------- ]] local make_text_html_t = { ['zxx'] = 'text', -- for zxx no linguistic content ['collective'] = 'collective text', -- for collective languages ['individual'] = 'language text', -- for individual languages } --[[--------------------------< T R A N S L A T I O N _ M A K E _ T >------------------------------------------ ]] local translation_make_t = { ['lit_xlation'] = 'Literal translation', -- article title fragment and HTML title attribute ['lit_abbr'] = 'lit.', } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ C A T E G O R Y _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local make_category_t = { ['collective_cat'] = 'Category:Articles with text in', -- for collective languages ['cat_prefix'] = 'Category:Articles containing', -- prefix for explicitly cited and individual languages ['explicit_cat'] = 'explicitly cited', -- for explicitly citing this wiki's language ['cat_postfix'] = 'language text', -- postfix for individual languages } --[[--------------------------< M A K E _ T R A N S L I T _ T >------------------------------------------------ ]] local make_translit_t = { ['script'] = 'script', ['transliteration'] = 'transliteration', } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >---------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { known_params_t = known_params_t, templates_t = templates_t, default_engvar = default_engvar, -- engvar support not likely useful outside of en.wiki engvar_t = engvar_t, engvar_sel_t = engvar_sel_t, get_ietf_parts_t = get_ietf_parts_t, -- messaging tables keywords_t = keywords_t, lang_t = lang_t, lang_xx_t = lang_xx_t, language_name_get_t = language_name_get_t, make_category_t = make_category_t, make_error_msg_t = make_error_msg_t, make_text_html_t = make_text_html_t, make_translit_t = make_translit_t, misc_text_t = misc_text_t, parameter_validate_t = parameter_validate_t, tag_from_name_t = tag_from_name_t, text_script_match_test_t = text_script_match_test_t, transl_t = transl_t, translation_make_t = translation_make_t, validate_italic_t = validate_italic_t, validate_text_t = validate_text_t, } 0grapkhfltfc8vltv99ir6fmysp0gia Module:Lang/data/is latn data 828 62728 687929 284870 2026-06-12T17:04:35Z Trappist the monk 14640 update to unicode 17.0.0; 687929 Scribunto text/plain --[[--------------------------< S I N G L E S _ T >----------------------------------------------------------- list of Latn and Zyyy (common) codepoints that are not included in <ranges_t> taken from Module:Unicode data/scripts and a local copy of https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/ScriptExtensions.txt using Module:Lang/data/make is latn data ]] local singles_t = { [170] = true, -- 00AA [186] = true, -- 00BA [215] = true, -- 00D7 [247] = true, -- 00F7 [787] = true, -- 0313 [856] = true, -- 0358 [862] = true, -- 035E [884] = true, -- 0374 [894] = true, -- 037E [901] = true, -- 0385 [903] = true, -- 0387 [1541] = true, -- 0605 [1548] = true, -- 060C [1563] = true, -- 061B [1567] = true, -- 061F [1600] = true, -- 0640 [1757] = true, -- 06DD [2274] = true, -- 08E2 [3647] = true, -- 0E3F [4347] = true, -- 10FB [6149] = true, -- 1805 [7379] = true, -- 1CD3 [7393] = true, -- 1CE1 [7418] = true, -- 1CFA [7672] = true, -- 1DF8 [8305] = true, -- 2071 [8319] = true, -- 207F [8432] = true, -- 20F0 [8498] = true, -- 2132 [8526] = true, -- 214E [12294] = true, -- 3006 [12448] = true, -- 30A0 [12783] = true, -- 31EF [13055] = true, -- 32FF [43310] = true, -- A92E [43471] = true, -- A9CF [43867] = true, -- AB5B [65279] = true, -- FEFF [65392] = true, -- FF70 [119970] = true, -- 1D4A2 [119995] = true, -- 1D4BB [120134] = true, -- 1D546 [129008] = true, -- 1F7F0 [129736] = true, -- 1FAC8 [917505] = true, -- E0001 } --[[--------------------------< R A N G E S _ T >------------------------------------------------------------- list of Latn and Zyyy (common) codepoints taken from Module:Unicode data/scripts and a local copy of https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/ScriptExtensions.txt ]] local ranges_t = { {0, 169}, -- 0000..00A9 {171, 185}, -- 00AB..00B9 {187, 214}, -- 00BB..00D6 {216, 246}, -- 00D8..00F6 {248, 745}, -- 00F8..02E9 {748, 782}, -- 02EC..030E {784, 785}, -- 0310..0311 {803, 805}, -- 0323..0325 {813, 814}, -- 032D..032E {816, 817}, -- 0330..0331 {867, 879}, -- 0363..036F {1157, 1158}, -- 0485..0486 {2385, 2386}, -- 0951..0952 {2404, 2405}, -- 0964..0965 {4053, 4056}, -- 0FD5..0FD8 {5867, 5869}, -- 16EB..16ED {5941, 5942}, -- 1735..1736 {6146, 6147}, -- 1802..1803 {7401, 7404}, -- 1CE9..1CEC {7406, 7411}, -- 1CEE..1CF3 {7413, 7415}, -- 1CF5..1CF7 {7424, 7461}, -- 1D00..1D25 {7468, 7516}, -- 1D2C..1D5C {7522, 7525}, -- 1D62..1D65 {7531, 7543}, -- 1D6B..1D77 {7545, 7614}, -- 1D79..1DBE {7680, 7935}, -- 1E00..1EFF {8192, 8203}, -- 2000..200B {8206, 8292}, -- 200E..2064 {8294, 8304}, -- 2066..2070 {8308, 8318}, -- 2074..207E {8320, 8334}, -- 2080..208E {8336, 8348}, -- 2090..209C {8352, 8385}, -- 20A0..20C1 {8448, 8485}, -- 2100..2125 {8487, 8497}, -- 2127..2131 {8499, 8525}, -- 2133..214D {8527, 8587}, -- 214F..218B {8592, 9257}, -- 2190..2429 {9280, 9290}, -- 2440..244A {9312, 10239}, -- 2460..27FF {10496, 11123}, -- 2900..2B73 {11126, 11263}, -- 2B76..2BFF {11360, 11391}, -- 2C60..2C7F {11776, 11869}, -- 2E00..2E5D {12272, 12292}, -- 2FF0..3004 {12296, 12320}, -- 3008..3020 {12336, 12343}, -- 3030..3037 {12348, 12351}, -- 303C..303F {12443, 12444}, -- 309B..309C {12539, 12540}, -- 30FB..30FC {12688, 12703}, -- 3190..319F {12736, 12773}, -- 31C0..31E5 {12832, 12895}, -- 3220..325F {12927, 13007}, -- 327F..32CF {13144, 13311}, -- 3358..33FF {19904, 19967}, -- 4DC0..4DFF {42752, 42972}, -- A700..A7DC {42993, 43007}, -- A7F1..A7FF {43056, 43065}, -- A830..A839 {43824, 43866}, -- AB30..AB5A {43868, 43876}, -- AB5C..AB64 {43878, 43883}, -- AB66..AB6B {64256, 64262}, -- FB00..FB06 {64830, 64831}, -- FD3E..FD3F {65040, 65049}, -- FE10..FE19 {65072, 65106}, -- FE30..FE52 {65108, 65126}, -- FE54..FE66 {65128, 65131}, -- FE68..FE6B {65281, 65381}, -- FF01..FF65 {65438, 65439}, -- FF9E..FF9F {65504, 65510}, -- FFE0..FFE6 {65512, 65518}, -- FFE8..FFEE {65529, 65533}, -- FFF9..FFFD {65792, 65794}, -- 10100..10102 {65799, 65843}, -- 10107..10133 {65847, 65855}, -- 10137..1013F {65936, 65948}, -- 10190..1019C {66000, 66044}, -- 101D0..101FC {66273, 66299}, -- 102E1..102FB {67456, 67461}, -- 10780..10785 {67463, 67504}, -- 10787..107B0 {67506, 67514}, -- 107B2..107BA {113824, 113827}, -- 1BCA0..1BCA3 {117760, 118012}, -- 1CC00..1CCFC {118016, 118451}, -- 1CD00..1CEB3 {118458, 118480}, -- 1CEBA..1CED0 {118496, 118512}, -- 1CEE0..1CEF0 {118608, 118723}, -- 1CF50..1CFC3 {118784, 119029}, -- 1D000..1D0F5 {119040, 119078}, -- 1D100..1D126 {119081, 119142}, -- 1D129..1D166 {119146, 119162}, -- 1D16A..1D17A {119171, 119172}, -- 1D183..1D184 {119180, 119209}, -- 1D18C..1D1A9 {119214, 119274}, -- 1D1AE..1D1EA {119488, 119507}, -- 1D2C0..1D2D3 {119520, 119539}, -- 1D2E0..1D2F3 {119552, 119638}, -- 1D300..1D356 {119648, 119672}, -- 1D360..1D378 {119808, 119892}, -- 1D400..1D454 {119894, 119964}, -- 1D456..1D49C {119966, 119967}, -- 1D49E..1D49F {119973, 119974}, -- 1D4A5..1D4A6 {119977, 119980}, -- 1D4A9..1D4AC {119982, 119993}, -- 1D4AE..1D4B9 {119997, 120003}, -- 1D4BD..1D4C3 {120005, 120069}, -- 1D4C5..1D505 {120071, 120074}, -- 1D507..1D50A {120077, 120084}, -- 1D50D..1D514 {120086, 120092}, -- 1D516..1D51C {120094, 120121}, -- 1D51E..1D539 {120123, 120126}, -- 1D53B..1D53E {120128, 120132}, -- 1D540..1D544 {120138, 120144}, -- 1D54A..1D550 {120146, 120485}, -- 1D552..1D6A5 {120488, 120779}, -- 1D6A8..1D7CB {120782, 120831}, -- 1D7CE..1D7FF {122624, 122654}, -- 1DF00..1DF1E {122661, 122666}, -- 1DF25..1DF2A {126065, 126132}, -- 1EC71..1ECB4 {126209, 126269}, -- 1ED01..1ED3D {126976, 127019}, -- 1F000..1F02B {127024, 127123}, -- 1F030..1F093 {127136, 127150}, -- 1F0A0..1F0AE {127153, 127167}, -- 1F0B1..1F0BF {127169, 127183}, -- 1F0C1..1F0CF {127185, 127221}, -- 1F0D1..1F0F5 {127232, 127405}, -- 1F100..1F1AD {127462, 127487}, -- 1F1E6..1F1FF {127489, 127490}, -- 1F201..1F202 {127504, 127547}, -- 1F210..1F23B {127552, 127560}, -- 1F240..1F248 {127568, 127569}, -- 1F250..1F251 {127584, 127589}, -- 1F260..1F265 {127744, 128728}, -- 1F300..1F6D8 {128732, 128748}, -- 1F6DC..1F6EC {128752, 128764}, -- 1F6F0..1F6FC {128768, 128985}, -- 1F700..1F7D9 {128992, 129003}, -- 1F7E0..1F7EB {129024, 129035}, -- 1F800..1F80B {129040, 129095}, -- 1F810..1F847 {129104, 129113}, -- 1F850..1F859 {129120, 129159}, -- 1F860..1F887 {129168, 129197}, -- 1F890..1F8AD {129200, 129211}, -- 1F8B0..1F8BB {129216, 129217}, -- 1F8C0..1F8C1 {129232, 129240}, -- 1F8D0..1F8D8 {129280, 129623}, -- 1F900..1FA57 {129632, 129645}, -- 1FA60..1FA6D {129648, 129660}, -- 1FA70..1FA7C {129664, 129674}, -- 1FA80..1FA8A {129678, 129734}, -- 1FA8E..1FAC6 {129741, 129756}, -- 1FACD..1FADC {129759, 129770}, -- 1FADF..1FAEA {129775, 129784}, -- 1FAEF..1FAF8 {129792, 129938}, -- 1FB00..1FB92 {129940, 130042}, -- 1FB94..1FBFA {917536, 917631}, -- E0020..E007F } --[[--------------------------< S P E C I A L S _ T >--------------------------------------------------------- list of individual language-specific non-Latn and non-Zyyy codepoints; these codepoints commonly used in transliterations. This list is manually currated so is most likely incomplete. keys to <specials_t> are decimal codepoints; other keys are language tags (always lowercase) of language transliterations that use these non-Latn codepoints. ]] local specials_t = { [788] = { -- U+0314: COMBINING REVERSED COMMA ABOVE ["hy"] = true, -- Armenian }, [794] = { -- U+031A: COMBINING LEFT ANGLE ABOVE ["ltc"] = true, -- Middle Chinese; is this really IPA? }, [795] = { -- U+031B: COMBINING HORN ["th"] = true, -- Thai }, [806] = { -- U+0326: COMBINING COMMA BELOW ["ab"] = true, -- Abkhaz ["kca"] = true, -- Khanty ["xal"] = true, -- Kalmyk or Oirat }, [807] = { -- U+0327: COMBINING CEDILLA ["fa"] = true, -- Persian }, [809] = { -- U+0329: COMBINING VERTICAL LINE BELOW ["ab"] = true, -- Abkhaz ["sa"] = true, -- Sanskrit }, [815] = { -- U+032F: COMBINING INVERTED BREVE BELOW ["mong"] = true, -- Mongolian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian }, [818] = { -- U+0332: COMBINING LOW LINE ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic ["hbo"] = true, -- Ancient Hebrew ["he"] = true, -- Hebrew ["jpa"] = true, -- Jewish Palestinian Aramaic ["mdh"] = true, -- Maguindanaon ["otk"] = true, -- Old Turkish }, [831] = { -- U+033F: COMBINING DOUBLE OVERLINE ["mnp"] = true, -- Northern Min Chinese, Jian'ou dialect }, [855] = { -- U+0357: COMBINING RIGHT HALF RING ABOVE ["egy"] = true, -- Ancient Egyptian }, [863] = { -- U+035F: COMBINING DOUBLE MACRON BELOW ["am"] = true, -- Amharic ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic ["dv"] = true, -- Dhivehi, Divehi, or Maldivian ["fa"] = true, -- Persian ["hi"] = true, -- Hindi ["inc"] = true, -- Indic languages ["ur"] = true, -- Urdu }, [864] = { -- U+0360: COMBINING DOUBLE TILDE ["hi"] = true, -- Hindi }, [865] = { -- U+0361: COMBINING DOUBLE INVERTED BREVE ["be"] = true, -- Belarusian ["ltc"] = true, -- Middle Chinese; is this really IPA? ["ru"] = true, -- Russian ["rue"] = true, -- Rusyn ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["sit"] = true, -- Sino-Tibetan languages ["tt"] = true, -- Tatar }, [916] = { -- U+0394: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [920] = { -- U+0398: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan }, [934] = { -- U+03A6: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI ["xle"] = true, -- Lemnian }, [945] = { -- U+03B1: GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA ["apc"] = true, -- Levantine Arabic }, [946] = { -- U+03B2: GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["gha"] = true, -- Ghadamès ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["wuu"] = true, -- Shanghainese variety of Wu Chinese }, [947] = { -- U+03B3: GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ltc"] = true, -- Late Middle Chinese ["mn"] = true, -- Mongolian ["och"] = true, -- Old Chinese ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["pal"] = true, -- Middle Persian ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["syr"] = true, -- Syriac ["xal"] = true, -- Kalmyk or Oirat ["xng"] = true, -- Middle Mongolian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["ydg"] = true, -- Yidgha ["mong"] = true, -- Mongolian }, [948] = { -- U+03B4: GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["sog"] = true, -- Sogdian ["sogd"] = true, -- Sogdian ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["xpr"] = true, -- Parthian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [952] = { -- U+03B8: GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ba"] = true, -- Bashkir ["cms"] = true, -- Messapic ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan ["hur"] = true, -- Halkomelem ["ira"] = true, -- Iranian languages ["my"] = true, -- Burmese ["pal"] = true, -- Middle Persian (Pahlavi) ["peo"] = true, -- Old Persian ["sa"] = true, -- Sanskrit ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["syr"] = true, -- Syriac ["xme"] = true, -- Median ["xpg"] = true, -- Phrygian ["xpr"] = true, -- Parthian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian }, [955] = { -- U+03BB: GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA ["xcr"] = true, -- Carian ["xld"] = true, -- Lydian }, [963] = { -- U+03C3: GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [964] = { -- U+03C4: GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU ["xld"] = true, -- Lydian }, [966] = { -- U+03C6: GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [967] = { -- U+03C7: GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan ["gem"] = true, -- Germanic languages ["hur"] = true, -- Halkomelem ["kbd"] = true, -- Kabardian ["ltc"] = true, -- Late Middle Chinese ["och"] = true, -- Old Chinese ["xlc"] = true, -- Lycian ["xle"] = true, -- Lemnian }, [968] = { -- U+03C8: GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [977] = { -- U+03D1: GREEK THETA SYMBOL (cursive form) ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ira"] = true, -- Iranian languages ["peo"] = true, -- Old Persian ["xme"] = true, -- Median ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [1098] = { -- U+044A: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER HARD SIGN ["ady"] = true, -- Adyghe ["cu"] = true, -- Church Slavic ["zls"] = true, -- South Slavic languages }, [1100] = { -- U+044C: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER SOFT SIGN ["az"] = true, -- Azerbaijani ["cu"] = true, -- Church Slavonic ["dng"] = true, -- Dungan ["ru"] = true, -- Russian ["tt"] = true, -- Tatar ["tyv"] = true, -- Tuvinian }, [1278] = { -- U+04FE: CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER HA WITH STROKE ["av"] = true, -- Avar }, [1279] = { -- U+04FF: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER HA WITH STROKE ["av"] = true, -- Avar }, [8113] = { -- U+1FB1: GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH MACRON ["apc"] = true, -- Levantine Arabic }, [8190] = { -- U+1FFE: GREEK DASIA ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic (Ayin) ["xcl"] = true, -- Classical Armenian }, [19978] = { -- U+4E0A: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [20837] = { -- U+5165: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [21435] = { -- U+53BB: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [24179] = { -- U+5E73: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [38451] = { -- U+9633: [CJK Unified Ideographs] (Yang) ["wuu"] = true, -- Suzhou dialect of Wu Chinese tone marker --[[Suzhou dialect#Tones]] }, [38452] = { -- U+9634: [CJK Unified Ideographs] (Yin) ["wuu"] = true, -- Suzhou dialect of Wu Chinese tone marker --[[Suzhou dialect#Tones]] }, [65056] = { -- U+FE20: COMBINING LIGATURE LEFT HALF ["ru"] = true, -- Russian }, [65057] = { -- U+FE21: COMBINING LIGATURE RIGHT HALF ["ru"] = true, -- Russian }, } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >--------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { ranges_t = ranges_t, singles_t = singles_t, specials_t = specials_t, sizeof_ranges_t = #ranges_t, } dc83p4l9k8mwwdqbirq3l5ieeolwkb8 687930 687929 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Lang/data/is_latn_data]] 687929 Scribunto text/plain --[[--------------------------< S I N G L E S _ T >----------------------------------------------------------- list of Latn and Zyyy (common) codepoints that are not included in <ranges_t> taken from Module:Unicode data/scripts and a local copy of https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/ScriptExtensions.txt using Module:Lang/data/make is latn data ]] local singles_t = { [170] = true, -- 00AA [186] = true, -- 00BA [215] = true, -- 00D7 [247] = true, -- 00F7 [787] = true, -- 0313 [856] = true, -- 0358 [862] = true, -- 035E [884] = true, -- 0374 [894] = true, -- 037E [901] = true, -- 0385 [903] = true, -- 0387 [1541] = true, -- 0605 [1548] = true, -- 060C [1563] = true, -- 061B [1567] = true, -- 061F [1600] = true, -- 0640 [1757] = true, -- 06DD [2274] = true, -- 08E2 [3647] = true, -- 0E3F [4347] = true, -- 10FB [6149] = true, -- 1805 [7379] = true, -- 1CD3 [7393] = true, -- 1CE1 [7418] = true, -- 1CFA [7672] = true, -- 1DF8 [8305] = true, -- 2071 [8319] = true, -- 207F [8432] = true, -- 20F0 [8498] = true, -- 2132 [8526] = true, -- 214E [12294] = true, -- 3006 [12448] = true, -- 30A0 [12783] = true, -- 31EF [13055] = true, -- 32FF [43310] = true, -- A92E [43471] = true, -- A9CF [43867] = true, -- AB5B [65279] = true, -- FEFF [65392] = true, -- FF70 [119970] = true, -- 1D4A2 [119995] = true, -- 1D4BB [120134] = true, -- 1D546 [129008] = true, -- 1F7F0 [129736] = true, -- 1FAC8 [917505] = true, -- E0001 } --[[--------------------------< R A N G E S _ T >------------------------------------------------------------- list of Latn and Zyyy (common) codepoints taken from Module:Unicode data/scripts and a local copy of https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/ScriptExtensions.txt ]] local ranges_t = { {0, 169}, -- 0000..00A9 {171, 185}, -- 00AB..00B9 {187, 214}, -- 00BB..00D6 {216, 246}, -- 00D8..00F6 {248, 745}, -- 00F8..02E9 {748, 782}, -- 02EC..030E {784, 785}, -- 0310..0311 {803, 805}, -- 0323..0325 {813, 814}, -- 032D..032E {816, 817}, -- 0330..0331 {867, 879}, -- 0363..036F {1157, 1158}, -- 0485..0486 {2385, 2386}, -- 0951..0952 {2404, 2405}, -- 0964..0965 {4053, 4056}, -- 0FD5..0FD8 {5867, 5869}, -- 16EB..16ED {5941, 5942}, -- 1735..1736 {6146, 6147}, -- 1802..1803 {7401, 7404}, -- 1CE9..1CEC {7406, 7411}, -- 1CEE..1CF3 {7413, 7415}, -- 1CF5..1CF7 {7424, 7461}, -- 1D00..1D25 {7468, 7516}, -- 1D2C..1D5C {7522, 7525}, -- 1D62..1D65 {7531, 7543}, -- 1D6B..1D77 {7545, 7614}, -- 1D79..1DBE {7680, 7935}, -- 1E00..1EFF {8192, 8203}, -- 2000..200B {8206, 8292}, -- 200E..2064 {8294, 8304}, -- 2066..2070 {8308, 8318}, -- 2074..207E {8320, 8334}, -- 2080..208E {8336, 8348}, -- 2090..209C {8352, 8385}, -- 20A0..20C1 {8448, 8485}, -- 2100..2125 {8487, 8497}, -- 2127..2131 {8499, 8525}, -- 2133..214D {8527, 8587}, -- 214F..218B {8592, 9257}, -- 2190..2429 {9280, 9290}, -- 2440..244A {9312, 10239}, -- 2460..27FF {10496, 11123}, -- 2900..2B73 {11126, 11263}, -- 2B76..2BFF {11360, 11391}, -- 2C60..2C7F {11776, 11869}, -- 2E00..2E5D {12272, 12292}, -- 2FF0..3004 {12296, 12320}, -- 3008..3020 {12336, 12343}, -- 3030..3037 {12348, 12351}, -- 303C..303F {12443, 12444}, -- 309B..309C {12539, 12540}, -- 30FB..30FC {12688, 12703}, -- 3190..319F {12736, 12773}, -- 31C0..31E5 {12832, 12895}, -- 3220..325F {12927, 13007}, -- 327F..32CF {13144, 13311}, -- 3358..33FF {19904, 19967}, -- 4DC0..4DFF {42752, 42972}, -- A700..A7DC {42993, 43007}, -- A7F1..A7FF {43056, 43065}, -- A830..A839 {43824, 43866}, -- AB30..AB5A {43868, 43876}, -- AB5C..AB64 {43878, 43883}, -- AB66..AB6B {64256, 64262}, -- FB00..FB06 {64830, 64831}, -- FD3E..FD3F {65040, 65049}, -- FE10..FE19 {65072, 65106}, -- FE30..FE52 {65108, 65126}, -- FE54..FE66 {65128, 65131}, -- FE68..FE6B {65281, 65381}, -- FF01..FF65 {65438, 65439}, -- FF9E..FF9F {65504, 65510}, -- FFE0..FFE6 {65512, 65518}, -- FFE8..FFEE {65529, 65533}, -- FFF9..FFFD {65792, 65794}, -- 10100..10102 {65799, 65843}, -- 10107..10133 {65847, 65855}, -- 10137..1013F {65936, 65948}, -- 10190..1019C {66000, 66044}, -- 101D0..101FC {66273, 66299}, -- 102E1..102FB {67456, 67461}, -- 10780..10785 {67463, 67504}, -- 10787..107B0 {67506, 67514}, -- 107B2..107BA {113824, 113827}, -- 1BCA0..1BCA3 {117760, 118012}, -- 1CC00..1CCFC {118016, 118451}, -- 1CD00..1CEB3 {118458, 118480}, -- 1CEBA..1CED0 {118496, 118512}, -- 1CEE0..1CEF0 {118608, 118723}, -- 1CF50..1CFC3 {118784, 119029}, -- 1D000..1D0F5 {119040, 119078}, -- 1D100..1D126 {119081, 119142}, -- 1D129..1D166 {119146, 119162}, -- 1D16A..1D17A {119171, 119172}, -- 1D183..1D184 {119180, 119209}, -- 1D18C..1D1A9 {119214, 119274}, -- 1D1AE..1D1EA {119488, 119507}, -- 1D2C0..1D2D3 {119520, 119539}, -- 1D2E0..1D2F3 {119552, 119638}, -- 1D300..1D356 {119648, 119672}, -- 1D360..1D378 {119808, 119892}, -- 1D400..1D454 {119894, 119964}, -- 1D456..1D49C {119966, 119967}, -- 1D49E..1D49F {119973, 119974}, -- 1D4A5..1D4A6 {119977, 119980}, -- 1D4A9..1D4AC {119982, 119993}, -- 1D4AE..1D4B9 {119997, 120003}, -- 1D4BD..1D4C3 {120005, 120069}, -- 1D4C5..1D505 {120071, 120074}, -- 1D507..1D50A {120077, 120084}, -- 1D50D..1D514 {120086, 120092}, -- 1D516..1D51C {120094, 120121}, -- 1D51E..1D539 {120123, 120126}, -- 1D53B..1D53E {120128, 120132}, -- 1D540..1D544 {120138, 120144}, -- 1D54A..1D550 {120146, 120485}, -- 1D552..1D6A5 {120488, 120779}, -- 1D6A8..1D7CB {120782, 120831}, -- 1D7CE..1D7FF {122624, 122654}, -- 1DF00..1DF1E {122661, 122666}, -- 1DF25..1DF2A {126065, 126132}, -- 1EC71..1ECB4 {126209, 126269}, -- 1ED01..1ED3D {126976, 127019}, -- 1F000..1F02B {127024, 127123}, -- 1F030..1F093 {127136, 127150}, -- 1F0A0..1F0AE {127153, 127167}, -- 1F0B1..1F0BF {127169, 127183}, -- 1F0C1..1F0CF {127185, 127221}, -- 1F0D1..1F0F5 {127232, 127405}, -- 1F100..1F1AD {127462, 127487}, -- 1F1E6..1F1FF {127489, 127490}, -- 1F201..1F202 {127504, 127547}, -- 1F210..1F23B {127552, 127560}, -- 1F240..1F248 {127568, 127569}, -- 1F250..1F251 {127584, 127589}, -- 1F260..1F265 {127744, 128728}, -- 1F300..1F6D8 {128732, 128748}, -- 1F6DC..1F6EC {128752, 128764}, -- 1F6F0..1F6FC {128768, 128985}, -- 1F700..1F7D9 {128992, 129003}, -- 1F7E0..1F7EB {129024, 129035}, -- 1F800..1F80B {129040, 129095}, -- 1F810..1F847 {129104, 129113}, -- 1F850..1F859 {129120, 129159}, -- 1F860..1F887 {129168, 129197}, -- 1F890..1F8AD {129200, 129211}, -- 1F8B0..1F8BB {129216, 129217}, -- 1F8C0..1F8C1 {129232, 129240}, -- 1F8D0..1F8D8 {129280, 129623}, -- 1F900..1FA57 {129632, 129645}, -- 1FA60..1FA6D {129648, 129660}, -- 1FA70..1FA7C {129664, 129674}, -- 1FA80..1FA8A {129678, 129734}, -- 1FA8E..1FAC6 {129741, 129756}, -- 1FACD..1FADC {129759, 129770}, -- 1FADF..1FAEA {129775, 129784}, -- 1FAEF..1FAF8 {129792, 129938}, -- 1FB00..1FB92 {129940, 130042}, -- 1FB94..1FBFA {917536, 917631}, -- E0020..E007F } --[[--------------------------< S P E C I A L S _ T >--------------------------------------------------------- list of individual language-specific non-Latn and non-Zyyy codepoints; these codepoints commonly used in transliterations. This list is manually currated so is most likely incomplete. keys to <specials_t> are decimal codepoints; other keys are language tags (always lowercase) of language transliterations that use these non-Latn codepoints. ]] local specials_t = { [788] = { -- U+0314: COMBINING REVERSED COMMA ABOVE ["hy"] = true, -- Armenian }, [794] = { -- U+031A: COMBINING LEFT ANGLE ABOVE ["ltc"] = true, -- Middle Chinese; is this really IPA? }, [795] = { -- U+031B: COMBINING HORN ["th"] = true, -- Thai }, [806] = { -- U+0326: COMBINING COMMA BELOW ["ab"] = true, -- Abkhaz ["kca"] = true, -- Khanty ["xal"] = true, -- Kalmyk or Oirat }, [807] = { -- U+0327: COMBINING CEDILLA ["fa"] = true, -- Persian }, [809] = { -- U+0329: COMBINING VERTICAL LINE BELOW ["ab"] = true, -- Abkhaz ["sa"] = true, -- Sanskrit }, [815] = { -- U+032F: COMBINING INVERTED BREVE BELOW ["mong"] = true, -- Mongolian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian }, [818] = { -- U+0332: COMBINING LOW LINE ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic ["hbo"] = true, -- Ancient Hebrew ["he"] = true, -- Hebrew ["jpa"] = true, -- Jewish Palestinian Aramaic ["mdh"] = true, -- Maguindanaon ["otk"] = true, -- Old Turkish }, [831] = { -- U+033F: COMBINING DOUBLE OVERLINE ["mnp"] = true, -- Northern Min Chinese, Jian'ou dialect }, [855] = { -- U+0357: COMBINING RIGHT HALF RING ABOVE ["egy"] = true, -- Ancient Egyptian }, [863] = { -- U+035F: COMBINING DOUBLE MACRON BELOW ["am"] = true, -- Amharic ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic ["dv"] = true, -- Dhivehi, Divehi, or Maldivian ["fa"] = true, -- Persian ["hi"] = true, -- Hindi ["inc"] = true, -- Indic languages ["ur"] = true, -- Urdu }, [864] = { -- U+0360: COMBINING DOUBLE TILDE ["hi"] = true, -- Hindi }, [865] = { -- U+0361: COMBINING DOUBLE INVERTED BREVE ["be"] = true, -- Belarusian ["ltc"] = true, -- Middle Chinese; is this really IPA? ["ru"] = true, -- Russian ["rue"] = true, -- Rusyn ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["sit"] = true, -- Sino-Tibetan languages ["tt"] = true, -- Tatar }, [916] = { -- U+0394: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [920] = { -- U+0398: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan }, [934] = { -- U+03A6: GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI ["xle"] = true, -- Lemnian }, [945] = { -- U+03B1: GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA ["apc"] = true, -- Levantine Arabic }, [946] = { -- U+03B2: GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["gha"] = true, -- Ghadamès ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["wuu"] = true, -- Shanghainese variety of Wu Chinese }, [947] = { -- U+03B3: GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ltc"] = true, -- Late Middle Chinese ["mn"] = true, -- Mongolian ["och"] = true, -- Old Chinese ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["pal"] = true, -- Middle Persian ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["syr"] = true, -- Syriac ["xal"] = true, -- Kalmyk or Oirat ["xng"] = true, -- Middle Mongolian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["ydg"] = true, -- Yidgha ["mong"] = true, -- Mongolian }, [948] = { -- U+03B4: GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ougr"] = true, -- Old Uyghur ["sog"] = true, -- Sogdian ["sogd"] = true, -- Sogdian ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["xpr"] = true, -- Parthian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [952] = { -- U+03B8: GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ba"] = true, -- Bashkir ["cms"] = true, -- Messapic ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan ["hur"] = true, -- Halkomelem ["ira"] = true, -- Iranian languages ["my"] = true, -- Burmese ["pal"] = true, -- Middle Persian (Pahlavi) ["peo"] = true, -- Old Persian ["sa"] = true, -- Sanskrit ["sem"] = true, -- Semitic languages ["syc"] = true, -- Classical Syriac ["syr"] = true, -- Syriac ["xme"] = true, -- Median ["xpg"] = true, -- Phrygian ["xpr"] = true, -- Parthian ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian }, [955] = { -- U+03BB: GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA ["xcr"] = true, -- Carian ["xld"] = true, -- Lydian }, [963] = { -- U+03C3: GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [964] = { -- U+03C4: GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU ["xld"] = true, -- Lydian }, [966] = { -- U+03C6: GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [967] = { -- U+03C7: GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan ["gem"] = true, -- Germanic languages ["hur"] = true, -- Halkomelem ["kbd"] = true, -- Kabardian ["ltc"] = true, -- Late Middle Chinese ["och"] = true, -- Old Chinese ["xlc"] = true, -- Lycian ["xle"] = true, -- Lemnian }, [968] = { -- U+03C8: GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI ["ett"] = true, -- Etruscan }, [977] = { -- U+03D1: GREEK THETA SYMBOL (cursive form) ["ae"] = true, -- Avestan ["ira"] = true, -- Iranian languages ["peo"] = true, -- Old Persian ["xme"] = true, -- Median ["xsc"] = true, -- Scythian ["xsc-x-pontic"] = true, -- Pontic Scythian }, [1098] = { -- U+044A: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER HARD SIGN ["ady"] = true, -- Adyghe ["cu"] = true, -- Church Slavic ["zls"] = true, -- South Slavic languages }, [1100] = { -- U+044C: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER SOFT SIGN ["az"] = true, -- Azerbaijani ["cu"] = true, -- Church Slavonic ["dng"] = true, -- Dungan ["ru"] = true, -- Russian ["tt"] = true, -- Tatar ["tyv"] = true, -- Tuvinian }, [1278] = { -- U+04FE: CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER HA WITH STROKE ["av"] = true, -- Avar }, [1279] = { -- U+04FF: CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER HA WITH STROKE ["av"] = true, -- Avar }, [8113] = { -- U+1FB1: GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH MACRON ["apc"] = true, -- Levantine Arabic }, [8190] = { -- U+1FFE: GREEK DASIA ["ar"] = true, -- Arabic (Ayin) ["xcl"] = true, -- Classical Armenian }, [19978] = { -- U+4E0A: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [20837] = { -- U+5165: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [21435] = { -- U+53BB: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [24179] = { -- U+5E73: [CJK Unified Ideographs] ["wuu"] = true, -- Wu Chinese tone marker }, [38451] = { -- U+9633: [CJK Unified Ideographs] (Yang) ["wuu"] = true, -- Suzhou dialect of Wu Chinese tone marker --[[Suzhou dialect#Tones]] }, [38452] = { -- U+9634: [CJK Unified Ideographs] (Yin) ["wuu"] = true, -- Suzhou dialect of Wu Chinese tone marker --[[Suzhou dialect#Tones]] }, [65056] = { -- U+FE20: COMBINING LIGATURE LEFT HALF ["ru"] = true, -- Russian }, [65057] = { -- U+FE21: COMBINING LIGATURE RIGHT HALF ["ru"] = true, -- Russian }, } --[[--------------------------< E X P O R T S >--------------------------------------------------------------- ]] return { ranges_t = ranges_t, singles_t = singles_t, specials_t = specials_t, sizeof_ranges_t = #ranges_t, } dc83p4l9k8mwwdqbirq3l5ieeolwkb8 Module:Transclusion count/data/I 828 63324 687851 676304 2026-07-12T05:10:42Z Ahechtbot 14654 [[Wikipedia:BOT|Bot]]: Updated page. 687851 Scribunto text/plain return { ["IAST"] = 6300, ["IA_SCOTUS_URL"] = 3300, ["IBDB_name"] = 9800, ["ICD10"] = 5000, ["ICD9"] = 4400, ["ICS"] = 3500, ["ICS_flag"] = 3500, ["IDN"] = 3800, ["IMDb_episode"] = 11000, ["IMDb_episodes"] = 4100, ["IMDb_name"] = 172000, ["IMDb_title"] = 210000, ["IMO_Number"] = 4400, ["IMSLP"] = 9100, ["INA"] = 2400, ["IND"] = 8600, ["INR"] = 6500, ["INRConvert"] = 6700, ["INRConvert/CurrentRate"] = 6600, ["INRConvert/USD"] = 6600, ["INRConvert/out"] = 6600, ["IOBDB_name"] = 2100, ["IP"] = 2800, ["IPA"] = 181000, ["IPA_audio_link"] = 5000, ["IPA_link"] = 5000, ["IPAblink"] = 2600, ["IPAc-cmn"] = 2800, ["IPAc-en"] = 55000, ["IPAc-pl"] = 51000, ["IPSummary"] = 82000, ["IP_summary"] = 83000, ["IPtalk"] = 18000, ["IPuser"] = 7600, ["IPvandal"] = 2800, ["IRC"] = 7100, ["IRI"] = 2500, ["IRL"] = 6000, ["IRN"] = 4000, ["ISBN"] = 474000, ["ISBN?"] = 2500, ["ISBNT"] = 46000, ["ISBN_missing"] = 3200, ["ISFDB_name"] = 4300, ["ISFDB_title"] = 5100, ["ISL"] = 2300, ["ISO_15924/script-example-character"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article/format"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article/label"] = 3000, ["ISO_3166_code"] = 240000, ["ISO_3166_name"] = 16000, ["ISO_639_name"] = 28000, ["ISP"] = 3700, ["ISR"] = 5400, ["ISSN"] = 12000, ["ISSN_link"] = 32000, ["ISTAT"] = 8100, ["ISU_figure_skater"] = 2300, ["ITA"] = 20000, ["ITF"] = 6800, ["ITF_profile"] = 2600, ["ITIS"] = 5800, ["ITN_talk"] = 13000, ["ITN_talk/date"] = 13000, ["IUCN_banner"] = 15000, ["I_sup"] = 4900, ["Ice_hockey_box"] = 2000, ["Ice_hockey_stats"] = 20000, ["Icehockeystats"] = 11000, ["Icelandic_name"] = 2100, ["Icon"] = 662000, ["If"] = 429000, ["If_all"] = 7700, ["If_autoconfirmed"] = 2200, ["If_between"] = 4800, ["If_both"] = 206000, ["If_dark"] = 4000, ["If_dark/styles.css"] = 4000, ["If_either"] = 41000, ["If_empty"] = 6680000, ["If_first_display_both"] = 122000, ["If_in_category"] = 163000, ["If_in_page"] = 21000, ["If_last_display_both"] = 38000, ["If_mobile"] = 2100, ["If_mobile/styles.css"] = 2300, ["If_preview"] = 65000, ["If_then_show"] = 438000, ["Ifempty"] = 938000, ["Ifeq"] = 83000, ["Iferror_then_show"] = 4000, ["Ifexist_not_redirect"] = 1880000, ["Ifnotempty"] = 18000, ["Ifnoteq_then_show"] = 2300, ["Ifnumber"] = 74000, ["Ifsubst"] = 1020000, ["Ih"] = 8100, ["Ill"] = 215000, ["Illm"] = 6000, ["Image_frame"] = 6200, ["Image_label"] = 4700, ["Image_label_begin"] = 4100, ["Image_label_end"] = 4100, ["Image_label_small"] = 2600, ["Image_needed"] = 4500, ["Image_other"] = 190000, ["Image_requested"] = 137000, ["Image_requested/Category_helper"] = 126000, ["Imbox"] = 995000, ["Imdb_name"] = 5400, ["Imdb_title"] = 2900, ["Importance"] = 15000, ["Importance/colour"] = 30000, ["Importance_mask"] = 618000, ["Improve_categories"] = 7700, ["Improve_documentation"] = 4200, ["Improve_plot"] = 4100, ["In_class"] = 5600, ["In_lang"] = 387000, ["In_progress"] = 3800, ["In_string"] = 304000, ["In_title"] = 29000, ["Inactive_userpage_blanked"] = 4100, ["Inaturalist_taxon"] = 3800, ["Include-USGov"] = 25000, ["Incomplete_list"] = 24000, ["Inconclusive"] = 2300, ["Increase"] = 60000, ["Incumbent_pope"] = 4700, ["Indent"] = 2300, ["Indented_plainlist"] = 2600, ["Independent_sources"] = 10000, ["IndexFungorum"] = 2100, ["Indian_English"] = 4900, ["Indian_railway_code"] = 3500, ["Indian_rupee"] = 12000, ["Inflation"] = 27000, ["Inflation-fn"] = 5800, ["Inflation-year"] = 4300, ["Inflation/IN/startyear"] = 6600, ["Inflation/UK"] = 5500, ["Inflation/UK/dataset"] = 5500, ["Inflation/UK/startyear"] = 5500, ["Inflation/US"] = 16000, ["Inflation/US-GDP"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US-GDP/dataset"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US-GDP/startyear"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US/dataset"] = 16000, ["Inflation/US/startyear"] = 16000, ["Inflation/fn"] = 7500, ["Inflation/year"] = 33000, ["Info"] = 5600, ["Infobox"] = 3420000, ["Infobox/Columns"] = 3200, ["Infobox/mobileviewfix.css"] = 173000, ["Infobox/styles-images.css"] = 20000, ["Infobox3cols"] = 28000, ["Infobox_AFL_biography"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Athletics_Championships"] = 3400, ["Infobox_Australian_place"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Australian_place/styles.css"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Australian_place/table"] = 11000, ["Infobox_COA_wide"] = 3700, ["Infobox_Canada_electoral_district"] = 2600, ["Infobox_Chinese"] = 23000, ["Infobox_Chinese/Chinese"] = 3200, ["Infobox_Chinese/Footer"] = 7200, ["Infobox_Chinese/Header"] = 7200, ["Infobox_Christian_leader"] = 22000, ["Infobox_French_commune"] = 38000, ["Infobox_French_subdivision"] = 2200, ["Infobox_Gaelic_games_biography"] = 5500, ["Infobox_Gaelic_games_player"] = 3300, ["Infobox_German_location"] = 11000, ["Infobox_German_place"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Grand_Prix_race_report"] = 2200, ["Infobox_Greece_place"] = 3600, ["Infobox_Greek_Dimos"] = 3000, ["Infobox_Hindu_temple"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Indian_constituency"] = 5800, ["Infobox_Indian_constituency/defaultdata"] = 5800, ["Infobox_Italian_comune"] = 8100, ["Infobox_Korean"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean/auto"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Korean/auto/categories"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Korean/base"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean/base/auto"] = 17000, ["Infobox_Korean/categories"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean_name"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean_name/auto"] = 13000, ["Infobox_Korean_television_name"] = 3400, ["Infobox_NASCAR_driver"] = 2300, ["Infobox_NASCAR_race_report"] = 2700, ["Infobox_NCAA_basketball_conference_tournament"] = 2100, ["Infobox_NCAA_team_season"] = 10000, ["Infobox_NFL_biography"] = 27000, ["Infobox_NFL_team_season"] = 2300, ["Infobox_NRHP"] = 74000, ["Infobox_NRHP/conv"] = 19000, ["Infobox_NRHP/locmapin2region"] = 68000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event/event_link"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event/games_text"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Pan_American_Games_event"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Paralympic_event"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Paralympic_event/games_text"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Romanian_subdivision"] = 3200, ["Infobox_Russian_district"] = 2100, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality"] = 4700, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality/PosMapFS"] = 4200, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality/federal_subject"] = 4600, ["Infobox_SCOTUS_case"] = 4600, ["Infobox_SSSI"] = 2000, ["Infobox_Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"] = 2100, ["Infobox_Slovak_place"] = 3000, ["Infobox_Swiss_town"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Switzerland_municipality"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Turkey_place"] = 20000, ["Infobox_U.S._county"] = 3000, ["Infobox_U.S._county/district"] = 3000, ["Infobox_U.S._legislation"] = 2000, ["Infobox_UK_constituency"] = 2200, ["Infobox_UK_constituency/year"] = 2200, ["Infobox_UK_legislation"] = 6300, ["Infobox_UK_place"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UK_place/NoDialCode"] = 8200, ["Infobox_UK_place/NoPostCode"] = 3600, ["Infobox_UK_place/area"] = 2700, ["Infobox_UK_place/dens"] = 2300, ["Infobox_UK_place/dist"] = 2800, ["Infobox_UK_place/local"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UK_place/styles.css"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site"] = 2100, ["Infobox_UN_resolution"] = 2300, ["Infobox_US_Supreme_Court_case"] = 4800, ["Infobox_US_Supreme_Court_case/courts"] = 4800, ["Infobox_United_States_legislative_district"] = 2700, ["Infobox_United_States_legislative_district/representative"] = 2700, ["Infobox_Wikipedia_user"] = 12000, ["Infobox_academic"] = 27000, ["Infobox_aircraft"] = 13000, ["Infobox_aircraft/styles.css"] = 14000, ["Infobox_aircraft_occurrence"] = 2900, ["Infobox_airline"] = 4800, ["Infobox_airline/styles.css"] = 4800, ["Infobox_airport"] = 14000, ["Infobox_airport/datatable"] = 13000, ["Infobox_airport/styles.css"] = 14000, ["Infobox_album"] = 168000, ["Infobox_album/color"] = 208000, ["Infobox_album/link"] = 168000, ["Infobox_anatomy"] = 4500, ["Infobox_animanga/Footer"] = 7800, ["Infobox_animanga/Header"] = 7800, ["Infobox_animanga/Print"] = 6600, ["Infobox_animanga/Video"] = 5100, ["Infobox_architect"] = 4400, ["Infobox_artist"] = 34000, ["Infobox_artist_discography"] = 6500, ["Infobox_artwork"] = 15000, ["Infobox_automobile"] = 9300, ["Infobox_award"] = 16000, ["Infobox_badminton_player"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_biography"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_biography/style"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_biography/styles.css"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/leagueseason"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/season"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/styles.css"] = 3300, ["Infobox_basketball_biography"] = 23000, ["Infobox_basketball_biography/style"] = 23000, ["Infobox_basketball_club"] = 3300, ["Infobox_basketball_club/styles.css"] = 3300, ["Infobox_beauty_pageant"] = 2200, ["Infobox_bilateral_relations"] = 5000, ["Infobox_bishop_styles"] = 2500, ["Infobox_body_of_water"] = 19000, ["Infobox_book"] = 62000, ["Infobox_book/styles.css"] = 62000, ["Infobox_boxer"] = 6500, ["Infobox_brand"] = 2200, ["Infobox_brand/styles.css"] = 2200, ["Infobox_bridge"] = 6700, ["Infobox_building"] = 34000, ["Infobox_bus_company"] = 2000, ["Infobox_cemetery"] = 2100, ["Infobox_character"] = 8400, ["Infobox_character/styles.css"] = 8400, ["Infobox_chess_biography"] = 4700, ["Infobox_chess_player"] = 3800, ["Infobox_church"] = 17000, ["Infobox_church/denomination"] = 17000, ["Infobox_church/font_color"] = 17000, ["Infobox_civil_conflict"] = 3200, ["Infobox_civilian_attack"] = 7600, ["Infobox_college_coach"] = 13000, ["Infobox_college_football_game"] = 2300, ["Infobox_college_football_player"] = 2600, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/link"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/name"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/succession"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/team"] = 45000, ["Infobox_comedian"] = 2200, ["Infobox_comic_book_title"] = 3200, ["Infobox_comics_character"] = 3500, ["Infobox_comics_creator"] = 3600, ["Infobox_comics_creator/styles.css"] = 3600, ["Infobox_company"] = 92000, ["Infobox_company/styles.css"] = 92000, ["Infobox_computing_device"] = 2600, ["Infobox_concert"] = 3900, ["Infobox_constituency"] = 7700, ["Infobox_country"] = 7100, ["Infobox_country/formernext"] = 6700, ["Infobox_country/imagetable"] = 5600, ["Infobox_country/multirow"] = 9300, ["Infobox_country/status_text"] = 3100, ["Infobox_country/styles.css"] = 7200, ["Infobox_country_at_games"] = 17000, ["Infobox_country_at_games/core"] = 17000, ["Infobox_country_at_games/see_also"] = 14000, ["Infobox_court_case"] = 5300, ["Infobox_court_case/images"] = 2900, ["Infobox_court_case/styles.css"] = 5300, ["Infobox_cricket_tournament"] = 2800, ["Infobox_cricketer"] = 32000, ["Infobox_cricketer/career"] = 32000, ["Infobox_cricketer/national_side"] = 7700, ["Infobox_criminal"] = 7700, ["Infobox_curler"] = 2800, ["Infobox_cycling_race_report"] = 5000, ["Infobox_cyclist"] = 17000, ["Infobox_dam"] = 5900, ["Infobox_deity"] = 2300, ["Infobox_deity/color"] = 2300, ["Infobox_designation_list"] = 31000, ["Infobox_designation_list/entry"] = 22000, ["Infobox_dim"] = 6400, ["Infobox_diocese"] = 4100, ["Infobox_drug"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/chemical_formula"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/data_page_link"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatATC"] = 11000, ["Infobox_drug/formatCASnumber"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatChEBI"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatChEMBL"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatChemDBNIAID"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatChemSpider"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatCompTox"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatDrugBank"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatIUPHARBPS"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatJmol"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatKEGG"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatPDBligand"] = 11000, ["Infobox_drug/formatPubChemCID"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatPubChemSID"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/formatUNII"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/legal_status"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/licence"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/maintenance_categories"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/non-ref-space"] = 3900, ["Infobox_drug/pregnancy_category"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/styles.css"] = 12000, ["Infobox_drug/title"] = 12000, ["Infobox_economist"] = 2000, ["Infobox_election"] = 40000, ["Infobox_election/shortname"] = 2500, ["Infobox_election/styles.css"] = 40000, ["Infobox_enzyme"] = 5100, ["Infobox_ethnic_group"] = 8100, ["Infobox_event"] = 7700, ["Infobox_family"] = 2800, ["Infobox_field_hockey_player"] = 2500, ["Infobox_figure_skater"] = 4000, ["Infobox_film"] = 170000, ["Infobox_film/short_description"] = 165000, ["Infobox_film_awards"] = 3200, ["Infobox_film_awards/link"] = 3200, ["Infobox_film_awards/style"] = 3200, ["Infobox_film_or_theatre_festival"] = 2100, ["Infobox_food"] = 7800, ["Infobox_football_biography"] = 218000, ["Infobox_football_club"] = 29000, ["Infobox_football_club_season"] = 24000, ["Infobox_football_league"] = 2800, ["Infobox_football_league_season"] = 22000, ["Infobox_football_match"] = 6700, ["Infobox_football_tournament"] = 2200, ["Infobox_football_tournament_season"] = 9300, ["Infobox_former_subdivision"] = 3700, ["Infobox_former_subdivision/styles.css"] = 3700, ["Infobox_galaxy"] = 3400, ["Infobox_game"] = 3100, ["Infobox_game_score"] = 3800, ["Infobox_games"] = 2100, ["Infobox_gene"] = 13000, ["Infobox_given_name"] = 4100, ["Infobox_golfer"] = 4800, ["Infobox_golfer/highest_ranking"] = 4800, ["Infobox_government_agency"] = 13000, ["Infobox_government_cabinet"] = 3500, ["Infobox_gridiron_football_biography"] = 40000, ["Infobox_gridiron_football_biography/position"] = 39000, ["Infobox_gridiron_football_team_season"] = 4100, ["Infobox_gymnast"] = 5900, ["Infobox_handball_biography"] = 5500, ["Infobox_historic_site"] = 21000, ["Infobox_holiday"] = 2200, ["Infobox_holiday/date"] = 2200, ["Infobox_horseraces"] = 2700, ["Infobox_hospital"] = 7000, ["Infobox_hospital/care_system"] = 7000, ["Infobox_hospital/lists"] = 7000, ["Infobox_hurling_championship"] = 2700, ["Infobox_ice_hockey_biography"] = 21000, ["Infobox_ice_hockey_player"] = 18000, ["Infobox_ice_hockey_team"] = 3300, ["Infobox_ice_hockey_team_season"] = 2200, ["Infobox_international_football_competition"] = 6700, ["Infobox_islands"] = 9700, ["Infobox_islands/area"] = 10000, ["Infobox_islands/density"] = 10000, ["Infobox_islands/length"] = 9700, ["Infobox_islands/styles.css"] = 9700, ["Infobox_journal"] = 10000, ["Infobox_journal/Abbreviation_search"] = 10000, ["Infobox_journal/Bluebook_check"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/Former_check"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/ISO_4_check"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/ISSN-eISSN"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/Indexing_search"] = 10000, ["Infobox_journal/MathSciNet_check"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/NLM_check"] = 9900, ["Infobox_journal/frequency"] = 9000, ["Infobox_journal/openaccess"] = 2700, ["Infobox_judoka"] = 2800, ["Infobox_lake"] = 3900, ["Infobox_language"] = 10000, ["Infobox_language/family-color"] = 12000, ["Infobox_language/genetic"] = 7000, ["Infobox_language/lingualist"] = 10000, ["Infobox_language/linguistlist"] = 10000, ["Infobox_language/ref"] = 7400, ["Infobox_law_enforcement_agency"] = 2200, ["Infobox_legislation"] = 2800, ["Infobox_legislative_district"] = 2300, ["Infobox_legislative_election"] = 2600, ["Infobox_legislative_election/row"] = 2500, ["Infobox_legislative_election/styles.css"] = 2600, ["Infobox_legislative_term"] = 2100, ["Infobox_legislature"] = 4400, ["Infobox_library"] = 2500, ["Infobox_lighthouse"] = 2600, ["Infobox_lighthouse/light"] = 2600, ["Infobox_locomotive"] = 5000, ["Infobox_magazine"] = 8300, ["Infobox_manner_of_address"] = 4200, ["Infobox_martial_artist"] = 6300, ["Infobox_martial_artist/record"] = 6300, ["Infobox_medal_templates"] = 476000, ["Infobox_medical_condition"] = 9900, ["Infobox_medical_condition_(new)"] = 6400, ["Infobox_medical_details"] = 2500, ["Infobox_medical_person"] = 2400, ["Infobox_militant_organization"] = 2200, ["Infobox_military_conflict"] = 28000, ["Infobox_military_installation"] = 11000, ["Infobox_military_person"] = 54000, ["Infobox_military_unit"] = 29000, ["Infobox_mine"] = 2300, ["Infobox_mineral"] = 2000, ["Infobox_mobile_phone"] = 2400, ["Infobox_mobile_phone/size"] = 2000, ["Infobox_mobile_phone/weight"] = 2100, ["Infobox_model"] = 2400, ["Infobox_monument"] = 2800, ["Infobox_mountain"] = 30000, ["Infobox_multi-sport_competition_event"] = 2700, ["Infobox_museum"] = 12000, ["Infobox_musical_artist"] = 131000, ["Infobox_musical_artist/hCard_class"] = 122000, ["Infobox_musical_composition"] = 3600, ["Infobox_name"] = 8800, ["Infobox_name_module"] = 9300, ["Infobox_newspaper"] = 11000, ["Infobox_newspaper/styles.css"] = 11000, ["Infobox_noble"] = 7800, ["Infobox_officeholder"] = 278000, ["Infobox_officeholder/office"] = 285000, ["Infobox_official_post"] = 9800, ["Infobox_organization"] = 43000, ["Infobox_pageant_titleholder"] = 3000, ["Infobox_park"] = 9900, ["Infobox_person"] = 571000, ["Infobox_person/Wikidata"] = 4900, ["Infobox_person/height"] = 115000, ["Infobox_person/length"] = 7700, ["Infobox_person/weight"] = 74000, ["Infobox_philosopher"] = 3700, ["Infobox_planet"] = 4800, ["Infobox_play"] = 4600, ["Infobox_political_party"] = 16000, ["Infobox_power_station"] = 3300, ["Infobox_prepared_food"] = 2500, ["Infobox_professional_wrestler"] = 4800, ["Infobox_professional_wrestling_event"] = 3300, ["Infobox_protected_area"] = 15000, ["Infobox_protein_family"] = 2200, ["Infobox_publisher"] = 2600, ["Infobox_racehorse"] = 5900, ["Infobox_racing_driver"] = 5800, ["Infobox_racing_driver_series_section"] = 2900, ["Infobox_radio_station"] = 22000, ["Infobox_radio_station/styles.css"] = 22000, ["Infobox_rail"] = 3200, ["Infobox_rail_line"] = 8000, ["Infobox_rail_service"] = 3300, ["Infobox_reality_competition_season"] = 4300, ["Infobox_record_label"] = 4200, ["Infobox_recurring_event"] = 8000, ["Infobox_religious_biography"] = 7200, ["Infobox_religious_building"] = 15000, ["Infobox_religious_building/color"] = 21000, ["Infobox_restaurant"] = 4600, ["Infobox_river"] = 32000, ["Infobox_river/calcunit"] = 32000, ["Infobox_river/discharge"] = 32000, ["Infobox_river/row-style"] = 32000, ["Infobox_river/source"] = 32000, ["Infobox_road"] = 25000, ["Infobox_road/meta/mask/category"] = 24000, ["Infobox_road/meta/mask/country"] = 25000, ["Infobox_road/styles.css"] = 26000, ["Infobox_road_small"] = 2500, ["Infobox_rockunit"] = 6500, ["Infobox_royalty"] = 25000, ["Infobox_royalty/short_description"] = 8900, ["Infobox_rugby_biography"] = 19000, ["Infobox_rugby_biography/correct_date"] = 19000, ["Infobox_rugby_biography/depcheck"] = 19000, ["Infobox_rugby_league_biography"] = 11000, ["Infobox_rugby_league_biography/PLAYER"] = 11000, ["Infobox_rugby_team"] = 2700, ["Infobox_sailboat_specifications"] = 2300, ["Infobox_saint"] = 5500, ["Infobox_school"] = 40000, ["Infobox_school/short_description"] = 40000, ["Infobox_school/styles.css"] = 40000, ["Infobox_school_district"] = 6500, ["Infobox_school_district/styles.css"] = 6500, ["Infobox_scientist"] = 57000, ["Infobox_settlement"] = 597000, ["Infobox_settlement/areadisp"] = 259000, ["Infobox_settlement/columns"] = 107000, ["Infobox_settlement/columns/styles.css"] = 107000, ["Infobox_settlement/densdisp"] = 457000, ["Infobox_settlement/lengthdisp"] = 182000, ["Infobox_settlement/link"] = 107000, ["Infobox_settlement/styles.css"] = 597000, ["Infobox_ship"] = 43000, ["Infobox_ship/career"] = 39000, ["Infobox_ship/characteristics"] = 42000, ["Infobox_ship/class_overview"] = 4400, ["Infobox_ship/image"] = 42000, ["Infobox_ship/service_record"] = 2500, ["Infobox_shopping_mall"] = 3800, ["Infobox_short_story"] = 2700, ["Infobox_skier"] = 2700, ["Infobox_soap_character"] = 3100, ["Infobox_social_media_personality"] = 4400, ["Infobox_software"] = 14000, ["Infobox_software/simple"] = 15000, ["Infobox_song"] = 83000, ["Infobox_song/color"] = 83000, ["Infobox_song/link"] = 83000, ["Infobox_song_contest_national_year/Year"] = 2100, ["Infobox_spaceflight"] = 4000, ["Infobox_spaceflight/styles.css"] = 4000, ["Infobox_speed_skater"] = 2000, ["Infobox_sport_event"] = 2800, ["Infobox_sports_competition_event"] = 23000, ["Infobox_sports_competition_event/medalrow"] = 15000, ["Infobox_sports_league"] = 5600, ["Infobox_sports_season"] = 6900, ["Infobox_sports_team"] = 2300, ["Infobox_sportsperson"] = 159000, ["Infobox_stadium"] = 2600, ["Infobox_station"] = 57000, ["Infobox_station/services"] = 57000, ["Infobox_station/styles.css"] = 57000, ["Infobox_street"] = 4400, ["Infobox_swimmer"] = 11000, ["Infobox_television"] = 64000, ["Infobox_television/Short_description"] = 61000, ["Infobox_television/styles.css"] = 64000, ["Infobox_television_channel"] = 6700, ["Infobox_television_channel/styles.css"] = 6700, ["Infobox_television_episode"] = 13000, ["Infobox_television_episode/styles.css"] = 14000, ["Infobox_television_season"] = 11000, ["Infobox_television_station"] = 3200, ["Infobox_television_station/styles.css"] = 3300, ["Infobox_tennis_biography"] = 11000, ["Infobox_tennis_event"] = 3300, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament"] = 2000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament/heading"] = 2000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament/style"] = 2000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament_event"] = 22000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament_year"] = 11000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament_year/color"] = 33000, ["Infobox_tennis_tournament_year/footer"] = 33000, ["Infobox_tournament_season"] = 13000, ["Infobox_train"] = 2600, ["Infobox_university"] = 26000, ["Infobox_user"] = 3000, ["Infobox_venue"] = 20000, ["Infobox_video_game"] = 30000, ["Infobox_video_game/styles.css"] = 30000, ["Infobox_volleyball_biography"] = 5800, ["Infobox_weapon"] = 8100, ["Infobox_weather_event"] = 3500, ["Infobox_weather_event/Effects"] = 3300, ["Infobox_weather_event/Footer"] = 3300, ["Infobox_weather_event/History"] = 3200, ["Infobox_weather_event/SSHWS"] = 2000, ["Infobox_weather_event/meteorology"] = 3200, ["Infobox_weather_event/scale"] = 2100, ["Infobox_weather_event/styles.css"] = 3500, ["Infobox_website"] = 8300, ["Infobox_writer"] = 45000, ["Information"] = 98000, ["Information/styles.css"] = 98000, ["Inlang"] = 2400, ["Inline"] = 3800, ["Inline_block"] = 5400, ["Inprogress"] = 2600, ["Input_link"] = 32000, ["Instagram"] = 20000, ["InterSportStats"] = 5200, ["Interlanguage_link"] = 261000, ["Interlanguage_link_multi"] = 9600, ["International_Paralympic_Committee"] = 4200, ["Internet_Archive"] = 2100, ["Internet_Archive_SCOTUS_URL"] = 3300, ["Internet_Archive_author"] = 19000, ["Internet_Archive_film"] = 2800, ["Intitle"] = 21000, ["Ip"] = 2100, ["Iptalk"] = 18000, ["IranCensus2006"] = 31000, ["IranNCSGN"] = 3100, ["Iran_Census_2006"] = 31000, ["Irish_place_name"] = 3000, ["IsIPAddress"] = 45000, ["IsValidPageName"] = 3400, ["Is_MLB_league"] = 3300, ["Is_NPB_league"] = 3300, ["Is_continent"] = 13000, ["Is_country_in_Central_America"] = 17000, ["Is_country_in_the_Caribbean"] = 17000, ["Is_interwiki_link"] = 6500, ["Is_italic_taxon"] = 651000, ["Is_redirect"] = 381000, ["Is_time"] = 6700, ["Is_valid_page_name"] = 3400, ["Isbn"] = 10000, ["Isnum"] = 3000, ["Isnumeric"] = 119000, ["Iso2continent"] = 84000, ["Iso2country"] = 25000, ["Iso2country/article"] = 25000, ["Iso2country/data"] = 25000, ["Issubst"] = 64000, ["Italic_dab2"] = 5800, ["Italic_disambiguation"] = 2300, ["Italic_title"] = 257000, ["Italic_title_prefixed"] = 8800, ["Italictitle"] = 3000, ["Ivmbox"] = 142000, ["Ivory_messagebox"] = 187000, ["Ivory_messagebox/styles.css"] = 187000, ["Module:I18n/complex_date"] = 47000, ["Module:IP"] = 148000, ["Module:IPA"] = 183000, ["Module:IPA/data"] = 166000, ["Module:IPA/styles.css"] = 151000, ["Module:IPA_symbol"] = 6800, ["Module:IPA_symbol/data"] = 6800, ["Module:IPAc-en"] = 55000, ["Module:IPAc-en/data"] = 55000, ["Module:IPAc-en/phonemes"] = 55000, ["Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation"] = 55000, ["Module:IPAddress"] = 213000, ["Module:ISO_3166"] = 909000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/AT"] = 2500, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/BA"] = 3400, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/CA"] = 2600, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/CH"] = 4200, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/CN"] = 2700, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/DE"] = 15000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/ES"] = 3700, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/FR"] = 38000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/GB"] = 7100, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/GR"] = 3500, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/IN"] = 29000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/IR"] = 22000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/IT"] = 2500, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/National"] = 909000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/PL"] = 7600, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/RS"] = 3200, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/RU"] = 27000, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/UA"] = 2200, ["Module:ISO_3166/data/US"] = 87000, ["Module:ISO_639_name"] = 34000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-1"] = 29000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-2"] = 21000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-2B"] = 20000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-3"] = 20000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-3_(dep)"] = 34000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639-5"] = 19000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639_deprecated"] = 34000, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639_name_to_code"] = 4500, ["Module:ISO_639_name/ISO_639_override"] = 34000, ["Module:ISOdate"] = 47000, ["Module:Ice_hockey_box"] = 2000, ["Module:Icon"] = 675000, ["Module:Icon/data"] = 675000, ["Module:Icon_box"] = 260000, ["Module:Icon_box/data"] = 260000, ["Module:If_any_equal"] = 251000, ["Module:If_empty"] = 6720000, ["Module:If_in_category"] = 163000, ["Module:If_in_page"] = 21000, ["Module:If_not_given_or_empty"] = 80000, ["Module:If_preview"] = 935000, ["Module:If_preview/configuration"] = 935000, ["Module:If_preview/styles.css"] = 935000, ["Module:In_lang"] = 387000, ["Module:Indent"] = 2300, ["Module:Infobox"] = 4670000, ["Module:Infobox/dates"] = 77000, ["Module:Infobox/styles.css"] = 4940000, ["Module:Infobox/utilities"] = 2600, ["Module:Infobox3cols"] = 320000, ["Module:InfoboxBuilder"] = 2700, ["Module:InfoboxImage"] = 5600000, ["Module:InfoboxImage/data"] = 3340000, ["Module:Infobox_body_of_water_tracking"] = 19000, ["Module:Infobox_cyclist_tracking"] = 16000, ["Module:Infobox_dim"] = 380000, ["Module:Infobox_dim/data"] = 234000, ["Module:Infobox_election"] = 42000, ["Module:Infobox_gene"] = 13000, ["Module:Infobox_mapframe"] = 1670000, ["Module:Infobox_military_conflict"] = 28000, ["Module:Infobox_military_conflict/styles.css"] = 28000, ["Module:Infobox_multi-lingual_name"] = 23000, ["Module:Infobox_multi-lingual_name/data"] = 23000, ["Module:Infobox_power_station"] = 3400, ["Module:Infobox_road"] = 26000, ["Module:Infobox_road/browselinks"] = 26000, ["Module:Infobox_road/errors"] = 25000, ["Module:Infobox_road/length"] = 26000, ["Module:Infobox_road/locations"] = 25000, ["Module:Infobox_road/map"] = 25000, ["Module:Infobox_road/route"] = 26000, ["Module:Infobox_road/sections"] = 25000, ["Module:Infobox_ship"] = 43000, ["Module:Infobox_ship/data"] = 43000, ["Module:Infobox_ship/styles.css"] = 43000, ["Module:Infobox_television"] = 64000, ["Module:Infobox_television_disambiguation_check"] = 71000, ["Module:Infobox_television_episode"] = 13000, ["Module:Infobox_television_season_disambiguation_check"] = 10000, ["Module:Infobox_television_season_name"] = 11000, ["Module:Internet_Archive"] = 22000, ["Module:Is_article"] = 2400, ["Module:Is_infobox_in_lead"] = 461000, ["Module:Is_instance"] = 353000, ["Module:Iso2nationality"] = 95000, ["Module:Italic_title"] = 1250000, ["Module:Italic_title2"] = 5800, } c1e2nr1kfvurwrrolk0y8lrdtjzauzn 687852 687851 2026-07-13T12:31:33Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:Transclusion_count/data/I]] 687851 Scribunto text/plain return { ["IAST"] = 6300, ["IA_SCOTUS_URL"] = 3300, ["IBDB_name"] = 9800, ["ICD10"] = 5000, ["ICD9"] = 4400, ["ICS"] = 3500, ["ICS_flag"] = 3500, ["IDN"] = 3800, ["IMDb_episode"] = 11000, ["IMDb_episodes"] = 4100, ["IMDb_name"] = 172000, ["IMDb_title"] = 210000, ["IMO_Number"] = 4400, ["IMSLP"] = 9100, ["INA"] = 2400, ["IND"] = 8600, ["INR"] = 6500, ["INRConvert"] = 6700, ["INRConvert/CurrentRate"] = 6600, ["INRConvert/USD"] = 6600, ["INRConvert/out"] = 6600, ["IOBDB_name"] = 2100, ["IP"] = 2800, ["IPA"] = 181000, ["IPA_audio_link"] = 5000, ["IPA_link"] = 5000, ["IPAblink"] = 2600, ["IPAc-cmn"] = 2800, ["IPAc-en"] = 55000, ["IPAc-pl"] = 51000, ["IPSummary"] = 82000, ["IP_summary"] = 83000, ["IPtalk"] = 18000, ["IPuser"] = 7600, ["IPvandal"] = 2800, ["IRC"] = 7100, ["IRI"] = 2500, ["IRL"] = 6000, ["IRN"] = 4000, ["ISBN"] = 474000, ["ISBN?"] = 2500, ["ISBNT"] = 46000, ["ISBN_missing"] = 3200, ["ISFDB_name"] = 4300, ["ISFDB_title"] = 5100, ["ISL"] = 2300, ["ISO_15924/script-example-character"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article/format"] = 3100, ["ISO_15924/wp-article/label"] = 3000, ["ISO_3166_code"] = 240000, ["ISO_3166_name"] = 16000, ["ISO_639_name"] = 28000, ["ISP"] = 3700, ["ISR"] = 5400, ["ISSN"] = 12000, ["ISSN_link"] = 32000, ["ISTAT"] = 8100, ["ISU_figure_skater"] = 2300, ["ITA"] = 20000, ["ITF"] = 6800, ["ITF_profile"] = 2600, ["ITIS"] = 5800, ["ITN_talk"] = 13000, ["ITN_talk/date"] = 13000, ["IUCN_banner"] = 15000, ["I_sup"] = 4900, ["Ice_hockey_box"] = 2000, ["Ice_hockey_stats"] = 20000, ["Icehockeystats"] = 11000, ["Icelandic_name"] = 2100, ["Icon"] = 662000, ["If"] = 429000, ["If_all"] = 7700, ["If_autoconfirmed"] = 2200, ["If_between"] = 4800, ["If_both"] = 206000, ["If_dark"] = 4000, ["If_dark/styles.css"] = 4000, ["If_either"] = 41000, ["If_empty"] = 6680000, ["If_first_display_both"] = 122000, ["If_in_category"] = 163000, ["If_in_page"] = 21000, ["If_last_display_both"] = 38000, ["If_mobile"] = 2100, ["If_mobile/styles.css"] = 2300, ["If_preview"] = 65000, ["If_then_show"] = 438000, ["Ifempty"] = 938000, ["Ifeq"] = 83000, ["Iferror_then_show"] = 4000, ["Ifexist_not_redirect"] = 1880000, ["Ifnotempty"] = 18000, ["Ifnoteq_then_show"] = 2300, ["Ifnumber"] = 74000, ["Ifsubst"] = 1020000, ["Ih"] = 8100, ["Ill"] = 215000, ["Illm"] = 6000, ["Image_frame"] = 6200, ["Image_label"] = 4700, ["Image_label_begin"] = 4100, ["Image_label_end"] = 4100, ["Image_label_small"] = 2600, ["Image_needed"] = 4500, ["Image_other"] = 190000, ["Image_requested"] = 137000, ["Image_requested/Category_helper"] = 126000, ["Imbox"] = 995000, ["Imdb_name"] = 5400, ["Imdb_title"] = 2900, ["Importance"] = 15000, ["Importance/colour"] = 30000, ["Importance_mask"] = 618000, ["Improve_categories"] = 7700, ["Improve_documentation"] = 4200, ["Improve_plot"] = 4100, ["In_class"] = 5600, ["In_lang"] = 387000, ["In_progress"] = 3800, ["In_string"] = 304000, ["In_title"] = 29000, ["Inactive_userpage_blanked"] = 4100, ["Inaturalist_taxon"] = 3800, ["Include-USGov"] = 25000, ["Incomplete_list"] = 24000, ["Inconclusive"] = 2300, ["Increase"] = 60000, ["Incumbent_pope"] = 4700, ["Indent"] = 2300, ["Indented_plainlist"] = 2600, ["Independent_sources"] = 10000, ["IndexFungorum"] = 2100, ["Indian_English"] = 4900, ["Indian_railway_code"] = 3500, ["Indian_rupee"] = 12000, ["Inflation"] = 27000, ["Inflation-fn"] = 5800, ["Inflation-year"] = 4300, ["Inflation/IN/startyear"] = 6600, ["Inflation/UK"] = 5500, ["Inflation/UK/dataset"] = 5500, ["Inflation/UK/startyear"] = 5500, ["Inflation/US"] = 16000, ["Inflation/US-GDP"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US-GDP/dataset"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US-GDP/startyear"] = 3000, ["Inflation/US/dataset"] = 16000, ["Inflation/US/startyear"] = 16000, ["Inflation/fn"] = 7500, ["Inflation/year"] = 33000, ["Info"] = 5600, ["Infobox"] = 3420000, ["Infobox/Columns"] = 3200, ["Infobox/mobileviewfix.css"] = 173000, ["Infobox/styles-images.css"] = 20000, ["Infobox3cols"] = 28000, ["Infobox_AFL_biography"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Athletics_Championships"] = 3400, ["Infobox_Australian_place"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Australian_place/styles.css"] = 15000, ["Infobox_Australian_place/table"] = 11000, ["Infobox_COA_wide"] = 3700, ["Infobox_Canada_electoral_district"] = 2600, ["Infobox_Chinese"] = 23000, ["Infobox_Chinese/Chinese"] = 3200, ["Infobox_Chinese/Footer"] = 7200, ["Infobox_Chinese/Header"] = 7200, ["Infobox_Christian_leader"] = 22000, ["Infobox_French_commune"] = 38000, ["Infobox_French_subdivision"] = 2200, ["Infobox_Gaelic_games_biography"] = 5500, ["Infobox_Gaelic_games_player"] = 3300, ["Infobox_German_location"] = 11000, ["Infobox_German_place"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Grand_Prix_race_report"] = 2200, ["Infobox_Greece_place"] = 3600, ["Infobox_Greek_Dimos"] = 3000, ["Infobox_Hindu_temple"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Indian_constituency"] = 5800, ["Infobox_Indian_constituency/defaultdata"] = 5800, ["Infobox_Italian_comune"] = 8100, ["Infobox_Korean"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean/auto"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Korean/auto/categories"] = 14000, ["Infobox_Korean/base"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean/base/auto"] = 17000, ["Infobox_Korean/categories"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean_name"] = 2300, ["Infobox_Korean_name/auto"] = 13000, ["Infobox_Korean_television_name"] = 3400, ["Infobox_NASCAR_driver"] = 2300, ["Infobox_NASCAR_race_report"] = 2700, ["Infobox_NCAA_basketball_conference_tournament"] = 2100, ["Infobox_NCAA_team_season"] = 10000, ["Infobox_NFL_biography"] = 27000, ["Infobox_NFL_team_season"] = 2300, ["Infobox_NRHP"] = 74000, ["Infobox_NRHP/conv"] = 19000, ["Infobox_NRHP/locmapin2region"] = 68000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event/event_link"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Olympic_event/games_text"] = 8000, ["Infobox_Pan_American_Games_event"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Paralympic_event"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Paralympic_event/games_text"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Romanian_subdivision"] = 3200, ["Infobox_Russian_district"] = 2100, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality"] = 4700, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality/PosMapFS"] = 4200, ["Infobox_Russian_inhabited_locality/federal_subject"] = 4600, ["Infobox_SCOTUS_case"] = 4600, ["Infobox_SSSI"] = 2000, ["Infobox_Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"] = 2100, ["Infobox_Slovak_place"] = 3000, ["Infobox_Swiss_town"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Switzerland_municipality"] = 2900, ["Infobox_Turkey_place"] = 20000, ["Infobox_U.S._county"] = 3000, ["Infobox_U.S._county/district"] = 3000, ["Infobox_U.S._legislation"] = 2000, ["Infobox_UK_constituency"] = 2200, ["Infobox_UK_constituency/year"] = 2200, ["Infobox_UK_legislation"] = 6300, ["Infobox_UK_place"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UK_place/NoDialCode"] = 8200, ["Infobox_UK_place/NoPostCode"] = 3600, ["Infobox_UK_place/area"] = 2700, ["Infobox_UK_place/dens"] = 2300, ["Infobox_UK_place/dist"] = 2800, ["Infobox_UK_place/local"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UK_place/styles.css"] = 27000, ["Infobox_UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site"] = 2100, ["Infobox_UN_resolution"] = 2300, ["Infobox_US_Supreme_Court_case"] = 4800, ["Infobox_US_Supreme_Court_case/courts"] = 4800, ["Infobox_United_States_legislative_district"] = 2700, ["Infobox_United_States_legislative_district/representative"] = 2700, ["Infobox_Wikipedia_user"] = 12000, ["Infobox_academic"] = 27000, ["Infobox_aircraft"] = 13000, ["Infobox_aircraft/styles.css"] = 14000, ["Infobox_aircraft_occurrence"] = 2900, ["Infobox_airline"] = 4800, ["Infobox_airline/styles.css"] = 4800, ["Infobox_airport"] = 14000, ["Infobox_airport/datatable"] = 13000, ["Infobox_airport/styles.css"] = 14000, ["Infobox_album"] = 168000, ["Infobox_album/color"] = 208000, ["Infobox_album/link"] = 168000, ["Infobox_anatomy"] = 4500, ["Infobox_animanga/Footer"] = 7800, ["Infobox_animanga/Header"] = 7800, ["Infobox_animanga/Print"] = 6600, ["Infobox_animanga/Video"] = 5100, ["Infobox_architect"] = 4400, ["Infobox_artist"] = 34000, ["Infobox_artist_discography"] = 6500, ["Infobox_artwork"] = 15000, ["Infobox_automobile"] = 9300, ["Infobox_award"] = 16000, ["Infobox_badminton_player"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_biography"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_biography/style"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_biography/styles.css"] = 30000, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/leagueseason"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/season"] = 3300, ["Infobox_baseball_team_season/styles.css"] = 3300, ["Infobox_basketball_biography"] = 23000, ["Infobox_basketball_biography/style"] = 23000, ["Infobox_basketball_club"] = 3300, ["Infobox_basketball_club/styles.css"] = 3300, ["Infobox_beauty_pageant"] = 2200, ["Infobox_bilateral_relations"] = 5000, ["Infobox_bishop_styles"] = 2500, ["Infobox_body_of_water"] = 19000, ["Infobox_book"] = 62000, ["Infobox_book/styles.css"] = 62000, ["Infobox_boxer"] = 6500, ["Infobox_brand"] = 2200, ["Infobox_brand/styles.css"] = 2200, ["Infobox_bridge"] = 6700, ["Infobox_building"] = 34000, ["Infobox_bus_company"] = 2000, ["Infobox_cemetery"] = 2100, ["Infobox_character"] = 8400, ["Infobox_character/styles.css"] = 8400, ["Infobox_chess_biography"] = 4700, ["Infobox_chess_player"] = 3800, ["Infobox_church"] = 17000, ["Infobox_church/denomination"] = 17000, ["Infobox_church/font_color"] = 17000, ["Infobox_civil_conflict"] = 3200, ["Infobox_civilian_attack"] = 7600, ["Infobox_college_coach"] = 13000, ["Infobox_college_football_game"] = 2300, ["Infobox_college_football_player"] = 2600, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/link"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/name"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/succession"] = 45000, ["Infobox_college_sports_team_season/team"] = 45000, ["Infobox_comedian"] = 2200, ["Infobox_comic_book_title"] = 3200, ["Infobox_comics_character"] = 3500, ["Infobox_comics_creator"] = 3600, ["Infobox_comics_creator/styles.css"] = 3600, ["Infobox_company"] = 92000, ["Infobox_company/styles.css"] = 92000, ["Infobox_computing_device"] = 2600, ["Infobox_concert"] = 3900, ["Infobox_constituency"] = 7700, ["Infobox_country"] = 7100, ["Infobox_country/formernext"] = 6700, ["Infobox_country/imagetable"] = 5600, ["Infobox_country/multirow"] = 9300, ["Infobox_country/status_text"] = 3100, ["Infobox_country/styles.css"] = 7200, ["Infobox_country_at_games"] = 17000, ["Infobox_country_at_games/core"] = 17000, ["Infobox_country_at_games/see_also"] = 14000, ["Infobox_court_case"] = 5300, 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687932 wikitext text/x-wiki Sarah R. Kurtz bụ onye sayensị si America a ma ama maka ọmụmụ ya na mpaghara ike anyanwụ na photovoltaics, karịsịa na itinye ọtụtụ mkpụrụ ndụ anyanwụ na ụgbọ mbara igwe nwere akụrụngwa robotic. Ọ rụtụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye nyocha na National Center for Photovoltaics yana dịka isi sayensị na National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Ugbu a, ọ bụ prọfesọ na ngalaba sayensị ihe na injinia na Mahadum California, Merced. == Agụmakwụkwọ na ọrụ == Kurtz gara ụlọ akwụkwọ ọha na eze n'obodo ya bụ Defiance, Ohio, ma gụsịrị akwụkwọ na 1979 na Manchester College, na-amụ kemịkal na physics. O nwetara Ph.D. na physics kemịkal na 1985 site na Mahadum Harvard; edemede ya bụ Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon, titanium nitride, and titanium dioxide thin films. {{R|merced}}{{R|diss}} Ọ sonyeere National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) na 1985 dị ka onye nchọpụta post-doctoral.{{R|nrel}} Ọ kwagara Mahadum California, Merced na 2017. {{R|nae2}} == Nkwado == Kurtz na onye ọkà mmụta sayensị NREL ibe ya Jerry Olson meriri otu n'ime 2007 Dan David Prizes "maka onyinye ha pụrụ iche na nke miri emi n'ọhịa nke ike photovoltaic". {{R|david}} N'afọ 2012, IEEE Electron Devices Society nyere ya William R. Cherry Award maka ọrụ ya na mkpụrụ ndụ multi-junction. {{R|cherry}} The US Clean Energy Education & Empowerment (C3E) Initiative nyere ya 2016 Lifetime Achievement Award.{{R|c3e}} A họpụtara ya na National Academy of Engineering na 2020, "maka onyinye maka mmepe nke GaInP / GaAs photovoltaic cells na idu ndú na ntụkwasị obi na ogo nke solar cell".{{R|nae}} Ọ ghọrọ onye otu ngalaba mbụ na UC Merced ka a họpụtara na academy.{{R|nae2}} == Edesibia == <ref name=cherry>{{citation|url=https://www.nrel.gov/news/press/2012/1900.html|title=NREL's Sarah Kurtz Wins Prestigious Cherry Award from IEEE|date=June 7, 2012|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|accessdate=2020-10-26}}</ref> <ref name=c3e>{{citation|url=https://www.c3eawards.org/sarah-kurtz|title=Sarah Kurtz, 2016 winner|work=Lifetime Achievement Award|publisher=US Clean Energy Education & Empowerment (C3E) Initiative|accessdate=2020-10-26}}</ref> <ref name=david>{{citation|url=https://www.nrel.gov/news/press/2007/502.html|title=NREL Scientists Win Dan David Prize in Future Category|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|date=March 6, 2007|accessdate=2020-10-26}}; {{citation|url=https://www.denverpost.com/2007/03/06/2-nrel-scientists-take-share-of-dan-david-prize/|newspaper=Denver Post|title=2 NREL scientists take share of Dan David prize|date=March 6, 2007}}; {{citation|url=https://www.dandavidprize.org/laureates/2007|title=Laureates 2007|work=Dan David Prize|accessdate=2020-10-26}}</ref> <ref name=diss>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16269717 WorldCat catalog entry for ''Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon, titanium nitride, and titanium dioxide thin films''], retrieved 2020-10-26</ref> <ref name=merced>{{citation|url=https://engineering.ucmerced.edu/content/sarah-kurtz|title=Sarah Kurtz|work=School of Engineering Faculty|publisher=University of California, Merced|accessdate=2020-10-26|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030162444/https://engineering.ucmerced.edu/content/sarah-kurtz|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name=nae>{{citation|url=https://www.nae.edu/224699/Professor-Sarah-Kurtz|title=Professor Sarah Kurtz|work=Member profiles|publisher=National Academy of Engineering|accessdate=2020-10-26}}</ref> <ref name=nae2>{{citation|url=https://news.ucmerced.edu/news/2020/national-academy-engineering-elects-kurtz-its-ranks|title=National Academy of Engineering Elects Kurtz Into Its Ranks|first=Lorena|last=Anderson|date=February 13, 2020|work=Newsroom|publisher=University of California, Merced|accessdate=2020-10-26|archive-date=2020-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101085947/https://news.ucmerced.edu/news/2020/national-academy-engineering-elects-kurtz-its-ranks|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name=nrel>{{citation|url=http://www.nrel.gov/about/kurtz.html|archive-date=2017-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430033933/http://www.nrel.gov/about/kurtz.html|url-status=dead|title=Sarah Kurtz — Research Fellow|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory}}</ref> * [https://faculty.ucmerced.edu/skurtz/ Ebe obibi] * Sarah Kurtzmbipụta ndị edepụtara site naOnye Ọkà mmụta Google [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] l5rn9i208zhg1mzvz5r3sw0vazhphew Stephane Aziz Ki 0 65366 687973 673492 2026-07-13T19:40:30Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687973 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Stephane Aziz Ki (cropped).jpg|thumb|Stephane Aziz ]]   '''Stephane Aziz Ki''' (amụrụ na 6 ọnwa Maachị afọ 1996) bụ ọkachamara n'egwuregwu bọọlụ na-egwu egwu dịka onye etiti egwuregwu Botola klọb Wydad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ippmedia.com/en/sport/yanga-begins-premierleague-title-defense-visit-polisi-tanzania|title=Yanga begins PremierLeague title defense with visit to Polisi Tanzania|date=August 16, 2022|work=ippmedia.com}}</ref> Amụrụ na Ivory Coast, ọ na-agbara ndị otu mba Burkina Faso bọọlụ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.leballonrond.fr/player.php?id=475220|title=Stephane Aziz Ki :: ASEC Mimosas|work=leballonrond.fr|accessdate=2022-06-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615063838/https://www.leballonrond.fr/player.php?id=475220|archivedate=2022-06-15}}</ref> == Ọrụ klọb == Aziz Ki malitere ọrụ ya dị elu na mpaghara San Roque nke Spanish na 2015. Na ọnwa Jenụwarị 2017, ọ kwagara na klọb Cypriot[[AC Omonia|Omonia]], ebe ọ pụtara ugboro (iri na atọ) 13, gụnyere kpakpando asaa.<ref name="omonia">{{Cite news|url=http://omonoia.com.cy/info.php?section=1&page=0&newsid=4847&lang=GR|title=Matt Ατομικά στατιστικά: Στεφάν Αζίζ|publisher=AC Omonia Nicosia|date=31 May 2017|accessdate=4 June 2017}}</ref> O mechara gbaa bọọlụ maka klọb ndị Cypriot ibe ya Aris Limassol na mbinye ego na Nea Salamina, tupu Ọkwaga Africa ịbanye na klọb Ivory Coast AFAD Djékanou na ASEC Mimosas, Ndị otu Tanzania Young Africans sochiri na 2022, na Moroccan Botola akụkụ Wydad na 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.panafricafootball.com/post/st%C3%A9phane-aziz-ki-officially-joins-wydad-athletic-club|title=Stephane Aziz Ki officially joins Wydad Athletic Club|publisher=Pan Africa Football|date=24 May 2025|accessdate=1 August 2025|archivedate=7 December 2025|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251207030802/https://www.panafricafootball.com/post/st%C3%A9phane-aziz-ki-officially-joins-wydad-athletic-club/}}</ref> == Ndekọ klọb == {{updated|match played 24 February 2018}}Dị ka egwuregwu gbara na 24 Febụwarị 2018 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" |Club ! rowspan="2" |Season ! colspan="2" |League ! colspan="2" |Cup ! colspan="2" |Europe ! colspan="2" |Total |- !Apps !Goals !Apps !Goals !Apps !Goals !Apps !Goals |- | rowspan="3" valign="center" |'''San Roque''' |- |2015–16 |24 |2 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– |24 |2 |- !Total !24 !2 !0 !0 ! colspan="2" |– !24 !2 |- | rowspan="4" valign="center" |'''[[AC Omonia|Omonia]]''' |- |2016–17 |13 |0 |2 |0 |0 |0 |2 |1 |- |2017–18 |5 |0 |0 |0 | colspan="2" |– |5 |0 |- !Total !18 !0 !2 !0 !0 !0 !20 !0 |- |- ! colspan="2" |Career total !42 !2 !2 !0 !0 !0 !44 !2 |} == Ọrụ mba ụwa == A mụrụ Aziz Ki na Ivory Coast ma bụrụ onye Burkinabé. Ọ gbara bọọlụ mbụ ya na Burkina Faso na asọmpi enyi na enyi ha meriri Morocco na 24 Maachi afọ 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.leballonrond.fr/match_live.php?id=5336269|title=Maroc 2–0 Burkina-Faso :: Matchs Amicaux Sélections 2017 :: Détails du jeu :: leballonrond.fr|work=leballonrond.fr|language=fr|accessdate=2017-08-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615064336/https://www.leballonrond.fr/match_live.php?id=5336269|archivedate=2022-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zerozero.pt/video.php?id=719423|title=Morocco 2–0 Burkina Faso :: Videos :: zerozero.pt|work=zerozero.pt|language=pt|accessdate=2017-08-21}}</ref> == Goolu mba ụwa == {| class="wikitable" !No. !Date !Venue !Opponent !Score !Result !Competition |- |1. |7 June 2022 |FNB Stadium, Johannesburg, [[South Africa]] | Eswatini | align="center" |'''3'''–1 | align="center" |3–1 |2023 Africa Cup of Nations |- |} == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Stephane Aziz Ki na Soccerway {{Wydad AC squad}}{{Burkina Faso squad 2023 Africa Cup of Nations}} [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] jhjvf7b95lopcdek4orng7rbjlu3je5 Édēchághị́:Sophia Getzowa 118 67099 687824 687795 2026-07-13T12:21:29Z King ChristLike 13051 King ChristLike moved page [[Sophia Getzowa]] to [[Édēchághị́:Sophia Getzowa]]: Move to draftspace ([[WP:DRAFTIFY]]) 687795 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Getzova.png|thumb|Sophia Getzowa]]   '''Sophia Getzowa''' ( Hebrew ; 10 Jenụwarị 1872 (OS) / 23 Jenụwarị 1872 (NS) - 11 (12) Julaị 1946) bụ onye Belarusian mụrụ onye ọkà mmụta banyere ọrịa na ọkà mmụta sayensị na Palestine mmanye. O tolitere na shtetl Juu na Belarus na n'oge ọmụmụ ahụike ya na Mahadum Bern, ọ gbara aka na Chaim Weizmann, onye ga-abụ onye isi ala mbụ nke Israel. Ha na-arụkọ ọrụ na òtù Zionist. Mgbe afọ anọ nwechara ịhụnanya, Weizmann kwụsịrị njikọ aka ha, Getzowa laghachiri na ọmụmụ ahụike ya, gụsịrị akwụkwọ na 1904. O mere nyocha nke ọtụtụ ebe na-ezo aka na thyroid, na-achọpụta nests siri ike (SCN) na 1907. N'ihi ọnọdụ ya dị ka onye Juu, nwanyị, na onye mba ọzọ, ọnọdụ ọrụ Getzowa enweghị isi. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ site na 1920 na ebe dị iche iche na Switzerland yana obere oge na Paris. Na 1925, mgbe nkwanye si n'aka Albert Einstein, e goro ka ọ rụọ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ahụ maka ọrịa na-ahụ maka ọrịa n'oge a ka na-emepụta Mahadum Hibru nke Jerusalem, bụ ebe ọ ga-abụ onye prọfesọ nwanyị mbụ na 1927. Ya na ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị Europe rụkọrọ ọrụ n'oge fọdụrụnụ nke ọrụ ya, tupu ya ezumike nká na 1940. == Ndụ mbido == [[Faịlụ:Albert_Einstein_WZO_photo_1921_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Albert Einstein na Chaim Weizmann (1921) ]] N'ihi ọnọdụ ya dị ka onye Juu, nwanyị, na onye mba ọzọ, ọnọdụ ọrụ Getzowa enweghị isi. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ site na 1920 na ebe dị iche iche na Switzerland yana obere oge na Paris. Na 1925, mgbe nkwanye si n'aka Albert Einstein, e goro ka ọ rụọ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ahụ maka ọrịa na-ahụ maka ọrịa n'oge a ka na-emepụta Mahadum Hibru nke Jerusalem, bụ ebe ọ ga-abụ onye prọfesọ nwanyị mbụ na 1927. Ya na ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị Europe rụkọrọ ọrụ n'oge fọdụrụnụ nke ọrụ ya, tupu ya ezumike nká na 1940. Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Hibru.[15] Nne Getzowa nwụrụ mgbe ọ dị afọ asatọ na nwa nwanne nne, Marie Scheindels-Kagan, bụ́ onye na-agba akwụkwọ na Švenčionys, kpọọrọ ya bata ma kụziere ya ihe odide ndị Russia. Ọ laghachiri Gomel na 1882 wee banye na Progymnasium e hiwere ọhụrụ, ebe ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ afọ atọ. Ruo afọ asatọ, [15] ọ gara Жіночу гімназію в Ромнах (Ụmụ nwanyị Gymnasium na Romny), tupu ya achụso ọmụmụ ahụike na Mahadum Bern, Switzerland, [1] malite na 1895.[3] Getzowa nọ na-arụsi ọrụ ike na ngagharị nke Zionist na na 1898 bụ onye nnọchi anya ọgbakọ nke abụọ nke Zionist, nke emere na Basel.[17] N'afọ ahụ, ọ lụrụ Chaim Weizmann, bụ onye kpọọrọ ya izute ezinụlọ ya na Pinsk n'oge ezumike okpomọkụ na 1898 na 1899.[18] Getzowa gara Pinsk ugboro abụọ ahụ, ya na nwanne ya nwanyị Rebekka, bụ́ onye na-amụkwa ọgwụ na Bern.[3] O yikarịrị ka ha abụọ bikọtara ọnụ mgbe ha mekọrịtachara, dị ka a na-emekarị n'oge ahụ19] Getzowa ghọrọ onye dị mkpa nke obodo Zionist, [ 20 ] na-aga na 5th Zionist Congress dị ka onye nnọchiteanya nke Democratic Fraction, [ [ ] [ 21 [ otu radical group guzobere enyi ya Leo Motzkin na Weizmann na 1901. Getzowa na July 1901, ma ọ gwaghị ezinụlọ ya ruo March 1903. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] N'ihi na Weizmann na-edoghị anya banyere nzube ya, na-ekwe nkwa izute Getzowa ọnwa atọ ka e mesịrị ma na-agba ya ume ka ọ nọgide na-arụ ọrụ na ya na òtù Zionist, ọ kọwara mmekọrịta ya na Vera dị ka onye na-achụ nwoke. [ 24 ] N'ịbụ onye agbagoro ọdịda anyanwụ site na ikpughe ogologo oge ya na omenala Europe na Germany na Switzerland, Weizmann ekpebiwo ugbu a na onye mmekọ nke ndị Juu Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ akọwapụtaghị ya na njedebe nke shtetle. [ 25 ] A hụrụ omume ya dị ka ihe na-adịghị asọpụrụ, ma kee mgbaji na Motzkin na ndị ọzọ na Democratic Fraction. [ 23 ] Ụmụ akwụkwọ ibe ya mere ikpe nlegharị anya wee kpebie na ọ ga-akwado nkwa ya ma lụọ Getzowa, ọ bụrụgodị na ọ hapụ ya. [ 26 [ Ọ dịghị mgbe ọ gbakere site na nhụjuanya nke nkwụsịtụ ahụ, na [ ata ahụhụ ọzọ mgbe nwanne ya nwanyị nwụrụ site na ọrịa cancer afọ ''na'' [ April 1902. Thyroid Glands nke Cretins na Idiots), ọ chọpụtara na anụ ahụ si mba ọzọ, nke ga-abụ ntọala nke ọrụ ya. [ 28 ] Nleba anya ya bụ na cell ezumike na cysts nke postbranchial ahụ na atrophic goiters nke thyroid esiteghị na anụ ahụ thyroid ma ghara imeghachi omume na thyroid. [ 29 ] == Ọrụ == [[Faịlụ:UniBern1909-new.jpg|thumb|Mahadum nke Bern na 1909]] Na afọ 1905, Prọfesọ Hans Strasser goro Getzowa ka ọ bụrụ onye enyemaka nwanyị mbụ na Bern Institute of Anatomy. [ 8 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Ọ malitere nyocha nke goiters na parathyroid tissues yana Langhans na ụmụ akwụkwọ ya ndị ọzọ bụ otu n'ime ndị nchọpụta bụ isi nke mere ka ọ pụta ìhè mmalite nke etuto thyroid . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Ọ gara n'ihu na ọmụmụ ihe ya, oge a na Institute of Pathology, n'okpuru nduzi nke Theodor Langhans na Ernst Hedinger,. [ 1 ] N'ihi àgwà ọma ya, ọ masịrị ụmụ akwụkwọ ibe ya na ndị ọrụ ibe ya. Na 1907, [[Carl Wegelin]] nwere mmasị na mwepụ ya nke etuto ahụ site na mbepụ afọ nke na ya na ya malitere mmekọrịta chiri anya. [ 34 ] Wegelin mechara bụrụ onye isi oche mbụ nke Ụlọ Akwụkwọ Ọgwụ nke Switzerland. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] N'otu afọ ahụ, ọ chọtara nests siri ike (SCN), na-aghọ onye mbụ kọwara ha. [ 37 ] Ka Langhans na-eru nso ịla ezumike nká, ọ kwadoro maka ọpụpụ ya na ma Wegelin na Getzowa kwadoro itinye akwụkwọ maka ọkwa ahụ. Wegelin kwadoro na 1908 [ 36 ] na Langhans jiri nyocha Getzowa mee ihe iji nye ya Habilitation na 1912. [ 1 ] [ 38 ] [ 36 ] Ọ bụ ezie na afọ asaa dị obere karịa Getzowa, Wegelin meriri Langhans dị ka onye nduzi nke ụlọ ọrụ Anatomical. [ 36 ] na a họpụtara ya dị ka Privatdozent na Mahadum Bern. [ 38 ] == Edensibịa == {{Reflist|30em}} 8iw165gatkzk1wkpsj5tspw99nw0cdw National Primary Health Care Development Agency (Nigeria) 0 68030 687993 537987 2026-07-13T22:20:42Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687993 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:National Primary Health Care Development Agency.jpg|thumb|National Primary Health Care Development Agency]]   '''National Primary Health Care Development Agency''' nke a makwaara dị ka '''NPHCDA''' bụ '''ụlọ ọrụ gọọmenti etiti Naịjírịa''' e hiwere iji meziwanye '''enweta ọrụ ahụike bụ isi (primary healthcare)''' dị mma, bulie mkpuchi '''ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa (immunization coverage)''' elu, ma kwalite '''ọrụ ahụike na-adịgide adịgide''' maka obodo niile n’ime mba ahụ.<ref>{{Cite news|title=FG addressing shortage of healthcare workers – NPHCDA ED|url=https://punchng.com/fg-addressing-shortage-of-healthcare-workers-nphcda-ed/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Punch Nigeria|publisher=Punch Nigeria|date=2025-01-05}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == [[Ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke Nigeria|Gọọmentị etiti nke Naịjirịa]] '''10 Disemba 1992''', mgbe e mesịrị bipụtara '''Decree No. 29'''. Ebumnuche iwu a bụ idozi '''adịghị mma dị na usoro ahụike bụ isi (primary healthcare)''' nke Naịjírịa site n’ịmepụta ụlọ ọrụ pụrụ iche nke ga-ahụ maka mmepe, nhazi, na mmejuputa ya n’ụzọ zuru oke n’ime mba ahụ. A hiwere ụlọ ọrụ a dịka akụkụ nke '''nkwa gọọmenti''' iji nweta ọrụ ahụike zuru oke na nke onye ọ bụla nwere ike iru, karịsịa n’ebe ndị mmadụ na-enweghị ezigbo ọrụ ahụike ma ọ bụ n’ime ime obodo..<ref>{{Cite web|title=Breaking barriers, building bridges: the collaborative effort to reach every child in Nigeria|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/breaking-barriers-building-bridges-collaborative-effort-nigeria|work=World Health Organization|accessdate=2025-01-08}}</ref> Ebumnuche bụ isi nke '''NPHCDA''' bụ ịkwado '''Ministry of Health nke Gọọmenti Etiti''' n’ịkwalite '''akụkụ ọrụ ahụike bụ isi (primary healthcare infrastructure)''' ma hụ na ọrụ ahụike dị mkpa, gụnyere '''ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa (immunization), ahụike nne na nwa (maternal and child health), na mgbochi ọrịa''', dịrị onye ọ bụla n’ime obodo. A tụkwara ụlọ ọrụ ahụ n’ọrụ '''nhazi mmemme ahụike mba niile, ịnakọta akụrụngwa (resources), na ịkwalite mmekọrịta''' na ụlọ ọrụ ụwa niile dịka '''World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, na Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance'''..<ref>{{Cite news|title=Zamfara earmarks 144 PHCs for renovation|url=https://radionigeria.gov.ng/2025/01/08/zamfara-earmarks-144-phcs-for-renovation/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Radio Nigeria|publisher=Radio Nigeria}}</ref> N'ikwekọ n'iwu ya, NPHCDA arụwo ọrụ dị mkpa na atụmatụ ahụike, dị ka mmemme mgbochi ọrịa mba, nchịkwa ịba, na mkpochapụ polio. Ọ na-emekwa ka mmepe nke usoro ahụike dabere na obodo dị mfe ma na-arụ ọrụ iji jikọta nlekọta ahụike mbụ na ọkwa nlekọta nke abụọ na nke atọ.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Abuja|first=Racheal|title=NPHCDA Revamps PHCs, Targets Maternal Mortality, Worker Retention, Chronic Diseases|url=https://sciencenigeria.com/nphcda-revamps-phcs-targets-maternal-mortality-worker-retention-chronic-diseases/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Science Nigeria|publisher=Science Nigeria|date=2025-01-05}}</ref> E Ịmepụta '''NPHCDA''' kwụsiri ike n’okpuru '''Decree No. 29''' nke '''Republic etiti Naịjírịa''', nke na-ekwu: :: “A ga-e hiwe '''ụlọ ọrụ''' a ga-akpọ '''National Primary Health Care Development Agency''', nke ga-enwe '''ọrụ''' nke imepe na imejuputa '''mmemme ahụike bụ isi''' n’ụzọ zuru oke n’ime Naịjírịa niile.”. "<ref>{{Cite web|title=NATIONAL PRIMARY HEALTH CARE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY ACT|url=https://placng.org/lawsofnigeria/print.php?sn=331|work=Placng|accessdate=2025-01-08}}</ref> === Iwu === A nyere ụlọ ọrụ ahụ '''ọrụ iwu''' iji kwalite '''usoro ahụike bụ isi nke Naịjírịa''', hụ na '''onye ọ bụla nwere ohere iru ọrụ ahụike dị mkpa''', kwalite '''ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa (immunization)''', na nhazi '''mmemme ahụike mba niile'''. Ọ na-anakọta '''akụrụngwa''', na-akwalite '''mme mmekọrịta''', ma mepụta '''usoro ahụike dabere na obodo''' iji meziwanye '''inweta ọrụ ahụike n’ụwa niile n’ime mba ahụ'''..<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tinubu appoints new CEOs for two health agencies|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/635602-tinubu-appoints-new-ceos-for-two-health-agencies.html?tztc=1|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Premium Times|publisher=Premium Times|date=2023-10-03}}</ref> === Ikike === Ọ na-arụ ọrụ '''n’ụwa niile n’ime Naịjírịa''', ma nwee '''ikike iwu''' n’ógbè niile na mpaghara niile. Ụlọ ọrụ ahụ na-elekwasị anya na '''ịkwalite usoro ahụike bụ isi na ọkwa obodo (grassroots level)''', hụ na '''onye ọ bụla nwere ohere iru ọrụ ahụike dị mkpa n’obodo ukwu na ime obodo''', ma nyekwa '''uche pụrụ iche na obodo ndị na-enweghị ezigbo ọrụ ahụike (underserved communities)'''. Ụlọ ọrụ ahụ na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ na '''gọọmenti steeti, ndị ọchịchị obodo, na ndị mmekọ ụwa niile''' iji mee ka '''mmemme ya rute n’ụwa niile n’ime mba ahụ'''..<ref>{{Cite news|author=Oladipo|first=Adelowo|title=NPHCDA releases N260m to establish 40 additional PHC facilities in Niger|url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/nphcda-releases-n260m-to-establish-40-additional-phc-facilities-in-niger/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Tribune Online Nigeria|publisher=Tribune Online Nigeria|date=2024-08-22}}</ref> === Onye ndu na nhazi === onye isi nchịkwa nke onye isi ala Naịjirịa họpụtara na-eduzi ụlọ ọrụ ahụ. Onye isi nchịkwa ugbu a, Dr. Muyi Aina, na-ahụ maka ntụziaka atụmatụ nke ụlọ ọrụ ahụ, mmejuputa mmemme ahụike, na mmekorita mmekọrịta.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Ede|first=Raphael|title=NPHCDA earmarks N254m to boost primary health care in Enugu|url=https://punchng.com/nphcda-earmarks-n254m-to-boost-primary-health-care-in-enugu/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=Punch Nigeria|publisher=Punch Nigeria|date=2024-10-22}}</ref> Ụdị nhazi ya gụnyere ọtụtụ '''ụlọ ọrụ na ngalaba dị mkpa''' nke na-ahụ maka '''mmepe ahụike bụ isi''', gụnyere '''ịgba ọgwụ mgbochi ọrịa (immunization), njikwa ọrịa (disease control), ahụike nne na nwa (maternal and child health), na akụrụngwa ahụike (healthcare infrastructure)'''. Ụlọ ọrụ ndị a na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ iji '''mee ka mmemme NPHCDA gaa nke ọma''' ma hụ na '''inweta ọrụ ahụike dị irè n’ụwa niile n’ime Naịjírịa'''..<ref>{{Cite news|title=Aina: Nigeria targets over 17,600 primary healthcare facilities within next 4 years|url=https://www.cnbcafrica.com/media/6366274601112/aina-nigeria-targets-over-17600-primary-healthcare-facilities-within-next-4-years/|accessdate=2025-01-08|work=CNBC Africa|publisher=CNBC Africa|date=2024-12-04}}</ref> Ndị ndu na-agụnyekwa ndị nduzi nke ndị isi na-emetụta ngalaba ahụike na-enye nlekọta na nduzi. Tụkwasị na nke a, onye osote onye isi nchịkwa na-akwado ụlọ ọrụ ahụ bụ onye na-enyere aka n'ịchịkwa ọrụ kwa ụbọchị na ndị isi nchịkwa ndị ọzọ na ndị ọrụ na-elekọta mmemme na ọrụ ahụike ụfọdụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nigeria Receives Malaria Vaccines Ahead of Roll Out|url=https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/press-releases/nigeria-receives-malaria-vaccines-ahead-roll-out|work=United Nations International Children Emergency Fund|accessdate=2025-01-08}}</ref> == Hụkwa == pxvjxnkf6btwb05xcz3yav1y1726r5o Mahadum Afe Babalola 0 72507 688023 594880 2026-07-14T05:46:18Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 688023 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Afe Babalola hall, University of Lagos.jpg|thumb|Mahadum Afe Babalola ]]   '''Mahadum [[Afọ Babalola|Afe Babalola]]''' ('''ABUAD''') bụ mahadum nnyocha onwe onye dị na Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye ọka iwu na onye ọrụ ebere, Afe Babalola, guzobere ya n'afọ 2009. Mahadum Afe Babalola na-enye agụmakwụkwọ na kọleji asaa: Sayensị, Iwu, Injinia, Sayensị Ọha na Nchịkwa, ọmụmụ ọgwụ na Sayensị Ahụike, Ọgwụgwọ na Ọmụmụ postgraduate. Kọleji Injinịa ya nke e wuru n'ala dị hekta atọ na ọkara ka e kwuru na ọ bụ otu n'ime ndị kasị ukwuu n'Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> Onye bụbu onye isi ala [[Goodluck Jonathan]] meghere kọleji ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pointblanknews.com/pbn/other-news/inauguration-of-goodluck-jonathan-college-of-engineering-building-afe-babalola-university-ado-ekiti/|title=President Jonathan at Afe Babalola University|date=2013-10-20|work=Pointblank News|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-08-05}}</ref> == Ogige ndị dị na ya == Mahadum ahụ nwere otu isi ụlọ akwụkwọ nke dị na Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Ogige ahụ dị n'akụkụ dị ugwu ugwu nke obodo ahụ kpọmkwem n'ihu [[Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti|Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti]]. Ogige ahụ nwere kọleji isii, otu ụlọ akwụkwọ postgraduate, ụlọ nzukọ, ụlọ ọgwụ nkuzi maka ụmụ akwụkwọ ahụike, ụlọ obibi ụmụ akwụkwọ na ndị ọrụ, ụlọ egwuregwu, na ebe enyemaka ndị ọzọ dị ka ụlọ nri maka ndị ọrụ na ụmụ akwụkwọ, ebe ịsa ákwà, ebe a na-eme achịcha, na ụlọ ọrụ nhazi mmiri. '''Mahadum Afe Babalola''' nwere aha ọma maka ịbụ otu n'ime mahadum ole na ole nke Naijiria malitere ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ n'ogige isi ụlọ akwụkwọ ndigide ya. Otú ọ dị, n'ihi ihe National University Commission chọrọ na ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ ga-enwerịrị ụlọ ọgwụ nkuzi na-arụ ọrụ, e nwere nkwekọrịta nghọta ya na gọọmentị etiti Naijiria iji Federal Medical Center (FMC) [[Ido-Ekiti]], Ekiti State dị ka ụlọ ọgwụ nkuzi ya ruo oge dị afọ iri malite na Ọktoba 2014. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> == Gbasara Agụmakwụkwọ == === Ihe achọrọ maka nnabata === Ihe achọrọ maka ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ dịgasị iche n'etiti kọleji dị iche iche dịgasị na ya. Otú ọ dị, dị ka ọ dị na mahadum Naijiria niile, maka mmemme agụmakwụkwọ nke mbụ, a chọrọ ka onye chọrọ ịbata nwee ọ dịkarịa ala nzere 5 na subjeetị ndị dị ka mgbakọ na mwepụ, asụsụ Bekee na atọ ndị ọzọ metụtara usoro ọmụmụ ahụ chọrọ ịgbaso. A chọrọ ka nwa akwụkwọ ahụ gafee ule Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) nke Joint Admission and Matriculation Board JAMB na-ahazi, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, a na-atụ anya na a ga-agba onye ahụ chọrọ ịbata ajụjụ ọnụ, ya na ndị ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ nke kọleji ahụ ọchọrọ ịga na ya tupu e nye ya. Mahadum ahụ na-enyekwa ohere maka ụmụ akwụkwọ na-achọ ịgafeta site na mahadum ọzọ ma ọ bụ nwetarala ma ọ bụghị emume Advanced Level, ọ bụrụ usoro ntọala nzere. Ọkwa a ga-anabata ha na ya bụ kọleji ga-ekpebi ma dịgasịkwa iche iche n'etiti ha. === Kọleji ndị agụmakwụkwọ Nke Mbụ === Mahadum a na-agbaso usoro agụmakwụkwọ kọleji ma nwee kọleji isii. Ha bụ Koleji Njinia, Koleji Ọmụmụ ọgwụ na Sayensị Ahụike, Kọleji Sayensị, Kọleji Íwú, Koleji nke sayensị mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na Nchịkwa, na Kọleji arụmọgwụ. Ụfọdụ n'ime kọleji ndị a na-enye emume postgraduate na ngalaba ụfọdụ. ==== Kọleji Iwu ==== Kọleji Iwu bụ nke National University Commission (NUC) nke Naijiria kwadoro n'ozuzu. Kọleji ahụ nwere klasị zuru oke, ụlọ nkịtị, ọbá akwụkwọ nwere akwụkwọ akụkọ na isiokwu n'ihe gbasara iwu, na ụlọ ikpe ụmụ akwụkwọ maka ụmụ akwụkwọ iji nwee oge ikpe. E nwere ọtụtụ ụlọikpe ụmụ akwụkwọ na kọleji ahụ nke onye nduzi ndị ọrụ na-akwado, ndị na-alụsa onwe ha dịka ọgụ na nnọkọ ụlọ ikpe. Associate Prọfesọ Elisabeta Smaranda Olarinde (FCAI) bụ onye isi mbụ nke kọleji Iwu ma ka bụrụ onye isi kọleji ahụ ugbu a; ọ bụkwa ya bụ onye isi nchịkwa nwa oge nke mahadum ahụ. Kọleji Iwu, nke a na-ewere dị ka otu n'ime kọleji iwu kachasị mma na Naịjirịa, na-enye ma akara ugo mmụta nke mbụ na nke abụọ (ọkwa mastas) na iwu * LL.B Iwu [[Faịlụ:ABUAD_College_of_Law.JPG|thumb|Kọleji Iwu nke Mahadum Afe Babalola]] ==== Kọleji Injinia ==== Ma NUC ma COREN kwadoro kọleji nke injinia n'oge ha mere njem nleta otu izu gaa na kọleji ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> Isi ụlọ injinia mahadum ahụ nke nwere ọtụtụ ụlọ nnyocha, ọbá akwụkwọ injinia etiti, ụlọ nkuzi, ụlọ nzukọ, ụlọ ịrụ ọrụ ndị injinia dị n'etiti na ebe ọzụzụ Festo nke iwu kwadoro. A kpọkwasịrị ụlọ injinia ahụ aha onye bụbu onye isi ala Naijiria Dr. [[Goodluck Jonathan]], ma bụrụkwa ya meghere ya ịrụ ọrụ na 20 Ọktoba 2013 n'oge mmemme nzipu ndị gụcharala akwụkwọ nke mbụ nke mahadum ahụ. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> Prọfesọ [[Israel Esan Owolabi]] jere ozi dị ka onye isi mbụ nke kọleji injinia; ọ rituru n'ọkwa ahụ na 2015 ma na-arụ ọrụ nkuzi ugbu a na ngalaba injinia eletrik / eletrọniki.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pointblanknews.com/pbn/other-news/inauguration-of-goodluck-jonathan-college-of-engineering-building-afe-babalola-university-ado-ekiti/|title=President Jonathan at Afe Babalola University|date=2013-10-20|work=Pointblank News|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-08-05}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * B.Eng. Injinia igwe * B.Eng. Injinia Mechatronic * B.Eng. Injinia eletrik / eletrọniki * B.Eng. Injinia mmanụ * B.Eng. Injinia Civil * B.Eng. Injinia kemịkal * B.Eng. Injinia kọmputa * B.Eng. [[Injinia ọrụ ugbo|Injinia Ọrụ Ugbo]] * B.Eng. Injinia Biomedical * B.Eng. Injinia ụgbọelu na nke ụgbọelu ==== Kọleji sayensị ==== Kọleji nke Sayensị bụ otu n'ime kọleji ndị ọsụ ụzọ nke mahadum ahụ mgbe ụlọ ọrụ Nigerian University Commission (NUC) kwadochara mahadum ahụ. Mahadum ahụ nabatara ụmụ akwụkwọ na mbido na 4 Jenụwarị 2010. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * B.Sc. Microbiology * B.Sc. Ihe Ndị Dị Ndụ Mmadụ * B.Sc. Biotechnology * B.Sc. Biochemistry * B.Sc. Chemistry * B.Sc. Chemistry nke ụlọ ọrụ * B.Sc. Sayensị Kọmputa * B.Sc. Ọdịdị ala. * B.Sc. Physics na Electronics * B.Sc. Physics * B.Sc. Ọgwụ mmanụ * B.Arch ArchitectureIhe owuwu ==== Kọleji nke Sayensị Mmekorita Mmadụ na Ibe ya na Nchịkwa ==== Na mbido, na 4 Jenụwarị 2010 mahadum ahụ nabatara ụmụ akwụkwọ na Kọleji nke sayensị mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na Nchịkwa, ịbụ otu n'ime kọleji ndị ọsụ ụzọ nke mahadum ahụ. Oge agụmakwụkwọ ahụ gara nnọọ nke ọma n'enweghị nsogbu ọbula site na Jenụwarị 4 ruo Ọgọst 2010. Oge agụmakwụkwọ nke abụọ nke mahadum ahụ malitere na Ọktoba 4, 2010, na ihe karịrị ụmụ akwụkwọ otu puku. Ruo ugbu a, mahadum ahụ anọgidewo na-agbaso kalenda agụmakwụkwọ ya n'ụzọ chiri anya nke na-eme ka ụmụ akwụkwọ nwee ike ikpebi ụbọchị ha nwere ike ịmecha mmemme agụmakwụkwọ ha ọbụna tupu ha edebanye aha. Ọ bụ iwu nke mahadum ahụ idepụta rịzọltụ ụmụ akwụkwọ n'ịntanetị n'awa iri abụọ na anọ ka Senate mahadum ahụ kwadochara ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * B.Sc. Ọnọdụ akụ na ụba * B.Sc. Ịgụ Ego * B.Sc. Ụlọ akụ na ego * B.Sc. Nchịkwa Azụmaahịa * B.Sc. Nlekọta njem na ihe omume. * B.Sc. Sayensị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị * B.Sc. Mmekọrịta Mba Nile na Mmekọrịta * B.Sc. Udo na Ọmụmụ Agha * B.Sc. Nnyocha Nzuzo na Nchebe * B.Sc. Ikpe Ziri Ezi nke Ọha * B.Sc. Nkwurịta okwu na Mgbasa Ozi * B.Sc. Ahịa * B.Sc. Ịchụnta ego * B.Sc. Sociology ==== Kọleji nke Ọmụmụ Ọgwụ na Sayensị Ahụike ==== Kọleji ahụ malitere ọrụ n'ọnwa Ọktoba n'afọ 2011 ebe National Universities Commission kwadoro ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * Ọgwụ na ịwa ahụ (M.B.B.S) * B.NSc. Sayensị Nọọsụ * B.MLS. Sayensị nke ụlọ nyocha ahụike * B.Sc. Anatomy * B.Sc. Ọdịdị ahụike * B.Sc. Nri Mmadụ na Nri Ọka * B.Sc. Ọgwụ na-ahụ maka ọgwụ * B.Sc. Ahụike Ọha * Pharm. D Arụmọgwụ * B.DS. Ọgwụgwọ Eze * OD. Ịgwọ anya ==== Kọleji Nká na Ihe Gbasara Mmadụ ==== <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * B. A. Ọrụ nka * B. A. Asụsụ Bekee * B. A. Akụkọ ihe mere eme na ọmụmụ mba ụwa * B. A. Asụsụ ==== Kọleji nke Ọrụ Ugbo ==== <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|title=Private Universities|publisher=National Universities Commission of Nigeria|accessdate=20 June 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614051516/http://nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/private-univeristies/|archivedate=14 June 2016}}</ref> '''Ihe omume agụmakwụkwọ''' * B. Agric Sayensị Anụmanụ * B. Agric Akụ na ụba ugbo * B. Agric. Mgbasawanye agụmakwụkwọ * B. Agric. Sayensị ihe ọkụkụ * B. Agric. Sayensị Ala *** === Kọleji postgraduate === Mahadum a na-agbaso usoro agụmakwụkwọ kọleji ma nwee kọleji postgraduate ise dị mkpa. Ha bụ Koleji Njinia, Koleji Ọmụmụ ọgwụ na Sayensị Ahụike, Kọleji Sayensị, Kọleji Íwú na Koleji nke sayensị mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na Nchịkwa. == Ihe edeturu n'okpuru ala == {{Reflist}} == Ịgụrụ Gawa == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131128034627/http://www.punchng.com/feature/octogenarian/i-want-to-live-beyond-114-years-afe-babalola/ "Achọrọ m ibi ndụ karịa afọ 200 - Afe Babalola,"] The Punch News, 4 Ọgọst 2013. == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://www.abuad.edu.ng/ Ebe nrụọrụ weebụ Mahadum Afe Babalola] {{Universities in Nigeria}}{{authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] sdytqmjqt87p0n0e5co34hsxquc9g7p El Horria - Nnwere Onwe 0 72713 687969 621111 2026-07-13T19:00:10Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687969 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Jewish Moroccan Newspaper.png|thumb|Jewish Moroccan Newspaper]]   El Horria (Arabic Judeo-Moroccan: אלחוררייא, transl. "Nnwere Onwe") ma ọ bụ La Liberté bụ akwụkwọ akụkọ Judeo-Moroccan nke Salomon Benaioun bipụtara na Tangier n'ụdị abụọ: otu n'asụsụ Arabik Judeo-Moroccan na otu n'asụsụ French..<ref>{{Cite web|title=⁨⁨El Horria⁩ - ⁨אלחוררייא⁩⁩ {{!}} Newspapers {{!}} The National Library of Israel|url=https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/llr|accessdate=2021-12-11|work=www.nli.org.il|language=en|archivedate=2023-02-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206165302/https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/llr}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|author=Bensoussan|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MRActGa2OgC&pg=PA185|title=Il était Une Fois Le Maroc: Témoignages Du Passé Judéo-marocain|date=May 2012|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-1-4759-2608-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Baida|first=Jamaa|date=2010-10-01|title=Benaioun (Ben Ayoun), Salomon|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/benaioun-ben-ayoun-salomon-SIM_0003580?lang=en|journal=Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Cohen|first=Pierre|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/494271917|title=La presse juive éditée au Maroc : 1870-1963|date=2007|publisher=Editions & Impressions Bouregreg|isbn=978-9954-470-45-9|oclc=494271917}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Miège|first=Jean-Louis|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/433729977|title=Journaux et journalistes a Tanger au XIXe siècle|oclc=433729977}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == E bipụtara nsụgharị Arabic, ''El Horria'', na mbụ na 1914.<ref name=":2" /> E bipụtara mbipụta mbụ nke nsụgharị French, La Liberté, na June 18, 1915, na mbipụta nke 51 nke ''El Horria''. <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|author=Tam|first=Alon|date=2023|title=Between El-Horria and La Liberté: The Jewish Worldview of a Judeo-Arabic and French Newspaper from Twentieth Century Tangier, Morocco|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/873287|journal=Jewish Social Studies|volume=27|issue=3|pages=123–157|issn=1527-2028}}</ref> == Nkwado == Akwụkwọakụkọ ahụ nwere nsogbu ego, ma kwado ya site na njikọta nke itinye ego onwe onye site na Benaioun, ụgwọ ndenye aha, ego mgbasa ozi, na nkwado nzuzo site na gọọmentị France, nke hụrụ usoro nchịkọta akụkọ pro-French nke akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ dị ka ngwá ọrụ bara uru nke mgbasa ozi. <ref name=":2"/> Gọọmentị na-achị mba ahụ kwụrụ 1,600 francs kwa afọ ruo 1918, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị ọ kwụrụ 2,000 francs kwa ụbọchị ruo 1924 mgbe Iwu nke Tangier sụgharịrị mgbasa ozi ahụ na-enweghị isi.<ref name=":2" /> == Digitization == E nyochara ya ma tinye ya na digitized na Historical Jewish Press project. <ref>{{Cite web|title=⁨⁨El Horria⁩ - ⁨אלחוררייא⁩⁩ {{!}} Newspapers {{!}} The National Library of Israel|url=https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/llr|accessdate=2021-12-12|work=www.nli.org.il|language=en|archivedate=2023-02-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206165302/https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/llr}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} 7n386timrnaohxlb7mgrpoxlojkxp2x Sandra Ozabor 0 73244 687820 628641 2026-07-13T12:09:24Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687820 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" style="width:26em" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" |Sandra Ozabor |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#b0c4de;color:inherit;" |Ihe ọmụma nkeonwe |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Aha zuru ezu&nbsp; | class="infobox-data fn" style="vertical-align:middle;" |Sandra Ehinomen Ozabor |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mba | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |Naịjirịa<span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg|link=|alt=|border|23x23px]]&nbsp;</span> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |A mụrụ ya | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" | <span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1997-11-04</span>)</span> Nọvemba 4, 1997 <span class="noprint ForceAgeToShow"> (afọ 28) &nbsp;</span> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Obodo a | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |[[Benin City|Obodo Benin]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Ogologo | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |182 cm (6 ft 0 in) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Ibu | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |63 kilogram (139 lb) &nbsp;&nbsp; |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Spike | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |290 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Akụkụ | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |270 |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#b0c4de;color:inherit;" |Ihe ọmụma banyere volleyball |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Ọnọdụ | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |[[Middle blocker|Onye na-egbochi etiti]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Klọb dị ugbu a | class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;" |Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corp (NSCDC) |} '''Sandra Ozabor''' (amụrụ na Nọvemba 4, 1997, na Benin City) bụ onye egwuregwu volleyball nke Naịjirịa nke na-arụ ọrụ dịka onye na-egbochi etiti maka Nigeria security and civil defense corp (NSCDC) na otu egwuregwu volleyball nke ụmụnwaanyị nke Naịjirịa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Player - Sandra Ehinomen Ozabor - FIVB Continental Olympic Qualification 2020|url=https://en.volleyballworld.com/en/volleyball/coqt/2020/cavb-women/teams/ngr-nigeria/players/sandra_ehinomen_ozabor?id=80617|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=en.volleyballworld.com|archivedate=2024-05-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506230353/https://en.volleyballworld.com/en/volleyball/coqt/2020/cavb-women/teams/ngr-nigeria/players/sandra_ehinomen_ozabor?id=80617}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == === Ndị otu mba Naịjirịa === Ọ nọchitere anya Naijiria na 2019 African Games na Rabat, [[Morocco]] . <ref>{{Cite web|author=Saliu|first=Mohammed|date=2019-08-15|title=Nigeria Volleyball Federation release list of players for 2019 African Games|url=https://www.brila.net/nigeria-volleyball-federation-release-list-of-players-for-2019-african-games/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=Latest Sports News In Nigeria|language=en-US}}</ref> Ozabor so n'òtù egwuregwu volleyball ụmụ nwanyị Naịjirịa nke na-asọmpi asọmpi Tokyo 2020 na Cameroon nke ga-eme site na Jenụwarị 2 ruo Jenụwarị 9, 2020. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Oluwalowo|first=’Tosin|date=2020-01-01|title=Volleyball: 12 players invited for Olympics qualifiers|url=https://punchng.com/volleyball-12-players-invited-for-olympics-qualifiers/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=III|first=Admin|date=2020-01-01|title=Volleyball Olympic Qualifiers: We want to make history – Coach Ajayi|url=https://blueprint.ng/volleyball-olympic-qualifiers-we-want-to-make-history-coach-ajayi/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=Blueprint Newspapers Limited|language=en-US}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|title=V'Ball Coach, Ajayi, Vows to Make History with Tokyo Olympics Qualifier – THISDAYLIVE|url=https://content.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/01/02/vball-coach-ajayi-vows-to-make-history-with-tokyo-olympics-qualifier/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=[[This Day]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Kuti|first=Dare|date=2020-01-01|title=Samuel Ajayi: We want to make Olympic history|url=https://aclsports.com/samuel-ajayi-we-want-to-make-olympic-history/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=ACLSports|language=en-GB}}</ref> Sandra Ozabor bụ otu n'ime ndị egwuregwu volleyball iri na itoolu Samuel Ajayi kpọrọ aha ịnọchite anya Naịjirịa maka asọmpi Volleyball ụmụ nwanyị Afrịka nke iri abụọ na otu nke na-ewere ọnọdụ site na 14 Ọgọst ruo 29 Ọgọust 2023 na Yaounde, [[Kameroon|Cameroon]]. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Adegboyega|first=Bayo|date=2023-08-05|title=NVBF invites 19 players for 2023 Continental Championship {{!}} Ogun State Broadcasting Corporation|url=https://ogunradio.ng/2023/08/05/nvbf-invites-19-players-for-2023-continental-championship/|accessdate=2024-05-06|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Nigeria|first=News Agency of|date=2023-08-06|title=NVBF invites 19 players for 2023 Nations Championship|url=https://gazettengr.com/nvbf-invites-19-players-for-2023-nations-championship/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=Peoples Gazette Nigeria|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Kuti|first=Dare|date=2023-08-13|title=Volleyball: Ajayi unveils squad for 2023 African Women's C'ship|url=https://aclsports.com/volleyball-ajayi-unveils-squad-for-2023-african-womens-cship/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=ACLSports|language=en-GB}}</ref> Ọ bụ otu n'ime ndị egwuregwu volleyball na-anọchite anya Naijiria n'oge 13th African Games na [[Ghana]] nke na-ewere ọnọdụ site na 8 Machị ruo 23 Machị 2024 . <ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-01-19|title=Nigeria Volleyball: Women's Team-Players List Released For The 13th All African Games In Ghana - Govima News|url=https://govima.com/news/nigeria-volleyball-womens-team-players-list-released-for-the-13th-all-african-games-in-ghana/|accessdate=2024-05-06|language=en-US|archivedate=2024-05-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502154018/https://govima.com/news/nigeria-volleyball-womens-team-players-list-released-for-the-13th-all-african-games-in-ghana/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Ochicha|first=Lovette|date=2024-01-20|title=#13th African Games: Nigerian Women's Volleyball Team Announces 25-Player Squad for 13th African Games|url=https://www.sports247.ng/13th-african-games-nigerian-womens-volleyball-team-announces-25-player-squad-for-13th-african-games/|accessdate=2024-05-06|work=Sports247 Nigeria|language=en-US}}</ref> == Edemsibia == {{Reflist}} [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 9cnpnqlpmvpc2kv407xvuiygaf0tsc6 Ihe odide Tugu 0 73902 687940 598498 2026-07-13T13:40:37Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687940 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Prasasti tugu.jpg|thumb|Prasasti tugu]]   '''Ihe odide Tugu''' bụ otu n'ime ihe odide Tarumanagara nke etiti narị afọ nke ise a chọtara na obodo nta Batutumbuh, obodo Tugu, Koja, North Jakarta, na Indonesia. Ihe odide nkume sanskrit nke Eze Purnavarman nwere mmasị pụrụ iche n'ihi na ọ na-echekwa ihe ndekọ nke ọrụ osimiri e mere n'etiti narị afọ nke ise. <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Noorduyn|first=J.|date=1972|title=Pūrnavarman's River-Works Near Tugu|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27861261?seq=1|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume=128|issue=2/3|pages=298–307|issn=0006-2294}}</ref> Ihe e dere n'akwụkwọ ahụ nwere ozi gbasara ọrụ mmiri mmiri; ọrụ ịgba mmiri na mmiri mmiri nke osimiri Chandrabhaga site n'iwu Rajadirajaguru, nakwa ọrụ mmiri nke osimiri Gomati site n'iwu Eze Purnawarman n'afọ nke iri abụọ na abụọ nke ọchịchị ya. E mere ọrụ ịgba mmiri iji mee ka osimiri ahụ dị larịị ma gbasaa iji zere idei mmiri n'oge mmiri ozuzo, nakwa dị ka ọrụ ịgba mmiri n'oge ọkọchị. N'afọ 1911 site n'ikike nke P. de Roo de la Faille, e bufere ihe odide Tugu na Museum Bataviaasch genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (nke bụzi National Museum of Indonesia) nke nwere nọmba ngwaahịa D.124. Edere ihe odide ahụ n'elu nkume gbara gburugburu dị ka akwa nke na-eru ihe dị ka otu mita. == Ihe ndị dị na ya == E dere ihe odide Tugu na edemede Pallava, nke a haziri n'ụdị Sanskrit Sloka na Anustubh metrum, nke nwere ahịrị ise na-agba gburugburu n'elu nkume ahụ. Dị nnọọ ka ihe odide ndị ọzọ sitere n'alaeze Tarumanagara, ihe odide Tugu ekwughị ụbọchị iwu ahụ. E mere atụmatụ ma nyochaa ụbọchị ihe odide ahụ dịka ọmụmụ paleographic nke kwubiri na ihe odide ahụ malitere n'etiti narị afọ nke ise. Ihe odide nke ihe odide Tugu na [[Cidanghyang inscription|Ihe odide Cidanghyang]] nwere ihe yiri ya, dị ka ihe odide "citralaikha" nke edere dị ka "citralekha", na-eduga n'echiche na onye dere ihe odide ndị a bụ otu onye ahụ. Ihe odide Tugu bụ ihe odide Tarumanagara kachasị ogologo nke Sri Maharaja Purnawarman kwuru. E dere ihe odide ahụ n'afọ nke iri abụọ na abụọ nke ọchịchị ya, iji cheta mmezu nke ọwa mmiri nke osimiri Gomati na Candrabhaga. N'ihe odide ahụ, e nwere onyinyo nke mkpara e kpuwere okpueze Trisula iji gosi nkewa dị n'etiti mmalite na njedebe nke ahịrịokwu ọ bụla. === Ihe odide transliterated === <blockquote><ref>{{Cite book|author=Vogel|first=Jean Philippe|date=1925|title=The Earliest Sanskrit Inscriptions of Java|publisher=Albrecht|language=en|accessdate=30 November 2025|url=https://books.google.com/books/?id=1u5wSwAACAAJ}}</ref></blockquote> === Nsụgharị Bekee === "Ọ dịla anya gara aga, osimiri a na-akpọ Candrabhaga bụ nke onye Maharaja dị mma nke nwere ogwe aka siri ike ma sie ike, Purnawarman, gwuru iji mee ka mmiri (mmiri) na-asọba n'oké osimiri, mgbe ọwa mmiri ahụ si n'obí eze ya a ma ama na-asọ. N'afọ nke iri abụọ na abụọ nke Eze Purnawar (ọchịchị) nke na-egbuke egbuke n'ihi ọgụgụ isi na amamihe ya wee ghọọ ọkọlọtọ eze (onye ndú) nke ndị eze niile (ma ugbu a) o nyere iwu igwu mmiri mara mma, ọwa mmiri mara mma nke Brahụrụ) site na-akpọ ọwa (ọwa) site na nnukwu ọwa) site n'ogologo oge ochie nke Brahume Brahume 2). == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} == Akwụkwọ == # C.M. Pleyte, 1905/1906, "Uit Soenda's Voortijd" ''Het Daghet'': 176ff. # H. Kern, 1910, "Een Word in 'Sanskrit opschrift van Toegoe entrerd", TBG [Tijschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde,__hau____hau____hau__ Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen] LII: 123. # N.J. Krom, 1914/1915, "Inventaris der Hindoe-oudheden", ROD [Rapporten van den Oudheidkundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië] nr. 35: 19. # N.J. Krom, 1931, Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis, 's-Gravenhage, Martinus Nijhof: 79-81. # J.Ph. Vogel, 1914, 1915, "The Early Sanskrit Inscriptions of Java" ''ROD'': 28-35; plate 27. # F.D.K. Bosch, 1951, "Guru, Drietand na Bron", ''BKI [Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde]'' 107 (2-3): 117-134. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90002457. Nsụgharị Bekee, 1961, "Guru, Trident and Spring" na Selected Studies in Indonesian Archaeology, The Hague: Martinus Nijhof: 164ff. # J. Noorduyn na H.Th. Verstappen, 1972, "Purnavarman Riverworks Near Tugu" ''BKI'' 128 (2-3): [https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/128/2-3/article-p298_7.xml?ebody=pdf-63199 298-307]. # L.Ch. Ọ dịghị mgbe, 1955, "Akwụkwọ nke Mmalite India na Indonesia na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia Continental", Society of Indo-Chinese Studies (Saigon), BSEI [Bulletin of the Society of Indo Chinese Studies] XXX (40): 365-382. sikgx6vzb5w4p7oyb8bijkriqel6ak4 Tenglish 0 73936 688000 598553 2026-07-14T00:04:24Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688000 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tenglish''' (Telugu), na-ezo aka na ngwakọta koodu ma ọ bụ Mgbanwe koodu nke Asụsụ Telugu na Bekee India. Aha a bụ ihe nnọchianya nke aha asụsụ abụọ ahụ, e dekwara ya n'ụzọ dị iche iche. Ụdị mbụ bụ Telugish (site na 1972), wee bụrụ Teluglish (2000), Tinglish (2003), Telenglish (2010), na Telugish na Telish (ha abụọ bụ 2014).<ref>Lambert, James. 2018. A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity. ''English World-wide'', 39(1): 31-32. 1DOI: 10.1075/eww.38.3.04lam</ref> N'ihe gbasara asụsụ e ji ede ihe n'asụsụ Bekee, Tenglish na-ezo aka n'asụsụ Telugu e dere n'asụsụ Bekee (ya bụ, iji mkpụrụ edemede Rom kama mkpụrụ edemede Telugu, n'ihe gbasara mgbasa ozi ọha na eze), gwakọtara ya na okwu Bekee. == Nbudata == A na-ahụkarị ụdị Mgbanwe koodu a n'obodo ukwu na mpaghara ndị dịpụrụ adịpụ nke Andhra Pradesh na Telangana, mana ọ na-eji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-agbasa n'ime ime obodo na mpaghara ndị gbara ya gburugburu site na teliishọn na okwu ọnụ.<ref name=":0" /> Ọtụtụ ndị na-asụ ya amaghị na ha na-etinye okwu Bekee n'ime ahịrịokwu Telugu ma ọ bụ okwu Telugu n'ime okwu Bekee.<ref name=":0" /> Dịka ọmụmaatụ, kama ịsị ''dhanyavadhamulu'' maka "ekele", ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ na-ekwu chala ekele; n'ụzọ nkịtị na-asụgharị "oké ekele". <ref name=":0" /> Ụdị okwu Telugu a na-eji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-eto n'èzí obodo ndị dị ka Hyderabad, Vizag, Vijayawada, Khammam, Guntur na Warangal. Ka Bekee na-abawanye ụba, a pụrụ ịhụ ya na obere obodo, obodo nta, na ọbụna ime obodo.<ref name=":0" /> Site na ewu ewu ya, a na-eji Tenglish ebipụta akụkọ n'ịntanetị.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Young-Hans/2017-01-16/Tenglish-Telugu-plus-English/273782|title=1|work=Tenglish News|accessdate=26 September 2016}}</ref> Ọbịbịa nke telivishọn cable na uto ya zuru ebe niile ahụla ka ndị mmadụ na-ahụ ọtụtụ mmemme si n'akụkụ ụwa.<ref name=":0" /> Ihe ọzọ na-enye aka na mgbasa nke Tenglish bụ ewu ewu nke ihe nkiri Tollywood na ọwa TV.<ref name=":0" /> Tenglish pụtakwara na mgbagwoju anya nke India, dị ka ndị dị na akwụkwọ Telugu ''Sakshi'' . <ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/crosswords/crossword-blog/2012/dec/06/crossword-blog-cryptics-india|title=Crossword blog: cryptics in India|first=Alan|author=Connor|date=6 December 2012|work=the Guardian|accessdate=6 February 2018}}</ref> == Hụkwa == * Hinglish * Tanglish * Bekee India * Ọdịiche mpaghara na olumba n'asụsụ Bekee nke India == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} * {{Cite web|url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Young-Hans/2017-01-16/Tenglish-Telugu-plus-English/273782|title=Tenglish-Telugu plus English|work=The Hans India|date=16 January 2017|accessdate=6 February 2018}} == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20251007151920/http://www.vedah.net/manasanskriti/sripada.html Krishnamurtisastri Sripada (1866-1960)] , Mana Sanskriti Mbipụta 86, Vepachedu Educational Foundation 6kxkjff3p2pyritmpqeiy4wz8ro6d4m Ihe nchebe ntị 0 74001 687941 598641 2026-07-13T13:46:27Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687941 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Earplug-foam-in-ear.jpg|thumb|Ihe nchebe nti]] Nchedo ntị nwere ike ịgụnye ichebe ntị pụọ na oyi, mmiri ma ọ bụ ihe mkpofu, ma ọ bụ mkpọtụ. 3taj1bijupdgt3frl7twp7h6tv6li3v Akara ahịhịa 0 74325 687942 620627 2026-07-13T13:49:12Z Eboms Divinefavour 24818 E tinyere ihe oyiyi 687942 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Riffelblech.jpg|thumb|Rigfelblech]] Plate a na-azọ ụkwụ, nke a makwaara dị ka efere checker, mgba mgba mgba na efere diamond, bụ ụdị ngwaahịa ọla nwere ụkpụrụ ma ọ bụ ahịrị na-adị n'otu akụkụ maka nkwụghachi azụ. Plate diamond na-abụkarị ígwè, igwe anaghị agba nchara ma ọ bụ aluminom. A na-emekarị ụdị ígwè dị iche iche site na ịgbagharị ọkụ na-ekpo ọkụ, ọ bụ ezie na ndị na-emepụta nke oge a na-emekwa atụmatụ diamond dị elu ma pịa ya. [ntụgharị chọrọ] Alloy a na-ejikarị eme ihe maka efere aluminom bụ 6061, ọ bụ ezie na a na-ejikwa 5086-H34 na 3003-H231. Ụdị agbakwunyere na-ebelata ihe ize ndụ nke ịmịpụ, na-eme ka efere diamond bụrụ ihe ngwọta maka steepụ, catwalks, okporo ụzọ, na ramps na ntọala mmepụta ihe. Ngwongwo ya na-abụghị skid pụtara na a na-ejikarị efere diamond eme ihe n'ime ime ụgbọ ihe mberede na n'akụkụ ụkwụ nke ụgbọ ọkụ. Ngwa agbakwunyere gụnyere akwa gwongworo na ala ụgbọala na-adọkpụ ma ọ bụ na bonnet ụgbọ ala iji nyere aka n'ịbanye n'elu ụlọ, na-enweghị mmebi site na njem ụgbọ ala. [Ihe ndekọ achọrọ] A nwekwara ike iji efere a na-azọ ụkwụ mee ihe ịchọ mma, ọkachasị ụdị alumini a na-egbu maramara nke ukwuu. N'ịbụ nke arụpụtara na rọba, a na-ere efere diamond dị ka usoro tile na-ejikọta ọnụ nke a ga-etinye n'elu ala ebe a na-adọba ụgbọala, ụgbọala na-adọkpụ, na ụlọ mgbatị ahụ. [Ihe ndekọ achọrọ] == Edemsibia == 3gdyto4m1uwk4yzwqtu7s837sgubg8v Marie Pitt 0 74612 687966 623393 2026-07-13T18:21:15Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687966 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Marie Pitt, Australian poet and socialist activist.jpg|thumb|Marie Pitt na 1924]]   '''Marie Elizabeth Josephine Pitt''' (1869-1948) bụ onye Australia na-ede uri na onye na-eme ihe ike, onye nta akụkọ na onye Unitarian. Pitt dere uri okike mara mma nke ukwuu, nke a na-akpọkarị anthologised; o dekwara uri iji kwado ndị otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na ndị ọrụ. Marie Pitt bụ enyi nke onye na-ede uri na onye na-akwado ọchịchị onye kwuo uche ya Bernard O'Dowd. == Ndụ == Nwa agbọghọ aha ya bụ McKeown. A mụrụ ya na 6 Ọgọst 1869 n'obodo Bullumwaal na-egwupụta ọla edo na mpaghara Gippsland nke ógbè Victoria, n'ebe ugwu nke obodo Bairnsdale. A na-anọkarị nwata ya na Wy Yung, obere obodo dị nso na Bairnsdale, ebe ọ rụrụ ọrụ na "nhọrọ" nne na nna ya ma ọ bụ obere ugbo. Mgbe o tozughị oke dị ka onye nkuzi ọ chọtara ọrụ na Bairnsdale dị ka onye na-ese foto na 1887, wee lụọ onye ọrụ ugbo Tasmania na onye na-egwuputa ihe William Pitt na 1893 onye ya na ya bi na Tasmania, Western Australian goldfields, Bairnsdale ọzọ na n'ikpeazụ Melbourne ebe ọ sonyeere Victorian Socialist Party wee ghọọ onye nchịkọta akụkọ nke Socialist. N'afọ 1900, akwụkwọ akụkọ a ma ama nakweere otu n'ime uri ya. E bipụtara mpịakọta mbụ ya na 1911. William Pitt nwụrụ na 1912 n'ihi ọrịa nke ndị na-egwuputa ihe. Marie na William Pitt nwere ụmụ anọ ọnụ, atọ n'ime ha lanarịrị. Mgbe William Pitt nwụsịrị, Pitt rụrụ ọrụ dị iche iche ma gaa n'ihu na-ede akwụkwọ, yana ọrụ ya na Victorian Socialist Party. Ya na Bernard O'Dowd biri dị ka onye mmekọ ya site na 1920 ruo mgbe ọ nwụrụ. Ya na ya kerịtara nkwado maka Victorian Socialist Party, na maka Unitarianism. Echiche ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya abụghị otu na nke ya, Otú ọ dị; karịsịa, na n'adịghị ka O'Dowd, Marie Pitt weere usoro siri ike nke pacifist. Okwu ọzọ ha dị iche na ya bụ Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ nke ndị ọrụ Australia; Marie Pitt, n'otu okwu, kwadoro ya ma kwuo maka "omume ụmụ nwanyị maka ịdị ọcha agbụrụ". O'Dowd weere echiche na-mmegide ịkpa ókè agbụrụ. Pitt meriri asọmpi edemede egwu nke Australian Broadcasting Commission na 1944 site na ntinye ya Ave, Australia. Pitt nwụrụ na 20 Mee 1948 na Kew, Victoria. == Nchịkọta abụ == * ''Ịnyịnya nke Ugwu'' (1911) * ''Bairnsdale'' (1922) * ''Abụ nke Marie E. J. Pitt&nbsp;'' (1924) * ''Abụ Ndị A Họpụtara'' Anụ (1944) == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == * [http://search.slv.vic.gov.au/permalink/f/1cl35st/SLV_VOYAGER1638818 Akwụkwọ ozi na uri] [1920-1944] [ihe odide], ''Ọ́bá Akwụkwọ Steeti Victoria'' * [http://search.slv.vic.gov.au/permalink/f/1cl35st/SLV_VOYAGER1635752 Akwụkwọ] [1909-1941] [ihe odide], State Library Victoria''Ọ́bá Akwụkwọ Steeti Victoria'' * {{Cite book|author=Burke|first=Colleen|title=Doherty's corner : the life and work of poet Marie E.J. Pitt|publisher=Angus & Robertson|year=1985|isbn=0207150567|location=North Ryde, NSW}} == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} lg7r3162f5vgkhcp3ohznffzma3y16y Ńkàtá ojiarụ:Ebube Clara 3 75021 687818 631194 2026-07-13T12:04:03Z King ChristLike 13051 /* Issues with your outreach event */ nkeji ohúrù 687818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nnọọ|username=Ebube Clara|bot=[[Ojiarụ:DolphybBot|DolphybBot]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:DolphybBot|ṅkátá]]) 10:34, 27 Eprel 2026 (UTC)}} == Issues with your outreach event == Ndewo! I see you're listed as an organizer for [https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event:Clean_Up:_Fixing_redlink_references_and_redlink_template_in_the_Igbo_Wikipedia. this event]? Kindly encourage your event participants who are fixing ref errors to do it correctly and carefully so as not to wipe out valuable information in the process, as I've seen in many of their contributions. Correcting their mistakes is more time-consuming for me and anyone else. Also pinging @[[Ojiarụ:Akwugo|Akwugo]] here since she's listed as a co-organizer. [[Ojiarụ:King ChristLike|King ChristLike]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:King ChristLike|ṅkátá]]) 12:04, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) c2srbqh8yox9w7pp8ww53bgmzpzrgyg 687936 687818 2026-07-13T12:54:50Z Ebube Clara 43871 /* Issues with your outreach event */ Zaghachi 687936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nnọọ|username=Ebube Clara|bot=[[Ojiarụ:DolphybBot|DolphybBot]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:DolphybBot|ṅkátá]]) 10:34, 27 Eprel 2026 (UTC)}} == Issues with your outreach event == Ndewo! I see you're listed as an organizer for [https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event:Clean_Up:_Fixing_redlink_references_and_redlink_template_in_the_Igbo_Wikipedia. this event]? Kindly encourage your event participants who are fixing ref errors to do it correctly and carefully so as not to wipe out valuable information in the process, as I've seen in many of their contributions. Correcting their mistakes is more time-consuming for me and anyone else. Also pinging @[[Ojiarụ:Akwugo|Akwugo]] here since she's listed as a co-organizer. [[Ojiarụ:King ChristLike|King ChristLike]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:King ChristLike|ṅkátá]]) 12:04, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) :Daalụ so, I appreciate this observations, during the physical event I hinted how fragile references can be and the need for them to carefully remove and place back every deleted references with the right one, and not to touch the original reference, I also encouraged them not to publish any article they find in doubt of, rather than messing up the whole article. :I have been reviewing their works one after another, but please if you can pin the user name of any user who published the wrong edit, so I can querry such a person directly, I would appreciate that. :Thanks so much :[[Ojiarụ:Ebube Clara|Ebube Clara]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:Ebube Clara|ṅkátá]]) 12:54, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) s0a7kk7o7y29b6dqs1xrc0ei8hnpwv0 687944 687936 2026-07-13T13:58:38Z Akwugo 11031 /* Issues with your outreach event */ Zaghachi 687944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nnọọ|username=Ebube Clara|bot=[[Ojiarụ:DolphybBot|DolphybBot]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:DolphybBot|ṅkátá]]) 10:34, 27 Eprel 2026 (UTC)}} == Issues with your outreach event == Ndewo! I see you're listed as an organizer for [https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event:Clean_Up:_Fixing_redlink_references_and_redlink_template_in_the_Igbo_Wikipedia. this event]? Kindly encourage your event participants who are fixing ref errors to do it correctly and carefully so as not to wipe out valuable information in the process, as I've seen in many of their contributions. Correcting their mistakes is more time-consuming for me and anyone else. Also pinging @[[Ojiarụ:Akwugo|Akwugo]] here since she's listed as a co-organizer. [[Ojiarụ:King ChristLike|King ChristLike]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:King ChristLike|ṅkátá]]) 12:04, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) :Daalụ so, I appreciate this observations, during the physical event I hinted how fragile references can be and the need for them to carefully remove and place back every deleted references with the right one, and not to touch the original reference, I also encouraged them not to publish any article they find in doubt of, rather than messing up the whole article. :I have been reviewing their works one after another, but please if you can pin the user name of any user who published the wrong edit, so I can querry such a person directly, I would appreciate that. :Thanks so much :[[Ojiarụ:Ebube Clara|Ebube Clara]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:Ebube Clara|ṅkátá]]) 12:54, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) :Thank you@[[Ojiarụ:King ChristLike|King ChristLike]] please tag the users so we can follow up [[User:Akwugo|Akwugo]] ([[User talk:Akwugo|talk]]) 13:58, 13 Julaị 2026 (UTC) 05fiqb7mpk8t5mc8mv69c0tdg3n5eix Sunday Chibuike 0 76096 687986 642221 2026-07-13T20:54:41Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687986 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sunday Chibuike Ikeji''' {{Audio|Ig-Sunday Chibuike Ikeji.ogg|Listen}} (amụrụ na 2 Julaị 1982) bụ onye bọọlụ bọọlụ Naijiria nke gbara bọọlụ dị ka onye bọọọọlụ n'etiti. == Ọrụ == Ọ malitere ọrụ ya na Lobi Stars F.C., tupu ọ kwaga Al Ahly na 2000, a makwa ya ama maka ịgba goolu megide Real Madrid na 4 Ọgọst 2001. Na Jenụwarị 2004, ọ bịanyere aka na nkwekọrịta maka NK Ljubljana na Slovenia. Ọ gbara bọọlụ na Ljubljana ruo otu afọ wee banye na NK MIK CM Celje na 2005. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nk-celje.si/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=97&Itemid=36|title=Brezič: Potrebno je iti od tekme do tekme|publisher=Nk-celje.si|accessdate=2014-02-14|archivedate=2014-02-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221232935/http://www.nk-celje.si/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=97&Itemid=36}}</ref> ebe o nyere otu goolu n'egwuregwu iri na abụọ. Ọ hapụrụ Celje na 2006 wee sonye na klọb ọzọ nke Slovenia, NK Domžale, na-apụta ugboro 10 ma gbaa 1 goolu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/sport/223732|title=Ibeji v Domžalah &#124; Dnevnik|publisher=Dnevnik.si|date=2007-01-18|accessdate=2014-02-14|archivedate=2015-09-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923223657/http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/sport/223732}}</ref> Ọ gbara bọọlụ ugboro iri ma gbaa bọọlụ otu goolu. Ọ kwagara FC Koper na Julaị 2007. Ọ gbara egwuregwu iri atọ ma gbaa bọọlụ anọ, e wee gbaziri ya n'aka ndị otu ya na Jenụwarị 2009 nye NK Bela Krajina Črnomelj. Mgbe ọ laghachiri FC Koper na Jenụwarị 2010, e rere ya nye Đồng Tháp F.C. na V-League..<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vietnamnet.vn/thethao/vleague/201001/VLeague-2010-Ngoai-binh-de-doa-hang-noi-892072/|title=VietNamNet – Tin tức, Thời sự cập nhật liên tục 24x7|publisher=Vietnamnet.vn|accessdate=2014-02-14}}</ref> == Ndị otu mba == Sunday gbara otu egwuregwu maka [[Nigeria national football team|Ndị otu mba Naijiria]] n'afọ 2000.<ref>{{NFT player|pid=29371|name=Sunday Ibeji}}</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120217094005/http://www.fckoper.si/index.php/index.php?page=igralec&item=129&tree_root=10&target=clan&id=310 Akụkọ FC Koper] * Akụkọ sitere na Slovenia na PrvaLiga. [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] 3rs5bllwm1bmz41ygqw9mzo2wdkn8li Umulokpa 0 76544 688028 654380 2026-07-14T07:12:59Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688028 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Umulokpa | settlement_type = Town | pushpin_map = Nigeria | pushpin_mapsize = 250 | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Nigeria | pushpin_label_position = | coordinates = {{coord|6|30|22|N|7|06|01|E|display=inline, title}} | subdivision_type = [[Country]] | subdivision_name = {{flag|Nigeria}} | subdivision_type1 = [[States of Nigeria|State]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Enugu State]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Local Government Areas in Nigeria|L.G.A]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Uzo-Uwani]] | leader_title = Local Government Chairman | leader_name = Chijioke Ezugwu | population_note = <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> | timezone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | postal_code_type = Postal code | postal_code = 411111 | area_code = | blank_name = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]] | blank_info = [[Tropical savanna climate|Aw]] | website = | footnotes = | | local government = }} '''Umulokpa''' {{Audio|LL-Q33578 (ibo)-Chinwoke 01-Umulokpa.wav|Listen}} bụ obodo nọ na steeti [[Ȯra Enugu|Enugu]] Naijiria. Ọ na arụ ọrụ dịka isi ụlọ ọrụ nke mpaghara [[Uzo Uwani|Uzo-Uwani]] na [[Ȯra Enugu|Enugu Steeti]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://enugustate.gov.ng/|title=Enugu State Government – The Coal City State|work=Enugustate.gov.ng|date=|accessdate=2017-05-27}}</ref> ma nwekwa ndị bi na ya ruru 150,000. == Nkọwa na ala == Umulokpa nwere mpaghara anọ, nke ọ bụla nwere obodo nke ya. A na-edepụta mpaghara na obodo ndị a n'usoro mkpụrụedemede. Ya bụ: * [[Akiyi]]: Enugwu, Enugwu-uwani, Imama, Nkwelle, Ukpali, Uwani, na Uwenu. * Amagu: (Obinagu na Obin'uno), Umuchime, Umuaneke, Umuidi, na Umuokede. * Eziora: Amofu, Amulu, Ukpatu, na Umuezeugwu. * Ogbosu: Obodoukwu (nke bụbu Odida), Umueze (nke bụbu Mgbugbo), Umunaji, Umunaogene, Umuomasi (Umuoma), dgz Obodo a nwere ókèala Umumbo n'ebe ugwu, Umerum n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ, ndị a nọ na ([[Ayamelum]]) LGA, na Awba Ofemmili nọkwa n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ ([[Awka North]]) LGA ndị niile nọ na steeti Anambra, Naijiria; Adaba na Nkume n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ ([[Uzo Uwani|Uzo-Uwani]]) LGA, na obodo Olo nọ n'ebe ndịda ([[Ezeagu]]) LGA nke steeti Enugu, Naijiria Obodo Umulokpa bụ nke ime obodo na nke ọrụ ugbo. Obodo a nwere ala ọrụ ugbo bara ọgaranya n'ihi ọnọdụ ya n'ime oké ọhịa na savannah belt; Ihe karịrị 85% nke ndị bi na ya bụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akụ ihe oriri dị ka osikapa, akpụ, ọka, ji, agwa ojii, unere, plantain, dgz. na mkpụrụ osisi na akwụkwọ nri dị iche iche. Ihe ọkụkụ ego a na-akụ na-agụnye nkwụ mmanụ, pineapple, kashoo, oroma, mango na irvingia gabonensis (ogbono), <ref>{{Cite web|author=|url=http://agronewsng.com/agric-development-in-states/fg-to-spend-n86-5m-on-ogbono-trees-cultivation/|title=FG to spend N86.5m on 'Ogbono' Trees Cultivation &#124; AGRO NEWS NIGERIA|work=Agronewsng.com|date=2017-01-12|accessdate=2017-05-27|archivedate=2017-05-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511033547/http://agronewsng.com/agric-development-in-states/fg-to-spend-n86-5m-on-ogbono-trees-cultivation/}}</ref> a na-emepụta ha n'ụba. Ọnọdụ ihu igwe magburu onwe ya dị maka ọkụkọ, ezì, ewu, atụrụ na anụ ụlọ ndị ọzọ. Nnukwu ahịa dị na Umulokpa bụ "Eke [[Akiyi]]" Market. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.windsoundafrica.com/environmental-justice/|title=A Clarion Call For Environmental Justice In South-East Nigeria|publisher=Wind Sound Africa|date=2013-09-16|accessdate=2017-05-27|archivedate=2019-03-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329041640/http://www.windsoundafrica.com/environmental-justice/}}</ref> A na-ere ngwaahịa ugbo dị iche iche n'ahịa n'ụzọ zuru oke na nke na-ere ahịa kwa ụbọchị anọ. Ọtụtụ n'ime ndị mmadụ na-ewere ihe ha na-emepụta n'ugbo iji ree n'ahịa iji gbanwere ngwaahịa ndị ọzọ ha na-enweghị ike imepụta. Ndị si n'obodo ndị gbara ya gburugburu gụnyere [[Onịchạ|Onitsha]] na [[Enụgwụ|Enugu]] urban na- azụkwa ndị ahịa ahịa ọ kachasị (garri), [[Nmanu nri|mmanụ nkwụ]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.investmentsummit.en.gov.ng/oil-palm/|title=Oil Palm – ESEPC|work=Investmentsummit.en.gov.ng|date=|accessdate=2017-05-27|archivedate=2017-06-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610084340/http://www.investmentsummit.en.gov.ng/oil-palm/}}</ref> plantain na akwụkwọ nri.  == Nke nke akụkọ ihe mere eme == Umulokpa ghọrọ isi ụlọ ọrụ [[Uzo Uwani|Uzo-Uwani]] Rural District Council (RDC) <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anakuogbe.blogspot.com/|title=Anaku Yesterday and Today}}</ref> nke a makwaara dị ka "County Council" na 1951. Na ngwụcha Agha Obodo Naijiria na 1970, gọọmentị [[East Central State]] malitere ịhazigharị usoro gọọmentị ime obodo n'ógbè ahụ. Ihe si na ya pụta bụ iwebata usoro gọọmentị ime obodo a maara dị ka Ngalaba Nkewa Nchịkwa (DAD), nke bụ njikọta nke Nchịkwa nke Ngalaba na Nchịkwa Mpaghara Gọọmentị. E kewara steeti ahụ na ngalaba 35 na kansụl obodo 640. Usoro ahụ chọrọ ijikọ òtù ndị obodo n'ime usoro nchịkwa steeti. N'afọ 1976, Mgbanwe Gọọmentị Obodo nke dakọtara na okike nke steeti ọhụrụ nke e kewara [[Naijiria|Naịjirịa]] na steeti iri na itoolu, Umulokpa nọgidere na-abụ isi ụlọ ọrụ nke Uzo-Uwani LGA dị ka ebumnuche bụ isi nke Naịjirịa nke mmemme mgbanwe ahụ bụ imelite usoro gọọmentị ime obodo dị ugbu a ma mee ka ọ kwekọọ n'ihe a na-enweta n'ebe ndị ọzọ, yana ime ka ọ bụrụ otu na gọọmentị obodo n'okpuru Gọvanọ mbụ nke Anambra steeti ochie Lieutenant Colonel John Kpera, Onye Isi Ala Obodo nke Naijiria General Olusegun Obasanjo n'oge ekewapụtara obodo Anambra na ebe obodo Ọwụwa anyanwụ ochie nke Naijiria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ezedons.blogspot.com/2016/03/akama-ogwugwu-ebenebe.html|title=Dons Eze Post: Akama Ogwugwu Ebenebe|date=2016-03-11|accessdate=2017-06-09|archivedate=2018-11-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106053356/http://ezedons.blogspot.com/2016/03/akama-ogwugwu-ebenebe.html}}</ref> A na-akpọ obodo ahụ nkata nri n'ihi ọdịdị ọrụ ugbo ya. Umulokpa na Olo nwere njikọ dị nso.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE8CBAAAQBAJ&q=umulokpa+history+and+their+brothers&pg=PT4|title=Igbo History Hebrew Exiles of Eri|isbn=978-1-4566-2220-6|author=Aguleri|first=Omabala|date=2014-07-13}}</ref> == Okpukpe == Tupu ndị Europe abịarute, ndị Umulokpa na-eme okpukpe ọdịnala site n'ofufe nke chi dị iche iche dị ka ndị Igbo ndị ọzọ. Otú ọ dị, ha anabatala [[Efefe Kraịst|Iso Ụzọ Kraịst]] ihe karịrị otu narị afọ gara aga. Taa, e nwere ihe karịrị 90% [[Onye Kraịst|Ndị Kraịst]] n'obodo ahụ. Okpukpe ndị isi nke Ndị Kraịst bụ ndịKatọlik <ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/29814882|title=A Study Of The Use And Effectiveness Of Public Relations In The Catholic Diocese Of Nsukka &#124; Fadafido Odoaso|date=1970-01-01|accessdate=2017-05-29|author=Odoaso|first=Fadafido}}</ref> , nke a makwaara dị ka Ụlọ ụka Roman Katọlik, nke ụlọ ụka ya ugbu a wuru na Akiyi, Umulokpa na 1923 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nsukkacatholicdiocese.org/brief-history.html|title=Brief History|work=Nsukkacatholicdiocese.org|date=|accessdate=2017-05-29}}</ref> na Church Mission Society (CMS), nke a maara na mbụ dị ka Church Missionary Society ma ọ bụ nke a na-akpọ Anglịkan <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.adonsk.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/FIRST-SESSION-OF-THE-SIXTH-SYNOD.pdf|title=THE BISHOP'S CHARGE PRESENTED TO THE FIRST SESSION OF THE SIXTH SYNOD OF THE DIOCESE OF NSUKKA ON MONDAY 26 OCTOBER 2009|work=Adonsk.com|accessdate=2017-05-29|archivedate=2022-06-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625164901/https://adonsk.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/FIRST-SESSION-OF-THE-SIXTH-SYNOD.pdf}}</ref> okpukpe ofufe. Ụfọdụ ụka ndị ọzọ, ọkachasị nke okwukwe Pentikọstal, apụtala na Umulokpa n'ime afọ iri ise gara aga. == Edensibịa == {{Reflist}} [[Otú:Articles with short description]] rufo0kib0p8pqu9auizza6e62rscgzz Wei-Ta Fang 0 76576 688051 674474 2026-07-14T11:23:54Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688051 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:FANG WEI TA.jpg|thumb|FANG WEI TA]] ''' Wei-Ta Fang''' (Chinese: 方偉達; pinyin: Fāng Wěidá) bu onye Ọkà mmụta sayensị na onye nkuzi gburugburu ebe obibi nke Taiwan, prọfesọ a ma ama, osote onyeisi nke Kọleji Sayensị, na onye nduzi nke Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University.[1] Onyeisi nke Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS) Asia Chapter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=2011 Society of Wetland Scientists Asia Chapter|url=http://www.swsasia.org/president.html|accessdate=2020-07-27|work=www.swsasia.org|archivedate=2017-09-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917231312/http://www.swsasia.org/president.html}}</ref> A mụrụ Fang na Kaohsiung, Taiwan na ụbọchị iri na anọ nke ọnwa Febụwarị afọ 1966. O nwetara nzere bachelọ nke nka na akụnụba ala na nchịkwa site na Mahadum Mba Taipei na 1989. Ọ gụchara nzere masta na nhazi gburugburu ebe obibi (MEP) na Mahadum Steeti Arizona, na 1994, wee nweta akara ugo mmụta nke abụọ na nhazi ala na ọmụmụ ihe nhazi (MDes.S.) site na Harvard Graduate School of Design na 2001. O nwetara nzere Ph.D. site na Ngalaba Sayensị na Njikwa Ecosystem, Mahadum Texas A&M na 2005. <ref>{{Cite news|title=Wei-Ta Fang|url=https://www.intechopen.com/profiles/23077/wei-ta-fang|accessdate=29 October 2020|publisher=Intechopen}}</ref> == Ọrụ == Ọ rụrụ ọrụ dịka ọkachamara na Taipei Land Management Bureau na 1991 na 1992 nakwa ọkachamara dị elu na-ahụ maka agụmakwụkwọ gburugburu ebe obibi na nyocha mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi (EIAs) na isi ụlọ ọrụ Taiwan's Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) site na 1994 ruo 2006. Ọ bụkwa onye nyocha dị mkpa (onye na-eso PI) maka National Environmental Literacy Survey na Taiwan n'oge 2012 na 2020. Ọ na-eje ozi ugbu a dị ka prọfesọ a ma ama, osote onyeisi nke College of Science, nakwa dị ka onye nduzi nke Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University, ọ bụkwa onyeisi oche nke Society of Wetland Scientists. (SWS) Asia Chapter.<ref name=":0" /> na onyeisi oche nke Taiwan Wetland Society. E nyere ya ọkwa dịka onye nyocha nleta site n'aka onye nduzi, Dr. Xingyuan He na Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences na Changchun, China na Machị.2016 <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Congratulations Dr. Wei- Ta Fang|url=https://www.sws.org/Blog/Congratulations-dr-wei-ta-fang.html|accessdate=2020-07-27|work=Society of Wetland Scientists|language=en-gb|archivedate=2020-07-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727054955/https://www.sws.org/Blog/Congratulations-dr-wei-ta-fang.html}}</ref> Ọmụmụ ihe ya ugbu a lekwasịrị anya na njirimara gburugburu ebe obibi, mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, na anụ ahụ iji buo amụma mgbanwe omume gburugburu ebe obibi, dịka iji ekwentị ụmụaka n'oge COVID-19. == Edensibia == [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] patjwz7gzqtpsweyqo3goo15m4r1r5w Event:Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary 1728 76592 688002 671517 2026-07-14T00:57:44Z Geraldine Kene 23189 688002 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili | |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa 7sy3uzjdpjz5l8qbsoc5xbsojsrjgt7 688003 688002 2026-07-14T00:59:48Z Geraldine Kene 23189 /* Project work list with links */ 688003 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa 57lakbtikp85uw6vyfa68yjms737liy 688004 688003 2026-07-14T01:05:37Z Geraldine Kene 23189 /* Project work list with links */ 688004 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Aba c7hrcq36rv40qib3skur3hjqtwregkk 688005 688004 2026-07-14T01:09:25Z Geraldine Kene 23189 /* Project work list with links */ 688005 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Aba |Done |- |Dike odqrawvfz0yf8hoajmj0odvj90c1lng 688006 688005 2026-07-14T01:10:16Z Geraldine Kene 23189 /* Project work list with links */ 688006 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Aba |Done |- |5. |Dike |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%E1%BB%8B%CC%81k%C3%A9 9kh8idwlrqu5kpjvpyhd43lbl74zjwz 688007 688006 2026-07-14T01:13:33Z Geraldine Kene 23189 /* Project work list with links */ 688007 wikitext text/x-wiki =='''Improving spelling accuracy on Igbo Wiktionary '''== === Project Overview=== This project focuses on improving existing entries on Igbo Wiktionary by correcting spelling and orthographic errors. Many Igbo words online need small but important corrections to make them clearer and more accurate for users. By fixing these issues, the project will help make Igbo Wiktionary a more reliable and useful resource. The work will involve going through selected entries and correcting spelling mistakes based on standard Igbo writing rules. Each edited entry will be carefully checked to ensure it is clear, correct, and consistent with others. All changes made during the project will be recorded for proper tracking and reporting. Overall, the project aims to strengthen the quality of Igbo language content on Wiktionary. It will make it easier for learners, translators, and native speakers to trust and use the platform. It also supports the wider goal of improving the visibility and standardization of the Igbo language online. === Project Goals === 1. To improve the spelling accuracy of selected entries on Igbo Wiktionary. 2. To enhance the quality and consistency of existing Igbo Wiktionary content. 3. To make Igbo language resources on Wiktionary more reliable and accessible to users. ===Project Timeline=== 13 June - 14 July === Project work list with links === {| class="wikitable" |+ !S/N !Igbo Words with error !Link !Edited Igbo Words !Link !{{Doing}} |- |1. |Chukwunedum |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |pụtara |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chukwunedum |Done |- |2. |Okwu mbite |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite |Mejuo |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okwu_Mbite#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |3. |Okili |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili |Ọṅụṅụ |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Okili#Nk%E1%BB%8Dwa |Done |- |4. |Ịba |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/Iba |Ọrịa |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Aba |Done |- |5. |Dike |https://ig.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%E1%BB%8B%CC%81k%C3%A9 |n'agha 5uwx8r3gxd1mc38qxb6oxifvd7pc4aj Thomas H. Stoner Jr. 0 76664 688009 655583 2026-07-14T02:31:43Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688009 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}   '''Thomas H. Stoner Jr.''' bụ onye isi nduzi na onye nhiwe, ya na onye nwetara onyinye Nobel bụ David Schimel nke Jet Propulsion Lab (NASA) na ndị ọkachamara ihu igwe ndị ọzọ a ma ama, nke Entelligent, onye na-enye Smart Climate indexes zuru ụwa ọnụ, nnyocha amụma ego nha nhata na data dị elu gbasara iyi egwu ihu igwe na mgbanwe ihu igwe. Ọ bụ CEO nke Entelligent site n'afọ 2017 ruo ọnwa Ọktoba afọ 2023. Tupu Entelligent, Stoner hiwere Project Butterfly, otu nzukọ nnyocha nke na-akwadokarị ahịa isi obodo zuru ụwa ọnụ dị ka ihe ngwọta maka mgbanwe ihu igwe. Nnyocha nke Project Butterfly kpatara nkepụta Entelligent ma mechaa nye ikike abụọ maka ihe iyi egwu ihu igwe nke USPTO nyere. Stoner bụkwa onye dere akwụkwọ 2013, "Small Change, Big Gains: Reflections of an Energy Entrepreneur," nke gụnyere nnyocha gbasara ịgbanwe onyinye ike zuru ụwa ọnụ ka ọ bụrụ nke dabere na isi mmalite mmanụ na-adịgide adịgide site na njedebe nke narị afọ ahụ. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">Ntụaka dị mkpa</span>]]'' &#x5D;</sup> Stoner abụrụlarị onye nkwalite mmepe na-adigide adịgide ruo ihe karịrị afọ iri atọ, ka ebe ọ rụchara, kwado ma nwee ma na-arụ ọrụ ọrụ ike mmeghari ohuru n'ofe Amerịka. O duola ụlọ ọrụ atọ n'ọgbọ teknụzụ ịdị ọcha, gụnyere otu n'ime ego mbụ cleantech nke ụlọ akụ mmepe mba ụwa kwadoro, gụnyere Multilateral Investment Fund, ngalaba nke Inter-American Development Bank . == Agụmakwụkwọ na ndụ onwe onye == Stoner nwetara nzere agụmakwụkwọ masta na akaụntụ na ego site na London School of Economics na nzere BA site na Hampshire College, Amherst, Massachusetts. N'afọ 1988, ọ lụrụ Laurie Larsen; ha nwere ụmụ abụọ. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">achọrọ ntụaka</span>]]'' &#x5D;</sup> == Ọrụ == Tupu ọ mepụta ma duo Entelligent dị ka onyeisi bụ CEO, Stoner bụ site n'afọ 2008 ruo afọ 2010 CEO na onyeisi oche nke Evergreen Energy (NYSE: EEE), ụlọ ọrụ teknụzụ kol na coal dị ọcha nke a na-ere n'ihu ọha na Denver, Colorado. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">achọrọ ntụaka</span>]]'' &#x5D;</sup> Site n'afọ 1998 ruo afọ 2008, Stoner bụ CEO nke Econergy International, ụlọ ọrụ na-enye ndụmọdụ maka ahịa carbon na onye nwe/onye na-arụ ọrụ nke ọrụ ike mmeghari ohuru n'ofe Amerịka. Econergy Internationalnwetara mpụta ihe na London Stock Exchange AIM n'afọ 2006. <ref name="Sasseen">{{Cite web|author=Sasseen|first=Jane|title=Taking Their Business Elsewhere|url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2006-05-21/taking-their-business-elsewhere|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025120017/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2006-05-21/taking-their-business-elsewhere|archivedate=October 25, 2012|publisher=Bloomberg Businessweek|accessdate=January 23, 2014}}</ref> Econergy bụ onye mmepụta ike nwere onwe ya nke ọrụ ike mmeghari ohuru, gụnyere ugbo ikuku, obere ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ike hydro na methane na Amerịka niile yana otu n'ime ndị na-azụ ahịa ikuku carbon n'okpuru Kyoto Protocol. <ref name="Milliken">{{Cite web|author=Milliken|first=Chris|title=Econergy Beberibe|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?gl=IL&feature=related%2F&v=OEpYDcXQfsg&hl=en|publisher=Econergy International|accessdate=January 23, 2014}}</ref> Na nduzi Stoner, Econergy mepụtara usoro mbụ e nyere ndị otu na-achị usoro mmepe dị ọcha nke [[Ọgbakọ Otú United Nations Fremewok maka Ngbanwe Iru igwe|Nkwekọrịta Usoro Mba Ndị Dị n'Otu na Mgbanwe Ihu Igwe]] . Stoner duziri ire Econergy na GDF Suez, otu n'ime ụlọ ọrụ kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa. <ref name="GDF SUEZ acquires Econergy">{{Cite web|title=GDF SUEZ Acquires Econergy International|url=http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.display/id/17015|publisher=sustainablebusiness.com|accessdate=January 23, 2014}}</ref> Mgbe ọ nọ na Econergy, Stoner nyeere ụlọ akụ mmepe mba ụwa ise aka ịmepụta CleanTechFund, <ref name="Econergy- Clean Tech Fund">{{Cite web|title=Econergy- Clean Tech Fund|url=http://www.frontierfinance.dk/view_source.php?srcid=616|publisher=Frontier Finance – International Business Development|accessdate=January 23, 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323105010/http://www.frontierfinance.dk/view_source.php?srcid=616|archivedate=March 23, 2014}}</ref> ego nha nha nkeonwe nke nde dolla iri abụọ na ise lekwasịrị anya na obere ọrụ mmepụta ike na arụmọrụ ike na Latin America. Ọ bụ onye njikwa ego ahụ dị elu site na mmalite ya na 2004 ruo 2008. Tupu Econergy, Stoner hiwere ma bụrụ onyeisi oche nke Highland Energy Group, ụlọ ọrụ ọrụ ike mba (ESCO) nke na-enye ọrụ njikwa akụkụ nke ihe achọrọ nye ụlọ ọrụ ọha, dịka Public Service Company nke Colorado, Duke Power, na Texas Utilities. Stoner duziri ire ụlọ ọrụ ahụ nye Eastern Utilities, <ref name="EUA COGENEX ACQUIRES HIGHLAND ENERGY GROUP">{{Cite web|title=EUA COGENEX ACQUIRES HIGHLAND ENERGY GROUP|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/EUA+COGENEX+ACQUIRES+HIGHLAND+ENERGY+GROUP.-a016895234|publisher=The Free Library|accessdate=January 23, 2014}}</ref> nke bụbu ụlọ ọrụ ọha na eze nke NYSE na-ere na Boston, Massachusetts. == Mbipụta na ngosipụta == * Ihe Mgbanwe Ihu Igwe Pụtara nye Ndị Na-etinye Ego nrụpụta ihe. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Stoner|first=Thomas|title=What Climate Change Means for Investors|url=http://www.barrons.com/articles/what-climate-change-means-for-investors-1475903116|publisher=Barron's|accessdate=October 8, 2016}}</ref> * Donald Trump na-achọ ịghọ onye mmeri ka ukwuu n'ihe gbasara kol na frakin <ref>{{Cite web|author=Stoner|first=Thomas|title=Donald Trump is about to become an even bigger champion of coal and fracking|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/donald-trump-is-about-to-become-an-even-bigger-champion-of-coal-and-fracking-2016-07-19|work=Market Watch}}</ref> * Ndị na-etinye ego ga-agbanwerịrị akwụkwọ ikike ha ugbu a maka mgbanwe ihu igwe <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/investors-must-adjust-their-portfolios-now-for-a-changing-climate-2016-06-28|title=Investors must adjust their portfolios now for a changing climate|work=Market Watch|language=en-US|accessdate=2015-12-14}}</ref> * Ihe mere otu Big Oil ji chọọ ụtụ isi carbon n'ụzọ nzuzo <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-big-oil-might-secretly-wish-for-a-carbon-tax-2016-05-26|title=Why Big Oil might secretly wish for a carbon tax|author=Thomas Stoner Jr.|accessdate=2016-07-14}}</ref> * Echiche: Okwu gbasara mkpuchi Exxon Mobil gosiri ihe mere ndị na-etinye ego ahịa na ike ji achọ atụmatụ ọhụrụ <ref>{{Cite web|title=Exxon Mobil cover-up case shows why energy investors need a new strategy|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/exxon-mobil-cover-up-case-shows-why-energy-investors-need-a-new-strategy-2015-11-13|work=MarketWatch|accessdate=December 14, 2015}}</ref> * Paris: Enyemaka, ụtụ isi na onye na-etinye ego na ike <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.entelligent.com/newsletters/paris-the-new-business-case/|title=Paris: the New Business Case|work=www.entelligent.com|accessdate=2015-12-14|archivedate=2015-12-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222150710/https://www.entelligent.com/newsletters/paris-the-new-business-case/}}</ref> * China Ka Kwesịrị Ịtụkwasị Obi n'Ike Mmeghari A Na-enwe n'agbanyeghị mbelata Akụnụba <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestreet.com/story/13291567/1/china-still-needs-to-focus-on-renewable-energy-despite-economic-slowdown.html|title=China Still Needs to Focus on Renewable Energy Despite Economic Slowdown|author=Thomas Stoner Jr.|date=September 17, 2015|language=en-US|accessdate=2016-07-14}}</ref> * Nsogbu dị na atụmatụ ike -mkpocha nke Obama <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/06/the-problem-with-obamas-clean-energy-plan-commentary.html|title=The problem with Obama's clean-energy plan|work=CNBC|accessdate=2015-12-14}}</ref> * Onye na-eme mkparịta ụka na Livingston Securities Advanced Energy Conference Denver, CO * Onye na-eme mkparịta ụka na 2015 Burridge Conference, Burridge Center for Finance na Mahadum nke Colorado Boulder, CO * Onye nkuzi na Viridis Graduate Institute ọmụmụ Ecopsychology na Environmental Humanities ''':''' Akụ na ụba, ụmụ mmadụ na gburugburu ebe obibi * Onye otu a kpọrọ òkù maka "Kọmitii maka Mkpebi nke Nnwale Ahịa nke Mmezi Ike Dị Elu na Teknụzụ Ike mkpocha" na National Academy of Sciences * Small Change Big Gains: Reflections of an Energy Entrepreneur, 2013. {{ISBN|1626340021}} 556p. * Akụkọ gbasara ego maka inyocha ọrụ ndị nwere nkwekọrịta arụmọrụ nye ndị otu ọrụ ego nke ike arụmọrụ <ref>{{Cite book|author=Stoner Jr.|first=Thomas H.|title=A Financial Model for Evaluating Projects with Performance Contracts Report to the Energy Efficiency Financial Task Force|date=June 24, 2003|url=http://www.inee.org.br/down_loads/escos/Brazil_ESCO_Finance%20and%20Model%20Background.doc%7Ctitle=down_loads/escos/Brazil_ESCO_Finance%20and%20Model%20Background|accessdate=March 24, 2014}}</ref> * Ajụjụ Kachasị Mkpa Banyere Mgbanwe Ihu Igwe: Kedu Ka Ndị Na-etinye Ego ahịa Ga-esi zaghachi? <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/pages/dynamic/article.page.php?page_id=10137&section=news_articles&eod=1|title=The Most Important Climate Change Question: How Will Investors React?|publisher=Ecosystem Marketplace|date=January 7, 2014|accessdate=2014-03-22}}</ref> * Smart Grid : N'ụzọ Nduga n'Ịkwụsi Ike na Ihu Igwe? <ref>{{Cite web|author=Author & Environmental Entrepreneur, Project Butterfly|url=http://www.energymanagertoday.com/smart-grid-on-a-path-toward-climate-stability-096996/|title=Smart Grid: On a Path Toward Climate Stability?|publisher=Energy Manager Today|accessdate=2014-03-22|archivedate=2014-03-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323104657/http://www.energymanagertoday.com/smart-grid-on-a-path-toward-climate-stability-096996/}}</ref> * Mwepụ na Mgbanwe Ihu Igwe: Thomas Stoner na TEDxHampshire <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QmTnRKBXcbE|title=Divestment and climate change: Thomas Stoner at TEDxHampshireCollege|publisher=YouTube|date=November 19, 2013|accessdate=2014-03-22}}</ref> * Ụtụ Kabọn Na-eme Ka Anyị Si n'Imetọ Mee Ka Anyị Sie Ike <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nt8ieXdIviM|title=Carbon Taxes Shifts us From Polluting to Non-Polluting|publisher=YouTube|date=November 21, 2013|accessdate=2014-03-22}}</ref> * [https://insight.factset.com/the-advantage-of-using-a-climate-risk-score-ranking-during-periods-of-energy-price-volatility Uru nke iji ọkwa akara ihe egwu ihu igwe n'oge mgbanwe ọnụahịa ike] * [https://www.marketwatch.com/story/tree-huggers-and-capitalists-can-agree-on-fossil-fuel-disclosure-for-companies-11649439813 Ndị na-akụ osisi na ndị isi obodo nwere ike ikwenye na mkpughe mmanụ ọkụ maka ụlọ ọrụ] == Edensibịa == {{Reflist}} * [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] monkgyjqb9rzkiqokwq1woj7nzrh6mg Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo 0 76694 688016 655682 2026-07-14T04:51:39Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688016 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Infobox officeholder | honorific_prefix = | name = Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo | image = Open Session of University of Indonesia's Trustee Council, University of Indonesia's Rector Report, 13 May 2024 77 (Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo).jpg | office1 = Director of the University of Indonesia School Of Environmental Science | termstart1 = 30 September 2020{{efn|Acting until 26 February 2021}} | termend1 = 26 February 2025 | predecessor1 = [[Emil Budianto]] | successor1 = [[Supriatna]] | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|1|31}} | birth_place = [[Sukabumi]], [[West Java]], [[Indonesia]] | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} --> | death_place = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = | citizenship = <!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] --> | party = | otherparty = <!--For additional political affiliations--> | spouse = | partner = <!--For those with a domestic partner and not married--> | relations = | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | education = [[University of Indonesia]] }} '''Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo''' (amuru 31 Disemba 1961) bu onye sayensi gburugburu ebe obibi Indonesia na onye nkuzi na Mahadum Indonesia. Ọ bụ onye isi ụlọ akwụkwọ mahadum nke Science Environmental site na 2020 ruo n'afo 2025. == Ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ mbụ == A mụrụ Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo na Jakarta, Indonesia na 31 Disemba 1961, dị ka nke abụọ n'ime ụmụaka ise nye M. Rusdi na Sri Sudarsih.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://lib.ui.ac.id/detail?id=83640&lokasi=lokal|title=Pengendalian limbah dioksin dengan pemanfaatan bahan pemutih ramah lingkungan: suatu kajian pemanfaatan oksidator berbasis klor dalam industri pulp melalui simulasi model system dynamics untuk analisis kebijakan|date=2005|publisher=University of Indonesia|pages=vii-viii}}</ref> Ọ nọrọ na nwata ya na South Jakarta, ebe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ praịmarị na 1st North Manggarai State Elementary School na 1972, sochiri ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị na 3rd Manggarai Junior High School na 1975 na 8th Jakarta State High School na 1979. Ọ wee mụọ ọgwụ na Mahadum Indonesia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://lib.ui.ac.id/detail?id=78320&lokasi=lokal|title=Penyisihan senyawa fenolik air limbah dengan teknik ozonasi: studi kasus air limbah pabrik tekstil PT. Texmaco Jaya, Karawang-Jawa Barat|date=1998|publisher=University of Indonesia|pages=iii}}</ref> N'afọ nke abụọ ya na mahadum, Tri malitere ịrụ ọrụ dị ka onye nkụzi biology na ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị ya. A kọwara ya dị ka onye nkụzi nke mere ka echiche ndị dị mgbagwoju anya dị mgbagwoju anya dị mfe nghọta nye ụmụ akwụkwọ ya, na-akpali ụmụ akwụkwọ ya ka ha mụọ bayoloji. Ọ ghọkwara onye ndụmọdụ maka ụmụ akwụkwọ nọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ, ọkachasị ndị nọ na ngalaba Sayensị na Ọbá akwụkwọ.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Redaksi|date=2024-07-29|title=Direktur SILK UI Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo Beri Pembekalan pada "Scientist" Muda di SMAN 8 Jakarta|url=https://www.sinarharapan.net/direktur-silk-ui-tri-edhi-budhi-soesilo-beri-pembekalan-pada-scientist-muda-di-sman-8-jakarta/|accessdate=2025-04-04|work=sinarharapan.net|language=en-US}}</ref> Ya na ọtụtụ ndị agadi ya na ndị obere ndị si na 8th Jakarta State High School hiwere ọrụ nkuzi BTA 8, bụ nke kwadebere ụmụ akwụkwọ si ụlọ akwụkwọ maka ule ntinye mahadum.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bimbingan Belajar Offline/Online Terbaik Pilihan Keluarga Indonesia - BTA Group|url=https://btagroup.co.id/about|accessdate=2025-04-04|work=btagroup.co.id}}</ref> Ewezuga nkuzi na ụmụ akwụkwọ ya na BTA, ọ kụzikwara na Feksos Nonformal Education Center site na 1984 ruo n'afo 1985.<ref name=":1"/> Ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ dịka dọkịta na Mahadum Indonesia na 1987.<ref name=":1"/> O nwere nzere masta na doctorate na sayensị gburugburu ebe obibi na Mahadum Indonesia na 1998 na 2005, n'otu n'otu.<ref name=":0"/> O nwetara nzere ''cum laude'' maka nchekwa akwụkwọ doctorate ya.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DOKTOR YANG DILULUSKAN PROGRAM PASCASARJANA UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA PASCA REORGANISASI PROGRAM PASCASARJANA|url=http://www.pps.ui.edu/new/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=24&Itemid=49|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910080224/http://www.pps.ui.edu/new/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=24&Itemid=49|archivedate=10 September 2008|accessdate=6 April 2025|work=PPS UI}}</ref> == Ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ == Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ dịka dọkịta na Mahadum Indonesia na 1987, Tri malitere ịrụ ọrụ dịka onye ọrụ na ngalaba ịwa ahụ kansa na Ụlọ Ọgwụ Dharma Nugraha dị na Matraman, East Jakarta. Ọ gara n'ihu na-akụzi n'ọtụtụ ụlọ akwụkwọ agụmakwụkwọ ndị ọzọ, dịka Ụlọ Ọrụ Mmụta Na-abụghị nke Santa Lusia dị na Cawang, Ụlọ Ọrụ Mmụta Na-abụghị nke Santo Lukas, na Ụlọ Akwụkwọ Sekọndrị nke 6 nke Jakarta.<ref name=":1"/> Mgbe ọrụ nkuzi BTA gbasaara ọrụ ya na mpaghara ndị ọzọ na Indonesia, Tri kụzikwara ihe n'alaka ụlọ ọrụ ahụ dị na Ambon, Maluku na Manado.<ref name=":0"/> Tri sonyeere Center for Human Resources and Environmental Research (PPSML, ''Pusat Penelitian Sumber Daya Manusia dan Lingkungan'' ) na Mahadum Indonesia dị ka onye ọrụ nyocha obere oge ka ọ natara akara ugo mmụta master ya. Ọ kụzikwara ihe na ngalaba dị iche iche na Mahadum Indonesia, site na 2001 ruo 2004 dị ka onye nkuzi osote na Mahadum Jenderal Soedirman.<ref name=":0"/> Na 2010, Tri ghọrọ odeakwụkwọ nke mahadum sayensị gburugburu ebe obibi.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022|title=Dr. Hayati Sari Hasibuan, S.T., M.T: apa yang kita lakukan akan berdampak terhadap lingkungan|url=https://uimagz.id/2023/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/UI-MAGZ-20-small-1.pdf|accessdate=4 April 2025|work=UI Magz|archivedate=15 April 2025|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415020346/https://uimagz.id/2023/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/UI-MAGZ-20-small-1.pdf}}</ref> Mgbe ọ gụchara ọrụ ya dịka odeakwụkwọ, na Julaị 2014, Tri ghọrọ onyeisi oche nke mahadum ahụ. N'okpuru nduzi ya, na 2015, mahadum ahụ kwadebere akwụkwọ agụmakwụkwọ nke kwadoro ka e bulie mahadum sayensị gburugburu ebe obibi ka ọ bụrụ ụlọ akwụkwọ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sejarah|url=http://sil.ui.ac.id/tentang-kami/sejarah/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325201700/http://sil.ui.ac.id/tentang-kami/sejarah/|archivedate=25 March 2017|accessdate=4 April 2025|work=Sekolah Ilmu Lingkungan}}</ref> E guzobere Mahadum Indonesia School of Environmental Sciences na 2016, Tri wee bụrụ osote onye nduzi nke ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ otu afọ ka e mesịrị.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pengelola Sekolah Ilmu Lingkungan|url=http://sil.ui.ac.id/tentang-kami/pengelola/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325194457/http://sil.ui.ac.id/tentang-kami/pengelola/|archivedate=25 March 2018|accessdate=4 April 2025|work=Sekolah Ilmu Lingkungan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-03|title=Pakar SIL UI: Perubahan Lingkungan Berkorelasi Kuat terhadap Munculnya Penyakit|url=https://ui.kompas.id/baca/perubahan-lingkungan-berkorelasi-terhadap-munculnya-penyakit/|accessdate=2025-04-05|work=Kabar UI|language=en-US}}</ref> Mgbe onye nduzi Emil Budianto nwụsịrị na mberede na Septemba 30, 2020, Tri ghọrọ onye nduzi osote nke ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ. Mgbe ọ mechara ọtụtụ nhọrọ, na Febụwarị 22, 2021, Tri ghọrọ onye nduzi na-adịgide adịgide nke ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Handini|first=Dinna|date=2021-02-22|title=Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo Terpilih Sebagai Direktur SIL Periode 2021-2025|url=https://dikti.kemdikbud.go.id/kabar-dikti/tri-edhi-budhi-soesilo-terpilih-sebagai-direktur-sil-periode-2021-2025/|accessdate=2025-04-05|work=Kementerian Pendidikan Tinggi, Sains, dan Teknologi Republik Indonesia|language=en|archivedate=2025-04-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415020451/https://dikti.kemdikbud.go.id/kabar-dikti/tri-edhi-budhi-soesilo-terpilih-sebagai-direktur-sil-periode-2021-2025/}}</ref> E tinyere ya n'ọkwa ụbọchị anọ ka e mesịrị<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 February 2021|title=Universitas Indonesia Lantik Dua Direktur dan Dua Wakil Dekan|url=https://www.tempo.co/lingkungan/universitas-indonesia-lantik-dua-direktur-dan-dua-wakil-dekan-535847|accessdate=5 April 2025|work=Tempo}}</ref> ma jee ozi ruo afọ anọ ruo mgbe e tinyere Supriatna n'ọkwa ya.<ref>{{Cite web|author=antaranews.com|date=2025-02-26|title=Rektor UI lantik empat pejabat baru|url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/4676221/rektor-ui-lantik-empat-pejabat-baru|accessdate=2025-04-03|work=Antara News|language=id}}</ref> == Ndụ nkeonwe == Tri lụrụ Susi Soviana n'afọ 1989. Di na nwunye a nwere ụmụ nwoke abụọ na otu nwa nwanyị, ha bikwa na Bogor ugbu a.<ref name=":0"/> == Ntụaka == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}}  [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] i1kb7c12dcdmvsfql6r5htaqbly4gvr Sonja Barth 0 76728 687965 659047 2026-07-13T18:15:28Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687965 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}}'''Sonja Louise Barth''' (21 Mee 1923 - 10 Septemba n'afọ 2016, nke a mụrụ Skoklefald) bụ onye Norwegian na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi.<ref name="bakke">{{Cite news|author=Bakke|first=Tor A.|title=Nekrolog: Sonja Louise Barth|url=https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/Mv6qJ/Nekrolog-Sonja-Louise-Barth|accessdate=3 May 2019|work=[[Aftenposten]]|date=14 September n'afọ 2016|language=Norwegian}}</ref><ref name="edvard">{{Cite book|title=Norsk Biografisk Leksikon|url=https://nbl.snl.no/Edvard_K_Barth|accessdate=3 Mee n'afọ 2019|chapter=Edvard K Barth}}</ref> N'oge [[World War II|Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ]] ọ na-arụsi ọrụ ike na XU, ọrụ nzuzo nguzogide ọrụ nke Norwegian nke e debere ọrụ ya na nzuzo ruo n'afọ 1988. N'afọ 2008, ọ kọwaara Lars Otto Wollum ahụmahụ ya, na ọnọdụ na ọ gaghị ebipụta ihe ọ bụla n'ime ha ruo mgbe ọ nwụsịrị.<ref name="wollum">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sollia.net/nytt-fra-bygd-og-fjell/minneord-om-sonja-barth|title=Minneord om Sonja Barth|date=16 September 2016|author=Wollum|first=Lars Otto|language=Norwegian|accessdate=3 Mee n'afo 2019|archivedate=3 May 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503165913/http://www.sollia.net/nytt-fra-bygd-og-fjell/minneord-om-sonja-barth}}</ref> N'afọ 2008, a họpụtara ya na Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav . Nkwupụta ahụ zoro aka na ọrụ ya na agụmakwụkwọ ọha na eze na mgbasa nke akụkọ ihe mere eme na ọdịbendị, yana ọrụ ya na mpaghara Rondane.<ref name="olav">{{Cite web|title=Utnevnelser til St. Olavs Orden|url=https://www.kongehuset.no/nyhet.html?tid=74490&sek=26939|publisher=The Royal House of Norway|accessdate=3 May 2019|date=5 December 2008|language=Norwegian|archivedate=17 July 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717052827/https://www.kongehuset.no/nyhet.html?tid=74490&sek=26939}}</ref> Na 14 Nọvemba nke afọ 1945 ọ lụrụ Edvard Kaurin Barth (n'afọ 1913- ruo n'afọ 1996), onye na-ese foto na onye na-ahụ maka ụmụ anụmanụ.<ref name="edvard"/> == Akwụkwọ == * Sonja Barth, Edvard K. Barth na Roald Smestad: "Ụlọ Mkpọrọ na Remdalen", Hemgrenda, Ringebu historilag, Mpịakọta 15, 1991, peeji nke 19-30&nbsp; * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Fangstgravrecken Skjæringfjell-Imsdalsvola na mkparịta ụka ya na Mats na Hallvar Huset", Yearbook for the Norwegian Forestry Museum. Ọhịa, ịchụ nta na igbu azụ, Nke 13, 1990-1992, peeji nke 220-232&nbsp; * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Nweta akụkọ ihe mere eme", Elverum: Norwegian Forestry Museum, 1989 * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Fangstgraver i et trollsk skoglandskap", Statsskog: akwụkwọ akụkọ ụlọ ọrụ maka statens skoger, vol. 25, Nke 4, 1989, peeji nke 9-12&nbsp; * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Fangstgraves na ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ nke Engerdal", na Norwegian Forestry Museum. Yearbook, Nke 11, 1986, peeji nke 189-208&nbsp; * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Falconer tufts na falconry na Southern Norway", na Norwegian Forestry Museum. Yearbook, Nke 10, 1984, peeji nke 219-251&nbsp; * Sonja Barth na Edvard K. Barth: "Ụlọ ọrụ na-ejide reindeer na Storøa na Engerdal", na Norwegian Forestry Museum. Yearbook, Nke 9, 1981, peeji nke 260-271&nbsp; * Sonja Barth: Andereiret, ya na Edvard K. Barth, Oslo: Cappelen, 1948 == Ihe odide == == Njikọ mpụga == * ''Gụnyere foto nke Barth''{{Cite web|url=https://digitaltmuseum.no/021015795169/sonja-barth-1923-2016-fotografert-pa-en-oppmurt-steinkonstruksjon-cirka|title=Sonja Barth (1923-2016)|publisher=Anno Norsk skogmuseum|language=Norwegian}} [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] <references group="Mee 3, 2013" /> <references /> 6sbsl9dkqdjrb75rgqdgn5idfy56b0k Valentine Ozigbo 0 76788 688039 656351 2026-07-14T08:28:23Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | office = President of [[Transcorp|Transcorp Plc Nigeria]] | party = [[All Progressives Congress (Nigeria)|All Progressives Congress]] | term_start = 2018 | term_end = 2020 }} '''Valentine Chineto''' "Val" '''Ozigbo''' (amụrụ na Julaị 20, 1970) bụ onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na onye isi azụmaahịa Naijiria. Ọ bụ onye isi oche na onye isi oche nke [[Transnational Corporation of Nigeria|Transnational Corporation of Nigeria plc]] (Transcorp), <ref>{{Cite web|title=Transcorp Group Announces Significant New Executive and Non-Executive Board Appointments|url=https://transcorpnigeria.com/transcorp-group-announces-significant-new-executive-and-non-executive-board-appointments/|accessdate=2020-07-24|work=transcorpnigeria.com|archivedate=2020-07-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724113840/https://transcorpnigeria.com/transcorp-group-announces-significant-new-executive-and-non-executive-board-appointments/}}</ref> ụlọ ọrụ dịgasị iche iche nwere itinye ego na isi ọdịmma na ile ọbịa, agribusiness na ngalaba ike <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/01/23/ozigbo-resumes-as-transcorp-president-ceo/|title=Ozigbo Resumes as Transcorp President/CEO, Articles - THISDAY LIVE|accessdate=24 January 2019|work=[[This Day]]}}</ref> A họpụtara ya n'ọkwa ahụ na 2019. == Ọrụ == N'oge gara aga, Ozigbo rụrụ ọrụ dịka Onye isi nchịkwa na Onye isi njikwa nke Transcorp Hotels Plc, ụlọ ọrụ na-ahụ maka ile ọbịa nke Transcorp Group nke Naịjirịa. Ọ nwekwara ahụmịhe karịrị afọ 17 na ngalaba ụlọ akụ, ebe ọ rụrụ ọrụ n'ụlọ akụ dị iche iche dịka NAL Merchant Bank, Diamond Bank, Continental Trust Bank, FSB International Bank, Standard Trust Bank, United Bank for Africa na Bank PHB. <ref name="bloomberg.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/people/person.asp?personId=208381106&privcapId=22818286|title=List of Public Companies Worldwide, Letter - Businessweek - Businessweek|work=Businessweek.com|accessdate=17 November 2015}}</ref> Ozigbo nwere nzere ọkachamara na ndekọ ego (The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria) nke ọ nwetara na 1998, Taxation (The Chartered Institute of Taxation of Nigeria) nwetara na 2000 na Credit Administration (Institute of Credit Administration) nke ọ tụbara na 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/finance/stocks/officerProfile?symbol=TRANSCO.LG&officerId=1728544|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118031034/http://in.reuters.com/finance/stocks/officerProfile?symbol=TRANSCO.LG&officerId=1728544|archivedate=18 November 2015|title=Officer Profile - Quotes - Reuters.co.in|work=reuters.com|accessdate=17 November 2015}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye otu ụlọ ọrụ atọ a niile. N'oge gara aga, Ozigbo rụrụ ọrụ na ngalaba ụlọ akụ, ebe ọ nwetara ahụmịhe karịrị afọ 17 site n'ọrụ ya n'ụlọ akụ dị iche iche dịka NAL Merchant Bank, Diamond Bank, Continental Trust Bank, FSB International Bank, Standard Trust Bank, United Bank for Africa na Bank PHB.<ref name="bloomberg.com"/> Dị ka onye isi oche nke Transcorp Hotels, ọ lekọtara mgbasawanye nke họtel ahụ gaa n'obodo ndị ọzọ gafee Naịjirịa na nkwalite nke ọnọdụ ya dị ka họtel na-eduga na mba ahụ.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/transcorp-hilton-is-official-hotel-for-wefa/|title=Transcorp Hilton is official hotel for WEFA|accessdate=17 November 2015|work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]]}}</ref> N'okpuru ya, ụlọ ọrụ ahụ kwupụtara N8 ijeri mbụ ọha na eze (IPO) na 2014, nke e debanyere aha ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.africa-ontherise.com/transcorp-sees-profit-exceeding-turnover-by-2017-as-ipo-over-subscribed/|title=Transcorp Sees Profit Exceeding Turnover By 2017 As IPO Over-Subscribed|author=Africa-ontherise|date=6 October 2014|work=AFRICA ON THE RISE.|accessdate=17 November 2015|archivedate=18 November 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118031049/http://www.africa-ontherise.com/transcorp-sees-profit-exceeding-turnover-by-2017-as-ipo-over-subscribed/}}</ref> == ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị == 26 June 2021, Valentine Ozigbo pụtara dị ka onye na-azọ ọkwa onye otu Peoples Democratic Party maka ntuli aka gọvanọ nke Anambra Steeti nke 2021 na-eme na Nọvemba 6, 2021. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://punchng.com/ex-transcorp-president-ozigbo-elected-anambra-pdp-gov-candidate/|title=UPDATED: Ex-Transcorp president, Ozigbo, elected Anambra PDP gov candidate|author=Punch News Paper|date=26 June 2021|accessdate=27 June 2021|work=[[The Punch]]}}</ref> Ọ kwagara na Labour Party n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ afọ 2022 ebe onye na-azọ ọkwa onye isi ala nke pati ahụ, [[Peter Obi|Peter Gregory Obi]] nabatara ya.<ref>{{Cite news|author=|first=|date=2022-08-19|title=Ex-Anambra PDP guber candidate defects to LP|url=https://guardian.ng/politics/ex-anambra-pdp-guber-candidate-defects-to-lp/|accessdate=2024-03-06|work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Odunsi|first=Wale|date=2022-08-23|title=2023 election: LP, Peter Obi receive ex-Anambra PDP guber candidate Ozigbo|url=https://dailypost.ng/2022/08/23/2023-election-lp-peter-obi-receive-ex-anambra-pdp-guber-candidate-ozigbo/|accessdate=2024-03-06|work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Left Labour Party sonyeere APC na Febụwarị 2025 == Onyinye == N'ọnwa Septemba afọ 2018, e nyere ya onyinye Distinguished Alumni nke Mahadum Lancaster. A kpọrọ ya ka ọ nata onyinye ahụ n'oge mmemme pụrụ iche nke mahadum ahụ mere na Ghana Campus. N'ịghọta ihe ndị ọ rụzuru dị ka onye isi azụmaahịa Naijiria, Nairametrics bipụtara edemede na-ekwupụta na ọ bụ nwa okorobịa obodo ghọrọ onye isi oche ụwa. ,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Valentine Ozigbo: The village boy who became a world-class CEO|url=https://nairametrics.com/2018/10/16/biography-of-valentine-ozigbo-ceo-of-transcorp-hotels-plc/|work=Nairametrics|date=16 October 2018}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] eayrn6rxrmpm1f1ax0edlqxlp118uxc Event:Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary in Ikwerre Community 1728 76891 687957 656601 2026-07-13T15:32:56Z Sylvaline39 15355 687957 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary Banner.png]] =='''Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary in Ikwerre Community.'''== ===Project Overview=== The Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary, is an initiative focused on improving the accessibility and preservation of the Igbo language through audio pronunciation documentation on Igbo Wiktionary. Following the successful creation of over 200 new Igbo word entries on Igbo Wiktionary, this project aims to record, upload, and integrate accurate au entries on Igbo Wiktionary, this project aims to record, upload, and integrate accurate audio pronunciations for each word. The project will support native speakers, language learners, researchers, and the wider Wikimedia community by enhancing pronunciation accuracy and promoting the digital preservation of spoken Igbo. Audio recordings will be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons and linked directly to their corresponding Igbo Wiktionary entries, contributing to the growth of open and accessible indigenous language resources online while helping to bridge the digital and language accessibility gap among nursing mothers in Ikwerre Community. ===Project Goals=== Successful recording and linking of audio pronunciations of 200 + Igbo words already created on Igbo Wiktionary. === Activities === Phase 1: Word Review and Verification Activities: * Verify if the list of Igbo Wiktionary words we created are still without audio pronunciations (this is to make sure that its hasn't been worked on) * Organized workflow and recording schedule for participants. Phase 2: Audio Recording and Upload Process Activities: High-quality audio recordings of Igbo words completed. Audio files successfully uploaded and stored on Wikimedia Commons through Lingua Libre. Phase 3: Integration and Final Documentation Activities: * Audio pronunciations successfully linked to corresponding Igbo Wiktionary entries. * Improved accessibility and pronunciation support for Igbo language learners and researchers. * Final project documentation and activity report completed. ===Project Timeline === '''In-person Event''' * Date: 11th July, 2026 * Venue: Oxford Hotel Airport Road Igwuruta-ali * Time: 2pm Prompt ===Organizers=== [[User: Sylvaline39|Sylvaline39]] [[User: Juliegwen|Juliegwen]] [[Otú:Mmemme 2026]] rlknwdxzps1bivhupzeiqnvmhqldhkc 687958 687957 2026-07-13T16:00:45Z Sylvaline39 15355 Updated page 687958 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Audio Documentation, Event Banner.jpg|thumb|Audio Documentation, Event Banner]] =='''Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary in Ikwerre Community.'''== ===Project Overview=== The Audio Documentation of Igbo Words on Igbo Wiktionary, is an initiative focused on improving the accessibility and preservation of the Igbo language through audio pronunciation documentation on Igbo Wiktionary. Following the successful creation of over 200 new Igbo word entries on Igbo Wiktionary, this project aims to record, upload, and integrate accurate au entries on Igbo Wiktionary, this project aims to record, upload, and integrate accurate audio pronunciations for each word. The project will support native speakers, language learners, researchers, and the wider Wikimedia community by enhancing pronunciation accuracy and promoting the digital preservation of spoken Igbo. Audio recordings will be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons and linked directly to their corresponding Igbo Wiktionary entries, contributing to the growth of open and accessible indigenous language resources online while helping to bridge the digital and language accessibility gap among nursing mothers in Ikwerre Community. ===Project Goals=== Successful recording and linking of audio pronunciations of 200 + Igbo words already created on Igbo Wiktionary. === Activities === Phase 1: Word Review and Verification Activities: * Verify if the list of Igbo Wiktionary words we created are still without audio pronunciations (this is to make sure that its hasn't been worked on) * Organized workflow and recording schedule for participants. Phase 2: Audio Recording and Upload Process Activities: High-quality audio recordings of Igbo words completed. Audio files successfully uploaded and stored on Wikimedia Commons through Lingua Libre. Phase 3: Integration and Final Documentation Activities: * Audio pronunciations successfully linked to corresponding Igbo Wiktionary entries. * Improved accessibility and pronunciation support for Igbo language learners and researchers. * Final project documentation and activity report completed. ===Project Timeline === '''In-person Event''' * Date: 11th July, 2026 * Venue: Oxford Hotel Airport Road Igwuruta-ali * Time: 2pm Prompt ===Organizers=== [[User: Sylvaline39|Sylvaline39]] [[User: Juliegwen|Juliegwen]] [[Otú:Mmemme 2026]] glh6vsjmvcfq7b4skm6l4sirloutet2 Tunde Eso 0 76985 688019 673872 2026-07-14T05:17:29Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688019 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Tunde Eso.png|thumb|Tunde Eso]] <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>  Tunde Eso {{Audio|Yo-Tunde Eso.ogg|Listen}} (amụrụ n'abalị iri na isii n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ n'afọ 1977) bụ onye nta akụkọ Naijiria, onye na-akọwa mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, ọkachamara na mmekọrịta ọha na eze, na onye na-ebipụta akwụkwọ akụkọ Findout. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/need-new-ideas-governance-tunde-eso/|title=We need new ideas in governance – Tunde Eso|date=2017-10-09|work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]]|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-08-14}}</ref> Ọ bụ onye na-achọ ịbụ Gọvanọ nke Osun Steeti n'afọ 2018. <ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite news|author=Admin|title=Addressing security challenges in Africa|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/09/addressing-security-challenges-in-africa/|accessdate=12 January 2017|work=[[Vanguard (Nigeria)|Vanguard]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Dike|first=Ada|title=Eso explains why he wrote the book 'African Security Solution'|url=http://adadike.blogspot.com/2015/06/eso-explains-why-he-wrote-book-african.html|accessdate=12 January 2017|date=29 June 2015|publisher=Adadke Blog}}</ref> Eso bụ onye guzobere Youthocracy, usoro ọchịchị a tụrụ aro ya. Ọ bụ onye isi oche na onye guzobere otu mmekọrịta ọha na eze a na-akpọ Fix Nigeria Group, nke o guzobere na ebumnuche nke iweghachi Naijiria n'ebube mbụ ya. N'oge ndụ ya, Tunde dere ọtụtụ akwụkwọ, gụnyere African Security Solution na Vision for Africa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=African Security Solution|first=Tunde|author=Eso|date=6 August 2012|publisher=Strategic Insight Publishing|id={{ASIN|190806417X|country=in}}}}</ref> == Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == A mụrụ Eso ma zụlite ya na Ilesha, Osun Steeti, n'ezinụlọ Pa Obafemi na Iyabode Eso (née Fanibe) na 16 ọnwa Ọgọst afọ 1977. Ọ gụrụ akwụkwọ na ngalaba akaụntụ maka asambodo mba ya na kọleji teknụzụ nke steeti Osun, Esa-Oke, n'afọ 2005. O nwetara nzere bachelọ nke sayensị na Sayensị Ndọrọndọrọ Ọchịchị na Mahadum Agụmakwụkwọ dị na Winneba, Ghana.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|author=Adebisi|first=Yemi|title=Why I Want To Become Osun's Next Governor|url=http://independentnig.com/why-i-want-to-become-osuns-next-governor-eso/#|accessdate=12 January 2017|work=Independent|publisher=Independent News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=admin|title=About Tunde eso|url=http://www.tundeeso.com/about-us/|work=Tunde Eso|accessdate=12 January 2017|archivedate=16 January 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116164558/http://www.tundeeso.com/about-us/}}</ref><ref name="achievers">{{Cite web|url=http://theachieverspublicationltd.co.uk/tap12.aspx|title=Tunde Eso|publisher=The Achievers|accessdate=7 February 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621005457/http://theachieverspublicationltd.co.uk/tap12.aspx|archivedate=21 June 2010}}</ref> == Echiche ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị == N'ajụjụ ọnụ ya na akwụkwọ akụkọ Naijiria bụ ''Guardian'', Eso kwuru na ọgbọ ochie nke ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ga-anọgide na-eme ka ndị ntorobịa Naijiria ghara ịdị ruo mgbe ndị ntorobịa ahụ ghọtara na ha mejupụtara ọnụ ọgụgụ kachasị elu nke ndị na-atụ vootu. O kwuru na ike ọnụọgụ nke ụmụaka ahụ zuru ezu iji họrọ ma họrọ otu n'ime ndị Naijiria na-eto eto nwere mmemme bara uru.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://guardian.ng/features/policy-a-politics/eso-its-time-for-generational-shift-in-osun-politics/|title=Eso: It's time for generational shift in Osun politics|date=26 February 2017|accessdate=5 April 2017|work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]}}</ref> N'echiche Eso, ndị ntorobịa Naijiria leghaara anya site n'aka ndị ọchịchị gara aga.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.naijaperminute.com.ng/2016/12/12/recession-politics-nigerian-youths-option-tunde-eso/|title=Recession, Politics and Nigerian Youths: What Option? – Tunde Eso|date=12 December 2016|work=Naija per Minute.com.ng|accessdate=5 April 2017|archivedate=15 March 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315002351/http://www.naijaperminute.com.ng/2016/12/12/recession-politics-nigerian-youths-option-tunde-eso/}}</ref> O kwekwaara na oge eruola iwulite ndị isi nwere echiche na omume ziri ezi, ndị isi na-agaghị alụ ọgụ maka naanị akpa ha, ndị isi ga-eche banyere ndị ọzọ ọ bụghị naanị onwe ha. N'echiche ya, njikọta nke ndị na-eto eto na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dị mkpa iji dozie nsogbu enweghị nchebe nke Naịjirịa. == Ọchịchị Youthocracy == N'afọ 2013, Eso mepụtara usoro ọchịchị ọhụrụ a na-akpọ "youthocracy," nke ọ kọwara dị ka 'Government of the people, by the young, and for the people' n'akwụkwọ ya akpọrọ Vision for Africa ''. [14][15]. Ọ na-akọwa'' na ebumnuche ya bụ inye ndị ntorobịa ohere ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ka ha wee nwee ike ịdị ''[[The Nation (Nigeria)|Mba.]]'' na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Naijiria, ya mere ọ dị mkpa ịmara na Youthocracy, nke a na-eme iji weghara ọchịchị onye kwuo uche ya, dị ka ajụjụ ọnụ ya na The Nation si kwuo. <ref>{{Cite news|author=Olusegun|first=Okerinmodun|title=We need new ideas in governance – Tunde Eso|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/need-new-ideas-governance-tunde-eso/|work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]]|date=9 October 2017|accessdate=4 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Youths and 2019 elections|url=https://www.pressreader.com/nigeria/the-punch/20180920/281784220006532|publisher=[[The Punch]]|accessdate=31 May 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707093842/https://www.pressreader.com/nigeria/the-punch/20180920/281784220006532|archivedate=July 7, 2019|language=en|date=2018-09-20}}</ref> == Edensibia == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Official website  [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] fot0flnfkc8rc7lofoedzybfdomsfc6 Shannon B. Olsson 0 77002 687951 673875 2026-07-13T14:50:04Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 687951 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Shannon Olsson - 1.png|thumb|Shannon Olsson]] '''Shannon B. Olsson''' (onye amụrụ na Bice, <ref name="Birth">{{Cite news|author=Parish|first=Grace|date=27 July 1977|title=Baby Girl Born to Joyce and Norman Bice|page=22|publisher=Tribune Press|url=https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=trp19770727-01.1.22|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> 18 Julaị 1977) bụ onye ọkà mmụta sayensị na-arụ ọrụ na kemịkalụ gburugburu ebe obibi <ref name="Nature">{{Cite journal|author=Lemming|first=Jack|title=This ecologist uses fake flowers to study India's insects|journal=Nature|date=13 December 2022|volume=612|issue=582|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04427-4|pmid=36510016}}</ref> na nkwado, <ref name="ET Insights">{{Cite web|author=Nair|first=Queenie|title=The Global Director of The Echo Network discusses the future of sustainability in India and globally|url=https://etinsights.et-edge.com/a-fresh-approach-or-an-indian-model-of-sustainability-is-the-future/|work=ET Insights|date=12 January 2023|publisher=Economic Times|accessdate=24 April 2023|archivedate=24 April 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424073248/https://etinsights.et-edge.com/a-fresh-approach-or-an-indian-model-of-sustainability-is-the-future/}}</ref> ọkachasị n'ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi nke India.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|author=Elizabeth|first=Shilpa|date=3 August 2023|title='Sustainability is not just about reduction of consumption, but also about uplifting those in the bottom of the pyramid'|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/sustainability-is-not-just-about-reduction-of-consumption-but-also-about-uplifting-those-in-the-bottom-of-the-pyramid/article67150456.ece|accessdate=27 August 2023}}</ref> Olsson bụ onye nchọpụta na onye nduzi ụwa nke netwọk echo, netwọk "sayensị na ọha mmadụ" na-agafe mba 45.<ref name="EchoBioScience">{{Cite web|author=Krishnan|first=Anusha|title=The echo network – raising voices for a better future|url=https://indiabioscience.org/columns/indian-scenario/the-echo-network-raising-voices-for-a-better-future|work=India Bioscience|accessdate=24 April 2023|date=2020-10-07}}</ref> Ọ na-eje ozi site na netwọk mba ụwa dị ka onye nnọchi anya sayensị pụrụ iche na India ya na Danish Academy of Technical Sciences (ATV) na mmekọrịta chiri anya na Innovation Centre Denmark na India (n'okpuru nkwado nke MFA Denmark na Ministry of Higher Education and Science (Denmark) ). <ref name="NNF">{{Cite web|title=ATV will be a central focal point for Danish research's contribution to India's green transition|url=https://atv.dk/nyheder/nyhed/atv-bliver-centralt-omdrejningspunkt-dansk-forsknings-bidrag-til-indiens-groenne|work=Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber|date=24 January 2022|publisher=ATV|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref> Ọ rụburu ọrụ dị ka onye ndu ọrụ na Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology na Jena, Germany, wee bụrụ onye otu ngalaba nke National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research na Bangalore, India. <ref name="iChem">{{Cite journal|author=Olsson|first=Shannon|title=Biosynthetic infochemical communication|journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics|date=2015-07-10|volume=10|issue=4|doi=10.1088/1748-3190/10/4/043001|pmid=26158233|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3190/10/4/043001/meta}}</ref><ref name="NCBS Join">{{Cite web|title=NCBS welcomes new faculty member – Shannon Olsson|url=https://news.ncbs.res.in/archivednews/story/ncbs-welcomes-new-faculty-member-shannon-olsson|work=NCBS News|publisher=National Centre for Biological Sciences|accessdate=23 April 2023|date=2014-06-09}}</ref> == Malite ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == Amụrụ Olsson ka '''Shannon Bryn Bice''' nye Norman Allen Bice na Joyce Elaine Parish na De Peyster, New York.<ref name="Birth"/> Olsson gụrụ akwụkwọ na Heuvelton Central Skọlụ dị na Heuvelton, New York.<ref name="HCS Alumni">{{Cite web|author=Herron|first=Tessa|title=HCS Alumni Newletter|url=https://issuu.com/therron1/docs/hcs_alumni_newsletter_spring_2017_-|work=issuu.com|accessdate=23 April 2023|date=2017-08-11|archivedate=2023-04-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423122936/https://issuu.com/therron1/docs/hcs_alumni_newsletter_spring_2017_-}}</ref> Ọ gara n'ihu gụọ akwụkwọ na kọleji Nazaret (New York) ebe o nwetara nzere Bachelọ nke Sayensị na kemistri yana Agụmakwụkwọ sekọndrị sayensị na 1999.<ref name="Naz Fulbright">{{Cite web|title=Student Fulbright Scholars|url=https://www2.naz.edu/academics/fulbright/student-fulbright-scholars/|work=Nazareth College|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> E nyere Olsson PhD na 2005 na ngalaba Neurobiology na Akparamàgwà na Mahadum Cornell. nwere ọkachamara na Chemical Ecology n'okpuru nlekọta nke Prọfesọ Thomas Eisner na Wendell L. Roelofs. ''Rhagoletis pomonella''.<ref name="Thesis" /> E nyere ya onyinye "Distinguished Alumni Award" site na Heuvelton Central Skọlụ, <ref name="HCS Alumni" /> "Graduate of the Last Decade" site na kọleji Nazareth, na nnyocha oge okpomọkụ ya na Clarkson University na Prọfesọ Yuzhuo Li e gosipụtara na United States Capitol maka Council on Undergraduate Research "Posters on the Hill" ihe omume.<ref name="Clarkson">{{Cite web|title=Clarkson Prof And Mentor From De Peyster Present Research At U.S. Capitol Tomorrow|url=https://www.clarkson.edu/news/clarkson-prof-and-mentor-de-peyster-present-research-us-capitol-tomorrow|work=Clarkson|publisher=Clarkson University|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428234551/https://www.clarkson.edu/news/clarkson-prof-and-mentor-de-peyster-present-research-us-capitol-tomorrow|accessdate=23 April 2023|archivedate=28 April 2023}}</ref> Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na mahadum, E nyere Olsson onyinye Fulbright Mmekọrịta nye Mahadum Lund. <ref name="Pachnoda 1">{{Cite journal|author=Stensmyr|first=Marcus C.|title=Detection of fruit- and flower-emitted volatiles by olfactory receptor neurons in the polyphagous fruit chafer Pachnoda marginata (Coleoptera: Cetoniinae)|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A|date=2001-09-01|volume=187|issue=7|pages=509–519|doi=10.1007/s003590100222|pmid=11730298|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s003590100222|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="Pachnoda 2">{{Cite journal|author=Larsson|first=Mattias C.|title=Attractiveness of Fruit and Flower Odorants Detected by Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Fruit Chafer Pachnoda marginata|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|date=2003-05-01|volume=29|issue=5|pages=1253–1268|doi=10.1023/A:1023893926038|pmid=12857034|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1023893926038}}</ref> n'okpuru Bill Hansson.<ref name="Naz Fulbright" /><ref name="GOLD" /> Mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, ọ malitere agụmakwụkwọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Mahadum Cornell, ma n'afọ 2006–2007 mee nnyocha postdoctoral na mahadum ahụ na University of California, Los Angeles<ref name="UCLA">{{Cite web|title=Shannon Olsson|url=http://zimmerlab.biology.ucla.edu/solsson/index.html|work=Zimmer Lab|publisher=UCLA|accessdate=23 April 2023|archivedate=23 April 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423132948/http://zimmerlab.biology.ucla.edu/solsson/index.html}}</ref> na gburugburu ebe obibi kemịkalụ nke invertebrates mmiri na California kelp forests. == Ọrụ == N'afọ 2007, ọ malitere ọrụ ọkachamara ya dị ka onye ndu ọrụ maka mmemme EU "Biosynthetic Infochemical Communication" <ref name="iChem EU">{{Cite web|title=Biosynthetic Info-chemical Communication|url=https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/032275|work=CORDIS|publisher=European Commission|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> na Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology na Jena, Germany. <ref name="iChem"/> N'afọ 2014, Olsson sonyeere ngalaba nke National Center for Biological Sciences (NCBS) na Tata Institute of Fundamental Research na Bangalore, India, na-akwalite kemịkal gburugburu ebe obibi gafee usoro okike India. <ref name="NCBS Join"/> <ref name="Hindu NER Grant">{{Cite news|author=Rao|first=Mohit|title=Rs. 25-cr. grant to study if flowers talk to each other|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/rs-25crore-grant-to-study-if-flowers-talk-to-each-other/article7142295.ece|accessdate=23 April 2023|work=The Hindu|date=2015-04-26}}</ref><ref name="collaborations in CE">{{Cite web|author=Bharath|first=Harini|title=Fostering collaborations and creating a roadmap for Indian chemical ecology|url=https://indiabioscience.org/news/2016/fostering-collaborations-and-creating-a-roadmap-for-indian-chemical-ecology|work=India Bioscience|accessdate=23 April 2023|date=2016-04-26}}</ref> Na NCBS, Olsson malitekwara otu Naturalist-Inspired Chemical Ecology (NICE), nke jikọtara usoro okike na ngwaọrụ ọgbara ọhụrụ sitere na kemịkal, molecular biology, ecology, na neuroscience iji nyochaa otu ihe ndị dị ndụ si eji kemịkal iji soro ibe ha na-emekọrịta ihe ma mata ihe ndị dị mkpa na gburugburu ha.<ref name="Naturalism">{{Cite news|author=Saldanha|first=Dahlia|date=2016-07-18|title=Dr Shannon Olsson: naturalism, chemistry and neuroscience|publisher=Biotechin.Asia|url=https://biotechinasia.wordpress.com/2016/07/18/dr-shannon-olsson-naturalism-chemistry-and-neuroscience/|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> Nnyocha Olsson ekwuola maka isiokwu ndị dị ka gụnyere nkwurịta okwu kemịkal na Indian antelope blackbuck <ref name="Blackbuck">{{Cite journal|author=Nair|first=Jyothi V.|title=An optimized protocol for large-scale in situ sampling and analysis of volatile organic compounds|journal=Ecology and Evolution|date=2018-05-18|volume=8|issue=11|pages=5924–5936|doi=10.1002/ece3.4138}}</ref> ọrụ ugbo gburugburu ebe obibi na ubi kọfị India, <ref name="coffee">{{Cite journal|author=Rajus|first=Santosh|title=Behavioral Ecology of the Coffee White Stem Borer: Toward Ecology-Based Pest Management of India's Coffee Plantations|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|date=2021-02-09|volume=9|doi=10.3389/fevo.2021.607555}}</ref> <ref name="coffee2">{{Cite news|author=Desikan|first=Shubashree|title=Knowing the ways of the coffee white stem borer|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/knowing-the-ways-of-the-coffee-white-stem-borer/article35247915.ece|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=The Hindu|date=2021-07-10}}</ref> mmetụta nke mmetọ ikuku na anụ ọhịa anyị na ụmụ ahụhụ, <ref name="air pollution">{{Cite journal|author=Thimmegowda|first=Geetha G.|title=A field-based quantitative analysis of sublethal effects of air pollution on pollinators|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA|date=2020-08-10|volume=117|issue=34|pages=20653–20661|doi=10.1073/pnas.2009074117|pmid=32778582}}</ref> <ref name="Science">{{Cite journal|author=Bharath|first=Harini|title='Its body looked like a warzone.' Air pollution could kill off critical honey bees in India|journal=Science|date=2020-08-10|issue=Science News|doi=10.1126/science.abe2623|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/its-body-looked-warzone-air-pollution-could-kill-critical-honey-bees-india|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref> mmetụta nke mgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi anyị na [[Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi]], <ref name="Nature"/> <ref name="hoverflies">{{Cite journal|author=Nordström|first=Karin|title=In situ modeling of multimodal floral cues attracting wild pollinators across environments|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA|date=2017-11-07|volume=114|issue=50|pages=13218–13223|doi=10.1073/pnas.1714414114|pmid=29180408}}</ref> <ref name="CEN">{{Cite journal|author=Katsnelson|first=Alla|title=Decoding how insects use visual and chemical cues to find food|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|date=2018-06-18|volume=96|issue=27|pages=785–787|doi=10.1021/acscentsci.8b00367|pmid=30062105|url=https://cen.acs.org/biological-chemistry/chemical-communication/Decoding-insects-use-visual-chemical/96/i27}}</ref> nyocha zuru ụwa ọnụ na-ejikọta COVID-19 na uto na mmetụta, [5] [6] [7] na ọgbọ egwuregwu nke eziokwu dị iche iche maka ụmụ ahụhụ.<ref name="COVID">{{Cite journal|author=Parma|first=Valentina|title=More Than Smell—COVID-19 Is Associated With Severe Impairment of Smell, Taste, and Chemesthes|journal=Chemical Senses|date=2020-06-20|volume=45|issue=7|pages=609–622|doi=10.1093/chemse/bjaa041|pmid=32564071|url=https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/45/7/609/5860460|accessdate=23 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="COVID2">{{Cite news|author=Fernandez|first=Snehal|title=Indian researchers set to study Covid-19 link with loss of smell, taste|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/indian-researchers-set-to-study-covid-19-link-with-loss-of-smell-taste/story-UBaUT7sf8VgYuoz9t2WeJM.html|accessdate=24 April 2023|publisher=Hindustan Times|date=2020-04-23}}</ref><ref name="VR">{{Cite journal|author=Kaushik|first=Pavan Kumar|date=2020-05-18|title=Characterizing long-range search behavior in Diptera using complex 3D virtual environments|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA|volume=117|issue=22|pages=12201–12207|doi=10.1073/pnas.1912124117|pmid=32424090}}</ref><ref name="CNN">{{Cite news|author=Hunt|first=Katie|title=Scientists create video game to unlock how flies navigate|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/18/world/insects-virtual-reality-study-scn/index.html|accessdate=23 April 2023|publisher=CNN|date=2020-05-18}}</ref> === netwọk echo === N'afọ 2019, Olsson guzobere [[The echo network|netwọk echo]], <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=the echo network|url=https://www.echonetwork.in|work=the echo network|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref> mmekọrịta ọha na eze na nke onwe iji dozie nsogbu ndị dị ugbu a na nkwado mmadụ na gburugburu ebe obibi, <ref name="EchoBioScience"/> nke mbụ na India, ma mesịa n'ụwa niile. <ref name="ECHO_RM">{{Cite web|date=2019-12-19|title=An 'EChO Network' for cross-disciplinary leadership in India|url=https://researchmatters.in/news/echo-network-cross-disciplinary-leadership-india|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=Research Matters}}</ref> Onye isi ndụmọdụ sayensị nke Gọọmentị India, K. VijayRaghavan, malitere netwọk ahụ na 19 Disemba 2019, ya na Bill na Melinda Gates Foundation, Hindustan Unilever Limited, RoundGlass Foundation, India Climate Collaborative, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), na Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms (C-CAMP) dị ka ndị mmekọ ntọala.<ref name="ECHO_RM" /> Ka ọ na-erule n'ọnwa Eprel afọ 2023, netwọk echo nwere ihe karịrị ndị otu 2100 na-agafe mba 45.<ref name=":0" /> Olsson kwuru na "Ebumnuche nke netwọk echo bụ ịmepụta usoro maka òtù na ndị mmadụ si na ngalaba dị iche iche iji rụọ ọrụ ọnụ yana agụmakwụkwọ ma jiri sayensị na teknụzụ mepụta obodo ndị na-adịgide adịgide. "<ref name=":1"/> N'afọ 2022, a họpụtara Olsson dị ka "Onye nnọchi anya sayensị pụrụ iche na India" na Danish Academy of Technical Sciences (ATV) na mmekọrịta chiri anya na Innovation Centre Denmark na India (n'okpuru nkwado nke MFA Denmark na Ministry of Higher Education and Science (Denmark) ). Nke a na-akwado Novo Nordisk Foundation.<ref name="NNF"/> Ọ bụkwa onye guzobere Adaptation for Resilient Incomes (ECOBARI), na Biodiversity Collaborative . <ref name="ECOBARI">{{Cite web|author=D'Souza|first=Marcella|title=ECOBARI – Upscaling Ecosystem Restoration Through Collective Action|url=https://wotr.org/2022/02/23/ecobari-upscaling-ecosystem-restoration-through-collective-action/|work=WOTR|date=23 February 2022|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="BC">{{Cite news|author=Bawa|first=Kamal|title=India can become a biodiversity champion|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/india-can-become-a-biodiversity-champion/article66541444.ece|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=The Hindu|date=2023-02-23}}</ref><ref name="BC2">{{Cite journal|author=Bawa|first=Kamal|title=Envisioning a biodiversity science for sustaining human well-being|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA|date=2020-09-30|volume=117|issue=42|pages=25951–25955|doi=10.1073/pnas.2018436117|pmid=32999073}}</ref> N'afọ 2021, o guzobere Citizen Science for Biodiversity (CitSci India), ma soro ha hazie nzukọ ha kwa afọ. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://citsci-india.org/|accessdate=2023-05-22|work=Citizen Science India|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="CitSci">{{Cite news|author=Menon|first=Rashmi|title=How inclusive is citizen science in India?|url=https://lifestyle.livemint.com/smart-living/environment/how-inclusive-is-citizen-science-in-india-111631260777683.html|accessdate=24 April 2023|publisher=Live Mint|date=2021-09-10}}</ref> Ọ bụkwa onye ndụmọdụ ("Guru") maka Future Climate Leaders Programme ma nọrọ na kọmitii ndụmọdụ maka Research and Innovation Circle of Hyderabad (RICH). <ref name="FCL">{{Cite web|title=Our Gurus|url=https://www.futureclimateleaders.org/gurus.php|work=Future Climate Leaders|publisher=FCL|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="FCL2">{{Cite web|title=TERI and Evergreen Story launch Future Climate Leaders program to engage schoolchildren in climate action measures|url=https://www.teriin.org/press-release/teri-and-evergreen-story-launch-future-climate-leaders-program-engage-schoolchildren|work=The Energy and Research Institute|publisher=TERI|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="RICH">{{Cite web|title=Advisory Committee|url=https://rich.telangana.gov.in/advisory-committee.html|work=Research and Innovation Circle of Hyderabad (RICH)|publisher=RICH|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref> \ === Ikwu okwu n'ihu ọha === Olsson ekwuola okwu ihu ọha maka TEDx.<ref name="TEDxChennai">{{Cite web|title=Connecting with tiny insect brains through virtual reality|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/dr_shannon_olsson_connecting_with_tiny_brains_through_virtual_reality_jan_2018?language=en|work=TED|publisher=TEDxChennai|accessdate=24 April 2023|date=2018-03-11}}</ref><ref name="TEDxAU">{{Cite web|title=Empathic Science: How we're more connected to nature than we think|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/shannon_olsson_empathic_science_how_we_re_more_connected_to_nature_than_we_think/details|work=TED|publisher=TEDxAshokaUniversity|accessdate=24 April 2023|date=2017-09-07}}</ref><ref name="TEDxMAIS">{{Cite web|title=Theme: Do you see what I see?|url=https://www.ted.com/tedx/events/17525|work=TED|publisher=TEDxMAIS|accessdate=24 April 2023|date=2015-12-06}}</ref> Ọrụ ya apụtawokwa na Science Gallery Dublin, Ireland, The Victoria and Albert Museum na London, UK, na Ngalaba sayensị na teknụzụ (India) Science Express train.<ref name="Science Gallery Dublin">{{Cite web|title=Insect VR|url=https://dublin.sciencegallery.com/field-test-exhibits/insect-vr|work=Science Gallery Dublin|date=8 September 2020|publisher=Science Gallery|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="V&A">{{Cite news|author=Deepika|first=K.C.|title=A non-flower, but just as bright for insects|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/a-non-flower-but-just-as-bright-for-insects/article27893961.ece|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=The Hindu|date=2019-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Rao|first=Mohit M.|title=NCBS, ATREE travel with Science Express|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/ncbs-atree-travel-with-science-express/article7953641.ece|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=The Hindu|date=2015-12-06}}</ref> N'afọ 2023, o kwuru okwu na Nzukọ Nobel nke iri ise na itoolu.<ref name="Nobel Conference">{{Cite web|title=Shannon Olsson Nobel Conference 59|url=https://gustavus.edu/events/nobelconference/2023/speakers/olsson.php|work=Gustavus Adolphus College|publisher=Nobel Conference}}</ref> == Onyinye na mmata == Maka ọrụ sayensị ya, e nyela Olsson United Nations Pinning for Research Excellence site na Ghandian Scholars <ref name="Ghandian">{{Cite news|title=IIIM organizes interaction session between Scientists, Gandhian scholars|url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/iiim-organizes-interaction-session-between-scientists-gandhian-scholars/|accessdate=23 April 2023|publisher=Daily Excelsior|date=2015-03-12}}</ref> ma bụrụkwa Ramanujan Fellow. Nnyocha Olsson gosipụtara site na CNN, Nature (akwụkwọ akụkọ) , Science (akwụkwọ akụkọ, <ref name="CNN"/> Inverse (weebụsaịtị), <ref name="Nature"/> Haaretz, [4] USA Today, <ref name="Science"/> Chemical and Engineering News, [4] The Conversation (weebụbaịtị), [4] na The Hindu, [4] n'etiti ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ akụkọ mba ụwa ndị ọzọ.<ref name="Sciencetwo">{{Cite journal|author=Vignieri|first=Sacha|date=2020-09-04|title=Air pollution is bad for bees|journal=Science|volume=369|issue=6508|pages=1204–1205|doi=10.1126/science.2020.369.6508.twil}}</ref><ref name="Inverse">{{Cite web|author=Sarah|first=Wells|date=2020-05-18|title=These insects are annoying, but they might just save your life|url=https://www.inverse.com/innovation/vr-environment-for-flies|accessdate=2023-04-23|work=Inverse}}</ref><ref name="Haaretz">{{Cite news|author=Schuster|first=Ruth|date=2020-05-21|title=Scientists Just Figured Out Why It's So Hard to Swat a Fruit Fly|publisher=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/2020-05-21/ty-article/.premium/scientists-just-figured-out-why-its-so-hard-to-swat-a-fruit-fly/0000017f-ef01-ddba-a37f-ef6fe6590000|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="USA Today">{{Cite news|author=Rice|first=Dole|date=2020-08-14|title=Air pollution harms honey bees too, study finds: Dirty air could kill 80% of bees in India|publisher=USA Today|url=https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/08/14/air-pollution-asian-honey-bees-harmful-study/3374325001/|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="CEN"/><ref name="The Conversation">{{Cite web|author=Smith|first=Barbara|date=2020-08-10|title=Air pollution could be making honey bees sick – new study|url=https://theconversation.com/air-pollution-could-be-making-honey-bees-sick-new-study-144155|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=The Conversation}}</ref><ref name="coffee2"/> A kpọrọ Olsson onye INK Fellow na 2016. <ref name="INK">{{Cite web|title=INK Fellows 2016|url=https://inktalks.com/ink-fellows-2016/|work=INK Talks|publisher=INK|accessdate=24 April 2023}}</ref> N'ihi mgbalị ya na nkwado, a matara Olsson dị ka otu n'ime "Ndị inyom 75 na STEAM na India".<ref name="75women">{{Cite web|author=PSA|first=Content Desk|date=2022-03-08|title=She Is: 75 Indian Women in STEAM|url=https://www.psa.gov.in/article/she-75-indian-women-steam/3628|accessdate=24 April 2023|work=Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India|publisher=Government of India}}</ref> == Ihe odide == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] ru7l5z229bicfz8c49ju6qynsab8r4n Wale Oladipo 0 77243 688046 670714 2026-07-14T10:32:20Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Professor Wale Oladipo | office = Pro-Chancellor and Chairman of the Governing Council of Osun State University | image = Prof-wale-oladipo.jpg | caption = The Pro-Chancellor and Chairman of the Governing Council of Osun State University, Abiodun Adewale Oladipo | country = Nigeria | 1blankname = PRO CHANCELLOR | birth_date = January 1st, 1958 | birth_place = ILE-IFE | citizenship = Nigeria | profession = Academic, administrator, and politician }} By{{Reflist}}Prọfesọ '''Abiodun Adewale Oladipo''' (amụrụ na Jenụwarị 1, 1958, Ile-Ife, Naijiria) <ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-01-01|title=Governor Adeleke Celebrates Professor Wale Oladipo on his Birthday|url=https://www.arewareportersng.com/governor-adeleke-celebrates-professor-wale-oladipo-on-his-birthday/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=Arewa Reporters|language=en-US}}</ref> bụ onye nkuzi Naijiria, onye nchịkwa, na onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Webmaster|first=University|title=The Pro-Chancellor|url=https://uniosun.edu.ng/index.php/management/the-pro-chancellor.html|accessdate=2023-10-13|work=Osun State University, Osogbo|language=en-gb}}</ref> Enyemaka ya gụnyere, ngalaba nke kemịkal nuklia, yana itinye aka na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Naijiria. Ọ na-eje ozi dị ka Pro-chancellor na [https://www.uniosun.edu.ng/index.php/admin-management/the-pro-chancellor.html Onye isi oche] nke Kansụl Na-achị Isi nke Mahadum Osun State . <ref>{{Cite web|title=Osun State University, Osogbo|url=https://copsun.org/index.php/university/osun-state-university-osogbo/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=Committee of Pro-Chancellors of State-Owned Universities in Nigeria|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Kamorudeen|first=Adabanija|date=2023-07-20|title=Governor Adeleke Appoints Chairmen and Vice Chairmen of State Boards|url=https://www.adabanijaglobal.com.ng/governor-adeleke-appoints-chairmen-and-vice-chairmen-of-state-boards/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=Omo Adabanija Global|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-07-20|title=Governor Adeleke Appoints Chairmen and Vice Chairmen of State Boards|url=https://www.osunstate.gov.ng/2023/07/governor-adeleke-appoints-chairmen-and-vice-chairmen-of-state-boards/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=Osun State Official Website|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fidelinfo.com/2023/09/22/89-students-bag-first-class-in-uniosun/?amp=1|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=fidelinfo.com|title=89 students bag first class in UNIOSUN|date=22 September 2023|archivedate=2023-10-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231023065647/https://fidelinfo.com/2023/09/22/89-students-bag-first-class-in-uniosun/?amp=1}}</ref> == Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ == Oladipo gara St. John's Catholic Grammar School, Ile-Ife, site na 1972 ruo 1976. N'oge a, o nwetara Grade 1 na West African Senior Certificate Examination. Ọ gara n'ihu na nzere bachelọ ya na Chemistry (Education) na [[Mahadum nke Obafemi Awolowo|Mahadum Obafemi Awolowo]] (nke bụbu Mahadum Ife), Ile-Ife, na-agụsị akwụkwọ na klas nke abụọ (Upper Division) na 1981. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gateway.uniosun.edu.ng/index.php/itemlist/category/158-content.html?start=84|title=Content|accessdate=2026-07-01|archivedate=2023-11-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101181221/https://gateway.uniosun.edu.ng/index.php/itemlist/category/158-content.html?start=84}}</ref> Mgbe ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ, ọ gara n'ihu na agụmakwụkwọ ya na mba ofesi na Mahadum Claude Bernard, Lyon I, Villeurbanne, France, ebe ọ nwetara MPhil na PhD na Analytical Chemistry (Nuclear Techniques) Na ihe karịrị akwụkwọ ise na 1984-1988, n'okpuru nlekọta nke Prọfesọ JP Thomas.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|author=Thomas|first=J. P.|date=1988-05-02|title=Desorption induced by H+n clusters (7 ⩽ n ⩽ 61) at 600 keV|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X%2888%2990237-6|journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|volume=32|issue=1|pages=354–359|doi=10.1016/0168-583X(88)90237-6|issn=0168-583X}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=J.P.|first=Thomas|date=1988|title=Secondary ion emission induced in insulators by fast (<400 KeV/u) Ions and clusters. Analytical applications|url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:20047227|journal=Vide. Couches Minces|language=en|volume=43|issue=244|issn=0042-5281}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|author=Thomas|first=J. P.|date=1989-02-01|title=COLLECTIVE EFFECTS IN THE DESORPTION PROCESS INDUCED BY Hn+ CLUSTERS NEAR THE BOHR'S VELOCITY|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/jphyscol:1989233|journal=Le Journal de Physique Colloques|language=en|volume=50|issue=C2|pages=C2–203|doi=10.1051/jphyscol:1989233|issn=0449-1947}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|author=Thomas|first=J. P.|date=1989-05-01|title=Surface profiling of insulating layers using desorption induced by monatomic or cluster ions of beam diameter in the 5–10 μm range|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X%2889%2990017-7|journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|volume=42|issue=1|pages=127–129|doi=10.1016/0168-583X(89)90017-7|issn=0168-583X}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author=Oladipo|first=A.|date=1991-04-01|title=Secondary ion emission from cesium salts under megaelectronvolt ion bombardment: comparative study and beam secondary effects|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1176%2891%2980075-X|journal=International Journal of Mass Spectrometry and Ion Processes|volume=105|issue=2|pages=119–128|doi=10.1016/0168-1176(91)80075-X|issn=0168-1176}}</ref> == Ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ == == Ọrụ nchịkwa == == Ihe ndị ọ rụzuru na ihe nrite == O nyela ikike ọtụtụ isiokwu <ref name=":3"/> <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oladipo|first=A. A.|date=2003|title=Determination of trace metal levels in used lubricating oil in aqueous medium using atomic absorption spectrometry|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjpas/article/view/15964|journal=Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=249–254|doi=10.4314/gjpas.v9i2.15964|issn=2992-4464}}</ref> ma bụrụkwa onye isi okwu n'ọtụtụ nzukọ mpaghara na nke mba ụwa.<ref name=":2"/> Ọrụ ya na kemịkalụ nuklia gụnyere ojiji nke Cryogenically Produced Heavy Cluster ions of Hydrogen na Study of Plasma Desorption Mass Spectrometry, yana nguzobe nke ụlọ nyocha AAS zuru oke na Graphite Atomization na Cold Vapor Hg Detection Option. == Ọrụ na ime ihe ike == Prọfesọ Oladipo na-arụ ọrụ dị iche iche n'ọkwa obodo, gụnyere ịrụ ọrụ dịka onye isi oche nke Odu’a Investment Company Ltd na 1992, onye otu nwa oge nke Osun State Sports Council site na 1998 ruo 1999, na onye otu nwa oge nke Osun State Local Govt. Service Commission site na Febụwarị 2000 ruo 2002. Ọ rụkwara ọrụ dịka onye otu Ife Development Board ruo afọ atọ. Na 2008, a họpụtara ya dịka Onyeisi oche nke Osun State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB[1]). Na mgbakwunye, ọ rụrụ ọrụ dịka Onyeisi oche nke ndị isi nchịkwa nke Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Yaba, site na 2009 ruo 2011. Na Julaị 2013, a họpụtara ya dịka odeakwụkwọ mba nke Peoples Democratic Party (PDP)[1] ma emesịa họpụta ya maka ọchịchị afọ anọ na Disemba 2014 na Mgbakọ Mba Pụrụ Iche nke Party nke emere na Abuja.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Odunsi|first=Wale|date=2013-10-01|title=Oyinlola loses out as PDP swear in Oladipo as National Secretary|url=https://dailypost.ng/2013/10/01/oyinlola-loses-out-as-pdp-swear-in-oladipo-as-national-secretary/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Odunsi|first=Wale|date=2013-07-15|title=South-West PDP nominates Oladipo to replace Oyinlola as National Secretary|url=https://dailypost.ng/2013/07/15/south-west-pdp-nominates-oladipo-to-replace-oyinlola-as-national-secretary/|accessdate=2023-10-14|work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/02/nigerians-wont-vote-people-with-entitlement-mentality-ex-pdp-scribe/amp/|title=Nigerians won't vote people with entitlement mentality - Ex-PDP scribe|date=15 February 2023|work=[[Vanguard (Nigeria)|Vanguard]]}}</ref> == Akwụkwọ ndị e bipụtara == # J.P. Thomas, A. Oladipo na M. Fallavier; 1988; B32: 354-359.<ref name=":4"/> # J.P. Thomas, A. Oladipo na M. Fallavier; 1988; "Secondary Ion Emission Induced in Insulators: Analytical Applications"605-611.<ref name=":0"/> # J.P. Thomas, A. Oladipo na M. Fallavier; 1989; "Mmetụta Nchịkọta na Usoro Desorption nke Hn+ Clusters na-akpata na nso Bohr's Velocity";<ref name=":1"/> # J.P. Thomas, A. Oladipo na M. Fallavier; 1989; "Nkọwa ihu nke Insulating Layers site na Desorption Induced by Monatomic or Cluster Ions of Beam Diameter in the 5-10 μm Range"; <ref name=":2"/>&nbsp; # A. Oladipo, M. Fallavier na J.P. Thomas; 1991; "Secondary Ion Emission from Cesium Salts under Megaelectronvolt Ion Bombardment: Comparative Study and Beam Secondary Effects"; <ref name=":3"/> # B. Nsouli, P. Rumeau, H. Allali, B. Chabert, O. Debre, '''A. A. Oladipo''', J. P. Soulier na J. P, Thomas; 1995; "Plasma Desorption Time-of-flight Mass Spectrometric Elucidation of the Mechanisms of Adhesion Enhancement between Plasma-treated PEEK-Carbon Composite and an Epoxyamine Adhesive"; <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Nsouli|first=B.|date=1995|title=Plasma desorption time-of-flight mass spectrometric elucidation of the mechanisms of adhesion enhancement between plasma-treated PEEK-carbon composite and an epoxyamine adhesive|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rcm.1290091520|journal=Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry|language=en|volume=9|issue=15|pages=1566–1571|doi=10.1002/rcm.1290091520|issn=0951-4198}}</ref> # H. Allali, O. Debre, B. Lagrange, B. Nsouli, '''A. A. Oladipo''' na J. P. Thomas; 1995; "Spontaneous Desorption: A Controlled Phenomenon for Surface Analysis Application? Nkebi nke Mbụ: Ihe akaebe ọhụrụ maka usoro sputtering nke a na-eme ka ọ dịkwuo mma"; <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Allali|first=H.|date=1996-01-01|title="Spontaneous" desorption: A controlled phenomenon for surface analysis application? Part I: New evidence for a sputtering process induced by a well localized field enhanced desorption|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X%2895%2900818-7|journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|volume=108|issue=1|pages=163–172|doi=10.1016/0168-583X(95)00818-7|issn=0168-583X}}</ref> # C. A Adesanmi, I. A. Tubosun, F. A. Balogun, na '''A. A. Oladipo'''; 1997; "Ọganihu nke Njikọ IENAA na Ko-factor na Nkọwapụta nke U na Th Concentrations na Nnyocha Rock Samples"; <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Adesanmi|first=C. A.|date=1997-07-01|title=Advantages of combined IENAA and K0-factor technique in the determination of U and Th concentrations in exploration rock samples|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969804397003412|journal=Applied Radiation and Isotopes|volume=48|issue=7|pages=991–996|doi=10.1016/S0969-8043(97)00341-2|issn=0969-8043}}</ref> # H. Allali, M. Ben Embarek, O. Debre, B. Nsouli, '''A. Oladipo''', A. Roche na J. P. Thomas: 1997; "Nnyocha HSF-SIMS nke onyinye Prephosphatation na usoro phosphate nke Silicon Steel Surface"; Rapid Comm. Mass Spectr. 11 1377–1382.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Allali|first=H.|date=1997-08-30|title=An HSF-SIMS Investigation of the Prephosphatation Contribution to the Phosphatation Process of Silicon Steel Surface|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0231(19970830)11:133.0.CO;2-A|journal=Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry|language=en|volume=11|issue=13|pages=1377–1382|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0231(19970830)11:13<1377::AID-RCM940>3.0.CO;2-A|issn=0951-4198}}</ref> # C. A. Adesanmi, F. A. Balogun, M. K. Fasasi, I. A. Tubosun, '''A. A. Oladipo;''' 2001; Usoro ọkara nke ihe omuma maka njikwa arụmọrụ nke HPGe; <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oladipo|first=A.A.|date=2001-09-01|title=A semi-empirical formula for HPGe detector efficiency calibration|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013254400618|journal=Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry|language=en|volume=249|issue=3|pages=607–611|doi=10.1023/A:1013254400618|issn=1588-2780}}</ref> [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] j99hif433q9kv4wv0psa6om9r1jdge8 Umar namadi 0 77247 688027 672591 2026-07-14T07:07:46Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688027 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Infobox officeholder | honorific_prefix = [[Excellency|His Excellency]] | image = Umar Namadi.png | caption = | office1 = [[List of governors of Jigawa State|Governor of Jigawa State]] | termstart1 = 29 May 2023 | term_end = | deputy1 = [[Aminu Usman]] | predecessor1 = [[Mohammed Badaru Abubakar|Badaru Abubakar]] | office2 = [[Deputy Governor of Jigawa State]] | termstart2 = 29 May 2019 | termend2 = 29 May 2023 | governor2 = Badaru Abubakar | predecessor2 = [[Ibrahim Hassan Hadejia]] | successor2 = Aminu Usman | birth_name = Umar Namadi | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1963|4|7|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Kafin Hausa]], [[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern Region]], Nigeria (now in [[Jigawa State]]) | death_date = | death_place = | party = [[All Progressive Congress]] | occupation = {{hlist|Politician|accountant}} | alma_mater = [[Bayero University Kano]] | website = {{URL|https://umarnamadi.org/}} }} '''Umar Namadi''' (amụrụ n'abali 7 n'onwa Eprel 1963) <ref name="jigawastate" /> bụ onye Naijiria na-ahụ maka ego na onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke jere ozi dị ka [[Ndepụta nke ndị gọvanọ nke Jigawa Steeti|gọvonọ nke]] [[Ȯra Jigawa|Jigawa Steeti]] kemgbe afọ 2023. Ọ bụ osote gọvonọ nke Jigawa Steeti site n'onwa Mee 2019 ruo Mee 2023 .<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jigawa gets vaccine allocation|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/jigawa-gets-vaccine-allocation/|author=Ahmed Rufa'i Dutse|date=11 March 2021|accessdate=30 September 2024|work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Nwamu|first=Aniebo|url=https://leadership.ng/news/425443/inec-declares-apcs-badaru-abubakar-winner-of-jigawa-guber-poll|title=INEC Declares APC's Badaru Abubakar Winner Of Jigawa Guber Poll|date=13 April 2015|accessdate=11 May 2015|work=[[Leadership (newspaper)|Leadership]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=18 November 2021|title=Malaria: Jigawa Government, partners distribute 3.7 million mosquito nets in Jigawa|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/nwest/495935-malaria-jigawa-government-partners-distribute-3-7-million-mosquito-nets-in-jigawa.html|accessdate=22 February 2022|work=[[Premium Times]]}}</ref> == Ihe ndị mere n'oge gara aga == A mụrụ Namadi n' abalị nke 7 n'ọnwa Eprel n'afọ 1963 na Kafin Hausa, na mpaghara Northern nke oge ahụ. Ọ ghọrọ onye ruru eru dị ka onye na-ahụ maka ego na 1993 ma nwee nzere Master na Business Administration (MBA) na Mahadum Bayero Kano, ebe o nwetara nzere Bachelor of Science na Accounting na 1987.<ref name="jigawastate">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jigawastate.gov.ng/d-governor.php|title=Alhaji Umar Namadi|publisher=Jigawa State Government web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205033459/https://www.jigawastate.gov.ng/d-governor.php|archivedate=5 December 2022|accessdate=2 May 2021}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">. Jigawa State Government web. Archived from on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2021</span> &#x2013; via Jigawa state.gov.ng.</cite></ref> == Ọrụ == Namadi ezubere Namadi, Umar na Co., ụlọ ọrụ na-ahụ maka ego na Kano. Site n'afọ 1993, ọ bụ onye otu nke Nigeria Institute of Management, Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, na Chartered Institute of Taxation ruo n'afọ 2010, mgbe ọ ghọrọ onye otu Institute of Chartering Accountants of Niger. Namadi na-etinye aka na nyocha banyere isi mmalite na itinye ego n'ọrụ, na-enyocha usoro ozi kọmputa na ụlọ akụ obodo. Dị ka onye isi ọsụ ụzọ nke Ngalaba Akụkọ Nchịkwa Dangote Group, ọ bụ ya na-ahụ maka mwube na ịtọ ntọala maka mmepụta nke akaụntụ nchịkwa kwa ọnwa maka Dangote Group. Tupu nhọpụta ya, Namadi bụ onye otu kọmitii steeti na-ahụ maka nkwenye na nkwenye nkwekọrịta yana kọmitii na-ahụkarị nkwenye na nyocha ndị ọrụ.<ref name="jigawastate"/> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /> [[Otú:Mmadụ ndi di ndụ]] d1b0cqftjwcn17pgjyfsshq0eahrlcl Osimiri Chambeshi 0 77275 687823 670985 2026-07-13T12:18:55Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687823 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Chambeshi River.jpg|thumb|Osimiri Chambeshi na Zambia ]]   '''Osimiri''' '''Chambeshi''' (ma ọ bụ '''Chambezi''') nke ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ [[Zambia]] bụ isi iyi kachasị anya nke Osimiri Congo (n'ogologo) ya mere a na-ewere ya dị ka isi iyi nke Osimiri Kongo. (Otú ọ dị, site na oke mmiri, Osimiri Lualaba na-enye nnukwu mmiri na Congo.) Chambeshi na-arịgo dị ka iyi n'ugwu dị n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Zambia dị nso na ọdọ mmiri Tanganyika n'elu elu nke mita 1,760 (ụkwụ 5,770) n'elu ọkwa oké osimiri. Ọ na-asọ ruo kilomita 480 n'ime Ala Mmiri Bangweulu, nke bụ akụkụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Bangweulu. Ka oge mmiri ozuzo na-erule njedebe na Mee, osimiri ahụ na-eweta idei mmiri nke na-eme ka ala mmiri ahụ dịghachi ndụ ma na-ejupụta ahịhịa Zambezian gaa na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ. Mmiri ahụ na-esi n'ala mmiri ahụ na-asọpụta dị ka Osimiri Luapula.<ref>Brian Leith (Director):"Congo", Television Documentary broadcast by British Broadcasting Corporation, London, 2001.</ref> N'ihe karịrị 100 kilomita nke ogologo ya ka ọ na-aga n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Kasama, osimiri ahụ nwere ọwa dị iche iche n'ala mmiri dị ihe dị ka kilomita 2 n'obosara, na ala mmiri ruru kilomita 25 n'obobosara. Ka ọ na-agbadata, ebe ụzọ Kasama-Mpika na Ụgbọ okporo ígwè Tazara jikọtara ya, ọwa mmiri ahụ na-adịgide adịgide dị ihe dị ka 100 m n'obosara, na ihe ruru 400 m n'ogologo na idei mmiri.<ref>Google Earth accessed 4 February 2007</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Iju Mmiri nke Osimiri Chambeshi na NASA Earth Observatory 6yfmxzoymczn1o8jmwsdnih4astgzfz Ndị Luo 0 77447 687826 687485 2026-07-13T12:28:47Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Ndi mbà||image=COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Luo dansers in krijgskostuum tijdens de Eldoret Agricultural Show TMnr 20014318.jpg|caption=A traditional Luo village at Kisumu museum, located in Kisumu.|group=Luo|population=|popplace=Western [[Kenya]] and northern [[Tanzania]]|region1={{flag|Kenya}}|pop1=5,066,966 (2019)<ref name =Census2019>{{cite web|url=https://www.knbs.or.ke/?wpdmpro=2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-volume-iv-distribution-of-population-by-socio-economic-characteristics&wpdmdl=5730&ind=7HRl6KateNzKXCJaxxaHSh1qe6C1M6VHznmVmKGBKgO5qIMXjby1XHM2u_swXdiR |title=2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics |access-date=24 March 2020 |website=Kenya National Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>|region2={{flag|Tanzania}}|rels=[[Christianity]], [[African Traditional Religion]], [[Islam]]|langs=[[Dholuo]], [[English language|English]], and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]|related=Other [[Luo peoples]], especially [[Adhola people|Adhola]] and [[Alur people|Alur]]}} [[Faịlụ:Pêcheurs dans le lac Victoria.JPG|thumb|Ndị Luo na ọdọ mmiri Victoria na 1949]]    Ndị '''Luo''' bụ agbụrụ Western Nilotic nke dị n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ [[Kenya]] na mpaghara Mara nke dị n"ebe ugwu [[Tanzania]]" id="mwFQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Tanzania">Tanzania. Ndị Luo bụ agbụrụ nke anọ kachasị ukwuu nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ 5,066,966 na-anọchite anya ihe dịka (~10.6%) nke ngụkọta ndị Kenya mgbe [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]] (~14%) site na ọnụ ọgụgụ nke afọ 2019 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kenya National Bureau of Statistics - Kenya's Top Data Site|url=https://www.knbs.or.ke/?ind=7HRl6KateNzKXCJaxxaHSh1qe6C1M6VHznmVmKGBKgO5qIMXjby1XHM2u_swXdiR&wpdmpro=2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-volume-iv-distribution-of-population-by-socio-economic-characteristics&wpdmdl=5730|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251220115330/https://www.knbs.or.ke/?ind=7HRl6KateNzKXCJaxxaHSh1qe6C1M6VHznmVmKGBKgO5qIMXjby1XHM2u_swXdiR&wpdmpro=2019-kenya-population-and-housing-census-volume-iv-distribution-of-population-by-socio-economic-characteristics&wpdmdl=5730|archivedate=2025-12-20|accessdate=2026-01-24|work=www.knbs.or.ke|language=en-US}}</ref> . Ha bụ akụkụ nke otu nnukwu ìgwè ndị Luo yiri ibe ha bi n'ógbè sitere na [[South Sudan]], ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ [[Ethiopia|Etiopia]], ugwu na ọwụwa anyanwụ [[Uganda]], ndịda anyanwụ Kenya, na ugwu Tanzania, na-eme ka ha bụrụ otu n'ime agbụrụ kachasị ukwuu n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Africa.[3] Ha na-asụ asụsụ Luo, nke a makwaara dị ka Dholuo, nke sitere na ngalaba Western Nilotic nke ezinụlọ asụsụ Nilotic na ezinụlọ asụsụ Nilo-Saharan sara mbara. Dholuo nwere nnukwu myirịta na asụsụ Nilotic nke ndị Luo ndị ọzọ na-asụ.[1] Ndị Luo si Uganda kwaga n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ Kenya n'etiti narị afọ nke 15 na 20 na ebili mmiri anọ. Ha na ndị Luo dị na Uganda nwere mmekọrịta chiri anya, ọkachasị ndị Acholi na Padhola. Ka ha na-abanye na Kenya na Tanzania, ha nwere mgbanwe mgbanwe mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na omenala ka ha zutere obodo ndị ọzọ e hiwere ogologo oge na mpaghara ahụ.[5][2] Na omenala, ndị Luo na-eme usoro akụ na ụba agwakọta nke ịzụ ehi, ịkọ mkpụrụ na ịkụ azụ site na ịchụ nta.[7] Taa, ndị Luo nwere obere akụkụ dị ukwuu nke ndị ọrụ ọgụgụ isi na ndị ọrụ nka n'ọrụ dị iche iche. Ha na-arụkwa ọrụ dị iche iche, dị ka ịkụ azụ ndị nwe ụlọ, obere ọrụ ugbo, na ọrụ ime obodo. [Ihe ndekọ achọrọ] Ndị Luo na ndị sitere na ndị agbulu Luo enyela aka dị ukwuu na ọdịbendị na mmepeanya nke oge a. Tom Mboya na Nigel N. Mwangi bụ ndị isi na ọgụ mba Afrịka. [8] Ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị Luo, dị ka Thomas Risley Odhiambo Nandy (onye guzobere International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology na onye mmeri nke UNESCO Albert Einstein medal na afọ1991) na Washington Yotto I Ochieng (ọ̄nye mmeri nke Harold Spencer-Jones Gold Medal na afọ 2019 site na Royal Institute of Navigation enwetala otuto mba ụwa maka onyinye ha.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Thomas Odhiambo Visionary entomologist harnessing science for Africa's poor|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jun/23/guardianobituaries.highereducation1|work=The Guardian|first=Ehsan|author=Masood|date=23 June 2003|accessdate=9 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Home - Professor Washington Yotto Ochieng, FREng|url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/w.ochieng|accessdate=2022-12-07|work=www.imperial.ac.uk}}</ref> Richard S. Odingo bụ osote onyeisi oche nke Intergovernmental Panel on mgbanwe ihu igwe , mgbe ọ natara nrite udo dị ebube na afọ puku abuọ na asaa na Al Gore.<ref name="odingo">{{Cite web|title=Nobel Prizes 2022|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2007/ipcc/26114-intergovernmental-panel-on-climate-change-nobel-lecture-2007/|accessdate=2023-08-01}}</ref> [[Barack Obama]], Ọnye isi ojii mbụ nke mba Amerika na onye mmeri nrite udo dị ebube, bụ onye nna onye Kenya Luo, Barack Obama Sr. Lupita Nyong'o ghọrọ onye isi ojii Africa mbụ meriri onyinye Academy n'afọ puku abụọ na iri na anọ. Ndị Luo bụ ndị malitere ọtụtụ ụdị egwu a ma ama gụnyere Benga na ohangla. Benga bụ otu n'ime ụdị kachasị ewu ewu n' Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|author=|first=|date=2015-07-09|title=Remembering benga: Kenya's infectious musical gift to Africa|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/09/music-benga-kenya-guitar-finger-picking|accessdate=2022-12-07|work=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> == Ebe == Obodo ala obibi nke Kenya na Tanzanian Luo dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ [[Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria]] - ''Nam Lolwe'' na mpaghara Nyanza nke dị na Western Kenya na mpaghara Mara nke dị n'akụkụ ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Tanzania. Mpaghara a na-ada n'ime latitudes okpomọkụ ma na-agafe n'etiti etiti. Mpaghara a na-enwetakwa nkezi mmiri ozuzo. Nkezi ịdị elu dị n'agbata 3,700 na 6,000 ụkwụ n'elu oke osimiri. == Mmalite == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /> === Mmalite ya === [[Faịlụ:Luo_Language.svg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Map nke ụfọdụ ndị Luo]] Ndị Luo nke Kenya na Tanzania mejupụtara ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ndị Nilotic.[17] N'oge ndị Briten na-achị, a maara ha dị ka Nilotic Kavirondo . Ezigbo ebe ndị Nilotic si bụ arụmụka mana ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta asụsụ na ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme na-etinye mmalite ha n'etiti [[Sudan]])" id="mwmg" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Bahr el Ghazal (region of [[South Sudan]])">Bahr-el-Ghazal na Eastern Equatoria na South Sudan. Ha na-eme ngwakọta akụ na ụba nke ịkpa ehi, ịkụ azụ na ịkọ mkpụrụ.[7] Ụfọdụ n'ime nchọpụta ihe ochie kachasị ochie, nke na-akọwa ọdịbendị yiri nke a site n'otu mpaghara ahụ, dị na Kadero, kilomita 48 (30 kilomita) n'ebe ugwu Khartoum na Sudan, ma malite na 3000 BC. Kadero nwere ihe fọdụrụnụ nke omenala ndị na-azụ ehi yana ili ozu nwere ọkpụkpụ na-egosi ụdị ndị Afrịka ndịda Sahara. O nwekwara ihe akaebe nke anụmanụ ndị ọzọ, nka, azụmahịa dị anya, ịkụ mkpụrụ na iri azụ.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krzyzaniak|first=Lech|title=The Archaeological Site of Kadero, Sudan|journal=Current Anthropology|date=December 1976|volume=17|issue=4|doi=10.1086/201823}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Marshall|first=Fiona|title=Cattle Before Crops: The Beginnings of Food Production in Africa|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|date=2002|volume=16|issue=2|pages=99–143|doi=10.1023/A:1019954903395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krzyzaniak|first=Lech|title=New Light on Early Food-Production in the Central Sudan|journal=The Journal of African History|date=April 1978|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–172|doi=10.1017/S0021853700027572}}</ref> Nnyocha mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na asụsụ egosila na Ndị Nubian nọ n'ebe Ugwu Sudan na Ndịda Ijipt bụ otu ngwakọta nke malitere dị ka ndị nwere njikọ chiri anya na ndị Nilotic. <ref name="hollfelder">{{Cite journal|author=Hollfelder|first=Nina|title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations|journal=PLOS Genetics|date=24 August 2017|volume=13|issue=8|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976|pmid=28837655}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Rilly|first=Claude|title=The Wadi Howar Diaspora and its role in the spread of East Sudanic languages from the fourth to the first millennia BCE|journal=Faits de Langues|date=2016|volume=47|issue=1|pages=151–163|doi=10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000010}}</ref> Ndị a mechara nweta nnukwu mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa site na Middle East na ndị ọzọ bi n"ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka.<ref name="hollfelder" /> A na-ewere ndị Nubian dị ka ụmụ nke ndị mbụ bi na ndagwurugwu Naịl bụ ndị mesịrị guzobe alaeze Kush nke gụnyere Kerma na [[Meroë|Meroe]] na alaeze ndị Kraịst nke oge ochie nke Makuria, Nobatia na Alodia. <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Cooper|first=Julien|title=Toponymic Strata in Ancient Nubia until the Common Era|journal=Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies|date=2017|volume=4|doi=10.5070/d64110028}}</ref> Nnyocha ndị a na-egosi na ndị nwere njikọ chiri anya na ndị Nilotic biri na ndagwurugwu Naịl ruo n'ebe ndịda Ijipt n'oge ochie. N'ihi ihe dị iche iche, njem ndị Nilotic Luo ji nwayọọ nwayọọ na ọtụtụ ọgbọ sitere na South Sudan banye Uganda na ọdịda anyanwụ Kenya site na opekata mpe Otu puku AD na-aga n'ihu ruo na mmalite narị afọ nke 20.[26]. Ụfọdụ ndị ode akwụkwọ kwuru na usoro mmalite nke mgbasawanye a dabara na ọdịda nke alaeze Nubian nke Ndị Kraịst nke Makuria na Alodia, ntinye nke ndị Arab na etiti Sudan yana nnabata Nilotic nke teknụzụ Iron Age.[1][2]. Ọtụtụ ndị Luo nke ugwu - ndị Shilluk - gara n'ihu n'ebe ugwu n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl na narị afọ nke 16, na-emeri ókèala ruo Khartoum nke oge a.[3] Ha hiwere ala eze Shilluk.[30][4] Na narị afọ nke 15, ndị Luo kwagara n'alaeze Bunyoro-Kitara wee guzobe usoro ndị eze Babiito na Uganda. Otu a jikọtara na omenala Bantu.[30] A na-ahazi [[Asụsụ Southern Luo|Ndịda Luo]] nke [[Kenya]] na [[Tanzania]] dị ka ndị Southern Luo.[32] na ha bụ naanị 'ọdọ mmiri Nilotes' kwagara ma biri n'akụkụ Osimiri Naịl. Ha banyere Kenya na Tanzania site na [[Uganda]] site na mpaghara [[South Sudan]])">Bahr el-Ghazal na [[South Sudan]]. Ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo ndị kwagara Kenya sitere n'ìgwè anọ na-asụrụ asụsụ Luo: ndị [[Acholi people|Acholi]]_people" id="mwAQg" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Acholi people">Acholi, Adhola na Alur (Site na [[Uganda]] na akụkụ nke South Sudan na Eastern Congo), karịsịa Acholi na Padhola. [5] A na-eme atụmatụ na Dholuo nwere pesenti iri iteghete yiri Lep Alur ([[Asụsụ Alur]]); pesenti iri asato na atọ na Lep Achol (Asụsụ Acholi); pesenti iri iteghete na atọ na Dhopadhola (asụsụ Padhola), iri asaa na anọ na [[Anuak language|Anuak]], na pesenti iri isii na iteghete na Jurchol (Luwo) na Dhi-Pari (Pari). <ref name="hammer" /> A na-akpọkwa Luo nke Kenya na Tanzania '''Joluo''' ma ọ bụ '''Jonagi''' / Onagi (onye e wepụrụ ezé isii ya dị ka emume nke ịgafe n'oge uto), otu '''Jaluo''', '''Jaonagi''' ma ọ bụ '''Joramogi''' / '''Nyikwaramogi''', nke pụtara "ndị nketa Ramogi. " A na- kpọrọ agbụrụ Luo nke Kenya ma ọ bụ Tanzania '''Ororo''', ebe a na-akpọ ha '''Liel''' n'etiti ndị Nuer. N'ebo Dinka, a na-akpọ ndị Luo '''Jur-Chol'''.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Odhiambo, Atieno.|title=Siaya: the Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape|date=1989|publisher=J. Currey|oclc=1096480559}}</ref> Ndị Kenya Luo nke oge a nwere agbụrụ iri abụọ na asaa, nke ọ bụla n'otu n'otu nwere agbụrụ dị iche iche na obere agbụrụ ("Jo-" na-egosi "ndị").<ref>{{Cite book|author=Ogot, Bethwell A.|title=History of the Southern Luo: Volume I, Migration and Settlement, (Series: Peoples of East Africa)|publisher=[[East African Publishing House]], Nairobi|year=1967}}</ref> === Ịkwaga Kenya === [[Faịlụ:Nyanza_in_Kenya.svg|áká_èkpè|thumb|Ógbè Nyanza nke dị na Kenya]] A na-eji akụkọ ihe mere eme na ihe akaebe nke usoro ọmụmụ eme ihe iji tụọ usoro oge nke mgbasawanye Luo n'ime na n'ime [[Kenya]] na Tanzania. A na-ahụ nnukwu ebili mmiri anọ nke ịkwaga n'ime mpaghara Nyanza mbụ na Kenya, malite na ndị Jok (''Joka Jok''), nke a na-eme atụmatụ na ọ malitere n'ihe dị ka n'afọ 1490- ruo n'afọ 1517.[35] ''Joka Jok'' bụ ndị mbụ na ndị kasị ukwuu kwagara n'ebe ugwu Nyanza. Ndị mbịarambịa a biri n'ebe a na-akpọ Ramogi Hill, wee gbasaa gburugburu Northern Nyanza. Ndị Owiny' (''Jok'Owiny'') na ndị Omolo (Jok 'Omolo) sochiri n'oge na-adịghị anya (bido n'afọ 1598- wee ruo n'afọ 1625). [5] Otu ìgwè dị iche iche nke Suba, Sakwa, Asembo, Uyoma na Kano sochiri. Ndị Suba bụ ndị na-asụ asụsụ Bantu na mbụ bụ ndị sonyere na omenala Luo. Ha gbapụrụ n'[[Uganda]]_Kingdom" id="mwAUo" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Buganda Kingdom">Alaeze Buganda dị na Uganda mgbe esemokwu obodo nke sochiri ogbugbu nke 24th Kabaka nke Buganda n'etiti narị afọ nke 18 wee biri na South Nyanza, ọkachasị na agwaetiti Rusinga na Mfangano.[36] Ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo gafere Winam Gulf nke Lake Victoria site na Northern Nyanza gaa South Nyanza malite na mmalite narị afọ nke 17.[5] Ka ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo kwagara n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ Kenya, ha zutere ụmụ nke ndị mmadụ dị iche iche bi n'ógbè ahụ ogologo oge. E biri na mpaghara Great Lakes kemgbe mmalite oge nkume.[37] A na-eche na ọdịbendị Kanysore, nke dị na Gogo Falls na Migori county, bụ ndị na-achụ nta na-achịkọta ihe mbụ n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka iji mepụta ite.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dale|first=Darla|title=Holocene hunter-fisher-gatherer communities: new perspectives on Kansyore Using communities of Western Kenya|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|date=April 2010|volume=45|issue=1|pages=24–48|doi=10.1080/00672700903291716}}</ref> A na-eche na Ndị Twa mepụtara ihe osise nkume dị na Mfangano Island.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-12-15|title=Kenya - Trust For African Rock Art|url=https://africanrockart.org/kenya/|accessdate=2023-08-01|language=en-GB}}</ref> A na-eche na Ndị na-asụ asụsụ Bantu, ndị mbịarambịa mbụ si n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ Afrịka, rutere n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ Kenya site na 1000 BC. Ha wetara ha teknụzụ ịkpụ ígwè na usoro ọrụ ugbo ọhụrụ, na-agbanwe mpaghara nnukwu ọdọ mmiri ka ọ bụrụ otu n'ime ebe ndị mmadụ bi n'Africa na mpaghara ndị mbụ na-agbaze ígwè.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ehret|first=Christopher|title=Bantu Expansions: Re-Envisioning a Central Problem of Early African History|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|date=2001|volume=34|issue=1|pages=5–41|doi=10.2307/3097285}}</ref> Ọdịbendị Urewe na-achịkwa site na 650 BC ruo 550 BC. A chọtara ọdịbendị a n'ebe ugwu Nyanza.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lane|first=Paul|title=New Dates for Kansyore and Urewe Wares from Northern Nyanza, Kenya|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|date=January 2006|volume=41|issue=1|pages=123–138|doi=10.1080/00672700609480438}}</ref> Ìgwè ndị na-asụ asụsụ Bantu a hụrụ na ọdọ mmiri Victoria taa gụnyere Luhya, Suba, Kunta, Kuria na Kisii. A hụkwara ndị na-asụ Southern Nilotic, ndị Nandi, Kipsigis na [[Ndị Maasai]] n'ógbè a.[5] [[Faịlụ:Thimlich_Ohinga_Cultural_Landscape-_Kenya.JPG|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Thimlich Ohinga na Migori County, South Nyanza, Kenya]] Mgbasawanye Luo n'ime ebe ndị a bibu na ha dugara na azụmahịa, esemokwu, mmeri, alụmdi na nwunye na omenala. Ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo chụpụrụ ndị bi na mbụ ruo ókèala ha ugbu a.[42] A chụpụrụ ndị Luhya n'ebe dị elu. A chụpụrụ ndị Kuria n'ebe ndịda n'etiti ókèala Kenya na Tanzania. A chụpụrụ ndị Nandi na Kipsigis n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ na n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa Anyanwụ.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Shipton|first=Parker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9jZqdbAKa8C|title=Mortgaging the Ancestors: Ideologies of Attachment in Africa|date=6 January 2009|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15274-6}}</ref>{{Reflist}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Shipton|first=Parker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9jZqdbAKa8C|title=Mortgaging the Ancestors: Ideologies of Attachment in Africa|date=6 January 2009|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15274-6}}</ref> Ka ndị Luo kwagara n'ógbè Nyanza, ndị Bantu nọ n'óù ahụ kwụsịrị ibi úgwù ka ha na-anabatawanye omenala Luo. Ụmụ nwanyị keere òkè dị mkpa n'imeri mmachibido iwu maka alụmdi na nwunye site na ịgbanwe omume ibi úgwù na omenala ndị ọzọ. Ụmụ nwanyị Luo gwara ndị ikom Bantu nọ n'ógbè ahụ, "Ọ bụrụ na pesenti ị chọrọ ịlụ anyị ị ga-akwụsị ibi úgwù ma tinye ezé gị n'okpuru, ka ị wee yie anyị ma anyị nwee ike ịlụ gị. "Ndị Suba na ndị ọzọ Bantu nwere mmasị na ndị nwunye Luo n'ihi na ọgaranya ha dị ala ma ọ bụ na-adịghị. Ụmụ nwanyị Luo bi n'obodo Suba gwara ụmụ ha na Luo okwu, bụ ndị ghọrọ ndị na-asụ asụsụ abụọ. Asụsụ Luo gbasara ngwa ngwa n'ụzọ a.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Shetler|first=Jan Bender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1kOdDwAAQBAJ|title=Claiming Civic Virtue: Gendered Network Memory in the Mara Region, Tanzania|date=9 July 2019|publisher=University of Wisconsin Pres|isbn=978-0-299-32290-8}}</ref> Omenala na omume Luo gbanwekwara ka ha na-anabata omenala nke obodo ndị ha na ha na-emekọrịta ihe.[42] Esemokwu na mwakpo n'ógbè a dịgasị iche iche dugara na mmepe nke ụlọ savanna na-echebe onwe ya, nke a na-ahụkarị na mkpọmkpọ ebe nkume, Thimlich Ohinga na South Nyanza.[46] Neville Chittick, onye nduzi nke British Institute of History and Archaeology na East Africa bụ onye mbụ kwusiri ike na o yikarịrị ka e wuru ebe ahụ tupu ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo abịarute.[46] Otú ọ dị, nkwupụta a enweghị nkwado dị mma site na nkà mmụta ihe ochie, n'ihi na ọtụtụ n'ime ihe owuwu ndị e ji mgbidi nkume rụọ bụ n'ime oge mgbasawanye Luo. <ref name="Odede">{{Cite journal|title=Secrets in stone|journal=Kenya Past and Present|date=1 January 2006|volume=36|issue=1|pages=67–72|url=https://journals.co.za/content/kenya/36/1/AJA02578301_479}}</ref> [48] Ka o sina dị, ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo nọgidere na Thimlich Ohinga ma gaa n'ihu na omenala nke iwu ụlọ elu ndị e ji nkume rụọ (''Ohingni'') yana ọrụ ala nchebe (''Gunda Bur'') na Northern na Southern Nyanza. Ọrụ ala ndị a na-echebe ga-agba gburugburu ebe obibi ndị gbara ha gburugburu. Ụfọdụ n'ime ihe owuwu ndị a na-echebe ọtụtụ narị ụlọ.<ref name="gunda">{{Cite web|title=Luo Exhibition Settlements Pitt Rivers Museum|url=http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/Luo/luo/page/exhibition-settlements/index.html|accessdate=2024-07-10|work=web.prm.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> Nnyocha ihe mgbe ochie na ethnographic nke saịtị ndị ahụ egosila na nhazi nke ihe owuwu ndị a yiri nke ọma nhazi nke ebe obibi ọdịnala Luo. Nnyocha ceramic na-egosikwa ịga n'ihu n'etiti ndị mbụ bi na saịtị ndị a na ndị na-asụ Luo.<ref name="Odede" /> Site na mbata nke ndị Europe, a na-eji nwayọọ nwayọọ wepụ ebe ndị a ka nchịkwa ọchịchị na-eme udo na mpaghara ahụ. Ezinụlọ ndị bi n'ogige ahụ kwagara n'ụlọ ndị dị iche iche site na iji euphorbia kama nkume dị ka ihe mgbidi. Mgbidi bụ ihe owuwu nke na-ekpuchi mpaghara, nke na-adịkarị n'èzí na-emepụta ókèala, a na-ejikarị post ndị ejiri bọọdụ jikọọ. Ka ọ na-erule n'etiti narị afọ nke 20, a gbahapụrụ ha niile.<ref name="Odede" /><ref name="gunda" /> === Oge ndị ọchịchị na-achị === Mmekọrịta mbụ nke Ndị Britain na ndị Luo bụ nke na-apụtaghị ìhè na nke na-aga n'ihu. Mmekọrịta siri ike naanị mgbe mmezu nke Ụgbọ okporo ígwè Uganda gosipụtara ebumnuche ndị Britain ma wepụ mkpa maka njikọ aka mpaghara. N'afọ 1896, e mere njem ntaramahụhụ iji kwado onye ọchịchị Wanga Mumia na Ugenya megide ezinụlọ Kager nke Ochieng Ger III, nke a makwaara dị ka Gero. Ihe karịrị narị abuọ nwụrụ ngwa ngwa site na Mgbọ Maxim. Mmadụ nari atọ ọzọ nọ na nguzogide Uyoma nwụrụ site na njem nke Sir Charles Horbley (Bwana Obila Muruayi) duziri mgbe ha na-anapụ ehi Luo iji nyere ndị ọrụ India na-ewu ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè Uganda aka. Mgbe esemokwu ndị a gasịrị, ndị isi ime mmụọ Luo dụrụ ndị mmadụ ọdụ ka ha na ndị Briten rụkọọ ọrụ. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1900, onye isi Luo bụ Odera na-enye ndị na-ebugharị 1,500 maka njem ndị Briten megide ndị Nandi.[50] Ndị Briten guzobere isi ụlọ ọrụ mpaghara mbụ na Mumias mgbe ahụ na Kisumu. Ha rụrụ ọrụ iji mee ka ndị Luo nọrọ n'okpuru nchịkwa na nchịkwa. N'ime iri afọ ole na ole, ndị isi ọdịnala na usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ka ndị isi ọchịchị na-anọchi. [[Faịlụ:Luo_dancer_ostrich_plume.png|áká_èkpè|thumb|Mgirango Jaluo na ejiji ịgba egwú]] Ndị ozi ala ọzọ nke ụka Seventh-day Adventist so n'ime ndị ozi ala ọzọ mbụ nke Ndị Kraịst na-eme ka ndị Luo gbanwee. Arthur Carscallen, onye Canadian Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) bụ onye Adventist mbụ rụrụ ọrụ na Kenya na Peter Nyambo, si Nyasaland (Malawi ugbu a). E meghere ozi mbụ site n'enyemaka nke onye ozi ala ọzọ Germany Abraham C. Enns, na Nọvemba n'afọ1906 na Gendia Hill, Kendu Bay. Ndị ozi ala ọzọ a guzobere ọdụ na Wire Hill, Rusinga Island, Kanyadoto, Karung, Kisii na Kamagambo. Ndị a niile dị na South Nyanza. E mere ndị Luo SDA mbụ a tọghatara baptizim na 21 Mee 1911. Carscallen bụ onye mbụ belatara [[Dholuo]] ka ọ bụrụ ihe ederede. O wepụtara akwụkwọ nkuzi nke ụtọ asụsụ wee malite ịsụgharị Bible n'asụsụ Dholuo. Ndị ozi ala ọzọ Katọlik na ndị ozi ala ọzọ Anglican site na Church Mission Society (CMS) na-arụkwa ọrụ na Nyanza dum, mana ha lekwasịrị anya na Northern Nyanza. Ọ ka bụ ihe a na-ejighị n'aka ma ndị '''Luo''' ọ bụ ndị ọdịda anyanwụ n'ihi nrụgide nke ndị ọchịchị ma ọ bụ na ha nabatara akụkụ nke ọdịbendị ọdịda anyanwụ. Otú ọ dị, ka ọ na-erule afọ 1930, ụzọ ndụ Luo agbanweela nke ukwuu ma ghọọ nke ọdịda anyanwụ. Ụfọdụ na-atụ aro na mgbalị nke ndị isi (Ruoth) dịka ''Odera Akang'o'' keere òkè na nke a. N'afọ 1915, Gọọmentị Colonial zigara Odera Akang'o, onye na-ahụ maka Gem, na Kampala, Uganda. Ndị Briten bi n'ebe ahụ masịrị ya ma mgbe ọ laghachiri n'ụlọ, ọ malitere usoro a manyere ya ịnakwere ụdị ọdịda anyanwụ nke "ụlọ akwụkwọ, uwe na ịdị ọcha". Nke a mere ka agụmakwụkwọ ngwa ngwa nke ndị Luo n'asụsụ Bekee na ụzọ Bekee. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Residents protest the demolition of Odera Akang'o's cell|date=6 September 2020|url=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/residents-protest-the-demolition-of-odera-akangos-cell/|accessdate=2023-08-01}}</ref> Mmụta ndị Europe nke ndị ozi ala ọzọ nke Ndị Kraịst na-arụkwa ọrụ na ọdịda anyanwụ nke Luo.<ref name="jananga" /> Nkwado doro anya nke ọchịchị ndị Britain mebiri site na otu a maara dị ka Mumboism nke gbanyere mkpọrọgwụ na South Nyanza. N'afọ 1913, Onyango Dunde nke etiti Kavirondo kwupụtara na ọ bụ ndị chi agwọ nke Lake Victoria, Mumbo zitere ya iji gbasaa ozizi ya. Gọọmentị na-achị mba ahụ ghọtara mmegharị a dị ka ihe iyi egwu nye ikike ha n'ihi nkwenkwe Mumbo. Mumbo kwere nkwa ịchụpụ ndị na-achị ala na ndị na-akwado ha ma katọọ okpukpe ha. Ebe ọ bụ na e gosipụtara na mmegide ime ihe ike bụ ihe efu ka ndị Afrịka meriri na teknụzụ, mmegharị a lekwasịrị anya n'ịtụ anya njedebe nke ọchịchị ala ọzọ, kama ịkpali ya. A na-ahazi òtù a dị ka òtù nzuzo nke puku afọ. Mumboism gbasara n'etiti ndị Luo na Ndị Kisii. Ndị ọchịchị na-achị mba ahụ gbochiri òtù ahụ site n'ịchụpụ na ịtụ ndị na-eso ụzọ mkpọrọ n'afọ ndị 1920 na 1930. <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shadle|first=Brett L.|title=Patronage, Millennialism and the Serpent God Mumbo in South-West Kenya, 1912–34|journal=Africa: Journal of the International African Institute|date=2002|volume=72|issue=1|pages=29–54|doi=10.2307/3556798}}</ref> Òtù ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Africa nke oge a na Kenya Colony chọrọ ime mkpesa megide iwu ndị bi na ya, ma mụbaa ụtụ isi na ndị Afrịka na ''Kipande'' a na-eleda anya (Ịmata eriri ígwè a na-eyi n'olu). Ndị Luo nọ na Kavirondo na Ndị Kikuyu nọ na Nairobi haziri nzukọ ọha na eze iche. Ọ bụ Daudi Basudde haziri ọgbaghara n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ozi CMS dị na Maseno. O welitere nchegbu banyere mmetụta na-emebi ihe na ala Afrịka site na ịgbanwere site na East African Protectorate gaa na Kenya Colony. Usoro nzukọ a na-akpọ ''Piny Owacho'' (Olu nke Ndị Mmadụ) ruru n'ókè na nnukwu nzukọ e nwere na Disemba 1921 na-akwado maka ọrụ aha onye ọ bụla, iwepụ usoro ''Kipande'' na usoro ụtụ isi ziri ezi. N'ịbụ onye otu nchegbu ahụ jidere, James Beauttah, otu n'ime ndị guzobere Kikuyu Central Association malitere njikọ aka n'etiti obodo Kikuyu na Luo.[56] Archdeacon Walter Edwin Owen, onye ozi ala ọzọ Anglican na onye nkwado a ma ama maka ihe omume Africa, kwadoro ma mee ka ''Piny' Owacho'' (Olu nke Ndị Mmadụ) bụrụ otu. Ndị ọchịchị na-achị mba ahụ ga-eto ya dị ka onye duziri usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ahụ, nke a na-eche na ọ bụ oge. Otú ọ dị, ndị obodo ahụ weere ya dị ka onye na-akwado ha. Ọ malitere Kavirondo Taxpayers Welfare Association wee bụrụ onye isi oche ya, na-enye ndị Afrịka ụzọ ha ga-esi dozie mkpesa ha. Otú ọ dị, o lekwasịrị anya n'ihe gbasara ọdịmma ma zere ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ga-ewe iwe ndị ọchịchị na-achị ala ahụ.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Murray|first=Nancy Uhlar|title=Archdeacon W. E. Owen: Missionary as Propagandist|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|date=1982|volume=15|issue=4|pages=653–670|doi=10.2307/217849}}</ref> === Nnupụisi Mau Mau === [[Faịlụ:Acheing_Oneko_(cropped).jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb|Achieng Oneko Otu n'ime Kapenguria Isii]] Ndị ọcha na-ebi n'ala ha anaghị anapụ ndị Luo n'ozuzu ha, na-ezere ọdịnihu nke dakwasịrị ndị agbụrụ na-azụ atụrụ bi na "White Highlands" nke Kenya. Ọtụtụ ndị Luo keere òkè dị mkpa n'ọgụ maka nnwere onwe Kenya, mana ndị mmadụ etinyeghị aka na Mau Mau Uprising (1952-60). Kama nke ahụ, ha jiri agụmakwụkwọ ha mee ihe iji kwalite ebumnuche nke nnwere onwe n'udo. Mgbasa mgbasa ozi siri ike nke gọọmentị na-achị mba ahụ mere ka obodo ndị ọzọ nke Kenya, ndị bi na mba ụwa ghara inwe ọmịiko na mmegharị ahụ site n'ịkwado omume obi ọjọọ nke Mau Mau mere. Ọ bụ ezie na ọnụ ọgụgụ dị nta nke ndị Europe tụfuru ndụ ha ma e jiri ya tụnyere ndị Afrịka n'oge nnupụisi ahụ, a kpọsara ọnwụ ọ bụla nke ndị Europe n'ụzọ zuru ezu, na-ekwusi ike na ihe ndị metụtara aghụghọ na mmekọahụ anụmanụ. N'ihi ya, ndị Kikuyu kwadoro ngagharị iwe ahụ bụ ndị malitere nnupụisi ahụ. A tụkwara ndị Luo na-akwado Mau Mau na ndị gọọmentị na-achị ala ahụ weere na ha ga-akwado ya. Karịsịa, Ramogi Achieng Oneko, onye ndu KAU na otu n'ime Kapenguria isii. Nna nna [[Barack Obama]], Hussein Onyango Obama, sonyere n'òtù ndị mba Afrịka. Ndị ọchịchị na-achị mba ahụ tụrụ ya mkpọrọ ma mekpọọ ya ọnụ n'ihi na a na-enyo ya enyo na ọ na-etinye aka na Nnupụisi Mau Mau.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Orengoh|first=Ben Macintyre and Paul|date=2023-07-31|title=Beatings and abuse made Barack Obama's grandfather loathe the British|work=[[The Times]]|language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/beatings-and-abuse-made-barack-obamas-grandfather-loathe-the-british-zg8qnn7jbrg|accessdate=2023-08-01}}</ref> Ọkaiwu Luo Argwings Kodhek, onye mbụ n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka nwetara akara ugo mmụta n'iwu, ghọrọ onye a maara dị ka onye ọka iwu Mau Mau ka ọ ga-agbachitere ndị Afrịka a na-ebo ebubo mpụ Mau pro bono.[61] [[Faịlụ:Tom_Mboya_1962_(cropped).jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Tom Mboya]] Nhọrọ mbụ maka ndị otu African nke Kansụl Iwu (MLCs) bụ na 1957. A họpụtara Tom Mboya na Oginga Odinga.[67] Na June 1958, Oginga Odinga kpọrọ oku ka a tọhapụ Jomo Kenyatta onye a tụrụ mkpọrọ mgbe a machibidoro nnupụisi Mau Mau. O mere oku a na arụmụka kansụl iwu. Ọ tachiri obi ọtụtụ ọnwa nke mkpagbu maka iwere nguzo a tupu ọ ghọọ oku maka mmeghachi omume mba Afrịka.[68] E mere Nzukọ nke Lancaster House na London iji kwurịta nnwere onwe Kenya na usoro iwu. Tom Mboya na Oginga Odinga nwetara enyemaka nke Thurgood Marshall, onye ọka iwu America na onye na-ahụ maka ihe ndị ruuru mmadụ iji dee iwu mbụ. [69] Mgbe Kenya nweere onwe ya na 12 Disemba 1963, Oginga Odinga jụrụ ịbụ onye isi ala nke Kenya ma kweta iwere osote onye isi ala na Jomo Kenyatta dị ka onye isi ala. Ọchịchị ha nọchitere anya otu ndọrọndọrọ ọchịchị Kenya African National Union (KANU). Ndị Luo na ndị Kikuyu ketara ike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'afọ ndị mbụ mgbe Kenya nweere onwe ya na 1963. Otú ọ dị, esemokwu ya na Kenyatta mere ka Odinga si n'òtù ahụ pụọ ma hapụ ọkwa osote onye isi ala na 1966. Agha ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke Agha Nzuzo na-arụ ọrụ na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Kenya.[70] Ndị ọdịda anyanwụ na ndị ọwụwa anyanwụ na-achọsi ike imetụta ime iwu obodo ma merie ndị enyi na-akpata agha oyi na Kenya. Ọchịchị obodo ahụ jupụtara na nkewa echiche nke agha oyi. Odinga na Bildad Kaggia, onye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Kikuyu na onye ndú Mau, katọrọ gọọmentị Kenyatta maka ịnakwere iwu nkesa ala rụrụ arụ nke na-abaghị uru ndị ogbenye na ndị na-enweghị ala. E gburu Pio Gama Pinto, onye a ma ama na-emegide ọchịchị, onye isi na-eme atụmatụ na njikọ ya na mpaghara ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Odinga na 25 Febụwarị 1965 n'ihe a ghọtara dị ka ogbugbu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mbụ nke Kenya. Odinga nọgidere na-anọpụ iche na gọọmentị ma mesịa bụrụ onye a manyere ịgba arụkwaghịm ma malite otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ya - Kenya People's Union (KPU) . Kenya People's Union (KPU) nwere nkwado siri ike n'etiti ndị Luo.[73] Gọọmentị Kenyatta kpagburu pati a. E mere iwu nchekwa na Nzukọ Ndị Omeiwu na July 1966 nke nyere gọọmentị ohere ijide mmadụ n'enweghị ikpe iji mee ka iwu na usoro dị n'ọnọdụ ebe a na-eyi iwu ugbu a egwu. E ji Iwu a mee ihe ozugbo megide ndị otu KPU.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Conboy|first=Kevin|title=Detention Without Trial in Kenya|journal=Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law|date=11 February 2016|volume=8|issue=2|url=https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/gjicl/vol8/iss2/9/}}</ref> N'ọnwa Ọgọstụ 1966, ndị uwe ojii gọọmentị jidere ndị òtù Luo KPU a ma ama gụnyere Ochola Mak'Anyengo (odeakwụkwọ ukwu nke Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol (odeakwụkwọ onwe onye nke Oginga Odinga) na Peter Ooko (odeakwụkwọ isi nke East African Common Services Civil Servants Union) ma jide ha n'ebughị ụzọ kpee ha ikpe.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1966-08-05|title=5 opposition leaders seized|page=1|work=Pasadena Independent|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/pasadena-independent-5-opposition-leader/15272844/|accessdate=2023-08-01}}</ref> Agha Nzuzo ahụ ruru n'ókè ha kachasị elu na 1969. Kemgbe Odinga hapụrụ KANU, ndị Luo nọgidere na-abụ ndị a chụpụrụ na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị. Argwings Kodhek, onye ọka iwu Mau Mau nwụrụ n'ihe mberede ụgbọ ala n'ọnọdụ dị omimi na 29 Jenụwarị 1969. E gburu Tom Mboya, onye a na-akpọkarị onye ga-anọchi Kenyatta, ọnwa isii ka nke ahụ gasịrị na 5 Julaị 1969. Esemokwu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dugara na ogbugbu Kisumu mgbe ndị nche onye isi ala na ndị uwe ojii nke Kenyatta gbara ọtụtụ ndị nkịtị égbè ma gbuo ha na Kisumu Town, isi obodo Nyanza Province. Mgbe ogbugbu a gasịrị, a machibidoro KPU iwu, na-eme ka Kenya bụrụ steeti otu. E jidere ndị otu KPU niile ma jide ha n'ebughị ụzọ kpee ha ikpe, gụnyere Oginga Odinga. Mgbukpọ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke mpaghara Nyanza kara njọ ma gaa n'ihu n'okpuru ọchịchị Moi. <ref>{{Cite book|author=Odinga, Oginga.|title=Not yet Uhuru: the autobiography of Oginga Odinga.|date=1977|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=0-435-90038-2|oclc=264794347}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-28|title=Dark Saturday in 1969 when Jomo's visit to Kisumu turned bloody|url=https://nation.africa/kenya/news/dark-saturday-in-1969-when-jomo-s-visit-to-kisumu-turned-bloody-101870|accessdate=2023-08-01|work=Nation|language=en}}</ref> A tọhapụrụ Oginga Odinga n'ụlọ mkpọrọ n'afọ 1971. Gọọmentị gara n'ihu na-egbochi ya itinye aka na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị n'ihi na ọ pụghị ịzọ ọkwa na Ntuli aka nke afọ 1974. <ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|title=Kenya - Colonialism, Mau Mau, Independence {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kenya/World-War-II-to-independence|accessdate=2023-08-01|work=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> N'afọ 1982, Odinga nwara ịmalite otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ọhụrụ - Kenya African Socialist Alliance .[80] Akụkụ nke 2A nke usoro Iwu Kenya gbanwere na-eme ka Kenya bụrụ otu steeti n'ụzọ iwu kwadoro ya wee gbochie mbọ Odinga. Mgbalị ndị agha Kenya Air Force mere n'otu afọ ahụ n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ, nke onye Luo, Hezekiah Ochuka duziri, kụrụ afọ n'ala. Oginga Odinga na nwa ya nwoke Raila Odinga e boro ebubo itinye aka ma jide ha n'ebughị ụzọ kpee ha ikpe ruo ọtụtụ ọnwa.[80]<ref name="britannica.com" /> Ihe omume ndị a dugara n'ọtụtụ afọ nke nchụpụ nke obodo Luo. E mere ka echiche nke ịpụ iche site na ogbugbu nke Robert Ouko, Minista na-ahụ maka ihe gbasara mba ọzọ na 1990.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2010-12-09|title=Robert Ouko 'killed in Kenya State House'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-11962534|accessdate=2024-03-01|work=BBC News|language=en-GB}}</ref> Mgbukpọ akụ na ụba na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke obodo na njikwa akụ na ụba ọdachi na Kenya, ọkachasị n'okpuru nchịkwa nke KANU nke steeti ọhụrụ ahụ, nwere ọdachi nye ndị Kenya. N'agbanyeghị ikike akụ na ụba nke [[Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria]] dị nso, Kenya na-aga n'ihu na-alụ ọgụ na ịda ogbenye na HIV / AIDS. Mmetụta obodo na nke mba ụwa na mbido afọ 1990 mere ka Gọọmentị m kagbuo mmezigharị nke ngalaba 2A nke iwu. Ya mere, e nyere ikike ka e nwee ọtụtụ òtù ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na Kenya. E guzobere Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD), otu ndị na-emegide ọtụtụ agbụrụ nke Oginga Odinga, Kenneth Matiba na Martin Shikuku duziri. Òtù a kewara n'ihi esemokwu dị n'ime òtù ndị na-emegide agbụrụ - FORD-Asili (nke Matiba duziri) na FORD-Kenya (nke Oginga Odinga duziri). <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Brown|first=Stephen|title=Authoritarian leaders and multiparty elections in Africa: How foreign donors help to keep Kenya's Daniel arap Moi in power|journal=Third World Quarterly|date=October 2001|volume=22|issue=5|pages=725–739|doi=10.1080/01436590120084575}}</ref> Oginga Odinga nwụrụ na 1994. Ford-Kenya mechara kewaa ma nwa Odinga, Raila Odinga malitere National Development Party of Kenya (NDP) nke nwere nkwado Luo dị ukwuu. Òtù a sonyeere KANU n'afọ 2002, obere oge tupu ntuli aka. A na-eto Raila Odinga n'ọtụtụ ebe maka ime ka [[Mwai Kibaki]]">Mwai Kibaki merie ntuli aka onye isi ala nke afọ 2002 site na nkwado nke Liberal Democratic Party ya. Mmekọrịta a ghọrọ ihe na-adịghị mma ma Raila Odinga duziri ntuli aka megide Mwai Kibaki na ntuli aka iwu Kenya nke 2005 nke a ghọtara n'ọtụtụ ebe dị ka ntuli aka gegn Kibaki. Ihe karịrị otu puku mmadụ nwụrụ na 600,000 gbara ọsọ ndụ na nsogbu Kenya nke 2007-2008 na-esote ntuli aka nke afọ 2007. A na-eme mkpọsa na oge ntuli aka n'ụzọ dị iche iche n'ụzọ agbụrụ. Raila Odinga duziri Orange Democratic Movement megide Mwai Kibaki's Party of National Unity . Nkwekọrịta ịkekọrịta ike nke Kofi Annan mere ka gọọmentị jikọọ aka na Raila Odinga nata ọkwa ọhụrụ nke praịm minista. Asọmpi agbụrụ dị n'etiti ndị Kikuyu na ndị Luo na-emesi okwu akụkọ ihe mere eme gbanyere mkpọrọgwụ ike nke metụtara ịnweta ihe onwunwe na ike. Asọmpi a na-aga n'ihu na-akpụzi usoro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Kenya. Tishkoff et al. na 2009 bipụtara nnyocha kachasị ukwuu e mere iji gosipụta ọdịiche dị iche iche na mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ndị mmadụ n'Africa. Ha nyochara ndị Afrịka 121, ndị Afrịka America 4 na ndị na-abụghị ndị Afrịka 60. Nsonaazụ ha gosipụtara ogo dị elu nke ndị nna nna na-egosipụta ihe omume nke ịkwaga. N'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka, ndị niile a nyochara nwere akụkụ nke ndị nna nna Nilotic, Cushitic na Bantu, n'etiti ndị ọzọ, na ogo dịgasị iche iche. Ha chọpụtakwara na, n'ozuzu, ụyọkọ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa kwekọrọ na nhazi asụsụ, na ndị a ma ama gụnyere Luo nke Kenya. N'agbanyeghị na ha bụ ndị na-asụ Nilotic, ndị Luo na ndị na-ekwu Bantu gbara ha gburugburu. Ha na-atụ aro na nke a na-egosi na ngwakọta dị elu mere n'oge ngafe ndịda nke Southern Luo.<ref name="tishkoff">{{Cite journal|author=Tishkoff|first=S. A.|title=The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans|journal=Science|date=22 May 2009|volume=324|issue=5930|pages=1035–1044|doi=10.1126/science.1172257|pmid=19407144}}</ref> Ụlọ nyocha nke David Reich kwukwara nchọpụta yiri nke ahụ. Ha chọpụtara na ọnụọgụ mgbanwe na Luo yiri nke ndị na-asụ Asụsụ Bantu gbara ya gburugburu. Ha tụrụ aro na ndị na-asụ asụsụ Luo n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka nwere ike ọ gaghị enwe ọganihu mgbe niile ka ha kwagara n'ókèala ndị na-ekwu okwu Bantu bi. Nke a na-agbaso akụkọ ihe mere eme, nke na-ekwusi ike na nnukwu ìgwè ndị na-asụ asụsụ Bantu nabatara asụsụ Luo, ọdịbendị na omenala ndị na-achịkwa n'oge ahụ.[94] == Omenala na omenala == === Usoro ọchịchị ọdịnala === Dị ka omenala si dị, ndị Luo bụ ndị nna ochie nwere usoro ọchịchị. <ref>{{Cite book|author=Grigorenko, Elena L.|title=The organisation of Luo conceptions of intelligence: a study of implicit theories in a Kenyan village|date=2001|publisher=The International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development|oclc=842972252}}</ref> Ọ bụ nna ma ọ bụ nwunye mbụ (''mikayi'') ma ọ bụ nwa nwoke na-eduzi ezinụlọ ahụ mgbe nna na-anọghị ya. Ọtụtụ ezinụlọ ndị metụtara site na ndị nna nna ha guzobere otu agbụrụ (''Anuola''). Ọtụtụ agbụrụ jikọtara ọnụ mepụta obodo (gweng), nke onye okenye obodo (''dodo'' ma ọ bụ kajong kaj) duziri. Onye okenye obodo ahụ chịrị site n'enyemaka nke ndị okenye ndị ọzọ bụ ndị bụbu ndị ikom nwere ọnọdụ site na azụmahịa, akụ na ụba, agha, ma ọ bụ ikwu okwu. Ọtụtụ obodo nta jikọtara ọnụ mepụta obere agbụrụ (''piny'', nke a sụgharịrị dị ka "mba agbụrụ"). A ''piny'' na-eduzi site na onye isi nketa nke dabeere na uru site na nwa nwoke nke okenye (ruoth). Onye na-akọ ọdịnihu (''jabilo'') bụ onye bụkwa onye ndụmọdụ ime mmụọ na nke agha, kpuwere ya okpueze. Ọdịdị gọọmentị Luo siri ike na steeti n'okpuru ọchịchị, ndị nwere kansụl ndị okenye (''Gallamoro mar jodongo'' ma ọ bụ jodong gad), site n'obodo niile dị n'ókèala ha. Ndị Luos haziri nchebe na nchekwa ha na mpaghara agbụrụ nke onye ọchịagha (''osumba mirwayi'') duziri, onye so na kansụl ndị okenye. Kansụl ahụ nwekwara ọnụ na-ekwuchitere ndị kansụl ahụ n'ihe gbasara gọọmentị na nzukọ ahịa obodo, okpukpe, na emume ọdịnala nke ndị a na-eduzi.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Odenyo|first=Amos O.|title=Conquest, Clientage, and Land Law among the Luo of Kenya|journal=Law & Society Review|date=1973|volume=7|issue=4|pages=767–778|doi=10.2307/3052969}}</ref>[97] Mmekọrịta agbụrụ na ibe ya bụ ad hoc, ebe ọ bụ na ọ dịghị otu onye na-achị ndị Luo. Obere agbụrụ gbakọtara n'oge ọdachi, agha, na ọdachi ndị na-emere onwe ha dị ka ụkọ mmiri ozuzo, ụnwụ nri, na idei mmiri iji nyere ibe ha aka. ''Sumo'', omume nke ịkekọrịta ihe oriri na ndị ụnwụ nri dakwasịrị, bụ omenala a na-ahụkarị, ebe Kisumo bụ otu n'ime ahịa ndị a ma ama ebe ndị ụnụrụ dakwasịrị na-enwekarị nkwado site na mmesapụ aka nke ndị ibe ha Luo. Echiche nke onye ọchịchị Luo a na-akpọ ''ker'' bụ nke Jaramogi Oginga Odinga chepụtara n'oge e guzobere Luo Union na 1947 nke ebumnuche ya bụ ijikọ ndị niile sitere na Luo n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga bụ onye Luo ker mbụ. Dị ka akụkụ nke ịmata ọdịiche dị n'etiti onye ndú agbụrụ na onye ndú mba, akụkụ nke ọnọdụ ahụ bụ na onye Luo ker agaghị abanye na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị mba; mgbe Jaramogi Oginga Odinga banyere na ndọrọ ndọrọ ego mba na 1957, ọ kwụsịrị ịbụ onye ker. ==== Lu nke abụọ ==== N'afọ ndị na-adịbeghị anya, ndị otu dị iche iche nke kansụl ndị okenye Luo na-azọrọ oche Luo ker nke malitere site na nhọpụta nke Willis Opiyo Otondi site na Raila Odinga na 2010 iji dochie Ker Riaga Ogalo. Dị ka omenala si dị, ọ bụ Council of Elders na-ahọpụta ker ma a họpụtaghị ya dịka ọ mere na Opondo Otondi, na Luo ker nwere ike ịhapụ ọrụ n'okpuru ọnọdụ abụọ, ịgba arụkwaghịm ma ọ bụ ọnwụ. Ker Riaga Ogalo kwuru na ọ gbara arụkwaghịm ma ọ bụ nwụọ iji nye ikike nhọpụta nke onye ọzọ, ebe Opiyo Otondi kwuru na ọ bụ onye a họpụtara nke ọma nke ndị Luo. Ker Riaga Ogalo nọchitere anya Raila n'ọtụtụ nnọkọ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ma nyere aka wuo ọrụ ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Raila Odinga megidere ihe kansụl chọrọ n'oge ha na-ekwu okwu nke ọma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tuko.co.ke/336367-struggle-power-splits-luo-council-elders-3-factions.html|title=Struggle for power splits Luo council of elders into 3 factions|date=23 January 2020}}</ref> A na-eto Ker Riaga Ogalo maka inwe echiche na-aga n'ihu nke ndị eze Luo niile nke oge a site n'ịkwado ibi úgwù nke ndị ikom Luo iji nyere aka n'ọgụ megide HIV / AIDS. Ibi úgwù bụ ihe na-abụghị omenala Luo mana idu ndú ya mere ọtụtụ obi ịnabata mgbanwe ọhụrụ ahụ. Ker Riaga Ogalo jere ozi dị ka osote onye isi oche nke National Council of Elders. N'ime afọ ndị ikpeazụ nke ọchịchị ya, o kwuru na Raila na-egbochi ndị Luo itolite n'ụzọ ọchịchị onye kwuo uche ya na akụ na ụba site na ụdị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya. Ker Riaga Ogalo nwụrụ n'afọ 2015 mgbe ọ butere ọrịa akụrụ n'ụlọ ọgwụ mba Kenyatta. Esemokwu nke Kansụl ahụ gara n'ihu mgbe ọ nwụsịrị na Willis Opiyo Otondi ka na-azọrọ na ọ bụ onye ziri ezi nke Ker Nyandiko Ong'adi bụ onye Kansụl Ndị okenye Luo họpụtara na 2015 iji dochie anya ker Riaga Ogalo. Onye na-achị ugbu a bụ Jaduong Odungi Randa, onye e kpuwere okpueze na 22 Disemba 2023 ka ọ bụrụ onye nke itoolu nke Luo. Mgbalị iji mee ka ndị Luo nọ n'okpuru otu ikike dị mfe n'ihi akụkọ ihe mere eme ha na usoro gọọmentị dị iche iche.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/nyanza/2020-08-18-unity-in-sight-as-one-luo-council-faction-quits/|title=Unity in sight as one Luo council faction quits}}</ref> === Omenala nke ịgafe === Dị ka omenala si dị, aha ndị a na-enye ụmụaka na-egosipụtakarị ọnọdụ nke ime ime ime ma ọ bụ ịmụ nwa (gụnyere, dịka ọmụmaatụ, oge ma ọ bụ oge). <ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues|author=Danver, Steven L.|date=2013|publisher=M.E. Sharpe, Inc|oclc=1026939363}}</ref> Ọzọkwa, ndị Luos ewepụla ezé ala isii n'ihi ọrịa akpịrị nke metụtara ala Luo === Nri === Nri Luo a ma ama na-agụnye azụ̀ (rech) karịsịa tilapia (ngege) na omenala, nke a na-ejikarị [[ugali]] (nke a na-akpọ__hau____hau____hau__ na Dholuo) na akwụkwọ nri ọdịnala dị ka Osuga na [[Mulukhiyah|apoth]]. Nri ọdịnala ndị Luo bụ ihe a na-eme site na sorghum ma ọ bụ millet tinyere azụ, anụ, ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ nri.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Johns|first=Timothy|title=Food Plants of the Luo of Siaya District, Kenya|journal=Economic Botany|date=1991|volume=45|issue=1|pages=103–113|doi=10.1007/BF02860055}}</ref> === Omenala okpukpe === Chọọchị ndị dị n'ógbè ahụ gụnyere ''Legio Maria'', ''Roho'', ''Nomiya'' na ''Fweny'' na ndị ọzọ.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kustenbauder|first=Matthew|title=Believing in the Black Messiah: The Legio Maria Church in an African Christian Landscape|journal=Nova Religio|date=1 August 2009|volume=13|issue=1|pages=11–40|doi=10.1525/nr.2009.13.1.11|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11073735}}</ref> E nwere obodo ndị Alakụba Luo, nwere otu a ma ama bi na Kisumu, Kenya. <ref>{{Cite web|author=Becker|first=Felicitas|date=2018-06-25|title=The History of Islam in East Africa|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-151|accessdate=2021-12-02|work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.151}}</ref> === Omenala alụmdi na nwunye === N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, ndị na-eme egwuregwu na-eme ka di na nwunye mata ibe ha, mana nke a abụghị ihe a na-ahụkarị ugbu a. Dị ka ọtụtụ obodo ndị ọzọ na Kenya, omume alụmdi na nwunye n'etiti ndị Luo anọwo na-agbanwe ma ụfọdụ ndị na-apụ n'ụzọ ọdịnala nke ime ihe. === Egwú === [[Faịlụ:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Luo_dansers_in_krijgskostuum_tijdens_de_Eldoret_Agricultural_Show_TMnr_20014319.jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb|Ndị na-agba egwú Luo na Eldoret, Kenya]] Egwú Luo sitere n'ụzọ ndụ zuru oke, ụdị ndụ, na usoro ndụ nke ndị mmadụ n'otu obodo a. N'ihi nke ahụ, egwu ahụ nwere njirimara nke mere ka ọ dị iche na nke obodo ndị ọzọ. Enwere ike ịhụ nke a, nụ ya, ma nụ ya na abụ ha, ụda, usoro ngosi na ịgba egwú, mmegharị, na nhazi. Egwú ndị dị na egwu Luo bụ abụ, nwere ọtụtụ ihe ịchọ mma olu. Ihe ịchọ mma ndị a pụtara n'ụzọ doro anya, karịsịa mgbe egwu ahụ bu ozi dị mkpa. A na-eji ọtụtụ syncopation na mmalite acrusic mara ụda ha. A na-egosikarị abụ ndị a n'ụdị nzaghachi onwe onye, ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ bụ egwu onwe onye. Ụdị kachasị ewu ewu nke solo performances bụ abụ. Abụ ndị a bụ ndị na-agụ egwú na-enweghị isi na ahịrịokwu, nke na-ebu ozi siri ike. A na-eji abụ ndị a eme ihe ka ọtụtụ n'egwú Luo. Otu ihe atụ bụ ịgba egwu dudu.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jones|first=A.M.|date=1973|title=Luo music and its rhythm|journal=African Music: Journal of the African Music Society|volume=5|issue=3|pages=43–54|doi=10.21504/amj.v5i3.1658|url=http://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/1658}}</ref> Ihe ọzọ pụrụ iche na egwu Luo bụ iwebata abụ ọzọ n'etiti egwu egwu. Abụ na-akwụsị, ụda nke ngwá egwú na-agbadata ma na-agba egwú na'enweghị ike ka onye ọ bụla na-ewere arụmọrụ bụ otuto onwe ya. A na-akpọ nke a '''''Pakrok'''''. E nwekwara ụdị ululation pụrụ iche, '''''Sigalagala''''', nke gosipụtara njedebe nke arụmọrụ egwu. Ọ bụ ụmụ nwanyị na-emekarị Sigalagalagala. Ụdị ịgba egwú n'egwú ọdịnala Luo mara mma ma dị mma. Ha na-agụnye ma ọ bụ mmegharị nke otu ụkwụ n'akụkụ nke ọzọ na úkwù na-aga n'ihu na ụda nke egwu ma ọ bụ ịma jijiji nke ubu n'ụzọ siri ike, na-abụkarị na ụda nke nyatiti, ngwá egwu nwere eriri asatọ. Adamson (1967) kwuru na Luos yi uwe ọdịnala ha na ihe ịchọ mma kwesịrị aha ha dị ka ndị kacha mara mma na Kenya. N'oge ọtụtụ n'ime ihe ngosi ha, ndị Luo na-eyi ejiji ma na-achọ onwe ha mma ọ bụghị naanị iji mara mma, kamakwa iji bulie mmegharị ha. Uwe ndị a gụnyere akwa sisal ('''''owalo'''''), beads ('''''Ombulu / tigo''''') nke a na-eyi n'olu na úkwù, na ụrọ na-acha ọbara ọbara ma ọ bụ nke na-acha ọcha nke ụmụ nwanyị na-eyi. Uwe ụmụ nwoke ahụ gụnyere '''''[[kuodi]]''''' ma ọ bụ '''''Chieno''''', akpụkpọ anụ a na-eyi site n'ubu ma ọ bụ site n'úkwù iji kpuchie ọtọ ha, '''''Ligisa''''', okpu isi, ọta na ube, okpu ahịhịa, na mkpara, n'etiti ndị ọzọ. A na-eji ihe ndị dị n'ógbè ahụ eme uwe na ihe ịchọ mma ndị a niile. Ndị Luo nwekwara ọtụtụ ngwá egwú nke sitere na ụda (ụbọ, clappers, mgbaaka ígwè, '''''ongeng'o ma ọ bụ gara''''', shakers), eriri (dịka, '''''nyatiti''''', ụdị lyre; '''''orutu''''', ụdị fiddle), ifufe ('''''tung''''', mpi, '''''Asili''''', ọjà, '''''A bu-!''''', na otu ụdị opi). [[Faịlụ:Nyatiti.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Nyatiti]] Ka ọ dị ugbu a, a na-ejikọta ndị Luo na ụdị egwu ''Benga''. Ọ bụ ụdị dị egwu nke a na-abụ abụ na [[Dholuo]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], ma ọ bụ Bekee na-abụ na guitar riff. Ọ malitere na 1950s na ndị egwu Luo dị ka George Ramogi na Ochieng 'Kabaselle na-anwa ime ka egwu egwu ọdịnala ha kwekọọ na ngwá egwu ọdịda anyanwụ. Guitar (acoustic, mgbe e mesịrị eletrik) dochiri nyatiti dị ka ngwá egwu eriri. ''Benga'' aghọwo ihe a ma ama nke na ndị egwu si n'agbụrụ niile na-akpọ ya.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Rateng&#39|title=The Luo Nation-History, Origin and Culture of Luo People of Kenya|url=https://www.academia.edu/11787831|language=en|isbn=978-9966-123-13-8}}</ref> Onye na-agụ egwu Luo na onye na-egwu egwu nyatiti bụ Ayub Ogada nwetara ihe ngosi zuru oke na 2005 mgbe abụọ n'ime egwu ya gosipụtara na Alberto Iglesias 'Academy Award-nominated score for [[Fernando Mereilles]]' film adaptation of The Constant Gardener. Ndị egwu Luo ndị ọzọ, n'ụdị dị iche iche, bụ [[Akothee]], [[Suzanna Owíyo|Suzanna Owiyo]], Daniel Owino Misiani, [[Collela Mazee]], Achieng 'Abura, George Ramogi, Musa Juma, Tony Nyadundo na Onyi Papa Jey. === Ezinụlọ, ezinụlọ, na ihe nketa === Ocholla Ayayo dere na "Traditional Ideology and Ethics among the southern Luo": <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Welbourn|first=F. B.|title=Traditional Ideology and Ethics among the Southern Luo|journal=Journal of Religion in Africa|date=1978|volume=9|issue=2|doi=10.2307/1581402|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nai:diva-754}}</ref> "When the time of the inheritance comes the ideology of seniority is respected: the elder son receives the largest share, followed in the order of seniority. If it is the land to be divided, for instance, the land of the old grandfather's homestead, the senior son gets the middle piece, the second the land to the right hand side of the homestead, and the third son takes the land on the left hand side. After the father's death the senior son takes over the responsibilities of leadership. These groups when considered in terms of genealogy, are people of the same grandfather, and are known in Dholuo as Jokakwaro. They share sacrifices under the leadership of the senior brother. If the brother is dead the next brother in seniority takes the leadership of senior brother. The responsibility and prestige position of leadership is that it puts one into the primary position in harvesting, cultivation, as well as in eating specified parts of the animal killed, usually the best parts. It is the senior brother, who is leading in the group, who can first own the fishing boat. Since it is he who will be communicating with the ancestors of their father or grandfather, it is he who will conduct or lead the sacrifices of religiousity of the boat, as we have noted earlier. [...] The system of the allocation of land by the father while he is still alive is important since it will coincide with the system of inheritance of land. The principle of the division of the land in monogamous families is rather simple and straightforward. [...] The senior son takes the centre portion of all the land of the homestead up to and beyond the gate or to the buffer zone; the second son then has the remainder of the land to divide with the other brothers. If the land is divided among the elder sons after they are married, and take to live in their lands, it often happens that a youngest son remains in the village of the father to care for him in his old age. His inheritance is the last property, called Mondo and the remaining gardens of his mother. [...] In the case of a polygamous village, the land is divided along the same lines, except that within the village, the sons claim the area contiguous to the houses of their mother. Each wife and her children are regarded as if the group constituted was the son of a single woman.By that I mean the children of the senior wife, Mikayi, are given that portion of the total area which could have been given to the senior son in a monogamous family. The sons of Nyachira, the second wife, and the sons of Reru, the third wife, lay claim to those portions which would have fallen to the second and third sons of Mikayi in a monogamous village".<ref>Traditional ideology and ethics among the southern Luo – DiVA {{Cite web|url=http://nai.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:280191/FULLTEXT01|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2013-10-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014150155/http://nai.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:280191/FULLTEXT01|archivedate=2013-10-14}}</ref> Paul Hebinck na Nelson Mango na-akọwa n'ụzọ zuru ezu usoro ezinụlọ na ihe nketa nke Luo na edemede ha "Land and embedded rights: An analysis of land conflicts in Luoland, Western Kenya". <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/13060/ASC-075287668-1014-01.pdf?sequence=2|title=Dilemmas of Development: Conflicts of Interest and Their Resolutions in Modernizing Africa|isbn=978-90-5448-081-5|accessdate=2013-10-09|author=Abbink|first=J.|year=2008|publisher=African Studies Centre}}</ref> Parker MacDonald Shipton na-edekwa ọtụtụ ihe gbasara ikwu, ezinụlọ na ihe Nketa n'etiti ndị Luo n'akwụkwọ ya "Mortgaging the Ancestors: Ideologies of Attachment in Africa": "N'èzí ogige obibi, ma ọ bụ (ebe ọ na-enweghị ogige ọzọ) n'èzí na n'ihu ụlọ ya, ndị Luo enweela mmasị na nhazi nke ubi nke n'ụzọ ụfọdụ na-egosipụta ogige ụlọ n'ime. Usoro na-esonụ, dị ka akọwapụtara n'ọrụ Gordon Wilson site na 1950s, ka a ka na-ahụ n'oge anyị - ọ bụghị naanị na eserese nke ndị na-enye ihe ọmụma nke ala ha, kamakwa n'ebe ọzọ ebe ogige na-esote nyere ohere ohere ohere, ọ bụ nna ya, ọ ga-enweta ihe karịrị otu nwa ya nwoke nke anọ ka aka ekpe. == Ihe odide == [[Otú:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Otú:Articles with short description]] tag58nxuyj1r1fxa633ez2uqnp4k2lf Verloren Valei Nature Reserve 0 77457 688041 672849 2026-07-14T09:00:54Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688041 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Protected area of South Africa}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}} {{Use South African English|date=October 2019}} {{Refimprove|date=November 2009}} {{Infobox protected area | name = Verloren Valei Nature Reserve | iucn_category = | image = | image_alt = | image_caption = | image_size = | map = South Africa Mpumalanga | map_alt = | map_caption = Map of [[Mpumalanga]] | map_width = | location = [[Mpumalanga]], [[South Africa]] | nearest_city = [[Dullstroom]] | coordinates ={{coords|-25.3|30.115|region:ZA-MP|notes=<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://protectedplanet.net/sites/Verloren_Valei_Provincial_Nature_Reserve |title= Verloren Valei Provincial Nature Reserve |work=protectedplanet.net}}</ref>|display=inline, title}} | area = {{convert|5891|ha|abbr=on}}<ref name="mtp">{{cite web |url=http://www.mpumalanga.com/parks/verloren.asp |title=Verloren Valei Nature Reserve |publisher=Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Agency |access-date=12 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717153143/http://www.mpumalanga.com/parks/verloren.asp |archive-date=17 July 2009 |accessdate=6 July 2026 |archivedate=17 July 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717153143/http://www.mpumalanga.com/parks/verloren.asp }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpumalangaparksboard.com/reserve.html|title=NATURE RESERVES IN MPUMALANGA|publisher=[[Mpumalanga Parks Board]]|access-date=12 December 2009|archive-date=11 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711082443/http://www.mpumalangaparksboard.com/reserve.html|url-status=dead|accessdate=6 July 2026|archivedate=11 July 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711082443/http://www.mpumalangaparksboard.com/reserve.html}}</ref> | established = | visitation_num = | visitation_year = | governing_body = | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090717153143/http://www.mpumalanga.com/parks/verloren.asp | module = {{Designation list | embed = yes | designation1 = Ramsar | designation1_date = 16 October 2001 | designation1_number = 1110<ref>{{Cite web|title=Verloren Valei Nature Reserve|website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1110|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref>}} }} '''Verloren Valei Nature Reserve''' (Lost Valley na Bekee) bụ ebe a na-echebe na Mpumalanga, South Africa. Otu n'ime ebe ole na ole dị na mba ahụ iji zụlite ụdị cranes atọ dị na South Africa, Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve dị ihe dị ka kilomita 13 (8.1 mi) na mpụga Dullstroom, akụkụ mara mma, nke udo nke Steenkampsberg plateau nke gụnyere ala ahịhịa na ala mmiri dị nro. Njem nlegharị anya gburugburu ebe nchekwa ahụ iji hụ kreen na-acha anụnụ anụnụ, kreen na kreen Grey crown bụ naanị site na oge a kara aka - ebe nchekwa ahụ bụ ebe mmiri Ramsar zuru ụwa ọnụ ma nwee mkpa mba ụwa. Usoro ihe karịrị ala mmiri iri atọ jikọtara ọnụ bụ ebe obibi nke nnụnụ dị mkpa, gụnyere ụdị data uhie, yabụ ọ dị mfe nghọta na Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve na-etinye aka n'inye ọtụtụ nnụnụ ya ebe nchekwa dị mma. Ọrụ na-aga n'ihu iji zọpụta kreen wattle site na mbibi na-anakọta àkwá nke abụọ nke nnụnụ ndị a mepụtara maka ịkụnye. A na-azụ ụmụ ọkụkọ ndị a iche iche n'ebe a haziri nke ọma na ebe nchekwa ahụ, ndị mmadụ yi uwe kreen na-elekọta ha ka ha ghara ịta mmadụ ahụhụ. Ozugbo ha dị ọnwa isii, a na-ahapụ ha n'ime ọhịa iji mee ka ọnụ ọgụgụ ha na-ebelata. Ala ahịhịa mepere emepe bụ ebe obibi nke bald ibis, pitpits, larks, cisticolas, Magpie Shrikes, red bishops na finches, ebe akụkụ ndị dị n'oké nkume nke ebe nchekwa ahụ na-adọta nkata ugwu, ala woodpecker, obere ntụ ntụ na red-winged francolin na Cape rock thrush. Verloren Vallei gụnyekwara ụmụ anụmanụ dịka oribi, steenbok, hyena na-acha nchara nchara, Caracal, serval cat, jackal, otters na zebras, wildebeest na blesbok e weghachiri. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> Osisi gụnyere ''Eucomis vandermerwei'' a na-eyi egwu, nke a na-echebe n'ime ebe nchekwa ahụ.<ref name="LottBurrvonS09">{{Cite web|author=Lötter|first=M.|date=2009|title=''Eucomis vandermerwei'' I.Verd.|work=National Assessment: Red List of South African Plants version 2017.1|url=http://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species=3790-19|accessdate=2018-11-04}}</ref> Mana kpakpando nke ihe ngosi ahụ na Verloren Vallei Nature Reserve bụ urukurubụba - nke a na-adọta n'ọtụtụ okooko osisi - mmiri na-atọ ụtọ na, n'ezie, cranes.  == Edensibịa == {{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == * Official website * http://www.sa-venues.com/game-reserves/mpl_verloren-vallei.htm beruddy7cj2wc11ej6xx7b99jwd8imq Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana 0 77492 687955 673491 2026-07-13T15:07:18Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Ọdọ mmiri Alkaline dị n'ókè Etiopia na Kenya}} [[Faịlụ:LakeTurkanaSouthIsland.jpg|thumb|Ọdọ mmiri Turkana ]] '''Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana''' bụ ọdọ mmiri nnu dị na Ndagwurugwu Rift nke Kenya, nke kachasị na ugwu Kenya; njedebe ugwu dị anya na-agafe na Etiopia.<ref> The boundary between Ethiopia and Kenya has been a contentious matter. A brief consideration of the topic can be found in the State Department document, [http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/IBS152.pdf Ethiopia – Kenya Boundary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318063413/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/IBS152.pdf |date=18 March 2009 }}</ref> Ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri ọzara kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa na ọdọ mmiri alkaline kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa. Dịka olu ya si dị, ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri nnu nke anọ kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lake Turkana in Kenya - The Jade Sea|url=http://www.kenyasafari.com/lake-turkana-kenya.html|website=www.kenyasafari.com|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> mgbe Oké Osimiri Caspian gasịrị, Issyk-Kul, na Ọdọ Mmiri Van (na-agafe Oké Osimiri Aral nke Ndịda), nakwa n'etiti ọdọ mmiri niile dị n'ọkwa nke iri abụọ na abụọ. Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana na-eyi egwu ugbu a site n'iwu mgbidi Gilgel Gibe nke Atọ na Etiopia n'ihi mgbochi mmiri nke Osimiri Omo nke na-enye ọtụtụ mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref name=Moran2017>{{cite news | author=Moran, B. | date=23 May 2017 | title=A way of life under threat in Kenya as Lake Turkana shrinks | url=http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/feature/2017/05/23/way-life-under-threat-kenya-lake-turkana-shrinks | publisher=The New Humanitarian | access-date=8 November 2019 }}</ref> Ọ bụ ezie na a na-ejikarị ọdọ mmiri ahụ eme ihe—ma ruo n'ókè ụfọdụ—ma e jiri ya mee ihe ọṅụṅụ, nnu ya (nke na-adị ntakịrị nro) na oke fluoride (nke dị elu karịa nke dị na mmiri fluoride) na-emekarị ka ọ ghara ịdị mma ịṅụ ya; ọ bụkwa isi iyi nke ọrịa ndị sitere na mmiri ruru unyi na-agbasa. N'ụzọ na-arịwanye elu, obodo ndị gbara ọdọ mmiri ahụ gburugburu na-adabere na isi iyi mmiri dị n'okpuru ala maka mmiri ọṅụṅụ.<ref name=Serem2012>{{cite news | author=Serem, B. | date=29 November 2012 | title=For villages in Turkana, Kenya, a new initiative that brings clean water to the community is life-changing | url=https://www.unicef.org/wash/kenya_66520.html | publisher=UNICEF | access-date=8 November 2019 | archive-date=8 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108110615/https://www.unicef.org/wash/kenya_66520.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Otu ihe ndị ahụ mere ka ọ ghara ịdị mma maka ịṅụ mmiri na-egbochi ojiji ya maka ịgba mmiri.<ref name=Johnson2009>{{cite book | author1=Johnson, T.C. | author2=J.O. Malala | year=2009 | chapter=Lake Turkana and its connection to the Nile | pages=287–306 | editor=H.J. Dumont | title=The Nile | series=Monographiae Biologicae | volume=89 | publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V | isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 }}</ref> Ihu igwe dị ọkụ ma kpọọ nkụ nke ukwuu. Nkume nke mpaghara gbara ya gburugburu bụ ugwu mgbawa ugwu. Central Island bụ ugwu mgbawa na-arụ ọrụ, na-ewepụta uzuoku. A na-ahụ ihe ndị dị n'èzí na nkume n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ na ndịda nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, ebe ájá ájá, olulu mmiri na ala dị larịị dị n'ọdịda anyanwụ na ugwu, n'ebe dị ala karịa. Ifufe n'ụsọ oké osimiri na n'èzí nwere ike ịdị oke ike, ebe ọ bụ na ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-ekpo ọkụ ma na-ajụ oyi nwayọ karịa ala. Na mberede, oké ifufe na-abịa mgbe niile. Osimiri atọ (Omo, Turkwel na Kerio) na-asọba n'ime ọdọ mmiri ahụ, mana enweghị mmiri na-asọpụta, naanị mmiri na-efunahụ ya bụ site na uzuoku. Olu na nha ọdọ mmiri dị iche iche. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọkwa ahụ dara site na {{convert|10|m}} n'etiti 1975 na 1993.<ref>Historic lake levels are graphed in the [http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html World Lakes Database] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html |date=18 January 2006 }}.</ref> N'agbanyeghị enweghị mpụta, na gburugburu ebe obibi, a na-ewere ya dị ka akụkụ nke - ma ọ bụ ma ọ dịkarịa ala jikọtara ya na - n'ihi njikọ ya na usoro a tupu oge eruo na myirịta dị n'anụmanụ mmiri ha.<ref name=Johnson2009/> N'ihi okpomọkụ dị n'ógbè ahụ — mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ bụ {{cvt|27-31|C|F|disp=sqbr}}, okpomọkụ ikuku nke mpaghara ahụ yikwara ma ọ bụ karịa ntakịrị — oke ọkọchị na enweghị ike iru ebe ahụ, ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-ejigide àgwà ọjọọ ya.<ref name=Johnson2009/> A na-ahụ agụ iyi Naịl n'ọtụtụ ebe n'ụsọ oké osimiri. N'akụkụ nkume ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri ahụ, akpị na ajị anụ na-ebi n'ime ha. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ bara ụba n'azụ, ịkụ azụ dịkwa oke mkpa maka akụnụba obodo, mana ọ na-eyi egwu ịdaba n'ọkwa mmiri na ịkụ azụ gabiga ókè.<ref name=Moran2017/> A na-ede aha ogige ntụrụndụ mba nke ọdọ mmiri Turkana ugbu a dị ka ebe UNESCO na-edebe ihe nketa ụwa. Ogige Ntụrụndụ Sibiloi dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, ebe Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Central Island na Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba South Island dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ. A maara ha abụọ maka agụ iyi Naịl ha. A chọpụtala ọtụtụ ihe ndị e ji ihe ndị dị ndụ mee n'ógbè gbara Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana gburugburu.<ref name=Moran2017/> Ọ dịghị mmadụ ole na ole na-abịa ebe ahụ, ebe ọ bụ na ọ ga-ewe ụbọchị abụọ iji si Nairobi gaa. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ bụkwa ókèala Rendille, Borana na Oromo ruo ala Turkana. Ebe ahụ bụ isi ihe e ji ụrọ mee, ọ na-esikwa n'ala alkaline karịa mmiri oké osimiri. == Aha njirimara == Mgbe nnwere onwe nke [[Kenya]] gasịrị, onyeisiala, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, gbanwere aha ya na 1975 mgbe ọ bụ Ndị Turkana, ebo kachasị ukwuu n'ebe ahụ. Ndị Turkana na-akpọ ọdọ mmiri ahụ ''Anam Ka'alakol'', nke pụtara "oké osimiri nke ọtụtụ azụ̀". Ọ bụ site na aha Ka'alakol ka Kalokol, obodo dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri ọdịda anyanwụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana, n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Lodwar, na-enweta aha ya. Aha mbụ e ji mara Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana nke Turkana bụ ''Anam a Cheper''. Ndị obodo bi gburugburu Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana gụnyere Turkana, Rendille, Gabbra, Daasanach, Hamar Koke, Karo, Nyagatom, Mursi, Surma, na ndị Molo. Maka ebe ọtụtụ n'ime ndị a nọ, lee maapụ olumba dị n'isiokwu ahụ. === Ọdọ Mmiri Rudolf === A kpọrọ ọdọ mmiri ahụ na mbụ Ọdọ Mmiri Rudolf (iji sọpụrụ Eze Ukwu Rudolf nke Austria) site n'aka Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék na onye nke abụọ ya bụ Lieutenant Ludwig Ritter Von Höhnel, onye Hungary na onye Austria, na 6 Maachị 1888.<ref>A summary of the European discovery as well as Teleki's map and some Turkana tribe legends are stated in a [http://www.sslmit.univ.trieste.it/crevatin/documenti/Turkana/tesi/..%5Ctesi%5CIntroduction.htm University of Trieste] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206100219/http://www.sslmit.univ.trieste.it/crevatin/documenti/Turkana/tesi/Introduction.htm |date=6 December 2007 }} document online.</ref> Ha bụ ndị Yuropu mbụ gara leta ọdọ mmiri ahụ mgbe ha mechara njem ogologo oge n'ofe ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nọgidere na-aza aha ndị Yurop n'oge ọchịchị ndị Britain East Africa. Agbanyeghị, a maara ya nke ọma na Yuropu ogologo oge tupu Teleki echepụta nleta ya, ebe ọdọ mmiri ahụ dị, ọdịdị ya na ebe ọ dị.<ref>[Wakefield, Thomas. "Routes of Native Caravans From the Coast to the Interior of Eastern Africa, Chiefly from Information Given by Said Bin Ahedi, a Native of a District Near Gazi, in Udigo, a Little North of Zanzibar." Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London 40 (1870): 303–39</ref> === Oké Osimiri Jade === N'oge a na-amaghị ama, ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwetara aha ọzọ dị ka "Oké Osimiri Jade" site na agba turquoise ya a hụrụ ka ọ na-abịa site n'ebe dị anya. Agba ya sitere na algae ndị na-apụta n'elu ala n'oge ihu igwe dị jụụ. Nke a nwekwara ike ịbụ aha ndị Yurop. === Basso Narok === J. W. Gregory kọrọ n'akwụkwọ akụkọ ''The Geographical Journal'' nke afọ 1894 na a kpọrọ ya "Basso Narok", nke pụtara "Ọdọ Mmiri Ojii" n'asụsụ Samburu. N'otu aka ahụ, ọdọ mmiri Chew Bahir nke Etiopia dị nso ka a na-akpọ "Basso Naibor" na Samburu, nke pụtara "Ọdọ Mmiri Ọcha". Ndị Samburu so n'agbụrụ ndị kacha pụta ìhè n'ógbè ọdọ mmiri Turkana mgbe ndị nchọpụta bịara.<ref>{{citation|jstor=1773534|title=Contributions to the Physical Geography of British East Africa|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=4|issue=4|pages=289–315|last1=Gregory|first1=J. W.|year=1894|doi=10.2307/1773534|bibcode=1894GeogJ...4..289G }}</ref> Ihe bụ ụdị okwu a, ihe ọ pụtara, na asụsụ bụ nke na-edoghị anya. == Bayọlọji == [[File:Lake turkana satellite.jpg|thumb|left|Foto satịlaịtị nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana, nke a pụrụ ịmata site na agba jade ya. Osimiri Omo na-abanye n'elu. Osimiri a na-ahụ anya n'aka ekpe ala bụ Turkwel, nke e tinyere n'ime mmiri maka ike eletrik.]] === Biomes === Isi ihe ndị dị ndụ bụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ, nke bụ biome mmiri, na mpaghara gbara ya gburugburu, nke a na-akpọ ọzara na osisi ubi xeric. Ọzara Chalbi dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ. N'oge mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ, ala kpọrọ nkụ na-apụta, na-egosipụtakwa ''Aristida adscensionis'' na ''A. mutabilis''. N'oge ọkọchị, ahịhịa na-apụ n'anya. Osisi ndị dị n'ime ha nwere osisi dwarf, dịka ọmụmaatụ ''Duosperma eremophilum'' na ''Indigofera spinosa''. N'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ bụ osisi nkwụ doum === Plankton === [[File:Neuston, Plankton, Nekton, Benthos.jpg|thumb|Ogidi nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ.]] A na-ahụ ma phytoplankton ma zooplankton n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref name=ILEC>The [http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html World Lakes Database] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html |date=18 January 2006}} includes mention of the lake plankton, some of which are responsible for its turquoise colour.</ref> N'ime ndị mbụ, a na-anọchite anya cyanobacteria site na ''Microcystis aeruginosa'' na obere algae site na ''Botryococcus braunii''. Ndị ọzọ dịkwa ugbu a gụnyere ''Anabaenopsis arnoldii'', ''Planctonema lauterbornii'', ''Oocystis gigas'', ''Sphaerocystis schroeteri'', na ụfọdụ ndị ọzọ. Zooplankton gụnyere copepods, cladocerans na protozoans. === Azụ === [[File:Heterotis niloticus 154613099.jpg|thumb|alt=Row of large fresh fish with mouths agape stacked on ground cloths at a market|''Heterotis niloticus'' (African arowana) ihe atụ nke ụdị azụ dị iche iche na Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana]] Ma e jiri ya tụnyere ọdọ mmiri ndị ọzọ buru ibu n'Africa, Turkana enweghị ụdị azụ ole na ole. Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere ihe dị ka ụdị azụ iri ise, gụnyere iri na abụọ endemics: cichlids ''Haplochromis macconneli'', ''Haplochromis rudolfianus'', ''H. turkanae'' na ''Hemichromis exsul'', the barb ''Enteromius turkanae'', catfish ''Chrysichthys turkana'', robber tetras ''Brycinus ferox'' na ''B. minutus'', Rudolf lates ''Lates longispinis'', lampeyes ''Lacustricola jeanneli'' na ''Micropanchax rudolfianus'', ya na cyprinid ''Neobola stellae''.<ref name=FEW>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=530 Lake Turkana.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204328/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=530 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011</ref> Ndị na-abụghị ndị endemic gụnyere Nile tilapia, mango tilapia, bichir, elephantfish ''Mormyrus kannume'', African arowana, African knifefish, ''Distichodus niloticus'', Nile perch na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ.<ref name=ILEC/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Freshwater Fish Species in Lake Turkana &#91;East Africa&#93;|url=http://www.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Lake%2520Turkana.htm|access-date=2023-02-07|website=TropicalFreshwaterFish.com}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> N'oge mbụ Holocene, ọkwa mmiri nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ dị elu, ọ na-asọbakwa n'ime Osimiri [[Naịl]], na-enye azụ na agụ iyi ohere ịbanye. N'ihi ya, azụ̀ ndị na-anaghị adịkarị n'ọdọ mmiri bụkarị ụdị azụ̀ ndị dị n'akụkụ osimiri nke sitere na Nilotic.<ref name=FEW/> Ụfọdụ n'ime ndị na-anaghị amụ nwa anaghị amụ nwa n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ, kama ha na-akwaga n'Osimiri Omo na ndị ọgaranya ndị ọzọ ka ha mụọ nwa.<ref name=FEW/> A na-akụkarị azụ n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ nke ukwuu. === Nnụnụ === [[File:Eremopterix signatus.jpg|thumb|Nnụnụ]] Mpaghara ọdọ mmiri Turkana bụ ebe obibi nke ọtụtụ narị ụdị nnụnụ sitere na [[Kenya]].<ref>The Internet hosts a number of bird sites giving scientific names, data and photographs of birds found around the lake: [http://www.sibiloi.com/fauna_flora.htm The Sibiloi National Park] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029161851/http://www.sibiloi.com/fauna_flora.htm |date=29 October 2006 }} site, the [http://www.kenyabirds.org.uk/iba.htm Kenya Birds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209040200/http://www.kenyabirds.org.uk/iba.htm |date=9 December 2006 }} site, the [http://www.birdquest.net/afbid/photographers.php?pageno=4&func=images&af_bd_id=2&query=&page=4 African Bird Image Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222220152/http://www.birdquest.net/afbid/photographers.php?pageno=4&func=images&af_bd_id=2&query=&page=4 |date=22 December 2010 }}, the [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html?action=SitHTMDetails.asp&sid=6418&m=0 BirdLife International] site, and many others.</ref> Usoro Ahịhịa Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka na-ejekwa ozi dị ka ụzọ e si efe nnụnụ ndị na-akwaga ebe ọzọ, na-eweta ọtụtụ narị ndị ọzọ. Nnụnụ ndị ahụ na-enweta nkwado site na ọtụtụ plankton n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ, bụ́ ndị na-azụkwa azụ̀. Ụfọdụ nnụnụ ndị Turkana na-ahụkarị bụ [[little stint]], [[wood sandpiper]], na [[common sandpiper]]. [[African skimmer]] (''Rhyncops flavirostris'') na arụ akwụ n'akụkụ Central Island. [[White-breasted cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax lucidus'') dị n'ofe ọdọ mmiri ahụ, dịka ọtụtụ nnụnụ mmiri ndị ọzọ si eme. Mmiri [[flamingo ka ukwuu]] na-asọ n'ime ala ya dị omimi. [[Heuglin's bustard]] (''Neotis heuglinii'') dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke mpaghara ọdọ mmiri ahụ. === Anụ na-akpụ akpụ === [[File:Pelusios subniger subniger - adult Pan Terrapin.jpg|thumb|Mud Turtle]] Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ kachasị ukwuu n'Africa nke [[Agụ iyi Naịl]]: 14,000, dịka e mere atụmatụ na nnyocha Alistair Graham mere na 1968.<ref>Alistair Graham, ''Eyelids of Morning''</ref> Ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwekwara ọtụtụ nnukwu mbe mmiri, ọkachasị n'ógbè Central Island. [[Mbe apịtị Turkana]] bụ [[Endism|ihe jupụtara na ya]] n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref name=Rhodin2017>{{cite book |author=Rhodin, A.G.J. |author2=Iverson, J.B. |author3=Bour, R. |author4=Fritz, U. |author5=Georges, A. |author6=Shaffer, H.B. |author7=van Dijk, P.P. |collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]] | year=2017 | title=Turtles of the World: Annotated Checklist and Atlas of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution, and Conservation Status |editor=Rhodin, A.G.J. |editor2=Iverson, J.B. |editor3=van Dijk, P.P. |editor4=Saumure, R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann, K.A. |editor6=Pritchard, P.C.H. |editor7=Mittermeier, R.A. | series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group | edition=8 | journal=Chelonian Research Monographs | volume=7 | pages=1–292 | doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017| isbn=9781532350269}}</ref> === Anụmanụ === [[File:Equus grevyi (Zèbre de Grévy) - 390.jpg|thumb|Grevy's Zebras]] N'elu ala kpọrọ nkụ, e nwere ìgwè mmadụ na-adịghị ike nke anụmanụ na-ata nri na anụ ọhịa na-eri anụ. Ndị bụ isi na-ata nri gụnyere [[Grevy's zebra]], [[Burchell's zebra]], [[beisa oryx]], [[Grant's gazelle]], [[topi]] na [[reticulated giraffe]]. Ọdụm na [[mgbawa]] na-achụ ha. A naghịzi ahụ enyí na rhinocerose ojii ahụ, ọ bụ ezie na Teleki kọrọ na ọ hụrụ (ma gbaa) ọtụtụ. Ihe kacha nso n'ájá bụ [[cushioned gerbil]] (''Gerbillus pulvinatus'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lake Turkana|url=http://www.kenya-and-beyond.com/index.php?id=577|date=2016-09-21|website=www.kenya-and-beyond.com|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807120354/http://www.kenya-and-beyond.com/index.php?id=577|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Geology == [[File:Lake Turkana in Kenya 01.jpg|thumb|left|alt=View of Lake Turkana with the Koobi Fora formations in the background.|Onyonyo nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana na nhazi [[Koobi Fora]] dị n'azụ.]] Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana bụ ihe dị na [[East African Rift]].<ref>A good introduction is stated in the [http://www.visitkenya.com/guide/index.php?mID=1&contID=17 Regions of Kenya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513235557/http://www.visitkenya.com/guide/index.php?contID=17&mID=1 |date=13 May 2007 }} site.</ref> [[rift]] bụ ebe na-adịghị ike n'ime ala ụwa n'ihi nkewa nke [[tectonic plate]] abụọ, nke a na-esokarị ya na [[graben]], ma ọ bụ ite mmiri, ebe mmiri ọdọ mmiri nwere ike ịchịkọta. Ọgbawa ahụ malitere mgbe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka, nke mmiri ozuzo dị na [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=FURMAN |first1=TANYA |last2=KALETA |first2=KELLY M. |last3=BRYCE |first3=JULIA G. |last4=HANAN |first4=BARRY B. |date=2006-03-21 |title=Tertiary Mafic Lavas of Turkana, Kenya: Constraints on East African Plume Structure and the Occurrence of High-μ Volcanism in Africa |journal=Journal of Petrology |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=1221–1244 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egl009 |issn=1460-2415|doi-access=free }}</ref> malitere ikewapụ onwe ha site na akụkụ ndị ọzọ nke Afrịka, na-aga n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ. Ugbu a, graben dị kilomita 320 n'obosara n'ebe ugwu nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ, kilomita 170 n'ebe ndịda. Ọgbawa a bụ otu n'ime abụọ, a na-akpọkwa ya Nnukwu Ọgbawa ma ọ bụ Ọgbawa Ọwụwa Anyanwụ. E nwekwara nke ọzọ n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ, Ọgbawa Ọdịda Anyanwụ. Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana bụ ihe pụrụ iche nke ala Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka. E wezụga na ọ bụ ọdọ mmiri na-adịgide adịgide nke na-adịgide adịgide, ọ bụ naanị ọdọ mmiri na-ejide mmiri sitere na mpaghara abụọ dị iche iche nke [[Naịl]]. Mmiri mmiri ọdọ mmiri Turkana na-adọta mmiri ya site na [[Ọcha Ugwu | Ugwu Kenya]] na [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. [[File:A map of Lake Rudolf and the region to the south-west. Reprinted from the Geographical Journal April 1935. (WOMAT-AFR-BEA-305-5).jpg|thumb|Maapụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkanl ]] A chọpụtala na nkume ndị dị n'okpuru ala nke mpaghara ahụ bụ ihe dị ka afọ 522 na 510 nde gara aga (mya). Ọ dịghị mgbawa ọ bụla dị n'oge ahụ. A na-egosi mgbawa site na mgbawa ugwu mgbawa site na ájá ahụ na-adịghị ike. Mgbawa mgbawa ugwu kacha ochie n'ógbè ahụ mere na ugwu Nabwal nke dị n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Turkana ma a na-akọ na ọ ruru mya 34.8 na ngwụcha [[Eocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McDougall |first1=Ian|last2=Watkins |first2=Ronald T. |date=January 2006|title=Geochronology of the Nabwal Hills: a record of earliest magmatism in the northern Kenyan Rift Valley |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/geochronology-of-the-nabwal-hills-a-record-of-earliest-magmatism-in-the-northern-kenyan-rift-valley/B5BC8346805C488318C51197D2AA2B00 |journal=Geological Magazine |language=en |volume=143 |issue=1 |pages=25–39 |doi=10.1017/S0016756805001184 |bibcode=2006GeoM..143...25M |issn=1469-5081|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Njirimara tectonic a na-ahụ anya nke mpaghara ahụ sitere na nnukwu mmịpụta nke [[basalt]] n'elu ala Turkana-Omo na windo 4.18–3.99 mya.<ref>See [http://www.people.carleton.edu/~bhaileab/Petrology/LKNturkana-paper.pdf Mineral chemistry of Turkana basalts and implications for basin development], Karla Knudson, Louise Miltich, Nick Swanson-Hysell. The article is highly technical. Look for the summaries.</ref> A na-akpọ ndị a otu Gombe Basalts. E kewara ha abụọ n'ime Mursi Basalts na Gombi Basalts. A na-amata basalt abụọ ikpeazụ dị ka ihe ndị na-etolite ugwu nkume na ala ndị gbara ọdọ mmiri gburugburu. N'akụkụ Omo nke basin, nke Mursi Basalts, usoro Mursi dị n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ nke Omo, Nkalabong dị na Omo, na Usno na Shungura n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Omo. O nwere ike ịbụ na ndị a kacha mara amara n'ime usoro ndị a bụ [[Koobi Fora]] dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Turkana na Nachukui dị n'ọdịda anyanwụ. Mgbanwe dị mkpirikpi n'ọkwa ọdọ mmiri yana mmụba ntụ ugwu mgbawa na-apụta n'ógbè ahụ emeela ka mkpuchi ala kpuchie nkume ndị dị n'ala n'ụzọ na-enweghị atụ. Enwere ike ịkọwa oge ndị a kpọmkwem site na nyocha kemịkalụ nke [[tuff]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McDougall |first1=Ian |last2=Brown |first2=Francis H. |date=January 2006|title=Precise <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar geochronology for the upper Koobi Fora Formation, Turkana Basin, northern Kenya |url=https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764904-166 |journal=Journal of the Geological Society |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=205–220 |doi=10.1144/0016-764904-166 |bibcode=2006JGSoc.163..205M |issn=0016-7649|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ebe a kwenyere na mpaghara a bụ ebe e si enweta [[hominin]]s, ụbọchị ndị ahụ dị mkpa maka imepụta usoro ihe ndị dị ndụ nke diachronic, ma [[hominoid]] ma nke na-abụghị nke mmadụ—ya bụ, ma nke "enwe (gụnyere ndị mmadụ)"' ma nke "abụghị nke mmadụ". E gwupụtala ọtụtụ puku. A na-ahụ mbara ala ndị na-anọchite anya osimiri ochie na [[Turkana Basin]]. Nke kachasị elu dị mita 100 n'elu ọdọ mmiri ahụ (naanị ihe dị ka, ebe ọkwa ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-agbanwe agbanwe), nke mere ihe dị ka afọ 9500 gara aga, na njedebe nke [[Pleistocene]] dịka akụkụ nke [[oge mmiri ozuzo nke Afrịka]].<ref name="Bloszies 64–76">{{Cite journal|last1=Bloszies|first1=C.|last2=Forman|first2=S. L.|last3=Wright|first3=D. K.|date=1 September 2015|title=Water level history for Lake Turkana, Kenya in the past 15,000 years and a variable transition from the African Humid Period to Holocene aridity|journal=Global and Planetary Change|volume=132|pages=64–76|doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.06.006}}</ref> A na-echekarị na Turkana bụ akụkụ nke usoro Nile dị n'elu n'oge ahụ, na-ejikọta na [[Ọdọ Mmiri Baringo]] na nsọtụ ndịda na [[Naịl Ọcha]] n'ebe ugwu, na mgbanwe ala ugwu mgbawa ahụ mebiri njikọ ahụ. Echiche dị otu a na-akọwa ụdị Naịl dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ, dịka agụ iyi na ebe a na-akpọ Naịl. Oke mmiri dịkwa ihe dị ka afọ 9000, 6000 na 5000 gara aga, nke ọ bụla sochiri mbelata n'ọkwa ọdọ mmiri nke ihe karịrị mita 40 n'ime ihe na-erughị afọ 200.<ref name="Bloszies 64–76"/> A na-eche na mgbanwe dị na ọnọdụ nke ókèala ikuku Congo metụtara ikike mmiri si n'Oké Osimiri Atlantic iru ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Costa|first1=Kassandra|last2=Russell|first2=James|last3=Konecky|first3=Bronwen|last4=Lamb|first4=Henry|date=1 January 2014|title=Isotopic reconstruction of the African Humid Period and Congo Air Boundary migration at Lake Tana, Ethiopia|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=83|pages=58–67|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.031|bibcode=2014QSRv...83...58C|url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8H13CRK/download|hdl=2160/42513|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author-link1=Jessica Tierney|last1=Tierney|first1=Jessica E.|last2=Russell|first2=James M.|last3=Sinninghe Damsté|first3=Jaap S.|last4=Huang|first4=Yongsong|last5=Verschuren|first5=Dirk|date=1 April 2011|title=Late Quaternary behavior of the East African monsoon and the importance of the Congo Air Boundary|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=30|issue=7–8|pages=798–807|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.01.017|bibcode=2011QSRv...30..798T}}</ref> nke nwere mmetụta dị ukwuu n'ọkwa ọdọ mmiri Turkana na mmiri ndị dị ya nso.<ref name="Bloszies 64–76"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Junginger|first1=Annett|last2=Roller|first2=Sybille|last3=Olaka|first3=Lydia A.|last4=Trauth|first4=Martin H.|date=15 February 2014|title=The effects of solar irradiation changes on the migration of the Congo Air Boundary and water levels of paleo-Lake Suguta, Northern Kenya Rift, during the African Humid Period (15–5 ka BP)|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=396|pages=1–16|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.12.007|bibcode=2014PPP...396....1J}}</ref> Ebe [[archaeoastronomical]] [[Namoratunga II|Namoratunga]], nke e dere ihe dị ka afọ 300 [[Oge A Na-ahụkarị|BCE]], dị nso n'Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana. == Ọmụmụ ihe gbasara mmadụ == [[Hominin]] A hụla ihe ndị e ji mee ụfọdụ ndị nna ochie mmadụ mbụ n'ime Osimiri Turkana. A na-ewere ọdọ mmiri Turkana dị ka ebe ndụ mmadụ si malite n'ihi ụdị anụmanụ dị iche iche nke ndị bi n'ime ala ọzara a dị iche iche. Ihe ndị a emeela ka mmadụ ghọta usoro mgbanwe mmadụ na-agbanwe agbanwe ma na-egosi na ha sitere n'otu nna ochie karịa, na-agbanwe gaa n'ọtụtụ usoro.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Herrero |first=Hannah |date=20 May 2022 |title=Discoveries at Lake Turkana |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/discoveries-lake-turkana}}</ref> Mgbanwe dị n'ime oke ọhịa mere ka ndị mmadụ mbụ nwee ike imeghari onwe ha ka ha wee nwee ike ịhụ anụ ọhịa ndị na-eri anụ n'anya nke ukwuu. Ntụ ugwu mgbawa na ebe kpọrọ nkụ dị mma maka ichekwa ihe ndị a dị ndụ mana ọ na-emekwa ka ọdọ mmiri ahụ daa ma ọ bụ pụọ n'anya mgbe ụfọdụ. N'ime ala mmiri kpọrọ nkụ, ebe [[Lomekwi]] atọ ahụ chọtara ngwa ọrụ ochie [[hammer]], [[anvil]], na ịkpụ ihe. Agbanyeghị, mpụta nke teknụzụ Acheulean anaghịzi eche na ojiji ngwaọrụ bụ ihe dị iche n'etiti ụdị "Homo" ebe [[Australopithecus afarensis]] jikwa ngwaọrụ dị mfe tupu ụdị ''[[Homo]]'', ihe karịrị nde afọ 3.3 gara aga.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Britannica |first=The Editors of Encyclopaedia |date=21 Jan 2016 |title=Lake Turkana remains |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lake-Turkana-remains.}}</ref> ''[[Australopithecus anamensis]]'' ihe ndị e ji ihe ndị dị ndụ nke [[Meave Leakey]] chọpụtara n'afọ 1994 malitere ihe dị ka nde afọ anọ gara aga, na-eme ka ụbọchị mmalite nke ịgba ụkwụ abụọ laghachi azụ ọkara nde afọ. [[Richard Leakey]] eduzila ọtụtụ njem [[mmepe mmadụ|mmadụ]] n'ógbè ahụ nke dugara n'ọtụtụ nchọpụta dị mkpa nke ihe fọdụrụ n'ihe gbasara hominin. A chọtara [[skull 1470]] dị afọ nde abụọ n'afọ 1972. E chere na mbụ na ọ bụ ''[[Homo habilis]]'', mana aha sayensị ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]'', V. P. Alexeev tụrụ aro ya site na aha ochie nke ọdọ mmiri a (Rudolf) na 1986. Na 1984, [[Kamoya Kimeu] chọtara [[Nwa okorobịa Turkana]], ọkpụkpụ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ nke zuru oke nke nwatakịrị ''[[Homo ergaster]]''. N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, Meave Leakey chọtara okpokoro isi dị nde afọ 3.5 n'ebe ahụ, nke akpọrọ ''[[Kenyanthropus platyops]]'' ("nwoke Kenya nwere ihu dị larịị"). [[Marta Mirazón Lahr]] chọpụtara ihe akaebe mbụ nke agha ụmụ mmadụ n'ebe [[Nataruk]] dị, nke dị nso n'ụsọ oké osimiri Turkana ochie ma buru ibu, ebe a na-ekwu na ọtụtụ ọkpụkpụ mmadụ na-egosi nnukwu mmerụ ahụ n'isi, olu, ọgịrịga, ikpere na aka bụ ihe akaebe nke esemokwu dị n'etiti otu ndị na-achụ nta na ndị na-achịkọ ihe dị ka afọ 10,000 gara aga.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya|journal = Nature|pages = 394–398|volume = 529|issue = 7586|doi = 10.1038/nature16477|first1 = M. Mirazón|last1 = Lahr|first2 = F.|last2 = Rivera|first3 = R. K.|last3 = Power|first4 = A.|last4 = Mounier|first5 = B.|last5 = Copsey|first6 = F.|last6 = Crivellaro|first7 = J. E.|last7 = Edung|first8 = J. M. Maillo|last8 = Fernandez|first9 = C.|last9 = Kiarie|pmid=26791728|year=2016|url = https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/253726|bibcode = 2016Natur.529..394L|s2cid = 4462435}}</ref> A hụrụ ihe karịrị mmadụ 230 n'ebe Koobi Fora dị n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ, ma gbasaa ọkpụkpụ "Homo sapiens" nwere akara ọkpụkpụ n'akụkụ osimiri ọwụwa anyanwụ na saịtị Nataruk, mpaghara a na-enye nghọta dị ukwuu banyere ụzọ ụmụ mmadụ mbụ a si too ma lanarị ihu igwe na-adịghị agbanwe agbanwe n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri na n'ofe ya.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bush |first=Eliot |date=27 Jun 2020 |title=The Meaning of Time in the Place Where Humanity's Earliest Ancestors Arose |website=[[Scientific American]] |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-meaning-of-time-in-the-place-where-humanitys-earliest-ancestors-arose/.}}</ref> '[[Homo erectus]]'' bụ onye kacha nso n'ime ndị nna ochie ''Homo sapiens''{{'}} ma zọọ mpi ịbụ onye mbụ ga-agafe ụzọ Levantine site n'Africa gaa Europe na Eshia afọ 1.8 nde gara aga.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hogenboom |first=Melissa |date=9 Dec 2015 |title=The Importance of Lake Turkana |url=https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/news/index.php?id=The-Importance-of-Lake-Turkana}}</ref> A na-anọchite anya ọtụtụ asụsụ dị iche iche n'ógbè dị gburugburu Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lynch|first1=B. M.|last2=Robbins|first2=L. H.|date=1 July 1979|title=Cushitic and Nilotic Prehistory: New Archaeological Evidence from North-West Kenya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/div-classtitlecushitic-and-nilotic-prehistory-new-archaeological-evidence-from-north-west-kenyadiv/B6CA07A4242B0F6205A90C5E6E5303BF|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=20|issue=3|pages=319–328|doi=10.1017/S0021853700017333|s2cid=162787847 |issn=1469-5138|url-access=subscription}}</ref> nke bụ ihe akaebe maka ọtụtụ njem nke ndị mmadụ dị iche iche ruo ọtụtụ puku afọ. Asụsụ ndị dị ugbu a gụnyere ma ọ dịkarịa ala otu atọ dị iche iche nke [[Asụsụ Nilotic|Nilotic]] ([[Asụsụ Nilo-Saharan|Nilo-Saharan]]) na [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] ([[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]) ezinụlọ ezinụlọ, bụ́ ndị ekewaala n'ihu n'ihe karịrị asụsụ iri na abụọ gbara ọdọ mmiri ahụ gburugburu taa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eastern and Southern Africa in World History 1000 BC to AD 400|last=Ehret|first=Christopher|publisher=University of Virginia Press|year=1998|isbn=9780813920573}}</ref> Na mbido [[Holocene]] (n'oge [[Holocene climate optimality|Holocene Climatic Optimum]]), ọkwa ọdọ mmiri dị elu, ịkụ azụ na ịzụ nri bụ isi akụ na ụba ndụ. Ọrụ ugbo anụmanụ nọchiri nke a n'ihe dị ka afọ 5000 gara aga, mgbe ọkwa ọdọ mmiri ahụ na-agbanwe ngwa ngwa.<ref name=":0" /> N'oge Holocene nke mechara, mmeghachi omume mmadụ nye mgbanwe ihu igwe gụnyere ịkụ azụ̀ siri ike mgbe ọkwa ọdọ mmiri dị elu na ịgbanwe gaa n'ịzụ ehi mgbe ọkwa ahụ dara.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=David K.|last2=Forman|first2=Steven L.|last3=Kiura|first3=Purity|last4=Bloszies|first4=Christopher|last5=Beyin|first5=Amanuel|date=27 June 2015|title=Lakeside View: Sociocultural Responses to Changing Water Levels of Lake Turkana, Kenya|journal=African Archaeological Review|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=335–367|doi=10.1007/s10437-015-9185-8|issn=0263-0338|doi-access=free}}</ref> A na-ahụ ili ndị megalithic nke gbasaara ebe niile n'akụkụ ọdọ mmiri ahụ, o yikwara ka ha kwekọrọ n'oge mbụ e webatara anụmanụ ndị a na-azụ n'ógbè ahụ ihe dị ka afọ 5000 gara aga,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grillo|first1=Katherine M.|last2=Hildebrand|first2=Elisabeth A.|date=1 June 2013|title=The context of early megalithic architecture in eastern Africa: the Turkana Basin c. 5000–4000 BP|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|volume=48|issue=2|pages=193–217|doi=10.1080/0067270X.2013.789188|s2cid=162193899|issn=0067-270X}}</ref> mgbe e mesịrị, e liri ndị nwụrụ anwụ n'obere ili.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.african-archaeology.de/index.php?page_id=154&journal_id=42&pdf_id=328|title=Stone Cairns and Material Culture of the Middle to Late Holocene, Lake Turkana|last=D.K. Wright, K.M. Grillo & R. Soper|website=www.african-archaeology.de|language=de|access-date=7 March 2017}}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ndị bi n'ógbè a taa na-ebi ndụ dị iche iche, na-agbanwe n'etiti ịchụ nta, ịkụ azụ na ịzụ anụmanụ dabere na ihe enwere ike ime n'otu afọ.<ref name=":0"/> Agbanyeghị, owuwu nke akụrụngwa dịka ọdụ ndị ozi ala ọzọ nke Ndị Kraịst, mwepụta ike (ikuku, mmanụ) na [[Òtù na-abụghị nke gọọmentị|NGO]] ebe ndị na-ekesa enyemaka emeela ka mpaghara ahụ jikọọ na ihe ndị dị n'èzí ma dabere na ihe ndị dị mkpa maka ndụ.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233492400|title=Success and Failure: The Breakdown of Traditional Drought Coping Institutions Among the Pastoral Turkana of Kenya|last=McCabe|first=Terrance|date=1990|journal=African and Asian Studies|volume=25|issue=3|pages=146–160|language=en|access-date=7 March 2017|doi=10.1177/002190969002500302|s2cid=220931072}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=MONTCLOS|first1=M.-A. P. D.|last2=KAGWANJA|first2=P. M.|date=1 June 2000|title=Refugee Camps or Cities? The Socio-economic Dynamics of the Dadaab and Kakuma Camps in Northern Kenya|journal=Journal of Refugee Studies|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|pages=205–222|doi=10.1093/jrs/13.2.205|s2cid=145079117|issn=0951-6328}}</ref> Akụnụba ego na-agbakwụnye ụzọ ọdịnala nke ibi ndụ dịka ịzụ anụ ụlọ na ịkụ azụ. == Ike ifufe == Ọrụ Ike Ifufe nke Lake Turkana (LTWP) na-enye ọkụ eletrik 310 MW nye okporo ọkụ eletrik mba Kenya site n'itinye ọnọdụ ifufe pụrụ iche gburugburu ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-26|title=Home - Lake Turkana Wind Power|url=https://ltwp.co.ke/|access-date=2023-02-07|language=en-US}}</ref> E nwere 365 [[ụgbọala ikuku]], nke ọ bụla nwere ike [[ikike aha]] nke kilowatts 850. E nyere ya ọrụ na Ọktoba 2018. E mepụtara ọrụ azụmaahịa zuru oke na Julaị 2019 mgbe e mechara eriri ọkụ eletrik na-ebuga ihe ndị a. E nwetara ikike 100% (nke pụtara na 310 MW zuru oke emepụtara) na Machị 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lake Turkana Wind Project - Our journey|url=https://ltwp.co.ke/our-journey/|access-date=2024-03-13}}</ref> ==Ọdọ mmiri== Etiopịala na-arụzi ọdọ mmiri Gibe nke atọ n'akụkụ Osimiri Omo ya, ebe a maara na ọ ga-eme ka mmiri si n'akụkụ osimiri pụta dị ukwuu ma belata mmiri na-abata n'Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana nke Kenya, nke na-enweta pasentị iri itoolu nke mmiri ya site n'osimiri ahụ. Dịka akụkọ ARWG si kwuo, mgbanwe ndị a ga-emebi ụzọ ndụ nke opekata mpe ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ 200,000, Ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị ọkụ azụ̀ ndị dabere na idei mmiri n'akụkụ Osimiri Omo na ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ na ndị ọkụ azụ̀ 300,000 gburugburu ọdọ mmiri Turkana – itinye agbụrụ dị iche iche n'ógbè ahụ n'agha ime ihe ike gafere ókèala nke ruru South Sudan, ebe agụụ na-eche ha niile ihu. Akụkọ a na-egosi nnukwu ihe gbasara usoro mmepe nwere nnukwu nsogbu nke ego ụwa na gọọmentị Africa na-akwalite. N'ime usoro a, ọ na-achọpụta nnukwu ihe egwu ndị a na-eleghara anya ma ọ bụ ndị a na-ebelataghị n'ụzọ ọzọ, ọ bụghị nke kacha nta bụ atụmatụ nke US Geological Survey nke nwere nnukwu ihe egwu maka ala ọma jijiji nke oke 7 ma ọ bụ 8 na mpaghara Gibe III dam. ===Mmetụta na Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana=== Mmetụta nke ihe mgbochi mmiri na ọrụ ịgba mmiri nke ihe mgbochi mmiri nwere ike inwe na ọkwa mmiri nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana bụ ihe a na-arụrịta ụka. Nnyocha mmiri emere maka African Development Bank na Nọvemba 2010 kwubiri na ijupụta mmiri ahụ ga-ebelata mmiri ọdọ mmiri ahụ site na mita abụọ, ọ bụrụ na a gaghị eme mmiri ọ bụla. Ịgba mmiri ga-eme ka ọkwa ọdọ mmiri ahụ daa ọzọ. Ndị Enyi nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana, otu nzukọ Kenya nke na-anọchite anya ndị obodo dị na ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Kenya nke ihe ndị ha na-ebi na ya jikọtara na Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana, e burula ụzọ kwuo na ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere ike ibelata ọkwa ọdọ mmiri Turkana ruo mita iri, nke ga-emetụta ihe ruru mmadụ 300,000. Nke a nwere ike ime ka mmiri ahụ dị nro mụbaa nke na ndị obodo gbara ọdọ mmiri ahụ gburugburu agaghịzi enwe ike ịṅụ ya. Ugbu a, nnu dị n'ime mmiri ahụ dị ihe dịka 2332mg/L, a na-eme atụmatụ na mbelata mita iri n'ọkwa mmiri nke ọdọ mmiri Turkana nwere ike ime ka nnu dị n'ime mmiri ahụ ruo 3397mg/L. Ịba ụba nnu nwere ike ibelata ọnụọgụ azụ̀ dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ nke ukwuu, bụ́ ndị mmadụ gbara Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana gburugburu na-adabere na ya maka ihe oriri na ihe ha ji ebi ndụ. Dịka ndị nkatọ si kwuo, nke a "ga-ama ọdọ mmiri ahụ ikpe ọnwụ na-adịghị nwayọ." Dịka ndị na-akwado mgbochi mmiri si kwuo, mmetụta dị na ọdọ mmiri Turkana ga-abụ naanị mbelata oge na mmiri na-asọ asọ n'oge a na-ejupụta ọdọ mmiri ahụ. Ebe dị iche iche na-ekwu na mmiri ahụ nwere ike ịdị n'etiti otu oge mmiri ruo atọ.[9][26] Oke nchekwa nke ọdọ mmiri Gibe III ga-adị n'etiti ijeri cubic mita 11.75 na 14, dabere na isi mmalite. Dịka ụlọ ọrụ na-ewu mgbochi mmiri si kwuo, nke a ga-ebelata ọkwa mmiri dị n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ site na "ihe na-erughị 50cm kwa afọ ruo afọ atọ" nakwa na nnu "agaghị agbanwe n'ụzọ ọ bụla".[26] Dịka Kọmitii Gburugburu Ebe Obibi nke Ọdọ Mmiri Mba Nile si kwuo, 90% nke mmiri Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana na-esi n'Osimiri Omo ebe a ga-ewu Ọdọ Mmiri ahụ.[31] Ebe ọ bụ na ọdọ mmiri Turkana enweghị ebe ọ ga-esi abanye, mmiri ruru mita 2.3 kwa afọ ka mmiri ghara ịpụ apụ, ọkwa ya na-adịkwa mfe nghọta maka mgbanwe ihu igwe na oge. Iji tụnyere ya, ọkwa akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana dara site na elu nke mita 20 karịa ọkwa taa na afọ 1890 ruo otu ọkwa ahụ taa na afọ 1940 na 1950. Mgbe ahụ, ọ mụbara ọzọ nwayọ nwayọ site na mita asaa ruo n'ọkwa kachasị elu n'ihe dị ka afọ 1980, wee belata ọzọ.[31] Nchịkọta nke Nnyocha Mmetụta Gburugburu Ebe Obibi na Ọha na Eze (ESIA) nke ọrụ ahụ enyochaghị mmetụta nke ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere n'ọkwa mmiri na ịdị mma nke Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana.[32] Onyeisi nke Òtù Na-ahụ Maka Ọrụ Mmiri nke Kenya, John Nyaoro, rụrụ ụka na ọdọ mmiri ahụ agaghị enwe mmetụta ọjọọ ọ bụla na Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana.[33] Akụkọ gọọmentị Kenya mere na 2021 kwuru na elu ọdọ mmiri Turkana amụbaala site na 10% n'etiti 2010 na 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tobiko |first=Keriako |date=2021 |title=Rising Water Levels in Kenya's Rift Valley Lakes, Turkwel Gorge Dam and Lake Victoria |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/MENR_Scoping_Report_Latest-5-07-21.pdf |access-date=2022-03-16 |website=Kenya Government and UNDP |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428030814/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/MENR_Scoping_Report_Latest-5-07-21.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Baraka |first=Carey |date=2022-03-17 |title=A drowning world: Kenya's quiet slide underwater |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/17/kenya-quiet-slide-underwater-great-rift-valley-lakes-east-africa-flooding |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> == Leekwa == {{Commons}} * [[Gilgel Gibe III Dam]] * [[Hadar, Ethiopia]] * [[Laetoli]] * [[Lake Suguta]] * [[List of rivers of Kenya]] * [[Middle Awash]] * [[Olduvai Gorge]] * [[Omo Kibish Formation]] * [[Rift Valley lakes]] * [[Tugen Hills]] ==N'ọdịnala ama ama== *A na-egosi Ọdọ Mmiri Turkana n'egwuregwu vidiyo nke afọ 2002 ''[[Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht]]''. N'okwu mmalite nke egwuregwu ahụ, nke e mere na 20XX AD, njem ihe mgbe ochie na Lake Turkana chọpụtara Zohar, otu ihe omimi dị omimi nke na-eje ozi dị ka isi ihe dị na akụkọ egwuregwu ahụ.<ref>{{cite web|title=Script of Xenosaga Episode I – Prologue|url=https://www.xenoserieswiki.org/wiki/Script_of_Xenosaga_Episode_I/Prologue|publisher=Xeno Series Wiki|access-date=2025-10-12}}</ref> * Ọdọ mmiri ahụ dị n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ (na [[Loiyangalani]]) bụ ebe e si dee akwụkwọ akụkọ [[[John le Carré]] nke akpọrọ ''[[The Constant Gardener]]'', ọ bụkwa ebe e si dee ihe nkiri ahụ nke nwere otu aha ahụ. *Akụkụ nke ihe ndị mere n'akwụkwọ akụkọ ''"Невозвращенец"'' ("The Non-Returnee") nke [[Andrei Gusev]] mere n'ụsọ mmiri nke ọdọ mmiri Turkana na Loiyangalani (n'akụkụ nke abụọ nke akwụkwọ akụkọ a).<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''"Невозвращенец"'' ("The Non-Returnee")] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref>[https://andrei-gusev.narod.ru/Non-Returnee.htm ''"Невозвращенец"'' ("The Non-Returnee")] by [[Andrei Gusev]], 2022</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist|30em}} == Isi mmalite == * ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' under "Rudolf, Lake" * ''Chambers World Gazetteer'', ed. David Munro, W & R Chambers Ltd. & The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 5th Edition, 1988, {{ISBN|978-1-85296-200-5}} under ''Turkana, Lake.'' * ''Quest for the Jade Sea: Colonial Competition Around an East African Lake'', by [[Pascal James Imperato]] and published by Westview Press, 1998 {{ISBN|0813327911}}. * ''Where Giants Trod: The Saga of Kenya's Desert Lake'', by Monty Brown and published by Quiller Press, 1989 {{ISBN|1870948254}}. Descriptions of the various discovery expeditions to Lake Turkana in the 19th century. The accounts inevitably offer observations about the geology and anthropology of the area. *Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Lake Turkana remains". ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 21 Jan. 2016, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lake-Turkana-remains. Accessed 30 May 2022. * Bush, Eliot. "The Meaning of Time in the Place Where Humanity's Earliest Ancestors Arose". ''Scientific American'', 27 Jun. 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-meaning-of-time-in-the-place-where-humanitys-earliest-ancestors-arose/. * Herrero, Hannah. "Discoveries at Lake Turkana". ''National Geographic'', 20 May 2022, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/discoveries-lake-turkana. * Hogenboom, Melissa. "The Importance of Lake Turkana". ''Bradshaw Foundation'', 9 Dec. 2015, https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/news/index.php?id=The-Importance-of-Lake-Turkana. == Njikọ mpụga == {{Commons category}} * [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080510070614/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/sibiloi.html Lake Turkana's entry on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041020044329/http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/earthshots/slow/Turkana/Turkana Satellite images showing Lake Turkana's falling water levels] * [http://www.kfrp.com Ongoing Palaeoanthropological research in the Turkana Basin] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html World Lakes Database] * [http://www.tours-kenya.net/lake-turkana-national-park.html Lake Turkana National Park]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} * {{WWF ecoregion|name=Masai Xeric Grasslands and Shrublands|id=at1313}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928020937/http://www.originsafaris.info/brochure/CradleofMankind07.pdf Remote Tribes of Northern Kenya] * [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/reptiles/crocodilenathist.shtml Crocodile Natural History] * [http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Gibe III Dam Lake Turkana] * [http://www.turkanabasin.org The Turkana Basin Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050324014526/http://sibiloi.com/ Sibiloi National Park, World Heritage Site] {{African Great Lakes}} {{Lakes of Kenya}} {{Great Rift Valley, Kenya}} {{Turkana Basin}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Turkana}} mw2r2ztmdw4x06c6aul49qwu8nbnn31 Thwake Dam 0 77540 688010 674010 2026-07-14T02:53:56Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688010 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dam complex in Kenya}} '''Dam Thwake''' ma ọ bụ '''Mmepe Dam Thwake Multi-purpose,''' bụ ebe a na-ewu mmiri mgbochi mmiri n'elu [[Osimiri Athi-Galana-Sabaki|Osimiri Athi]] dị na Kenya.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Otieno|first=Jullias|title=Uhuru: Thwake Dam construction will be complete by June next year|url=https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2021-07-09-uhuru-thwake-dam-construction-will-be-complete-by-june-next-year/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=The Star|language=en-KE}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2021-07-13|title=Thwake Multi-purpose Dam project timeline and all you need to know|url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/biggest-projects/thwake-multi-purpose-dam-project-timeline-and-all-you-need-to-know/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=Construction Review Online|language=en-us}}</ref> E mere ka ọdọ mmiri a bụrụ [[mmiri ọtụtụ ihe]] nke na-enye mmiri ọṅụṅụ, mmiri ịgba mmiri n'ugbo, ike mmiri, na akụrụngwa mmiri ndị ọzọ.<ref name=":0" /> Ebe nchekwa mmiri dị kubik mita nde 688, a na-emekwa ya maka ụlọ ndị dị n'ime ime obodo, [[Konza, Kenya|Konza]] na mpaghara ndị ọzọ.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Ọ bụ [[Shilling Kenya|KSh.]] ijeri 37, ka e ji arụ ọrụ ahụ, ọ bụkwa [[China Gezhouba Group Company]] ka rụrụ ọrụ ahụ.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Koech|first=Gilbert|date=25 October 2020|title=Nema shifts focus to Athi after Nairobi River cleaned up|url=https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/nairobi/2020-10-25-nema-shifts-focus-to-athi-after-nairobi-river-cleaned-up/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=The Star|language=en-KE}}</ref> [[African Development Fund]] nwetara ego ahụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kenya - Thwake Multi-purpose Water Development Programme – Phase I|url=https://projectsportal.afdb.org/dataportal/VProject/show/P-KE-E00-008|access-date=2021-07-27|website=projectsportal.afdb.org|accessdate=2026-07-08|archivedate=2023-08-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816192006/https://projectsportal.afdb.org/dataportal/VProject/show/P-KE-E00-008}}</ref> == Usoro == E kewara owuwu na mmejuputa ọrụ ahụ ụzọ anọ:<ref name="MWSI2024">{{cite web |author=Ministry of Water, Sanitation, and Irrigation |date=2024 |title=Terms of Reference: Consultancy Services to Undertake Stakeholder Awareness and Community Sensitization Communication Campaigns on Dam Break and Emergency Preparedness |url=https://water.go.ke/sites/default/files/2025-01/TOR-CONSULTANCY%20SERVICES%20TO%20UNDERTAKE%20STAKEHOLDER%20AWARENESS%20AND%20COMMUNITY%20SENSITIZATION%20COMMUNICATION%20CAMPAIGNS%20ON%20DAM%20BREAK%20AND%20EMERGENCY%20PREPAREDNESS%20.pdf |access-date=2026-06-05 |publisher=Government of Kenya}}</ref> '''Nkebi nke mbụ''': Ọrụ owuwu nke mgbidi mgbochi mmiri na ụzọ mmiri si agbada osimiri Athi na Thwake. Mgbidi ahụ dị mita 80.5 n'ịdị elu, nke nwere mita kubik nde 688.<ref name="MWSI2025">{{cite web |author=Ministry of Water, Sanitation, and Irrigation |date=2025 |title=Terms of Reference for Identification of Dam Management and Operations Agency |url=https://www.water.go.ke/sites/default/files/2025-01/TOR%20for%20identification%20of%20Dam%20Managament%20and%20Operations%20Agency.pdf |access-date=2026-06-05 |publisher=Government of Kenya}}</ref> Ọrụ owuwu a malitere na Machị 27, 2018, a ga-emechakwa ya na Nọvemba 2022, mana e gburu oge n'ihi ego na ọrịa [[COVID-19|Covid-19]] a na-efe efe, a ga-emechakwa ya na Juun 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marita |first=Bosco |date=2024-10-02 |title=Thwake Dam phase 1 to be complete by June 2025 - CS Muuga |url=https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2024-10-02-thwake-dam-phase-1-to-be-complete-by-june-2025-cs-muuga}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wanza |first=Prudence |date=2024-06-18 |title=Thwake Dam project hits milestone with completion of embankment area |url=https://www.kbc.co.ke/thwake-dam-project-hits-milestone-with-completion-of-embankment-area/ |access-date=2026-06-05 |website=KBC Digital |language=en-US}}</ref> '''Nkebi nke abụọ''': Nke a bụ iji tinye usoro ike mmiri nke dam ahụ nke nwere ike nke MW 20 na ebe a na-agwọ mmiri.<ref name="ThwakeDamCharter2024">{{cite web |last=ResearchGate |date=2024 |title=Probable Project Charter: Thwake Multi-Purpose Dam Project |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383037329_Probable_Project_Charter_Thwake_Multi-Purpose_Dam_Project |access-date=2026-06-05 |publisher=ResearchGate}}</ref> '''Nkebi nke ato:''' Na-elekwasị anya na mmiri na ihe owuwu dị ọcha iji jeere ndị bi na Kitui na Makueni ozi. E mekwara usoro njikwa ihe mkpofu mmiri dịka akụkụ nke usoro a.<ref name="MWSI2024" /> '''Nkebi nke anọ:''' Ebumnuche nke a bụ ịmepụta atụmatụ ịgba mmiri gburugburu ọdọ mmiri ahụ iji kpuchie hekta 40,000.<ref name="MWSI2024" /> == nchegbu mmetọ == Mkpa ọ dị maka [[mmiri a na-aṅụ]] site na dam ahụ dugara n'ọtụtụ ọrụ nchekwa dị n'elu mmiri, na-agbalị ịmepụta mmiri dị ọcha ka mma, dịka na [[Ondiri Wetland]].<ref name=":2" /> Ọzọkwa, ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ amalitela ịgbasa ozugbo n'ime osimiri ahụ.<ref name=":2" /> Na Julaị 2021, onye nyocha [[Nancy Gathungu]] katọrọ mmiri ahụ maka enweghị mmiri dị ọcha na nke dị mma a ga-ejigide n'ihi ebe mmetọ dịka [[Osimiri Athi (obodo)|Osimiri Athi]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-30|title=Sh81b Thwake Dam project water 'unfit for human use'|url=https://www.pd.co.ke/news/sh81b-thwake-dam-project-water-unfit-for-human-use-83833/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=People Daily|language=en-GB}}</ref> == Edensibia == {{Reflist}} dcfc47dr4x51pmtqh958p3hskdv5i0f Ugalla River National Park 0 77615 688026 674687 2026-07-14T06:37:30Z InternetArchiveBot 11600 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 688026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Ebe echekwara na Tanzania}} '''Ugalla River National Park''' (''Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Mto Ugalla'', [[Asụsụ Swahili|Swahili]]) bụ otu ebe a na-akpọ Tanzania [[ogige mba]] na [[Tabora Region]], nke ọdịda anyanwụ-etiti [[Tanzania]].<ref name="WDPA-Ugalla">{{cite web|title=Ugalla North Forest Reserve|publisher=World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)|url=http://protectedplanet.net/sites/301499|access-date=2012-09-10|archive-date=2012-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731051459/http://protectedplanet.net/sites/301499|url-status=dead|accessdate=2026-07-09|archivedate=2012-07-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731051459/http://protectedplanet.net/sites/301499}}</ref> Ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ kpuchiri {{Convert|3,865|sqkm|sqmi|2}}.<ref name=TZParks>{{cite web|url=https://www.tanzaniaparks.go.tz/uploads/publications/en-1581671752-TANAPA%20GENERAL%20BROCHURES%202020-WEBSITE%20(1).pdf|title=Tanzania National parks Brochure 2020|website=Tanzania National Parks}}</ref> Ókèala ya dị n'ebe ndịda site na [[Osimiri Ugalla]]. == Etymology nke aha ya == Osimiri Ugalla, nke bụ naanị ebe a na-enweta mmiri na-adịgide adịgide maka anụmanụ, kpaliri aha ogige ahụ. Osimiri ahụ ji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-agafe n'ọdịda anyanwụ n'èzí ókèala ogige ntụrụndụ mba ahụ gaa n'ime njikọ dị mgbagwoju anya nke apịtị na osimiri ndị a maara dị ka apịtị Moyowosi, nke mechara gbapụ n'ime [[Ọdọ Mmiri Tanganyika]].<ref name=TZParks /> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme na ebe ndị na-adọrọ mmasị == E hiwere Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba ahụ n'afọ 2019 mgbe ndị omeiwu Tanzania kewapụrụ akụkụ nke ebe nchekwa Egwuregwu Osimiri Ugalla iji mepụta ogige mba.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Masare |first1=Alawi |title=Tanzania clinches 'top position' as more parks are approved |url=https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/news/Tanzania-clinches--top-position--as-more-parks-are-approved/1840386-5268168-8atq3q/index.html |access-date=12 April 2020 |agency=The Citizen |ref=citM}}</ref> Ọ dị n'akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ etiti Tanzania, n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke ọdọ mmiri Tanganyika.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ugalla River Game Reserve|url=http://tanzaniazalendo.org/the-magnificent-tanzania/parks-and-reserves/game-reserves/ugalla-river-game-reserve/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517103044/http://tanzaniazalendo.org/the-magnificent-tanzania/parks-and-reserves/game-reserves/ugalla-river-game-reserve/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=May 17, 2018|access-date=2021-02-22|website=Tanzania Zalendo|language=en-US}}</ref> Ókèala ahụ dum bụ ebe sara mbara nke [[Oke Miombo|Oke Miombo]] na savanna ahịhịa dị elu nke [[Buffalo Africa|Buffaloes]], [[Elephant|Enyi]], [[Agụ|agụ]], [[Giraffe|giraffe]], [[Zebra|zebra]], wdg bi na ya.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ugalla River National Park|url=https://www.rateladventures.com/ugalla-river-national-park/|access-date=2021-02-22|website=Ratel Adventures|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610140837/https://www.rateladventures.com/ugalla-river-national-park/|url-status=dead|accessdate=2026-07-09|archivedate=2020-06-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610140837/https://www.rateladventures.com/ugalla-river-national-park/}}</ref> Mmiri ozuzo nkezi bụ 600–750mm kwa afọ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BirdLife Data Zone|url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/ugalla-river-game-reserve-iba-tanzania|access-date=2021-02-22|website=datazone.birdlife.org}}</ref> == Ntụaka == {{Reflist}} {{authority control}} qkdrgvxu465cs8r4266ub2mfl8l3yqn Osimiri Tshopo 0 77623 687948 674761 2026-07-13T14:31:59Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Osimiri dị na Democratic Republic of Congo}} [[Faịlụ:Rivière Tshopo, et le Pont Tshopo (Kisangani).JPG|thumb|Osimiri Tshopo]] '''Osimiri Tshopo''' bụ osimiri dị na [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Ọ na-asọfe n'ebe ugwu nke obodo [[Kisangani]] ma na-esonye na [[Osimiri Lindi]] obere oge tupu osimiri ahụ abanye na [[Osimiri Congo]]. Ọ na-enye aha ya na mpaghara [[Tshopo]]. ==Basin== Basin Tsopo nwere mpaghara ihe dịka {{convert|17200|km2}}, nke ndị Guinea na-ekpuchikarị ya-[[Osisi mmiri ozuzo nke Congo]]. O toro ogologo, ọ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ n'ebe ugwu nke ụwa equator. Osimiri ahụ na-asọ site n'ọwụwa anyanwụ ruo n'ọdịda anyanwụ wee banye n'Osimiri Congo {{convert|13|km}} site na Kisangani ebe ọ na-esonyere Osimiri Lindi.{{sfn|Léonard|1993|p=286}} Oke mmiri ozuzo dị nso n'ọnụ osimiri ahụ dị iche iche site na {{convert|11.2|to|13.8|m}} dabere n'ịdị elu nke Osimiri Congo. Ihe dị ka {{convert|120|m}} n'elu mmiri nta ndị ahụ dị {{convert|3.2|m}} n'elu otu akụkụ nke mmiri ndị ahụ.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=130}} Ebe dị n'ime ime kọntinent ahụ n'akụkụ equator nwere oge mmiri ozuzo abụọ na oge ọkọchị abụọ, yana ahịhịa ndị na-ekpuchi ọdọ mmiri ahụ, na-eme ka mmiri na-asọpụta mgbe niile. E nwere obere mmiri na Febụwarị-Eprel na Juun-Ọgọst, ebe nnukwu mmiri na-adị na Eprel-Mee, ọkachasị n'Ọktoba-Disemba. Nkezi mmiri kwa afọ dị ihe dịka {{convert|300|-|450|m3/s}}.{{sfn|Léonard|1993|p=286}} N'ebe nnukwu mmiri ozuzo dị n'elu ọnụ osimiri ahụ, mmiri ahụ na-asọpụta {{convert|100|-|700|m3/s}}, yana ọsọ nke {{convert|5|-|6|m/s}}.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=130}} Mmiri ahụ bụ pH 6.6–6.8, ma nwee okpomọkụ nke {{convert|26|-|28|C}} na Jenụwarị na Juun 1987.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=130}} ==Ọmụmụ ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi== Osimiri Lindi na Tshopo mejupụtara otu n'ime usoro osimiri atọ dị mkpa n'akụkụ aka nri na ''[[Cuvette Centrale]]'', ma ọ bụ etiti [[Congo Basin]], ndị ọzọ bụ [[Osimiri Itimbiri]] na [[Osimiri Aruwimi]].{{sfn|Decru|Emmanuel|Danadu|Walanga|2017|p=226}} Dịka akụkọ nke afọ 2015 si kwuo, a hụtala ụdị azụ 184 n'ime mpaghara Lindi/Tshopo. Ezinụlọ azụ̀ enyí, ''[[Mormyridae]]'', bụ ndị kacha baa ọgaranya n'ụdị anụmanụ.{{sfn|Decru|2015}} Osimiri ahụ nwere mmiri doro anya, ma e jiri ya tụnyere mmiri gbara ọchịchịrị nke Congo, nke mere ka ụdị ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche dị ka ''[[Inversodicraea]]'' nke a na-akọ n'osimiri ahụ dị mfe.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=129}} [[Schistosomiasis]] bụ ọrịa nje na-adịghị ala ala nke mmiri dị ọcha na-ebute site na mmiri ọkụ [[mollusc]]. Nnyocha e mere n'afọ 2018 gbasara ndị bi n'ogige dị n'akụkụ osimiri Tshopo {{convert|28|km}} site na Kisangani n'okporo ụzọ ochie [[Buta, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Buta]] gosiri na 54.5% dị mma maka ''[[Schistosoma haematobium]]'' na 7.3% dị mma maka ''[[Schistosoma mansoni]]''. Nke a tụnyere ọnụego dị mma nke 2.4% na 4.8% maka ndị bi n'obodo dị nso.{{sfn|Mongita Esol’e|Zingabako Ngbingina|Anagwatalibe Kota|Mopaya Pakowe|2020}} ==Ụlọ ọrụ hydroelectric== E wuru ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ eletrik na mmiri mmiri na Tshopo River Falls n'ebe ugwu Kisangani na afọ 1950, kpatara mbibi mpaghara nke ''Inversodicraea congolana'' n'otu n'ime ebe abụọ dị n'ụwa ebe achọtara ya.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=129}} Ọ bụ [[Ọdụ mmiri na-agba ọkụ eletrik|ọsọ-na-osimiri]], yabụ ọ chọghị nnukwu ebe nchekwa mmiri.{{sfn|Cheek|Feika|Lebbie|Goyder|2017|p=131}} Osimiri ahụ gafere site na ihe mgbochi mmiri eletrik wee gafee waterfalls.{{sfn|Barnes|2015}} Na 2013, Minista maka Mmekọ na Mmepe nke Belgium {{Ill|Jean-Pascal Labille|fr}} na gọvanọ [[Orientale Province]] [[Jean Bamanisa]] meghere ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ eletrik Tshopo mgbe ọ gasịrị. {{sfn|Daly|2013}} E wuru àkwà mmiri truss n'oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ nke afọ 1968, nke na-enye ndị ọrụ ugbo si n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ ụzọ ha ga-esi banye n'obodo ahụ. Ọ dara ada, na 2014, e jiri akwa ígwè {{convert|163|m}} nke nwere otu ụzọ nke nwere ike ibu ụgbọala ruru tọn 41 dochie ya. O nwere ụzọ ụkwụ abụọ dị n'èzí nke ndị na-eje ije.{{sfn|Barnes|2015}} ==Ntụaka== {{reflist|30em}} ==Isi mmalite== {{refbegin}} *{{citation |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/2015/03/tshopo-river-bridge-how-a-panel-bridge-brings-east-and-west-africa-together/ |accessdate=2020-08-29 |last=Barnes |first=Robert |date=12 October 2015 |title=Tshopo River Bridge: how a panel bridge brings East and West Africa together |work=Construction Review Online}} *{{citation |volume=62 |doi=10.3767/blumea.2017.62.02.07 |last1=Cheek |first1=Martin |last2=Feika |first2=A. |last3=Lebbie |first3=Aiah |last4=Goyder |first4=David |last5=Tchiengue |first5=Barthélemy |last6=Séné |first6=Olivier |last7=Tchouto |first7=P. |last8=Burgt |first8=Xander |year=2017 |title=A synoptic revision of Inversodicraea (Podostemaceae) |journal=Blumea – Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants|issue=2 |pages=125–156 |url=https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/636690 }} *{{citation |url=https://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Hydroelectric/Belgian-Minister-Inaugurates-Power-Plant-in-Eastern-DRC.html |accessdate=2020-08-29 |work=OilPrice.com |last=Daly |first=John |date=13 August 2013 |title=Belgian Minister Inaugurates Power Plant in Eastern DRC}} *{{citation |url=https://limo.libis.be/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=LIRIAS1705962&context=L&vid=Lirias&search_scope=Lirias&tab=default_tab&lang=en_US&fromSitemap=1 |last=Decru |first=Eva |accessdate=2020-08-29 |type=thesis |title=The ichthyofauna of the Central Congo basin: diversity and distribution in the north-eastern tributaries |others=Snoeks, Jos (Supervisor); Vreven, Emmanuel (Co supervisor) |date=November 2015}} *{{citation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320174009 |last1=Decru |first=Eva |last2=Emmanuel |first2=Vreven |last3=Danadu |first3=Célestin |last4=Walanga |first4=Albert |last5=Mambo |first5=Taylor |last6=Snoeks |first6=Jos |year=2017 |title=Ichthyofauna of the Itimbiri, Aruwimi, and Lindi/Tshopo rivers (Congo basin): Diversity and distribution patterns |journal=Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=225–247 |doi=10.3750/AIEP/02085 |accessdate=2020-08-29|doi-access=free }} *{{citation |title=Etude phytosociologique des chutes de la Tshopo (Kisangani: Zaïre) |first=J. |language=fr |accessdate=2020-08-29 |last=Léonard |journal=Bulletin du Jardin botanique National de Belgique / Bulletin van de Nationale Plantentuin van België |volume=62 |issue=1/4 |date=30 September 1993 |pages=283–347|publisher=Botanic Garden Meise |doi=10.2307/3668280 |jstor=3668280 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3668280 |url-access=subscription }} *{{citation |url=https://journalsajp.com/index.php/SAJP/article/view/30097 |accessdate=2020-08-29 |journal=South Asian Journal of Parasitology |volume=3 |pages=1–8 |last1=Mongita Esol’e |first1=B. |last2=Zingabako Ngbingina |first2=C. |last3=Anagwatalibe Kota |first3=A. |last4=Mopaya Pakowe |first4=H. |last5=Etisomba Likoke |first5=F. M. |year=2020 |title=Prevalence of Schistosomiasis among the Bavaido Village Peasants and the Residents of Tshopo River at Kisangani- DR. Congo|issue=3 }} *{{citation |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/2683372#map=11/0.6324/25.3132 |accessdate=2020-08-29 |title=Relation: Tshopo |work=OpenStreetMap |ref={{harvid|Relation: Tshopo}} }} {{refend}} ==Njikọ mpụga== {{Commons category-inline}} {{authority control}} nd2e0d6cgwtna30ueitr28nntvdlw1w Ogige Ntụrụndụ nke Ugwu Atlas Oriental 0 77659 687947 675027 2026-07-13T14:30:03Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687947 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:IMil.jpg|thumb|Ogige Ntụrụndụ nke Ugwu Atlas Oriental]]   Ogige Ntụrụndụ Haut Atlas Oriental ([[Asụsụ French|French]]: Parc National du Haut Atlas Oriental) dị na [[Morocco]]. Ọ na-ekpuchi hekta 49,000 (120,000 acres) n'ime na nso ugwu ugwu ugwu dị elu nke dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ.<ref name="iu">{{Cite web|title=Communication, Education and Public Awareness in Protected Areas - West Asia and North Africa|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]|url=http://intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/CEC/Public/Electronic/CEC/Reports/Comm_Education_WAsia_NAfri.pdf|accessdate=2011-11-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420215020/http://intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/CEC/Public/Electronic/CEC/Reports/Comm_Education_WAsia_NAfri.pdf|archivedate=2012-04-20}}</ref> A họpụtara akụkụ nke ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ dị ka ebe a na-echEbe Ramsar kemgbe afọ 2005. E guzobere ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ iji chekwaa ụkpụrụ ọdịbendị yana nke okike ya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eauxetforets.gov.ma/fr/text.aspx?id=1083&uid=94|publisher=Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification|title=Parc National du Haut Atlas Oriental|accessdate=2011-11-15|language=fr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425230108/http://www.eauxetforets.gov.ma/fr/text.aspx?id=1083&uid=94|archivedate=2012-04-25}}</ref> == Ọdịdị ala == Ebe a na-ekpuchi 55,252 hectare nke High Atlas n'etiti Midelt na Er Rachidia. Nkume ala ahụ nwere limestone na ụfọdụ intrusions igneous. Ebe ahụ dị n'ịdị elu site na 1,645 m n'ala nke Oued Arheddou ruo 3,102 m n'elu ugwu Jbel Tanrhourt. Na njedebe ọdịda anyanwụ ya, ọ gụnyere ọdọ mmiri abụọ nke Isli na [[Ọdọ Mmiri Tislit|Tislit]], nso Imilchil. Ugwu ndị dị n'ebe ugwu na-enwe mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ nke 400-600 mm, n'ihi ya, osisi dị mma, ebe ugwu ndịda kpọrọ nkụ, na-enweta naanị 200-300 mm, ma na-emeghe. Snow nke oge oyi dị ọtụtụ ma na-adịte aka n'ebe ndị dị elu.&nbsp;&nbsp; === Flora na anụmanụ === N'akụkụ ugwu, ahịhịa osisi nwere osisi cedar (''Cedrus atlantica'') na pine (''Pinus pinaster maghrebiana''), osisi oak (''Quercus rotundifolia''), osisi ''Juniperus thurifera'' na, n'ebe dị ala, ụfọdụ ''Pinus halepensis''. Ugwu ndị dị n'elu ugwu na ugwu ndị dị elu na-akwado ahịhịa steppe xerophytic, ma enwere ụfọdụ ahịhịhịa n'ebe mmiri na-ezo. N'elu ugwu ndịda, osisi cedar na-apụ n'anya, mana obere osisi oak na osisi pine ka dị. Ahịhịa steppe bụ ihe kachasị, nke ''Stipa tenacissima'' na-achịkwa na ala dị ala. BirdLife International akpọọla ogige ntụrụndụ a Mpaghara Nnụnụ Dị Mkpa (IBA) n'ihi na ọ na-akwado ọtụtụ anụ ọhịa Barbary, Levaillant's woodpeckers, subalpine, spectaled na Tristram's warblers, Moussier's redstarts, na black-eared na black wheat. Anụmanụ ndị a ma ama gụnyere atụrụ Barbary, Cuvier's gazelles na Barbary macaques. Anụmanụ ndị a na-ahụkarị dị ebe ahụ mana, na-enweghị ihe ndekọ ekwenyebeghị kemgbe 1993, enwere ike ịla n'iyi n'ógbè ahụ.<ref name="bli">{{Cite web|url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/parc-national-du-haut-atlas-oriental-iba-morocco|title=Parc National du Haut Atlas Oriental|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=2024|work=BirdLife Data Zone|publisher=BirdLife International|accessdate=2024-10-21}}</ref> == Ihe edeturu n'okpuru ala == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Edensibịa == * [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6502 Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba nke Ugwu Atlas nke Ọwụwa Anyanwụ] Birdlife International. Enwetara ya na 2011-11-15. q40nixzw2qnrjjsuwssedco4iw7pi58 Osimiri Kidepo 0 77668 687949 675065 2026-07-13T14:33:53Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687949 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Kidepo Riverbed.jpg|thumb|Osimiri Kidepo ]]   '''Osimiri Kidepo''' bụ osimiri na-asọba naanị n'oge ụfọdụ n'afọ nke dị n'akụkụ Ndagwurugwu Kidepo na mpaghara Karamoja nke Uganda, nakwa na mpaghara East Equatoria nke South Sudan. Osimiri a nyere Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Kidepo Valley aha ya, ma ọ bụkwa n'ime ogige ahụ ka ọ na-asọba. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-05|title=Crossing the dry Kidepo river|url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/lifestyle/travel/crossing-the-dry-kidepo-river-1470966|accessdate=2025-06-28|work=Monitor|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|author=Patel|first=Colin Hancock, Heenali|date=2016-01-05|title=Kidepo National Park: Uganda’s top destination|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/uganda-kidepo-park-top-destination|accessdate=2025-06-28|work=CNN|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Mafabi|first=David|date=2018-02-27|title=Giraffes; another wonder at Kidepo Park|url=https://pmldaily.com/features/2018/02/giraffes-another-wonder-at-kidepo-park.html|accessdate=2025-06-28|work=PML Daily|language=en-US}}</ref> == Ụzọ == Isi iyi Osimiri Kidepo dị n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Uganda, ma jikọta ya na ugwu Napore–Nyangea na ugwu Morungole na Zulia, ndị a maara dịka ebe ọtụtụ osimiri nke mpaghara Karamoja, gụnyere usoro mmiri Kidepo, si amalite.Osimiri ahụ na-agafe mpaghara Ndagwurugwu Kidepo (gụnyere Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Kidepo Valley) tupu ọ gafee banye na South Sudan.N'ime usoro mmiri Kidepo–Narus, a na-akọwa Osimiri Kidepo na Osimiri Narus dịka osimiri abụọ na-asọba n'ozuzu ha n'akụkụ ugwu ma na-ezukọta na Sudan (nke bụ South Sudan ugbu a), ma n'ikpeazụ na-asọba n'ime usoro mmiri Osimiri Naịl. == Ọdịdị ala == Osimiri Kidepo na-agbanye akụkụ nke ala kpọrọ nkụ nke ugwu Uganda na ndịda South Sudan. Mmiri dị n'elu ya dị n'ime mpaghara Karamoja, ebe mmiri si na ugwu Napore-Nyangea na ugwu Morungole na Zulia na-enye aka na mmiri mmiri nke oge. Osimiri ahụ gafere Ndagwurugwu Kidepo, otu n'ime isi ihe ndị dị na Kidepo Valley National Game Park, tupu ọ gafee South Sudan. Ala gbara ya gburugburu bụ savanna mepere emepe, ala mmiri oge, ahịhịa ndị dị n'akụkụ osimiri, na ugwu ndị dịpụrụ adịpụ nke na-emetụta mmiri na ụdị dị iche iche. == Njirimara mmiri, na mgbanwe oge n'asọba mmiri. == Na Kidepo Valley National Park, a na-akọwa osimiri Kidepo na Narus dị ka "osimiri ájá" oge nke na-asọ obere oge mgbe nnukwu mmiri ozuzo gasịrị, na Ndagwurugwu Kidepo Na ndị na-eso ya na-akpọnwụ maka ọtụtụ n'ime afọ. A na-akọ na mmiri na-anọgide n'oge ọnwa ọkọchị bụ ọdọ mmiri fọdụrụnụ (karịsịa n'akụkụ Narus), nke anụ ọhịa na-eji mgbe mmiri na-adịghị. Nkọwa sitere n'èzí banyere usoro mmiri dị na mpaghara Kidepo na-akọwa Osimiri Kidepo dịka osimiri na-asọba naanị n'oge ụfọdụ n'afọ , nke na-enwekarị idei mmiri mberede, ma na-asọba n'ime ndagwurugwu kpọrọ nkụ.Ozi nke Uganda Wildlife Authority banyere Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Kidepo Valley na-egosi na mpaghara ahụ nwere ihu igwe ọkara kpọrọ nkụ . Ọ na-egosikwa ọdịiche n'ogo mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ n'etiti Ndagwurugwu Narus, nke na-enweta ihe dị ka milimita 890 kwa afọ, na Ndagwurugwu Kidepo, nke na-enweta ihe dị ka milimita 635 kwa afọ. == Mgbapụta Mmiri Kidepo == Nkọwapụta gbasara ọchịchị na njikwa ala mmiri na South Sudan na-akọwa na Akụkụ Mgbapụta Mmiri Kidepo na-agbatị site na distrikti Lamwo, Kitgum, na Kaabong, ma na-asọba n'Osimiri Naịl Ọcha na South Sudan site n'Osimiri Kidepo na Osimiri Narus.Otu akwụkwọ ahụ na-ekwukwa na mpaghara ahụ nwere ihu igwe ọkara kpọrọ nkụ , ma na e nwere ala mmiri na-apụta naanị n'oge ụfọdụ n'afọ n'akụkụ ókèala distrikti Lamwo na Kitgum, nakwa n'akụkụ ụfọdụ nke distrikti Kaabong, n'ebe elu mmiri nke Osimiri Kidepo. == Ebe obibi na ebe echedoro == Usoro ndagwurugwu Kidepo-Narus na-akwado ebe obibi ndị metụtara osimiri n'ime Ogige Ntụrụndụ Kidepo Valley. Ihe onwunwe nke Uganda Wildlife Authority na-akọwa ịdabere n'oge ọkọchị na ọdọ mmiri fọdụrụnụ ma gosipụta ọdịiche dị n'etiti ndagwurugwu Kidepo na ọnọdụ mmiri a pụrụ ịdabere na ya metụtara mpaghara Narus. N'ime ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ sara mbara, a na-akọwa Nkwụ Borassus dị ka ihe a na-ahụkarị n'akụkụ osimiri gụnyere Kidepo na Narus. == Nchekwa == Akụkụ buru ibu nke elu mmiri Osimiri Kidepo dị n'ime Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Kidepo Valley, ebe nchekwa ihe ndị dị ndụ nke Uganda Wildlife Authority na-elekọta.Osimiri ahụ na ebe obibi ndị dị gburugburu ya na-enyere aka ichekwa ịdị mma gburugburu ebe obibi nke usoro gburugburu Kidepo–Narus, site n'ịkwado ọtụtụ ụdị anụ ọhịa na ahịhịa ndị na-etolite n'akụkụ osimiri.Ọdọ mmiri nta ndị na-anọgide mgbe mmiri osimiri akwụsịrị ịsọ na-abụ ebe dị mkpa ụmụ anụmanụ na-aṅụ mmiri n'oge ọkọchị n'ime ogige ahụ. N'ihi ya, a na-ewere nchekwa nke ebe obibi ndị dị n'akụkụ osimiri dị ka akụkụ dị mkpa nke njikwa gburugburu ebe obibi sara mbara na mpaghara echedoro. == Hụkwa == * Ogige Ntụrụndụ nke Kidepo Valley * Ndepụta osimiri nke Uganda * Ndepụta osimiri nke South Sudan * Osimiri Narus == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} 4vks2tj6jgvrghh9yhsh4ciiozi88e2 Osimiri Ishasha 0 77674 687950 675078 2026-07-13T14:36:49Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687950 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Ishasha river map2.png|thumb|Osimiri Ishasha]]   '''Osimiri Ishasha''' bụ osimiri dị na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ [[Uganda]], akụkụ nke ókèala ya na [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Ọ na-esi na isi iyi ya n'ebe ugwu Kabale ruo n'ọnụ ya na Lake Edward . <ref>{{Cite web|title=Southwestern Uganda|url=https://www.google.com/maps/@-0.8569821,29.8096055,103541m/data=!3m1!1e3|work=Google Maps|publisher=Google|accessdate=10 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ishasha River course|url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=10/-0.9585/29.7764|work=OpenStreetMap|accessdate=10 June 2018}}</ref> Ogologo ya bụ ihe dịka 100 kilomita (62 mi) na-eleghara ọtụtụ obere meanders anya.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Makanga|first=Samuel|date=2022-11-09|title=At The River Ishasha|url=https://www.primeugandasafaris.com/at-the-river-ishasha/|accessdate=2024-06-19|work=Prime Uganda Safaris|language=en-US}}</ref> == Nkọwa == Osimiri a na-amalite site n'ọwa mmiri ndị na-ewepụ mmiri n'ubi, ihe dị ka kilomita 20 (maịl 12) n'ebe ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Kabale. Ọ na-asọba n'akụkụ ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ site na ndagwurugwu ugwu ruo mgbe ọ banyere n'akụkụ ugwu nke Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Bwindi Impenetrable.Site n'ebe ahụ, ọ na-aga n'ihu n'ebe ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ n'okpuru oke ọhịa ruo n'ọnụ mmiri Kanungu, akụkụ nke Ụlọ Ọrụ Ike Mmiri Kanungu, makwaara dị ka Ụlọ Ọrụ Ike Ishasha. Mgbe ọ na-ahapụ ụlọ ọrụ ọkụ eletrik, ọ na-agagharị n'ebe ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ site na ala ugwu ruo mgbe ọ na-abanye ma ghọọ akụkụ nke ókèala Uganda-Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Mgbe ọ tụgharịrị n'ebe ugwu, ọ na-aga n'ihu gafere obodo DRC nke Ishasha na nsọtụ ndịda nke Ogige Ntụrụndụ Queen Elizabeth (QENP). Ọ na-anọgide na-abụ ókèala ọdịda anyanwụ nke QENP ruo mgbe ọ banyere n'ala marshlands n'ikperé mmiri nke Ọdọ Mmiri Edward.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Makanga|first=Samuel|date=2022-11-09|title=At The River Ishasha|url=https://www.primeugandasafaris.com/at-the-river-ishasha/|accessdate=2024-06-07|work=Prime Uganda Safaris|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=admin|date=2023-03-22|title=Explore the Ishasha wilderness of Queen Elizabeth National Park|url=https://www.gorillatrekafrica.com/explore-the-ishasha-wilderness-of-queen-elizabeth-national-park/|accessdate=2024-06-19|language=en-US}}</ref> == Ebe ==   == Hụkwa == * Ndepụta osimiri nke Uganda * Ndepụta osimiri nke Democratic Republic of the Congo == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} nzudsy1lbt9faanp5amaphiyvghs3e4 Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga 0 77679 687954 675088 2026-07-13T15:02:29Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687954 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Lake Kyoga-8.jpg|thumb|Ọdọ mmiri Kyoga]]   '''Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga''' ma ọ bu '''Ọdọ Mmiri Kioga''' (nke pụtara "ebe a na-asa ahụ" n'asụsụ Runyoro) bụ nnukwu ọdọ mmiri na-adịghị omimi dị na Uganda. O nwere mpaghara ruru ihe dị ka kilomita skwea 1,720 (660 sq mi) ma dị n'ịdị elu nke ihe dịka mita 1,033 n'elu oke osimiri.Osimiri Victoria Nile na-agafe n'ime ọdọ mmiri a ka ọ na-aga site n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria ruo Ọdọ Mmiri Albert.Isi iyi mmiri kachasị na-abata n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga sitere n'Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, a na-achịkwa ya site na Nalubaale Power Station dị na Jinja. E nwekwara isi iyi ọzọ sitere na mpaghara Ugwu Elgon, nke dị n'ókèala n'etiti Uganda na Kenya.N'agbanyeghị na Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga bụ akụkụ nke usoro Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka , a naghị agụ ya n'onwe ya dịka otu n'ime Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2024-05-13|title=Govt starts irrigation schemes in Serere|url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/govt-starts-irrigation-schemes-in-serere-4621462|accessdate=2024-05-21|work=Monitor|language=en}}</ref> Ọdọ mmiri ahụ ruru omimi nke ihe dị ka mita 5.7, ọtụtụ n'ime ya erughị mita 4 n'omimi.Mpaghara ndị na-erughị mita 3 n'omimi jupụtara na lilies mmiri, ebe ọtụtụ n'ime ụsọ mmiri ahụ jupụtara na papyrus na mmiri hyacinth.Papyrus ahụ na-emepụta Agwaetiti ndị na-ese n'elu mmiri nke na-agagharị n'etiti ọtụtụ obere agwaetiti na-adịgide adịgide. Nnukwu ala mmiri na-enye mmiri site na usoro mgbagwoju anya nke iyi na osimiri gbara ọdọ mmiri ahụ gburugburu. Mgbatị Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga gụnyere Ọdọ Mmiri Kwania, Ọdọ Mmiri Bisina, Ọdọ Mmiri Bugondo, na Ọdọ Mmiri Opeta. == Fauna na ịkụ azụ == Agụ iyi Naịl dị ọtụtụ, dị ka anụmanụ ndị dị n'ime mmiri. Enwere ma ọ dịkarịa ala ụdị haplochromine cichlid 60, yana ọnụ ọgụgụ dị nta nke ụdị azụ ndị ọzọ dị ka Lake Victoria sardine na marbled lungfish. Ọtụtụ n'ime haplochromine cichlids bụ ndị a na-ahụkarị, mana ha nwere njikọ chiri anya na ụdị Lake Victoria, <ref name="Green2009">{{Cite book|author=Green, J.|year=2009|chapter=The Kyoga Catchment|pages=205–214|editor=H.J. Dumont|title=The Nile|series=Monographiae Biologicae|publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V|isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6}}</ref> <ref name="Mwanja2001">{{Cite journal|author=Mwanja, W.W.|year=2001|title=The bounty of minor lakes: the role of small satellite water bodies in evolution and conservation of fishes in the Lake Victoria Region, East Africa|journal=Hydrobiologia|volume=458|issue=1|pages=55–62|doi=10.1023/A:1013167725047}}</ref> ma gosipụta ọkwa dị iche iche n'ihe gbasara nri. <ref name="Mbabazi2004">{{Cite journal|author=Mbabazi, D.|year=2004|title=Fish species and trophic diversity of haplochromine cichlids in the Kyoga satellite lakes (Uganda)|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=59–68|doi=10.1111/j.0141-6707.2004.00492.x}}</ref> Kyoga cichlids gụnyere ụdị abụọ akọwapụtara dịka ''Haplochromis latifasciatus'' na ''H. worthingtoni'', na nke a na-akọwaghị dịka <nowiki><i id="mwWA">H.</i></nowiki> sp. "Kyoga flameback" na <nowiki><i id="mwWg">H.</i></nowiki> sp. "Ruby". <ref>{{Cite web|author=Bauman, K.|title=African Cichlids from the Lake Victoria basin|url=http://www.african-cichlid.com/Lake_Victoria.htm|accessdate=25 September 2019}}</ref> Dị ka ọ dị na Ọdọ Mmiri Victoria, a kpochapụrụ Kyoga cichlids site na perch Naịl e webatara ma ụfọdụ ụdị adịlarị. N'ihi na Kyoga n'ozuzu ya adịghị omimi ma bụrụ nke marsh, akụkụ ụfọdụ - "ọdọ mmiri satellite" - dịpụrụ adịpụ ruo ogo dị iche iche site na ọdọ mmiri ahụ. Ọnụ ọgụgụ haplochromine cichlids dị ndụ na ngalaba ọ bụla nwere njikọ kpọmkwem na ọnọdụ nke perch Naịl. N'agbanyeghị na ọ bụ nke kachasị ukwuu, ihe na-erughị ụdị haplochromine 50 na-adị ndụ na ngalaba bụ isi ebe ebe a na-ahụkarị osisi Naịl. N'iji ya tụnyere, ọdọ mmiri satellite ndị pere mpe Lemwa, Nyaguo na Nawampasa enweghị perch Naịl, mana ọ dịkarịa ala ụdị haplochromine 50 dị ndụ na nke ọ bụla n'ime abụọ mbụ, na ọ dịkarị 60 na nke ikpeazụ. N'aka nke ọzọ, obere ọdọ mmiri satellite Nakuwa na Nyasala ebe ebe a na-ahụkarị ala Naịl nwere ihe na-erughị haplochromines 30 na 5 dị ndụ.Nke a pụtakwara na ịkụ azụ na usoro Lake Kyoga ejirila nwayọọ nwayọọ gbanwee site n'otu oge na-elekwasị anya n'ọtụtụ ụdị ala, gaa ugbu a na-elekọta Lake Victoria sardine, ebe a na-ewebata Nile ma webata Nile tilapia (tilapia abụọ, Singida na Victoria, aghọwo ihe a na-adịghị ahụkebe, ma e wezụga na ụfọdụ ọdọ mmiri satellite). N'afọ 2006, naanị 4% nke ndị e jidere bụ haplochromine cichlids.<ref name="Witte2009">{{Cite book|author=Witte, F.|year=2009|chapter=Fisheries in the Nile System|pages=723–748|editor=H.J. Dumont|title=The Nile|series=Monographiae Biologicae|publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V|isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6}}</ref> == Flora == [[Faịlụ:Lake_Kyoga_Papyrus.jpg|alt=Lake Kyoga Papyrus|thumb|Akwụkwọ papaịrọs Lake Kyoga]] Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga nwere osisi ndị gụnyere ''Pistia stratiotes'' (mkpụrụ mmiri lettuce), Cyperus papyrus, ''Vossia cuspidata'' (ahịhịa hippo) na lily mmiri (''Nymphaea'' spp.).<ref>{{Cite web|title=GNF - Lake Kyoga|url=https://www.globalnature.org/35625/Living-Lakes/National-Networks/Network-East-Africa/Kyoga/resindex.aspx#:~:text=Lake%20Kyoga%20has%20a%20rich,also%20found%20in%20the%20lake.|accessdate=2024-05-21|work=www.globalnature.org|archivedate=2024-05-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521070219/https://www.globalnature.org/35625/Living-Lakes/National-Networks/Network-East-Africa/Kyoga/resindex.aspx#:~:text=Lake%20Kyoga%20has%20a%20rich,also%20found%20in%20the%20lake.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3596|title=Lake Kyoga|work=World Lake Database|publisher=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation|accessdate=2025-10-27}}</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} * DWD (2002) ''Nkwadebe El Niño maka Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga na mpaghara ndị ọzọ na-enwekarị idei mmiri na Uganda.'' Directorate of Water Development. Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, Entebbe, Uganda. * ILM (2004) ''Nkwado maka Nchịkwa nke Sudd Blockage na Lake Kyoga.'' Mepụtara maka Integrated Lake Management Project site na Environmental Impact Assessment Centre of Finland, EIA Ltd. (online PDF version) * Twongo, T. (2001) ''Azụmaahịa na gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọdọ mmiri Kyoga.'' Ụlọ Ọrụ Nnyocha Akụnụba (FIRRI), Jinja, Uganda. == Njikọ mpụga == <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>  * [http://www.photius.com/countries/uganda/geography/uganda_geography_lakes_and_rivers.html Ọdọ mmiri na osimiri dị na Uganda] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150204122325/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake.asp?LakeID=AFR-15 Ọdọ Mmiri Kyoga] (World Lakes Database) a2zpff81wdsv5uzny0ggkavj8awri8q Osimiri Ouaka 0 77689 687952 675118 2026-07-13T14:54:20Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687952 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Ubangirivermap.png|thumb|Osimiri Ouaka]] '''Osimiri Ouaka''' bụ akụkụ nke [[Osimiri Ubangi]] dị na [[Central African Republic]], n'onwe ya bụ akụkụ nke [[Osimiri Congo]],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=n0lI5c9trSAC&dq=river+Ouaka&pg=PA37 Sylviane Anna Diouf (2003) Fighting the slave trade: West African strategies, p37]</ref> ma na-agafe [[Bambari]], isi obodo nke [[Ouaka|Ouaka Prefecture]].<ref>Yves Boulvert, ''Carte Oro-hydrographique de la République centrafricaine'', [[Institut de recherche pour le développement|IRD]], Paris, 1998 {{ISBN|978-2709908504}}</ref> ==Leekwa== * [[Ndepụta osimiri nke Central African Republic]] ==Ntụaka== {{Reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|4|59|32|N|19|55|52|E|region:CF-UK_type:waterbody_source:dewiki|display=title}} hqiub44nqmmfibm7h5j85otfsakqfzw Osimiri Ruvuma 0 77700 687953 675147 2026-07-13T14:58:03Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687953 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Near the Cataracts of the Rovuma.jpg|thumb|Osimiri Ruvuma ]]   '''Osimiri Ruvuma''', nke a na-akpọbu Osimiri Rovuma, bụ osimiri dị na mpaghara Ọdọ Mmiri Ukwu Afrịka .N'ime nnukwu akụkụ nke ụzọ ọ na-asọba, ọ na-eme ókèala dị n'etiti Tanzania na Mozambique.Osimiri ahụ dị ihe dịka kilomita 998 (maịl 620) n'ogologo, ma nwee akụkụ mgbapụta mmiri nke ruru ihe dịka kilomita skwea 155,000 (maịl skwea 60,000).Nkezi oke mmiri ọ na-ebuga kwa afọ dị n'agbata mita kubik 475 kwa sekọnd (16,800 cu ft/s) na mita kubik 2,286 kwa sekọnd (80,700 cu ft/s) n'ọnụ osimiri ya.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Nakayama|first=Mikiyasu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBJPAAAAMAAJ|title=International Waters in Southern Africa|date=2003|publisher=United Nations University Press|isbn=978-92-808-1077-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ceantral East Coast">{{Cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179|title=Central East Coast}}</ref> == Ịchụpụ == Nkezi na nke kachasị elu nke Osimiri Rovuma (11°9′53.9532′′S 39°15′37.8072′′E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E / -11.164987000, 39.26052000):<ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River">{{Cite journal|journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470651200112X|title=Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River|volume=50-52|pages=14–23|author=M.R.|first=Minihane|doi=10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.003|year=2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !VIC modeled (1999-2008) !MFR atụmatụ na-agafe (1999-2008) !Oge akụkọ ihe mere eme UNH-GRDC (1957-1999) |- | colspan="3" |Nkezi nke nsị |- |1,864 m3/s (65,800 cu ft/s) |1,866 m3/s (65,900 cu ft/s) |1,838 m3/s (64,900 cu ft/s) |- | colspan="3" |Ọnụ ọgụgụ kasị elu nke nsị |- |22,365 m3/s (789,800 cu ft/s) |22,630 m3/s (799,000 cu ft/s) |22,053 m3/s (778,800 cu ft/s) |} Nkezi oke mmiri Osimiri Rovuma na-ebuga kwa ọnwa (11°9′53.9532″S 39°15′37.8072″E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E), dabere na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke UNH-GRDC n'agbata afọ 1957 na 1999.): <ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River">{{Cite journal|journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470651200112X|title=Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River|volume=50-52|pages=14–23|author=M.R.|first=Minihane|doi=10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.003|year=2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Ọnwa !Mgbapụta (m<sup>3</sup>/s) |- |JAN |3,340 |- |FEB |4,040 |- |MAR |5,390 |- |APR |3,880 |- |MAY |1,780 |- |JUN |780 |- |JUL |350 |- |AUG |160 |- |SEP |50 |- |OCT |80 |- |NOV |270 |- |EC |1,940 |} == Ụtụ isi == Osimiri nta ndị kacha ibu na-asọba n'Osimiri Rovuma: <ref name="Ceantral East Coast">{{Cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179|title=Central East Coast}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179 "Central East Coast"].</cite></ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Akụkụ aka ekpe ụtụ isi !ụtụ isi aka nri !Ogologo (kilomita) (Km) !Ogologo ọdọ mmiri (Km<sup>2</sup>) !Nkezi mbupụ (m<sup>3</sup>/s) |- | colspan="2" |''Rovuma'' |''760'' |''155,316.4'' |''1,773'' |- |Kitama | |70 |1,065.8 |12.3 |- | |Matiu |100 |1,920.1 |26.1 |- |Mwiti | |80 |994.2 |14 |- | |Ninga |100 |1,572.8 |19.8 |- |Miesi | rowspan="2" | |80 |946.7 |12.5 |- |Mbangala |160 |3 598.2 |44.4 |- | |Ihe onwunwe |650 |60,990.4 |752.1 |- |Lukwika | |100 |1,331.5 |16.3 |- | |Manjesi |90 |1,084.2 |16.3 |- |Lumesule | rowspan="4" | |180 |2,342.8 |28.9 |- |Muhuwesi |240 |10,319.6 |137.3 |- |Mzinieva |100 |1,285.4 |22.5 |- |Chimovero | |638.3 |11.2 |- | |Nnụnụ nnụnụ |60 |975.7 |16 |- |Lukembule | | |1,234.6 |21.6 |- | rowspan="2" | |Chiluezi | |3,544.9 |55.1 |- |Lopele | |763.1 |13.3 |- |Luvingo | |80 |592.4 |10.3 |- | |Ludimile | |1,129.4 |20.7 |- |Sasawara | rowspan="2" | |90 |2,322.8 |37.3 |- |Msangesi |120 |1,614.1 |23.8 |- | rowspan="4" | |Lipapa | |753.5 |14.2 |- |Ịgbapụta | |2,863.2 |51.9 |- |Lucheringo |250 |9,288.1 |200.5 |- |Lualece |60 |611.9 |11 |- |Miongosi | rowspan="3" | |50 |964.3 |11.6 |- |Likonde |150 |5,914.8 |61.2 |- |Mlongasi |100 |960.8 |11.9 |- | |Messinge |238 |7,525.4 |174.8 |- |Lunyere | |190 |6,210.1 |78.7 |} == Nchịkọta == Osimiri Ruvuma dị ala sitere na njikọ dị na {{Érèkọbalà|11° 25′ S, 38° 31′ E}} nke alaka abụọ fọrọ nke nta ka ha hara nhata, nke ogologo ya, Lujenda, sitere na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ, nke ọzọ, nke ka na-ebu aha Ruvuma, site na ọdịda anyanwụ. Isi iyi ya dị n'elu ala dị larịị, 1,000 m (3,300 n'ịdị elu, ozugbo n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ nke Ọdọ Mmiri Nyasa, na {{Érèkọbalà|10° 45′ S, 35° 40′ E}}, isi mmiri na-ebu ụzọ na-aga n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ tupu ọ tụgharịa n'ebe ndịda na ọwụwa Anyanwụ. N'ụzọ ọwụwa anyanwụ ya, Ruvuma na-asọba n'akụkụ ala nke ugwu dị larịị nke ala dị larịị n'ebe ugwu, ebe iyi ndị ahụ, nke gburu onwe ha ọwa miri emi na nsọtụ ala, nwere ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ụzọ mkpirikpi niile. N'akụkụ nke ọzọ nke Osimiri Ruvuma, osimiri ahụ na-anatakwa mmiri sitere n'Osimiri Lujenda, Osimiri Msinje, na Osimiri Luchulingo, ndị na-asọba n'ime ndagwurugwu sara mbara nke na-agbatị site n'ebe ndịda ruo n'ebe ugwu.Osimiri Lujenda na-amalite n'ebe dị nso na Ọdọ Mmiri Chilwa, n'obere Ọdọ Mmiri Chiuta (nke dị ihe dịka mita 520 (ụkwụ 1,700) n'ịdị elu). Ala mmiri apịtị dị n'ebe ndịda ya bụ naanị obere ugwu kpuchiri ọhịa na-ekewa ya na Ọdọ Mmiri Chilwa.Mmiri si na Ọdọ Mmiri Chiuta pụta na-agafe n'ime ndagwurugwu apịtị ruo Ọdọ Mmiri Amaramba, nke dị warara. Site n'ebe ahụ ka Osimiri Lujenda si apụta n'ikpeazụ dịka iyi mmiri nke obosara ya ruru ihe dịka yaadị 80 (mita 73). N'okpuru ya, ọ dịgasị iche iche n'obosara, nwere ọtụtụ akụkụ ogologo agwaetiti osisi nke na-arị elu karịa ọkwa idei mmiri, ma na-ebikarị. Osimiri ahụ nwere ike ịgafe n'ọtụtụ ebe n'[[Oge ọkọchị]]. N'ọnụ ya ọ dị ihe dị ka 1 mile (1.6 km) n'obosara. Akụkụ ala nke Osimiri Ruvuma, nke na-adịkarị ihe dịka ọkara maịl (0.8 km) n'obosara ma na-adịkarịkwa na-enweghị nnukwu omimi, na-asọba n'ime ndagwurugwu apịtị nke ugwu mkpọda gbara gburugburu, ebe e nwekwara ọtụtụ obere ọdọ mmiri ndị jikọtara na osimiri ahụ.Ọnụ osimiri ahụ dị nso na nhazi ọnọdụ ala 10°28′ S, 40°30′ E, ebe ókèala dị nso n'ụsọ oké osimiri na-agbaso ahịrị latituudu 10°40′ S.Ogologo Osimiri Ruvuma bụ ihe dịka maịl 500 (kilomita 800). == Àkwà mmiri == A tụpụtara àkwà mmiri a na-akpọ Unity Bridge gafee osimiri dị n'etiti Mozambique na Tanzania na mbido afọ 1975, ọ bụ ezie na a malitere iwu ya, a gbahapụrụ ọrụ ahụ n'ihi enweghị ego. N'afọ 200, gọọmentị mba abụọ ahụ mere nkwekọrịta iwu àkwà mmiri ọhụrụ dị mita 600 gafee osimiri ahụ, emesịkwara meghee n'ememe na 25 Mee 2010. Àkwà mmiri ahụ dị na Negomano, 200 km (120 mi) n'ime ala na 100 mi) site n'okporo ụzọ dị nso na Mozambique. Ebe ahụ kwekọrịtara n'etiti ndị isi ala Machel na Nyerere n'ihi na bụ ebe mbụ ndị agha Frelimo banyere na Mozambique na Agha Nnwere Onwe Mozambik na 25 Septemba 1964. Negomano bụkwa ebe ndị agha Germany gafere osimiri Rovuma na 25 Nọvemba 1917. A tọrọ ntọala mbụ n'akụkụ Tanzania na Mozambique n'October 10, 2005. E wuchara ya na mbido afọ 2010 ma were US $ 28 nde. Ọ na-ekwe omume iji rafts (nke dị n'akụkụ Tanzania) gafee osimiri ahụ nke nwere ike iburu 3 jeps. Ụgbọ mmiri ahụ mikpuru n'afọ 2008 ma dochie ya. Na mmiri dị ala, osimiri ahụ nwere ike ịgafe mgbe ụfọdụ site na ezigbo ụgbọala nwere ụkwụ anọ. E wuchara obere àkwà mmiri a na-akpọ Unity Two na 2007 n'elu Rovuma dị nso na Matchedge na Niassa Province. == Ihe edeturu == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Edensibịa ==  .   <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>  ezx8uwdzch7ucz0khzj4qbj1724e70e Ọdọ Mmiri nke Aby 0 77762 687945 683427 2026-07-13T14:15:23Z NiferO 20385 Added an image 687945 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:Lagune Aby.JPG|thumb|Ọdọ mmiri nke Aby]]   '''Ọdọ Mmiri nke Aby''' bụ kachasị ukwuu na [[Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]], na-esote .<ref name="AJAS" /> N'ozuzu, ọdọ mmiri ahụ nwere mpaghara nke 424 km2 sq mi), omimi nke 3.5 , na olu nke 1.57 km3 mi). <ref name="AJAS" /> Ọ na-abanye n'[[Òrìmìlì Atlantic|Oké Osimiri Atlantic]] site na ọwa ndị na-adịghị omimi n'etiti Ehotilé Islands nke na-agbakọta na Assinie-Mafia, ebe Assoindé Lagoon na-ejikọkwa site na ọdịda anyanwụ. Assoindé Lagoon jikọtara ihe mgbagwoju anya nke Aby Lagoon na Ébrié Lagoon site na Assinie Canal.<ref name="nicole" /> Ihe mgbagwoju anya nke Aby Lagoon nwere ngalaba atọ aha: site n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ gaa n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ, ha bụ Aby Lagoon n'onwe ya, Tendo Lagoon, na Ehy Lagoon. Na-ekpuchi km2 sq mi), isi Aby Lagoon bụ nke kachasị n'ime ngalaba atọ ahụ, na-agbasa 24.5 (15.2 mi) n'ebe ugwu site n'ọnụ nke ihe mgbagwoju anya ma nwee obosara kachasị elu .5 mi) na omimi .2 . <ref name="AJAS">{{Cite journal|author=Seu-Anoï|first=N. M.|date=2011|title=Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa|journal=[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]|volume=36|issue=3|pages=321–330|doi=10.2989/16085914.2011.643561}}</ref> N'akụkụ ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ ya, Tendo Lagoon na-emepụta ogwe aka 3-5 km (1.9-3.1 mi) n'obosara nke gbasaa 22 km (14 mi) n"ebe ọwụwa Anyanwụ ma kpuchie 74 km2 sq mi); <ref name="AJAS" /> ọ kewara n'etiti Ivory Coast n'ebe ugwu na Ghana n'ebe ndịda.<ref name="wetlands" /> N'ịbụ na Ivory Coast, Ehy Lagoon gbasaa n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ site na njedebe ọwụwa Anyanwụ nke Tendo Lagoon, na-ekpuchi 45 km2 sq mi). <ref name="AJAS" /> Ọdọ mmiri ọzọ a maara dị ka Univaye Lagoon dị na Ghana ma na-abanye na Tendo Lagoon site n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ.<ref name="wetlands">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA346|title=A directory of African wetlands|first=R. H.|author=Hughes|publisher=IUCN|year=1992|isbn=978-2-88032-949-5}}</ref> Osimiri Bia na-azụ nnukwu ọdọ mmiri Aby site n'ebe ugwu, ebe Osimiri Tano na-asọba n'ọdọ mmiri Tendo site n'ọwụwa anyanwụ. Osimiri abụọ a na-ejikọta ọnụ iji gbapụta mmiri dị kilomita 27,650 (10,680 sq mi).<ref name="AJAS">{{Cite journal|author=Seu-Anoï|first=N. M.|date=2011|title=Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa|journal=[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]|volume=36|issue=3|pages=321–330|doi=10.2989/16085914.2011.643561}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFSeu-AnoïOuattaraKonéGourène2011">Seu-Anoï, N. M.; Ouattara, A.; Koné, Y. J.-M.; Gourène, G. (2011). "Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa". ''[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]''. '''36''' (3): <span class="nowrap">321–</span>330. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.2989/16085914.2011.643561|10.2989/16085914.2011.643561]].</cite></ref> Ọnọdụ ihu igwe n'ógbè ahụ nwere Oge mmiri ozuzo abụọ (May ruo July; October ruo November) na [[Oge ọkọchị]] abụọ (August ruo September; December ruo April). Mmiri ozuzo kwa afọ bụ ihe dịka 2,000 in). <ref name="AJAS">{{Cite journal|author=Seu-Anoï|first=N. M.|date=2011|title=Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa|journal=[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]|volume=36|issue=3|pages=321–330|doi=10.2989/16085914.2011.643561}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFSeu-AnoïOuattaraKonéGourène2011">Seu-Anoï, N. M.; Ouattara, A.; Koné, Y. J.-M.; Gourène, G. (2011). "Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa". ''[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]''. '''36''' (3): <span class="nowrap">321–</span>330. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.2989/16085914.2011.643561|10.2989/16085914.2011.643561]].</cite></ref> Mmiri nnu dị na ọdọ mmiri ahụ dịgasị iche na mmiri ozuzo na oke mmiri na Machị na Eprel. Akụkụ ndịda nke isi Aby Lagoon nwere nnu kachasị elu, ebe ebe ebe ndị dị nso n'ọnụ Bia na Tano na-anọgide na-adị ọhụrụ n'afọ .<ref name="konan" /> Ọrụ ugbo na ịkụ azụ bụ isi ọrụ akụ na ụba gburugburu ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref name="nicole">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8WC5R7a3vkC&pg=PA43|title=A Preliminary Inventory of Coastal Wetlands of Côte D'Ivoire|pages=43–44|first=M.|author=Nicole|publisher=IUCN|year=1994|isbn=978-2831701448}}</ref> ''Ethmalosa fimbriata'' na-akpata 60% ruo 80% nke azụ a na-egbu n'ọdọ mmiri ahụ.<ref name="konan">{{Cite web|url=http://pubs.iclarm.net/Pubs/Way%20Forward/3%20lagoon.pdf|title=Co-management in Aby Lagoon, Côte d'Ivoire|author=Konan|first=Angaman|work=Proceedings of the International Workshop on Fisheries Co-management|accessdate=23 February 2017|archivedate=23 February 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223212527/http://pubs.iclarm.net/Pubs/Way%20Forward/3%20lagoon.pdf}}</ref> Ihe ọkụkụ ndị bụ isi n'ógbè ahụ bụ akị bekee, nkwụ mmanụ, unere, akị bọọlụ na kọfị.<ref name="AJAS">{{Cite journal|author=Seu-Anoï|first=N. M.|date=2011|title=Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa|journal=[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]|volume=36|issue=3|pages=321–330|doi=10.2989/16085914.2011.643561}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFSeu-AnoïOuattaraKonéGourène2011">Seu-Anoï, N. M.; Ouattara, A.; Koné, Y. J.-M.; Gourène, G. (2011). "Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa". ''[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]''. '''36''' (3): <span class="nowrap">321–</span>330. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.2989/16085914.2011.643561|10.2989/16085914.2011.643561]].</cite></ref> A na-echekwa Agwaetiti Ehotilé dị ka Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba Îles Ehotilés, nke e guzobere na 1974 site n'uche ndị obodo. Ha bụkwa akụkụ nke ebe Ramsar nke Iles Ehotilé-Essouman, nke kpuchiri 272.74 km2 (105.31 sq mi) nke ọdọ mmiri na mpaghara ndị gbara ya gburugburu.<ref name="ramsar">{{Cite web|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1584|title=Iles Ehotilé-Essouman|publisher=Ramsar Sites Information Service|date=18 October 2005|accessdate=23 February 2017}}</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} o7kr26a55g7we5mz2wt3zrqfg1iwxdk Sophia Getzowa 0 77893 687825 2026-07-13T12:21:30Z King ChristLike 13051 King ChristLike moved page [[Sophia Getzowa]] to [[Édēchághị́:Sophia Getzowa]]: Move to draftspace ([[WP:DRAFTIFY]]) 687825 wikitext text/x-wiki #KÚFÙ [[Édēchághị́:Sophia Getzowa]] dssutukxvn58zxjqpkuadmt8r90t9ix Module:IPA/data 828 77894 687827 2025-12-13T00:00:49Z Pppery 14521 Specific link for chamorro 687827 Scribunto text/plain return { defaultLabel = "%s pronunciation:", labels = { ["lang"] = "%s:", ["pron"] = "pronounced", ["also"] = "also", ["alsolang"] = "also %s:", 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["he"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hebrew", }, ["hi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["hmn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hmong", }, ["hns"] = { name = "Hindustani", key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["hr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["hsb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sorbian", }, ["hsn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Xiang Chinese", }, ["ht"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Haitian Creole", }, ["hu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hungarian", }, ["hy"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Armenian", }, ["id"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["ig"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Igbo", }, ["ik"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Inupiaq", }, ["is"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Icelandic", }, ["it"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Italian", dialects = { ["IT-52"] = { name = "Tuscan", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-55"] = { name = "Central Italian", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-57"] = { name = "Central Italian", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-RM"] = { name = "Romanesco", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, }, }, ["iu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Inuktitut", }, ["ja"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Japanese", }, ["ka"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Georgian", }, ["khb"] = { name = "Tai Lue", key = "Help:IPA/Shan and Tai Lue", }, ["kjb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["kk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kazakh", }, ["kl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Greenlandic", }, ["km"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Khmer", }, ["kmr"] = { name = "Northern Kurdish", key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["ko"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Korean", }, ["ksh"] = { name = "Colognian", key = "Help:IPA/Colognian", }, ["ku"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["ky"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kyrgyz", }, ["la"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Latin", dialects = { ["x-church"] = { name = "Ecclesiastical Latin", }, ["x-classic"] = { name = "Classical Latin", }, }, }, ["lac"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["lb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Luxembourgish", }, ["lij"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Ligurian", }, ["lkt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lakota", }, ["lmo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lombard", }, ["lo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["lt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lithuanian", }, ["lv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Latvian", }, ["mfe"] = { name = "Mauritian Creole", key = "Help:IPA/Mauritian Creole", }, ["mg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malagasy", }, ["mh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Marshallese", }, ["mi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Māori", }, ["mk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Macedonian", }, ["ml"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malayalam", }, ["mn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mongolian", }, ["mr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Marathi", }, ["ms"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["mt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Maltese", }, ["mwl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Astur-Leonese", }, ["my"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Burmese", }, ["myn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan", }, ["nah"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["nan"] = { dialects = { ["TW"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien", }, }, }, ["nap"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Neapolitan", }, ["nci"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["ne"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nepali", }, ["nhe"] = { name = "Huasteca Nahuatl", key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["nl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Dutch", dialects = { ["BE"] = {}, }, }, ["nlv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["no"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Norwegian", dialects = { ["NO-03"] = { name = "Urban East Norwegian", }, } }, ["nod"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Northern Thai", }, ["nv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Navajo", }, ["oc"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Occitan", }, ["or"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Odia", }, ["pa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Punjabi", }, ["pht"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["pi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sanskrit", }, ["pjt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["pl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Polish", }, ["pms"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Piedmontese", }, ["prs"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Persian", }, ["ps"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Pashto", }, ["pt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Portuguese", dialects = { ["BR"] = { name = "Brazilian Portuguese", }, ["PT"] = { name = "European Portuguese", }, } }, ["qu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Quechua", }, ["quc"] = { key ="Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["rgn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Emilian-Romagnol", }, ["rm"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Romansh", }, ["ro"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Romanian", }, ["ru"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Russian", }, ["ryu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Okinawan", }, ["sa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sanskrit", }, ["sc"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sardinian", }, ["scn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sicilian", dialects = { ["IT-75"] = { name = "Salentino", }, ["IT-78"] = { name = "Calabrian", link = "Central-Southern Calabrian", }, }, }, ["sdh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["sh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["shn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Shan and Tai Lue", }, ["sk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Slovak", }, ["sl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Slovene", }, ["sou"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Thai", }, ["sq"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Albanian", }, ["sr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["ss"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, ["sv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Swedish", dialects = { ["FI"] = { name = "Finland Swedish", }, }, }, ["sw"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Swahili", }, ["swg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["syl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sylheti", }, ["ta"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tamil", }, ["te"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Telugu", }, ["tg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Persian", }, ["th"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Thai", }, ["ti"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tigrinya", }, ["tk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Turkmen", }, ["tl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tagalog", }, ["tr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Turkish", }, ["tt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tatar", }, ["tts"] = { name = "Isan", key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["uk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Ukrainian", }, ["ur"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["uz"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Uzbek", }, ["vec"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Venetian", }, ["vi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Vietnamese", dialects = { ["VN-26"] = { name = "Central Vietnamese", }, ["VN-DN"] = { name = "Central Vietnamese", }, ["VN-HN"] = { name = "Northern Vietnamese", }, ["VN-SG"] = { name = "Southern Vietnamese", }, }, }, ["wa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Walloon", }, ["wae"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["wbp"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["wen"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sorbian", }, ["wuu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Wu Chinese", }, ["xh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, ["yi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Yiddish", }, ["yo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Yoruba", }, ["yue"] = { name = "Cantonese", key = "Help:IPA/Cantonese", }, ["za"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Zhuang", }, ["zsm"] = { name = "Malaysian", key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["zu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, }, } 31tpiccpotvn713bf0gn0t5ortmly3t 687828 687827 2026-07-13T12:31:16Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:IPA/data]] 687827 Scribunto text/plain return { defaultLabel = "%s pronunciation:", labels = { ["lang"] = "%s:", ["pron"] = "pronounced", ["also"] = "also", ["alsolang"] = "also %s:", ["langalso"] = "%s also", ["local"] = "locally", ["localpron"] = "local pronunciation:", ["ipa"] = "IPA:", }, defaultKey = "Help:IPA", langs = { ["und"] = { text = "", defaultLabelCode = "ipa", }, ["mis"] = { text = "", defaultLabelCode = "ipa", }, ["en"] = { key = "Help:IPA/English", format = "/%s/", defaultLabelCode = "", dialects = { ["GB"] = { text = "UK", defaultLabelCode = "lang", }, ["UK"] = { aliasOf = "GB" }, ["US"] = { text = "US", defaultLabelCode = "lang", }, }, }, ["acw"] = { name = "Hejazi Arabic", key = "Help:IPA/Hejazi Arabic", }, ["ady"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Adyghe", }, ["aeb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tunisian Arabic", }, ["aer"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["af"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Afrikaans", }, ["aln"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Albanian", }, ["als"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Albanian", }, ["am"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Amharic", }, ["ang"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Old English", }, ["apc"] = { dialects = { ["LB"] = { name = "Lebanese Arabic", key = "Help:IPA/Lebanese Arabic", }, }, }, ["ar"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Arabic", }, ["arb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Arabic", }, ["arz"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Egyptian Arabic", }, ["as"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Assamese", }, ["ast"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Astur-Leonese", dialects = { ["ES-LE"] = { name = "Leonese", }, }, }, ["aus"] = { text = "Aboriginal", key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["az"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Azerbaijani", }, ["be"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Belarusian", }, ["ber"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Berber", }, ["bg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Bulgarian", }, ["bn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Bengali", }, ["bo"] = { text = "Tibetan", key = "Help:IPA/Tibetan", }, ["br"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Breton", }, ["bs"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["ca"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Catalan", dialects = { ["ES-IB"] = { name = "Balearic Catalan", key = "Help:IPA/Insular Catalan", }, ["IT"] = { name = "Algherese", key = "Help:IPA/Insular Catalan", }, ["VALENCIA"] = { isVariant = true, -- makes it lowercase }, }, }, ["ckb"] = { name = "Central Kurdish", key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["ch"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Chamorro" }, ["cjy"] = { name = "Jin Chinese", key = "Help:IPA/Jin Chinese", }, ["cmn"] = { name = "Mandarin", link = "Standard Chinese", key = "Help:IPA/Mandarin", }, ["cnr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["co"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Corsican", }, ["crh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tatar", }, ["cs"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Czech", }, ["cy"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Welsh", }, ["da"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Danish", }, ["de"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Standard German", dialects = { ["AT"] = {}, ["CH"] = {}, }, }, ["dsb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sorbian", }, ["egl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Emilian-Romagnol", }, ["el"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Greek", }, ["eo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Esperanto", }, ["es"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Spanish", dialects = { ["419"] = { name = "Latin American Spanish", }, }, }, ["et"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Estonian", }, ["eu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Basque", }, ["ext"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Astur-Leonese", }, ["fa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Persian", }, ["fi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Finnish", }, ["fil"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tagalog", }, ["fj"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Fijian", }, ["fr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/French", }, ["frp"] = { name = "Franco-Provençal", key = "Help:IPA/Franco-Provençal", }, ["fy"] = { key = "Help:IPA/West Frisian", }, ["ga"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Irish", dialects = { ["GB"] = { aliasOf = "x-ulster" }, ["IE-C"] = { name = "Connacht Irish", }, ["IE-M"] = { name = "Munster Irish", }, ["IE-U"] = { aliasOf = "x-ulster" }, ["x-ulster"] = { name = "Ulster Irish", }, } }, ["gct"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["gd"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Scottish Gaelic", }, ["gl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Galician", }, ["grc"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Greek", dialects = { ["x-attic"] = {}, ["x-classic"] = {}, }, }, ["gsw"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["gu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Gujarati", }, ["gv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Manx", }, ["haw"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hawaiian", }, ["hbo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hebrew", }, ["he"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hebrew", }, ["hi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["hmn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hmong", }, ["hns"] = { name = "Hindustani", key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["hr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["hsb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sorbian", }, ["hsn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Xiang Chinese", }, ["ht"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Haitian Creole", }, ["hu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hungarian", }, ["hy"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Armenian", }, ["id"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["ig"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Igbo", }, ["ik"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Inupiaq", }, ["is"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Icelandic", }, ["it"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Italian", dialects = { ["IT-52"] = { name = "Tuscan", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-55"] = { name = "Central Italian", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-57"] = { name = "Central Italian", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, ["IT-RM"] = { name = "Romanesco", key = "Help:IPA/Central Italian", }, }, }, ["iu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Inuktitut", }, ["ja"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Japanese", }, ["ka"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Georgian", }, ["khb"] = { name = "Tai Lue", key = "Help:IPA/Shan and Tai Lue", }, ["kjb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["kk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kazakh", }, ["kl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Greenlandic", }, ["km"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Khmer", }, ["kmr"] = { name = "Northern Kurdish", key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["ko"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Korean", }, ["ksh"] = { name = "Colognian", key = "Help:IPA/Colognian", }, ["ku"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["ky"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kyrgyz", }, ["la"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Latin", dialects = { ["x-church"] = { name = "Ecclesiastical Latin", }, ["x-classic"] = { name = "Classical Latin", }, }, }, ["lac"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["lb"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Luxembourgish", }, ["lij"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Ligurian", }, ["lkt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lakota", }, ["lmo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lombard", }, ["lo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["lt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lithuanian", }, ["lv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Latvian", }, ["mfe"] = { name = "Mauritian Creole", key = "Help:IPA/Mauritian Creole", }, ["mg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malagasy", }, ["mh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Marshallese", }, ["mi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Māori", }, ["mk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Macedonian", }, ["ml"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malayalam", }, ["mn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mongolian", }, ["mr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Marathi", }, ["ms"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["mt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Maltese", }, ["mwl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Astur-Leonese", }, ["my"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Burmese", }, ["myn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Mayan", }, ["nah"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["nan"] = { dialects = { ["TW"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien", }, }, }, ["nap"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Neapolitan", }, ["nci"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["ne"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nepali", }, ["nhe"] = { name = "Huasteca Nahuatl", key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["nl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Dutch", dialects = { ["BE"] = {}, }, }, ["nlv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nahuatl", }, ["no"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Norwegian", dialects = { ["NO-03"] = { name = "Urban East Norwegian", }, } }, ["nod"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Northern Thai", }, ["nv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Navajo", }, ["oc"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Occitan", }, ["or"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Odia", }, ["pa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Punjabi", }, ["pht"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["pi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sanskrit", }, ["pjt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["pl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Polish", }, ["pms"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Piedmontese", }, ["prs"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Persian", }, ["ps"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Pashto", }, ["pt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Portuguese", dialects = { ["BR"] = { name = "Brazilian Portuguese", }, ["PT"] = { name = "European Portuguese", }, } }, ["qu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Quechua", }, ["quc"] = { key ="Help:IPA/Mayan" }, ["rgn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Emilian-Romagnol", }, ["rm"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Romansh", }, ["ro"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Romanian", }, ["ru"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Russian", }, ["ryu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Okinawan", }, ["sa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sanskrit", }, ["sc"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sardinian", }, ["scn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sicilian", dialects = { ["IT-75"] = { name = "Salentino", }, ["IT-78"] = { name = "Calabrian", link = "Central-Southern Calabrian", }, }, }, ["sdh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Kurdish", }, ["sh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["shn"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Shan and Tai Lue", }, ["sk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Slovak", }, ["sl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Slovene", }, ["sou"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Thai", }, ["sq"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Albanian", }, ["sr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Serbo-Croatian", }, ["ss"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, ["sv"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Swedish", dialects = { ["FI"] = { name = "Finland Swedish", }, }, }, ["sw"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Swahili", }, ["swg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["syl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sylheti", }, ["ta"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tamil", }, ["te"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Telugu", }, ["tg"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Persian", }, ["th"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Thai", }, ["ti"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tigrinya", }, ["tk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Turkmen", }, ["tl"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tagalog", }, ["tr"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Turkish", }, ["tt"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Tatar", }, ["tts"] = { name = "Isan", key = "Help:IPA/Lao", }, ["uk"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Ukrainian", }, ["ur"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu", }, ["uz"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Uzbek", }, ["vec"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Venetian", }, ["vi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Vietnamese", dialects = { ["VN-26"] = { name = "Central Vietnamese", }, ["VN-DN"] = { name = "Central Vietnamese", }, ["VN-HN"] = { name = "Northern Vietnamese", }, ["VN-SG"] = { name = "Southern Vietnamese", }, }, }, ["wa"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Walloon", }, ["wae"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Alemannic German", }, ["wbp"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Australian languages", }, ["wen"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Sorbian", }, ["wuu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Wu Chinese", }, ["xh"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, ["yi"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Yiddish", }, ["yo"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Yoruba", }, ["yue"] = { name = "Cantonese", key = "Help:IPA/Cantonese", }, ["za"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Zhuang", }, ["zsm"] = { name = "Malaysian", key = "Help:IPA/Malay", }, ["zu"] = { key = "Help:IPA/Nguni", }, }, } 31tpiccpotvn713bf0gn0t5ortmly3t Module:Swedish language 828 77895 687833 2026-07-02T05:06:18Z Johnn Francis 64600 Phrasing. 687833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-pc}} {{Short description|North Germanic language}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Swedish | nativename = {{Lang|sv|svenska}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|sv|ˈsvɛ̂nːska||Sv-svenska.ogg}} | states = [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], formerly [[Estonia]] | region = | ethnicity = [[Swedes]], [[Finland-Swedes]] | speakers = Native: {{sigfig|9.924200|1}} million | date = 2012–2021 | ref = e25 | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2 speakers]]: {{sigfig|3.150000|1}} million<ref name=e25/> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | fam3 = [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] | fam4 = [[East Scandinavian]] | ancestor = [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] | ancestor2 = [[Old East Norse]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Swedish]] | script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Swedish alphabet]])<br/>[[Swedish Braille]] | nation = [[Finland]]<br />[[Sweden]]<br />[[Åland]]<br/>''[[European Union]]''<br />''[[Nordic Council]]''<!--Do not add Estonia here without first reading the talk page.--> | agency = [[Swedish Language Council]] (in Sweden) <br />[[Swedish Academy]] (in Sweden)<br/>[[Institute for the Languages of Finland]] (in Finland) | iso1 = sv | iso2 = swe | iso3 = swe | lingua = 52-AAA-ck to -cw | map = Swedish language map.svg | mapcaption = {{legend0|#004080|Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by the majority of the population (Sweden, Åland, Western Finland)}}<br/>{{legend0|#6CB5FF|Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by a minority of the population (Finland)}} | notice = IPA | sign = [[Tecknad svenska]] (obsolete), [[Swedish Sign Language]], [[Finland-Swedish Sign Language]] | ancestor4 = [[Modern Swedish]] | glotto = swed1254 | glottorefname = Swedish }} {{Swedish language sidebar}} '''Swedish''' ({{langx|sv|label=[[endonym]]|svenska}} {{IPA|sv|ˈsvɛ̂nːska||Sv-svenska.ogg}}) is a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]] from the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], spoken predominantly in [[Sweden]] and parts of [[Finland]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 December 2018|title=Svenska talas också i Finland|url=https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/|access-date=16 August 2021|website=Svenska språket|language=sv-SE|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816144545/https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has at least 10 million native speakers, making it the [[Germanic_languages#Statistics|fourth most spoken Germanic language]], and the first among its type in the [[Nordic countries]] overall.<ref name="Wordminds 2019">{{cite web | title=Nordic Languages: What's The Difference? | website=Wordminds | date=25 March 2019 | url=https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-languages | access-date=3 February 2023 | archive-date=3 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203053536/https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-languages | url-status=live }}</ref> Swedish, like the other [[North Germanic languages|Nordic languages]], is a descendant of [[Old Norse]], the common language of the [[Germanic peoples]] living in [[Scandinavia]] during the [[Viking Age]]. It is largely [[mutually intelligible]] with [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Danish language|Danish]], although the degree of mutual intelligibility is dependent on the dialect and accent of the speaker. [[Standard Swedish]], spoken by most [[Swedes]], is the [[national language]] that evolved from the Central [[Swedish dialects]] in the 19th century, and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] and rural dialects still exist, the written language is uniform and [[Standard language|standardized]]. In addition to being the [[native language]] of the [[Finland-Swedish]] minority, Swedish is the most widely spoken [[second language]] in [[Finland]] and has co-[[official language]] status in the country. Swedish was long spoken in parts of [[Estonia]], although the current status of the [[Estonian Swedish]] speakers is almost extinct. It is also used in the [[Swedish diaspora]], most notably in [[Oslo]], Norway, with more than 50,000 Swedish residents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sverige-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar-nu-svensk/|title=Var tionde Oslobo är nu svensk|publisher=Sverige-Norge Personalförmedling|language=sv|access-date=11 October 2018|archive-date=11 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011214654/https://sverige-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar-nu-svensk/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Classification== Swedish is an [[Indo-European language]] belonging to the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] branch of the [[Germanic languages]]. In the established classification, it belongs to the [[East Scandinavian languages]], together with [[Danish language|Danish]], separating it from the [[West Scandinavian languages]], consisting of [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]. However, more recent analyses divide the North Germanic languages into two groups: ''Insular Scandinavian'' (Faroese and Icelandic), and ''Continental Scandinavian'' (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish), based on mutual intelligibility due to heavy influence of East Scandinavian (particularly Danish) on Norwegian during the last millennium and divergence from both Faroese and Icelandic.<ref name="crystal"/> By many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered [[dialect]]s of a common Scandinavian language. However, because of several hundred years of sometimes quite intense rivalry between [[Denmark]] and Sweden, including a long series of wars from the 16th to 18th centuries, and the [[nationalist]] ideas that emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the languages have separate [[Orthography|orthographies]], dictionaries, grammars, and regulatory bodies. Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are thus from a linguistic perspective more accurately described as a [[dialect continuum]] of Scandinavian (North Germanic), and some of the dialects, such as those on the border between Norway and Sweden, especially parts of [[Bohuslän]], [[Dalsland]], western [[Värmland]], western [[Dalarna]], [[Härjedalen]], and [[Jämtland]], could be described as intermediate dialects of the national standard languages.<ref name="crystal">{{Harvnb|Crystal|1999|loc=''Scandinavian''}}</ref> Swedish pronunciations also vary greatly from one region to another, a legacy of the vast geographic distances and historical isolation. Even so, the vocabulary is standardized to a level that makes most dialects within Sweden virtually fully mutually intelligible. {{North Germanic clade}} ==History== {{Main|History of Swedish}} ===Old Norse=== {{Main|Old Norse}} {{Old Norse language map}} In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]], evolved into Old Norse. This language underwent more changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects: ''Old West Norse'' (Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland) and ''Old East Norse'' (Denmark and Sweden). The dialects of Old East Norse spoken in Sweden are called ''[[Runic Swedish]]'', while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as ''Runic Danish''. The dialects are described as "runic" because the main body of text appears in the [[runic alphabet]]. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the [[Elder Futhark]] alphabet, Old Norse was written with the [[Younger Futhark]] alphabet, which had only 16 letters. Because the number of runes was limited, some runes were used for a range of [[phoneme]]s, such as the rune for the vowel ''u'', which was also used for the vowels ''o'', ''ø'' and ''y'', and the rune for ''i'', also used for ''e''.<ref name=Edlund2010p26-31>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=26–31}}</ref> From 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark, creating a series of minor dialectal boundaries, or [[isogloss]]es, ranging from [[Zealand (Denmark)|Zealand]] in the south to [[Norrland]], [[Ostrobothnia (historical province)|Österbotten]] and northwestern [[Finland]] in the north.<ref name=Edlund2010p26-31/> An early change that separated Runic Danish from the other dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the [[diphthong]] ''æi'' to the [[monophthong]] ''é'', as in ''stæinn'' to ''sténn'' "stone". This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read ''stain'' and the later ''stin''. There was also a change of ''au'' as in ''dauðr'' into a long open ''ø'' as in ''døðr'' "dead". This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from ''tauþr'' into ''tuþr''. Moreover, the ''øy'' diphthong changed into a long, [[close vowel|close]] ''ø'', as in the Old Norse word for "island". By the end of the period, these innovations had affected most of the Runic Swedish-speaking area as well, with the exception of the dialects spoken north and east of [[Mälaren Valley|Mälardalen]] where the diphthongs still exist in remote areas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bergman|1984|pp=21–23}}</ref> ===Old Swedish=== [[File:Västgötalagen blad 21.jpg|thumb|right|The initial page of the first complete copy of {{lang|sv|[[Västgötalagen]]}}, the [[code of law|law code]] of [[Västergötland]], from {{circa|1280}}. It is one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the [[Latin script]].]] {{Main|Old Swedish}} Old Swedish (Swedish: {{lang|sv|fornsvenska}}) is the term used for the [[medieval]] Swedish language. The start date is usually set to 1225 since this is the year that {{lang|sv|[[Västgötalagen]]}} ("the Västgöta Law") is believed to have been compiled for the first time.<ref>The oldest dated fragments are from 1250 and the oldest complete manuscript is from {{Circa|1280}}</ref> It is among the most important documents of the period written in [[Latin script]] and the oldest Swedish [[code of law|law codes]]. Old Swedish is divided into {{lang|sv|äldre fornsvenska}} (1225–1375) and {{lang|sv|yngre fornsvenska}} (1375–1526), "older" and "younger" Old Swedish.<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=28–29}}</ref> Important outside influences during this time came with the firm establishment of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Christian church]] and various [[Monasticism|monastic]] orders, introducing many [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] loanwords. With the rise of [[Hanseatic league|Hanseatic]] power in the late 13th and early 14th century, [[Middle Low German]] became very influential. The Hanseatic league provided Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of [[Low German]]-speaking immigrants. Many became quite influential members of Swedish medieval society, and brought terms from their native languages into the vocabulary. Besides a great number of loanwords for such areas as warfare, trade and administration, general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions were imported. The League also brought a certain measure of influence from Danish (at the time Swedish and Danish were much more similar than today).<ref name=Edlund2010p29,31>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=29, 31}}</ref> Early Old Swedish was markedly different from the modern language in that it had a more complex [[case (linguistics)|case]] structure and also retained the original Germanic three-[[gender (grammar)|gender]] system. [[Noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[pronoun]]s and certain [[Grammatical number|numerals]] were inflected in four cases; besides the extant [[Nominative case|nominative]], there were also the [[Genitive case|genitive]] (later [[possessive case|possessive]]), [[Dative case|dative]] and [[Accusative case|accusative]]. The gender system resembled that of modern [[German language|German]], having masculine, feminine and neuter genders. The masculine and feminine genders were later merged into a ''common gender'' with the [[Definiteness|definite suffix]] {{lang|sv|-en}} and the [[definite article]] {{lang|sv|den}}, in contrast with the neuter gender equivalents {{lang|sv|-et}} and {{lang|sv|det}}. The verb system was also more complex: it included [[subjunctive]] and [[Imperative mood|imperative]] [[mood (grammar)|moods]] and verbs were conjugated according to [[person (grammar)|person]] as well as [[number (grammar)|number]]. By the 16th century, the case and gender systems of the colloquial spoken language and the profane literature had been largely reduced to the two cases and two genders of modern Swedish.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|pp=150–157}}</ref> A transitional change of the Latin script in the Nordic countries was to spell the letter combination "ae" as æ – and sometimes as a' – though it varied between persons and regions. The combination "ao" was similarly rendered a<sup>o</sup>, and "oe" became o<sup>e</sup>. These three were later to evolve into the separate letters [[ä]], [[å]] and [[ö]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=139}}</ref> The first time the new letters were used in print was in ''Aff dyäffwlsens frästilse'' ("By the Devil's temptation") published by [[Johan Gerson]] in 1495.<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=29}}</ref> ===Modern Swedish=== {{Main|Modern Swedish}}[[File:Gustav Vasa Bible 1541.jpg|thumb|upright|Front page of [[Gustav Vasa]]'s Bible from 1541, using [[Fraktur (script)|Fraktur]]. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in [[Uppsala]]. 1541".]] Modern Swedish (Swedish: ''nysvenska'') begins with the advent of the [[printing press]] and the European [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. After assuming power, the new monarch [[Gustav Vasa]] ordered a Swedish translation of the [[Bible]]. The [[New Testament]] was published in 1526, followed by a full [[Bible translation]] in 1541, usually referred to as the ''[[Gustav Vasa Bible]]'', a translation deemed so successful and influential that, with revisions incorporated in successive editions, it remained the most common Bible translation until 1917. The main translators were [[Laurentius Andreae|Laurentius Andreæ]] and the brothers [[Laurentius Petri|Laurentius]] and [[Olaus Petri]].<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=33}}</ref> The Vasa Bible is often considered to be a reasonable compromise between old and new; while not adhering to the colloquial spoken language of its day, it was not overly conservative in its use of archaic forms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=151}}</ref> It was a major step towards a more consistent [[Swedish orthography]]. It established the use of the vowels "å", "ä", and "ö", and the spelling "ck" in place of "kk", distinguishing it clearly from the Danish Bible, perhaps intentionally, given the ongoing rivalry between the countries. All three translators came from central Sweden, which is generally seen as adding specific Central Swedish features to the new Bible.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z17C7s3r_nwC&pg=PA1900 |year=2005 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019706-8 |page=1900}}</ref> Though it might seem as if the Bible translation set a very powerful precedent for orthographic standards, spelling actually became more inconsistent during the remainder of the century. It was not until the 17th century that spelling began to be discussed, around the time when the first grammars were written.<ref name="Grünbaum2012">{{cite web |author=Grünbaun, Katharina |url=http://www.sweden.se/upload/Sweden_se/otherlanguages/factsheets/SI/Svenska_spraket.pdf |title=Svenska språket |trans-title=The Swedish language |date=2012 |publisher=Svenska institutet |language=sv |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025181238/http://www.sweden.se/upload/Sweden_se/otherlanguages/factsheets/SI/Svenska_spraket.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref> [[Capitalization]] during this time was not standardized. It depended on the authors and their background. Those influenced by [[German language|German]] capitalized all nouns, while others capitalized more sparsely. It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized owing to the Gothic or [[blackletter]] typeface that was used to print the Bible. This typeface was in use until the mid-18th century, when it was gradually replaced with a Latin typeface (often [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bandle |first1=Oskar |last2=Elmevik |first2=Lennart |last3=Widmark |first3=Gun |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqkBXIJkkuEC&pg=PA517 |year=2002 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014876-3 |page=517}}</ref> Some important changes in sound during the Modern Swedish period were the gradual assimilation of several different consonant clusters into the [[voiceless alveolar fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and later into {{IPA|[ɧ]}}. There was also the gradual softening of {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} into {{IPA|[j]}} and the [[voiceless alveolopalatal fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[ɕ]}} before [[front vowel]]s. The [[voiced velar fricative|velar fricative]] {{IPA|[ɣ]}} was also transformed into the corresponding [[voiced velar plosive|plosive]] {{IPA|[ɡ]}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=138}}</ref> [[File:August Strindberg.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|[[August Strindberg]], one of the most influential writers in modern Swedish literature]] ===Contemporary Swedish=== [[File:Dem-dom.jpg|thumb|right|A sign on the wall of a Swedish hotel, using both the recommended<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Svanlund |editor-first1=Jan |title=Språkriktighetsboken |date=2013 |publisher=Svenska språknämnden and Norstedts |isbn=978-91-1-304370-8 |pages=210–211 |edition=2}}</ref> {{lang|sv|dem}} and the colloquial {{lang|sv|dom}} for the word "them" on the same sign.]] The period that includes Swedish as it is spoken today is termed {{lang|sv|nusvenska}} (lit., "Now-Swedish") in linguistics, and started in the last decades of the 19th century. It saw a democratization of the language with a less formal written form that approached the spoken one. The growth of a state school system also led to the evolution of so-called {{lang|sv|boksvenska}} (literally, "Book Swedish"), especially among the working classes, where spelling to some extent influenced pronunciation, particularly in official contexts. With the industrialization and urbanization of Sweden well under way by the last decades of the 19th century, a new breed of authors made their mark on [[Swedish literature]]. Many scholars, politicians and other public figures had a great influence on the emerging national language, among them prolific authors like the poet [[Gustaf Fröding]], Nobel laureate [[Selma Lagerlöf]] and radical writer and playwright [[August Strindberg]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Josephson|2005|loc=chapter 2}}</ref> In Finland, [[Finland-Swedish literature]] emerged as a separate branch. It was during the 20th century that a common, standardized national language became available to all Swedes. The orthography finally stabilized and became almost completely uniform, with some minor deviations, by the time of the spelling reform of 1906.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGl35Q3W5twC&pg=PA1751 |year=2006 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019987-1 |page=1751}}</ref> With the exception of plural forms of verbs and a slightly different syntax, particularly in the written language, the language was the same as the Swedish of today. The plural verb forms appeared decreasingly in formal writing into the 1950s, when their use was removed from all official recommendations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Taavitsainen |first1=Irma |last2=Melchers |first2=Gunnel |last3=Pahta |first3=Päivi |title=Writing in Nonstandard English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5cQ9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|year=2000 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-9903-1 |page=302}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bandle|first1=Oskar |last2=Braunmuller|first2=Kurt |last3=Jahr|first3=Ernst Hakon|title=The Nordic Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6b7WwBC5tRAC&pg=PA1805|year=2005|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-017149-5|page=1805}}</ref> A very significant change in Swedish occurred in the late 1960s with the so-called {{Lang|sv|[[du-reformen]]}}. Previously the proper way to address people of the same or higher social status had been by title and surname. The use of {{lang|sv|herr}} ("Mr" or "Sir"), {{lang|sv|fru}} ("Mrs" or "Ma'am") or {{lang|sv|fröken}} ("Miss") was considered the only acceptable way to begin conversation with strangers of unknown occupation, academic title or military rank. The fact that the listener should preferably be referred to in the third person tended to further complicate spoken communication between members of society. In the early 20th century an unsuccessful attempt was made to replace the insistence on titles with {{lang|sv|ni}}—the standard [[Grammatical person|second person plural]] pronoun)—analogous to the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|vous}} (see [[T-V distinction]]). {{lang|sv|Ni}} wound up being used as a slightly less familiar form of {{lang|sv|du}}, the second person singular pronoun, used to address people of lower social status. With the liberalization and radicalization of Swedish society in the 1950s and 1960s, these class distinctions became less important and {{lang|sv|du}} became the standard, even in formal and official contexts. Though the reform was not an act of any centralized political decree but rather the result of sweeping change in social attitudes, it was completed in just a few years, from the late 1960s to early 1970s.<ref>Nationalencyklopedin, ''du-tilltal'' and ''ni-tilltal''</ref> The use of {{lang|sv|ni}} as a polite form of address is sometimes encountered today in both the written and spoken language, particularly among older speakers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holmes|first1=Philip|last2=Hinchliffe|first2=Ian|title=Swedish: An Essential Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGasMbSR-8gC&pg=PA86|year=2008|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-45800-9|page=86}}</ref> ==Geographic distribution== Swedish is the sole official national language of [[Sweden]], and one of two in Finland (alongside [[Finnish language|Finnish]]). As of 2006, it was the sole native language of 83% of Swedish residents.{{sfn|Parkvall|2009|p=24}} In 2007, around 5.5% (c. 290,000) of the population of Finland were native speakers of Swedish,<ref name="StatsFinland">[http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure Population structure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611010801/https://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure |date=11 June 2020 }}. [[Statistics Finland]] (29 March 2007). Retrieved on 27 November 2007.</ref> partially due to a decline following the Russian annexation of Finland after the [[Finnish War]] 1808–1809.<ref>[http://finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=160058&contentlan=2&culture=en-US Main outlines of Finnish History – thisisFINLAND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426220712/http://finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=160058&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |date=26 April 2015 }}.</ref> The [[Finland Swedish|Fenno-Swedish]]-[[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|speaking minority]] is concentrated in the coastal areas and [[archipelago]]s of southern and western Finland. In some of these areas, Swedish is the predominant language; in 19 [[municipality|municipalities]], 16 of which are located [[Åland dialects|in Åland]], Swedish is the sole official language. [[Åland]] county is an autonomous region of Finland.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.kommunerna.net/sv/kommuner/svensk-tvasprakiga/Sidor/default.aspx|title=Svensk- och tvåspråkiga kommuner|work=kommunerna.net|date=February 2007|access-date=3 December 2007|language=sv|archive-date=19 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619124123/http://www.kommunerna.net/sv/kommuner/svensk-tvasprakiga/Sidor/default.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a rough estimation, as of 2010 there were up to 300,000 Swedish-speakers living outside Sweden and Finland. The largest populations were in the United States (up to 100,000), the UK, Spain and Germany (c. 30,000 each) and a large proportion of the remaining 100,000 in the Scandinavian countries, France, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia.<ref>Mikael Parkvall & Gunvor Flodell, "Sveriges språk ute i världen" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=154}}</ref> Over three million people speak Swedish as a second language, with about 2,410,000 of those in Finland.<ref name=e25/> According to a survey by the [[European Commission]], 44% of respondents from Finland who did not have Swedish as a native language considered themselves to be proficient enough in Swedish to hold a conversation.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Europeans and their languages |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 |id= Special Eurobarometer 386|date= 2012 |publisher=European Commission }}</ref> Due to the close relation between the Scandinavian languages, a considerable proportion of speakers of Danish and especially Norwegian are able to understand Swedish.<ref>{{citation|last=Gooskens|first=Charlotte|year=2007|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_JMMD_2007.pdf |s2cid-access=free |title=The Contribution of Linguistic Factors to the Intelligibility of Closely Related Languages|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=28|issue=6|pages=445–467|doi=10.2167/jmmd511.0|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.7645|s2cid=18875358|access-date=19 July 2014|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411075554/http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_JMMD_2007.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> There is considerable migration between the [[Nordic countries]], but owing to the similarity between the cultures and languages (with the exception of [[Finnish language|Finnish]]), expatriates generally [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] quickly and do not stand out as a group. According to the 2000 [[United States Census]], some 67,000 people over the age of five were reported as Swedish speakers, though without any information on the degree of language proficiency.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/Languages/swedish.pdf |title=Swedish |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203311/http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/Languages/swedish.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |work= Many Languages, One America|publisher= U.S. English Foundation |access-date= 27 February 2015}}</ref> Similarly, there were 16,915 reported Swedish speakers in Canada from the 2001 census.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/index.cfm |title=2006 Census: Highlight tables |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-date=7 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207063452/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/index.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Although there are no certain numbers, some 40,000 Swedes are estimated to live in the London area in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/krisberedskap-pa-svenska-ambassaden-i-london/ |url-access=subscription |title=Krisberedskap på svenska ambassaden |newspaper={{Lang|sv|[[Dagens Nyheter]]}} |date=22 July 2005 |access-date=4 January 2012 |archive-date=21 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121112239/https://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/krisberedskap-pa-svenska-ambassaden-i-london/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Outside Sweden and Finland, there are about 40,000 active learners enrolled in Swedish language courses.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.studyinsweden.se/Learn-Swedish/University-courses-outside-Sweden/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218043337/http://www.studyinsweden.se/Learn-Swedish/University-courses-outside-Sweden/ |archive-date=18 February 2011 |access-date=27 January 2011 |title=University courses outside Sweden |website= Study in Sweden }}</ref> In the [[United States]], particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a significant Swedish-speaking immigrant population. This was notably true in states like [[Minnesota]], where many Swedish immigrants settled. By 1940, approximately 6% of Minnesota's population spoke Swedish.<ref name="Census 1940 languages">{{cite web| title=1940 Census of Population: Mother Tongue, by Nativity, Parentage, Country of Origin, and Age, for States and Large Cities| website=Census.gov| date=1943| url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-nativity/41272165_ch5.pdf| access-date=29 March 2023| archive-date=29 March 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329231546/https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-nativity/41272165_ch5.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> Although the use of Swedish has significantly declined, it is not uncommon to find older generations and communities that still retain some use and knowledge of the language, particularly in rural communities like [[Lindström, Minnesota|Lindström]] and [[Scandia, Minnesota|Scandia]].<ref name="College of Liberal Arts q544">{{cite web | title=Swedish | website=College of Liberal Arts | url=https://cla.umn.edu/gnsd/languages/swedish | access-date=3 July 2023 | archive-date=3 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703085108/https://cla.umn.edu/gnsd/languages/swedish | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lindstrom, MN f027">{{cite web | title=About | website=Lindstrom, MN | url=https://www.cityoflindstrom.us/about | access-date=3 July 2023 | archive-date=3 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703085106/https://www.cityoflindstrom.us/about | url-status=live }}</ref> ===Official status=== [[File:Oikokatu.JPG|thumb|A [[Finnish language|Finnish]]/Swedish street sign in [[Helsinki]], Finland]] Swedish is the official main language of Sweden.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.sprakforsvaret.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/spraklagen_200509.pdf|title=Språklagen|date=1 July 2009|work=Språkförsvaret|language=sv|access-date=15 July 2009|archive-date=19 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819232243/http://www.sprakforsvaret.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/spraklagen_200509.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.thelocal.se/20090701/20404/|title=Swedish becomes official 'main language'|last=Landes|first=David|date=1 July 2009|work=[[The Local]]|publisher=thelocal.se|access-date=15 July 2009|archive-date=10 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210004646/http://www.thelocal.se/20090701/20404|url-status=live}}</ref> Swedish is also one of two official languages of Finland. In Sweden, it has long been used in local and state government, and most of the educational system, but remained only a ''de facto'' primary language with no official status in law until 2009. A bill was proposed in 2005 that would have made Swedish an official language, but failed to pass by the narrowest possible margin (145–147) due to a [[Pair (parliamentary convention)|pairing-off]] failure.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/svenskan-blir-inte-officiellt-sprak|title=Svenskan blir inte officiellt språk|work=[[Sveriges Television]]|date=7 December 2005|access-date=23 June 2006|language=sv|archive-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023821/http://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/svenskan-blir-inte-officiellt-sprak|url-status=live}}</ref> A proposal for a broader language law, designating Swedish as the main language of the country and bolstering the status of the minority languages, was submitted by an expert committee to the Swedish Ministry of Culture in March 2008. It was subsequently enacted by the [[Riksdag]], and entered into effect on 1 July 2009.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/10016/a/100959|title=Värna språken – förslag till språklag|work=[[Government Offices of Sweden]]|date=18 March 2008|access-date=19 June 2008|language=sv|archive-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515161922/http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/10016/a/100959|url-status=live}}</ref> Swedish is the sole official language of [[Åland]] (an [[Autonomous entity|autonomous]] province under the [[sovereignty]] of Finland), where the vast majority of the 26,000 inhabitants speak Swedish as a first language. In Finland as a whole, Swedish is one of the two "national" languages, with the same official status as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (spoken by the majority) at the state level and an official language in some [[municipalities of Finland|municipalities]]. Swedish is one of the official languages of the [[European Union]], and one of the working languages of the [[Nordic Council]]. Under the [[Nordic Language Convention]], citizens of the [[Nordic countries]] speaking Swedish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for interpretation or translation costs.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.norden.org/avtal/sprak/sk/sprak_sprak.asp?lang=|title=Konvention mellan Sverige, Danmark, Finland, Island, och Norge om nordiska medborgares rätt att använda sitt eget språk i annat nordiskt land|work=[[Nordic Council]]|date=2 May 2007|access-date=25 April 2007|language=sv|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418154217/http://www.norden.org/avtal/sprak/sk/sprak_sprak.asp?lang=|archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6|title=20th anniversary of the Nordic Language Convention|work=Nordic news|date=22 February 2007|access-date=25 April 2007|language=sv|archive-date=27 February 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227013320/http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Regulatory bodies=== [[File:Estonian archipelago (Saaremaa and Hiiumaa).jpg|thumb|right|Map of the [[West Estonian archipelago|Estonian islands]], which formerly housed "''Coastal Swede''" populations]] The [[Swedish Language Council]] (''Språkrådet'') is the regulator of Swedish in Sweden but does not attempt to enforce control of the language, as for instance the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}} does for [[French language|French]]. However, many organizations and agencies require the use of the council's publication ''Svenska skrivregler'' in official contexts, with it otherwise being regarded as a ''de facto'' orthographic standard. Among the many organizations that make up the Swedish Language Council, the [[Swedish Academy]] (established 1786) is arguably the most influential. Its primary instruments are the [[Spelling#Spelling standards and conventions|spelling dictionary]] ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordlista]]'' (''SAOL'', currently in its 14th edition) and the dictionary ''[[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]'', in addition to various books on grammar, spelling and manuals of style. Although the dictionaries have a [[Linguistic prescription|prescriptive]] element, they mainly describe current usage.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gellerstam |first1=Martin |title=Norm och bruk i SAOL |url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/24007 |publisher=Nordisk forening for leksikografi i samarbeit med Nordisk språksekretariat |access-date=2 March 2018 |language=sv |date=2002 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105713/https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/24007 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Finland, a special branch of the [[Research Institute for the Languages of Finland]] has official status as the regulatory body for Swedish in Finland. Among its highest priorities is to maintain intelligibility with the language spoken in Sweden. It has published ''Finlandssvensk ordbok'', a dictionary about the differences between Swedish in Finland and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Normeringen i ''Finlandssvensk ordbok''|last = af Hällström|first = Charlotta|date = 2002|journal = LexicoNordica | issue=9 |pages=51–62 | doi=10.7146/ln.v0i9.18709 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Language minorities in Estonia and Ukraine=== From the 13th to 20th century, there were [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia]], particularly on the islands (e. g., [[Hiiumaa]], [[Vormsi]], [[Ruhnu]]; in Swedish, known as {{lang|sv|Dagö}}, {{lang|sv|Ormsö}}, {{lang|sv|Runö}}, respectively) along the coast of the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]], communities that today have all disappeared. The Swedish-speaking minority was represented in [[parliament]], and entitled to use their native language in parliamentary debates. After the loss of Estonia to the [[Russian Empire]] in the early 18th century, around 1,000 [[Estonian Swedish]] speakers were forced to march to southern [[Ukraine]], where they founded a village, ''[[Gammalsvenskby]]'' ("Old Swedish Village"). A few elderly people in the village still speak a [[Gammalsvenska|Swedish dialect]] and observe the holidays of the Swedish calendar, although their dialect is most likely facing extinction.<ref>The number of registered Swedes in Zmeyovka (the modern Ukrainian name of ''Gammalsvenskby'') in 1994 was 116 according to [[Nationalencyklopedin]], article ''svenskbyborna''.</ref> From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of [[World War II]], that is before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of speakers remain.<ref>''Nationalencyklopedin'', ''estlandssvenskar''.</ref> ==Phonology== {{Main|Swedish phonology}} [[File:Swedish monophthongs chart.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.36|The vowel phonemes of Central Standard Swedish<ref>{{Harvnb|Engstrand|1999|p=140}}</ref>|class=skin-invert-image]] Swedish dialects have either 17 or 18 vowel [[phoneme]]s, 9 long and 9 short. As in the other Germanic languages, including English, most long vowels are phonetically paired with one of the short vowels, and the pairs are such that the two vowels are of similar [[vowel quality|quality]], but with the short vowel being slightly lower and slightly centralized. In contrast to, for example, Danish, which has only tense vowels, the short vowels are slightly more lax, but the tense vs. lax contrast is not nearly as pronounced as in English, German or Dutch. In many dialects, the short vowel sound pronounced {{IPA|[ɛ]}} or {{IPA|[æ]}} has merged with the short {{IPA|/e/}} (transcribed {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} in the chart below).<ref name=AndersonEngstrand>{{Harvnb|Andersson|2002|pp=271–312}}; {{Harvnb|Engstrand|1999}}</ref> There are 18 consonant phonemes, two of which, {{IPAslink|ɧ}} and {{IPA|/r/}}, vary considerably in pronunciation depending on the dialect and social status of the speaker. In many dialects, sequences of {{IPA|/r/}} (pronounced alveolarly) with a dental consonant result in [[retroflex consonant]]s; alveolarity of the pronunciation of {{IPA|/r/}} is a precondition for this retroflexion. {{IPA|/r/}} has a [[guttural R|guttural]] or "French R" pronunciation in the [[South Swedish dialects]]; consequently, these dialects lack retroflex consonants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garlén|1988|pp=73–74}}</ref> Swedish is a [[stress-timed]] language, where the time intervals between [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed syllables]] are equal. However, when casually spoken, it tends to be [[syllable-timed]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://flov.gu.se/forskning/konferenser/fonetikkonferenser/fonetik2005|title=Fonetik 2005|last1=Eriksson|first1=Anders|last2=Abelin|first2=Åsa|last3=Lindh|first3=Jonas|publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]]|date=May 2005|pages=34–36|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323210622/https://flov.gu.se/forskning/konferenser/fonetikkonferenser/fonetik2005|url-status=live}}</ref> Any stressed syllable carries one of two [[tone (linguistics)|tones]], which gives Swedish much of its characteristic sound. [[Prosody (linguistics)|Prosody]] is often one of the most noticeable differences between dialects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garlén|1988}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! colspan=2 {{dsh|[[Manner of articulation|Manner]]|[[Place of articulation|Place]]}} ! [[Bilabial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n̪|n}} | | {{IPA link|ŋ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | | {{IPA link|k}} | |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Continuant]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s̪|s}} | {{IPA link|ɕ}} | {{IPA link|ɧ}} | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|l̪|l}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | |- !colspan=2| [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] | | colspan=3 | {{IPA|r}} | |} ==Grammar== {{Main|Swedish grammar}} The standard word order is, as in most [[Germanic languages]], [[V2 word order|V2]], which means that the [[finite verb]] (V) appears in the second position (2) of a declarative [[main clause]]. [[Swedish morphology]] is similar to English; that is, words have comparatively few [[inflections]]. Swedish has two [[grammatical gender|genders]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Svanlund |first1=Jan |title=Språkriktighetsboken |date=2005 |publisher=Norstedts |location=Stockholm |isbn=978-91-1-304370-8 |page=73 |edition=2nd}}</ref> and is generally seen to have two [[grammatical cases]] – [[nominative]] and [[genitive]] (except for pronouns that, as in English, are also inflected in the [[Object (grammar)|object]] form) – although it is debated if the genitive in Swedish should be seen as a genitive case or just the nominative plus the so-called genitive ''s'', then seen as a [[clitic]]. Swedish has two [[grammatical number]]s – [[plural]] and singular. [[Adjectives]] have discrete [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative and superlative]] forms and are also inflected according to gender, number and [[definiteness]]. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through [[suffixes]] (endings), complemented with separate definite and indefinite [[article (grammar)|articles]]. The [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] features both [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a comparatively large [[vowel]] inventory. Swedish is also notable for the [[voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative]], a highly variable consonant [[phoneme]]. Swedish [[noun]]s and [[adjective]]s are declined in [[grammatical gender|genders]] as well as [[grammatical number|number]]. Nouns are of [[common gender]] ({{lang|sv|en}} form) or [[neuter gender]] ({{lang|sv|ett}} form).<ref>{{Harvnb|Granberry|1991|pp=18–19}}</ref> The gender determines the declension of the adjectives. For example, the word {{lang|sv|fisk}} ("fish") is a noun of common gender ({{lang|sv|en fisk}}) and can have the following forms: {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! Singular ! Plural |- ! Indefinite form | {{lang|sv|fisk}} | {{lang|sv|fiskar}} |- ! Definite form | {{lang|sv|fisken}} | {{lang|sv|fiskarna}} |} The definite singular form of a noun is created by adding a suffix ({{lang|sv|-en}}, {{lang|sv|-n}}, {{lang|sv|-et}} or {{lang|sv|-t}}), depending on its gender and if the noun ends in a vowel or not. The definite articles {{lang|sv|den}}, {{lang|sv|det}}, and {{lang|sv|de}} are used for variations to the definitiveness of a noun. They can double as [[demonstrative]] pronouns or [[Determiner (class)|demonstrative determiners]] when used with [[adverb]]s such as {{lang|sv|här}} ("here") or {{lang|sv|där}} ("there") to form {{lang|sv|den/det här}} (can also be "{{lang|sv|denna}}/{{lang|sv|detta}}") ("this"), {{lang|sv|de här}} (can also be "{{lang|sv|dessa}}") ("these"), {{lang|sv|den/det där}} ("that"), and {{lang|sv|de där}} ("those"). For example, {{lang|sv|den där fisken}} means "that fish" and refers to a specific fish; {{lang|sv|den fisken}} is less definite and means "that fish" in a more abstract sense, such as that set of fish; while {{lang|sv|fisken}} means "the fish". In certain cases, the definite form indicates possession, e. g., {{lang|sv|jag måste tvätta hår'''et'''}} ("I must wash ''my'' hair").<ref name="Haugen"/> [[Adjective]]s are inflected in two declensions – indefinite and definite – and they must match the noun they modify in gender and number. The indefinite neuter and plural forms of an adjective are usually created by adding a suffix ({{lang|sv|-t}} or {{lang|sv|-a}}) to the common form of the adjective, e. g., {{lang|sv|en grön stol}} (a green chair), {{lang|sv|ett grönt hus}} (a green house), and {{lang|sv|gröna stolar}} ("green chairs"). The definite form of an adjective is identical to the indefinite plural form, e. g., {{lang|sv|den gröna stolen}} ("the green chair"), {{lang|sv|det gröna huset}} ("the green house"), and {{lang|sv|de gröna stolarna}} ("the green chairs").<ref name="Haugen">{{Harvnb|Haugen|2009}}</ref> Swedish [[pronoun]]s are similar to those of English. Besides the two natural genders {{lang|sv|han}} and {{lang|sv|hon}} ("he" and "she"), there are also the two [[grammatical gender]]s {{lang|sv|den}} and {{lang|sv|det}}, usually termed [[Gender in Danish and Swedish|common and neuter]]. In recent years, a [[gender-neutral]] pronoun {{lang|sv|hen}} has been introduced, particularly in literary Swedish. Unlike the nouns, pronouns have an additional [[object (linguistics)|object]] form, derived from the old [[dative]] form. {{lang|sv|Hon}}, for example, has the following nominative, possessive, and object forms:<ref name="Haugen"/> :{{lang|sv|hon}} – {{lang|sv|hennes}} – {{lang|sv|henne}} Swedish also uses third-person possessive [[reflexive pronoun|reflexive pronouns]] that refer to the subject in a clause, a trait that is restricted to North Germanic languages: :{{lang|sv|Anna gav Maria sin bok.}}; "Anna gave Maria her [Anna's] book." (reflexive) :{{lang|sv|Anna gav Maria hennes bok.}}; "Anna gave Maria her [Maria's] book." (not reflexive) Swedish used to have a [[genitive]] that was placed at the end of the head of a noun phrase. In modern Swedish, it has become an [[enclitic]] {{lang|sv|-s}}, which attaches to the end of the noun phrase, rather than the noun itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|pp=70, 212–213}}</ref> :{{lang|sv|hästen}}; "the horse" – {{lang|sv|hästens}} "the horse's" :{{lang|sv|hästen på den blommande ängens svarta man}}; "the horse in the flowering meadow's black mane" In formal written language, it used to be considered correct to place the genitive {{lang|sv|-s}} after the head of the noun phrase ({{lang|sv|hästen}}), though this is today considered dated, and different grammatical constructions are often used.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|p=213}}</ref> Verbs are [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] according to [[grammatical tense|tense]]. One group of verbs (the ones ending in {{lang|sv|-er}} in [[present tense]]) has a special [[Imperative mood|imperative]] form (generally the verb [[word stem|stem]]), but with most verbs the imperative is identical to the [[infinitive]] form. [[perfect (grammar)|Perfect]] and present [[participle]]s as adjectival verbs are very common:<ref name="Haugen"/> :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|en stekt fisk}}; "a fried fish" ({{lang|sv|steka}} = to fry) :Present participle: {{lang|sv|en stinkande fisk}}; "a stinking fish" ({{lang|sv|stinka}} = to stink) In contrast to English and many other languages, Swedish does not use the perfect participle to form the present perfect and past perfect. Rather, the [[auxiliary verb]] {{lang|sv|har}} ("have"), {{lang|sv|hade}} ("had") is followed by a special form, called the [[supine]], used solely for this purpose (although often identical to the neuter form of the perfect participle):<ref name="Haugen"/> :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|målad}}, "painted" – supine {{lang|sv|målat}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har målat}}; "have painted" :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|stekt}}, "fried" – supine {{lang|sv|stekt}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har stekt}}; "have fried" :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|skriven}}, "written" – supine {{lang|sv|skrivit}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har skrivit}}; "have written" When building the compound passive voice using the verb {{lang|sv|att bli}}, the past participle is used: :{{lang|sv|den blir målad}}; "it's being painted" :{{lang|sv|den blev målad}}; "it was painted" There exists also an inflected passive voice formed by adding {{lang|sv|-s}}, replacing the final {{lang|sv|r}} in the present tense: :{{lang|sv|den målas}}; "it's being painted" :{{lang|sv|den målades}}; "it was painted" In a subordinate [[clause]], the auxiliary {{lang|sv|har}} is optional and often omitted, particularly in written Swedish. :{{lang|sv|Jag ser att han (har) stekt fisken}}; "I see that he has fried the fish" [[Subjunctive mood]] is occasionally used for some verbs, but its use is in sharp decline and few speakers perceive the handful of commonly used verbs (as for instance: {{lang|sv|vore, månne}}) as separate conjugations, most of them remaining only as set of [[Idiom|idiomatic expressions]].<ref name="Haugen"/> Where other languages may use [[grammatical cases]], Swedish uses numerous [[preposition]]s, similar to those found in [[English language|English]]. As in modern [[German language|German]], prepositions formerly determined case in Swedish, but this feature can only be found in certain idiomatic expressions like {{lang|sv|till fots}} ("on foot", genitive).<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|pp=182–183}}</ref> As Swedish is a Germanic language, the [[syntax]] shows similarities to both English and German. Like English, Swedish has a [[subject–verb–object]] basic word order, but like German it utilizes [[V2 word order|verb-second word order]] in main clauses, for instance after [[adverbs]] and adverbial phrases, and [[dependent clauses]]. (Adverbial phrases denoting time are usually placed at the beginning of a main clause that is at the head of a sentence.) [[Prepositional phrase]]s are placed in a [[place–manner–time]] order, as in English (but not German). Adjectives precede the noun they modify.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bolander|2002}}</ref> Verb-second (inverted) word order is also used for questions.<ref name="Stensson 2013">{{cite web|last1=Stensson|first1=Leif|title=Swedish Grammar {{!}} Syntax|url=https://www.lysator.liu.se/language/Languages/Swedish/Grammar.html#syntax|publisher=Lysator Society, Linköping University|access-date=9 March 2018|date=August 2013|archive-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219193417/http://www.lysator.liu.se/language/Languages/Swedish/Grammar.html#syntax|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Vocabulary== The [[vocabulary]] of Swedish is mainly Germanic, either through common Germanic heritage or through loans from German, Middle Low German, and to some extent, English. Examples of Germanic words in Swedish are {{lang|sv|mus}} ("mouse"), {{lang|sv|kung}} ("king"), and {{lang|sv|gås}} ("goose"). A significant part of the religious and scientific vocabulary is of [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, often borrowed from [[French language|French]] and, lately, English. Some 1–200 words are also borrowed from [[Scandoromani language|Scandoromani]] or [[Romani language|Romani]], often as slang varieties; a commonly used word from Romani is {{Wikt-lang|sv|tjej}} ("girl").<ref>{{Harvnb|Wessén|1998}}</ref> A large number of [[French language|French]] words were imported into Sweden around the 18th century. These words have been [[transcription (linguistics)|transcribed]] to the Swedish spelling system and are therefore pronounced recognizably to a French-speaker. Most of them are distinguished by a "French accent", characterized by emphasis on the last syllable. For example, {{lang|sv|nivå}} (fr. {{lang|fr|niveau}}, "level"), {{lang|sv|fåtölj}} (fr. {{lang|fr|fauteuil}}, "armchair") and {{lang|sv|affär}} ("shop; affair"), etc. Cross-borrowing from other Germanic languages has also been common, at first from Middle Low German, the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic league]] and later from [[Standard German]]. Some compounds are translations of the elements ([[calque]]s) of German original compounds into Swedish, like ''{{lang|sv|bomull}}'' from German ''{{lang|de|Baumwolle}}'' ("cotton"; literally, ''tree-wool'').<ref>Nationalencyklopedin, ''svenska: språkhistoria''</ref> As with many Germanic languages, new words can be formed by compounding, e. g., nouns like ''{{lang|sv|nagellackborttagningsmedel}}'' ("nail polish remover") or verbs like ''{{lang|sv|smyglyssna}}'' ("to eavesdrop").<ref name=CompoundNoun/><ref>{{cite web |title=Smyglyssna |url=http://ordbok.woxikon.se/sv-en/smyglyssna |website=Woxikon |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164735/http://ordbok.woxikon.se/sv-en/smyglyssna |url-status=live }}</ref> Compound nouns take their [[grammatical gender|gender]] from the [[head (linguistics)|head]], which in Swedish is always the last morpheme.<ref name=CompoundNoun>{{cite web |title=Minor Grammar English-Swedish |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/194349317/Minor-Grammar-English-Swedish |publisher=Scribd |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807203447/https://www.scribd.com/document/194349317/Minor-Grammar-English-Swedish |url-status=live }}</ref> New words can also be coined by [[Morphological derivation|derivation]] from other established words, such as the [[verbification]] of [[noun]]s by the adding of the [[suffix#Derivational suffixes|suffix]] {{lang|sv|-a}}, as in ''{{lang|sv|bil}}'' ("car") and ''{{lang|sv|bila}}'' ("travel (recreationally) by car").<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gomer |editor1-first=Eva |editor2-last=Morris-Nygren |editor2-first=Mona |title=Bila |series=Modern Svensk Engelsk Ordbok |date=1976 |publisher=Prisma |page=57}}</ref> The opposite, making nouns of verbs, is also possible, as in ''{{lang|sv|tänk}}'' ("way of thinking; concept") from ''{{lang|sv|tänka}}'' ("to think").<ref>{{cite web|title=Språket lever {{!}} tänk|url=https://www.sprakinstitutet.fi/sv/aktuellt/spraket_lever/tank.20235.news|publisher=Institutet för de inhemska språken|access-date=3 March 2018|language=sv|date=18 February 2016|archive-date=4 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054810/https://www.sprakinstitutet.fi/sv/aktuellt/spraket_lever/tank.20235.news|url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Writing system== {{Main|Swedish orthography}} The [[Swedish alphabet]] is a 29-letter [[alphabet]], using the 26-letter [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]] plus the three additional letters {{vr|[[å]]}}, {{vr|[[ä]]}}, and {{vr|[[ö]]}} constructed in the 16th century by writing {{vr|o}} and {{vr|e}} on top of an {{vr|a}}, and an {{vr|e}} on top of an {{vr|o}}. Though these combinations are historically modified versions of {{vr|[[a]]}} and {{vr|[[o]]}} according to the English range of usage for the term [[diacritic]], these three characters are not considered to be diacritics within the Swedish application, but rather separate letters, and are independent letters following {{vr|z}}. Before the release of the 13th edition of {{lang|sv|[[Svenska Akademiens ordlista]]}} in April 2006, {{vr|w}} was treated as merely a variant of {{vr|v}} used only in names (such as "Wallenberg") and foreign words ("bowling"), and so was both sorted and pronounced as a {{vr|v}}. Other diacritics (to use the broader English term usage referenced here) are unusual in Swedish; {{vr|[[é]]}} is sometimes used to indicate that the stress falls on a terminal syllable containing {{vr|e}}, especially when the stress changes the meaning ({{lang|sv|ide}} vs. {{lang|sv|idé}}, "winter lair" vs. "idea") as well as in some names, like {{lang|sv|Kastrén}}; occasionally other [[acute accent]]s and, less often, [[grave accent]]s can be seen in names and some foreign words. The letter {{vr|[[à]]}} is used to refer to unit cost (a loan from the French), equivalent to the [[at sign]] ({{vr|@}}) in English.<ref>{{Harvnb|Svenska språknämnden|2000}}</ref> The German {{vr|[[ü]]}} is treated as a variant of {{vr|[[y]]}} and sometimes retained in foreign names and words, e. g., {{lang|sv|müsli}} ("muesli/granola"). A proper [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] may very exceptionally be seen in elaborated style (for instance: "Aïda"). The German convention of writing {{vr|ä}} and {{vr|ö}} as {{vr|ae}} and {{vr|oe}} if the characters are unavailable is an unusual convention for speakers of modern Swedish. Despite the availability of all these characters in the Swedish national [[top-level domain|top-level Internet domain]] and other such domains, Swedish sites are frequently labelled using {{vr|a}} and {{vr|o}}, based on visual similarity, though Swedish domains could be registered using the characters {{vr|å}}, {{vr|ä}}, and {{vr|ö}} from 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=Domain names with characters like å, ä, ö (IDN)|url=https://www.iis.se/english/domains/se/idn/|publisher=iiS|access-date=3 March 2018|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225156/https://www.iis.se/english/domains/se/idn/|url-status=live}}</ref> In Swedish [[orthography]], the [[Colon (punctuation)|colon]] is used in a [[Colon (punctuation)#Usage|similar manner as in English]], with some exceptions: the colon is used for some abbreviations, such as {{lang|sv|3:e}} for {{lang|sv|tredje}} ("third") and {{lang|sv|S:t}} for {{lang|sv|Sankt}} ("Saint"), and for all types of [[suffix|endings]] that can be added to numbers, letters and abbreviations, such as {{lang|sv|a:et}} ("the a") and {{lang|sv|CD:n}} ("the CD"), or the genitive form {{lang|sv|USA:s}} ("USA's").<ref>{{Harvnb|Svenska språknämnden|2000|pp=154–156}}</ref> ==Dialects== [[File:R-pronounciation in Swedish language.JPG|thumb|[[Isogloss]] for the pronunciation of "R" ({{Circa|1960}}), being [[Alveolar trill|alveolar]] north of the boundary and [[guttural R|uvular]] ("French R") south of it. It follows that the R+S combination is pronounced as spelled south of the boundary, while pronounced {{IPAblink|ʂ}} (similar to "sh" in "shark") north of it. This isogloss is the most imperative of all Swedish pronunciation differences.]] {{Main|Swedish dialects}} According to a traditional division of Swedish [[dialect]]s, there are six main groups of dialects:<ref>{{Harvnb|Leinonen|2011}};{{Harvnb|Dahl|2000|pp=117–119}}; Lars-Erik Edlund "Språklig variation i tid och rum" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hur många dialekter finns det i Sverige? Var går gränsen mellan olika dialekter?|url=http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/sprak/dialekter/fragor-och-svar-om-dialekter/faq/2013-10-21-hur-manga-dialekter-finns-det-i-sverige-var-gar-gransen-mellan-olika-dialekter.html|publisher=Institutet för språk och folkminnen|access-date=2 March 2018|date=3 February 2017|language=sv|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105756/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/sprak/dialekter/fragor-och-svar-om-dialekter/faq/2013-10-21-hur-manga-dialekter-finns-det-i-sverige-var-gar-gransen-mellan-olika-dialekter.html|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Norrland dialects]] * [[Finland Swedish]] * [[Svealand Swedish|Svealand dialects]] * [[Gutnish|Gotland dialects]] * [[Götamål dialect|Götaland dialects]] * [[South Swedish dialects]] The traditional definition of a Swedish [[dialect]] has been a local variant that has not been heavily influenced by the standard language and that can trace a separate development all the way back to [[Old Norse]]. Many of the genuine rural dialects, such as those of [[Orsa, Sweden|Orsa]] in [[Dalarna]] or [[Närpes]] in [[Ostrobothnia (administrative region)|Österbotten]], have very distinct phonetic and grammatical features, such as plural forms of verbs or archaic [[case (linguistics)|case]] inflections. These dialects can be near-incomprehensible to a majority of Swedes, and most of their speakers are also fluent in Standard Swedish. The different dialects are often so localized that they are limited to individual [[parish]]es and are referred to by Swedish linguists as ''sockenmål'' (lit., "parish speech"). They are generally separated into six major groups, with common characteristics of prosody, grammar and vocabulary. One or several examples from each group are given here. Though each example is intended to be also representative of the nearby dialects, the actual number of dialects is several hundred if each individual community is considered separately.<ref>{{Harvnb|Engstrand|2004|p=120}}; {{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=184}}</ref> This type of classification, however, is based on a somewhat romanticized [[nationalism|nationalist]] view of ethnicity and language. The idea that only rural variants of Swedish should be considered "genuine" is not generally accepted by modern scholars. No dialects, no matter how remote or obscure, remained unchanged or undisturbed by a minimum of influences from surrounding dialects or the standard language, especially not from the late 19th century onwards with the advent of [[mass media]] and advanced forms of transport. The differences are today more accurately described by a scale that runs from "standard language" to "rural dialect" where the speech even of the same person may vary from one extreme to the other depending on the situation. All Swedish dialects with the exception of the highly diverging forms of speech in [[Dalarna]], [[Norrbotten]] and, to some extent, [[Gotland]] can be considered to be part of a common, mutually intelligible [[dialect continuum]]. This continuum may also include [[Norwegian dialects|Norwegian]] and some [[Danish dialects]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dahl|2000|pp=117–119}}</ref> ===Standard Swedish=== [[Standard Swedish]] is the language used by virtually all Swedes and most [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Swedish-speaking Finns]]. It is called ''rikssvenska'' or ''standardsvenska'' ("Standard Swedish") in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |title=standardspråk |url=https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/standardspr%C3%A5k |publisher=Nationalencyklopedin AB |access-date=3 March 2018 |language=sv |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225120/https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/standardspr%C3%A5k |url-status=live }}</ref> In Finland, ''högsvenska'' ("High Swedish") is used for the Finnish variant of standard Swedish and ''rikssvenska'' refers to Swedish as spoken in Sweden in general.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mattfolk|first1=Leila|title=Do answers to a questionnaire give reliable data?|url=http://www.nordiska.uu.se/ICLaVE2/Kristiansen_w/Mattfolkw.pdf|publisher=Helsinki University|access-date=3 March 2018|quote=Employees on radio and television do not always follow the same Swedish norm. What do you think about them using their own ordinary spoken language instead of standard Finland-Swedish (''högsvenska'') in the broadcasted programs?|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041102231321/http://www.nordiska.uu.se/ICLaVE2/Kristiansen_w/Mattfolkw.pdf|archive-date=2 November 2004}}</ref> In a poll conducted in 2005 by the [[Swedish Retail Institute]] (''Handelns Utredningsinstitut''), the attitudes of Swedes to the use of certain dialects by salesmen revealed that 54% believed that ''rikssvenska'' was the variety they would prefer to hear when speaking with salesmen over the phone, even though dialects such as ''gotländska'' or ''[[Scanian dialect|skånska]]'' were provided as alternatives in the poll.<ref>{{citation|last=Aronsson |first=Cecilia |url=http://www.di.se/Nyheter/?page=/Avdelningar/Artikel.aspx%3FArticleID%3D2005%5C05%5C03%5C142710%26words%3Drikssvenska%26SectionID%3DEttan%26menusection%3DStartsidan%3BHuvudnyheter |title=Norrländska låter bäst |work=[[Dagens Industri]] |date=3 May 2005 |access-date=24 August 2007 |quote=Norrländska och rikssvenska är de mest förtroendeingivande dialekterna. Men gotländska och värmländska gör svenskarna misstänksamma, enligt en ny riksomfattande undersökning. Handelns utredningsinstitut (HUI) har frågat 800 svenskar om hur de uppfattar olika dialekter som de hör i telefonservicesamtal, exempelvis från försäljare eller upplysningscentraler. Undersökningen visar att 54 procent föredrar att motparten pratar rikssvenska, vilket troligen hänger ihop med dess tydlighet. Men även norrländskan plockar höga poäng – 25 procent tycker att det är den mest förtroendeingivande dialekten. Tilltron till norrländska är ännu större hos personer under 29 år, medan stödet för rikssvenska är störst bland personer över 55 år. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013152413/http://www.di.se/Nyheter/?page=%2FAvdelningar%2FArtikel.aspx%3FArticleID%3D2005%5C05%5C03%5C142710&words=rikssvenska&SectionID=Ettan&menusection=Startsidan%3BHuvudnyheter |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Finland Swedish=== {{Main|Finland Swedish|Åland Swedish}} Finland was a part of Sweden from the 13th century until the loss of the Finnish territories to [[Russia]] in 1809. Swedish was the sole administrative language until 1902 as well as the dominant language of culture and education until Finnish independence in 1917. The percentage of Swedish speakers in Finland has steadily decreased since then. The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas of Ostrobothnia, [[Southwest Finland]] and [[Uusimaa]] where the percentage of Finland Swedes is high, with Swedish being spoken by more than 90% of the population in several municipalities, and on Åland, where Swedish is spoken by a vast majority of the population and is the only official language. Swedish is an official language also in the rest of Finland, though, with the same official status as [[Finnish language|Finnish]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.finlex.fi/sv/lagstiftning/1999/731 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009035525/http://www.finlex.fi/sv/laki/ajantasa/1999/19990731 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live |title=Finlands grundlag – Constitution of Finland}} 17 § Rätt till eget språk och egen kultur Finlands nationalspråk är finska och svenska. Vars och ens rätt att hos domstol och andra myndigheter i egen sak använda sitt eget språk, antingen finska eller svenska, samt att få expeditioner på detta språk skall tryggas genom lag. Det allmänna skall tillgodose landets finskspråkiga och svenskspråkiga befolknings kulturella och samhälleliga behov enligt lika grunder.</ref> The country's public broadcaster, [[Yle]], provides two Swedish-language radio stations, [[Yle Vega]] and [[Yle X3M]], as well a TV channel, [[Yle Fem]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://svenska.yle.fi/| title = Svenska Yle, scroll to the bottom of the page| access-date = 27 October 2016| archive-date = 26 July 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160726004333/https://svenska.yle.fi/| url-status = live}}</ref> ===Immigrant variants=== [[Rinkeby Swedish]] (after [[Rinkeby]], a suburb of northern Stockholm with a large immigrant population) is a common name among linguists for varieties of Swedish spoken by young people of foreign heritage in certain suburbs and urban districts in the major cities of Stockholm, [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]]. These varieties could alternatively be classified as [[sociolect]]s, because the immigrant dialects share common traits independent of their geographical spread or the native country of the speakers. However, some studies have found distinctive features and led to terms such as Rosengård Swedish (after [[Rosengård]] in Malmö), a variant of [[Scanian dialect|Scanian]].<ref>{{citation|url=http://person.sol.lu.se/PetraBoden/papers/Ey_mannen_wazzup.htm |title=Ey, mannen! Wazzup? / På jakt efter "rosengårdssvenskan" |last=Bodén |first=Petra |publisher=Institutionen för nordiska språk och Institutionen för lingvistik, [[Lunds universitet]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506132803/http://person.sol.lu.se/PetraBoden/papers/Ey_mannen_wazzup.htm |archive-date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> A survey made by the Swedish linguist [[Ulla-Britt Kotsinas]] showed that foreign learners had difficulties in guessing the origins of Rinkeby Swedish speakers in Stockholm. The greatest difficulty proved to be identifying the speech of a boy speaking Rinkeby Swedish whose parents were both Swedish; only 1.8% guessed his native language correctly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kotsinas|1994|p=151}}</ref> New linguistic practices in multilingual urban contexts in fiction and hip-hop culture and rap lyrics have been introduced that go beyond traditional socio-linguistic domains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Svendsen|first=Bente Ailin|title=Multilingual urban Scandinavia|url=https://www.academia.edu/13820691|language=en|access-date=16 July 2019|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307095648/https://www.academia.edu/13820691|url-status=live}}</ref> See also Källström (Chapter 12) and Knudsen (Chapter 13). ==Sample== [[File:Universal Declaration of Human Rights - swe - lr - Art1.ogg|thumb|Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Swedish ]] Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'']] in Swedish:<blockquote>'''''Alla människor är födda fria och lika i värdighet och rättigheter. De har utrustats med förnuft och samvete och bör handla gentemot varandra i en anda av gemenskap.'''''</blockquote>Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in English:<blockquote>''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''</blockquote>Excerpt from ''[[Barfotabarn]]'' (1933), by [[Nils Ferlin]] (1898–1961):{{sfn|Ferlin|1976}} {| border="0" style="width:100%; text-align:left;" |- !|Original !|Free, prosaic translation |- |''Du har tappat ditt ord och din papperslapp'', |"You have lost your word and your paper note, |- |''du barfotabarn i livet.'' |you barefooted child in life. |- |''Så sitter du åter på handlar'ns trapp'' |So you sit on the porch of the grocer anew |- |''och gråter så övergivet.'' |and cry so abandoned. |- |''Vad var det för ord – var det långt eller kort'', |What word was it – was it long or short, |- |''var det väl eller illa skrivet?'' |was it well or poorly written? |- |''Tänk efter nu – förr'n vi föser dig bort'', |Think twice now – before we shove you away, |- |''du barfotabarn i livet.'' |you barefooted child in life." |} ==See also== * [[Languages of Sweden]] * [[Languages of Finland]] * [[Swedish as a foreign language]] * [[Swenglish]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ===Citations=== {{Refbegin}} * {{citation |last=Andersson |first=Erik |editor-last=König |editor-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |year=2002 |chapter=Swedish |title=The Germanic Languages |series=Routledge language family descriptions |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |pages=271–312 }} * {{Citation |last = Bergman |first = Gösta |year = 1984 |title = Kortfattad svensk språkhistoria |edition = 4th |place = Stockholm |publisher = Prisma |series = Prisma Magnum |isbn = 978-91-518-1747-7 |oclc = 13259382 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Bolander |first = Maria |year = 2002 |title = Funktionell svensk grammatik |place = Stockholm |publisher = Liber |isbn = 978-91-47-05054-3 |oclc = 67138445 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Crystal |first = David |author-link = David Crystal |year = 1999 |edition = 2nd |title = The Penguin dictionary of language |place = London |publisher = [[Penguin Books]] |isbn = 978-0-14-051416-2 |oclc = 59441560 }} * {{Citation |last = Dahl |first = Östen |year = 2000 |title = Språkets enhet och mångfald |place = Lund |publisher = [[Studentlitteratur]] |isbn = 978-91-44-01158-5 |oclc = 61100963 |language = sv }} * {{Citation | editor1-last = Dahl | editor1-first = Östen | editor2-last = Edlund | editor2-first = Lars-Erik |year = 2010 |title = Sveriges nationalatlas. Språken i Sverige |place = Stockholm |publisher = Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien |isbn = 978-91-87-76057-0 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Elert |first = Claes-Christian |year = 2000 |title = Allmän och svensk fonetik |edition = 8th |place = Stockholm |publisher = Norstedts Akademiska Förlag |isbn = 978-91-1-300939-1 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Engstrand |first = Olle |year = 1999 |chapter = Swedish |title = Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet. |place = Cambridge |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-63751-0 |oclc = 40305532 |pages = 140–142 }} * {{Citation |last = Engstrand |first = Olle |year = 2004 |title = Fonetikens grunder |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-04238-1 |oclc = 66026795 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Ferlin |first = Nils |title = Barfotabarn |year = 1976 |orig-year=1933 |place = Stockholm |publisher = Bonnier |isbn = 978-91-0-024187-2 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Garlén |first = Claes |year = 1988 |title = Svenskans fonologi |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-28151-3 |oclc = 67420810 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Granberry |first = Julian |year = 1991 |title = Essential Swedish Grammar |place = New York |publisher = [[Dover Publications]] |isbn = 978-0-486-26953-5 |oclc = 23692877 }} * {{cite book |last=Haugen |first=Einar |year=2009 |chapter=Danish, Norwegian and Swedish |title=The World's Major Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr_362 |url-access=limited |editor=Bernard Comrie |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr_362/page/n141 125]–144 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35339-7 }} * {{Citation |last = Hultman |first = Tor G. |year = 2003 |title = Svenska Akademiens språklära |place = Stockholm |publisher = Norstedts |isbn = 978-9172273511 |oclc = 55849724 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Josephson |first = Olle |year = 2005 |title = Ju: ifrågasatta självklarheter om svenskan, engelskan och alla andra språk i Sverige |edition = 2nd |place = Stockholm |publisher = Nordstedts ordbok |isbn = 978-91-7227-446-4 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Kotsinas |first = Ulla-Britt |year = 1994 |title = Ungdomsspråk |place = Uppsala |publisher = Hallgren & Fallgren |isbn = 978-91-7382-718-8 |oclc = 60994967 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Leinonen |first = Therese |title = Aggregate analysis of vowel pronunciation in Swedish dialects |journal = Oslo Studies in Language |volume = 3 |issue = 2 |year = 2011 |doi = 10.5617/osla.101 |url = https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/osla/article/view/101 |doi-access = free |access-date = 20 March 2013 |archive-date = 27 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130627060923/https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/osla/article/view/101 |url-status = live }} * [[Nationalencyklopedin]], [http://www.ne.se/svenska online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401085317/http://www.ne.se/svenska |date=1 April 2014 }} {{in lang|sv}} * {{Citation |last = Parkvall |first = Mikael |title = Sveriges språk. Vem talar vad och var? |journal = RAPPLING 1. Rapporter Från Institutionen för Lingvistik Vid Stockholms Universitet. |year = 2009 |url = http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf |language = sv |access-date = 30 January 2015 |archive-date = 11 October 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171011110906/http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf |url-status = live }} * {{Citation |last = Pettersson |first = Gertrud |year = 1996 |title = Svenska språket under sjuhundra år: en historia om svenskan och dess utforskande |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-48221-7 |oclc = 36130929 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |author = Språkrådet |author-link = Language Council of Sweden |title = Svenska skrivregler |edition = 3rd |year = 2008 |publisher = Liber |place = Stockholm |isbn = 978-91-47-08460-9 |language = sv |url=https://archive.org/details/svenskaskrivregl0000unse }} * {{Citation |author = Svenska språknämnden |author-link = Language Council of Sweden |title = Svenska skrivregler |edition = 2nd |year = 2000 |publication-date = 2002 |publisher = Liber |place = Stockholm |isbn = 978-91-47-04974-5 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Svensson |first = Lars |year = 1974 |title = Nordisk paleografi: Handbok med transkriberade och kommenterade skriftprov |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-05391-2 |oclc = 1303752 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last=Wessén |first=Elias |title=Våra ord: deras uttal och ursprung : kortfattad etymologisk ordbok |edition=2nd |year=1998 |orig-year=1973 |publisher=Norstedts |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-7227-053-4 }} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== * ''Swedish Essentials of Grammar'' Viberg, Åke; et al. (1991) Chicago: Passport Books. {{ISBN|0-8442-8539-0}} * ''Swedish: An Essential Grammar''. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2000). London; New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-16048-0}}. * ''Swedish: A Comprehensive Grammar Second Edition''. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2003). London; New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-27884-8}}. * ''Svenska utifrån. Schematic grammar-Swedish structures and everyday phrases'' Byrman, Gunilla; Holm, Britta; (1998) {{ISBN|91-520-0519-4}}. ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=sv}} {{Wikibooks|Swedish}} {{Wiktionary category|Swedish language}} {{Wikivoyage|Swedish phrasebook|Swedish|a phrasebook}} {{NIE Poster|year=1905|Swedish Language and Literature|Swedish language}} * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swedish_Swadesh_list Swadesh list of Swedish basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) * [http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/swe-eng.html Swedish-English]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-ara.html Swedish-Arabic]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-rys.html Swedish-Russian]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-spa.html Swedish-Spanish] Dictionaries from [http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/ Språkrådet – Institute for Language and Folklore] * [http://folkets-lexikon.csc.kth.se/folkets/folkets.en.html People's dictionary] * [https://www.saob.se Online version] of ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordbok]]'' {{in lang|sv}} * [https://swedia.ling.gu.se/ Pronunciation of Swedish dialects] {{Swedish language|state=expanded}} {{Languages of Sweden}} {{Languages of Finland}} {{Germanic languages}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Swedish language| ]] [[Category:Languages of Finland]] [[Category:Languages of Estonia]] [[Category:Languages of Sweden]] [[Category:East Scandinavian languages]] [[Category:North Germanic languages]] [[Category:Culture of Scandinavia]] [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Verb-second languages]] 5v69idieg58cdgjr1mg9f39rof7wj8d 687834 687833 2026-07-13T12:31:16Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Swedish_language]] 687833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-pc}} {{Short description|North Germanic language}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Swedish | nativename = {{Lang|sv|svenska}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|sv|ˈsvɛ̂nːska||Sv-svenska.ogg}} | states = [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], formerly [[Estonia]] | region = | ethnicity = [[Swedes]], [[Finland-Swedes]] | speakers = Native: {{sigfig|9.924200|1}} million | date = 2012–2021 | ref = e25 | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2 speakers]]: {{sigfig|3.150000|1}} million<ref name=e25/> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | fam3 = [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] | fam4 = [[East Scandinavian]] | ancestor = [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] | ancestor2 = [[Old East Norse]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Swedish]] | script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Swedish alphabet]])<br/>[[Swedish Braille]] | nation = [[Finland]]<br />[[Sweden]]<br />[[Åland]]<br/>''[[European Union]]''<br />''[[Nordic Council]]''<!--Do not add Estonia here without first reading the talk page.--> | agency = [[Swedish Language Council]] (in Sweden) <br />[[Swedish Academy]] (in Sweden)<br/>[[Institute for the Languages of Finland]] (in Finland) | iso1 = sv | iso2 = swe | iso3 = swe | lingua = 52-AAA-ck to -cw | map = Swedish language map.svg | mapcaption = {{legend0|#004080|Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by the majority of the population (Sweden, Åland, Western Finland)}}<br/>{{legend0|#6CB5FF|Regions where Swedish is an official language spoken by a minority of the population (Finland)}} | notice = IPA | sign = [[Tecknad svenska]] (obsolete), [[Swedish Sign Language]], [[Finland-Swedish Sign Language]] | ancestor4 = [[Modern Swedish]] | glotto = swed1254 | glottorefname = Swedish }} {{Swedish language sidebar}} '''Swedish''' ({{langx|sv|label=[[endonym]]|svenska}} {{IPA|sv|ˈsvɛ̂nːska||Sv-svenska.ogg}}) is a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]] from the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], spoken predominantly in [[Sweden]] and parts of [[Finland]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 December 2018|title=Svenska talas också i Finland|url=https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/|access-date=16 August 2021|website=Svenska språket|language=sv-SE|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816144545/https://svenskaspraket.si.se/finlandssvenska/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has at least 10 million native speakers, making it the [[Germanic_languages#Statistics|fourth most spoken Germanic language]], and the first among its type in the [[Nordic countries]] overall.<ref name="Wordminds 2019">{{cite web | title=Nordic Languages: What's The Difference? | website=Wordminds | date=25 March 2019 | url=https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-languages | access-date=3 February 2023 | archive-date=3 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203053536/https://wordminds.com/blog/difference-nordic-languages | url-status=live }}</ref> Swedish, like the other [[North Germanic languages|Nordic languages]], is a descendant of [[Old Norse]], the common language of the [[Germanic peoples]] living in [[Scandinavia]] during the [[Viking Age]]. It is largely [[mutually intelligible]] with [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Danish language|Danish]], although the degree of mutual intelligibility is dependent on the dialect and accent of the speaker. [[Standard Swedish]], spoken by most [[Swedes]], is the [[national language]] that evolved from the Central [[Swedish dialects]] in the 19th century, and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] and rural dialects still exist, the written language is uniform and [[Standard language|standardized]]. In addition to being the [[native language]] of the [[Finland-Swedish]] minority, Swedish is the most widely spoken [[second language]] in [[Finland]] and has co-[[official language]] status in the country. Swedish was long spoken in parts of [[Estonia]], although the current status of the [[Estonian Swedish]] speakers is almost extinct. It is also used in the [[Swedish diaspora]], most notably in [[Oslo]], Norway, with more than 50,000 Swedish residents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sverige-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar-nu-svensk/|title=Var tionde Oslobo är nu svensk|publisher=Sverige-Norge Personalförmedling|language=sv|access-date=11 October 2018|archive-date=11 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011214654/https://sverige-norge.se/var-tionde-oslobo-ar-nu-svensk/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Classification== Swedish is an [[Indo-European language]] belonging to the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] branch of the [[Germanic languages]]. In the established classification, it belongs to the [[East Scandinavian languages]], together with [[Danish language|Danish]], separating it from the [[West Scandinavian languages]], consisting of [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]. However, more recent analyses divide the North Germanic languages into two groups: ''Insular Scandinavian'' (Faroese and Icelandic), and ''Continental Scandinavian'' (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish), based on mutual intelligibility due to heavy influence of East Scandinavian (particularly Danish) on Norwegian during the last millennium and divergence from both Faroese and Icelandic.<ref name="crystal"/> By many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered [[dialect]]s of a common Scandinavian language. However, because of several hundred years of sometimes quite intense rivalry between [[Denmark]] and Sweden, including a long series of wars from the 16th to 18th centuries, and the [[nationalist]] ideas that emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the languages have separate [[Orthography|orthographies]], dictionaries, grammars, and regulatory bodies. Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are thus from a linguistic perspective more accurately described as a [[dialect continuum]] of Scandinavian (North Germanic), and some of the dialects, such as those on the border between Norway and Sweden, especially parts of [[Bohuslän]], [[Dalsland]], western [[Värmland]], western [[Dalarna]], [[Härjedalen]], and [[Jämtland]], could be described as intermediate dialects of the national standard languages.<ref name="crystal">{{Harvnb|Crystal|1999|loc=''Scandinavian''}}</ref> Swedish pronunciations also vary greatly from one region to another, a legacy of the vast geographic distances and historical isolation. Even so, the vocabulary is standardized to a level that makes most dialects within Sweden virtually fully mutually intelligible. {{North Germanic clade}} ==History== {{Main|History of Swedish}} ===Old Norse=== {{Main|Old Norse}} {{Old Norse language map}} In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]], evolved into Old Norse. This language underwent more changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects: ''Old West Norse'' (Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland) and ''Old East Norse'' (Denmark and Sweden). The dialects of Old East Norse spoken in Sweden are called ''[[Runic Swedish]]'', while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as ''Runic Danish''. The dialects are described as "runic" because the main body of text appears in the [[runic alphabet]]. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the [[Elder Futhark]] alphabet, Old Norse was written with the [[Younger Futhark]] alphabet, which had only 16 letters. Because the number of runes was limited, some runes were used for a range of [[phoneme]]s, such as the rune for the vowel ''u'', which was also used for the vowels ''o'', ''ø'' and ''y'', and the rune for ''i'', also used for ''e''.<ref name=Edlund2010p26-31>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=26–31}}</ref> From 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark, creating a series of minor dialectal boundaries, or [[isogloss]]es, ranging from [[Zealand (Denmark)|Zealand]] in the south to [[Norrland]], [[Ostrobothnia (historical province)|Österbotten]] and northwestern [[Finland]] in the north.<ref name=Edlund2010p26-31/> An early change that separated Runic Danish from the other dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the [[diphthong]] ''æi'' to the [[monophthong]] ''é'', as in ''stæinn'' to ''sténn'' "stone". This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read ''stain'' and the later ''stin''. There was also a change of ''au'' as in ''dauðr'' into a long open ''ø'' as in ''døðr'' "dead". This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from ''tauþr'' into ''tuþr''. Moreover, the ''øy'' diphthong changed into a long, [[close vowel|close]] ''ø'', as in the Old Norse word for "island". By the end of the period, these innovations had affected most of the Runic Swedish-speaking area as well, with the exception of the dialects spoken north and east of [[Mälaren Valley|Mälardalen]] where the diphthongs still exist in remote areas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bergman|1984|pp=21–23}}</ref> ===Old Swedish=== [[File:Västgötalagen blad 21.jpg|thumb|right|The initial page of the first complete copy of {{lang|sv|[[Västgötalagen]]}}, the [[code of law|law code]] of [[Västergötland]], from {{circa|1280}}. It is one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the [[Latin script]].]] {{Main|Old Swedish}} Old Swedish (Swedish: {{lang|sv|fornsvenska}}) is the term used for the [[medieval]] Swedish language. The start date is usually set to 1225 since this is the year that {{lang|sv|[[Västgötalagen]]}} ("the Västgöta Law") is believed to have been compiled for the first time.<ref>The oldest dated fragments are from 1250 and the oldest complete manuscript is from {{Circa|1280}}</ref> It is among the most important documents of the period written in [[Latin script]] and the oldest Swedish [[code of law|law codes]]. Old Swedish is divided into {{lang|sv|äldre fornsvenska}} (1225–1375) and {{lang|sv|yngre fornsvenska}} (1375–1526), "older" and "younger" Old Swedish.<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=28–29}}</ref> Important outside influences during this time came with the firm establishment of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Christian church]] and various [[Monasticism|monastic]] orders, introducing many [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] loanwords. With the rise of [[Hanseatic league|Hanseatic]] power in the late 13th and early 14th century, [[Middle Low German]] became very influential. The Hanseatic league provided Swedish commerce and administration with a large number of [[Low German]]-speaking immigrants. Many became quite influential members of Swedish medieval society, and brought terms from their native languages into the vocabulary. Besides a great number of loanwords for such areas as warfare, trade and administration, general grammatical suffixes and even conjunctions were imported. The League also brought a certain measure of influence from Danish (at the time Swedish and Danish were much more similar than today).<ref name=Edlund2010p29,31>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|pp=29, 31}}</ref> Early Old Swedish was markedly different from the modern language in that it had a more complex [[case (linguistics)|case]] structure and also retained the original Germanic three-[[gender (grammar)|gender]] system. [[Noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[pronoun]]s and certain [[Grammatical number|numerals]] were inflected in four cases; besides the extant [[Nominative case|nominative]], there were also the [[Genitive case|genitive]] (later [[possessive case|possessive]]), [[Dative case|dative]] and [[Accusative case|accusative]]. The gender system resembled that of modern [[German language|German]], having masculine, feminine and neuter genders. The masculine and feminine genders were later merged into a ''common gender'' with the [[Definiteness|definite suffix]] {{lang|sv|-en}} and the [[definite article]] {{lang|sv|den}}, in contrast with the neuter gender equivalents {{lang|sv|-et}} and {{lang|sv|det}}. The verb system was also more complex: it included [[subjunctive]] and [[Imperative mood|imperative]] [[mood (grammar)|moods]] and verbs were conjugated according to [[person (grammar)|person]] as well as [[number (grammar)|number]]. By the 16th century, the case and gender systems of the colloquial spoken language and the profane literature had been largely reduced to the two cases and two genders of modern Swedish.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|pp=150–157}}</ref> A transitional change of the Latin script in the Nordic countries was to spell the letter combination "ae" as æ – and sometimes as a' – though it varied between persons and regions. The combination "ao" was similarly rendered a<sup>o</sup>, and "oe" became o<sup>e</sup>. These three were later to evolve into the separate letters [[ä]], [[å]] and [[ö]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=139}}</ref> The first time the new letters were used in print was in ''Aff dyäffwlsens frästilse'' ("By the Devil's temptation") published by [[Johan Gerson]] in 1495.<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=29}}</ref> ===Modern Swedish=== {{Main|Modern Swedish}}[[File:Gustav Vasa Bible 1541.jpg|thumb|upright|Front page of [[Gustav Vasa]]'s Bible from 1541, using [[Fraktur (script)|Fraktur]]. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in [[Uppsala]]. 1541".]] Modern Swedish (Swedish: ''nysvenska'') begins with the advent of the [[printing press]] and the European [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. After assuming power, the new monarch [[Gustav Vasa]] ordered a Swedish translation of the [[Bible]]. The [[New Testament]] was published in 1526, followed by a full [[Bible translation]] in 1541, usually referred to as the ''[[Gustav Vasa Bible]]'', a translation deemed so successful and influential that, with revisions incorporated in successive editions, it remained the most common Bible translation until 1917. The main translators were [[Laurentius Andreae|Laurentius Andreæ]] and the brothers [[Laurentius Petri|Laurentius]] and [[Olaus Petri]].<ref>Lars-Erik Edlund, "Språkhistorisk översikt" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=33}}</ref> The Vasa Bible is often considered to be a reasonable compromise between old and new; while not adhering to the colloquial spoken language of its day, it was not overly conservative in its use of archaic forms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=151}}</ref> It was a major step towards a more consistent [[Swedish orthography]]. It established the use of the vowels "å", "ä", and "ö", and the spelling "ck" in place of "kk", distinguishing it clearly from the Danish Bible, perhaps intentionally, given the ongoing rivalry between the countries. All three translators came from central Sweden, which is generally seen as adding specific Central Swedish features to the new Bible.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z17C7s3r_nwC&pg=PA1900 |year=2005 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019706-8 |page=1900}}</ref> Though it might seem as if the Bible translation set a very powerful precedent for orthographic standards, spelling actually became more inconsistent during the remainder of the century. It was not until the 17th century that spelling began to be discussed, around the time when the first grammars were written.<ref name="Grünbaum2012">{{cite web |author=Grünbaun, Katharina |url=http://www.sweden.se/upload/Sweden_se/otherlanguages/factsheets/SI/Svenska_spraket.pdf |title=Svenska språket |trans-title=The Swedish language |date=2012 |publisher=Svenska institutet |language=sv |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025181238/http://www.sweden.se/upload/Sweden_se/otherlanguages/factsheets/SI/Svenska_spraket.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref> [[Capitalization]] during this time was not standardized. It depended on the authors and their background. Those influenced by [[German language|German]] capitalized all nouns, while others capitalized more sparsely. It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized owing to the Gothic or [[blackletter]] typeface that was used to print the Bible. This typeface was in use until the mid-18th century, when it was gradually replaced with a Latin typeface (often [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bandle |first1=Oskar |last2=Elmevik |first2=Lennart |last3=Widmark |first3=Gun |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqkBXIJkkuEC&pg=PA517 |year=2002 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014876-3 |page=517}}</ref> Some important changes in sound during the Modern Swedish period were the gradual assimilation of several different consonant clusters into the [[voiceless alveolar fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and later into {{IPA|[ɧ]}}. There was also the gradual softening of {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} into {{IPA|[j]}} and the [[voiceless alveolopalatal fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[ɕ]}} before [[front vowel]]s. The [[voiced velar fricative|velar fricative]] {{IPA|[ɣ]}} was also transformed into the corresponding [[voiced velar plosive|plosive]] {{IPA|[ɡ]}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=138}}</ref> [[File:August Strindberg.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|[[August Strindberg]], one of the most influential writers in modern Swedish literature]] ===Contemporary Swedish=== [[File:Dem-dom.jpg|thumb|right|A sign on the wall of a Swedish hotel, using both the recommended<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Svanlund |editor-first1=Jan |title=Språkriktighetsboken |date=2013 |publisher=Svenska språknämnden and Norstedts |isbn=978-91-1-304370-8 |pages=210–211 |edition=2}}</ref> {{lang|sv|dem}} and the colloquial {{lang|sv|dom}} for the word "them" on the same sign.]] The period that includes Swedish as it is spoken today is termed {{lang|sv|nusvenska}} (lit., "Now-Swedish") in linguistics, and started in the last decades of the 19th century. It saw a democratization of the language with a less formal written form that approached the spoken one. The growth of a state school system also led to the evolution of so-called {{lang|sv|boksvenska}} (literally, "Book Swedish"), especially among the working classes, where spelling to some extent influenced pronunciation, particularly in official contexts. With the industrialization and urbanization of Sweden well under way by the last decades of the 19th century, a new breed of authors made their mark on [[Swedish literature]]. Many scholars, politicians and other public figures had a great influence on the emerging national language, among them prolific authors like the poet [[Gustaf Fröding]], Nobel laureate [[Selma Lagerlöf]] and radical writer and playwright [[August Strindberg]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Josephson|2005|loc=chapter 2}}</ref> In Finland, [[Finland-Swedish literature]] emerged as a separate branch. It was during the 20th century that a common, standardized national language became available to all Swedes. The orthography finally stabilized and became almost completely uniform, with some minor deviations, by the time of the spelling reform of 1906.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGl35Q3W5twC&pg=PA1751 |year=2006 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019987-1 |page=1751}}</ref> With the exception of plural forms of verbs and a slightly different syntax, particularly in the written language, the language was the same as the Swedish of today. The plural verb forms appeared decreasingly in formal writing into the 1950s, when their use was removed from all official recommendations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Taavitsainen |first1=Irma |last2=Melchers |first2=Gunnel |last3=Pahta |first3=Päivi |title=Writing in Nonstandard English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5cQ9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|year=2000 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-9903-1 |page=302}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bandle|first1=Oskar |last2=Braunmuller|first2=Kurt |last3=Jahr|first3=Ernst Hakon|title=The Nordic Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6b7WwBC5tRAC&pg=PA1805|year=2005|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-017149-5|page=1805}}</ref> A very significant change in Swedish occurred in the late 1960s with the so-called {{Lang|sv|[[du-reformen]]}}. Previously the proper way to address people of the same or higher social status had been by title and surname. The use of {{lang|sv|herr}} ("Mr" or "Sir"), {{lang|sv|fru}} ("Mrs" or "Ma'am") or {{lang|sv|fröken}} ("Miss") was considered the only acceptable way to begin conversation with strangers of unknown occupation, academic title or military rank. The fact that the listener should preferably be referred to in the third person tended to further complicate spoken communication between members of society. In the early 20th century an unsuccessful attempt was made to replace the insistence on titles with {{lang|sv|ni}}—the standard [[Grammatical person|second person plural]] pronoun)—analogous to the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|vous}} (see [[T-V distinction]]). {{lang|sv|Ni}} wound up being used as a slightly less familiar form of {{lang|sv|du}}, the second person singular pronoun, used to address people of lower social status. With the liberalization and radicalization of Swedish society in the 1950s and 1960s, these class distinctions became less important and {{lang|sv|du}} became the standard, even in formal and official contexts. Though the reform was not an act of any centralized political decree but rather the result of sweeping change in social attitudes, it was completed in just a few years, from the late 1960s to early 1970s.<ref>Nationalencyklopedin, ''du-tilltal'' and ''ni-tilltal''</ref> The use of {{lang|sv|ni}} as a polite form of address is sometimes encountered today in both the written and spoken language, particularly among older speakers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holmes|first1=Philip|last2=Hinchliffe|first2=Ian|title=Swedish: An Essential Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGasMbSR-8gC&pg=PA86|year=2008|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-45800-9|page=86}}</ref> ==Geographic distribution== Swedish is the sole official national language of [[Sweden]], and one of two in Finland (alongside [[Finnish language|Finnish]]). As of 2006, it was the sole native language of 83% of Swedish residents.{{sfn|Parkvall|2009|p=24}} In 2007, around 5.5% (c. 290,000) of the population of Finland were native speakers of Swedish,<ref name="StatsFinland">[http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure Population structure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611010801/https://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html#structure |date=11 June 2020 }}. [[Statistics Finland]] (29 March 2007). Retrieved on 27 November 2007.</ref> partially due to a decline following the Russian annexation of Finland after the [[Finnish War]] 1808–1809.<ref>[http://finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=160058&contentlan=2&culture=en-US Main outlines of Finnish History – thisisFINLAND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426220712/http://finland.fi/public/default.aspx?contentid=160058&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |date=26 April 2015 }}.</ref> The [[Finland Swedish|Fenno-Swedish]]-[[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|speaking minority]] is concentrated in the coastal areas and [[archipelago]]s of southern and western Finland. In some of these areas, Swedish is the predominant language; in 19 [[municipality|municipalities]], 16 of which are located [[Åland dialects|in Åland]], Swedish is the sole official language. [[Åland]] county is an autonomous region of Finland.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.kommunerna.net/sv/kommuner/svensk-tvasprakiga/Sidor/default.aspx|title=Svensk- och tvåspråkiga kommuner|work=kommunerna.net|date=February 2007|access-date=3 December 2007|language=sv|archive-date=19 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619124123/http://www.kommunerna.net/sv/kommuner/svensk-tvasprakiga/Sidor/default.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a rough estimation, as of 2010 there were up to 300,000 Swedish-speakers living outside Sweden and Finland. The largest populations were in the United States (up to 100,000), the UK, Spain and Germany (c. 30,000 each) and a large proportion of the remaining 100,000 in the Scandinavian countries, France, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia.<ref>Mikael Parkvall & Gunvor Flodell, "Sveriges språk ute i världen" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=154}}</ref> Over three million people speak Swedish as a second language, with about 2,410,000 of those in Finland.<ref name=e25/> According to a survey by the [[European Commission]], 44% of respondents from Finland who did not have Swedish as a native language considered themselves to be proficient enough in Swedish to hold a conversation.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Europeans and their languages |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 |id= Special Eurobarometer 386|date= 2012 |publisher=European Commission }}</ref> Due to the close relation between the Scandinavian languages, a considerable proportion of speakers of Danish and especially Norwegian are able to understand Swedish.<ref>{{citation|last=Gooskens|first=Charlotte|year=2007|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_JMMD_2007.pdf |s2cid-access=free |title=The Contribution of Linguistic Factors to the Intelligibility of Closely Related Languages|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=28|issue=6|pages=445–467|doi=10.2167/jmmd511.0|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.7645|s2cid=18875358|access-date=19 July 2014|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411075554/http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_JMMD_2007.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> There is considerable migration between the [[Nordic countries]], but owing to the similarity between the cultures and languages (with the exception of [[Finnish language|Finnish]]), expatriates generally [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] quickly and do not stand out as a group. According to the 2000 [[United States Census]], some 67,000 people over the age of five were reported as Swedish speakers, though without any information on the degree of language proficiency.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/Languages/swedish.pdf |title=Swedish |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203311/http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/Languages/swedish.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |work= Many Languages, One America|publisher= U.S. English Foundation |access-date= 27 February 2015}}</ref> Similarly, there were 16,915 reported Swedish speakers in Canada from the 2001 census.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/index.cfm |title=2006 Census: Highlight tables |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-date=7 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207063452/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/index.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Although there are no certain numbers, some 40,000 Swedes are estimated to live in the London area in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/krisberedskap-pa-svenska-ambassaden-i-london/ |url-access=subscription |title=Krisberedskap på svenska ambassaden |newspaper={{Lang|sv|[[Dagens Nyheter]]}} |date=22 July 2005 |access-date=4 January 2012 |archive-date=21 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121112239/https://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/krisberedskap-pa-svenska-ambassaden-i-london/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Outside Sweden and Finland, there are about 40,000 active learners enrolled in Swedish language courses.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.studyinsweden.se/Learn-Swedish/University-courses-outside-Sweden/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218043337/http://www.studyinsweden.se/Learn-Swedish/University-courses-outside-Sweden/ |archive-date=18 February 2011 |access-date=27 January 2011 |title=University courses outside Sweden |website= Study in Sweden }}</ref> In the [[United States]], particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a significant Swedish-speaking immigrant population. This was notably true in states like [[Minnesota]], where many Swedish immigrants settled. By 1940, approximately 6% of Minnesota's population spoke Swedish.<ref name="Census 1940 languages">{{cite web| title=1940 Census of Population: Mother Tongue, by Nativity, Parentage, Country of Origin, and Age, for States and Large Cities| website=Census.gov| date=1943| url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-nativity/41272165_ch5.pdf| access-date=29 March 2023| archive-date=29 March 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329231546/https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-nativity/41272165_ch5.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> Although the use of Swedish has significantly declined, it is not uncommon to find older generations and communities that still retain some use and knowledge of the language, particularly in rural communities like [[Lindström, Minnesota|Lindström]] and [[Scandia, Minnesota|Scandia]].<ref name="College of Liberal Arts q544">{{cite web | title=Swedish | website=College of Liberal Arts | url=https://cla.umn.edu/gnsd/languages/swedish | access-date=3 July 2023 | archive-date=3 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703085108/https://cla.umn.edu/gnsd/languages/swedish | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lindstrom, MN f027">{{cite web | title=About | website=Lindstrom, MN | url=https://www.cityoflindstrom.us/about | access-date=3 July 2023 | archive-date=3 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703085106/https://www.cityoflindstrom.us/about | url-status=live }}</ref> ===Official status=== [[File:Oikokatu.JPG|thumb|A [[Finnish language|Finnish]]/Swedish street sign in [[Helsinki]], Finland]] Swedish is the official main language of Sweden.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.sprakforsvaret.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/spraklagen_200509.pdf|title=Språklagen|date=1 July 2009|work=Språkförsvaret|language=sv|access-date=15 July 2009|archive-date=19 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819232243/http://www.sprakforsvaret.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/spraklagen_200509.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.thelocal.se/20090701/20404/|title=Swedish becomes official 'main language'|last=Landes|first=David|date=1 July 2009|work=[[The Local]]|publisher=thelocal.se|access-date=15 July 2009|archive-date=10 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210004646/http://www.thelocal.se/20090701/20404|url-status=live}}</ref> Swedish is also one of two official languages of Finland. In Sweden, it has long been used in local and state government, and most of the educational system, but remained only a ''de facto'' primary language with no official status in law until 2009. A bill was proposed in 2005 that would have made Swedish an official language, but failed to pass by the narrowest possible margin (145–147) due to a [[Pair (parliamentary convention)|pairing-off]] failure.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/svenskan-blir-inte-officiellt-sprak|title=Svenskan blir inte officiellt språk|work=[[Sveriges Television]]|date=7 December 2005|access-date=23 June 2006|language=sv|archive-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023821/http://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/svenskan-blir-inte-officiellt-sprak|url-status=live}}</ref> A proposal for a broader language law, designating Swedish as the main language of the country and bolstering the status of the minority languages, was submitted by an expert committee to the Swedish Ministry of Culture in March 2008. It was subsequently enacted by the [[Riksdag]], and entered into effect on 1 July 2009.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/10016/a/100959|title=Värna språken – förslag till språklag|work=[[Government Offices of Sweden]]|date=18 March 2008|access-date=19 June 2008|language=sv|archive-date=15 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515161922/http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/10016/a/100959|url-status=live}}</ref> Swedish is the sole official language of [[Åland]] (an [[Autonomous entity|autonomous]] province under the [[sovereignty]] of Finland), where the vast majority of the 26,000 inhabitants speak Swedish as a first language. In Finland as a whole, Swedish is one of the two "national" languages, with the same official status as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (spoken by the majority) at the state level and an official language in some [[municipalities of Finland|municipalities]]. Swedish is one of the official languages of the [[European Union]], and one of the working languages of the [[Nordic Council]]. Under the [[Nordic Language Convention]], citizens of the [[Nordic countries]] speaking Swedish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for interpretation or translation costs.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.norden.org/avtal/sprak/sk/sprak_sprak.asp?lang=|title=Konvention mellan Sverige, Danmark, Finland, Island, och Norge om nordiska medborgares rätt att använda sitt eget språk i annat nordiskt land|work=[[Nordic Council]]|date=2 May 2007|access-date=25 April 2007|language=sv|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418154217/http://www.norden.org/avtal/sprak/sk/sprak_sprak.asp?lang=|archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6|title=20th anniversary of the Nordic Language Convention|work=Nordic news|date=22 February 2007|access-date=25 April 2007|language=sv|archive-date=27 February 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227013320/http://www.norden.org/webb/news/news.asp?id=6777&lang=6|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Regulatory bodies=== [[File:Estonian archipelago (Saaremaa and Hiiumaa).jpg|thumb|right|Map of the [[West Estonian archipelago|Estonian islands]], which formerly housed "''Coastal Swede''" populations]] The [[Swedish Language Council]] (''Språkrådet'') is the regulator of Swedish in Sweden but does not attempt to enforce control of the language, as for instance the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}} does for [[French language|French]]. However, many organizations and agencies require the use of the council's publication ''Svenska skrivregler'' in official contexts, with it otherwise being regarded as a ''de facto'' orthographic standard. Among the many organizations that make up the Swedish Language Council, the [[Swedish Academy]] (established 1786) is arguably the most influential. Its primary instruments are the [[Spelling#Spelling standards and conventions|spelling dictionary]] ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordlista]]'' (''SAOL'', currently in its 14th edition) and the dictionary ''[[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]'', in addition to various books on grammar, spelling and manuals of style. Although the dictionaries have a [[Linguistic prescription|prescriptive]] element, they mainly describe current usage.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gellerstam |first1=Martin |title=Norm och bruk i SAOL |url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/24007 |publisher=Nordisk forening for leksikografi i samarbeit med Nordisk språksekretariat |access-date=2 March 2018 |language=sv |date=2002 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105713/https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/24007 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Finland, a special branch of the [[Research Institute for the Languages of Finland]] has official status as the regulatory body for Swedish in Finland. Among its highest priorities is to maintain intelligibility with the language spoken in Sweden. It has published ''Finlandssvensk ordbok'', a dictionary about the differences between Swedish in Finland and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Normeringen i ''Finlandssvensk ordbok''|last = af Hällström|first = Charlotta|date = 2002|journal = LexicoNordica | issue=9 |pages=51–62 | doi=10.7146/ln.v0i9.18709 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Language minorities in Estonia and Ukraine=== From the 13th to 20th century, there were [[Estonian Swedes|Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia]], particularly on the islands (e. g., [[Hiiumaa]], [[Vormsi]], [[Ruhnu]]; in Swedish, known as {{lang|sv|Dagö}}, {{lang|sv|Ormsö}}, {{lang|sv|Runö}}, respectively) along the coast of the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]], communities that today have all disappeared. The Swedish-speaking minority was represented in [[parliament]], and entitled to use their native language in parliamentary debates. After the loss of Estonia to the [[Russian Empire]] in the early 18th century, around 1,000 [[Estonian Swedish]] speakers were forced to march to southern [[Ukraine]], where they founded a village, ''[[Gammalsvenskby]]'' ("Old Swedish Village"). A few elderly people in the village still speak a [[Gammalsvenska|Swedish dialect]] and observe the holidays of the Swedish calendar, although their dialect is most likely facing extinction.<ref>The number of registered Swedes in Zmeyovka (the modern Ukrainian name of ''Gammalsvenskby'') in 1994 was 116 according to [[Nationalencyklopedin]], article ''svenskbyborna''.</ref> From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of [[World War II]], that is before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of speakers remain.<ref>''Nationalencyklopedin'', ''estlandssvenskar''.</ref> ==Phonology== {{Main|Swedish phonology}} [[File:Swedish monophthongs chart.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.36|The vowel phonemes of Central Standard Swedish<ref>{{Harvnb|Engstrand|1999|p=140}}</ref>|class=skin-invert-image]] Swedish dialects have either 17 or 18 vowel [[phoneme]]s, 9 long and 9 short. As in the other Germanic languages, including English, most long vowels are phonetically paired with one of the short vowels, and the pairs are such that the two vowels are of similar [[vowel quality|quality]], but with the short vowel being slightly lower and slightly centralized. In contrast to, for example, Danish, which has only tense vowels, the short vowels are slightly more lax, but the tense vs. lax contrast is not nearly as pronounced as in English, German or Dutch. In many dialects, the short vowel sound pronounced {{IPA|[ɛ]}} or {{IPA|[æ]}} has merged with the short {{IPA|/e/}} (transcribed {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} in the chart below).<ref name=AndersonEngstrand>{{Harvnb|Andersson|2002|pp=271–312}}; {{Harvnb|Engstrand|1999}}</ref> There are 18 consonant phonemes, two of which, {{IPAslink|ɧ}} and {{IPA|/r/}}, vary considerably in pronunciation depending on the dialect and social status of the speaker. In many dialects, sequences of {{IPA|/r/}} (pronounced alveolarly) with a dental consonant result in [[retroflex consonant]]s; alveolarity of the pronunciation of {{IPA|/r/}} is a precondition for this retroflexion. {{IPA|/r/}} has a [[guttural R|guttural]] or "French R" pronunciation in the [[South Swedish dialects]]; consequently, these dialects lack retroflex consonants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garlén|1988|pp=73–74}}</ref> Swedish is a [[stress-timed]] language, where the time intervals between [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed syllables]] are equal. However, when casually spoken, it tends to be [[syllable-timed]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://flov.gu.se/forskning/konferenser/fonetikkonferenser/fonetik2005|title=Fonetik 2005|last1=Eriksson|first1=Anders|last2=Abelin|first2=Åsa|last3=Lindh|first3=Jonas|publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]]|date=May 2005|pages=34–36|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323210622/https://flov.gu.se/forskning/konferenser/fonetikkonferenser/fonetik2005|url-status=live}}</ref> Any stressed syllable carries one of two [[tone (linguistics)|tones]], which gives Swedish much of its characteristic sound. [[Prosody (linguistics)|Prosody]] is often one of the most noticeable differences between dialects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garlén|1988}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! colspan=2 {{dsh|[[Manner of articulation|Manner]]|[[Place of articulation|Place]]}} ! [[Bilabial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n̪|n}} | | {{IPA link|ŋ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | | {{IPA link|k}} | |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Continuant]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s̪|s}} | {{IPA link|ɕ}} | {{IPA link|ɧ}} | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|l̪|l}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | |- !colspan=2| [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] | | colspan=3 | {{IPA|r}} | |} ==Grammar== {{Main|Swedish grammar}} The standard word order is, as in most [[Germanic languages]], [[V2 word order|V2]], which means that the [[finite verb]] (V) appears in the second position (2) of a declarative [[main clause]]. [[Swedish morphology]] is similar to English; that is, words have comparatively few [[inflections]]. Swedish has two [[grammatical gender|genders]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Svanlund |first1=Jan |title=Språkriktighetsboken |date=2005 |publisher=Norstedts |location=Stockholm |isbn=978-91-1-304370-8 |page=73 |edition=2nd}}</ref> and is generally seen to have two [[grammatical cases]] – [[nominative]] and [[genitive]] (except for pronouns that, as in English, are also inflected in the [[Object (grammar)|object]] form) – although it is debated if the genitive in Swedish should be seen as a genitive case or just the nominative plus the so-called genitive ''s'', then seen as a [[clitic]]. Swedish has two [[grammatical number]]s – [[plural]] and singular. [[Adjectives]] have discrete [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative and superlative]] forms and are also inflected according to gender, number and [[definiteness]]. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through [[suffixes]] (endings), complemented with separate definite and indefinite [[article (grammar)|articles]]. The [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] features both [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a comparatively large [[vowel]] inventory. Swedish is also notable for the [[voiceless dorso-palatal velar fricative]], a highly variable consonant [[phoneme]]. Swedish [[noun]]s and [[adjective]]s are declined in [[grammatical gender|genders]] as well as [[grammatical number|number]]. Nouns are of [[common gender]] ({{lang|sv|en}} form) or [[neuter gender]] ({{lang|sv|ett}} form).<ref>{{Harvnb|Granberry|1991|pp=18–19}}</ref> The gender determines the declension of the adjectives. For example, the word {{lang|sv|fisk}} ("fish") is a noun of common gender ({{lang|sv|en fisk}}) and can have the following forms: {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! Singular ! Plural |- ! Indefinite form | {{lang|sv|fisk}} | {{lang|sv|fiskar}} |- ! Definite form | {{lang|sv|fisken}} | {{lang|sv|fiskarna}} |} The definite singular form of a noun is created by adding a suffix ({{lang|sv|-en}}, {{lang|sv|-n}}, {{lang|sv|-et}} or {{lang|sv|-t}}), depending on its gender and if the noun ends in a vowel or not. The definite articles {{lang|sv|den}}, {{lang|sv|det}}, and {{lang|sv|de}} are used for variations to the definitiveness of a noun. They can double as [[demonstrative]] pronouns or [[Determiner (class)|demonstrative determiners]] when used with [[adverb]]s such as {{lang|sv|här}} ("here") or {{lang|sv|där}} ("there") to form {{lang|sv|den/det här}} (can also be "{{lang|sv|denna}}/{{lang|sv|detta}}") ("this"), {{lang|sv|de här}} (can also be "{{lang|sv|dessa}}") ("these"), {{lang|sv|den/det där}} ("that"), and {{lang|sv|de där}} ("those"). For example, {{lang|sv|den där fisken}} means "that fish" and refers to a specific fish; {{lang|sv|den fisken}} is less definite and means "that fish" in a more abstract sense, such as that set of fish; while {{lang|sv|fisken}} means "the fish". In certain cases, the definite form indicates possession, e. g., {{lang|sv|jag måste tvätta hår'''et'''}} ("I must wash ''my'' hair").<ref name="Haugen"/> [[Adjective]]s are inflected in two declensions – indefinite and definite – and they must match the noun they modify in gender and number. The indefinite neuter and plural forms of an adjective are usually created by adding a suffix ({{lang|sv|-t}} or {{lang|sv|-a}}) to the common form of the adjective, e. g., {{lang|sv|en grön stol}} (a green chair), {{lang|sv|ett grönt hus}} (a green house), and {{lang|sv|gröna stolar}} ("green chairs"). The definite form of an adjective is identical to the indefinite plural form, e. g., {{lang|sv|den gröna stolen}} ("the green chair"), {{lang|sv|det gröna huset}} ("the green house"), and {{lang|sv|de gröna stolarna}} ("the green chairs").<ref name="Haugen">{{Harvnb|Haugen|2009}}</ref> Swedish [[pronoun]]s are similar to those of English. Besides the two natural genders {{lang|sv|han}} and {{lang|sv|hon}} ("he" and "she"), there are also the two [[grammatical gender]]s {{lang|sv|den}} and {{lang|sv|det}}, usually termed [[Gender in Danish and Swedish|common and neuter]]. In recent years, a [[gender-neutral]] pronoun {{lang|sv|hen}} has been introduced, particularly in literary Swedish. Unlike the nouns, pronouns have an additional [[object (linguistics)|object]] form, derived from the old [[dative]] form. {{lang|sv|Hon}}, for example, has the following nominative, possessive, and object forms:<ref name="Haugen"/> :{{lang|sv|hon}} – {{lang|sv|hennes}} – {{lang|sv|henne}} Swedish also uses third-person possessive [[reflexive pronoun|reflexive pronouns]] that refer to the subject in a clause, a trait that is restricted to North Germanic languages: :{{lang|sv|Anna gav Maria sin bok.}}; "Anna gave Maria her [Anna's] book." (reflexive) :{{lang|sv|Anna gav Maria hennes bok.}}; "Anna gave Maria her [Maria's] book." (not reflexive) Swedish used to have a [[genitive]] that was placed at the end of the head of a noun phrase. In modern Swedish, it has become an [[enclitic]] {{lang|sv|-s}}, which attaches to the end of the noun phrase, rather than the noun itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|pp=70, 212–213}}</ref> :{{lang|sv|hästen}}; "the horse" – {{lang|sv|hästens}} "the horse's" :{{lang|sv|hästen på den blommande ängens svarta man}}; "the horse in the flowering meadow's black mane" In formal written language, it used to be considered correct to place the genitive {{lang|sv|-s}} after the head of the noun phrase ({{lang|sv|hästen}}), though this is today considered dated, and different grammatical constructions are often used.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|p=213}}</ref> Verbs are [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] according to [[grammatical tense|tense]]. One group of verbs (the ones ending in {{lang|sv|-er}} in [[present tense]]) has a special [[Imperative mood|imperative]] form (generally the verb [[word stem|stem]]), but with most verbs the imperative is identical to the [[infinitive]] form. [[perfect (grammar)|Perfect]] and present [[participle]]s as adjectival verbs are very common:<ref name="Haugen"/> :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|en stekt fisk}}; "a fried fish" ({{lang|sv|steka}} = to fry) :Present participle: {{lang|sv|en stinkande fisk}}; "a stinking fish" ({{lang|sv|stinka}} = to stink) In contrast to English and many other languages, Swedish does not use the perfect participle to form the present perfect and past perfect. Rather, the [[auxiliary verb]] {{lang|sv|har}} ("have"), {{lang|sv|hade}} ("had") is followed by a special form, called the [[supine]], used solely for this purpose (although often identical to the neuter form of the perfect participle):<ref name="Haugen"/> :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|målad}}, "painted" – supine {{lang|sv|målat}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har målat}}; "have painted" :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|stekt}}, "fried" – supine {{lang|sv|stekt}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har stekt}}; "have fried" :Perfect participle: {{lang|sv|skriven}}, "written" – supine {{lang|sv|skrivit}}, present perfect {{lang|sv|har skrivit}}; "have written" When building the compound passive voice using the verb {{lang|sv|att bli}}, the past participle is used: :{{lang|sv|den blir målad}}; "it's being painted" :{{lang|sv|den blev målad}}; "it was painted" There exists also an inflected passive voice formed by adding {{lang|sv|-s}}, replacing the final {{lang|sv|r}} in the present tense: :{{lang|sv|den målas}}; "it's being painted" :{{lang|sv|den målades}}; "it was painted" In a subordinate [[clause]], the auxiliary {{lang|sv|har}} is optional and often omitted, particularly in written Swedish. :{{lang|sv|Jag ser att han (har) stekt fisken}}; "I see that he has fried the fish" [[Subjunctive mood]] is occasionally used for some verbs, but its use is in sharp decline and few speakers perceive the handful of commonly used verbs (as for instance: {{lang|sv|vore, månne}}) as separate conjugations, most of them remaining only as set of [[Idiom|idiomatic expressions]].<ref name="Haugen"/> Where other languages may use [[grammatical cases]], Swedish uses numerous [[preposition]]s, similar to those found in [[English language|English]]. As in modern [[German language|German]], prepositions formerly determined case in Swedish, but this feature can only be found in certain idiomatic expressions like {{lang|sv|till fots}} ("on foot", genitive).<ref>{{Harvnb|Hultman|2003|pp=182–183}}</ref> As Swedish is a Germanic language, the [[syntax]] shows similarities to both English and German. Like English, Swedish has a [[subject–verb–object]] basic word order, but like German it utilizes [[V2 word order|verb-second word order]] in main clauses, for instance after [[adverbs]] and adverbial phrases, and [[dependent clauses]]. (Adverbial phrases denoting time are usually placed at the beginning of a main clause that is at the head of a sentence.) [[Prepositional phrase]]s are placed in a [[place–manner–time]] order, as in English (but not German). Adjectives precede the noun they modify.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bolander|2002}}</ref> Verb-second (inverted) word order is also used for questions.<ref name="Stensson 2013">{{cite web|last1=Stensson|first1=Leif|title=Swedish Grammar {{!}} Syntax|url=https://www.lysator.liu.se/language/Languages/Swedish/Grammar.html#syntax|publisher=Lysator Society, Linköping University|access-date=9 March 2018|date=August 2013|archive-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219193417/http://www.lysator.liu.se/language/Languages/Swedish/Grammar.html#syntax|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Vocabulary== The [[vocabulary]] of Swedish is mainly Germanic, either through common Germanic heritage or through loans from German, Middle Low German, and to some extent, English. Examples of Germanic words in Swedish are {{lang|sv|mus}} ("mouse"), {{lang|sv|kung}} ("king"), and {{lang|sv|gås}} ("goose"). A significant part of the religious and scientific vocabulary is of [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, often borrowed from [[French language|French]] and, lately, English. Some 1–200 words are also borrowed from [[Scandoromani language|Scandoromani]] or [[Romani language|Romani]], often as slang varieties; a commonly used word from Romani is {{Wikt-lang|sv|tjej}} ("girl").<ref>{{Harvnb|Wessén|1998}}</ref> A large number of [[French language|French]] words were imported into Sweden around the 18th century. These words have been [[transcription (linguistics)|transcribed]] to the Swedish spelling system and are therefore pronounced recognizably to a French-speaker. Most of them are distinguished by a "French accent", characterized by emphasis on the last syllable. For example, {{lang|sv|nivå}} (fr. {{lang|fr|niveau}}, "level"), {{lang|sv|fåtölj}} (fr. {{lang|fr|fauteuil}}, "armchair") and {{lang|sv|affär}} ("shop; affair"), etc. Cross-borrowing from other Germanic languages has also been common, at first from Middle Low German, the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic league]] and later from [[Standard German]]. Some compounds are translations of the elements ([[calque]]s) of German original compounds into Swedish, like ''{{lang|sv|bomull}}'' from German ''{{lang|de|Baumwolle}}'' ("cotton"; literally, ''tree-wool'').<ref>Nationalencyklopedin, ''svenska: språkhistoria''</ref> As with many Germanic languages, new words can be formed by compounding, e. g., nouns like ''{{lang|sv|nagellackborttagningsmedel}}'' ("nail polish remover") or verbs like ''{{lang|sv|smyglyssna}}'' ("to eavesdrop").<ref name=CompoundNoun/><ref>{{cite web |title=Smyglyssna |url=http://ordbok.woxikon.se/sv-en/smyglyssna |website=Woxikon |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164735/http://ordbok.woxikon.se/sv-en/smyglyssna |url-status=live }}</ref> Compound nouns take their [[grammatical gender|gender]] from the [[head (linguistics)|head]], which in Swedish is always the last morpheme.<ref name=CompoundNoun>{{cite web |title=Minor Grammar English-Swedish |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/194349317/Minor-Grammar-English-Swedish |publisher=Scribd |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807203447/https://www.scribd.com/document/194349317/Minor-Grammar-English-Swedish |url-status=live }}</ref> New words can also be coined by [[Morphological derivation|derivation]] from other established words, such as the [[verbification]] of [[noun]]s by the adding of the [[suffix#Derivational suffixes|suffix]] {{lang|sv|-a}}, as in ''{{lang|sv|bil}}'' ("car") and ''{{lang|sv|bila}}'' ("travel (recreationally) by car").<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gomer |editor1-first=Eva |editor2-last=Morris-Nygren |editor2-first=Mona |title=Bila |series=Modern Svensk Engelsk Ordbok |date=1976 |publisher=Prisma |page=57}}</ref> The opposite, making nouns of verbs, is also possible, as in ''{{lang|sv|tänk}}'' ("way of thinking; concept") from ''{{lang|sv|tänka}}'' ("to think").<ref>{{cite web|title=Språket lever {{!}} tänk|url=https://www.sprakinstitutet.fi/sv/aktuellt/spraket_lever/tank.20235.news|publisher=Institutet för de inhemska språken|access-date=3 March 2018|language=sv|date=18 February 2016|archive-date=4 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304054810/https://www.sprakinstitutet.fi/sv/aktuellt/spraket_lever/tank.20235.news|url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Writing system== {{Main|Swedish orthography}} The [[Swedish alphabet]] is a 29-letter [[alphabet]], using the 26-letter [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]] plus the three additional letters {{vr|[[å]]}}, {{vr|[[ä]]}}, and {{vr|[[ö]]}} constructed in the 16th century by writing {{vr|o}} and {{vr|e}} on top of an {{vr|a}}, and an {{vr|e}} on top of an {{vr|o}}. Though these combinations are historically modified versions of {{vr|[[a]]}} and {{vr|[[o]]}} according to the English range of usage for the term [[diacritic]], these three characters are not considered to be diacritics within the Swedish application, but rather separate letters, and are independent letters following {{vr|z}}. Before the release of the 13th edition of {{lang|sv|[[Svenska Akademiens ordlista]]}} in April 2006, {{vr|w}} was treated as merely a variant of {{vr|v}} used only in names (such as "Wallenberg") and foreign words ("bowling"), and so was both sorted and pronounced as a {{vr|v}}. Other diacritics (to use the broader English term usage referenced here) are unusual in Swedish; {{vr|[[é]]}} is sometimes used to indicate that the stress falls on a terminal syllable containing {{vr|e}}, especially when the stress changes the meaning ({{lang|sv|ide}} vs. {{lang|sv|idé}}, "winter lair" vs. "idea") as well as in some names, like {{lang|sv|Kastrén}}; occasionally other [[acute accent]]s and, less often, [[grave accent]]s can be seen in names and some foreign words. The letter {{vr|[[à]]}} is used to refer to unit cost (a loan from the French), equivalent to the [[at sign]] ({{vr|@}}) in English.<ref>{{Harvnb|Svenska språknämnden|2000}}</ref> The German {{vr|[[ü]]}} is treated as a variant of {{vr|[[y]]}} and sometimes retained in foreign names and words, e. g., {{lang|sv|müsli}} ("muesli/granola"). A proper [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] may very exceptionally be seen in elaborated style (for instance: "Aïda"). The German convention of writing {{vr|ä}} and {{vr|ö}} as {{vr|ae}} and {{vr|oe}} if the characters are unavailable is an unusual convention for speakers of modern Swedish. Despite the availability of all these characters in the Swedish national [[top-level domain|top-level Internet domain]] and other such domains, Swedish sites are frequently labelled using {{vr|a}} and {{vr|o}}, based on visual similarity, though Swedish domains could be registered using the characters {{vr|å}}, {{vr|ä}}, and {{vr|ö}} from 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=Domain names with characters like å, ä, ö (IDN)|url=https://www.iis.se/english/domains/se/idn/|publisher=iiS|access-date=3 March 2018|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225156/https://www.iis.se/english/domains/se/idn/|url-status=live}}</ref> In Swedish [[orthography]], the [[Colon (punctuation)|colon]] is used in a [[Colon (punctuation)#Usage|similar manner as in English]], with some exceptions: the colon is used for some abbreviations, such as {{lang|sv|3:e}} for {{lang|sv|tredje}} ("third") and {{lang|sv|S:t}} for {{lang|sv|Sankt}} ("Saint"), and for all types of [[suffix|endings]] that can be added to numbers, letters and abbreviations, such as {{lang|sv|a:et}} ("the a") and {{lang|sv|CD:n}} ("the CD"), or the genitive form {{lang|sv|USA:s}} ("USA's").<ref>{{Harvnb|Svenska språknämnden|2000|pp=154–156}}</ref> ==Dialects== [[File:R-pronounciation in Swedish language.JPG|thumb|[[Isogloss]] for the pronunciation of "R" ({{Circa|1960}}), being [[Alveolar trill|alveolar]] north of the boundary and [[guttural R|uvular]] ("French R") south of it. It follows that the R+S combination is pronounced as spelled south of the boundary, while pronounced {{IPAblink|ʂ}} (similar to "sh" in "shark") north of it. This isogloss is the most imperative of all Swedish pronunciation differences.]] {{Main|Swedish dialects}} According to a traditional division of Swedish [[dialect]]s, there are six main groups of dialects:<ref>{{Harvnb|Leinonen|2011}};{{Harvnb|Dahl|2000|pp=117–119}}; Lars-Erik Edlund "Språklig variation i tid och rum" in {{harvnb|Dahl|Edlund|2010|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hur många dialekter finns det i Sverige? Var går gränsen mellan olika dialekter?|url=http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/sprak/dialekter/fragor-och-svar-om-dialekter/faq/2013-10-21-hur-manga-dialekter-finns-det-i-sverige-var-gar-gransen-mellan-olika-dialekter.html|publisher=Institutet för språk och folkminnen|access-date=2 March 2018|date=3 February 2017|language=sv|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105756/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/sprak/dialekter/fragor-och-svar-om-dialekter/faq/2013-10-21-hur-manga-dialekter-finns-det-i-sverige-var-gar-gransen-mellan-olika-dialekter.html|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Norrland dialects]] * [[Finland Swedish]] * [[Svealand Swedish|Svealand dialects]] * [[Gutnish|Gotland dialects]] * [[Götamål dialect|Götaland dialects]] * [[South Swedish dialects]] The traditional definition of a Swedish [[dialect]] has been a local variant that has not been heavily influenced by the standard language and that can trace a separate development all the way back to [[Old Norse]]. Many of the genuine rural dialects, such as those of [[Orsa, Sweden|Orsa]] in [[Dalarna]] or [[Närpes]] in [[Ostrobothnia (administrative region)|Österbotten]], have very distinct phonetic and grammatical features, such as plural forms of verbs or archaic [[case (linguistics)|case]] inflections. These dialects can be near-incomprehensible to a majority of Swedes, and most of their speakers are also fluent in Standard Swedish. The different dialects are often so localized that they are limited to individual [[parish]]es and are referred to by Swedish linguists as ''sockenmål'' (lit., "parish speech"). They are generally separated into six major groups, with common characteristics of prosody, grammar and vocabulary. One or several examples from each group are given here. Though each example is intended to be also representative of the nearby dialects, the actual number of dialects is several hundred if each individual community is considered separately.<ref>{{Harvnb|Engstrand|2004|p=120}}; {{Harvnb|Pettersson|1996|p=184}}</ref> This type of classification, however, is based on a somewhat romanticized [[nationalism|nationalist]] view of ethnicity and language. The idea that only rural variants of Swedish should be considered "genuine" is not generally accepted by modern scholars. No dialects, no matter how remote or obscure, remained unchanged or undisturbed by a minimum of influences from surrounding dialects or the standard language, especially not from the late 19th century onwards with the advent of [[mass media]] and advanced forms of transport. The differences are today more accurately described by a scale that runs from "standard language" to "rural dialect" where the speech even of the same person may vary from one extreme to the other depending on the situation. All Swedish dialects with the exception of the highly diverging forms of speech in [[Dalarna]], [[Norrbotten]] and, to some extent, [[Gotland]] can be considered to be part of a common, mutually intelligible [[dialect continuum]]. This continuum may also include [[Norwegian dialects|Norwegian]] and some [[Danish dialects]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dahl|2000|pp=117–119}}</ref> ===Standard Swedish=== [[Standard Swedish]] is the language used by virtually all Swedes and most [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Swedish-speaking Finns]]. It is called ''rikssvenska'' or ''standardsvenska'' ("Standard Swedish") in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |title=standardspråk |url=https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/standardspr%C3%A5k |publisher=Nationalencyklopedin AB |access-date=3 March 2018 |language=sv |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225120/https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/standardspr%C3%A5k |url-status=live }}</ref> In Finland, ''högsvenska'' ("High Swedish") is used for the Finnish variant of standard Swedish and ''rikssvenska'' refers to Swedish as spoken in Sweden in general.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mattfolk|first1=Leila|title=Do answers to a questionnaire give reliable data?|url=http://www.nordiska.uu.se/ICLaVE2/Kristiansen_w/Mattfolkw.pdf|publisher=Helsinki University|access-date=3 March 2018|quote=Employees on radio and television do not always follow the same Swedish norm. What do you think about them using their own ordinary spoken language instead of standard Finland-Swedish (''högsvenska'') in the broadcasted programs?|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041102231321/http://www.nordiska.uu.se/ICLaVE2/Kristiansen_w/Mattfolkw.pdf|archive-date=2 November 2004}}</ref> In a poll conducted in 2005 by the [[Swedish Retail Institute]] (''Handelns Utredningsinstitut''), the attitudes of Swedes to the use of certain dialects by salesmen revealed that 54% believed that ''rikssvenska'' was the variety they would prefer to hear when speaking with salesmen over the phone, even though dialects such as ''gotländska'' or ''[[Scanian dialect|skånska]]'' were provided as alternatives in the poll.<ref>{{citation|last=Aronsson |first=Cecilia |url=http://www.di.se/Nyheter/?page=/Avdelningar/Artikel.aspx%3FArticleID%3D2005%5C05%5C03%5C142710%26words%3Drikssvenska%26SectionID%3DEttan%26menusection%3DStartsidan%3BHuvudnyheter |title=Norrländska låter bäst |work=[[Dagens Industri]] |date=3 May 2005 |access-date=24 August 2007 |quote=Norrländska och rikssvenska är de mest förtroendeingivande dialekterna. Men gotländska och värmländska gör svenskarna misstänksamma, enligt en ny riksomfattande undersökning. Handelns utredningsinstitut (HUI) har frågat 800 svenskar om hur de uppfattar olika dialekter som de hör i telefonservicesamtal, exempelvis från försäljare eller upplysningscentraler. Undersökningen visar att 54 procent föredrar att motparten pratar rikssvenska, vilket troligen hänger ihop med dess tydlighet. Men även norrländskan plockar höga poäng – 25 procent tycker att det är den mest förtroendeingivande dialekten. Tilltron till norrländska är ännu större hos personer under 29 år, medan stödet för rikssvenska är störst bland personer över 55 år. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013152413/http://www.di.se/Nyheter/?page=%2FAvdelningar%2FArtikel.aspx%3FArticleID%3D2005%5C05%5C03%5C142710&words=rikssvenska&SectionID=Ettan&menusection=Startsidan%3BHuvudnyheter |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Finland Swedish=== {{Main|Finland Swedish|Åland Swedish}} Finland was a part of Sweden from the 13th century until the loss of the Finnish territories to [[Russia]] in 1809. Swedish was the sole administrative language until 1902 as well as the dominant language of culture and education until Finnish independence in 1917. The percentage of Swedish speakers in Finland has steadily decreased since then. The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas of Ostrobothnia, [[Southwest Finland]] and [[Uusimaa]] where the percentage of Finland Swedes is high, with Swedish being spoken by more than 90% of the population in several municipalities, and on Åland, where Swedish is spoken by a vast majority of the population and is the only official language. Swedish is an official language also in the rest of Finland, though, with the same official status as [[Finnish language|Finnish]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.finlex.fi/sv/lagstiftning/1999/731 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009035525/http://www.finlex.fi/sv/laki/ajantasa/1999/19990731 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live |title=Finlands grundlag – Constitution of Finland}} 17 § Rätt till eget språk och egen kultur Finlands nationalspråk är finska och svenska. Vars och ens rätt att hos domstol och andra myndigheter i egen sak använda sitt eget språk, antingen finska eller svenska, samt att få expeditioner på detta språk skall tryggas genom lag. Det allmänna skall tillgodose landets finskspråkiga och svenskspråkiga befolknings kulturella och samhälleliga behov enligt lika grunder.</ref> The country's public broadcaster, [[Yle]], provides two Swedish-language radio stations, [[Yle Vega]] and [[Yle X3M]], as well a TV channel, [[Yle Fem]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://svenska.yle.fi/| title = Svenska Yle, scroll to the bottom of the page| access-date = 27 October 2016| archive-date = 26 July 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160726004333/https://svenska.yle.fi/| url-status = live}}</ref> ===Immigrant variants=== [[Rinkeby Swedish]] (after [[Rinkeby]], a suburb of northern Stockholm with a large immigrant population) is a common name among linguists for varieties of Swedish spoken by young people of foreign heritage in certain suburbs and urban districts in the major cities of Stockholm, [[Gothenburg]] and [[Malmö]]. These varieties could alternatively be classified as [[sociolect]]s, because the immigrant dialects share common traits independent of their geographical spread or the native country of the speakers. However, some studies have found distinctive features and led to terms such as Rosengård Swedish (after [[Rosengård]] in Malmö), a variant of [[Scanian dialect|Scanian]].<ref>{{citation|url=http://person.sol.lu.se/PetraBoden/papers/Ey_mannen_wazzup.htm |title=Ey, mannen! Wazzup? / På jakt efter "rosengårdssvenskan" |last=Bodén |first=Petra |publisher=Institutionen för nordiska språk och Institutionen för lingvistik, [[Lunds universitet]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506132803/http://person.sol.lu.se/PetraBoden/papers/Ey_mannen_wazzup.htm |archive-date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> A survey made by the Swedish linguist [[Ulla-Britt Kotsinas]] showed that foreign learners had difficulties in guessing the origins of Rinkeby Swedish speakers in Stockholm. The greatest difficulty proved to be identifying the speech of a boy speaking Rinkeby Swedish whose parents were both Swedish; only 1.8% guessed his native language correctly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kotsinas|1994|p=151}}</ref> New linguistic practices in multilingual urban contexts in fiction and hip-hop culture and rap lyrics have been introduced that go beyond traditional socio-linguistic domains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Svendsen|first=Bente Ailin|title=Multilingual urban Scandinavia|url=https://www.academia.edu/13820691|language=en|access-date=16 July 2019|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307095648/https://www.academia.edu/13820691|url-status=live}}</ref> See also Källström (Chapter 12) and Knudsen (Chapter 13). ==Sample== [[File:Universal Declaration of Human Rights - swe - lr - Art1.ogg|thumb|Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Swedish ]] Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'']] in Swedish:<blockquote>'''''Alla människor är födda fria och lika i värdighet och rättigheter. De har utrustats med förnuft och samvete och bör handla gentemot varandra i en anda av gemenskap.'''''</blockquote>Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in English:<blockquote>''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''</blockquote>Excerpt from ''[[Barfotabarn]]'' (1933), by [[Nils Ferlin]] (1898–1961):{{sfn|Ferlin|1976}} {| border="0" style="width:100%; text-align:left;" |- !|Original !|Free, prosaic translation |- |''Du har tappat ditt ord och din papperslapp'', |"You have lost your word and your paper note, |- |''du barfotabarn i livet.'' |you barefooted child in life. |- |''Så sitter du åter på handlar'ns trapp'' |So you sit on the porch of the grocer anew |- |''och gråter så övergivet.'' |and cry so abandoned. |- |''Vad var det för ord – var det långt eller kort'', |What word was it – was it long or short, |- |''var det väl eller illa skrivet?'' |was it well or poorly written? |- |''Tänk efter nu – förr'n vi föser dig bort'', |Think twice now – before we shove you away, |- |''du barfotabarn i livet.'' |you barefooted child in life." |} ==See also== * [[Languages of Sweden]] * [[Languages of Finland]] * [[Swedish as a foreign language]] * [[Swenglish]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ===Citations=== {{Refbegin}} * {{citation |last=Andersson |first=Erik |editor-last=König |editor-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |year=2002 |chapter=Swedish |title=The Germanic Languages |series=Routledge language family descriptions |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |pages=271–312 }} * {{Citation |last = Bergman |first = Gösta |year = 1984 |title = Kortfattad svensk språkhistoria |edition = 4th |place = Stockholm |publisher = Prisma |series = Prisma Magnum |isbn = 978-91-518-1747-7 |oclc = 13259382 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Bolander |first = Maria |year = 2002 |title = Funktionell svensk grammatik |place = Stockholm |publisher = Liber |isbn = 978-91-47-05054-3 |oclc = 67138445 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Crystal |first = David |author-link = David Crystal |year = 1999 |edition = 2nd |title = The Penguin dictionary of language |place = London |publisher = [[Penguin Books]] |isbn = 978-0-14-051416-2 |oclc = 59441560 }} * {{Citation |last = Dahl |first = Östen |year = 2000 |title = Språkets enhet och mångfald |place = Lund |publisher = [[Studentlitteratur]] |isbn = 978-91-44-01158-5 |oclc = 61100963 |language = sv }} * {{Citation | editor1-last = Dahl | editor1-first = Östen | editor2-last = Edlund | editor2-first = Lars-Erik |year = 2010 |title = Sveriges nationalatlas. Språken i Sverige |place = Stockholm |publisher = Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien |isbn = 978-91-87-76057-0 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Elert |first = Claes-Christian |year = 2000 |title = Allmän och svensk fonetik |edition = 8th |place = Stockholm |publisher = Norstedts Akademiska Förlag |isbn = 978-91-1-300939-1 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Engstrand |first = Olle |year = 1999 |chapter = Swedish |title = Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet. |place = Cambridge |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-63751-0 |oclc = 40305532 |pages = 140–142 }} * {{Citation |last = Engstrand |first = Olle |year = 2004 |title = Fonetikens grunder |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-04238-1 |oclc = 66026795 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Ferlin |first = Nils |title = Barfotabarn |year = 1976 |orig-year=1933 |place = Stockholm |publisher = Bonnier |isbn = 978-91-0-024187-2 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Garlén |first = Claes |year = 1988 |title = Svenskans fonologi |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-28151-3 |oclc = 67420810 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Granberry |first = Julian |year = 1991 |title = Essential Swedish Grammar |place = New York |publisher = [[Dover Publications]] |isbn = 978-0-486-26953-5 |oclc = 23692877 }} * {{cite book |last=Haugen |first=Einar |year=2009 |chapter=Danish, Norwegian and Swedish |title=The World's Major Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr_362 |url-access=limited |editor=Bernard Comrie |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldsmajorlangu00comr_362/page/n141 125]–144 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35339-7 }} * {{Citation |last = Hultman |first = Tor G. |year = 2003 |title = Svenska Akademiens språklära |place = Stockholm |publisher = Norstedts |isbn = 978-9172273511 |oclc = 55849724 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Josephson |first = Olle |year = 2005 |title = Ju: ifrågasatta självklarheter om svenskan, engelskan och alla andra språk i Sverige |edition = 2nd |place = Stockholm |publisher = Nordstedts ordbok |isbn = 978-91-7227-446-4 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Kotsinas |first = Ulla-Britt |year = 1994 |title = Ungdomsspråk |place = Uppsala |publisher = Hallgren & Fallgren |isbn = 978-91-7382-718-8 |oclc = 60994967 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Leinonen |first = Therese |title = Aggregate analysis of vowel pronunciation in Swedish dialects |journal = Oslo Studies in Language |volume = 3 |issue = 2 |year = 2011 |doi = 10.5617/osla.101 |url = https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/osla/article/view/101 |doi-access = free |access-date = 20 March 2013 |archive-date = 27 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130627060923/https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/osla/article/view/101 |url-status = live }} * [[Nationalencyklopedin]], [http://www.ne.se/svenska online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401085317/http://www.ne.se/svenska |date=1 April 2014 }} {{in lang|sv}} * {{Citation |last = Parkvall |first = Mikael |title = Sveriges språk. Vem talar vad och var? |journal = RAPPLING 1. Rapporter Från Institutionen för Lingvistik Vid Stockholms Universitet. |year = 2009 |url = http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf |language = sv |access-date = 30 January 2015 |archive-date = 11 October 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171011110906/http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf |url-status = live }} * {{Citation |last = Pettersson |first = Gertrud |year = 1996 |title = Svenska språket under sjuhundra år: en historia om svenskan och dess utforskande |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-48221-7 |oclc = 36130929 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |author = Språkrådet |author-link = Language Council of Sweden |title = Svenska skrivregler |edition = 3rd |year = 2008 |publisher = Liber |place = Stockholm |isbn = 978-91-47-08460-9 |language = sv |url=https://archive.org/details/svenskaskrivregl0000unse }} * {{Citation |author = Svenska språknämnden |author-link = Language Council of Sweden |title = Svenska skrivregler |edition = 2nd |year = 2000 |publication-date = 2002 |publisher = Liber |place = Stockholm |isbn = 978-91-47-04974-5 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last = Svensson |first = Lars |year = 1974 |title = Nordisk paleografi: Handbok med transkriberade och kommenterade skriftprov |place = Lund |publisher = Studentlitteratur |isbn = 978-91-44-05391-2 |oclc = 1303752 |language = sv }} * {{Citation |last=Wessén |first=Elias |title=Våra ord: deras uttal och ursprung : kortfattad etymologisk ordbok |edition=2nd |year=1998 |orig-year=1973 |publisher=Norstedts |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=978-91-7227-053-4 }} {{Refend}} ==Further reading== * ''Swedish Essentials of Grammar'' Viberg, Åke; et al. (1991) Chicago: Passport Books. {{ISBN|0-8442-8539-0}} * ''Swedish: An Essential Grammar''. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2000). London; New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-16048-0}}. * ''Swedish: A Comprehensive Grammar Second Edition''. Holmes, Philip; Hinchliffe, Ian; (2003). London; New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-27884-8}}. * ''Svenska utifrån. Schematic grammar-Swedish structures and everyday phrases'' Byrman, Gunilla; Holm, Britta; (1998) {{ISBN|91-520-0519-4}}. ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=sv}} {{Wikibooks|Swedish}} {{Wiktionary category|Swedish language}} {{Wikivoyage|Swedish phrasebook|Swedish|a phrasebook}} {{NIE Poster|year=1905|Swedish Language and Literature|Swedish language}} * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swedish_Swadesh_list Swadesh list of Swedish basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) * [http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/swe-eng.html Swedish-English]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-ara.html Swedish-Arabic]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-rys.html Swedish-Russian]/[http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/sve-spa.html Swedish-Spanish] Dictionaries from [http://lexin2.nada.kth.se/ Språkrådet – Institute for Language and Folklore] * [http://folkets-lexikon.csc.kth.se/folkets/folkets.en.html People's dictionary] * [https://www.saob.se Online version] of ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordbok]]'' {{in lang|sv}} * [https://swedia.ling.gu.se/ Pronunciation of Swedish dialects] {{Swedish language|state=expanded}} {{Languages of Sweden}} {{Languages of Finland}} {{Germanic languages}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Swedish language| ]] [[Category:Languages of Finland]] [[Category:Languages of Estonia]] [[Category:Languages of Sweden]] [[Category:East Scandinavian languages]] [[Category:North Germanic languages]] [[Category:Culture of Scandinavia]] [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Verb-second languages]] 5v69idieg58cdgjr1mg9f39rof7wj8d Module:Catalan language 828 77896 687835 2026-07-05T11:33:33Z PaliGol 64601 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/1362650571|1362650571]] by [[Special:Contributions/PaliGol|PaliGol]] ([[User talk:PaliGol|talk]]) 687835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Romance language}} {{Redirect2|Catala|Català|the ship|SS Catala{{!}}SS ''Catala''|the football club|Català FC|the surnames|Català (surname)|and|Catalá}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Catalan | altname = Valencian | nativename = {{lang|ca|català}} <br /> {{lang|ca-valencia|valencià}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Unjoanqualsevol-català.wav}} ({{abbr|N|Northern}}, {{abbr|C|Central}} & {{abbr|B|Balearic}}) / {{IPA|ca|kataˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-català.wav}} ({{abbr|NW|North-Western}} & {{abbr|A|Algherese}}) <br /> {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-valencià.wav}} ({{abbr|V|Valencian}}) | states = {{hlist|[[Spain]]|[[Andorra]]|[[France]]|[[Italy]]}} | region = [[Southern Europe]] | speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|4.141310|2}} million | date = 2022 | ref = e25 | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|5.100000|2}} million<br />Total: {{sigfig|9.241310|2}} million | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]{{Efn|Catalan is also classified as an [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] language.}} | fam9 = [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Old Occitan]] | ancestor5 = [[Old Catalan]] | script = {{ubl | [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Catalan alphabet]]) | [[Catalan Braille]] }} | nation = *[[Andorra]] *[[Spain]] **[[Balearic Islands]] **[[Catalonia]] **[[Valencian Community]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'') *[[Italy]] **[[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]]) | minority = {{collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left|title=3 sub-regions or areas |the French sub-region of: * [[Northern Catalonia]] ([[Roussillon]]), part of [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitania]] |the Spanish sub-regions of: * [[La Franja]], part of the community of [[Aragon]] * [[Carche]], part of the [[Region of Murcia]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'')}} | agency = ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC) <br /> ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL) | iso1 = ca | iso2 = cat | iso3 = cat | lingua = 51-AAA-e | map = Catalan language in Europe (cropped).png | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#00A86B|Catalan/Valencian is the native language and has official status}} {{legend|#50C878|Catalan/Valencian is the native language but with no official status}} {{legend|#77dd77|Catalan/Valencian is not historically spoken but has official status}} | mapcaption2 = {{center|Standard Catalan is classified as Potentially Vulnerable by the UNESCO [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|title=World Atlas of Languages: Standard Catalan|website=en.wal.unesco.org|access-date=2023-12-04|archive-date=4 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204123215/https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|url-status=live}}</ref>}} | notice = IPA | glotto = stan1289 | glottorefname = Catalan }} '''Catalan''' ({{lang|ca|català}}) is a [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance language]] that is native to, and the official language of, three [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] in eastern [[Spain]]: [[Catalonia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], and the [[Valencian Community]], where it is called [[Valencian language|Valencian]] ({{lang|ca|valencià}}). Catalan is also the sole official language of [[Andorra]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} has semi-official status in the [[Italy|Italian]] municipality of [[Alghero]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Minder |first=Raphael |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |title=Italy's Last Bastion of Catalan Language Struggles to Keep It Alive |date=21 November 2016 |work=The New York Times |access-date=21 January 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and is spoken in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] department of [[France]] and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the [[La Franja|eastern strip]] of [[Aragon]] and the [[Carche]] area in the [[Region of Murcia]]. The Catalan-speaking regions are often called the [[Catalan Countries]] ({{lang|ca|Països Catalans}}).<ref>{{cite web |title=els Països Catalans |url=https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |work=[[Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana|enciclopèdia.cat]] |access-date=15 August 2023 |language=ca |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815020536/https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |url-status=live}}</ref> The language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] in the Middle Ages around the eastern [[Pyrenees]]. It became the language of the [[Principality of Catalonia]] and the kingdoms of [[kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and [[Kingdom of Majorca|Mallorca]], being present throughout the Mediterranean as the main language of the [[Crown of Aragon]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} It was replaced by [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as a language of government and literature in the 1700s, but 19th century Spain saw a [[Renaixença|Catalan literary revival]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} culminating in the early 1900s. During the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1936–1975), the usage of Catalan was subject to repressive measures, before it entered a relatively successful process of re-normalization between the 1980s and the 2000s. However, during the 2010s, it experienced signs of decline in social use, [[diglossia]] and the re-growth of discrimination cases.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cebrián |first1=Joan |title=El català, el quart motiu de discriminació a Barcelona |url=https://www.ara.cat/societat/barcelona/catala-quart-motiu-discriminacio-barcelona_1_4435335.html |access-date=29 May 2024 |publisher=Ara.cat |date=15 July 2022}}</ref> == Etymology and pronunciation {{Anchor|Etymology and pronunciation}} == {{Main|Catalonia#Etymology and pronunciation}} The word ''Catalan'' is derived from the territorial name of [[Catalonia]], itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ({{langx|la|Gathia Launia}}) derives from the name {{lang|la|Gothia}} or {{lang|la|Gauthia}} ('Land of the [[Goths]]'), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the [[March of Gothia]], whence ''Gothland'' > ''Gothlandia'' > ''Gothalania'' > ''Catalonia'' theoretically derived.{{sfn|García Venero|2006}}{{sfn|Burke|1900|p=154}} In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as ''Catelaner'', followed in the 15th century as {{lang|frm|Catellain}} (from [[Middle French]]). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The word ''Catalan'' can be pronounced in English as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|t|ə|l|ə|n|,_|-|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|lən|,_|-|lan}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|t|ə|ˈ|l|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|LAN}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |title=Definition of Catalan |date=16 August 2023 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510200230/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dictionary.reference.com">{{Cite dictionary |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |title=Catalan |dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073000/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[endonym]] is pronounced {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla|}} in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and {{IPA|ca|kataˈla|}} in the Western dialects. In the [[Valencian Community]] and [[Carche]], the term {{lang|ca|valencià}} {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa|}} is frequently used instead. Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005">{{cite web |author=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |date=9 February 2005 |title=Acord de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL), adoptat en la reunió plenària del 9 de febrer del 2005, pel qual s'aprova el dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |pages=52 |language=ca-valencia |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> synonymous with "Catalan".{{sfn|Lledó|2011|pp=334–337}}<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /> Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL)<ref group="note" name="DNV_AVL_1">The ''Valencian Normative Dictionary'' of the Valencian Academy of the Language states that Valencian is a "Romance language spoken in the Valencian Community, as well as in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, the French department of the {{lang|fr|Pyrénées-Orientales}}, the Principality of Andorra, the eastern flank of Aragon and the Sardinian town of Alghero (unique in Italy), where it receives the name of 'Catalan{{'"}}.</ref> and the ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC).<ref group="note" name="IEC">The ''Catalan Language Dictionary'' of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans states in the sixth definition of "Valencian" that, in the Valencian Community, it is equivalent to Catalan language.</ref> (See also [[#Status of Valencian|status of Valencian]] below). == History == {{Main|History of Catalan}} === Middle Ages === {{Further|Old Catalan|Phonological history of Catalan}} {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = Greuges de Guitard Isarn.jpg | width1 = 150 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Homilies d'Organya.jpg | width2 = 150 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Left: Fragment of the ''[[Greuges de Guitard Isarn]]'' ({{Circa|1080}}–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan,{{sfn|Veny|1997|pp=9–18}}{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} predating the famous ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' by a century. Right: ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' (early 12th century) }} By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern end of the [[Pyrenees]], as well as the territories of the Roman province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] to the south.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the [[Muslims]], bringing their language with them.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the [[County of Barcelona]] from the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 988.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} In the 11th century, documents written in [[macaronic language|macaronic Latin]] begin to show Catalan elements,{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} Old Catalan shared many features with [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]], diverging from [[Old Occitan]] between the 11th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Riquer|1964}} During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the [[Ebro river]],{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} and in the 13th century they conquered the lands that would become the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and the [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The city of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]] was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached [[Murcia]], which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} [[File:Map of the Crown of Aragon.svg|thumb|upright=1|Diachronic map of the Crown of Aragon. King [[James I of Aragon|James the Conqueror]] (1208–1276) dictated his autobiographical chronicles entirely in Catalan. Some of this territory nowadays makes up the ''[[Catalan Countries]]''.]] In the [[Low Middle Ages]], Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath [[Ramon Llull]] (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in [[Ausiàs March]] (1397–1459).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} By the 15th century, the city of [[Valencia]] had become the sociocultural center of the [[Crown of Aragon]], and Catalan was present all over the [[Mediterranean]] world.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} [[Joanot Martorell|Martorell]]'s novel of chivalry ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'' (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in [[Bernat Metge|Metge]]'s work.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The first book produced with movable type in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was printed in Catalan.<ref>''Trobes en llaors de la Verge Maria'' ("Poems of praise of the Virgin Mary") 1474.</ref>{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} === Early modern era === {{See also|Nation state|Anti-Catalan sentiment}} ==== Spain ==== With the union of the crowns of [[Crown of Castille|Castille]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the [[laws]] of each territory before the respective [[parliament]]s. But after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], Spain became an [[absolute monarchy]] under [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the [[Crown of Castile]] through the [[Nueva Planta decrees]], as a first step in the creation of the Spanish [[Nation state|nation-state]]; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sales Vives |first=Pere |title=L'Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808–1932 |date=22 September 2020 |publisher=El Gall editor |isbn=9788416416707 |pages=422 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>Antoni Simon, [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605094401/https://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 |date=5 June 2022 }}, páginas 45-46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València</ref> Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayans Balcells |first=Pere |title=Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-947201-4-7 |edition=del 1979 |pages=230 |publisher=Edicions del 1979 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="Recopilació d'accions genocides con">{{cite book |last=Lluís |first=García Sevilla |title=Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana |publisher=Base |year=2021 |isbn=9788418434983 |pages=300 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Bea Seguí |first=Ignaci |title=En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana |publisher=Cossetània |year=2013 |isbn=9788490341339 |pages=216 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="galeusca2">{{cite web |title=Enllaç al Manifest Galeusca on en l'article 3 es denuncia l'asimetria entre el castellà i les altres llengües de l'Estat Espanyol, inclosa el català. |url=http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719071429/http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-date=19 July 2008 |access-date=2 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Radatz |first=Hans-Ingo |date=8 October 2020 |title=Spain in the 19th century: Spanish Nation Building and Catalonia's attempt at becoming an Iberian Prussia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344608600 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>{{POV statement|date=October 2023|reason=One of the sources is titled "Recopilation of genocidal actions against the Catalan language". Seriously? Most of these sources are Catalan, foreign authors should be cited for controversial statements like these.}} The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2">{{cite book |last=de la Cierva |first=Ricardo |title=Historia general de España: Llegada y apogeo de los Borbones |date=1981 |publisher=Planeta |isbn=8485753003 |pages=78 |language=ca}}</ref> From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2" /> The use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] gradually became more prestigious{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|pp=6–7|2009}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became [[bilingualism|bilingual]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} {{clear}} ==== France ==== {{See also|Language policy in France|Vergonha|Patuet}} With the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] (1659), [[Spain]] ceded the [[Northern Catalonia|northern part of the Principality of Catalonia]] to [[France]], and soon thereafter the [[Northern Catalan|local Catalan varieties]] came under the influence of [[French language|French]], which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |title=''L'interdiction de la langue catalane en Roussillon par Louis XIV'' |publisher="CRDP, Académie de Montpellier |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214055235/http://crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |archive-date=14 December 2010}}</ref> Shortly after the [[French Revolution]] (1789), the [[French First Republic]] prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]], and [[Basque language|Basque]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Orf |first=Darren |title=During the French Revolution, most of the country did not speak French. |url=https://historyfacts.com/world-history/fact/during-the-french-revolution-most-of-the-country-did-not-speak-french/ |access-date=2026-06-08 |website=History Facts |language=en-US}}</ref> === France: 19th to 20th century === {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = Interdiction officielle de la langue catalana 2 avril 1700.jpg | width1 = 140 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Left: Official decree prohibiting the Catalan language in France. Right: "Speak French, be clean", school wall in [[Ayguatébia-Talau]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]), 2010 }} After the French colony of [[French Algeria|Algeria]] was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanish [[province of Alicante]] settled around [[Oran]], while those from [[Northern Catalonia|French Catalonia]] and [[Menorca]] migrated to [[Algiers]]. By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of ''[[Patuet]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Àngela-Rosa Menages, Joan-Lluís Monjo |title=El patuet valencià, un reflex lingüístic de la societat algeriana colonial (1830–1962) |url=https://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054920/http://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> as their speech was called.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plataforma per la llengua |title=The Catalan Language |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307203232/https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marfany |first1=Marta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |last2=Simó |first2=Marta Marfany |date=2002 |publisher=L'Abadia de Montserrat |isbn=978-84-8415-366-5 |language=ca |access-date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415045602/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |url-status=live}}</ref> or Alicante.{{sfn|Marfany|2002}} The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then [[General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales]] officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languages<ref name="Charte en faveur du Catalan">{{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |title=''Charte en faveur du Catalan'' |access-date=18 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222154353/http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}} {{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |title=''La catalanitat a la Catalunya Nord'' |access-date=13 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309142734/http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |archive-date=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and seeks to further promote it in public life and education. === Spain: 18th to 20th century === {{See also|Nueva Planta decrees|Language politics in Spain under Franco}} [[File:Mapa_político_de_España,_1850.jpg|thumb|Political map of Spain (1850), divided into four parts: The ''Fully constitutional Spain'' (brown), most of the former [[Crown of Castile]]; ''Assimilated Spain'' (green), the former [[Crown of Aragon]], including the [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking lands]]; ''Foral Spain'' (blue), the Basque-speaking territories; and ''Colonial Spain'' (yellow)]] In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the [[Prefect (France)|prefects]] for an official survey on the limits of the [[French language]]. The survey found that in [[Roussillon]], almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the [[consul]] in [[Barcelona]] was also asked. He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts". He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña".<ref>{{cite book |last=Merle |date=5 January 2010 |publisher=Editorial Trabucaire |isbn=978-2849741078 |language=French |location=Perpinyà |first=René |pages=223 |title=Visions de "l'idiome natal" à travers l'enquête impériale sur les patois 1807–1812}}</ref> The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1714) initiated a series of [[Nueva planta decrees|laws]] which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] in legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century. However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival ({{lang|ca|[[Renaixença]]}}), which has continued up to the present day.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} This period starts with [[Bonaventura Carles Aribau|Aribau]]'s ''Ode to the Homeland'' (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of [[Jacint Verdaguer|Verdaguer]] (poetry), [[Narcís Oller|Oller]] (realist novel), and [[Àngel Guimerà|Guimerà]] (drama).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=10–11}} In the 19th century, the region of [[Carche]], in the [[province of Murcia]] was repopulated with Valencian speakers.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the [[Second Spanish Republic]] (1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The [[Generalitat]] (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at the social level, including in schools and the [[University of Barcelona]]. The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of [[Spain]], while banning the use of Catalan in them.<ref name="Guardian1">{{Cite news |last=Burgen |first=Stephen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |title=Catalan: a language that has survived against the odds |date=22 November 2012 |work=The Guardian |access-date=18 January 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=24 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224061600/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manent |first1=Albert |last2=Crexell |first2=Joan |title=Bibliografia catalana dels anys més difícils (1939–1943) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |date=1988 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat, S.A |location=Barcelona |isbn=8472029379 |page=14 |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-date=31 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131130959/https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> Francisco Franco's desire for a homogeneous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship. At the end of [[World War II]], however, some of the harsh measures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=CORNELLÀ-DETRELL |first=JORDI |jstor=10.7722/j.cttn346z |title=Literature as a Response to Cultural and Political Repression in Franco's Catalonia |date=2011 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-85566-201-8}}</ref> Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them ''Joan Martorell'' prize (1947), ''Víctor Català'' prize (1953) ''Carles Riba'' award (1950), or the [[Premi d'Honor de les Lletres Catalanes|Honor Award of Catalan Letters]] (1969).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Una polèmica literària sota el franquisme |url=https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |website=Palavracomum |date=20 July 2015 |language=ca-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817040501/https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Primera emisión de un programa en catalán |url=https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |website=RTVE |date=30 July 2018 |language=es-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525000521/https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casademont |first=Enric Pujol |date=2020 |title=Culture, language and politics. The Catalan cultural resistance during the Franco regime (1939–1977) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Catalan Historical Review |volume=13 |pages=69–84}}</ref> In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into [[Francoist Catalonia|Catalonia]] from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it. [[Catalonia]] was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not [[Multilingualism|bilingual]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rendon |first=Sílvio |date=2007 |title=The Catalan premium: language and employment in Catalonia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |journal=Journal of Population Economics |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=669–686 |doi=10.1007/s00148-005-0048-5 |jstor=20730773 |hdl=10016/291 |s2cid=29009762 |issn=0933-1433 |hdl-access=free |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204184857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, [[Avui]], began to be published in 1976.<ref>{{cite book |author=Katrin Voltmer |title=Mass Media and Political Communication in New Democracies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-33779-3 |page=19 |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205220526/https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Present day === Since the [[Spanish transition to democracy]] (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} In [[Catalonia]], there is an unparalleled large [[bilingualism|bilingual]] European [[Stateless nation|non-state]] linguistic community.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations—if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Armora |first=Esther |url=http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |title=Cataluña ordena incumplir las sentencias sobre el castellano en las escuelas |date=9 September 2013 |work=ABC |access-date=10 September 2013 |language=es |trans-title=Catalonia orders violate the judgments on the Castilian in schools |archive-date=11 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911073217/http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |url-status=live}}</ref> There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.<ref name=":52">{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Alia |date=3 November 2017 |title=Is Catalonia Using Schools as a Political Weapon? |language=en-US |work=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103153605/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |archive-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |title=You are here: ANSAmed. Catalonia: Supreme Court, 25% of lessons must be in Spanish |date=21 January 2022 |language=en |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122124224/https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[Statistical Institute of Catalonia]], in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.<ref name="idescat.cat">{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |title=Idescat. Annual indicators. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072106/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |title=Idescat. Demographics and quality of life. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. 2003. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |language=en |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002849/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |url-status=live}}</ref> To promote use of Catalan, the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as {{ill|lt=''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística''|Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística|ca||es|Consorcio para la normalización lingüística}} (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |title=2010 Language Policy Report |website=Generalitat de Catalunya |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415001016/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |archive-date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cpnl.cat/ |title=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística |first=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística- |last=CPNL |website=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística – CPNL |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073003/https://www.cpnl.cat/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Andorra]], Catalan has always been the sole official language.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Since the promulgation of the [[Constitution of Andorra|1993 constitution]], several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, such as Catalan medium education.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} On the other hand, there are several [[language shift]] processes currently taking place. In the [[Northern Catalonia]] area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The cultural association {{lang|ca|[[La Bressola]]}} promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs. In [[Alicante province]], Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in [[Alghero]] by [[Italian language|Italian]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} There is also well ingrained [[diglossia]] in the [[Valencian Community]], [[Ibiza]], and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the [[Balearic islands]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to [[Venezuela]], [[Mexico]], [[Cuba]], [[Argentina]], and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Philip D. Rasico |title=La llengua dels mallorquins de San Pedro (Argentina) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116201349/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).<ref>{{Cite web |title=COMUNITATS CATALANES A L'EXTERIOR – index |url=https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=catalansalmon.com |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103064445/https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |url-status=live}}</ref> == Classification and relationship with other Romance languages == [[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|upright=1.36|thumb|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.]] One classification of Catalan is given by [[Pierre Bec|Pèire Bèc]]: * [[Romance languages]] ** [[Italo-Western languages]] *** [[Western Romance languages]] **** [[Gallo-Iberian languages]] ***** [[Gallo-Romance languages]] ****** [[Occitano-Romance languages]] ******* Catalan language However, the ascription of Catalan to the [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] branch of [[Gallo-Romance languages]] is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]]. Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term ''[[Occitan language]]'' (see also [[Occitan language#Differences between Occitan and Catalan|differences between Occitan and Catalan]] and [[Gallo-Romance languages]]). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages. === Relationship with other Romance languages === Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the [[linguistic distance]] between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the [[Gascon dialect]]) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Julius W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnM7xFCej5cC&pg=PA80 |title=Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-36179-9 |page=80 |access-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> and still today remains its closest relative.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Nathaniel B. |last2=Bergin |first2=Thomas Goddard |title=An Old Provençal Primer |publisher=Garland |place=New York |year=1984 |isbn=0-8240-9030-6 |page=9}}</ref> Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring [[Romance languages]] (Occitan, French, [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} However, despite being spoken mostly on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Catalan has marked differences with the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] group ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) in terms of [[pronunciation]], grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly [[Occitan language|Occitan]]{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} and to a lesser extent [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] ([[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Gallo-Italian languages|Gallo-Italian]]).<ref name="Ross 2007">{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Marc Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4popSDfW0C |title=Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=139 |isbn=978-1-139-46307-2}}</ref>{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} According to [[Ethnologue]], the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.<ref name="e25" /> <!--These 2 tables are related to the paragraph above, they come from the same source and should be treated as a whole. See talk page for more--> {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |+ Lexical comparison of 24 words among Romance languages:<br />17 cognates with Gallo-Romance, 5 [[isogloss]]es with Iberian Romance, 3 isoglosses with Occitan, and 1 unique word.{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}} |- ! Gloss !! Catalan !! [[Occitan language|Occitan]] !! ([[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]) <br /> [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] !! [[Italian language|Italian]] !! [[French language|French]] !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] !! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] !! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] <!--Don't add or remove any item of this table. Also, don't add any other language translation. Otherwise, the original point of the table would be lost--> |- | cousin || {{lang|ca|'''cosí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cosin'''}} || {{lang|src|fradili}} || {{lang|it|'''cugino'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''cousin'''}} || {{lang|es|primo}} || {{lang|pt|primo}}, {{lang|pt|coirmão}} || {{lang|ro|văr}} |- | brother || {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}} || {{lang|oc|fraire}} || {{lang|src|fradi}} || {{lang|it|fratello}} || {{lang|fr|frère}} || {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''irmão'''}} || {{lang|ro|frate}} |- | nephew || {{lang|ca|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|src|'''nebodi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''nipote'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''neveu'''}} || {{lang|es|sobrino}} || {{lang|pt|sobrinho}} || {{lang|ro|'''nepot'''}} |- | summer || {{lang|ca|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|src|'''istadi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''estate'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''été'''}} || {{lang|es|verano}}, {{lang|es|'''estío'''}}<ref name="estiagem">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|estiagem}} and {{lang|es|estiaje}}, respectively, for drought, dry season or low water levels.</ref> || {{lang|pt|verão}}, {{lang|pt|'''estio'''}}<ref name="estiagem" /> || {{lang|ro|vară}} |- | evening || {{lang|ca|'''vespre'''}} || {{lang|oc|ser}}, {{lang|oc|'''vèspre'''}} || {{lang|src|seru}} || {{lang|it|sera}} || {{lang|fr|soir}} || {{lang|es|tarde}}, {{lang|es|noche}}<ref name="vespera">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|véspera}} and {{lang|es|víspera}}, respectively, for eve, or the day before.</ref> || {{lang|pt|tarde}}, {{lang|pt|serão}}<ref name="vespera" /> || {{lang|ro|seară}} |- | morning || {{lang|ca|'''matí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|src|mangianu}} || {{lang|it|'''mattina'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|es|mañana}} || {{lang|pt|manhã}}, {{lang|pt|'''matina'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''dimineață'''}} |- | frying pan || {{lang|ca|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''padena'''}} || {{lang|src|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|it|'''padella'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''poêle'''}} || {{lang|es|sartén}} || {{lang|pt|frigideira}}, {{lang|pt|fritadeira}}, {{lang|pt|sertã}} || {{lang|ro|tigaie}} |- | bed || {{lang|ca|'''llit'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''lièch'''}} (or {{lang|oc|'''lèit'''}}) || {{lang|src|'''letu'''}} || {{lang|it|'''letto'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''lit'''}} || {{lang|es|cama}}, {{lang|es|'''lecho'''}} || {{lang|pt|cama}}, {{lang|pt|'''leito'''}} || {{lang|ro|pat}} |- | bird || {{lang|ca|'''ocell'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''au'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''aucèl'''}} || {{lang|src|pilloni}} || {{lang|it|'''uccello'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''oiseau'''}} || {{lang|es|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|es|pájaro}}|| {{lang|pt|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|pt|pássaro}}|| {{lang|ro|pasăre}} |- | dog || {{lang|ca|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''ca'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|oc|'''canh'''}} || {{lang|src|'''cani'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cane'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chien'''}} || {{lang|es|perro}}, {{lang|es|'''can'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''cão'''}}, {{lang|pt|cachorro}} || {{lang|ro|'''câine'''}} |- | plum || {{lang|ca|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|it|'''prugna'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prune'''}} || {{lang|es|ciruela}} || {{lang|pt|ameixa}} || {{lang|ro|'''prună'''}} |- | butter || {{lang|ca|'''mantega'''}} || {{lang|oc|bodre}} || {{lang|src|burru}} <br /> (or {{lang|src|butiru}}) || {{lang|it|burro}} || {{lang|fr|beurre}} || {{lang|es|'''mantequilla'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|es|'''manteca'''}}) || {{lang|pt|'''manteiga'''}} || {{lang|ro|unt}} |- | piece || {{lang|ca|'''tros'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''tròç'''}}, {{lang|oc|petaç}} || {{lang|src|arrogu}} || {{lang|it|pezzo}} || {{lang|fr|morceau}}, {{lang|fr|pièce}} || {{lang|es|pedazo}}, {{lang|es|'''trozo'''}}<ref name="trozo">Spanish also has {{lang|es|trozo}}, and it is actually a borrowing from Catalan {{lang|ca|tros}}. Colón 1993, p 39. Portuguese has {{lang|es|troço}}, but aside from also being a loanword, it has a very different meaning: "thing", "gadget", "tool", "paraphernalia".</ref> || {{lang|pt|pedaço}}, {{lang|pt|bocado}} || {{lang|ro|bucată}} |- | gray || {{lang|ca|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|src|canu}} || {{lang|it|'''grigio'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|es|'''gris'''}}, {{lang|es|pardo}}<ref>Modern Spanish also has {{lang|es|gris}}, but it is a modern borrowing from Occitan. The original word was {{lang|es|pardo}}, which stands for "reddish, yellow-orange, medium-dark and of moderate to weak saturation. It also can mean ochre, pale ochre, dark ohre, brownish, tan, greyish, grey, desaturated, dirty, dark, or opaque." {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}}</ref> || {{lang|pt|cinzento}}, {{lang|pt|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''gri'''}},<ref>A 20th century introduction from French.</ref> {{lang|ro|sur}}, {{lang|ro|cenușiu}} |- | hot || {{lang|ca|'''calent'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''caud'''}} || {{lang|src|'''callenti'''}} || '''{{lang|it|caldo}}''' || '''{{lang|fr|chaud}}''' || {{lang|es|'''caliente'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''quente'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''cald'''}} |- | too much || {{lang|ca|'''massa'''}} || {{lang|oc|tròp}} || {{lang|src|tropu}} || {{lang|it|troppo}} || {{lang|fr|trop}} || {{lang|es|de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|pt|de'''mais''', de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|ro|prea}} |- | to want || {{lang|ca|'''voler'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''vòler'''}} || {{lang|src|'''bolli(ri)'''}} || {{lang|it|'''volere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''vouloir'''}} || {{lang|es|querer}} || {{lang|pt|querer}} || {{lang|ro|'''a vrea'''}} |- | to take || {{lang|ca|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''prendre'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|oc|'''prene'''}}) || {{lang|src|pigai}} || {{lang|it|'''prendere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|es|tomar}}, {{lang|es|'''prender'''}} || {{lang|pt|apanhar}}, {{lang|pt|levar}} || {{lang|ro|a lua}} |- | to pray || {{lang|ca|'''pregar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''resar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''orar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pregai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''pregare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prier'''}} || {{lang|es|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|es|'''rezar'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''rezar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a se ruga}} |- | to ask || {{lang|ca|'''demanar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''demandar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''dimandai'''}}, {{lang|src|'''preguntai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''domandare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''demander'''}} || {{lang|es|pedir}}, {{lang|es|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|pt|pedir}}, {{lang|pt|'''perguntar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a cere}}, {{lang|ro|a întreba}} |- | to search || {{lang|ca|'''cercar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cercar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''circai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cercare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chercher'''}} || {{lang|es|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|pt|procurar}}, {{lang|pt|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a căuta}} |- | to arrive || {{lang|ca|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''arribai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''arrivare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''arriver'''}} || {{lang|es|llegar}}, {{lang|es|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|pt|chegar}} || {{lang|ro|a ajunge}} |- | to speak || {{lang|ca|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|src|chistionnai}}, {{lang|src|fueddai}} || {{lang|it|'''parlare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''parler'''}} || {{lang|es|hablar}}, {{lang|es|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|pt|falar}}, {{lang|pt|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a vorbi}} |- | to eat || {{lang|ca|'''menjar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''manjar'''}} || {{lang|src|pappai}} || {{lang|it|'''mangiare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''manger'''}} || {{lang|es|comer}} <br /> ({{lang|es-AR|'''manyar'''}} in [[lunfardo]]; <br /> {{lang|es|papear}} in slang) || {{lang|pt|comer}}, {{lang|pt|'''manjar'''}} <br /> ({{lang|pt|papar}} in slang) || {{lang|ro|'''a mânca'''}} |} During much of its history, and especially during the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and [[French language|French]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century AD, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman [[Tarraconensis]] was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, [[Asturian language|Asturian]], and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish {{lang|es|hervir}}, Asturian and Portuguese {{lang|pt|ferver}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|bullir}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|bolir}} "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Spanish {{lang|es|novillo}}, Asturian {{lang|ast|nuviellu}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|torell}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|taurèl}} "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.{{sfn|Colón|1993|p=55}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center;" |+ Catalan and Spanish cognates with different meanings{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} ! [[Latin]] !! Catalan !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|accostare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|acostar}} "to bring closer" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|acostar}}'' "to put to bed" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|levare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|llevar}} "to remove;<br />wake up" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|llevar}}'' "to take" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|trahere}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|traure}} "to remove" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|traer}}'' "to bring" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|circare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|cercar}} "to search" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|cercar}}'' "to fence" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|collocare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|colgar}} "to bury" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|colgar}}'' "to hang" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|mulier}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|muller}} "wife" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|mujer}}'' "woman or wife" |} Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include: * verbs: {{sm|cōnfīgere}} 'to fasten; transfix' > {{lang|ca|confegir}} 'to compose, write up', {{sm|congemināre}} > {{lang|ca|conjuminar}} 'to combine, conjugate', {{sm|de-ex-somnitare}} > {{lang|ca|deixondar/-ir}} 'to wake; awaken', {{sm|dēnsāre}} 'to thicken; crowd together' > {{lang|ca|desar}} 'to save, keep', {{sm|īgnōrāre}} > {{lang|ca|enyorar}} 'to miss, yearn, pine for', {{sm|indāgāre}} 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan ''enagar'' 'to incite, induce', {{sm|odiāre}} > Old Catalan ''ujar'' 'to exhaust, fatigue', {{sm|pācificāre}} > {{lang|ca|apaivagar}} 'to appease, mollify', {{sm|repudiāre}} > {{lang|ca|rebutjar}} 'to reject, refuse'; * nouns: {{sm|brīsa}} > {{lang|ca|brisa}} 'pomace', {{sm|buda}} > {{lang|ca|boga}} 'reedmace', {{sm|catarrhu}} > {{lang|ca|cadarn}} 'catarrh', {{sm|congesta}} > {{lang|ca|congesta}} 'snowdrift', {{sm|dēlīrium}} > {{lang|ca|deler}} 'ardor, passion', {{sm|fretu}} > {{lang|ca|freu}} 'brake', {{sm|lābem}} > {{lang|ca|(a)llau}} 'avalanche', {{sm|ōra}} > {{lang|ca|vora}} 'edge, border', {{sm|pistrīce}} 'sawfish' > ''pestriu'' > {{lang|ca|pestiu}} 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', {{sm|prūna}} 'live coal' > {{lang|ca|espurna}} 'spark', {{sm|tardātiōnem}} > ''tardaó'' > {{lang|ca|tardor}} 'autumn'.{{sfn|Bruguera|2008|p=3046}}{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Significance of all caps vs. italic is unclear }} The [[Gothic language|Gothic]] superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|fang}} "mud" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rostir}} "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lodo}} and {{wikt-lang|es|asar}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|filosa}} "spinning wheel" and {{wikt-lang|ca|templa}} "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|rueca}} and {{wikt-lang|es|sien}}, of Germanic origin.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The same happens with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] loanwords. Thus, Catalan {{lang|ca|alfàbia}} "large earthenware jar" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rajola}} "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|tinaja}} and {{wikt-lang|es|teja}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|oli}} "oil" and {{wikt-lang|ca|oliva}} "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|aceite}} and {{wikt-lang|es|aceituna}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as {{wikt-lang|ca|enyorar}} "to miss somebody", {{wikt-lang|ca|apaivagar}} "to calm somebody down", and {{wikt-lang|ca|rebutjar}} "reject".{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} == Geographic distribution == === Catalan-speaking territories === {{Main|Catalan Countries}} {| style="float: right;" |+ Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories in dark gray; non-Catalan-speaking territories belonging to traditionally Catalan-speaking regions in light gray | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{Image label begin|image=Paisos catalans.svg|width=350|float=none|[[Catalan countries]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.62|y=0.15|scale=350|text=[[Northern Catalonia]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.45|y=0.29|scale=350|text=[[Catalonia]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.51|scale=350|text=[[Alghero]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.28|y=0.28|scale=350|text=''[[La Franja|La<br />Franja]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.185|y=0.68|scale=350|text=[[Valencian Community|Valencian<br />Community]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.07|y=0.83|scale=350|text=[[Carche]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.33|scale=350|text=''[[Sardinia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Sardinia<br />(Italy)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.15|y=0.35|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Aragon|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Aragon<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.08|y=0.89|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Murcia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Murcia<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.48|y=0.05|scale=350|text=''[[France|<span style="color:#AAA300;">France</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.43|y=0.16|scale=350|text=''[[Andorra]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.535|y=0.6|scale=350|text=[[Balearic Islands]]}} {{Image label end}} |} Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the [[Catalan Countries]] ({{langx|ca|Països Catalans}}), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions. {| class="wikitable" |+ Territories where Catalan is spoken{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} ! State !! Territory !! Catalan name !! Notes |- | colspan="2" | [[Andorra]] || {{lang|ca|Andorra}} || A [[sovereign state]] where Catalan is the [[national language|national]] and the sole [[official language]]. The Andorrans speak a Western Catalan variety.{{Efn|Although in business and daily life other languages are common, and due to immigration Catalan mother-tongue speakers are only 35.7% of the population. See [[Languages of Andorra]].}} |- | [[France]] || [[Northern Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya Nord}} || Roughly corresponding to the {{lang|fr|département}} of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], with the exception of the traditionally [[Occitan language|Occitan]]-speaking [[comarca]] of [[Fenouillèdes]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | rowspan="5" | [[Spain]] || [[Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} || In the [[Val d'Aran]] (northwest corner of Catalonia), in addition to [[Occitan language|Occitan]], which is the local language, Catalan, Spanish and French are also spoken.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | [[Valencian Community]] <br /> ({{abbr|a.k.a.|also known as|}} Valencian Country) || {{lang|ca|Comunitat Valenciana}} <br /> (''País Valencià'') || Excepting some regions in the west and south which have been Aragonese/Spanish-speaking since at least the 18th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} The Western Catalan variety spoken there is known as "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]". |- | [[La Franja]] || {{lang|ca|La Franja}} || A part of the [[Aragon|Autonomous Community of Aragon]], specifically a strip bordering Western Catalonia. It comprises the {{lang|ca|[[Comarcas of Aragon|comarques]]}} of [[Ribagorza/Ribagorça|Ribagorça]], [[Llitera]], [[Baix Cinca]], and [[Matarranya]]. |- | [[Balearic Islands]] || {{lang|ca|Illes Balears}} || Comprising the islands of [[Mallorca]], [[Menorca]], [[Ibiza]] and [[Formentera]]. |- | [[Carche]] || {{lang|ca|El Carxe}} || A small area of the [[Region of Murcia|Autonomous Community of Murcia]], settled in the 19th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | [[Italy]] || [[Alghero]] || {{lang|ca|L'Alguer}} || A city in the [[Province of Sassari]], on the island of [[Sardinia]], where the [[Algherese dialect]] is spoken. |} === Number of speakers === The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5&nbsp;million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |title=Sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas. Tables. Official data about the sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas: Catalonia (2003), Andorra (2004), the Balearic Islands (2004), Aragonese Border (2004), Northern Catalonia (2004), Alghero (2004) and Valencian Community (2004) |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |date=7 August 2008 |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314032229/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |url-status=live}}</ref> The web site of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Catalan, language of Europe |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222153758/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.<ref name="habitual">[http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B Población según lengua habitual. Datos comparados 2003–2008. Cataluña. Año 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102013451/http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B |date=2 November 2013 }}, Encuesta de Usos Lingüísticos de la población (2003 y 2008), Instituto de Estadística de Cataluña</ref> According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', Catalan had 4.1&nbsp;million [[First language|native speakers]] and 5.1&nbsp;million [[Second language|second-language speakers]] in 2021.<ref name="e25" /> [[File:Llengua catalana al món.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|Geographical distribution of Catalan language by official status]] According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8&nbsp;million, with 5.9&nbsp;million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4&nbsp;million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).<ref>{{Citation |title=Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana |date=2011 |url=http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |trans-title=Report on the situation of the Catalan language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123162105/http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |publisher=Xarxa CRUSCAT |archive-date=23 January 2013 |language=ca}}</ref> Very few Catalan [[monoglot]]s exist; virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are [[bilingual]] speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with 99.7% of Catalan speakers in Catalonia able to speak Spanish and 99.9% able to understand it.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/arxius/ambits-treball/Drets%20Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstics/Seminari%20Internacional%20sobre%20les%20lleng%C3%BCes%20en%20l'%C3%A0mbit%20de%20la%20salut.pdf |title="Can you understand me, doctor?" Dealing with linguistic rights in public health systems in Catalan-speaking areas of Spain |last1=Ibáñez Ferreté |first1=Òscar-Adrià |date=November 2020 |publisher=[[Åbo Akademi University]] |location=[[Vaasa]], Finland |conference=Seminarium om social- och hälsovård för språkliga minoriteter [Seminar on social and health service for linguistic minorities]}}</ref> In [[Roussillon]], only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of [[language shift]]. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |title=El uso del catalán crece: lo entiende el 94,4% y lo habla el 81,2% |last=Geli |first=Carles |date=8 July 2019 |work=El País |access-date=8 July 2019 |language=es |issn=1134-6582 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708163015/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Departament d'Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)<ref>{{cite web |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a [[language immersion]] educational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Territory !! State !! Understand {{ref|a|1}}<ref name="speakers">Sources: *Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya}} [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306011428/http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B|date=6 March 2007}}. *Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} {{cite web |title=Població |url=http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906084332/http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}. *Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} [http://www.ive.es/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216011800/http://www.ive.es/|date=16 February 2015}}. *Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears}} [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101133851/http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm|date=1 January 2006}}. *Northern Catalonia: {{lang|fr|Media Pluriel}} Survey commissioned by Prefecture of [[Languedoc-Roussillon Region]] done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 {{cite web |title=Information_catalan |url=http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414192723/http://linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |archive-date=14 April 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}. *Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999. *Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127151122/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html|date=27 November 2005}}. *Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112153819/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html|date=12 November 2005}}. *Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the {{lang|ca|Federació d'Entitats Catalanes}} outside the Catalan Countries.</ref> ! Can speak {{ref|b|2}}<ref name=speakers /> |- style="background:#efefef;" | Catalonia || Spain || 6,502,880 || 5,698,400 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Valencian Community || Spain || 3,448,780 || 2,407,951 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Balearic Islands || Spain || 852,780 || 706,065 |- style="background:#efefef;" | [[Roussillon]] || France || 203,121 || 125,621 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Andorra || Andorra || 75,407 || 61,975 |- style="background:#fff;" | [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || Spain || 47,250 || 45,000 |- style="background:#efefef;" | [[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]]) || Italy || 20,000 || 17,625 |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Spain || ~600 || 600<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martínez |first=D. |date=26 November 2011 |title=Una isla valenciana en Murcia |language=es |trans-title=A Valencian island in Murcia |work=ABC |url=http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621063418/http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#efefef;" | colspan="2" | Total [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking territories]] || 11,150,218 || 9,062,637 |- style="background:#fff;" | colspan="2" | Rest of World || No data || 350,000 |- style="background:#efefef;" | colspan="2" | Total || 11,150,218 || 9,412,637 |} :1.{{note|a}} The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it. :2.{{note|b}} Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers. ==== Level of knowledge ==== {| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1 |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! Speak ! Understand ! Read ! Write |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics de la població. 2018 |date=2019 |website=IDESCAT/Generalitat de Catalunya |language=ca |trans-title=Survey of the linguistic usage of the population. 2018 |access-date=8 July 2019 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708210510/https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |url-status=live}}</ref> | style="text-align: right;" | 81.2 | style="text-align: right;" | 94.4 | style="text-align: right;" | 85.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 65.3 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 57.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 78.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 54.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 32.5 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 74.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 93.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 79.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 46.9 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 37.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 65.3 | style="text-align: right;" | 31.4 | style="text-align: right;" | 10.6 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 78.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 96.0 | style="text-align: right;" | 89.7 | style="text-align: right;" | 61.1 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Franja Oriental of Aragón | style="text-align: right;" | 88.8 | style="text-align: right;" | 98.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 72.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 30.3 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 67.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 89.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 50.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 28.4 |} (% of the population 15 years old and older). ==== Social use ==== {| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1 |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! At home ! Outside home |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia | style="text-align: right;" | 45 | style="text-align: right;" | 51 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 37 | style="text-align: right;" | 32 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 44 | style="text-align: right;" | 41 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 1 | style="text-align: right;" | 1 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 38 | style="text-align: right;" | 51 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Franja Oriental of Aragón | style="text-align: right;" | 70 | style="text-align: right;" | 61 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 8 | style="text-align: right;" | 4 |} (% of the population 15 years old and older). <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notitem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |title=El català no avança en la incorporació de nous parlants |date=23 October 2007 |website=Telenotícies |language=ca |trans-title=Catalan is not progressing in the incorporation of new speakers |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124091243/http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notItem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |archive-date=24 November 2007}}</ref> ==== Native language ==== To calculate the absolute number the figures have been proportioned to the whole population regardless of the age, rounded to the nearest 500. {| class="wikitable sortable" | style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border="1" |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! People ! Percentage !Year !Source |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia | style="text-align: right;" | 3,101,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 40.6% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=INEbase / Demografía y población /Cifras de población y Censos demográficos /Encuesta de Características Esenciales de la Población y las Viviendas / Microdatos |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177092&menu=resultados&idp=1254735572981# |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=INE |language=es}}</ref> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 1,271,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 25.4% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 401,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 33.2% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Aragon | style="text-align: right;" | 29,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 2.5% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" |Rest of Spain | style="text-align: right;" |80,500 | style="text-align: right;" |0.3% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 35,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 44.1% |2022 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-10 |title=L'estudi de coneixements i usos lingüístics indica que el català és la llengua de referència de la població en coneixement i ús |url=https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |access-date=2025-03-14 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110151633/https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 60,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 12.7% |2015 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics a la Catalunya del Nord |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/dadesestudis/altres/arxius/EULCN_2015_principals_resultats.pdf}}</ref> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 10,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 24.1% |2015 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Els usos lingüístics a l'Alguer |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/publicacions/btpl/arxius/BTPL_EULA_2015_IT.pdf |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=gencat.cat |language=ca-ES}}</ref> |- style="background-color: white;" | '''TOTAL''' | style="text-align: right;" | '''4,989,500''' | style="text-align: right;" | | | |} == Phonology == {{Main|Catalan phonology}} <!--The Catalan phonology article is very well sourced. If you want to add something, pick it from there, don't put OR.--> Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ, o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, other than [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Additionally, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as {{lang|ca|amic}} ("male friend") vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ("female friend").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Central Catalan]] pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.<ref>Wheeler 2005 takes the same approach</ref> For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article.<!--This is an internal link to the section about the pronunciation in the different dialects. It uses the Anchor template--> === Vowels === [[File:Catalan vowel chart.svg|thumb|[[Vowel]]s of Standard Eastern Catalan{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|p=62}}]] Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], with the exception of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] also has instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} In [[Central Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article). {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |+ Examples of vowel reduction processes in Central Catalan{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}}<br />The root is stressed in the first word and unstressed in the second |- ! !! colspan="3" | Front vowels !! colspan="2" | Back vowels |- ! Word<br />pair | {{lang|ca|gel}} ("ice") <br /> {{lang|ca|gelat}} ("ice cream") || {{lang|ca|pedra}} ("stone") <br /> {{lang|ca|pedrera}} ("quarry") || {{lang|ca|banya}} ("he bathes") <br /> {{lang|ca|banyem}}/{{lang|ca|banyem}} ("we bathe") || {{lang|ca|cosa}} ("thing") <br /> {{lang|ca|coseta}} ("little thing") || {{lang|ca|tot}} ("everything") <br /> {{lang|ca|total}} ("total") |- ! IPA<br />transcription | {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}}<br />{{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}}<br />{{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}}<br />{{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈtot]}}<br />{{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} |} === Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Catalan consonants{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=61–65}} ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />/ [[Dental consonant|Dental]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | ({{IPA link|ŋ}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|k}} |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɡ}} |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | | {{IPA link|ts}} | {{IPA link|tɕ|tʃ}} | |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | | {{IPA link|dz}} | {{IPA link|dʑ|dʒ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ɕ|ʃ}} | |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | ({{IPA link|v}}) | {{IPA link|z}} | ({{IPA link|ʑ|ʒ}}) | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] ! [[median consonant|median]] | | | {{IPA link|j}} | {{IPA link|w}} |- ! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʎ}} | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]] | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | | {{IPA link|r}} | | |} The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative. * {{IPA|/l/}} has a [[dark l|velarized]] allophone in [[syllable coda]] position in most dialects.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=20}} However, {{IPA|/l/}} is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects such as Majorcan{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=3}} and standard Eastern Catalan. * {{IPA|/v/}} occurs in Balearic,{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]], [[Valencian language#Consonants|standard Valencian]] and some areas in southern Catalonia.{{sfn|Veny|2007|p=51}} It has [[betacism|merged]] with {{IPA|/b/}} elsewhere.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=13}} * The velar nasal /ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/ before /g/ or /k/. However, it has become phonemic in Central dialects that delete the final element of word-final consonant clusters, resulting in minimal pairs such as ''fan'' [ˈfan] (“they do”) and ''fang'' [ˈfaŋ] (“mud”, pronounced [ˈfaŋk] in other dialects). * In Valencian, the fricative [ʒ] (and [jʒ]) appears only as a voiced allophone of /ʃ/ (and /jʃ/) before vowels and voiced consonants; e.g. peix al forn [ˈpejʒ al ˈfoɾn] ('oven fish'). The /ʒ/ phoneme in other Catalan dialects is pronounced /dʒ/ in standard Valencian. * Voiced obstruents undergo [[final-obstruent devoicing]]: {{IPA|/b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /ɡ/ > [k]}}.{{sfn|Lloret|2004|p=278}} * Voiced stops become [[lenition|lenited]] to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: {{IPA|/b/}} > {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPA|/d/}} > {{IPAblink|ð}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > {{IPAblink|ɣ}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} Exceptions include {{IPA|/d/}} after [[lateral consonant]]s, and {{IPA|/b/}} after {{IPA|/f/}}. In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}}</ref> except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} * There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. Some sources{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} describe them as "postalveolar". Others{{sfn|Recasens|Fontdevila|Pallarès|1995|p=288}}{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ}} would be more accurate. However, in all literature only the characters for [[palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ}} for other languages such as Polish and Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|1993}}. Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as "laminoalveolars palatalitzades".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|Pallarès|2001}}. Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as "laminal postalveolar".</ref>{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} * The distribution of the two rhotics {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} closely parallels [[Spanish phonology#Alternations|that of Spanish]]. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, {{IPAblink|r}} appears unless preceded by a consonant. Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled {{IPAblink|r}} unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same [[prosodic unit]], in which case {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears.{{sfn|Padgett|2009|p=432}} * In careful speech, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/l/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]]. Geminated {{IPA|/ʎ/}} may also occur.{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} Some analyze intervocalic {{IPA|[r]}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] rhotics.<ref>See {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}} for more information.</ref> === Phonological evolution === {{Main|Phonological history of Catalan}} [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|Linguistic map of Southwestern Europe]] Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages ([[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} * Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ/ ~ /e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/ ~ /o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, except Spanish and Sardinian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Lenition of voiced stops {{IPA|[b] → [β], [d] → [ð], [ɡ] → [ɣ]}} as in Galician and Spanish.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]], Sardinian and Portuguese, and unlike French, Spanish and Italian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Abundance of {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} occurring at the end of words, as for instance {{wikt-lang|ca|moll}} ("wet") and {{wikt-lang|ca|any}} ("year"), unlike Spanish,{{sfn|Hall|2001|p=19}} Portuguese or Italian. In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} Also, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], thus featuring many couplets like {{lang|ca|amic}} ('male friend') vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ('female friend').{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} == Sociolinguistics == [[File:WIKITONGUES- Ona speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|A speaker of Catalan (Majorcan dialect)]] [[File:WIKITONGUES- Artur speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|[[Artur Mas]], former president of Catalonia, discussing individual identity, collective identity and language]] Catalan [[sociolinguistics]] studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan [[philology]] and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact). === Preferential subjects of study === {{unref section|date=January 2026}} * [[Dialect]]s of Catalan * Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies * Process of [[standardization|linguistic normalization]] * Relations between Catalan and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[French language|French]] * Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers * Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors === Dialects === {{Main|Catalan dialects}} ==== Overview ==== [[File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|Main dialects of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=6}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=4}}]] The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} both in terms of [[vocabulary]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[phonology]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.<ref name="e25" /> The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic [[Algherese dialect]].{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed {{lang|ca|a}} and {{lang|ca|e}}; which have merged to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western dialects.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western Catalan]] and [[Valencian language|Valencian]]; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: [[Central Catalan]], [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]], [[Northern Catalan|Roussillonese]], and [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]].{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]" (respectively used in [[Catalonia]] and the [[Valencian Community]]) refer to two varieties of the same language.<ref name="Dictamen de l'Acadèmia">{{Citation |title=Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |date=2005 |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |trans-title=Resolution of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua concerning the principles and criteria for protecting the name and identity of Valencian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |publisher=[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]] |language=ca-valencia |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Institute of Catalan Studies]] in Catalonia and the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of the Language]] in the Valencian Community. Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the [[Barcelona Province (Spain)|Barcelona province]], the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine), and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for [[grammatical case|case]] and [[T–V distinction|politeness]], and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; " |+ Main dialectal divisions of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} |- ! Block | colspan="2" | '''Western Catalan''' || colspan="4" | '''Eastern Catalan''' |- ! Variety | '''[[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]]''' || '''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''' || '''[[Central Catalan|Central]]''' || '''[[Balearic dialect|Balearic]]''' || '''[[Northern Catalan|Northern]]''' (Roussillonese) || '''[[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]''' (Algherese) |- ! rowspan="2" | Area | [[Spain]], [[Andorra]] || colspan="3" | [[Spain]] || [[France]] || [[Italy]] |- | [[Andorra]], provinces of [[province of Lleida|Lleida]], western half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || [[Valencian Community]], [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Provinces of [[province of Barcelona|Barcelona]], eastern half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], most of [[province of Girona|Girona]] || [[Balearic Islands]] || [[Roussillon]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]) || City of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]] |} === Pronunciation {{Anchor|Dialect pronunciation section}} === ==== Vowels ==== Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], except [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] has also instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} In [[Eastern Catalan]] (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} There are a few instances of unreduced {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[o]}} in some words.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] has lowered {{IPA|[ə]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}. In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/}} follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}} reduce to {{IPA|[o]}}, with {{IPA|/u/}} remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–54}} In [[Western Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to five: {{IPA|/e, ɛ/ > [e]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ/ > [o]}}; {{IPA|/a, u, i/}} remain distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=54–55<!-- seems to be wrong page number: this page relates to Arabic according to Google Books -->}} This reduction pattern, inherited from [[Proto-Romance]], is also found in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}} Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Recasens|1996|pp=75–76, 128–129}} Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Usually, words with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Central Catalan correspond to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Balearic and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Words with {{IPA|/e/}} in Balearic almost always have {{IPA|/e/}} in Central and Western Catalan as well.{{vague|date=April 2014}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} {| | {| class="wikitable" |+ Different incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern |- ! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- | '''{{lang|ca|set}}''' <br /> ("thirst") | colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈset/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsət/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsɛt/}} || {{IPA|/ˈset/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|ven}}''' <br /> ("he sells") | colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈven/}} || {{IPA|/ˈvən/}} || {{IPA|/ˈbɛn/}} || {{IPA|/ˈven/}} |} {| class="wikitable" |+ General differences in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in different dialects{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Melchor|Branchadell|2002|p=71}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="4" | Eastern |- ! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- | '''{{lang|ca|mare}}''' <br /> ("mother") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾe/}} || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾə/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|cançó}}''' <br /> ("song") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kanˈso/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kənˈso/}} || {{IPA|/kənˈsu/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|posar}}''' <br /> ("to put") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/poˈza(ɾ)/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/puˈza(ɾ)/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|ferro}}''' <br /> ("iron") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛro/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛru/}} |} |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Detailed examples of vowel reduction processes in different dialects{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}} |- ! rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Word pairs:<br />the first with stressed root,<br />the second with unstressed root !! rowspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern |- ! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- ! rowspan="4" | Front <br /> vowels | '''{{lang|ca|gel}}''' ("ice") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|gelat}}''' ("ice cream") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈdʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[dʒeˈlat]}} || colspan="2" style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒel]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|pera}}''' ("pear") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|perera}}''' ("pear tree") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈɾeɾa]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpəɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpɛɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|pedra}}''' ("stone") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|pedrera}}''' ("quarry") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈðɾeɾa]}} || colspan="3" style="background:#cef2da;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|banya}}''' ("he bathes") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|banyem}}'''/{{lang|ca|'''banyam'''}} ("we bathe") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[baˈɲem]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲam]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲem]}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Back <br /> vowels | '''{{lang|ca|cosa}}''' ("thing") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|coseta}}''' ("little thing") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔza]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzeta]}} || style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzətə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈkozə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzetə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|tot}}''' ("everything") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|total}}''' ("total") | colspan="2" style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[toˈtal]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈtut]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} |} ==== Consonants ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}} Catalan dialects are characterized by [[final-obstruent devoicing]], [[lenition]] and [[voicing assimilation]]. Additionally, many dialects contrast two [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] ({{IPA|/r, ɾ/}}) and two [[lateral consonant|laterals]] ({{IPA|/l, ʎ/}}). Most Catalan dialects are also renowned by the usage of ''[[dark l]]'' (i.e. [[velarization]] of {{IPA|/l/}} → {{IPAblink|ɫ}}), which is especially noticeable in syllable [[syllabic coda|final]] position, in comparison to neighbouring languages, such as Spanish, Italian and French (that lack this pronunciation). There is dialectal variation in regard to: * The pronunciation and distribution of [[sibilant]]s (with different results according to [[voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] and [[affrication]] vs. [[lenition|deaffrication]]). ** While, arguably there are seven to eight sibilants in Standard Catalan and Standard Valencian, dialects like Central Valencian and Ribagorçan only have three or four. * The usage of the voiced labiodental fricative phoneme {{IPAslink|v}}. * The pronunciation or not of [[yod (sound)|yod]] ({{IPAslink|j}}) in the digraph {{angbr|ix}}. * The [[elision]] and pronunciation of final [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] (either {{IPAslink|ɾ}} or {{IPAslink|r}}). * The [[delateralization]] of the palatal lateral approximant ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}). * The alternation of [[lenition]] vs. [[fortition]] (such as {{IPA|/b/}} in {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} 'village, people' → {{IPA|[β]}} vs. {{IPA|[b]}} vs. {{IPA|[bː]}} vs. {{IPA|[p]}} vs. {{IPA|[pː]}}). === Morphology === Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-e}} in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or {{lang|ca|-o}} in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parle}}, {{lang|ca|tem}}, {{lang|ca|sent}} (Valencian); {{lang|ca|parlo}}, {{lang|ca|temo}}, {{lang|ca|sento}} (North-Western Catalan). Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-o}}, {{lang|ca|-i}}, or -∅ in all conjugations. <br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parlo}} (Central), {{lang|ca|parl}} (Balearic), and {{lang|ca|parli}} (Northern), all meaning ('I speak'). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ 1st-person singular present indicative forms |- ! colspan="3" , rowspan="2" | Conjugation !! colspan="3" | Eastern Catalan !! colspan="2" | Western Catalan !! rowspan="2" | Gloss |- ! Central !! Northern !! Balearic !! Valencian !! North-Western |- ! colspan="3" | 1st | {{lang|ca|parlo}} || {{lang|ca|parli}} || {{lang|ca|parl}} || {{lang|ca|parle}} || {{lang|ca|parlo}} || 'I speak' |- ! colspan="3" | 2nd | {{lang|ca|temo}} || {{lang|ca|temi}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|temo}} || 'I fear' |- ! colspan="2" , rowspan="2" | 3rd ! {{small|pure}} | {{lang|ca|sento}} || {{lang|ca|senti}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sento}} || 'I feel', 'I hear' |- ! {{small|inchoative}} | {{lang|ca|poleixo}} || {{lang|ca|poleixi}} || {{lang|ca|poleix}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|polisc}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|pol(e)ixo}} || 'I polish' |} Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-isc}}/{{lang|ca|-esc}}, {{lang|ca|-ix}}, {{lang|ca|-ixen}}, {{lang|ca|-isca}}/{{lang|ca|-esca}}. Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-eixo}}, {{lang|ca|-eix}}, {{lang|ca|-eixen}}, {{lang|ca|-eixi}}. Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in [[proparoxytone]] words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|hòmens}} 'men', {{lang|ca|jóvens}} 'youth'. Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|homes}} 'men', {{lang|ca|joves}} 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moll, Francesc de B. |title=Gramática catalana; referida especialment a les Illes Balears |date=1968 |publisher=Editorial Moll |isbn=84-273-0044-1 |location=Palma de Mallorca |oclc=2108762}}</ref>). === Vocabulary === Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern Catalan |- ! Gloss !! "mirror" !! "boy" !! "broom" !! "navel" !! "to exit" |- ! Eastern Catalan | {{lang|ca|mirall}} || {{lang|ca|noi}} || {{lang|ca|escombra}} || {{lang|ca|llombrígol}} || {{lang|ca|sortir}} |- ! Western Catalan | {{lang|ca|espill}} || {{lang|ca|xiquet}} || {{lang|ca|granera}} || {{lang|ca|melic}} || {{lang|ca|eixir}} |} == Standards == {{Main|Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua}} [[File:Casa de Convalescència - IEC.JPG|thumb|left|Casa de Convalescència, Headquarters of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)]] {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ Written varieties ! Catalan&nbsp;(IEC) ! Valencian&nbsp;(AVL) ! gloss |- | {{lang|ca|anglès}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|anglés}} | English |- | {{lang|ca|conèixer}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|conéixer}} | to know |- | {{lang|ca|treure}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|traure}} | take out |- | {{lang|ca|néixer}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|nàixer}} | to&nbsp;be&nbsp;born |- | {{lang|ca|càntir}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|cànter}} | pitcher |- | {{lang|ca|rodó}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|redó}} | round |- | {{lang|ca|meva}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|meua}} | my, mine |- | {{lang|ca|ametlla}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}} | almond |- | {{lang|ca|estrella}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|estrela}} | star |- | {{lang|ca|cop}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|colp}} | hit |- | {{lang|ca|llagosta}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|llangosta}} | lobster |- | {{lang|ca|homes}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|hòmens}} | men |- | {{lang|ca|servei}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|servici}} | service |} Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers,{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} is mostly based on Eastern Catalan,{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}} which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}} The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic {{angbr|e}} accentuation, for instance: {{lang|ca|francès, anglès}} (IEC) – {{lang|ca-valencia|francés, anglés}} (AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent {{angbr|è}}, while pronouncing it as {{IPA|/e/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, in some words such as: {{lang|ca-valencia|què}} ('what'), or {{lang|ca-valencia|València}}. Other divergences include the use of {{angbr|tl}} (AVL) in some words instead of {{angbr|tll}} like in {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}}/{{lang|ca|ametlla}} ('almond'), {{lang|ca-valencia|espatla}}/{{lang|ca|espatlla}} ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives ({{lang|ca|este}} 'this', {{lang|ca|eixe}} 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones ({{lang|ca|aquest, aqueix}}) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, such as subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in {{lang|ca|-ix-}} at the same level as {{lang|ca|-eix-}} or the priority use of {{lang|ca|-e}} morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative ({{lang|ca|-ar}} verbs): {{lang|ca|jo compre}} instead of {{lang|ca|jo compro}} ('I buy'). In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the [[University of the Balearic Islands]]'s philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing {{lang|ca|cantam}} as much as {{lang|ca|cantem}} ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be {{lang|ca|cantam}} in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: {{lang|ca|jo compr}} ('I buy'), {{lang|ca|jo tem}} ('I fear'), {{lang|ca|jo dorm}} ('I sleep'). In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article {{lang|ca|lo}} instead of {{lang|ca|el}}, special possessive pronouns and determinants {{lang|ca|la mia}} ('mine'), {{lang|ca|lo sou/la sua}} ('his/her'), {{lang|ca|lo tou/la tua}} ('yours'), and so on, the use of {{lang|ca|-v-}} {{IPA|/v/}} in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: {{lang|ca|cantava}}, {{lang|ca|creixiva}}, {{lang|ca|llegiva}}; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: {{lang|ca|manco}} instead of {{lang|ca|menys}} ('less'), {{lang|ca|calqui u}} instead of {{lang|ca|algú}} ('someone'), {{lang|ca|qual/quala}} instead of {{lang|ca|quin/quina}} ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of [[weak pronouns in Catalan|weak pronouns]]. In 1999, Catalan ([[Algherese dialect]]) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "[[Languages of Italy#Historical linguistic minorities|historical linguistic minorities]]" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999.<ref>Law No. 482 of 15 December 1999. "Rules on the protection of historical linguistic minorities". Article 2. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297. 20 December 1999</ref> In 2011,<ref>Decreto 89/2011, de 5 de abril, del Gobierno de Aragón, por el que se aprueban los Estatutos de la Academia Aragonesa del Catalán. [http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 BOA núm. 77, de 18 de abril de 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145503/http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> the [[Aragon]]ese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in [[La Franja]] (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.<ref>Ley 10/2009, de 22 de diciembre, de uso, protección y promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón [https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 BOE núm. 30, de 4 de febrero de 2010.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145822/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> The new entity, designated as {{lang|ca|[[Institut Aragonès del Català]]}}, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in [[La Franja]]. == Status of Valencian {{Anchor|About Valencian}} == {{Wikisource|ca|Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià|AVL: Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià}} {{Main|Valencian (disambiguation){{!}}Valencian|Valencian language controversy|Blaverism|Anti-Catalanism}} [[File:Subdialectes del valencià.svg|thumb|Subdialects of Valencian]] Valencian is classified as a [[Western Catalan|Western]] dialect, along with the [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]] varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of [[Lleida province|Lleida]] and the western half of [[Tarragona province|Tarragona]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.<ref name="e25" /> Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of Language]] (''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'', AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /> {{Quote box|width=40%|align=left|quote= [T]he historical patrimonial language of the [[Valencian people]], from a philological standpoint, is the same shared by the autonomous communities of [[Catalonia]] and [[Balearic islands]], and [[Principality of Andorra]]. Additionally, it is the patrimonial historical language of other territories of the ancient [[Crown of Aragon]] [...] The different varieties of these territories constitute a language, that is, a "linguistic system" [...] From this group of varieties, Valencian has the same hierarchy and dignity as any other dialectal modality of that linguistic system [...]|source=Ruling of the Valencian Language Academy of 9 February 2005, extract of point 1.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /><ref>Original full text of Dictamen 1: ''D'acord amb les aportacions més solvents de la romanística acumulades des del segle XIX fins a l'actualitat (estudis de gramàtica històrica, de dialectologia, de sintaxi, de lexicografia…), la llengua pròpia i històrica dels valencians, des del punt de vista de la filologia, és també la que compartixen les comunitats autònomes de Catalunya i de les Illes Balears i el Principat d'Andorra. Així mateix és la llengua històrica i pròpia d'altres territoris de l'antiga Corona d'Aragó (la franja oriental aragonesa, la ciutat sarda de l'Alguer i el departament francés dels Pirineus Orientals). Els diferents parlars de tots estos territoris constituïxen una llengua, és a dir, un mateix «sistema lingüístic», segons la terminologia del primer estructuralisme (annex 1) represa en el Dictamen del Consell Valencià de Cultura, que figura com a preàmbul de la Llei de Creació de l'AVL. Dins d'eixe conjunt de parlars, el valencià té la mateixa jerarquia i dignitat que qualsevol altra modalitat territorial del sistema lingüístic, i presenta unes característiques pròpies que l'AVL preservarà i potenciarà d'acord amb la tradició lexicogràfica i literària pròpia, la realitat lingüística valenciana i la normativització consolidada a partir de les Normes de Castelló.''</ref>}} The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (''[[Normes de Castelló]]''). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian known as the [[Norms of El Puig]]. Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |title=Casi el 65% de los valencianos opina que su lengua es distinta al catalán, según una encuesta del CIS |date=9 December 2004 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es |trans-title=Almost 65% of Valencians believe that their language is different from Catalan, according to a CIS survey |agency=Europa Press |access-date=8 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082617/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |url-status=live}}</ref> showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joan i Marí |first=Bernat |date=2020-11-26 |title=Llengua catalana: unitat i fragmentació |url=https://www.diaridegirona.cat/opinio/2020/11/26/llengua-catalana-unitat-i-fragmentacio-48657883.html |access-date=2025-07-11 |website=Diari de Girona |language=ca |quote=La majoria dels valencianoparlants consideren que el valencià i el català són la mateixa llengua. No així, per cert, els no valencianoparlants (incloent-hi els «coents», és a dir els valencians que parlen només espanyol. |trans-quote=Most speakers of Valencian Catalan consider Valencian and Catalan to be the same language. Not so, it's true, when it comes to non-speakers of Valencian (including what are called «coents», that is, Valencians who only speak Spanish.}}</ref> Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |title=Llistat dels Acadèmics de número |website=Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=List of RACV academics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214031455/http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |archive-date=14 December 2016}}</ref> This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the [[European Constitution]] in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the [[European Union|EU]] with translations of the text into [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Galician language|Galician]], Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |title=Traducció única de la Constitució europea |last=Isabel i Vilar |first=Ferran |date=30 October 2004 |website=I-Zefir |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=Unique translation of the European Constitution |access-date=29 April 2009 |archive-date=9 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224822/http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vocabulary == === Word choices === Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} === Latin and Greek loanwords === Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in [[Ramon Llull]]'s work.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in [[Roís de Corella]]'s writings.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, [[Latin language|Latin]], into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of [[Classical Latin|written language]] and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan. === Word formation === The process of [[morphological derivation]] in Catalan follows the same principles as the other [[Romance languages]],{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} where [[inflection]] is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example {{lang|ca|elèctri'''c'''}} {{IPA|[əˈlɛktri<u>k</u>]}} ("electrical") vs. {{lang|ca|electri'''c'''itat}} {{IPA|[ələktri<u>s</u>iˈtat]}}. [[Prefixes]] are usually appended to verbs, as in {{lang|ca|'''pre'''veure}} ("foresee").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} There is greater regularity in the process of [[word-compounding]], where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Common types of word compounds in Catalan{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} |- ! Type !! Example !! Gloss |- | two nouns, the second assimilated to the first || {{lang|ca|paper moneda}} || "banknote paper" |- | noun delimited by an adjective || {{lang|ca|estat major}} || "military staff" |- | noun delimited by another noun and a preposition || {{lang|ca|màquina d'escriure}} || "typewriter" |- | verb radical with a nominal object || {{lang|ca|<u>para</u>caigudes}} || "parachute" |- | noun delimited by an adjective, with adjectival value || {{lang|ca|pit-roig}} || "robin" (bird) |} == Writing system == {{Main|Catalan orthography}} {| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;" ! Main forms | {{lang|ca|[[A]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[a]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[B]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[b]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[C]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[c]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[D]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[d]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[E]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[e]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[F]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[f]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[G]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[g]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[H]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[h]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[I]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[i]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[J]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[j]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[K]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[k]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[L]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[l]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[M]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[m]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[N]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[n]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[O]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[o]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[P]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[p]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Q]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[q]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[R]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[r]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[S]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[s]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[T]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[t]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[U]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[u]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[V]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[v]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[W]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[w]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[X]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[x]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Y]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[y]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Z]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[z]]|italic=unset}} |- ! Modified forms | {{lang|ca|[[À]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[à]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ç]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ç]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[É]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[é]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[È]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[è]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Í]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[í]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ï]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ï]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ĿL]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ŀl]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ó]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ó]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ò]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ò]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ú]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ú]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ü]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ü]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | |} Catalan uses the [[Latin script]], with some added symbols and digraphs.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} The [[Catalan orthography]] is systematic and largely phonologically based.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC, founded in 1911) published the ''Normes ortogràfiques'' in 1913 under the direction of [[Antoni Maria Alcover]] and [[Pompeu Fabra]]. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in [[Castelló de la Plana]] to make a formal adoption of the so-called ''[[Normes de Castelló]]'', a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUu_apMqBF0C |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected writings |date=2009 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-9027289247 |editor-last=Carreras |editor-first=Joan Costa |language=en |translator-last=Yates |translator-first=Alan}}</ref>[[File:Catalan geminated L in a dictionary.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The word {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel") in a dictionary. The geminated L ({{lang|ca|ŀl}}) is a distinctive character used in Catalan.]] [[File:Billboard in Barcelona (detail).png|thumb|upright=0.8|Billboard in [[Barcelona]] (detail), showing the word {{lang|ca|iŀlusió}} ("illusion")]] {| class="wikitable" |+ Pronunciation of Catalan special characters and digraphs{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! {{lang|ca|ç}} | {{IPA|/s/}} || before {{lang|ca|a}}, {{lang|ca|o}} and {{lang|ca|u}}; or final position || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|gu}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɡ ~ ɣ]}}) || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|guerra}} ("war") |- | {{IPA|/ɡw/}} || elsewhere || {{lang|ca|guant}} ("glove") |- ! {{lang|ca|ig}} | {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|raig}} ("ray") |- ! {{lang|ca|ix}} | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ({{IPA|[jʃ]}} in most Western dialects) || medially and finally || {{lang|ca|caixa}} ("box") |- ! {{lang|ca|ll}} | {{IPA|/ʎ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|lloc}} ("place") |- ! {{lang|ca|ŀl}} | {{IPA|/lː/}} (normatively, but usually {{IPA|/l/}}) || between vowels || {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel") |- ! {{lang|ca|ny}} | {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ("Catalonia") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|qu}} | {{IPA|/k/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|qui}} ("who") |- | {{IPA|/kw/}} || before other vowels || {{lang|ca|quatre}} ("four") |- ! {{lang|ca|rr}} | {{IPA|/r/}} || between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|r}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || {{lang|ca|carrer}} ("street") <br /> {{lang|ca|mira}} ("he or she looks") |- ! {{lang|ca|sc}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}} || between vowels, before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|ascens}} ("rise") |- ! {{lang|ca|ss}} | between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|s}} is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} || {{lang|ca|grossa}} ("big, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") <br /> {{lang|ca|casa}} ("house") |- ! {{lang|ca|tg}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|fetge}} ("liver") |- ! {{lang|ca|tj}} | elsewhere || {{lang|ca|mitjó}} ("sock") |- ! {{lang|ca|ts}} | {{IPA|/t͡s/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|potser}} ("maybe") |- ! {{lang|ca|tx}} | {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|despatx}} ("office") |- ! {{lang|ca|tz}} | {{IPA|/d͡z/}} || mainly word medially || {{lang|ca|dotze}} ("twelve") |- | colspan="4" style="border-left: #fff solid 1px; border-right: #fff solid 1px" | &nbsp; |- ! colspan="4" | Learned letter combinations (found in loanwords and/or pre-reform terminology) |- ! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples |- ! {{lang|ca|ch}} | {{IPA|/k/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|Llach}} ("Llach") |- ! {{lang|ca|kh}} | {{IPA|/x/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|sikh}} ("sikh") |- ! {{lang|ca|ph}} | {{IPA|/f/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|pholis}} ("pholis") |- ! {{lang|ca|th}} | {{IPA|/θ/}} || in any position <br /> {{IPA|/t/}} in native words || {{lang|ca|theta}} ("theta") <br /> {{lang|ca|tothom}} ("everybody") |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Letters and digraphs with contextually conditioned pronunciations{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! !! Notes !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! {{lang|ca|c}} | {{IPA|/s/}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|ç}} in other contexts || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|masculine singular}}") vs. {{lang|ca|felices}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}")<br />{{lang|ca|caço}} ("I hunt") vs. {{lang|ca|caces}} ("you hunt") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|g}} | {{IPA|/ʒ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|envejar}} ("to envy") vs. {{lang|ca|envegen}} ("they envy") |- | final {{lang|ca|g}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and final {{lang|ca|ig}} before other vowels are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃ]}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}}~{{lang|ca|g}} or {{lang|ca|tj}}~{{lang|ca|tg}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|desig}} ("wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitjar}} ("to wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitgem}} ("we wish"), exception: {{lang|ca|càstig}} ("punishment"), pronounced with {{IPA|/k/}} <br /> {{lang|ca|boig}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|masculine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boja}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boges}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}") |- ! {{lang|ca|gu}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|g}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|botiga}} ("shop") vs. {{lang|ca|botigues}} ("shops") |- ! {{lang|ca|gü}} | {{IPA|/ɡw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|gu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|llengua}} ("language") vs. {{lang|ca|llengües}} ("languages") |- ! {{lang|ca|qu}} | {{IPA|/k/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|c}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|vaca}} ("cow") vs. {{lang|ca|vaques}} ("cows") |- ! {{lang|ca|qü}} | {{IPA|/kw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|qu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|obliqua}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|obliqües}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}") |- ! {{lang|ca|x}} | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (also {{IPA|[tʃ]}} dialectally) initially and in onsets after a consonant; {{IPA|[ʃ]}} after {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> {{IPA|/ks/}} between vowels and syllable final (except after {{lang|ca|i}} in most cases) <br /> {{IPA|/ɡz/}} between vowels and syllable final before voiced consonants || {{lang|ca|xinxa}} ("bedbug"), {{lang|ca|guix}} ("chalk") <br /> {{lang|ca|taxi}} ("taxi"), {{lang|ca|fixar}} ("to fix"), {{lang|ca|extra}} ("extra") <br /> {{lang|ca|exacte}} ("exact"), {{lang|ca|exdirector}} ("ex-director") |} == Grammar == {{Main|Catalan grammar}}{{cleanup section|date=June 2026|reason=Citation spam}} The grammar of Catalan is similar to other [[Romance languages]]. Features include:{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * Use of [[definite article|definite]] and [[indefinite article]]s.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * [[Noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and [[article (grammar)|articles]] are [[inflection|inflected]] for [[grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine and feminine), and [[grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural). There is no [[case (grammar)|case]] inflexion, except in pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * [[Verb]]s are highly inflected for [[person (grammar)|person]], [[number (grammar)|number]], [[tense (grammar)|tense]], [[aspect (grammar)|aspect]], and [[mood (grammar)|mood]] (including a [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]).{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * There are no [[modal auxiliary|modal auxiliaries]].{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * Word order is freer than in English.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} === Gender and number inflection === {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Regular noun with definite article: {{lang|ca|el gat}} ("the cat") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|el gat}} || {{lang|ca|la gat'''a'''}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|els gat'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|les gat'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 4 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|verd}} ("green") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|verd}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''a'''}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|verd'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 3 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|feliç}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|feliç'''os'''}} || {{lang|ca|felic'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 2 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}} ("indifferent") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}} |- ! plural | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}'''s'''}} |} |} [[File:Flexió of word Gat.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Gender and number inflection of the word {{lang|ca|gat}} ("cat")]] In [[gender inflection]], the most notable feature is (compared to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]]), the loss of the typical [[masculine]] [[suffix]] {{lang|ca|-o}}. Thus, the alternance of {{lang|ca|-o}}/{{lang|ca|-a}}, has been replaced by ''ø''/{{lang|ca|-a}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} There are only a few exceptions, such as {{lang|ca|minso}}/{{lang|ca|minsa}} ("scarce").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Affrication: {{lang|ca|bo'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|bo'''j'''<u>a</u>}} ("insane") vs. {{lang|ca|lle'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|lle'''tj'''<u>a</u>}} ("ugly") * Loss of {{lang|ca|n}}: {{lang|ca|pla}}/{{lang|ca|pla'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("flat") vs. {{lang|ca|sego'''n'''}}/{{lang|ca|sego'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("second") * [[Final obstruent devoicing]]: {{lang|ca|senti'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|senti'''d'''<u>a</u>}} ("felt") vs. {{lang|ca|di'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|di'''t'''<u>a</u>}} ("said") Catalan has few [[Suppletion|suppletive]] couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has {{lang|ca|noi}}/{{lang|ca|noia}} ("boy"/"girl") and {{lang|ca|gall}}/{{lang|ca|gallina}} ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has {{lang|ca|garçon}}/{{lang|ca|fille}} and {{lang|ca|coq}}/{{lang|ca|poule}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and French. Thus, one can find {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullenta}} ("boiling") in contrast with traditional {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullent}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix {{lang|ca|-s}}, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} The most important one is the addition of {{lang|ca|-o-}} before certain consonant groups, a [[phonetic]] phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: {{lang|ca|el pols}}/{{lang|ca|els polsos}} ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. {{lang|ca|la pols}}/{{lang|ca|les pols}} ("the dust"/"the dusts").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=630–631}} === Determiners === {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Definite article in Standard Catalan <br />(elided forms in brackets){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=29–30}} |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|el}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|la}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|els}} || {{lang|ca|les}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Contractions of the definite article |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! colspan="3" | preposition |- ! ''a'' !! ''de'' !! ''per'' |- ! rowspan="2" | article || ''el'' | {{lang|ca|al}} ({{lang|ca|a l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|del}} ({{lang|ca|de l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|pel}} ({{lang|ca|per l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) |- ! ''els'' | {{lang|ca|als}} || {{lang|ca|dels}} || {{lang|ca|pels}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Indefinite article |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|un}} || {{lang|ca|una}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|uns}} || {{lang|ca|unes}} |} |} The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than [[Spanish language|Spanish]], such as {{lang|ca|dels}} ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as [[Italian language|Italian]] (which has {{lang|it|sul}}, {{lang|it|col}}, {{lang|it|nel}}, etc.).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives ({{lang|ca|mon}}, etc.) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms ({{lang|ca|el meu}}, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} === Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ Catalan stressed pronouns{{sfn|Fabra|1926|p=42}} ! colspan="2" | &nbsp; !! singular !! plural |- ! colspan="2" | 1st person | {{lang|ca|jo}}, {{lang|ca|mi}} || {{lang|ca|nosaltres}} |- ! rowspan="3" | 2nd person !! informal | {{lang|ca|tu}} || {{lang|ca|vosaltres}} |- ! formal | {{lang|ca|vostè}} || {{lang|ca|vostès}} |- ! respectful | colspan="2" | ({{lang|ca|vós}})<ref>Archaic in most dialects.</ref> |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd person !! masculine | {{lang|ca|ell}} || {{lang|ca|ells}} |- ! feminine | {{lang|ca|ella}} || {{lang|ca|elles}} |} The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Features include the gender-neutral {{lang|ca|ho}} and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan pronouns exhibit [[T–V distinction]], like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality. This flexibility allows Catalan to use [[extraposition]] extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have {{lang|ca|m'hi recomanaren}} ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say {{lang|fr|ils m'ont recommandé à lui}}, and Spanish {{lang|es|me recomendaron a él}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence [[Topic–comment|topic]], without having to use so often the [[passive voice]] (as in French or English), or identifying the [[direct object]] with a [[preposition]] (as in Spanish).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {{clear}} === Verbs === {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em" |+ Simple forms of a regular verb of the first conjugation: {{lang|ca|portar}} ("to bring"){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=70–71}} ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Non-finite || colspan="6" style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Form |- style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portar}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Gerund || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portant}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Past participle || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portat}} ({{lang|ca|portat}}, {{lang|ca|portada}}, {{lang|ca|portats}}, {{lang|ca|portades}}) |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Indicative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | Present || {{lang|ca|porto}} || {{lang|ca|portes}} || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|porten}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portaves}} || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portàvem}} || {{lang|ca|portàveu}} || {{lang|ca|portaven}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Preterite (archaic) || {{lang|ca|portí}} || {{lang|ca|portares}} || {{lang|ca|portà}} || {{lang|ca|portàrem}} || {{lang|ca|portàreu}} || {{lang|ca|portaren}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Future || {{lang|ca|portaré}} || {{lang|ca|portaràs}} || {{lang|ca|portarà}} || {{lang|ca|portarem}} || {{lang|ca|portareu}} || {{lang|ca|portaran}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Conditional || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaries}} || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaríem}} || {{lang|ca|portaríeu}} || {{lang|ca|portarien}} |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Subjunctive || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | Present || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portis}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssis}} || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssim}} || {{lang|ca|portéssiu}} || {{lang|ca|portessin}} |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Imperative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | — || — || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}} |} Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. [[Suffixation]] is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of {{lang|ca|anar}} ("to go") + infinitive.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes {{lang|ca|-a-}}, {{lang|ca|-e-}}, {{lang|ca|-i-}}, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of {{lang|ca|servir}}, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {{clear}} === Syntax === {{Main|Catalan syntax}} The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary [[word order]] is [[subject–verb–object]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |title=Catalan |website=World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) Online |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=12 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212065626/https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |url-status=live}}</ref> However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as {{lang|ca|Ha arribat el tren}} or {{lang|ca|El tren ha arribat}}. Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train".{{sfn|Wheeler|Yates|Dols|1999}} == Catalan names == {{Main|Catalan names}} In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}} The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction ''i'' ("and").{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}}<ref>article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames"</ref> == Sample text == Selected text from [[Manuel de Pedrolo]]'s 1970 novel {{lang|ca|Un amor fora ciutat}} ("A love affair outside the city").{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}}{{Interlinear|Tenia {prop de} divuit anys quan vaig conèixer en Raül, a l'estació de Manresa. El meu pare havia mort, inesperadament i encara jove, un parell d'anys abans, i d'aquells temps conservo un record de punyent solitud. Les meves relacions amb la mare no havien pas millorat, tot el contrari, potser {fins i tot} empitjoraven {a mesura que} em feia gran. No existia, no existí mai entre nosaltres, una comunitat d'interessos, d'afeccions. Cal creure que cercava... una persona en qui centrar la meva vida afectiva.|təˈniə {ˈprɔp də} diˈβujt ˈaɲʃ ˈkwam ˈbatʃ kuˈnɛʃə ən rəˈul ə ləstəˈsjo ðə mənˈrɛzə əl ˈmew paɾə əˈβiə mɔrt inəspəˌɾaðəˈmen i ənˈkaɾə ˈʒoβə um pəˈɾɛʎ ˈdaɲʃ əˈβans i ðəˈkɛʎ ˈtems kunˈserβu un rəˈkɔrt də puˈɲen suliˈtut ləz ˈmeβəz rələˈsjonz əm lə ˈmaɾə no əˈviən ˈpaz miʎuˈɾat ˈtot əl kunˈtɾaɾi putˈse {ˈfinz i ˈtot} əmpidʒuˈɾaβən {ə məˈzuɾə kə} əm ˈfɛjə ˈɣɾan no əɡzisˈtiə no əɡzisˈti ˈmaj ˈentɾə nuˈzaltɾəs ˈunə kumuniˈtat dintəˈɾɛsus dəfəkˈsjons ˈkal ˈkɾɛwɾə kə sərˈkaβə ˈunə pəɾˈsonə əŋ ˈki səntˈɾaɾ lə ˈmeβə ˈβiðə əfəkˈtiβə | 3 = {I was having} {close to} eighteen years, when {I go [past auxiliary]} {know (=I met)} the Raül, at {the station} {of (=in)} Manresa. The my father had died, unexpectedly and still young, a couple {of years} before, and {of those} times {I keep} a memory of acute loneliness The my relations with the mother not had {at all} improved, all the contrary, perhaps even {they were worsening} {at step that (=in proportion as)} myself {I was making} {big (=I was growing up).} Not {it was existing}, not {it existed} never between us, a community {of interests}, {of affections}. {It is necessary} {to believe} that {I was seeking...} a person in whom {to center} the my life affective. | 4 = 'I was about eighteen years old when I met Raül, at [[Manresa]] railway station. My father had died, unexpectedly and still young, a couple of years before; and from that time I still harbor memories of great loneliness. My relationship with my mother had not improved; quite the contrary, and arguably it was getting even worse as I grew up. There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us shared interests or affection. I guess I was seeking... a person in whom I could center my emotional life.' | lang = ca | indent = 1.6 | ipa1 = no | ipa2 = yes | ipa3 = no | glossing1 = no | glossing2 = no | glossing3 = yes | glossing = no abbr }} == See also == {{Portal|Spain|Andorra|Italy|France|Language}} {{div col}} ;Organizations * ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (Catalan Studies Institute) * ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (Valencian Academy of the Language) * [[Òmnium Cultural]] * [[Plataforma per la Llengua]] ;Scholars * [[Marina Abràmova]] * [[Germà Colón]] * [[Dominique de Courcelles]] * [[Martí de Riquer]] * [[Arthur Terry]] * [[Lawrence Venuti]] ;Other * [[Languages of Catalonia]] ** [[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers]] * [[Languages of France]] * [[Languages of Italy]] * [[Languages of Spain]] * [[Normes de Castelló]] * [[Pompeu Fabra]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{Reflist|group=note}} {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Works cited == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{citation |publisher=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |date=9 February 2005 |title=Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |language=ca |url=http://ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0#Dictamen |ref={{harvid|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|2005}} |access-date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=5 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305161817/http://ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0#Dictamen |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}} * {{cite book |last=Britton |first=A. Scott |year=2011 |title=Catalan Dictionary & Phrasebook |place=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1258-0}} * {{cite book |last=Bruguera |first=Jordi |year=2008 |chapter=Historia interna del catalán: léxico, formación de palabras y fraseología |title=Romanische Sprachgeschichte |editor-last=Ernst |editor-first=Gerhard |volume=3 |place=Berlin, New York |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=3045–3055}} * {{cite book |last=Burke |first=Ulrik Ralph |title=A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog |year=1900 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog/page/n187 154]}} * {{cite journal |last1=Carbonell |first1=Joan F. |last2=Llisterri |first2=Joaquim |year=1992 |title=Catalan |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=22 |issue=1–2 |page=53 |doi=10.1017/S0025100300004618 |s2cid=249411809}} * {{cite book |last1=Carbonell |first1=Joan F. |last2=Llisterri |first2=Joaquim |year=1999 |chapter=Catalan |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=61–65 |isbn=0-521-63751-1}} * {{cite book |title=Collins English Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1991 |isbn=0-00-433286-5 |ref={{harvid|Collins English Dictionary}}}} * {{cite book |last=Colón |first=Germà |year=1993 |title=El lèxic català dins la Romània. Biblioteca Lingüística Catalana |publisher=Universitat de València |place=Valencia |isbn=84-370-1327-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Costa Carreras |first1=Joan |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948) |year=2009 |publisher=Instutut d'Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-3264-9 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC}} * {{cite book |last=Fabra |first=Pompeu |title=Gramàtica Catalana |year=1926 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |edition=4th |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085647/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Feldhausen |first=Ingo |title=Sentential Form and Prosodic Structure of Catalan |year=2010 |publisher=John Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-5551-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085512/https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |author1=Ferrater |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana Volum 4 |year=1973 |publisher=Enciclopèdia Catalana |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-85-194-04-7 |pages=628–639 |edition=1977, corrected |language=ca |chapter=Català |ref={{harvid|Enciclopèdia Catalana}} |display-authors=etal}} * {{Citation |title=[[Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]] |orig-date=1973 |date=1977 |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-85-194-04-7 |edition=corrected |pages=628–639 |language=ca |entry=Català |volume=4 |trans-title=Great Catalan Encyclopaedia |last=Ferrater Soler |first=Gabriel |author-link=Gabriel Ferrater |display-authors=etal |entry-url=https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ec-gec-0224508.xml }} * {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}} * {{cite book |last=García Venero |first=Maximiano |title=Historia del nacionalismo catalán: 2a edición |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 April 2010 |date=7 July 2006 |publisher=Ed. Nacional |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425120752/https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Gove |editor-first=Philip Babcock |title=Webster's Third New International Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc. |year=1993 |editor-link=Philip Babcock Gove |isbn=3-8290-5292-8}} * {{cite journal |last=Grau Mateu |first=Josep |title=El català, llengua de govern: la política lingüística de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914–1924) |journal=Revista de Llengua I Dret |publisher=Revista de llengua i dret, 64 |url=https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |year=2015 |pages=86–101 |access-date=9 June 2019 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609083746/https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Guinot |first=Enric |title=Els fundadors del Regne de València: replobament, antroponímia i llengua a la València medieval |year=1999 |publisher=Tres i Quatre |location=Valencia |isbn=8475025919}} * {{Citation |url={{Google Books |id=T_DpUtZ66hoC |plainurl=yes}} |last=Hall |first=Jacqueline |title=''Convivència'' in Catalonia: Languages Living Together |location=Barcelona |publisher=Fundació Jaume Bofill |date=2001 }} * {{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}} * {{cite book |last=Jud |first=Jakob |title=Problèmes de géographie linguistique romane |year=1925 |publisher=Revue de Linguistique Romane |location=Paris |pages=181–182 |language=fr}} * {{cite book |last=Koryakov |first=Yuri |title=Atlas of Romance languages |place=Moscow |year=2001}} * {{cite book |last=Lledó |first=Miquel Àngel |title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity : The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts (Volume 2) |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-539245-6 |pages=336–348 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337 |chapter=26. The Independent Standardization of Valencia: From Official Use to Underground Resistance |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085540/https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337#v=snippet&q=IEC%20AVL%20catalan&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Lloret |first=Maria-Rosa |editor-last=Auger |editor-first=Julie |editor2-last=Clements |editor2-first=J. Clancy |editor3-last=Vance |editor3-first=Barbara |chapter=The Phonological Role of Paradigms: The Case of Insular Catalan |title=Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 33rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages |date=2004 |page=278 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins}} * {{cite book |last=Marfany |first=Marta |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |year=2002 |publisher=Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-366-5 |language=ca}} * {{cite book |last1=Melchor |first1=Vicent de |last2=Branchadell |first2=Albert |title=El catalán: una lengua de Europa para compartir |year=2002 |publisher=Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona |location=Bellaterra |isbn=84-490-2299-1 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |language=es |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085544/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Moll |first=Francesc de B. |title=Gramàtica Històrica Catalana |orig-date=1958 |date=2006 |publisher=Universitat de València |isbn=978-84-370-6412-3 |edition=Catalan |page=47 |language=ca}} * {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Treballs de lingüística històrica catalana |year=1994 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Monsterrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-568-6 |pages=55–93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38 |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085649/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Estudis d'història de la llengua catalana |year=2004 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-672-9 |pages=37–38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121043/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Padgett |first=Jaye |date=December 2009 |journal=The Linguistic Review |volume=26 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/tlir.2009.016 |title=Systemic Contrast and Catalan Rhotics |url=https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |pages=431– |s2cid=15197551 |access-date=17 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082601/https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1993 |chapter=Fonètica i Fonologia |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Fontdevila |first2=Jordi |last3=Pallarès |first3=Maria Dolors |year=1995 |title=Velarization Degree and Coarticulatory Resistance for /l/ in Catalan and German |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=288 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(95)80031-X}} * {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1996 |title=Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX |edition=2nd |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |isbn=9788472833128 |pages=75–76, 128–129}} * {{cite book |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Pallarès |first2=Maria Dolors |year=2001 |title=De la fonètica a la fonologia: les consonants i assimilacions consonàntiques del català |publisher=Editorial Ariel |place=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-344-2884-3}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2005 |title=Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1, 20 |doi=10.1017/S0025100305001878 |s2cid=14140079}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2007 |title=An Electropalatographic and Acoustic Study of Affricates and Fricatives in Two Catalan Dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=37 |issue=2 |page=145 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002829 |s2cid=14275190}} * {{cite book |last=Riquer |first=Martí de |title=Història de la Literatura Catalana |year=1964 |publisher=Ariel |location=Barcelona |language=ca |chapter=Vol.1}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Russell-Gebbett |editor-first=Paul |title=Mediaeval Catalan Linguistic Texts |publisher=Dolphin Book Co. Ltd., Oxford |year=1965 |editor-link=Paul S. N. Russell-Gebbett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085542/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schlösser |first=Rainer |title=Die romanischen Sprachen |year=2005 |publisher=C.H. Beck |location=Munich}} * {{cite book |last=Swan |first=Michael |title=Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and Other Problems, Volume 1 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC |isbn=978-0-521-77939-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |year=1962 |pages=43–48 |title=The Resurgence of Catalan |journal=Hispania |volume=45 |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/337523 |jstor=337523}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max W. |date=1979 |title=Phonology of Catalan |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-11621-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Max |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |last3=Dols |first3=Nicolau |year=1999 |title=Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar |place=London |publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=The Romance Languages |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-16417-6 |pages=170–208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC |chapter=5. Catalan}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2005 |title=The Phonology of Catalan |url=https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee |url-access=limited |place=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee/page/n66 54] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925814-7}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2006 |title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |year=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |pages=188–192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |chapter=Catalan |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324124913/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |title=Homenatge a Arthur Terry |year=1997 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-894-4 |pages=9–18 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17 |chapter=greuges de Guitard isarn, Senyor de Caboet (1080–1095) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121102/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |year=2007 |title=Petit Atles lingüístic del domini català |volume=1 & 2 |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |page=51 |isbn=978-84-7283-942-7}} {{refend}} == External links == '''Institutions''' * [http://www.cpnl.cat/ ''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística''] * [https://www.iec.cat/ ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)] * [https://www.avl.gva.es/ ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' (AVL)] '''About the Catalan/Valencian language''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529085634/http://www2.iec.cat/institucio/seccions/Filologica/gramatica/default.asp ''Gramàtica de la Llengua Catalana''] (Catalan grammar), from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [https://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV ''Gramàtica Normativa Valenciana''] (Valencian grammar). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101063611/http://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV |date=1 November 2020}}, from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' * [https://www.apuntsdellengua.es/ ''Apunts de llengua''], learning program by À Punt * [https://llengua.gencat.cat/ca/inici llengua.gencat.cat], by the Government of Catalonia * [https://www.verbs.cat/en/ verbs.cat] (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers) * [http://www.ub.edu/lexdialgram/ LEXDIALGRAM] (online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona) '''Monolingual dictionaries''' * [https://dlc.iec.cat/ DIEC2], from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [http://www.avl.gva.es/lexicval/ ''Diccionari Normatiu Valencià'' (DNV)], from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' * [http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= ''Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana'']. {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518140450/http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= |date=18 May 2016 }}, from Enciclopèdia Catalana * [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ ''Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear''] d'Alcover i Moll. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040826061207/http://dcvb.iecat.net/ |date=26 August 2004 }}, from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [http://www.dilc.org/ ''Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana''] (Dictionary of Catalan words spelled backward) * [http://www.trobat.com/servicis/dvo.php trobat.com] (online Valencian dictionary) '''Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries''' * [http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm ''Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe'']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531071849/http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm |date=31 May 2014 }} (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana '''Automated translation systems''' * [https://traductor.gencat.cat/text.do Traductor] automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia '''Learning resources''' * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Catalan_Swadesh_list Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words], from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix] '''Catalan-language online encyclopedia''' * ''[https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ Enciclopèdia Catalana]'' {{Sister bar |auto=1|wikt=Category:Catalan language|d=y|iw=ca}} {{Navboxes | title = Articles related to Catalan language | list = {{Navboxes |title=Linguistics |list = {{Romance languages}} {{Occitano-Romance languages and dialects}} {{Catalan language}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Geopolitical use |list = {{Languages of Spain}} {{Languages of France}} {{Languages of Italy}} {{Languages of Europe}} }} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Catalan language| ]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Occitano-Romance languages]] [[Category:Languages of Catalonia]] [[Category:Languages of Andorra]] [[Category:Languages of France]] [[Category:Languages of Sardinia]] [[Category:Endangered Romance languages]] [[Category:Vulnerable languages]] [[Category:Endangered languages of Europe]] lgtbbk9ujk08933qbio67ecd3koodpe 687836 687835 2026-07-13T12:31:18Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Catalan_language]] 687835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Romance language}} {{Redirect2|Catala|Català|the ship|SS Catala{{!}}SS ''Catala''|the football club|Català FC|the surnames|Català (surname)|and|Catalá}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Catalan | altname = Valencian | nativename = {{lang|ca|català}} <br /> {{lang|ca-valencia|valencià}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Unjoanqualsevol-català.wav}} ({{abbr|N|Northern}}, {{abbr|C|Central}} & {{abbr|B|Balearic}}) / {{IPA|ca|kataˈla||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-català.wav}} ({{abbr|NW|North-Western}} & {{abbr|A|Algherese}}) <br /> {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa||LL-Q7026 (cat)-Millars-valencià.wav}} ({{abbr|V|Valencian}}) | states = {{hlist|[[Spain]]|[[Andorra]]|[[France]]|[[Italy]]}} | region = [[Southern Europe]] | speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|4.141310|2}} million | date = 2022 | ref = e25 | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|5.100000|2}} million<br />Total: {{sigfig|9.241310|2}} million | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]{{Efn|Catalan is also classified as an [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] language.}} | fam9 = [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Old Occitan]] | ancestor5 = [[Old Catalan]] | script = {{ubl | [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Catalan alphabet]]) | [[Catalan Braille]] }} | nation = *[[Andorra]] *[[Spain]] **[[Balearic Islands]] **[[Catalonia]] **[[Valencian Community]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'') *[[Italy]] **[[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]]) | minority = {{collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left|title=3 sub-regions or areas |the French sub-region of: * [[Northern Catalonia]] ([[Roussillon]]), part of [[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitania]] |the Spanish sub-regions of: * [[La Franja]], part of the community of [[Aragon]] * [[Carche]], part of the [[Region of Murcia]] (as ''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]'')}} | agency = ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC) <br /> ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL) | iso1 = ca | iso2 = cat | iso3 = cat | lingua = 51-AAA-e | map = Catalan language in Europe (cropped).png | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#00A86B|Catalan/Valencian is the native language and has official status}} {{legend|#50C878|Catalan/Valencian is the native language but with no official status}} {{legend|#77dd77|Catalan/Valencian is not historically spoken but has official status}} | mapcaption2 = {{center|Standard Catalan is classified as Potentially Vulnerable by the UNESCO [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|title=World Atlas of Languages: Standard Catalan|website=en.wal.unesco.org|access-date=2023-12-04|archive-date=4 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204123215/https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/standard-catalan|url-status=live}}</ref>}} | notice = IPA | glotto = stan1289 | glottorefname = Catalan }} '''Catalan''' ({{lang|ca|català}}) is a [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance language]] that is native to, and the official language of, three [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] in eastern [[Spain]]: [[Catalonia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], and the [[Valencian Community]], where it is called [[Valencian language|Valencian]] ({{lang|ca|valencià}}). Catalan is also the sole official language of [[Andorra]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} has semi-official status in the [[Italy|Italian]] municipality of [[Alghero]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Minder |first=Raphael |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/europe/catalan-italy-alghero.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |title=Italy's Last Bastion of Catalan Language Struggles to Keep It Alive |date=21 November 2016 |work=The New York Times |access-date=21 January 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and is spoken in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] department of [[France]] and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the [[La Franja|eastern strip]] of [[Aragon]] and the [[Carche]] area in the [[Region of Murcia]]. The Catalan-speaking regions are often called the [[Catalan Countries]] ({{lang|ca|Països Catalans}}).<ref>{{cite web |title=els Països Catalans |url=https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |work=[[Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana|enciclopèdia.cat]] |access-date=15 August 2023 |language=ca |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815020536/https://www.enciclopedia.cat/gran-enciclopedia-catalana/els-paisos-catalans |url-status=live}}</ref> The language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] in the Middle Ages around the eastern [[Pyrenees]]. It became the language of the [[Principality of Catalonia]] and the kingdoms of [[kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and [[Kingdom of Majorca|Mallorca]], being present throughout the Mediterranean as the main language of the [[Crown of Aragon]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} It was replaced by [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as a language of government and literature in the 1700s, but 19th century Spain saw a [[Renaixença|Catalan literary revival]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} culminating in the early 1900s. During the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1936–1975), the usage of Catalan was subject to repressive measures, before it entered a relatively successful process of re-normalization between the 1980s and the 2000s. However, during the 2010s, it experienced signs of decline in social use, [[diglossia]] and the re-growth of discrimination cases.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cebrián |first1=Joan |title=El català, el quart motiu de discriminació a Barcelona |url=https://www.ara.cat/societat/barcelona/catala-quart-motiu-discriminacio-barcelona_1_4435335.html |access-date=29 May 2024 |publisher=Ara.cat |date=15 July 2022}}</ref> == Etymology and pronunciation {{Anchor|Etymology and pronunciation}} == {{Main|Catalonia#Etymology and pronunciation}} The word ''Catalan'' is derived from the territorial name of [[Catalonia]], itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ({{langx|la|Gathia Launia}}) derives from the name {{lang|la|Gothia}} or {{lang|la|Gauthia}} ('Land of the [[Goths]]'), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the [[March of Gothia]], whence ''Gothland'' > ''Gothlandia'' > ''Gothalania'' > ''Catalonia'' theoretically derived.{{sfn|García Venero|2006}}{{sfn|Burke|1900|p=154}} In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as ''Catelaner'', followed in the 15th century as {{lang|frm|Catellain}} (from [[Middle French]]). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The word ''Catalan'' can be pronounced in English as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|t|ə|l|ə|n|,_|-|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|lən|,_|-|lan}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|t|ə|ˈ|l|æ|n}} {{respell|KAT|ə|LAN}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |title=Definition of Catalan |date=16 August 2023 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510200230/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dictionary.reference.com">{{Cite dictionary |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |title=Catalan |dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073000/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/catalan |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[endonym]] is pronounced {{IPA|ca|kətəˈla|}} in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and {{IPA|ca|kataˈla|}} in the Western dialects. In the [[Valencian Community]] and [[Carche]], the term {{lang|ca|valencià}} {{IPA|ca-valencia|valensiˈa|}} is frequently used instead. Thus, the name "Valencian", although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005">{{cite web |author=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |date=9 February 2005 |title=Acord de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL), adoptat en la reunió plenària del 9 de febrer del 2005, pel qual s'aprova el dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |pages=52 |language=ca-valencia |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> synonymous with "Catalan".{{sfn|Lledó|2011|pp=334–337}}<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /> Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (AVL)<ref group="note" name="DNV_AVL_1">The ''Valencian Normative Dictionary'' of the Valencian Academy of the Language states that Valencian is a "Romance language spoken in the Valencian Community, as well as in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, the French department of the {{lang|fr|Pyrénées-Orientales}}, the Principality of Andorra, the eastern flank of Aragon and the Sardinian town of Alghero (unique in Italy), where it receives the name of 'Catalan{{'"}}.</ref> and the ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (IEC).<ref group="note" name="IEC">The ''Catalan Language Dictionary'' of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans states in the sixth definition of "Valencian" that, in the Valencian Community, it is equivalent to Catalan language.</ref> (See also [[#Status of Valencian|status of Valencian]] below). == History == {{Main|History of Catalan}} === Middle Ages === {{Further|Old Catalan|Phonological history of Catalan}} {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = Greuges de Guitard Isarn.jpg | width1 = 150 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Homilies d'Organya.jpg | width2 = 150 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Left: Fragment of the ''[[Greuges de Guitard Isarn]]'' ({{Circa|1080}}–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan,{{sfn|Veny|1997|pp=9–18}}{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} predating the famous ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' by a century. Right: ''[[Homilies d'Organyà]]'' (early 12th century) }} By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern end of the [[Pyrenees]], as well as the territories of the Roman province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] to the south.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the [[Muslims]], bringing their language with them.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the [[County of Barcelona]] from the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 988.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} In the 11th century, documents written in [[macaronic language|macaronic Latin]] begin to show Catalan elements,{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} Old Catalan shared many features with [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]], diverging from [[Old Occitan]] between the 11th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Riquer|1964}} During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the [[Ebro river]],{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} and in the 13th century they conquered the lands that would become the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] and the [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]].{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The city of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]] was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached [[Murcia]], which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} [[File:Map of the Crown of Aragon.svg|thumb|upright=1|Diachronic map of the Crown of Aragon. King [[James I of Aragon|James the Conqueror]] (1208–1276) dictated his autobiographical chronicles entirely in Catalan. Some of this territory nowadays makes up the ''[[Catalan Countries]]''.]] In the [[Low Middle Ages]], Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath [[Ramon Llull]] (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in [[Ausiàs March]] (1397–1459).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} By the 15th century, the city of [[Valencia]] had become the sociocultural center of the [[Crown of Aragon]], and Catalan was present all over the [[Mediterranean]] world.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} [[Joanot Martorell|Martorell]]'s novel of chivalry ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'' (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in [[Bernat Metge|Metge]]'s work.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The first book produced with movable type in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was printed in Catalan.<ref>''Trobes en llaors de la Verge Maria'' ("Poems of praise of the Virgin Mary") 1474.</ref>{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} === Early modern era === {{See also|Nation state|Anti-Catalan sentiment}} ==== Spain ==== With the union of the crowns of [[Crown of Castille|Castille]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the [[laws]] of each territory before the respective [[parliament]]s. But after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], Spain became an [[absolute monarchy]] under [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the [[Crown of Castile]] through the [[Nueva Planta decrees]], as a first step in the creation of the Spanish [[Nation state|nation-state]]; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sales Vives |first=Pere |title=L'Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808–1932 |date=22 September 2020 |publisher=El Gall editor |isbn=9788416416707 |pages=422 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>Antoni Simon, [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605094401/https://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 |date=5 June 2022 }}, páginas 45-46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València</ref> Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayans Balcells |first=Pere |title=Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-947201-4-7 |edition=del 1979 |pages=230 |publisher=Edicions del 1979 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="Recopilació d'accions genocides con">{{cite book |last=Lluís |first=García Sevilla |title=Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana |publisher=Base |year=2021 |isbn=9788418434983 |pages=300 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Bea Seguí |first=Ignaci |title=En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana |publisher=Cossetània |year=2013 |isbn=9788490341339 |pages=216 |language=ca}}</ref><ref name="galeusca2">{{cite web |title=Enllaç al Manifest Galeusca on en l'article 3 es denuncia l'asimetria entre el castellà i les altres llengües de l'Estat Espanyol, inclosa el català. |url=http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719071429/http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-date=19 July 2008 |access-date=2 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Radatz |first=Hans-Ingo |date=8 October 2020 |title=Spain in the 19th century: Spanish Nation Building and Catalonia's attempt at becoming an Iberian Prussia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344608600 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>{{POV statement|date=October 2023|reason=One of the sources is titled "Recopilation of genocidal actions against the Catalan language". Seriously? Most of these sources are Catalan, foreign authors should be cited for controversial statements like these.}} The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2">{{cite book |last=de la Cierva |first=Ricardo |title=Historia general de España: Llegada y apogeo de los Borbones |date=1981 |publisher=Planeta |isbn=8485753003 |pages=78 |language=ca}}</ref> From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish".<ref name="Historia general de España: Llegada2" /> The use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] gradually became more prestigious{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|pp=6–7|2009}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became [[bilingualism|bilingual]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} {{clear}} ==== France ==== {{See also|Language policy in France|Vergonha|Patuet}} With the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] (1659), [[Spain]] ceded the [[Northern Catalonia|northern part of the Principality of Catalonia]] to [[France]], and soon thereafter the [[Northern Catalan|local Catalan varieties]] came under the influence of [[French language|French]], which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |title=''L'interdiction de la langue catalane en Roussillon par Louis XIV'' |publisher="CRDP, Académie de Montpellier |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214055235/http://crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf |archive-date=14 December 2010}}</ref> Shortly after the [[French Revolution]] (1789), the [[French First Republic]] prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]], and [[Basque language|Basque]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Orf |first=Darren |title=During the French Revolution, most of the country did not speak French. |url=https://historyfacts.com/world-history/fact/during-the-french-revolution-most-of-the-country-did-not-speak-french/ |access-date=2026-06-08 |website=History Facts |language=en-US}}</ref> === France: 19th to 20th century === {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = Interdiction officielle de la langue catalana 2 avril 1700.jpg | width1 = 140 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Left: Official decree prohibiting the Catalan language in France. Right: "Speak French, be clean", school wall in [[Ayguatébia-Talau]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]), 2010 }} After the French colony of [[French Algeria|Algeria]] was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanish [[province of Alicante]] settled around [[Oran]], while those from [[Northern Catalonia|French Catalonia]] and [[Menorca]] migrated to [[Algiers]]. By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of ''[[Patuet]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Àngela-Rosa Menages, Joan-Lluís Monjo |title=El patuet valencià, un reflex lingüístic de la societat algeriana colonial (1830–1962) |url=https://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054920/http://www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> as their speech was called.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plataforma per la llengua |title=The Catalan Language |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307203232/https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Marfany |first1=Marta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |last2=Simó |first2=Marta Marfany |date=2002 |publisher=L'Abadia de Montserrat |isbn=978-84-8415-366-5 |language=ca |access-date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415045602/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C |url-status=live}}</ref> or Alicante.{{sfn|Marfany|2002}} The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then [[General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales]] officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment's languages<ref name="Charte en faveur du Catalan">{{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |title=''Charte en faveur du Catalan'' |access-date=18 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222154353/http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}} {{cite web |url=http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |title=''La catalanitat a la Catalunya Nord'' |access-date=13 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309142734/http://www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm |archive-date=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and seeks to further promote it in public life and education. === Spain: 18th to 20th century === {{See also|Nueva Planta decrees|Language politics in Spain under Franco}} [[File:Mapa_político_de_España,_1850.jpg|thumb|Political map of Spain (1850), divided into four parts: The ''Fully constitutional Spain'' (brown), most of the former [[Crown of Castile]]; ''Assimilated Spain'' (green), the former [[Crown of Aragon]], including the [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking lands]]; ''Foral Spain'' (blue), the Basque-speaking territories; and ''Colonial Spain'' (yellow)]] In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the [[Prefect (France)|prefects]] for an official survey on the limits of the [[French language]]. The survey found that in [[Roussillon]], almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the [[consul]] in [[Barcelona]] was also asked. He declared that Catalan "is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it was spoken everywhere "with the exception of the royal courts". He also indicated that Catalan was spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d "Aran and Cerdaña".<ref>{{cite book |last=Merle |date=5 January 2010 |publisher=Editorial Trabucaire |isbn=978-2849741078 |language=French |location=Perpinyà |first=René |pages=223 |title=Visions de "l'idiome natal" à travers l'enquête impériale sur les patois 1807–1812}}</ref> The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1714) initiated a series of [[Nueva planta decrees|laws]] which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] in legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century. However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival ({{lang|ca|[[Renaixença]]}}), which has continued up to the present day.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} This period starts with [[Bonaventura Carles Aribau|Aribau]]'s ''Ode to the Homeland'' (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of [[Jacint Verdaguer|Verdaguer]] (poetry), [[Narcís Oller|Oller]] (realist novel), and [[Àngel Guimerà|Guimerà]] (drama).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=10–11}} In the 19th century, the region of [[Carche]], in the [[province of Murcia]] was repopulated with Valencian speakers.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the [[Second Spanish Republic]] (1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The [[Generalitat]] (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at the social level, including in schools and the [[University of Barcelona]]. The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of [[Spain]], while banning the use of Catalan in them.<ref name="Guardian1">{{Cite news |last=Burgen |first=Stephen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |title=Catalan: a language that has survived against the odds |date=22 November 2012 |work=The Guardian |access-date=18 January 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=24 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224061600/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manent |first1=Albert |last2=Crexell |first2=Joan |title=Bibliografia catalana dels anys més difícils (1939–1943) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |date=1988 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat, S.A |location=Barcelona |isbn=8472029379 |page=14 |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-date=31 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131130959/https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> Francisco Franco's desire for a homogeneous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco's dictatorship. At the end of [[World War II]], however, some of the harsh measures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=CORNELLÀ-DETRELL |first=JORDI |jstor=10.7722/j.cttn346z |title=Literature as a Response to Cultural and Political Repression in Franco's Catalonia |date=2011 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-85566-201-8}}</ref> Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them ''Joan Martorell'' prize (1947), ''Víctor Català'' prize (1953) ''Carles Riba'' award (1950), or the [[Premi d'Honor de les Lletres Catalanes|Honor Award of Catalan Letters]] (1969).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Una polèmica literària sota el franquisme |url=https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |website=Palavracomum |date=20 July 2015 |language=ca-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817040501/https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Primera emisión de un programa en catalán |url=https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |website=RTVE |date=30 July 2018 |language=es-ES |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525000521/https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casademont |first=Enric Pujol |date=2020 |title=Culture, language and politics. The Catalan cultural resistance during the Franco regime (1939–1977) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Catalan Historical Review |volume=13 |pages=69–84}}</ref> In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into [[Francoist Catalonia|Catalonia]] from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it. [[Catalonia]] was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not [[Multilingualism|bilingual]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rendon |first=Sílvio |date=2007 |title=The Catalan premium: language and employment in Catalonia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |journal=Journal of Population Economics |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=669–686 |doi=10.1007/s00148-005-0048-5 |jstor=20730773 |hdl=10016/291 |s2cid=29009762 |issn=0933-1433 |hdl-access=free |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204184857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco's death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, [[Avui]], began to be published in 1976.<ref>{{cite book |author=Katrin Voltmer |title=Mass Media and Political Communication in New Democracies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-33779-3 |page=19 |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205220526/https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Present day === Since the [[Spanish transition to democracy]] (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} In [[Catalonia]], there is an unparalleled large [[bilingualism|bilingual]] European [[Stateless nation|non-state]] linguistic community.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations—if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Armora |first=Esther |url=http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |title=Cataluña ordena incumplir las sentencias sobre el castellano en las escuelas |date=9 September 2013 |work=ABC |access-date=10 September 2013 |language=es |trans-title=Catalonia orders violate the judgments on the Castilian in schools |archive-date=11 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911073217/http://www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html |url-status=live}}</ref> There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.<ref name=":52">{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Alia |date=3 November 2017 |title=Is Catalonia Using Schools as a Political Weapon? |language=en-US |work=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |access-date=11 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103153605/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/ |archive-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |title=You are here: ANSAmed. Catalonia: Supreme Court, 25% of lessons must be in Spanish |date=21 January 2022 |language=en |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122124224/https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[Statistical Institute of Catalonia]], in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.<ref name="idescat.cat">{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |title=Idescat. Annual indicators. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072106/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |title=Idescat. Demographics and quality of life. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. 2003. Results |website=Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya |language=en |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002849/http://www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8 |url-status=live}}</ref> To promote use of Catalan, the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] (Catalonia's official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as {{ill|lt=''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística''|Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística|ca||es|Consorcio para la normalización lingüística}} (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |title=2010 Language Policy Report |website=Generalitat de Catalunya |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415001016/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |archive-date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cpnl.cat/ |title=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística |first=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística- |last=CPNL |website=Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística – CPNL |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828073003/https://www.cpnl.cat/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Andorra]], Catalan has always been the sole official language.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Since the promulgation of the [[Constitution of Andorra|1993 constitution]], several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, such as Catalan medium education.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} On the other hand, there are several [[language shift]] processes currently taking place. In the [[Northern Catalonia]] area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The cultural association {{lang|ca|[[La Bressola]]}} promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs. In [[Alicante province]], Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in [[Alghero]] by [[Italian language|Italian]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} There is also well ingrained [[diglossia]] in the [[Valencian Community]], [[Ibiza]], and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the [[Balearic islands]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to [[Venezuela]], [[Mexico]], [[Cuba]], [[Argentina]], and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Philip D. Rasico |title=La llengua dels mallorquins de San Pedro (Argentina) |url=https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116201349/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).<ref>{{Cite web |title=COMUNITATS CATALANES A L'EXTERIOR – index |url=https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |access-date=3 November 2022 |website=catalansalmon.com |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103064445/https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/ |url-status=live}}</ref> == Classification and relationship with other Romance languages == [[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|upright=1.36|thumb|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.]] One classification of Catalan is given by [[Pierre Bec|Pèire Bèc]]: * [[Romance languages]] ** [[Italo-Western languages]] *** [[Western Romance languages]] **** [[Gallo-Iberian languages]] ***** [[Gallo-Romance languages]] ****** [[Occitano-Romance languages]] ******* Catalan language However, the ascription of Catalan to the [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] branch of [[Gallo-Romance languages]] is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]]. Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term ''[[Occitan language]]'' (see also [[Occitan language#Differences between Occitan and Catalan|differences between Occitan and Catalan]] and [[Gallo-Romance languages]]). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages. === Relationship with other Romance languages === Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the [[linguistic distance]] between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the [[Gascon dialect]]) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friend |first1=Julius W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnM7xFCej5cC&pg=PA80 |title=Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-36179-9 |page=80 |access-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> and still today remains its closest relative.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Nathaniel B. |last2=Bergin |first2=Thomas Goddard |title=An Old Provençal Primer |publisher=Garland |place=New York |year=1984 |isbn=0-8240-9030-6 |page=9}}</ref> Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring [[Romance languages]] (Occitan, French, [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} However, despite being spoken mostly on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Catalan has marked differences with the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] group ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) in terms of [[pronunciation]], grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly [[Occitan language|Occitan]]{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} and to a lesser extent [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] ([[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Gallo-Italian languages|Gallo-Italian]]).<ref name="Ross 2007">{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Marc Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oe4popSDfW0C |title=Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=139 |isbn=978-1-139-46307-2}}</ref>{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} According to [[Ethnologue]], the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.<ref name="e25" /> <!--These 2 tables are related to the paragraph above, they come from the same source and should be treated as a whole. See talk page for more--> {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |+ Lexical comparison of 24 words among Romance languages:<br />17 cognates with Gallo-Romance, 5 [[isogloss]]es with Iberian Romance, 3 isoglosses with Occitan, and 1 unique word.{{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}} |- ! Gloss !! Catalan !! [[Occitan language|Occitan]] !! ([[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]]) <br /> [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] !! [[Italian language|Italian]] !! [[French language|French]] !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] !! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] !! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] <!--Don't add or remove any item of this table. Also, don't add any other language translation. Otherwise, the original point of the table would be lost--> |- | cousin || {{lang|ca|'''cosí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cosin'''}} || {{lang|src|fradili}} || {{lang|it|'''cugino'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''cousin'''}} || {{lang|es|primo}} || {{lang|pt|primo}}, {{lang|pt|coirmão}} || {{lang|ro|văr}} |- | brother || {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}} || {{lang|oc|fraire}} || {{lang|src|fradi}} || {{lang|it|fratello}} || {{lang|fr|frère}} || {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''irmão'''}} || {{lang|ro|frate}} |- | nephew || {{lang|ca|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''nebot'''}} || {{lang|src|'''nebodi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''nipote'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''neveu'''}} || {{lang|es|sobrino}} || {{lang|pt|sobrinho}} || {{lang|ro|'''nepot'''}} |- | summer || {{lang|ca|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''estiu'''}} || {{lang|src|'''istadi'''}} || {{lang|it|'''estate'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''été'''}} || {{lang|es|verano}}, {{lang|es|'''estío'''}}<ref name="estiagem">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|estiagem}} and {{lang|es|estiaje}}, respectively, for drought, dry season or low water levels.</ref> || {{lang|pt|verão}}, {{lang|pt|'''estio'''}}<ref name="estiagem" /> || {{lang|ro|vară}} |- | evening || {{lang|ca|'''vespre'''}} || {{lang|oc|ser}}, {{lang|oc|'''vèspre'''}} || {{lang|src|seru}} || {{lang|it|sera}} || {{lang|fr|soir}} || {{lang|es|tarde}}, {{lang|es|noche}}<ref name="vespera">Portuguese and Spanish have {{lang|pt|véspera}} and {{lang|es|víspera}}, respectively, for eve, or the day before.</ref> || {{lang|pt|tarde}}, {{lang|pt|serão}}<ref name="vespera" /> || {{lang|ro|seară}} |- | morning || {{lang|ca|'''matí'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|src|mangianu}} || {{lang|it|'''mattina'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''matin'''}} || {{lang|es|mañana}} || {{lang|pt|manhã}}, {{lang|pt|'''matina'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''dimineață'''}} |- | frying pan || {{lang|ca|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''padena'''}} || {{lang|src|'''paella'''}} || {{lang|it|'''padella'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''poêle'''}} || {{lang|es|sartén}} || {{lang|pt|frigideira}}, {{lang|pt|fritadeira}}, {{lang|pt|sertã}} || {{lang|ro|tigaie}} |- | bed || {{lang|ca|'''llit'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''lièch'''}} (or {{lang|oc|'''lèit'''}}) || {{lang|src|'''letu'''}} || {{lang|it|'''letto'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''lit'''}} || {{lang|es|cama}}, {{lang|es|'''lecho'''}} || {{lang|pt|cama}}, {{lang|pt|'''leito'''}} || {{lang|ro|pat}} |- | bird || {{lang|ca|'''ocell'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''au'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''aucèl'''}} || {{lang|src|pilloni}} || {{lang|it|'''uccello'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''oiseau'''}} || {{lang|es|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|es|pájaro}}|| {{lang|pt|'''ave'''}}, {{lang|pt|pássaro}}|| {{lang|ro|pasăre}} |- | dog || {{lang|ca|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''ca'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gos'''}}, {{lang|oc|'''canh'''}} || {{lang|src|'''cani'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cane'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chien'''}} || {{lang|es|perro}}, {{lang|es|'''can'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''cão'''}}, {{lang|pt|cachorro}} || {{lang|ro|'''câine'''}} |- | plum || {{lang|ca|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pruna'''}} || {{lang|it|'''prugna'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prune'''}} || {{lang|es|ciruela}} || {{lang|pt|ameixa}} || {{lang|ro|'''prună'''}} |- | butter || {{lang|ca|'''mantega'''}} || {{lang|oc|bodre}} || {{lang|src|burru}} <br /> (or {{lang|src|butiru}}) || {{lang|it|burro}} || {{lang|fr|beurre}} || {{lang|es|'''mantequilla'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|es|'''manteca'''}}) || {{lang|pt|'''manteiga'''}} || {{lang|ro|unt}} |- | piece || {{lang|ca|'''tros'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''tròç'''}}, {{lang|oc|petaç}} || {{lang|src|arrogu}} || {{lang|it|pezzo}} || {{lang|fr|morceau}}, {{lang|fr|pièce}} || {{lang|es|pedazo}}, {{lang|es|'''trozo'''}}<ref name="trozo">Spanish also has {{lang|es|trozo}}, and it is actually a borrowing from Catalan {{lang|ca|tros}}. Colón 1993, p 39. Portuguese has {{lang|es|troço}}, but aside from also being a loanword, it has a very different meaning: "thing", "gadget", "tool", "paraphernalia".</ref> || {{lang|pt|pedaço}}, {{lang|pt|bocado}} || {{lang|ro|bucată}} |- | gray || {{lang|ca|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|src|canu}} || {{lang|it|'''grigio'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|es|'''gris'''}}, {{lang|es|pardo}}<ref>Modern Spanish also has {{lang|es|gris}}, but it is a modern borrowing from Occitan. The original word was {{lang|es|pardo}}, which stands for "reddish, yellow-orange, medium-dark and of moderate to weak saturation. It also can mean ochre, pale ochre, dark ohre, brownish, tan, greyish, grey, desaturated, dirty, dark, or opaque." {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}}</ref> || {{lang|pt|cinzento}}, {{lang|pt|'''gris'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''gri'''}},<ref>A 20th century introduction from French.</ref> {{lang|ro|sur}}, {{lang|ro|cenușiu}} |- | hot || {{lang|ca|'''calent'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''caud'''}} || {{lang|src|'''callenti'''}} || '''{{lang|it|caldo}}''' || '''{{lang|fr|chaud}}''' || {{lang|es|'''caliente'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''quente'''}} || {{lang|ro|'''cald'''}} |- | too much || {{lang|ca|'''massa'''}} || {{lang|oc|tròp}} || {{lang|src|tropu}} || {{lang|it|troppo}} || {{lang|fr|trop}} || {{lang|es|de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|pt|de'''mais''', de'''mas'''iado}} || {{lang|ro|prea}} |- | to want || {{lang|ca|'''voler'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''vòler'''}} || {{lang|src|'''bolli(ri)'''}} || {{lang|it|'''volere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''vouloir'''}} || {{lang|es|querer}} || {{lang|pt|querer}} || {{lang|ro|'''a vrea'''}} |- | to take || {{lang|ca|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''prendre'''}} <br /> (or {{lang|oc|'''prene'''}}) || {{lang|src|pigai}} || {{lang|it|'''prendere'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prendre'''}} || {{lang|es|tomar}}, {{lang|es|'''prender'''}} || {{lang|pt|apanhar}}, {{lang|pt|levar}} || {{lang|ro|a lua}} |- | to pray || {{lang|ca|'''pregar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''resar'''}}, {{lang|ca|'''orar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''pregai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''pregare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''prier'''}} || {{lang|es|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|es|'''rezar'''}} || {{lang|pt|'''orar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''rezar'''}}, {{lang|pt|'''pregar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a se ruga}} |- | to ask || {{lang|ca|'''demanar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''demandar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''dimandai'''}}, {{lang|src|'''preguntai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''domandare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''demander'''}} || {{lang|es|pedir}}, {{lang|es|'''preguntar'''}} || {{lang|pt|pedir}}, {{lang|pt|'''perguntar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a cere}}, {{lang|ro|a întreba}} |- | to search || {{lang|ca|'''cercar'''}} / {{lang|ca|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''cercar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''circai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''cercare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''chercher'''}} || {{lang|es|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|pt|procurar}}, {{lang|pt|'''buscar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a căuta}} |- | to arrive || {{lang|ca|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|src|'''arribai'''}} || {{lang|it|'''arrivare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''arriver'''}} || {{lang|es|llegar}}, {{lang|es|'''arribar'''}} || {{lang|pt|chegar}} || {{lang|ro|a ajunge}} |- | to speak || {{lang|ca|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|src|chistionnai}}, {{lang|src|fueddai}} || {{lang|it|'''parlare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''parler'''}} || {{lang|es|hablar}}, {{lang|es|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|pt|falar}}, {{lang|pt|'''parlar'''}} || {{lang|ro|a vorbi}} |- | to eat || {{lang|ca|'''menjar'''}} || {{lang|oc|'''manjar'''}} || {{lang|src|pappai}} || {{lang|it|'''mangiare'''}} || {{lang|fr|'''manger'''}} || {{lang|es|comer}} <br /> ({{lang|es-AR|'''manyar'''}} in [[lunfardo]]; <br /> {{lang|es|papear}} in slang) || {{lang|pt|comer}}, {{lang|pt|'''manjar'''}} <br /> ({{lang|pt|papar}} in slang) || {{lang|ro|'''a mânca'''}} |} During much of its history, and especially during the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975), the Catalan language was ridiculed as a mere dialect of Spanish.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in features closer to Occitan (and [[French language|French]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} There is evidence that, at least from the 2nd century AD, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman [[Tarraconensis]] was different from the rest of Roman Hispania.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Differentiation arose generally because Spanish, [[Asturian language|Asturian]], and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish {{lang|es|hervir}}, Asturian and Portuguese {{lang|pt|ferver}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|bullir}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|bolir}} "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Spanish {{lang|es|novillo}}, Asturian {{lang|ast|nuviellu}} vs. Catalan {{lang|ca|torell}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|taurèl}} "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.{{sfn|Colón|1993|p=55}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center;" |+ Catalan and Spanish cognates with different meanings{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} ! [[Latin]] !! Catalan !! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|accostare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|acostar}} "to bring closer" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|acostar}}'' "to put to bed" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|levare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|llevar}} "to remove;<br />wake up" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|llevar}}'' "to take" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|trahere}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|traure}} "to remove" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|traer}}'' "to bring" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|circare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|cercar}} "to search" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|cercar}}'' "to fence" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|collocare}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|colgar}} "to bury" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|colgar}}'' "to hang" |- | {{Wikt-lang|la|mulier}} || {{Wikt-lang|ca|muller}} "wife" || ''{{Wikt-lang|es|mujer}}'' "woman or wife" |} Like all Romance languages, Catalan has a handful of native words which are unique to it, or rare elsewhere. These include: * verbs: {{sm|cōnfīgere}} 'to fasten; transfix' > {{lang|ca|confegir}} 'to compose, write up', {{sm|congemināre}} > {{lang|ca|conjuminar}} 'to combine, conjugate', {{sm|de-ex-somnitare}} > {{lang|ca|deixondar/-ir}} 'to wake; awaken', {{sm|dēnsāre}} 'to thicken; crowd together' > {{lang|ca|desar}} 'to save, keep', {{sm|īgnōrāre}} > {{lang|ca|enyorar}} 'to miss, yearn, pine for', {{sm|indāgāre}} 'to investigate, track' > Old Catalan ''enagar'' 'to incite, induce', {{sm|odiāre}} > Old Catalan ''ujar'' 'to exhaust, fatigue', {{sm|pācificāre}} > {{lang|ca|apaivagar}} 'to appease, mollify', {{sm|repudiāre}} > {{lang|ca|rebutjar}} 'to reject, refuse'; * nouns: {{sm|brīsa}} > {{lang|ca|brisa}} 'pomace', {{sm|buda}} > {{lang|ca|boga}} 'reedmace', {{sm|catarrhu}} > {{lang|ca|cadarn}} 'catarrh', {{sm|congesta}} > {{lang|ca|congesta}} 'snowdrift', {{sm|dēlīrium}} > {{lang|ca|deler}} 'ardor, passion', {{sm|fretu}} > {{lang|ca|freu}} 'brake', {{sm|lābem}} > {{lang|ca|(a)llau}} 'avalanche', {{sm|ōra}} > {{lang|ca|vora}} 'edge, border', {{sm|pistrīce}} 'sawfish' > ''pestriu'' > {{lang|ca|pestiu}} 'thresher shark, smooth hound; ray', {{sm|prūna}} 'live coal' > {{lang|ca|espurna}} 'spark', {{sm|tardātiōnem}} > ''tardaó'' > {{lang|ca|tardor}} 'autumn'.{{sfn|Bruguera|2008|p=3046}}{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Significance of all caps vs. italic is unclear }} The [[Gothic language|Gothic]] superstrate produced different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|fang}} "mud" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rostir}} "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lodo}} and {{wikt-lang|es|asar}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|filosa}} "spinning wheel" and {{wikt-lang|ca|templa}} "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|rueca}} and {{wikt-lang|es|sien}}, of Germanic origin.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The same happens with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] loanwords. Thus, Catalan {{lang|ca|alfàbia}} "large earthenware jar" and {{wikt-lang|ca|rajola}} "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|tinaja}} and {{wikt-lang|es|teja}}, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan {{wikt-lang|ca|oli}} "oil" and {{wikt-lang|ca|oliva}} "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|aceite}} and {{wikt-lang|es|aceituna}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, the Arabic element is generally much more prevalent in Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Iberian Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as {{wikt-lang|ca|enyorar}} "to miss somebody", {{wikt-lang|ca|apaivagar}} "to calm somebody down", and {{wikt-lang|ca|rebutjar}} "reject".{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} == Geographic distribution == === Catalan-speaking territories === {{Main|Catalan Countries}} {| style="float: right;" |+ Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories in dark gray; non-Catalan-speaking territories belonging to traditionally Catalan-speaking regions in light gray | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{Image label begin|image=Paisos catalans.svg|width=350|float=none|[[Catalan countries]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.62|y=0.15|scale=350|text=[[Northern Catalonia]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.45|y=0.29|scale=350|text=[[Catalonia]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.51|scale=350|text=[[Alghero]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.28|y=0.28|scale=350|text=''[[La Franja|La<br />Franja]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.185|y=0.68|scale=350|text=[[Valencian Community|Valencian<br />Community]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.07|y=0.83|scale=350|text=[[Carche]]}} {{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.33|scale=350|text=''[[Sardinia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Sardinia<br />(Italy)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.15|y=0.35|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Aragon|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Aragon<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.08|y=0.89|scale=350|text=''[[Autonomous Community of Murcia|<span style="color:#AAA300;">Murcia<br />(Spain)</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.48|y=0.05|scale=350|text=''[[France|<span style="color:#AAA300;">France</span>]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.43|y=0.16|scale=350|text=''[[Andorra]]''}} {{Image label small|x=0.535|y=0.6|scale=350|text=[[Balearic Islands]]}} {{Image label end}} |} Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories are sometimes called the [[Catalan Countries]] ({{langx|ca|Països Catalans}}), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions. {| class="wikitable" |+ Territories where Catalan is spoken{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} ! State !! Territory !! Catalan name !! Notes |- | colspan="2" | [[Andorra]] || {{lang|ca|Andorra}} || A [[sovereign state]] where Catalan is the [[national language|national]] and the sole [[official language]]. The Andorrans speak a Western Catalan variety.{{Efn|Although in business and daily life other languages are common, and due to immigration Catalan mother-tongue speakers are only 35.7% of the population. See [[Languages of Andorra]].}} |- | [[France]] || [[Northern Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya Nord}} || Roughly corresponding to the {{lang|fr|département}} of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], with the exception of the traditionally [[Occitan language|Occitan]]-speaking [[comarca]] of [[Fenouillèdes]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | rowspan="5" | [[Spain]] || [[Catalonia]] || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} || In the [[Val d'Aran]] (northwest corner of Catalonia), in addition to [[Occitan language|Occitan]], which is the local language, Catalan, Spanish and French are also spoken.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | [[Valencian Community]] <br /> ({{abbr|a.k.a.|also known as|}} Valencian Country) || {{lang|ca|Comunitat Valenciana}} <br /> (''País Valencià'') || Excepting some regions in the west and south which have been Aragonese/Spanish-speaking since at least the 18th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} The Western Catalan variety spoken there is known as "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]". |- | [[La Franja]] || {{lang|ca|La Franja}} || A part of the [[Aragon|Autonomous Community of Aragon]], specifically a strip bordering Western Catalonia. It comprises the {{lang|ca|[[Comarcas of Aragon|comarques]]}} of [[Ribagorza/Ribagorça|Ribagorça]], [[Llitera]], [[Baix Cinca]], and [[Matarranya]]. |- | [[Balearic Islands]] || {{lang|ca|Illes Balears}} || Comprising the islands of [[Mallorca]], [[Menorca]], [[Ibiza]] and [[Formentera]]. |- | [[Carche]] || {{lang|ca|El Carxe}} || A small area of the [[Region of Murcia|Autonomous Community of Murcia]], settled in the 19th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} |- | [[Italy]] || [[Alghero]] || {{lang|ca|L'Alguer}} || A city in the [[Province of Sassari]], on the island of [[Sardinia]], where the [[Algherese dialect]] is spoken. |} === Number of speakers === The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5&nbsp;million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |title=Sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas. Tables. Official data about the sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas: Catalonia (2003), Andorra (2004), the Balearic Islands (2004), Aragonese Border (2004), Northern Catalonia (2004), Alghero (2004) and Valencian Community (2004) |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |date=7 August 2008 |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314032229/http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB |url-status=live}}</ref> The web site of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya]] estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Catalan, language of Europe |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222153758/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |publisher=[[Generalitat of Catalonia]] |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.<ref name="habitual">[http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B Población según lengua habitual. Datos comparados 2003–2008. Cataluña. Año 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102013451/http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B |date=2 November 2013 }}, Encuesta de Usos Lingüísticos de la población (2003 y 2008), Instituto de Estadística de Cataluña</ref> According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', Catalan had 4.1&nbsp;million [[First language|native speakers]] and 5.1&nbsp;million [[Second language|second-language speakers]] in 2021.<ref name="e25" /> [[File:Llengua catalana al món.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|Geographical distribution of Catalan language by official status]] According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8&nbsp;million, with 5.9&nbsp;million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4&nbsp;million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).<ref>{{Citation |title=Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana |date=2011 |url=http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |trans-title=Report on the situation of the Catalan language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123162105/http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |publisher=Xarxa CRUSCAT |archive-date=23 January 2013 |language=ca}}</ref> Very few Catalan [[monoglot]]s exist; virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are [[bilingual]] speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with 99.7% of Catalan speakers in Catalonia able to speak Spanish and 99.9% able to understand it.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/arxius/ambits-treball/Drets%20Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstics/Seminari%20Internacional%20sobre%20les%20lleng%C3%BCes%20en%20l'%C3%A0mbit%20de%20la%20salut.pdf |title="Can you understand me, doctor?" Dealing with linguistic rights in public health systems in Catalan-speaking areas of Spain |last1=Ibáñez Ferreté |first1=Òscar-Adrià |date=November 2020 |publisher=[[Åbo Akademi University]] |location=[[Vaasa]], Finland |conference=Seminarium om social- och hälsovård för språkliga minoriteter [Seminar on social and health service for linguistic minorities]}}</ref> In [[Roussillon]], only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of [[language shift]]. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |title=El uso del catalán crece: lo entiende el 94,4% y lo habla el 81,2% |last=Geli |first=Carles |date=8 July 2019 |work=El País |access-date=8 July 2019 |language=es |issn=1134-6582 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708163015/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Departament d'Estadística. Ajuntament de Barcelona |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)<ref>{{cite web |title=Coneixement del català: Evolució de les característiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona) |url=http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |website=Ajuntament de Barcelona |access-date=13 November 2015 |language=ca |date=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210119/http://www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm |archive-date=31 December 2015}}</ref> was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a [[language immersion]] educational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Territory !! State !! Understand {{ref|a|1}}<ref name="speakers">Sources: *Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya}} [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306011428/http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B|date=6 March 2007}}. *Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} {{cite web |title=Població |url=http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050906084332/http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}. *Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana}} [http://www.ive.es/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216011800/http://www.ive.es/|date=16 February 2015}}. *Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from {{lang|ca|Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears}} [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101133851/http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm|date=1 January 2006}}. *Northern Catalonia: {{lang|fr|Media Pluriel}} Survey commissioned by Prefecture of [[Languedoc-Roussillon Region]] done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 {{cite web |title=Information_catalan |url=http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414192723/http://linmiter.net/information_catalan.html |archive-date=14 April 2005 |access-date=23 June 2005}}. *Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999. *Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127151122/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html|date=27 November 2005}}. *Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112153819/http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html|date=12 November 2005}}. *Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the {{lang|ca|Federació d'Entitats Catalanes}} outside the Catalan Countries.</ref> ! Can speak {{ref|b|2}}<ref name=speakers /> |- style="background:#efefef;" | Catalonia || Spain || 6,502,880 || 5,698,400 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Valencian Community || Spain || 3,448,780 || 2,407,951 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Balearic Islands || Spain || 852,780 || 706,065 |- style="background:#efefef;" | [[Roussillon]] || France || 203,121 || 125,621 |- style="background:#efefef;" | Andorra || Andorra || 75,407 || 61,975 |- style="background:#fff;" | [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || Spain || 47,250 || 45,000 |- style="background:#efefef;" | [[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]]) || Italy || 20,000 || 17,625 |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Spain || ~600 || 600<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martínez |first=D. |date=26 November 2011 |title=Una isla valenciana en Murcia |language=es |trans-title=A Valencian island in Murcia |work=ABC |url=http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621063418/http://www.abc.es/20111226/comunidad-valencia/abcp-isla-valenciana-murcia-20111226.html |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#efefef;" | colspan="2" | Total [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking territories]] || 11,150,218 || 9,062,637 |- style="background:#fff;" | colspan="2" | Rest of World || No data || 350,000 |- style="background:#efefef;" | colspan="2" | Total || 11,150,218 || 9,412,637 |} :1.{{note|a}} The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it. :2.{{note|b}} Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers. ==== Level of knowledge ==== {| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1 |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! Speak ! Understand ! Read ! Write |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics de la població. 2018 |date=2019 |website=IDESCAT/Generalitat de Catalunya |language=ca |trans-title=Survey of the linguistic usage of the population. 2018 |access-date=8 July 2019 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708210510/https://www.idescat.cat/novetats/?id=3329 |url-status=live}}</ref> | style="text-align: right;" | 81.2 | style="text-align: right;" | 94.4 | style="text-align: right;" | 85.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 65.3 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 57.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 78.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 54.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 32.5 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 74.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 93.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 79.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 46.9 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 37.1 | style="text-align: right;" | 65.3 | style="text-align: right;" | 31.4 | style="text-align: right;" | 10.6 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 78.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 96.0 | style="text-align: right;" | 89.7 | style="text-align: right;" | 61.1 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Franja Oriental of Aragón | style="text-align: right;" | 88.8 | style="text-align: right;" | 98.5 | style="text-align: right;" | 72.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 30.3 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 67.6 | style="text-align: right;" | 89.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 50.9 | style="text-align: right;" | 28.4 |} (% of the population 15 years old and older). ==== Social use ==== {| style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1 |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! At home ! Outside home |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia | style="text-align: right;" | 45 | style="text-align: right;" | 51 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 37 | style="text-align: right;" | 32 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 44 | style="text-align: right;" | 41 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 1 | style="text-align: right;" | 1 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 38 | style="text-align: right;" | 51 |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Franja Oriental of Aragón | style="text-align: right;" | 70 | style="text-align: right;" | 61 |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 8 | style="text-align: right;" | 4 |} (% of the population 15 years old and older). <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notitem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |title=El català no avança en la incorporació de nous parlants |date=23 October 2007 |website=Telenotícies |language=ca |trans-title=Catalan is not progressing in the incorporation of new speakers |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124091243/http://www.noticies.cat/pnoticies/notItem.jsp?item=noticia&idint=223737 |archive-date=24 November 2007}}</ref> ==== Native language ==== To calculate the absolute number the figures have been proportioned to the whole population regardless of the age, rounded to the nearest 500. {| class="wikitable sortable" | style="margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border="1" |- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;" ! Area ! People ! Percentage !Year !Source |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Catalonia | style="text-align: right;" | 3,101,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 40.6% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=INEbase / Demografía y población /Cifras de población y Censos demográficos /Encuesta de Características Esenciales de la Población y las Viviendas / Microdatos |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177092&menu=resultados&idp=1254735572981# |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=INE |language=es}}</ref> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Valencian Community | style="text-align: right;" | 1,271,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 25.4% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Balearic Islands | style="text-align: right;" | 401,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 33.2% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Aragon | style="text-align: right;" | 29,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 2.5% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" |Rest of Spain | style="text-align: right;" |80,500 | style="text-align: right;" |0.3% |2021 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref name=":0" /> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Andorra | style="text-align: right;" | 35,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 44.1% |2022 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-10 |title=L'estudi de coneixements i usos lingüístics indica que el català és la llengua de referència de la població en coneixement i ús |url=https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |access-date=2025-03-14 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110151633/https://www.govern.ad/cultura/item/14986-l-estudi-de-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-indica-que-el-catala-es-la-llengua-de-referencia-de-la-poblacio-en-coneixement-i-us |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> |- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;" | Roussillon | style="text-align: right;" | 60,000 | style="text-align: right;" | 12.7% |2015 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics a la Catalunya del Nord |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/dadesestudis/altres/arxius/EULCN_2015_principals_resultats.pdf}}</ref> |- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;" | Alghero | style="text-align: right;" | 10,500 | style="text-align: right;" | 24.1% |2015 | style="text-align: right;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Els usos lingüístics a l'Alguer |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/web/.content/documents/publicacions/btpl/arxius/BTPL_EULA_2015_IT.pdf |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=gencat.cat |language=ca-ES}}</ref> |- style="background-color: white;" | '''TOTAL''' | style="text-align: right;" | '''4,989,500''' | style="text-align: right;" | | | |} == Phonology == {{Main|Catalan phonology}} <!--The Catalan phonology article is very well sourced. If you want to add something, pick it from there, don't put OR.--> Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ, o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, other than [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} In contrast to other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words, and these may end in a wide variety of consonants, including some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Additionally, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], which gives rise to an abundance of such couplets as {{lang|ca|amic}} ("male friend") vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ("female friend").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Central Catalan]] pronunciation is considered to be standard for the language.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} The descriptions below are mostly representative of this variety.<ref>Wheeler 2005 takes the same approach</ref> For the differences in pronunciation between the different dialects, see the section on [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article.<!--This is an internal link to the section about the pronunciation in the different dialects. It uses the Anchor template--> === Vowels === [[File:Catalan vowel chart.svg|thumb|[[Vowel]]s of Standard Eastern Catalan{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|p=62}}]] Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], with the exception of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] also has instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ, e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} In [[Central Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section [[#Dialect pronunciation section|pronunciation of dialects]] in this article). {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |+ Examples of vowel reduction processes in Central Catalan{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}}<br />The root is stressed in the first word and unstressed in the second |- ! !! colspan="3" | Front vowels !! colspan="2" | Back vowels |- ! Word<br />pair | {{lang|ca|gel}} ("ice") <br /> {{lang|ca|gelat}} ("ice cream") || {{lang|ca|pedra}} ("stone") <br /> {{lang|ca|pedrera}} ("quarry") || {{lang|ca|banya}} ("he bathes") <br /> {{lang|ca|banyem}}/{{lang|ca|banyem}} ("we bathe") || {{lang|ca|cosa}} ("thing") <br /> {{lang|ca|coseta}} ("little thing") || {{lang|ca|tot}} ("everything") <br /> {{lang|ca|total}} ("total") |- ! IPA<br />transcription | {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}}<br />{{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}}<br />{{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}}<br />{{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || {{IPA|[ˈtot]}}<br />{{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} |} === Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Catalan consonants{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=61–65}} ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />/ [[Dental consonant|Dental]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} | ({{IPA link|ŋ}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|k}} |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɡ}} |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | | {{IPA link|ts}} | {{IPA link|tɕ|tʃ}} | |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | | {{IPA link|dz}} | {{IPA link|dʑ|dʒ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! [[voicelessness|voiceless]] | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ɕ|ʃ}} | |- ! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] | ({{IPA link|v}}) | {{IPA link|z}} | ({{IPA link|ʑ|ʒ}}) | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] ! [[median consonant|median]] | | | {{IPA link|j}} | {{IPA link|w}} |- ! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʎ}} | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]] | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | | {{IPA link|r}} | | |} The consonant system of Catalan is rather conservative. * {{IPA|/l/}} has a [[dark l|velarized]] allophone in [[syllable coda]] position in most dialects.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=20}} However, {{IPA|/l/}} is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects such as Majorcan{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=3}} and standard Eastern Catalan. * {{IPA|/v/}} occurs in Balearic,{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]], [[Valencian language#Consonants|standard Valencian]] and some areas in southern Catalonia.{{sfn|Veny|2007|p=51}} It has [[betacism|merged]] with {{IPA|/b/}} elsewhere.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=13}} * The velar nasal /ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/ before /g/ or /k/. However, it has become phonemic in Central dialects that delete the final element of word-final consonant clusters, resulting in minimal pairs such as ''fan'' [ˈfan] (“they do”) and ''fang'' [ˈfaŋ] (“mud”, pronounced [ˈfaŋk] in other dialects). * In Valencian, the fricative [ʒ] (and [jʒ]) appears only as a voiced allophone of /ʃ/ (and /jʃ/) before vowels and voiced consonants; e.g. peix al forn [ˈpejʒ al ˈfoɾn] ('oven fish'). The /ʒ/ phoneme in other Catalan dialects is pronounced /dʒ/ in standard Valencian. * Voiced obstruents undergo [[final-obstruent devoicing]]: {{IPA|/b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /ɡ/ > [k]}}.{{sfn|Lloret|2004|p=278}} * Voiced stops become [[lenition|lenited]] to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: {{IPA|/b/}} > {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPA|/d/}} > {{IPAblink|ð}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > {{IPAblink|ɣ}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} Exceptions include {{IPA|/d/}} after [[lateral consonant]]s, and {{IPA|/b/}} after {{IPA|/f/}}. In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}}</ref> except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} * There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. Some sources{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} describe them as "postalveolar". Others{{sfn|Recasens|Fontdevila|Pallarès|1995|p=288}}{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} as "back alveolo-palatal", implying that the characters {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ}} would be more accurate. However, in all literature only the characters for [[palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ}} for other languages such as Polish and Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|1993}}. Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as "laminoalveolars palatalitzades".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Recasens|Pallarès|2001}}. Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as "laminal postalveolar".</ref>{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} * The distribution of the two rhotics {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} closely parallels [[Spanish phonology#Alternations|that of Spanish]]. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, {{IPAblink|r}} appears unless preceded by a consonant. Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled {{IPAblink|r}} unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same [[prosodic unit]], in which case {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears.{{sfn|Padgett|2009|p=432}} * In careful speech, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/l/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]]. Geminated {{IPA|/ʎ/}} may also occur.{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} Some analyze intervocalic {{IPA|[r]}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] rhotics.<ref>See {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}} for more information.</ref> === Phonological evolution === {{Main|Phonological history of Catalan}} [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|Linguistic map of Southwestern Europe]] Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages ([[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} * Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ/ ~ /e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/ ~ /o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, except Spanish and Sardinian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Lenition of voiced stops {{IPA|[b] → [β], [d] → [ð], [ɡ] → [ɣ]}} as in Galician and Spanish.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]], Sardinian and Portuguese, and unlike French, Spanish and Italian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} * Abundance of {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} occurring at the end of words, as for instance {{wikt-lang|ca|moll}} ("wet") and {{wikt-lang|ca|any}} ("year"), unlike Spanish,{{sfn|Hall|2001|p=19}} Portuguese or Italian. In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} Also, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], thus featuring many couplets like {{lang|ca|amic}} ('male friend') vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ('female friend').{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} == Sociolinguistics == [[File:WIKITONGUES- Ona speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|A speaker of Catalan (Majorcan dialect)]] [[File:WIKITONGUES- Artur speaking Catalan.webm|thumb|[[Artur Mas]], former president of Catalonia, discussing individual identity, collective identity and language]] Catalan [[sociolinguistics]] studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan [[philology]] and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact). === Preferential subjects of study === {{unref section|date=January 2026}} * [[Dialect]]s of Catalan * Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies * Process of [[standardization|linguistic normalization]] * Relations between Catalan and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[French language|French]] * Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers * Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors === Dialects === {{Main|Catalan dialects}} ==== Overview ==== [[File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|Main dialects of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=6}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=4}}]] The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} both in terms of [[vocabulary]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[phonology]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} estimates ranging from 90% to 95%.<ref name="e25" /> The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic [[Algherese dialect]].{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed {{lang|ca|a}} and {{lang|ca|e}}; which have merged to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western dialects.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western Catalan]] and [[Valencian language|Valencian]]; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: [[Central Catalan]], [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]], [[Northern Catalan|Roussillonese]], and [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]].{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms "Catalan" and "[[Valencian language|Valencian]]" (respectively used in [[Catalonia]] and the [[Valencian Community]]) refer to two varieties of the same language.<ref name="Dictamen de l'Acadèmia">{{Citation |title=Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |date=2005 |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |trans-title=Resolution of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua concerning the principles and criteria for protecting the name and identity of Valencian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117/http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |publisher=[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]] |language=ca-valencia |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Institute of Catalan Studies]] in Catalonia and the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of the Language]] in the Valencian Community. Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the [[Barcelona Province (Spain)|Barcelona province]], the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine), and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for [[grammatical case|case]] and [[T–V distinction|politeness]], and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical gender|gender]]. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; " |+ Main dialectal divisions of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} |- ! Block | colspan="2" | '''Western Catalan''' || colspan="4" | '''Eastern Catalan''' |- ! Variety | '''[[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]]''' || '''[[Valencian language|Valencian]]''' || '''[[Central Catalan|Central]]''' || '''[[Balearic dialect|Balearic]]''' || '''[[Northern Catalan|Northern]]''' (Roussillonese) || '''[[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]''' (Algherese) |- ! rowspan="2" | Area | [[Spain]], [[Andorra]] || colspan="3" | [[Spain]] || [[France]] || [[Italy]] |- | [[Andorra]], provinces of [[province of Lleida|Lleida]], western half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], [[La Franja]] ([[Aragon]]) || [[Valencian Community]], [[Carche]] ([[Region of Murcia|Murcia]]) || Provinces of [[province of Barcelona|Barcelona]], eastern half of [[province of Tarragona|Tarragona]], most of [[province of Girona|Girona]] || [[Balearic Islands]] || [[Roussillon]] ([[Northern Catalonia]]) || City of [[Alghero]] in [[Sardinia]] |} === Pronunciation {{Anchor|Dialect pronunciation section}} === ==== Vowels ==== Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of [[Vulgar Latin]], with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u/}}, a common feature in [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]], except [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] has also instances of stressed {{IPA|/ə/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of [[vowel reduction]],{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/ɛ e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} In [[Eastern Catalan]] (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/ > [ə]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ, u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} There are a few instances of unreduced {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[o]}} in some words.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] has lowered {{IPA|[ə]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}. In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: {{IPA|/a, e, ɛ/}} follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however {{IPA|/o, ɔ/}} reduce to {{IPA|[o]}}, with {{IPA|/u/}} remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–54}} In [[Western Catalan]], unstressed vowels reduce to five: {{IPA|/e, ɛ/ > [e]}}; {{IPA|/o, ɔ/ > [o]}}; {{IPA|/a, u, i/}} remain distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=54–55<!-- seems to be wrong page number: this page relates to Arabic according to Google Books -->}} This reduction pattern, inherited from [[Proto-Romance]], is also found in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}} Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Recasens|1996|pp=75–76, 128–129}} Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Usually, words with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Central Catalan correspond to {{IPA|/ə/}} in Balearic and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Words with {{IPA|/e/}} in Balearic almost always have {{IPA|/e/}} in Central and Western Catalan as well.{{vague|date=April 2014}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} {| | {| class="wikitable" |+ Different incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern |- ! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- | '''{{lang|ca|set}}''' <br /> ("thirst") | colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈset/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsət/}} || {{IPA|/ˈsɛt/}} || {{IPA|/ˈset/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|ven}}''' <br /> ("he sells") | colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈven/}} || {{IPA|/ˈvən/}} || {{IPA|/ˈbɛn/}} || {{IPA|/ˈven/}} |} {| class="wikitable" |+ General differences in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in different dialects{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Melchor|Branchadell|2002|p=71}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Word !! colspan="2" | Western !! colspan="4" | Eastern |- ! North-Western !! Valencian !! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- | '''{{lang|ca|mare}}''' <br /> ("mother") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾe/}} || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈmaɾə/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|cançó}}''' <br /> ("song") || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kanˈso/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kənˈso/}} || {{IPA|/kənˈsu/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|posar}}''' <br /> ("to put") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/poˈza(ɾ)/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/puˈza(ɾ)/}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|ferro}}''' <br /> ("iron") || colspan="3" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛro/}} || colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ˈfɛru/}} |} |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Detailed examples of vowel reduction processes in different dialects{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–55}} |- ! rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Word pairs:<br />the first with stressed root,<br />the second with unstressed root !! rowspan="2" | Western !! colspan="3" | Eastern |- ! Majorcan !! Central !! Northern |- ! rowspan="4" | Front <br /> vowels | '''{{lang|ca|gel}}''' ("ice") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|gelat}}''' ("ice cream") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈdʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[dʒeˈlat]}} || colspan="2" style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒɛl]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈʒel]}} <br /> {{IPA|[ʒəˈlat]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|pera}}''' ("pear") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|perera}}''' ("pear tree") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈɾeɾa]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpəɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈpɛɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeɾə]}}<br />{{IPA|[pəˈɾeɾə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|pedra}}''' ("stone") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|pedrera}}''' ("quarry") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈpeðɾa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[peˈðɾeɾa]}} || colspan="3" style="background:#cef2da;"|{{IPA|[ˈpeðɾə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[pəˈðɾeɾə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|banya}}''' ("he bathes") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|banyem}}'''/{{lang|ca|'''banyam'''}} ("we bathe") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲa]}} <br /> {{IPA|[baˈɲem]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲam]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲɛm]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈbaɲə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[bəˈɲem]}} |- ! rowspan="2" | Back <br /> vowels | '''{{lang|ca|cosa}}''' ("thing") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|coseta}}''' ("little thing") | style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔza]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzeta]}} || style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[koˈzətə]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈkɔzə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzɛtə]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈkozə]}} <br /> {{IPA|[kuˈzetə]}} |- | '''{{lang|ca|tot}}''' ("everything") <br /> '''{{lang|ca|total}}''' ("total") | colspan="2" style="background:#f2cee0;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[toˈtal]}} || style="background:#cef2da;"| {{IPA|[ˈtot]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} || style="background:#fafad2;"| {{IPA|[ˈtut]}} <br /> {{IPA|[tuˈtal]}} |} ==== Consonants ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}} Catalan dialects are characterized by [[final-obstruent devoicing]], [[lenition]] and [[voicing assimilation]]. Additionally, many dialects contrast two [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] ({{IPA|/r, ɾ/}}) and two [[lateral consonant|laterals]] ({{IPA|/l, ʎ/}}). Most Catalan dialects are also renowned by the usage of ''[[dark l]]'' (i.e. [[velarization]] of {{IPA|/l/}} → {{IPAblink|ɫ}}), which is especially noticeable in syllable [[syllabic coda|final]] position, in comparison to neighbouring languages, such as Spanish, Italian and French (that lack this pronunciation). There is dialectal variation in regard to: * The pronunciation and distribution of [[sibilant]]s (with different results according to [[voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] and [[affrication]] vs. [[lenition|deaffrication]]). ** While, arguably there are seven to eight sibilants in Standard Catalan and Standard Valencian, dialects like Central Valencian and Ribagorçan only have three or four. * The usage of the voiced labiodental fricative phoneme {{IPAslink|v}}. * The pronunciation or not of [[yod (sound)|yod]] ({{IPAslink|j}}) in the digraph {{angbr|ix}}. * The [[elision]] and pronunciation of final [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] (either {{IPAslink|ɾ}} or {{IPAslink|r}}). * The [[delateralization]] of the palatal lateral approximant ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}). * The alternation of [[lenition]] vs. [[fortition]] (such as {{IPA|/b/}} in {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} 'village, people' → {{IPA|[β]}} vs. {{IPA|[b]}} vs. {{IPA|[bː]}} vs. {{IPA|[p]}} vs. {{IPA|[pː]}}). === Morphology === Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-e}} in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or {{lang|ca|-o}} in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parle}}, {{lang|ca|tem}}, {{lang|ca|sent}} (Valencian); {{lang|ca|parlo}}, {{lang|ca|temo}}, {{lang|ca|sento}} (North-Western Catalan). Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is {{lang|ca|-o}}, {{lang|ca|-i}}, or -∅ in all conjugations. <br />E.g. {{lang|ca|parlo}} (Central), {{lang|ca|parl}} (Balearic), and {{lang|ca|parli}} (Northern), all meaning ('I speak'). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ 1st-person singular present indicative forms |- ! colspan="3" , rowspan="2" | Conjugation !! colspan="3" | Eastern Catalan !! colspan="2" | Western Catalan !! rowspan="2" | Gloss |- ! Central !! Northern !! Balearic !! Valencian !! North-Western |- ! colspan="3" | 1st | {{lang|ca|parlo}} || {{lang|ca|parli}} || {{lang|ca|parl}} || {{lang|ca|parle}} || {{lang|ca|parlo}} || 'I speak' |- ! colspan="3" | 2nd | {{lang|ca|temo}} || {{lang|ca|temi}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|tem}} || {{lang|ca|temo}} || 'I fear' |- ! colspan="2" , rowspan="2" | 3rd ! {{small|pure}} | {{lang|ca|sento}} || {{lang|ca|senti}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sent}} || {{lang|ca|sento}} || 'I feel', 'I hear' |- ! {{small|inchoative}} | {{lang|ca|poleixo}} || {{lang|ca|poleixi}} || {{lang|ca|poleix}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|polisc}} or {{lang|ca|polesc}} || {{lang|ca|pol(e)ixo}} || 'I polish' |} Western Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-isc}}/{{lang|ca|-esc}}, {{lang|ca|-ix}}, {{lang|ca|-ixen}}, {{lang|ca|-isca}}/{{lang|ca|-esca}}. Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the inchoative endings are {{lang|ca|-eixo}}, {{lang|ca|-eix}}, {{lang|ca|-eixen}}, {{lang|ca|-eixi}}. Western Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in [[proparoxytone]] words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|hòmens}} 'men', {{lang|ca|jóvens}} 'youth'. Eastern Catalan: In nouns and adjectives, loss of {{IPA|/n/}} of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words.<br />E.g. {{lang|ca|homes}} 'men', {{lang|ca|joves}} 'youth' (Ibicencan, however, follows the model of Western Catalan in this case<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moll, Francesc de B. |title=Gramática catalana; referida especialment a les Illes Balears |date=1968 |publisher=Editorial Moll |isbn=84-273-0044-1 |location=Palma de Mallorca |oclc=2108762}}</ref>). === Vocabulary === Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern Catalan |- ! Gloss !! "mirror" !! "boy" !! "broom" !! "navel" !! "to exit" |- ! Eastern Catalan | {{lang|ca|mirall}} || {{lang|ca|noi}} || {{lang|ca|escombra}} || {{lang|ca|llombrígol}} || {{lang|ca|sortir}} |- ! Western Catalan | {{lang|ca|espill}} || {{lang|ca|xiquet}} || {{lang|ca|granera}} || {{lang|ca|melic}} || {{lang|ca|eixir}} |} == Standards == {{Main|Institut d'Estudis Catalans|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua}} [[File:Casa de Convalescència - IEC.JPG|thumb|left|Casa de Convalescència, Headquarters of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)]] {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ Written varieties ! Catalan&nbsp;(IEC) ! Valencian&nbsp;(AVL) ! gloss |- | {{lang|ca|anglès}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|anglés}} | English |- | {{lang|ca|conèixer}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|conéixer}} | to know |- | {{lang|ca|treure}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|traure}} | take out |- | {{lang|ca|néixer}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|nàixer}} | to&nbsp;be&nbsp;born |- | {{lang|ca|càntir}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|cànter}} | pitcher |- | {{lang|ca|rodó}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|redó}} | round |- | {{lang|ca|meva}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|meua}} | my, mine |- | {{lang|ca|ametlla}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}} | almond |- | {{lang|ca|estrella}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|estrela}} | star |- | {{lang|ca|cop}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|colp}} | hit |- | {{lang|ca|llagosta}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|llangosta}} | lobster |- | {{lang|ca|homes}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|hòmens}} | men |- | {{lang|ca|servei}} | {{lang|ca-valencia|servici}} | service |} Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers,{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} is mostly based on Eastern Catalan,{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}} which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of the Valencian Community and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=170}} The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic {{angbr|e}} accentuation, for instance: {{lang|ca|francès, anglès}} (IEC) – {{lang|ca-valencia|francés, anglés}} (AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent {{angbr|è}}, while pronouncing it as {{IPA|/e/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, in some words such as: {{lang|ca-valencia|què}} ('what'), or {{lang|ca-valencia|València}}. Other divergences include the use of {{angbr|tl}} (AVL) in some words instead of {{angbr|tll}} like in {{lang|ca-valencia|ametla}}/{{lang|ca|ametlla}} ('almond'), {{lang|ca-valencia|espatla}}/{{lang|ca|espatlla}} ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives ({{lang|ca|este}} 'this', {{lang|ca|eixe}} 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones ({{lang|ca|aquest, aqueix}}) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, such as subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in {{lang|ca|-ix-}} at the same level as {{lang|ca|-eix-}} or the priority use of {{lang|ca|-e}} morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative ({{lang|ca|-ar}} verbs): {{lang|ca|jo compre}} instead of {{lang|ca|jo compro}} ('I buy'). In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the [[University of the Balearic Islands]]'s philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing {{lang|ca|cantam}} as much as {{lang|ca|cantem}} ('we sing'), but the university says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be {{lang|ca|cantam}} in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: {{lang|ca|jo compr}} ('I buy'), {{lang|ca|jo tem}} ('I fear'), {{lang|ca|jo dorm}} ('I sleep'). In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]] dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article {{lang|ca|lo}} instead of {{lang|ca|el}}, special possessive pronouns and determinants {{lang|ca|la mia}} ('mine'), {{lang|ca|lo sou/la sua}} ('his/her'), {{lang|ca|lo tou/la tua}} ('yours'), and so on, the use of {{lang|ca|-v-}} {{IPA|/v/}} in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: {{lang|ca|cantava}}, {{lang|ca|creixiva}}, {{lang|ca|llegiva}}; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Algherese: {{lang|ca|manco}} instead of {{lang|ca|menys}} ('less'), {{lang|ca|calqui u}} instead of {{lang|ca|algú}} ('someone'), {{lang|ca|qual/quala}} instead of {{lang|ca|quin/quina}} ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of [[weak pronouns in Catalan|weak pronouns]]. In 1999, Catalan ([[Algherese dialect]]) was among the twelve minority languages officially recognized as Italy's "[[Languages of Italy#Historical linguistic minorities|historical linguistic minorities]]" by the Italian State under Law No. 482/1999.<ref>Law No. 482 of 15 December 1999. "Rules on the protection of historical linguistic minorities". Article 2. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297. 20 December 1999</ref> In 2011,<ref>Decreto 89/2011, de 5 de abril, del Gobierno de Aragón, por el que se aprueban los Estatutos de la Academia Aragonesa del Catalán. [http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 BOA núm. 77, de 18 de abril de 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145503/http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=592553980606 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> the [[Aragon]]ese government passed a decree approving the statutes of a new language regulator of Catalan in [[La Franja]] (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon) as originally provided for by Law 10/2009.<ref>Ley 10/2009, de 22 de diciembre, de uso, protección y promoción de las lenguas propias de Aragón [https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 BOE núm. 30, de 4 de febrero de 2010.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145822/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-1711 |date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> The new entity, designated as {{lang|ca|[[Institut Aragonès del Català]]}}, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in [[La Franja]]. == Status of Valencian {{Anchor|About Valencian}} == {{Wikisource|ca|Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià|AVL: Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià}} {{Main|Valencian (disambiguation){{!}}Valencian|Valencian language controversy|Blaverism|Anti-Catalanism}} [[File:Subdialectes del valencià.svg|thumb|Subdialects of Valencian]] Valencian is classified as a [[Western Catalan|Western]] dialect, along with the [[Northwestern Catalan|North-Western]] varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of [[Lleida province|Lleida]] and the western half of [[Tarragona province|Tarragona]]).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.<ref name="e25" /> Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|Valencian Academy of Language]] (''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'', AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /> {{Quote box|width=40%|align=left|quote= [T]he historical patrimonial language of the [[Valencian people]], from a philological standpoint, is the same shared by the autonomous communities of [[Catalonia]] and [[Balearic islands]], and [[Principality of Andorra]]. Additionally, it is the patrimonial historical language of other territories of the ancient [[Crown of Aragon]] [...] The different varieties of these territories constitute a language, that is, a "linguistic system" [...] From this group of varieties, Valencian has the same hierarchy and dignity as any other dialectal modality of that linguistic system [...]|source=Ruling of the Valencian Language Academy of 9 February 2005, extract of point 1.<ref name="AVL-9_feb_2005" /><ref>Original full text of Dictamen 1: ''D'acord amb les aportacions més solvents de la romanística acumulades des del segle XIX fins a l'actualitat (estudis de gramàtica històrica, de dialectologia, de sintaxi, de lexicografia…), la llengua pròpia i històrica dels valencians, des del punt de vista de la filologia, és també la que compartixen les comunitats autònomes de Catalunya i de les Illes Balears i el Principat d'Andorra. Així mateix és la llengua històrica i pròpia d'altres territoris de l'antiga Corona d'Aragó (la franja oriental aragonesa, la ciutat sarda de l'Alguer i el departament francés dels Pirineus Orientals). Els diferents parlars de tots estos territoris constituïxen una llengua, és a dir, un mateix «sistema lingüístic», segons la terminologia del primer estructuralisme (annex 1) represa en el Dictamen del Consell Valencià de Cultura, que figura com a preàmbul de la Llei de Creació de l'AVL. Dins d'eixe conjunt de parlars, el valencià té la mateixa jerarquia i dignitat que qualsevol altra modalitat territorial del sistema lingüístic, i presenta unes característiques pròpies que l'AVL preservarà i potenciarà d'acord amb la tradició lexicogràfica i literària pròpia, la realitat lingüística valenciana i la normativització consolidada a partir de les Normes de Castelló.''</ref>}} The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (''[[Normes de Castelló]]''). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian known as the [[Norms of El Puig]]. Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |title=Casi el 65% de los valencianos opina que su lengua es distinta al catalán, según una encuesta del CIS |date=9 December 2004 |website=La Vanguardia |language=es |trans-title=Almost 65% of Valencians believe that their language is different from Catalan, according to a CIS survey |agency=Europa Press |access-date=8 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082617/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html |url-status=live}}</ref> showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joan i Marí |first=Bernat |date=2020-11-26 |title=Llengua catalana: unitat i fragmentació |url=https://www.diaridegirona.cat/opinio/2020/11/26/llengua-catalana-unitat-i-fragmentacio-48657883.html |access-date=2025-07-11 |website=Diari de Girona |language=ca |quote=La majoria dels valencianoparlants consideren que el valencià i el català són la mateixa llengua. No així, per cert, els no valencianoparlants (incloent-hi els «coents», és a dir els valencians que parlen només espanyol. |trans-quote=Most speakers of Valencian Catalan consider Valencian and Catalan to be the same language. Not so, it's true, when it comes to non-speakers of Valencian (including what are called «coents», that is, Valencians who only speak Spanish.}}</ref> Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (''Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana'', RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |title=Llistat dels Acadèmics de número |website=Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=List of RACV academics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214031455/http://www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero |archive-date=14 December 2016}}</ref> This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the [[European Constitution]] in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the [[European Union|EU]] with translations of the text into [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Galician language|Galician]], Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |title=Traducció única de la Constitució europea |last=Isabel i Vilar |first=Ferran |date=30 October 2004 |website=I-Zefir |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=Unique translation of the European Constitution |access-date=29 April 2009 |archive-date=9 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224822/http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vocabulary == === Word choices === Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually [[Central Catalan]] acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} === Latin and Greek loanwords === Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in [[Ramon Llull]]'s work.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in [[Roís de Corella]]'s writings.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The incorporation of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, [[Latin language|Latin]], into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of [[Classical Latin|written language]] and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan. === Word formation === The process of [[morphological derivation]] in Catalan follows the same principles as the other [[Romance languages]],{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} where [[inflection]] is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example {{lang|ca|elèctri'''c'''}} {{IPA|[əˈlɛktri<u>k</u>]}} ("electrical") vs. {{lang|ca|electri'''c'''itat}} {{IPA|[ələktri<u>s</u>iˈtat]}}. [[Prefixes]] are usually appended to verbs, as in {{lang|ca|'''pre'''veure}} ("foresee").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} There is greater regularity in the process of [[word-compounding]], where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Common types of word compounds in Catalan{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} |- ! Type !! Example !! Gloss |- | two nouns, the second assimilated to the first || {{lang|ca|paper moneda}} || "banknote paper" |- | noun delimited by an adjective || {{lang|ca|estat major}} || "military staff" |- | noun delimited by another noun and a preposition || {{lang|ca|màquina d'escriure}} || "typewriter" |- | verb radical with a nominal object || {{lang|ca|<u>para</u>caigudes}} || "parachute" |- | noun delimited by an adjective, with adjectival value || {{lang|ca|pit-roig}} || "robin" (bird) |} == Writing system == {{Main|Catalan orthography}} {| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;" ! Main forms | {{lang|ca|[[A]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[a]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[B]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[b]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[C]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[c]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[D]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[d]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[E]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[e]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[F]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[f]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[G]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[g]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[H]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[h]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[I]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[i]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[J]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[j]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[K]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[k]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[L]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[l]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[M]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[m]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[N]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[n]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[O]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[o]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[P]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[p]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Q]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[q]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[R]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[r]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[S]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[s]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[T]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[t]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|[[U]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[u]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[V]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[v]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[W]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[w]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[X]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[x]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Y]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[y]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Z]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[z]]|italic=unset}} |- ! Modified forms | {{lang|ca|[[À]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[à]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ç]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ç]]|italic=unset}} || style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[É]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[é]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[È]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[è]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Í]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[í]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ï]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ï]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ĿL]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[Catalan orthography#Punt volat (middot)|ŀl]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ó]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ó]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ò]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ò]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{lang|ca|[[Ú]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ú]]|italic=unset}} || {{lang|ca|[[Ü]]|italic=unset}} <br /> {{lang|ca|[[ü]]|italic=unset}} || colspan="5" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | |} Catalan uses the [[Latin script]], with some added symbols and digraphs.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} The [[Catalan orthography]] is systematic and largely phonologically based.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=6}} Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC, founded in 1911) published the ''Normes ortogràfiques'' in 1913 under the direction of [[Antoni Maria Alcover]] and [[Pompeu Fabra]]. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in [[Castelló de la Plana]] to make a formal adoption of the so-called ''[[Normes de Castelló]]'', a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUu_apMqBF0C |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected writings |date=2009 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-9027289247 |editor-last=Carreras |editor-first=Joan Costa |language=en |translator-last=Yates |translator-first=Alan}}</ref>[[File:Catalan geminated L in a dictionary.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The word {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel") in a dictionary. The geminated L ({{lang|ca|ŀl}}) is a distinctive character used in Catalan.]] [[File:Billboard in Barcelona (detail).png|thumb|upright=0.8|Billboard in [[Barcelona]] (detail), showing the word {{lang|ca|iŀlusió}} ("illusion")]] {| class="wikitable" |+ Pronunciation of Catalan special characters and digraphs{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! {{lang|ca|ç}} | {{IPA|/s/}} || before {{lang|ca|a}}, {{lang|ca|o}} and {{lang|ca|u}}; or final position || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|gu}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɡ ~ ɣ]}}) || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|guerra}} ("war") |- | {{IPA|/ɡw/}} || elsewhere || {{lang|ca|guant}} ("glove") |- ! {{lang|ca|ig}} | {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|raig}} ("ray") |- ! {{lang|ca|ix}} | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} ({{IPA|[jʃ]}} in most Western dialects) || medially and finally || {{lang|ca|caixa}} ("box") |- ! {{lang|ca|ll}} | {{IPA|/ʎ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|lloc}} ("place") |- ! {{lang|ca|ŀl}} | {{IPA|/lː/}} (normatively, but usually {{IPA|/l/}}) || between vowels || {{lang|ca|noveŀla}} ("novel") |- ! {{lang|ca|ny}} | {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|Catalunya}} ("Catalonia") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|qu}} | {{IPA|/k/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|qui}} ("who") |- | {{IPA|/kw/}} || before other vowels || {{lang|ca|quatre}} ("four") |- ! {{lang|ca|rr}} | {{IPA|/r/}} || between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|r}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || {{lang|ca|carrer}} ("street") <br /> {{lang|ca|mira}} ("he or she looks") |- ! {{lang|ca|sc}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}} || between vowels, before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|ascens}} ("rise") |- ! {{lang|ca|ss}} | between vowels <br /> intervocalic {{lang|ca|s}} is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} || {{lang|ca|grossa}} ("big, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") <br /> {{lang|ca|casa}} ("house") |- ! {{lang|ca|tg}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} || before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} || {{lang|ca|fetge}} ("liver") |- ! {{lang|ca|tj}} | elsewhere || {{lang|ca|mitjó}} ("sock") |- ! {{lang|ca|ts}} | {{IPA|/t͡s/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|potser}} ("maybe") |- ! {{lang|ca|tx}} | {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|despatx}} ("office") |- ! {{lang|ca|tz}} | {{IPA|/d͡z/}} || mainly word medially || {{lang|ca|dotze}} ("twelve") |- | colspan="4" style="border-left: #fff solid 1px; border-right: #fff solid 1px" | &nbsp; |- ! colspan="4" | Learned letter combinations (found in loanwords and/or pre-reform terminology) |- ! !! Pronunciation !! Usage !! Examples |- ! {{lang|ca|ch}} | {{IPA|/k/}} || in final position || {{lang|ca|Llach}} ("Llach") |- ! {{lang|ca|kh}} | {{IPA|/x/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|sikh}} ("sikh") |- ! {{lang|ca|ph}} | {{IPA|/f/}} || in any position || {{lang|ca|pholis}} ("pholis") |- ! {{lang|ca|th}} | {{IPA|/θ/}} || in any position <br /> {{IPA|/t/}} in native words || {{lang|ca|theta}} ("theta") <br /> {{lang|ca|tothom}} ("everybody") |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Letters and digraphs with contextually conditioned pronunciations{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! !! Notes !! Examples{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=7}} |- ! {{lang|ca|c}} | {{IPA|/s/}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and {{lang|ca|e}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|ç}} in other contexts || {{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|masculine singular}}") vs. {{lang|ca|felices}} ("happy, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}")<br />{{lang|ca|caço}} ("I hunt") vs. {{lang|ca|caces}} ("you hunt") |- ! rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|g}} | {{IPA|/ʒ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|envejar}} ("to envy") vs. {{lang|ca|envegen}} ("they envy") |- | final {{lang|ca|g}} before {{lang|ca|i}} and final {{lang|ca|ig}} before other vowels are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃ]}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|j}}~{{lang|ca|g}} or {{lang|ca|tj}}~{{lang|ca|tg}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|desig}} ("wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitjar}} ("to wish") vs. {{lang|ca|desitgem}} ("we wish"), exception: {{lang|ca|càstig}} ("punishment"), pronounced with {{IPA|/k/}} <br /> {{lang|ca|boig}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|masculine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boja}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|boges}} ("mad, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}") |- ! {{lang|ca|gu}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|g}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|botiga}} ("shop") vs. {{lang|ca|botigues}} ("shops") |- ! {{lang|ca|gü}} | {{IPA|/ɡw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|gu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|llengua}} ("language") vs. {{lang|ca|llengües}} ("languages") |- ! {{lang|ca|qu}} | {{IPA|/k/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|c}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|vaca}} ("cow") vs. {{lang|ca|vaques}} ("cows") |- ! {{lang|ca|qü}} | {{IPA|/kw/}} before {{lang|ca|e}} and {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> corresponds to {{lang|ca|qu}} in other positions || {{lang|ca|obliqua}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine}}") vs. {{lang|ca|obliqües}} ("oblique, {{smallcaps|feminine plural}}") |- ! {{lang|ca|x}} | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (also {{IPA|[tʃ]}} dialectally) initially and in onsets after a consonant; {{IPA|[ʃ]}} after {{lang|ca|i}} <br /> {{IPA|/ks/}} between vowels and syllable final (except after {{lang|ca|i}} in most cases) <br /> {{IPA|/ɡz/}} between vowels and syllable final before voiced consonants || {{lang|ca|xinxa}} ("bedbug"), {{lang|ca|guix}} ("chalk") <br /> {{lang|ca|taxi}} ("taxi"), {{lang|ca|fixar}} ("to fix"), {{lang|ca|extra}} ("extra") <br /> {{lang|ca|exacte}} ("exact"), {{lang|ca|exdirector}} ("ex-director") |} == Grammar == {{Main|Catalan grammar}}{{cleanup section|date=June 2026|reason=Citation spam}} The grammar of Catalan is similar to other [[Romance languages]]. Features include:{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * Use of [[definite article|definite]] and [[indefinite article]]s.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * [[Noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and [[article (grammar)|articles]] are [[inflection|inflected]] for [[grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine and feminine), and [[grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural). There is no [[case (grammar)|case]] inflexion, except in pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * [[Verb]]s are highly inflected for [[person (grammar)|person]], [[number (grammar)|number]], [[tense (grammar)|tense]], [[aspect (grammar)|aspect]], and [[mood (grammar)|mood]] (including a [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]).{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * There are no [[modal auxiliary|modal auxiliaries]].{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} * Word order is freer than in English.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}} === Gender and number inflection === {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Regular noun with definite article: {{lang|ca|el gat}} ("the cat") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|el gat}} || {{lang|ca|la gat'''a'''}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|els gat'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|les gat'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 4 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|verd}} ("green") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|verd}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''a'''}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|verd'''s'''}} || {{lang|ca|verd'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 3 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|feliç}} ("happy") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|feliç}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|feliç'''os'''}} || {{lang|ca|felic'''es'''}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Adjective with 2 forms: <br />{{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}} ("indifferent") |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}}} |- ! plural | colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|{{not a typo|indiferent}}'''s'''}} |} |} [[File:Flexió of word Gat.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Gender and number inflection of the word {{lang|ca|gat}} ("cat")]] In [[gender inflection]], the most notable feature is (compared to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]]), the loss of the typical [[masculine]] [[suffix]] {{lang|ca|-o}}. Thus, the alternance of {{lang|ca|-o}}/{{lang|ca|-a}}, has been replaced by ''ø''/{{lang|ca|-a}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} There are only a few exceptions, such as {{lang|ca|minso}}/{{lang|ca|minsa}} ("scarce").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} * Affrication: {{lang|ca|bo'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|bo'''j'''<u>a</u>}} ("insane") vs. {{lang|ca|lle'''ig'''}}/{{lang|ca|lle'''tj'''<u>a</u>}} ("ugly") * Loss of {{lang|ca|n}}: {{lang|ca|pla}}/{{lang|ca|pla'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("flat") vs. {{lang|ca|sego'''n'''}}/{{lang|ca|sego'''n'''<u>a</u>}} ("second") * [[Final obstruent devoicing]]: {{lang|ca|senti'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|senti'''d'''<u>a</u>}} ("felt") vs. {{lang|ca|di'''t'''}}/{{lang|ca|di'''t'''<u>a</u>}} ("said") Catalan has few [[Suppletion|suppletive]] couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has {{lang|ca|noi}}/{{lang|ca|noia}} ("boy"/"girl") and {{lang|ca|gall}}/{{lang|ca|gallina}} ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has {{lang|ca|garçon}}/{{lang|ca|fille}} and {{lang|ca|coq}}/{{lang|ca|poule}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favor of marked ones, something prevalent in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and French. Thus, one can find {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullenta}} ("boiling") in contrast with traditional {{lang|ca|bullent}}/{{lang|ca|bullent}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix {{lang|ca|-s}}, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} The most important one is the addition of {{lang|ca|-o-}} before certain consonant groups, a [[phonetic]] phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: {{lang|ca|el pols}}/{{lang|ca|els polsos}} ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. {{lang|ca|la pols}}/{{lang|ca|les pols}} ("the dust"/"the dusts").{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=630–631}} === Determiners === {| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Definite article in Standard Catalan <br />(elided forms in brackets){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=29–30}} |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|el}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|la}} ({{lang|ca|l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|els}} || {{lang|ca|les}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Contractions of the definite article |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! colspan="3" | preposition |- ! ''a'' !! ''de'' !! ''per'' |- ! rowspan="2" | article || ''el'' | {{lang|ca|al}} ({{lang|ca|a l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|del}} ({{lang|ca|de l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) || {{lang|ca|pel}} ({{lang|ca|per l<nowiki>'</nowiki>}}) |- ! ''els'' | {{lang|ca|als}} || {{lang|ca|dels}} || {{lang|ca|pels}} |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Indefinite article |- ! !! masculine !! feminine |- ! singular | {{lang|ca|un}} || {{lang|ca|una}} |- ! plural | {{lang|ca|uns}} || {{lang|ca|unes}} |} |} The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than [[Spanish language|Spanish]], such as {{lang|ca|dels}} ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as [[Italian language|Italian]] (which has {{lang|it|sul}}, {{lang|it|col}}, {{lang|it|nel}}, etc.).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives ({{lang|ca|mon}}, etc.) in favor of constructions of article + stressed forms ({{lang|ca|el meu}}, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} === Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 1em;" |+ Catalan stressed pronouns{{sfn|Fabra|1926|p=42}} ! colspan="2" | &nbsp; !! singular !! plural |- ! colspan="2" | 1st person | {{lang|ca|jo}}, {{lang|ca|mi}} || {{lang|ca|nosaltres}} |- ! rowspan="3" | 2nd person !! informal | {{lang|ca|tu}} || {{lang|ca|vosaltres}} |- ! formal | {{lang|ca|vostè}} || {{lang|ca|vostès}} |- ! respectful | colspan="2" | ({{lang|ca|vós}})<ref>Archaic in most dialects.</ref> |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd person !! masculine | {{lang|ca|ell}} || {{lang|ca|ells}} |- ! feminine | {{lang|ca|ella}} || {{lang|ca|elles}} |} The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, especially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Features include the gender-neutral {{lang|ca|ho}} and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan pronouns exhibit [[T–V distinction]], like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality. This flexibility allows Catalan to use [[extraposition]] extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have {{lang|ca|m'hi recomanaren}} ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say {{lang|fr|ils m'ont recommandé à lui}}, and Spanish {{lang|es|me recomendaron a él}}.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence [[Topic–comment|topic]], without having to use so often the [[passive voice]] (as in French or English), or identifying the [[direct object]] with a [[preposition]] (as in Spanish).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {{clear}} === Verbs === {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em" |+ Simple forms of a regular verb of the first conjugation: {{lang|ca|portar}} ("to bring"){{sfn|Fabra|1926|pp=70–71}} ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Non-finite || colspan="6" style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Form |- style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portar}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Gerund || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portant}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Past participle || colspan="6" | {{lang|ca|portat}} ({{lang|ca|portat}}, {{lang|ca|portada}}, {{lang|ca|portats}}, {{lang|ca|portades}}) |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Indicative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | Present || {{lang|ca|porto}} || {{lang|ca|portes}} || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|porten}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portaves}} || {{lang|ca|portava}} || {{lang|ca|portàvem}} || {{lang|ca|portàveu}} || {{lang|ca|portaven}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Preterite (archaic) || {{lang|ca|portí}} || {{lang|ca|portares}} || {{lang|ca|portà}} || {{lang|ca|portàrem}} || {{lang|ca|portàreu}} || {{lang|ca|portaren}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Future || {{lang|ca|portaré}} || {{lang|ca|portaràs}} || {{lang|ca|portarà}} || {{lang|ca|portarem}} || {{lang|ca|portareu}} || {{lang|ca|portaran}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Conditional || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaries}} || {{lang|ca|portaria}} || {{lang|ca|portaríem}} || {{lang|ca|portaríeu}} || {{lang|ca|portarien}} |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Subjunctive || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | Present || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portis}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}} |- style="text-align: center;" | Imperfect || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssis}} || {{lang|ca|portés}} || {{lang|ca|portéssim}} || {{lang|ca|portéssiu}} || {{lang|ca|portessin}} |- style="text-align: center;" ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Imperative || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|jo}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|tu}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ell / ella}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostè}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|nosaltres}} || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|vosaltres}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vós}}] || style="background:#e0e0ff;"|{{lang|ca|ells / elles}}<br />[{{lang|ca|vostès}}] |- style="text-align: center;" | — || — || {{lang|ca|porta}} || {{lang|ca|porti}} || {{lang|ca|portem}} || {{lang|ca|porteu}} || {{lang|ca|portin}} |} Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. [[Suffixation]] is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of {{lang|ca|anar}} ("to go") + infinitive.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes {{lang|ca|-a-}}, {{lang|ca|-e-}}, {{lang|ca|-i-}}, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of {{lang|ca|servir}}, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} {{clear}} === Syntax === {{Main|Catalan syntax}} The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary [[word order]] is [[subject–verb–object]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |title=Catalan |website=World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) Online |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=12 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212065626/https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl |url-status=live}}</ref> However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence "The train has arrived" could be translated as {{lang|ca|Ha arribat el tren}} or {{lang|ca|El tren ha arribat}}. Both sentences mean "the train has arrived", but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as "what you might say while waiting in the station" versus "what you might say on the train".{{sfn|Wheeler|Yates|Dols|1999}} == Catalan names == {{Main|Catalan names}} In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}} The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction ''i'' ("and").{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}}<ref>article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames"</ref> == Sample text == Selected text from [[Manuel de Pedrolo]]'s 1970 novel {{lang|ca|Un amor fora ciutat}} ("A love affair outside the city").{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}}{{Interlinear|Tenia {prop de} divuit anys quan vaig conèixer en Raül, a l'estació de Manresa. El meu pare havia mort, inesperadament i encara jove, un parell d'anys abans, i d'aquells temps conservo un record de punyent solitud. Les meves relacions amb la mare no havien pas millorat, tot el contrari, potser {fins i tot} empitjoraven {a mesura que} em feia gran. No existia, no existí mai entre nosaltres, una comunitat d'interessos, d'afeccions. Cal creure que cercava... una persona en qui centrar la meva vida afectiva.|təˈniə {ˈprɔp də} diˈβujt ˈaɲʃ ˈkwam ˈbatʃ kuˈnɛʃə ən rəˈul ə ləstəˈsjo ðə mənˈrɛzə əl ˈmew paɾə əˈβiə mɔrt inəspəˌɾaðəˈmen i ənˈkaɾə ˈʒoβə um pəˈɾɛʎ ˈdaɲʃ əˈβans i ðəˈkɛʎ ˈtems kunˈserβu un rəˈkɔrt də puˈɲen suliˈtut ləz ˈmeβəz rələˈsjonz əm lə ˈmaɾə no əˈviən ˈpaz miʎuˈɾat ˈtot əl kunˈtɾaɾi putˈse {ˈfinz i ˈtot} əmpidʒuˈɾaβən {ə məˈzuɾə kə} əm ˈfɛjə ˈɣɾan no əɡzisˈtiə no əɡzisˈti ˈmaj ˈentɾə nuˈzaltɾəs ˈunə kumuniˈtat dintəˈɾɛsus dəfəkˈsjons ˈkal ˈkɾɛwɾə kə sərˈkaβə ˈunə pəɾˈsonə əŋ ˈki səntˈɾaɾ lə ˈmeβə ˈβiðə əfəkˈtiβə | 3 = {I was having} {close to} eighteen years, when {I go [past auxiliary]} {know (=I met)} the Raül, at {the station} {of (=in)} Manresa. The my father had died, unexpectedly and still young, a couple {of years} before, and {of those} times {I keep} a memory of acute loneliness The my relations with the mother not had {at all} improved, all the contrary, perhaps even {they were worsening} {at step that (=in proportion as)} myself {I was making} {big (=I was growing up).} Not {it was existing}, not {it existed} never between us, a community {of interests}, {of affections}. {It is necessary} {to believe} that {I was seeking...} a person in whom {to center} the my life affective. | 4 = 'I was about eighteen years old when I met Raül, at [[Manresa]] railway station. My father had died, unexpectedly and still young, a couple of years before; and from that time I still harbor memories of great loneliness. My relationship with my mother had not improved; quite the contrary, and arguably it was getting even worse as I grew up. There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us shared interests or affection. I guess I was seeking... a person in whom I could center my emotional life.' | lang = ca | indent = 1.6 | ipa1 = no | ipa2 = yes | ipa3 = no | glossing1 = no | glossing2 = no | glossing3 = yes | glossing = no abbr }} == See also == {{Portal|Spain|Andorra|Italy|France|Language}} {{div col}} ;Organizations * ''[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]'' (Catalan Studies Institute) * ''[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]'' (Valencian Academy of the Language) * [[Òmnium Cultural]] * [[Plataforma per la Llengua]] ;Scholars * [[Marina Abràmova]] * [[Germà Colón]] * [[Dominique de Courcelles]] * [[Martí de Riquer]] * [[Arthur Terry]] * [[Lawrence Venuti]] ;Other * [[Languages of Catalonia]] ** [[Linguistic features of Spanish as spoken by Catalan speakers]] * [[Languages of France]] * [[Languages of Italy]] * [[Languages of Spain]] * [[Normes de Castelló]] * [[Pompeu Fabra]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{Reflist|group=note}} {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Works cited == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{citation |publisher=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |date=9 February 2005 |title=Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià |language=ca |url=http://ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0#Dictamen |ref={{harvid|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|2005}} |access-date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=5 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305161817/http://ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0#Dictamen |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Bonet |first1=Eulàlia |last2=Mascaró |first2=Joan |year=1997 |chapter=On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics |title=Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages |editor1-last=Martínez-Gil |editor1-first=Fernando |editor2-last=Morales-Front |editor2-first=Alfonso |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-0-87840-647-0}} * {{cite book |last=Britton |first=A. Scott |year=2011 |title=Catalan Dictionary & Phrasebook |place=New York |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1258-0}} * {{cite book |last=Bruguera |first=Jordi |year=2008 |chapter=Historia interna del catalán: léxico, formación de palabras y fraseología |title=Romanische Sprachgeschichte |editor-last=Ernst |editor-first=Gerhard |volume=3 |place=Berlin, New York |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=3045–3055}} * {{cite book |last=Burke |first=Ulrik Ralph |title=A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog |year=1900 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog/page/n187 154]}} * {{cite journal |last1=Carbonell |first1=Joan F. |last2=Llisterri |first2=Joaquim |year=1992 |title=Catalan |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=22 |issue=1–2 |page=53 |doi=10.1017/S0025100300004618 |s2cid=249411809}} * {{cite book |last1=Carbonell |first1=Joan F. |last2=Llisterri |first2=Joaquim |year=1999 |chapter=Catalan |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=61–65 |isbn=0-521-63751-1}} * {{cite book |title=Collins English Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1991 |isbn=0-00-433286-5 |ref={{harvid|Collins English Dictionary}}}} * {{cite book |last=Colón |first=Germà |year=1993 |title=El lèxic català dins la Romània. Biblioteca Lingüística Catalana |publisher=Universitat de València |place=Valencia |isbn=84-370-1327-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Costa Carreras |first1=Joan |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948) |year=2009 |publisher=Instutut d'Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-3264-9 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC}} * {{cite book |last=Fabra |first=Pompeu |title=Gramàtica Catalana |year=1926 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |edition=4th |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085647/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Feldhausen |first=Ingo |title=Sentential Form and Prosodic Structure of Catalan |year=2010 |publisher=John Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-5551-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085512/https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |author1=Ferrater |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana Volum 4 |year=1973 |publisher=Enciclopèdia Catalana |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-85-194-04-7 |pages=628–639 |edition=1977, corrected |language=ca |chapter=Català |ref={{harvid|Enciclopèdia Catalana}} |display-authors=etal}} * {{Citation |title=[[Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana]] |orig-date=1973 |date=1977 |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-85-194-04-7 |edition=corrected |pages=628–639 |language=ca |entry=Català |volume=4 |trans-title=Great Catalan Encyclopaedia |last=Ferrater Soler |first=Gabriel |author-link=Gabriel Ferrater |display-authors=etal |entry-url=https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ec-gec-0224508.xml }} * {{cite book |last1=Gallego |first1=Rosa |last2=Sanz |first2=Juan Carlos |year=2001 |title=Diccionario Akal del color |publisher=Akal |language=es |isbn=978-84-460-1083-8}} * {{cite book |last=García Venero |first=Maximiano |title=Historia del nacionalismo catalán: 2a edición |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 April 2010 |date=7 July 2006 |publisher=Ed. Nacional |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425120752/https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Gove |editor-first=Philip Babcock |title=Webster's Third New International Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc. |year=1993 |editor-link=Philip Babcock Gove |isbn=3-8290-5292-8}} * {{cite journal |last=Grau Mateu |first=Josep |title=El català, llengua de govern: la política lingüística de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914–1924) |journal=Revista de Llengua I Dret |publisher=Revista de llengua i dret, 64 |url=https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |year=2015 |pages=86–101 |access-date=9 June 2019 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609083746/https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Guinot |first=Enric |title=Els fundadors del Regne de València: replobament, antroponímia i llengua a la València medieval |year=1999 |publisher=Tres i Quatre |location=Valencia |isbn=8475025919}} * {{Citation |url={{Google Books |id=T_DpUtZ66hoC |plainurl=yes}} |last=Hall |first=Jacqueline |title=''Convivència'' in Catalonia: Languages Living Together |location=Barcelona |publisher=Fundació Jaume Bofill |date=2001 }} * {{cite book |last=Hualde |first=José |year=1992 |title=Catalan |page=368 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05498-0}} * {{cite book |last=Jud |first=Jakob |title=Problèmes de géographie linguistique romane |year=1925 |publisher=Revue de Linguistique Romane |location=Paris |pages=181–182 |language=fr}} * {{cite book |last=Koryakov |first=Yuri |title=Atlas of Romance languages |place=Moscow |year=2001}} * {{cite book |last=Lledó |first=Miquel Àngel |title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity : The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts (Volume 2) |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-539245-6 |pages=336–348 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337 |chapter=26. The Independent Standardization of Valencia: From Official Use to Underground Resistance |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085540/https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337#v=snippet&q=IEC%20AVL%20catalan&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Lloret |first=Maria-Rosa |editor-last=Auger |editor-first=Julie |editor2-last=Clements |editor2-first=J. Clancy |editor3-last=Vance |editor3-first=Barbara |chapter=The Phonological Role of Paradigms: The Case of Insular Catalan |title=Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 33rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages |date=2004 |page=278 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins}} * {{cite book |last=Marfany |first=Marta |title=Els menorquins d'Algèria |year=2002 |publisher=Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-366-5 |language=ca}} * {{cite book |last1=Melchor |first1=Vicent de |last2=Branchadell |first2=Albert |title=El catalán: una lengua de Europa para compartir |year=2002 |publisher=Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona |location=Bellaterra |isbn=84-490-2299-1 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |language=es |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085544/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Moll |first=Francesc de B. |title=Gramàtica Històrica Catalana |orig-date=1958 |date=2006 |publisher=Universitat de València |isbn=978-84-370-6412-3 |edition=Catalan |page=47 |language=ca}} * {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Treballs de lingüística històrica catalana |year=1994 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Monsterrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-568-6 |pages=55–93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38 |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085649/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Moran |first=Josep |title=Estudis d'història de la llengua catalana |year=2004 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-8415-672-9 |pages=37–38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |language=ca |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121043/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Padgett |first=Jaye |date=December 2009 |journal=The Linguistic Review |volume=26 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/tlir.2009.016 |title=Systemic Contrast and Catalan Rhotics |url=https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |pages=431– |s2cid=15197551 |access-date=17 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082601/https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1993 |chapter=Fonètica i Fonologia |title=Enciclopèdia Catalana}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Fontdevila |first2=Jordi |last3=Pallarès |first3=Maria Dolors |year=1995 |title=Velarization Degree and Coarticulatory Resistance for /l/ in Catalan and German |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=288 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(95)80031-X}} * {{cite book |last=Recasens |first=Daniel |year=1996 |title=Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX |edition=2nd |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |isbn=9788472833128 |pages=75–76, 128–129}} * {{cite book |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Pallarès |first2=Maria Dolors |year=2001 |title=De la fonètica a la fonologia: les consonants i assimilacions consonàntiques del català |publisher=Editorial Ariel |place=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-344-2884-3}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2005 |title=Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1, 20 |doi=10.1017/S0025100305001878 |s2cid=14140079}} * {{cite journal |last1=Recasens |first1=Daniel |last2=Espinosa |first2=Aina |year=2007 |title=An Electropalatographic and Acoustic Study of Affricates and Fricatives in Two Catalan Dialects |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=37 |issue=2 |page=145 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002829 |s2cid=14275190}} * {{cite book |last=Riquer |first=Martí de |title=Història de la Literatura Catalana |year=1964 |publisher=Ariel |location=Barcelona |language=ca |chapter=Vol.1}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Russell-Gebbett |editor-first=Paul |title=Mediaeval Catalan Linguistic Texts |publisher=Dolphin Book Co. Ltd., Oxford |year=1965 |editor-link=Paul S. N. Russell-Gebbett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427085542/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schlösser |first=Rainer |title=Die romanischen Sprachen |year=2005 |publisher=C.H. Beck |location=Munich}} * {{cite book |last=Swan |first=Michael |title=Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and Other Problems, Volume 1 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC |isbn=978-0-521-77939-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |year=1962 |pages=43–48 |title=The Resurgence of Catalan |journal=Hispania |volume=45 |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/337523 |jstor=337523}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max W. |date=1979 |title=Phonology of Catalan |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-11621-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Max |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |last3=Dols |first3=Nicolau |year=1999 |title=Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar |place=London |publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=The Romance Languages |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-16417-6 |pages=170–208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC |chapter=5. Catalan}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2005 |title=The Phonology of Catalan |url=https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee |url-access=limited |place=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee/page/n66 54] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925814-7}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=2006 |title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics}} * {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |year=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |pages=188–192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |chapter=Catalan |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324124913/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |title=Homenatge a Arthur Terry |year=1997 |publisher=Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-7826-894-4 |pages=9–18 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17 |chapter=greuges de Guitard isarn, Senyor de Caboet (1080–1095) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425121102/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17#v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Veny |first=Joan |year=2007 |title=Petit Atles lingüístic del domini català |volume=1 & 2 |place=Barcelona |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |page=51 |isbn=978-84-7283-942-7}} {{refend}} == External links == '''Institutions''' * [http://www.cpnl.cat/ ''Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística''] * [https://www.iec.cat/ ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' (IEC)] * [https://www.avl.gva.es/ ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' (AVL)] '''About the Catalan/Valencian language''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529085634/http://www2.iec.cat/institucio/seccions/Filologica/gramatica/default.asp ''Gramàtica de la Llengua Catalana''] (Catalan grammar), from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [https://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV ''Gramàtica Normativa Valenciana''] (Valencian grammar). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101063611/http://www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV |date=1 November 2020}}, from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' * [https://www.apuntsdellengua.es/ ''Apunts de llengua''], learning program by À Punt * [https://llengua.gencat.cat/ca/inici llengua.gencat.cat], by the Government of Catalonia * [https://www.verbs.cat/en/ verbs.cat] (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers) * [http://www.ub.edu/lexdialgram/ LEXDIALGRAM] (online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona) '''Monolingual dictionaries''' * [https://dlc.iec.cat/ DIEC2], from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [http://www.avl.gva.es/lexicval/ ''Diccionari Normatiu Valencià'' (DNV)], from the ''Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua'' * [http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= ''Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana'']. {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518140450/http://ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= |date=18 May 2016 }}, from Enciclopèdia Catalana * [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ ''Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear''] d'Alcover i Moll. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040826061207/http://dcvb.iecat.net/ |date=26 August 2004 }}, from the ''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' * [http://www.dilc.org/ ''Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana''] (Dictionary of Catalan words spelled backward) * [http://www.trobat.com/servicis/dvo.php trobat.com] (online Valencian dictionary) '''Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries''' * [http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm ''Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe'']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531071849/http://www.grec.cat/cgibin/mlt00.pgm |date=31 May 2014 }} (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana '''Automated translation systems''' * [https://traductor.gencat.cat/text.do Traductor] automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia '''Learning resources''' * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Catalan_Swadesh_list Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words], from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix] '''Catalan-language online encyclopedia''' * ''[https://www.enciclopedia.cat/ Enciclopèdia Catalana]'' {{Sister bar |auto=1|wikt=Category:Catalan language|d=y|iw=ca}} {{Navboxes | title = Articles related to Catalan language | list = {{Navboxes |title=Linguistics |list = {{Romance languages}} {{Occitano-Romance languages and dialects}} {{Catalan language}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Geopolitical use |list = {{Languages of Spain}} {{Languages of France}} {{Languages of Italy}} {{Languages of Europe}} }} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Catalan language| ]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Occitano-Romance languages]] [[Category:Languages of Catalonia]] [[Category:Languages of Andorra]] [[Category:Languages of France]] [[Category:Languages of Sardinia]] [[Category:Endangered Romance languages]] [[Category:Vulnerable languages]] [[Category:Endangered languages of Europe]] lgtbbk9ujk08933qbio67ecd3koodpe Module:Spanish language 828 77897 687837 2026-07-11T14:16:45Z Beshogur 56826 /* Name of the language */ 687837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Romance language}} {{Redirect|Castilian language|the specific variety of the language|Castilian Spanish|the broader branch of Ibero-Romance|West Iberian languages}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}} {{Use American English|date=February 2023}} {{CS1 config|mode=CS1}} {{Infobox language | name = Spanish | altname = Castilian | nativename = {{hlist|{{lang|es|español}}|{{lang|es|castellano}}}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|es|espaˈɲol||Es-español.oga|}}<br />{{IPA|es|kasteˈʎano||Es castellano 001.ogg}}<br />({{small|{{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}} with ''[[yeísmo]]'':}}<br />{{IPA|es|kasteˈʝano||Es-Castellano.oga}}) | states = [[Spain]], [[Hispanic America]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] | speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|519.115|3}} million | date = 2025 | ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=El Español en el mundo|url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_25/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2025.pdf |website=Instituto Cervantes}}</ref> | speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|116.628|3}} million (2025)<br /> Total: {{sigfig|635.744|3}} million (2025) | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]]? | fam9 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] | fam10 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] | fam11 = [[Castilian languages|Castilian]]<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Castilic|chapter-url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cast1243|editor1-first=Harald|editor1-last=Hammarström|editor2-first=Robert|editor2-last=Forkel|editor3-first=Martin|editor3-last=Haspelmath|editor4-first=Sebastian|editor4-last=Bank|year=2022|title=[[Glottolog|Glottolog 4.6]]|edition=|location=Jena, Germany|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology|ref={{sfnref|Glottolog|2022}}|access-date=19 June 2022|archive-date=28 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528095200/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cast1243|url-status=live}}</ref> | ancestor = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Spanish]] | ancestor4 = [[Early Modern Spanish]] | script = [[Latin script]] ([[Spanish alphabet]])<br />[[Spanish Braille]] | nation = {{ubli|[[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Sovereign states|21 countries]], [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Territory|1 dependent territory]], and [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Partially recognized state|1 partially recognized country]] |Organizations including the {{enum| |[[African Union|AU]] |[[Andean Community|CAN]] |[[Association of Caribbean States|ACS]] |[[CARICOM]] |[[CELAC]] |[[EU]] |[[ALADI]] |[[Parlatino]] |[[Mercosur]] |[[OSCE]] |[[Organization of American States|OAS]] |[[UN]] |[[USAN]] |[[Organization of Ibero-American States|OEI]] |[[WTO]] }} }} | agency = [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]] | iso1 = es | iso2 = spa | iso3 = spa | lingua = 51-AAA-b | sign = [[Signed Spanish]] (using signs of the local language) | glotto = stan1288 | glottorefname = Spanish | mapscale = 1.25 | map = File:Map-Hispanophone World.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#045a8d|Official majority language}} {{legend|#0674b6|Co-official or administrative language but not majority native language}} {{legend|#9bbae1|Secondary language (more than 20% Spanish speakers) or culturally important}} | notice = IPA }} '''Spanish''' ({{lang|es|español}}) or '''Castilian''' ({{lang|es|castellano}}) is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] that evolved from the [[Vulgar Latin]] spoken on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] of [[Europe]]. It originated in the [[Kingdom of Castile]], a historical kingdom in north-central [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cultura.gob.es/cultura/archivos/diversidad-linguistica/lenguas/castellano.html |title=Castellano |trans-title=Castilian |website=Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte |publisher=Gobierno de España |language=es |quote=Its origins lie in the northern third of the Iberian Peninsula, in the '''Kingdom of Castile''', where other dialects of Latin intermingled, such as Galician–Portuguese, Astur–Leonese, and Navarro–Aragonese. |access-date=11 November 2025}}</ref> Today, it is a [[world language|global language]] with 519 million native speakers, mainly in the [[Americas]] and Spain, and about 636 million speakers total, including [[Second language|second-language speakers]]. Spanish is the official language of [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language|21 countries]], as well as one of the [[Official languages of the United Nations|six official languages]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref name="un1">{{cite web | last=| first=| title=Official Languages | publisher=United Nations | url=https://www.un.org/en/our-work/official-languages | access-date=2024-01-05| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105190533/https://www.un.org/en/our-work/official-languages| archive-date=2024-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=In which countries of the world is this language spoken? |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm |url-status=live |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629022556/https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm |archive-date=29 June 2023}}</ref> Spanish is the world's [[list of languages by number of native speakers|second-most spoken native language]] after [[Mandarin Chinese]];<ref name="size">{{cite web |last1=Eberhard |first1=David M. |last2=Simons |first2=Gary F. |last3=Fennig |first3=Charles D. |date=2022 |title=Summary by language size |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |work=Ethnologue |publisher=SIL International |language=en-US |access-date=2 December 2023 |archive-date=18 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618002011/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Salvador |first=Yolanda Mancebo |title=Calderón en Europa |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31819/9783964565013-007/html |chapter=Hacia una historia de la puesta en escena de La vida es sueño |publisher=Vervuert Verlagsgesellschaft |year=2002 |pages=91–100 |isbn=978-3-96456-501-3 |language=es |doi=10.31819/9783964565013-007 |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303220424/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31819/9783964565013-007/html |url-status=live}}</ref> the world's [[list of languages by total number of speakers|fourth-most spoken language]] overall after [[English language|English]], Mandarin Chinese, and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]]-[[Urdu]]); and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers is [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries with most Spanish speakers 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ |website=[[Statista]] |access-date=17 May 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517000420/https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is part of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance language group]], which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the [[collapse of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vergaz |first=Miguel A. |title=La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano |date=7 November 2010 |url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/07/castillayleon/1289123856.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124225541/http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/07/castillayleon/1289123856.html |newspaper=El Mundo |language=es-es |access-date=24 November 2010 |archive-date=24 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the first systematic written use of the language happened in [[Toledo (Spain)|Toledo]], a prominent city of the [[Kingdom of Castile]], in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the [[early modern period]] spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rice |first=John |date=2010 |title=sejours linguistiques en Espagne |url=http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118163355/http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html |archive-date=18 January 2013 |access-date=3 March 2022 |website=sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com}}</ref> As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. About 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Comparán Rizo |first1=Juan José |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caqn_7i6tvkC&pg=PA17 |title=Raices Griegas y latinas |publisher=Ediciones Umbral |isbn=978-968-5430-01-2 |page=17 |language=es |access-date=22 August 2017 }}</ref> Alongside English and [[French language|French]], it is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world.<ref>[https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ Spanish in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206042553/https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ |date=6 February 2021}}, ''Language Magazine'', 18 November 2019.</ref> Spanish is well represented in the [[humanities]] and [[social science]]s.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 March 2014 |title=El español se atasca como lengua científica |url=https://www.agenciasinc.es/Noticias/El-espanol-se-atasca-como-lengua-cientifica |work=Servicio de Información y Noticias Científicas |language=es |access-date=29 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222204919/https://www.agenciasinc.es/Noticias/El-espanol-se-atasca-como-lengua-cientifica |archive-date=22 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/internet-language |title=What Are The Most-Used Languages On The Internet? |work=+Babbel Magazine |last=Devlin |first=Thomas Moore |date=30 January 2019 |access-date=13 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206012715/https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/internet-language}}</ref> and the second most used language by number of websites after English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language |title=Usage statistics of content languages for websites |date=10 February 2024 |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817192928/https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is used as an official language by [[List of countries and territories where Spanish is an official language#International organizations|many international organizations]], including the United Nations, [[European Union]], [[Organization of Ibero-American States]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Union of South American Nations]], [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States]], [[African Union]], and others.<ref name="un1"/> {{TOC limit|3}} == Name of the language and etymology == {{Main|Names given to the Spanish language}} === Name of the language === In Spain and some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only {{lang|es|[[wikt:español#Spanish|español]]}} but also {{lang|es|[[wikt:castellano#Spanish|castellano]]}} (Castilian), the language from the [[Kingdom of Castile]], contrasting it with other [[languages of Spain|languages spoken in Spain]] such as [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Catalan language|Catalan/Valencian]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and other minor languages. The [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] uses the term {{lang|es|castellano}} to define the [[official language]] of the whole of Spain, in contrast to {{lang|es|las demás lenguas españolas}} ({{lit|the other [[Spanish languages]]}}). Article III reads as follows: {{blockquote|{{lang|es|El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado.&nbsp;... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas...}}{{pb}} Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State.&nbsp;... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities...}} The [[Real Academia Española|Royal Spanish Academy]] ({{Lang|es|Real Academia Española}}), on the other hand, currently uses the term {{lang|es|español}} in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language {{lang|es|castellano}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Problemas de la lengua española (I): La lengua, los niveles y la norma {{!}} Fundación Juan March |url=https://www.march.es/es/madrid/conferencia/problemas-lengua-espanola-i-lengua-niveles-norma |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=www.march.es |language=es}}</ref> The {{lang|es|[[Diccionario panhispánico de dudas]]}} (a language guide published by the Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term {{lang|es|español}} in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms—{{lang|es|español}} and {{lang|es|castellano}}—are regarded as synonymous and equally valid.<ref>Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, 2005, p.&nbsp;271–272.</ref> ===Etymology=== The term {{lang|es|castellano}} is related to [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] ({{lang|es|Castilla}} or archaically {{lang|osp|Castiella}}), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name ''Castile'', in turn, is usually assumed to be derived from {{lang|es|castillo}} ('castle'). In the [[Middle Ages]], the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as {{lang|es|Romance}} and later also as {{lang|es|Lengua vulgar}}.<ref name="espania" /> Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as {{lang|es|Romance castellano}} ({{Lang|es|romanz castellano}}, {{Lang|es|romanz de Castiella}}), {{Lang|es|lenguaje de Castiella}}, and ultimately simply as {{lang|es|castellano}} (noun).<ref name="espania">{{Cite journal|title=De nuevo sobre los nombres medievales de la lengua de Castilla|first=Rafael|last=Cano Aguilar|doi=10.4000/e-spania.22518|journal=E-Spania|year=2013|volume=15 |issue=15|doi-access=free| issn = 1951-6169}}</ref> Different etymologies have been suggested for the term {{lang|es|español}} (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, {{lang|es|español}} derives from the [[Occitan language|Occitan]] word {{Lang|oc|espaignol}} and that, in turn, derives from the [[Vulgar Latin]] *{{lang|la|hispaniolus}} ('of Hispania').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=GUSX1EQ |title=español, la |work=Diccionario de la lengua española |publisher=Real Academia Espańola |access-date=13 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=24 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424193620/http://dle.rae.es/?id=GUSX1EQ}}</ref> [[Hispania]] was the Roman name for the entire [[Iberian Peninsula]]. There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] suggested that the classic {{lang|la|hispanus}} or {{lang|la|hispanicus}} took the suffix {{Lang|la|-one}} from [[Vulgar Latin]], as happened with other words such as {{lang|es|bretón}} (Breton) or {{lang|es|sajón}} (Saxon).{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} == History == {{Main|History of the Spanish language}} [[File:CartulariosValpuesta.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Cartularies of Valpuesta]], written in a late form of Latin, were declared in 2010 by the Royal Spanish Academy as the record of the earliest words written in Castilian, predating those of the [[Glosas Emilianenses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|title=cartularioshistoria|website=www.euskonews.com|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402124945/http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] Like the other [[Romance languages]], the Spanish language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]], which was brought to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] during the [[Second Punic War]], beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called [[Paleohispanic languages]])—some distantly related to Latin as [[Indo-European languages]], and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. These languages included [[Proto-Basque language|Proto-Basque]], [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] and [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]. The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the [[modern era]], the most important [[Language contact|influence]]s on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring [[Romance languages]]—[[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic]] ([[Andalusi Romance]]), [[Navarro-Aragonese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Catalan language|Catalan/Valencian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and later, [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Spanish also [[Loanword|borrowed]] a considerable number of words from [[Andalusi Arabic]], and a few from [[Basque language|Basque]]. In addition, many more words were borrowed from [[Latin]] through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both [[Classical Latin]] and [[Renaissance Latin]], the form of Latin in use at that time. According to the theories of [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]], local [[sociolect]]s of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of [[Burgos]], and this dialect was later brought to the city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century.<ref name="Penny1p16">{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=16}}</ref> In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, [[Leonese language|Leonese]], and, according to some authors, was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see [[Iberian Romance languages]]). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the {{lang|es|[[Reconquista]]}}, and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the [[Arabic]] of [[Al-Andalus]], much of it indirectly, through the Romance [[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic dialects]] (some 4,000 [[Arabic]]-derived words, make up about 8% of the language today).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=24 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925062202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|archive-date=25 September 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> The written standard for this new language was developed in the cities of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], in the 13th to 16th centuries, and [[Madrid]], from the 1570s.<ref name="Penny1p16" /> The development of the [[Spanish phonology|Spanish sound system]] from that of [[Vulgar Latin]] exhibits most of the changes that are typical of [[Western Romance languages]], including [[lenition]] of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin {{lang|la|vīta}} > Spanish {{lang|es|vida}}). The [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]] of Latin stressed short {{Lang|la|e}} and {{Lang|la|o}}—which occurred in [[Syllable|open syllables]] in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || |English |- | {{smallcaps|petra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|p'''ie'''dra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|pedra}} || {{lang|oc|pedra}}, {{lang|oc|pèira}} || {{lang|fr|p'''ie'''rre}} ||''pedra'', {{lang|sc|perda}}||{{lang|it|p'''ie'''tra}} || {{lang|ro|p'''ia'''tră}} || 'stone' |- | {{smallcaps|terra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|t'''ie'''rra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|terra}} || {{lang|oc|tèrra}} || {{lang|fr|terre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|sc|terra}} || {{lang|ro|țară}} || 'land' |- | {{smallcaps|moritur}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''re}} || {{lang|ast|m'''ue'''rre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|morre}} || {{lang|ca|mor}} || {{lang|oc|morís}} || {{lang|fr|m'''eu'''rt}} || {{lang|sc|mòrit}} || {{lang|it|m'''uo'''re}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''re}} || 'dies (v.)' |- | {{smallcaps|mortem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''rte}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|morte}} || {{lang|ca|mort}} || {{lang|oc|mòrt}} || {{lang|fr|mort}} ||''morte, morti''||{{lang|it|morte}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''rte}} || 'death' |}</div> [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|Chronological map showing linguistic evolution in southwest Europe]] Spanish is marked by [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of the Latin double consonants ([[geminate]]s) {{lang|la|nn}} and {{lang|la|ll}} (thus Latin {{lang|la|annum}} > Spanish {{lang|es|año}}, and Latin {{lang|la|anellum}} > Spanish {{lang|es|anillo}}). The consonant written {{lang|la|u}} or {{lang|la|v}} in Latin and pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} in Classical Latin had probably "[[Fortition|fortified]]" to a bilabial fricative {{IPA|/β/}} in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with the consonant written ''b'' (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is [[betacism|no difference]] between the pronunciation of orthographic {{lang|es|b}} and {{lang|es|v}}. Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring [[Gascon language|Gascon]] extending as far north as the [[Gironde estuary]], and found in a small area of [[Calabria]]), attributed by some scholars to a Basque [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] was the mutation of Latin initial {{lang|la|f}} into {{lang|es|h-}} whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The {{lang|es|h-}}, still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many {{lang|es|f}}-/{{lang|es|h}}- [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublet]]s in modern Spanish: {{lang|es|Fernando}} and {{lang|es|Hernando}} (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), {{lang|es|ferrero}} and {{lang|es|herrero}} (both Spanish for "smith"), {{lang|es|fierro}} and {{lang|es|hierro}} (both Spanish for "iron"), and {{lang|es|fondo}} and {{lang|es|hondo}} (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though {{lang|es|fondo}} means "bottom", while {{lang|es|hondo}} means "deep"); additionally, {{lang|es|hacer}} ("to make") is [[cognate]] to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfacer}} ("to satisfy"), and {{lang|es|hecho}} ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfecho}} ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English |- | {{smallcaps|filium}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''ijo}} || {{lang|lad|fijo}} (or {{lang|lad|hijo}}) || {{lang|an|fillo}} || {{lang|ast|fíu}} || {{lang|gl|fillo}} || {{lang|pt|filho}} || {{lang|ca|fill}} || {{lang|oc|filh}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ilh}} || {{lang|fr|fils}} ||''fizu, fìgiu, fillu''||{{lang|it|figlio}} || {{lang|ro|fiu}} || 'son' |- | {{smallcaps|facere}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''acer}} || {{lang|lad|fazer}} || {{lang|an|fer}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|facer}} || {{lang|pt|fazer}} || {{lang|ca|fer}} || {{lang|oc|far}}, {{lang|oc|faire}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ar}} (or {{lang|oc|'''h'''èr}}) || {{lang|fr|faire}} ||''fàghere, fàere, {{lang|sc|fàiri}}''||{{lang|it|fare}} || {{lang|ro|a face}} || 'to do' |- | {{smallcaps|febrem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|fiebre}} ''(calentura)''|| colspan="3" |{{lang|gl|febre}} || {{lang|oc|fèbre}}, {{lang|oc|frèbe}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''rèbe}} (or<br />{{lang|oc|'''h'''erèbe}}) || {{lang|fr|fièvre}} ||{{lang|sc|calentura}}||{{lang|it|febbre}} || {{lang|ro|febră}} || 'fever' |- | {{smallcaps|focum}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|fuego}} || {{lang|ast|fueu}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|fogo}} || {{lang|ca|foc}} || {{lang|oc|fuòc}}, {{lang|oc|fòc}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''uèc}} || {{lang|fr|feu}} || {{lang|sc|fogu}} || {{lang|it|fuoco}} || {{lang|ro|foc}} || 'fire' |}</div> Some [[consonant cluster]]s of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English |- | {{smallcaps|'''cl'''āvem}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|lad|clave}} || {{lang|an|clau}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|gl|chave}} || {{lang|pt|chave}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|clau}} || {{lang|fr|clé}} ||''giae, crae,'' {{lang|sc|crai}}||{{lang|it|chiave}} || {{lang|ro|cheie}} || 'key' |- | {{smallcaps|'''fl'''amma}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|lad|'''fl'''ama}} || {{lang|ast|chama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|chama}}, {{lang|gl|flama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|flama}} || {{lang|fr|flamme}} || {{lang|sc|framma}} || {{lang|it|fiamma}} || {{lang|ro|flamă}} || 'flame' |- | {{smallcaps|'''pl'''ēnum}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''eno}} || {{lang|lad|pleno}} || {{lang|an|plen}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''enu}} || {{lang|gl|cheo}} || {{lang|pt|cheio}}, {{lang|pt|pleno}} || {{lang|ca|ple}} || {{lang|oc|plen}} || {{lang|fr|plein}} || {{lang|sc|prenu}} || {{lang|it|pieno}} || {{lang|ro|plin}} || 'plenty, full' |- | {{smallcaps|o'''ct'''ō}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|es|o'''ch'''o}} || {{lang|an|güeito}} || {{lang|ast|o'''ch'''o}}, {{lang|ast|oito}} || {{lang|gl|oito}} || {{lang|pt|oito}} ({{lang|pt|oi'''t'''o}}) || {{lang|ca|vuit}}, {{lang|ca|huit}} || {{lang|oc|uè'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uò'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uèit}} || {{lang|fr|huit}} || {{lang|sc|oto}}||{{lang|it|otto}} || {{lang|ro|opt}} || 'eight' |- | {{smallcaps|mu'''lt'''um}} || {{lang|es|mu'''ch'''o}}<br />{{lang|es|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|lad|mu'''nch'''o}}<br />{{lang|lad|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|an|muito}}<br />{{lang|an|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|ast|mu'''nch'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|gl|moito}}<br />{{lang|gl|mo'''i'''}} ||''muito'' ||{{lang|ca|molt}} || {{lang|oc|molt}}&nbsp;(arch.) ||{{lang|fr|très}}, {{lang|fr|beaucoup}}, {{lang|fr|moult}} |{{lang|sc|meda}}||{{lang|it|molto}} || {{lang|ro|mult}} || 'much,<br />very,<br />many' |}</div> [[File:Juan de Zúñiga dibujo con orla (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Antonio de Nebrija]], author of {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, the first grammar of a modern European language<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/dec/13/classics.miguelcervantes |title=Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel &#124; Books &#124; The Guardian |publisher=Books.guardian.co.uk |date=12 December 2003 |access-date=18 July 2009 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614054652/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |archive-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent [[Phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives|a dramatic change]] in the pronunciation of its [[sibilant consonants]], known in Spanish as the {{lang|es|reajuste de las sibilantes}}, which resulted in the distinctive [[Velar consonant|velar]] {{IPA|[x]}} pronunciation of the letter {{angle bracket|j}} and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic [[Interdental consonant|interdental]] {{IPA|[θ]}} ("th-sound") for the letter {{angle bracket|z}} (and for {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}). See [[History of Spanish#Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants|History of Spanish (Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants)]] for details. The {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, written in [[Salamanca]] in 1492 by [[Antonio de Nebrija|Elio Antonio de Nebrija]], was the first grammar written for a modern European language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |title=Spanish Language Facts |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522190202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |archive-date=22 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella I]], she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |title=Spain: the root and the flower |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |year=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24496-2 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817150949/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |url-status=live}}</ref> In his introduction to the grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan |page=78 |year=2005 |publisher=Random House Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7055-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816174720/https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |url-status=live}}</ref> From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered [[Americas|America]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] via [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization of America]]. [[Miguel de Cervantes]], author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called {{lang|es|la lengua de Cervantes}} ("the language of Cervantes").<ref>{{cite web|title=La lengua de Cervantes |language=es |url=http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |publisher=Ministerio de la Presidencia de España |access-date=24 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083955/http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2008}}</ref> In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced to [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Western Sahara]], and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as [[Spanish Harlem]] in [[New York City]]. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see [[Influences on the Spanish language]]. == Geographical distribution == {{See also|Hispanophone}} [[File:El español en el mundo 2023 (Anuario del Instituto Cervantes).svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of the Spanish language {{legend|#ff0000ff|Official or co-official language}} {{legend|#ffcd48ff|Important minority (more than 25%) or majority language, but not official}} {{legend|#ffeeaaff|Notable minority language (less than 25% but more than 500,000 Spanish speakers)}}]] Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2025, it is estimated that about 519 million people speak Spanish as a [[First language|native language]], making it the second [[List of languages by number of native speakers|most spoken language by number of native speakers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anuario instituto Cervantes 2023 |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_23/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=Centro Virtual Cervantes |language=es |archive-date=2023-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222190339/https://www.bergesinstitutespanish.com/spanish-native-speakers |url-status=live}} Estimate. Corrected as Equatorial Guinea is mistakenly included (no native speakers there)</ref> An additional 117 million speak Spanish as a second or [[Spanish as a foreign language|foreign language]], making it the fourth [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language in the world overall]] after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 636 million speakers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|title=Summary by language size|website=Ethnologue|date=3 October 2018|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also the third [[Languages used on the Internet|most used language on the Internet]], after English and Chinese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm |title=Internet World Users by Language |year=2008 |publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group |access-date=20 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426122721/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm |archive-date=26 April 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Europe === {{main|Peninsular Spanish}} [[File:Knowledge of Spanish in European Union.svg|thumb|Percentage of people who self reportedly know enough Spanish to hold a conversation, in the EU, 2005 {{legend|#554400|Native country}} {{legend|#AA8800|More than 8.99%}} {{legend|#E5B700|Between 4% and 8.99%}} {{legend|#FFDD55|Between 1% and 3.99%}} {{legend|#FFEEAA|Less than 1%}}]] Spanish is the official language of [[Spain]]. Upon the emergence of the [[Castilian Crown]] as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Clara|last=Mar-Molinero|title=The Politics of Language in the Spanish-Speaking World|year=2000|isbn=0-203-44372-1|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=19–20}}</ref> Hard policies imposing the language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward.{{Sfn|Mar-Molinero|2000|p=21}} Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include [[Gibraltar]] and [[Andorra]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Background Note: Andorra |publisher=U.S. Department of State: Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs |date=January 2007 |access-date=20 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194318/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |archive-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/spanish.shtml |title=BBC Education — Languages Across Europe — Spanish |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=20 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929052158/http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/spanish.shtml |archive-date=29 September 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is the most widely studied [[Romance language]] in Europe. According to Eurostat data, about 27% of secondary school students in the European Union study Spanish, making it the second most taught foreign language after English and the most studied Romance language on the continent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20250714-1|title=Upper secondary education: 60% study 2 or more languages|date=14 July 2025|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> Spanish is an official language of the [[European Union]]. === Americas === ==== Hispanic America ==== {{main|Spanish language in the Americas}} Today, the majority of the Spanish speakers live in [[Hispanic America]]. Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either ''[[de facto]]'' or ''[[de jure]]''—of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]] (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]] (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]] (co-official with [[Guarani language|Guaraní]]),<ref>[http://www.constitution.org/cons/paraguay.htm Constitución de la República del Paraguay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908185557/http://www.constitution.org/cons/paraguay.htm |date=8 September 2014}}, Article 140</ref> [[Peru]] (co-official with [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and "the other indigenous languages"),<ref>[http://www.constitucionpoliticadelperu.com/ Constitución Política del Perú] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517192115/http://constitucionpoliticadelperu.com/ |date=17 May 2014}}, Article 48</ref> [[Puerto Rico]] (co-official with [[English language|English]]),<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D8163AF93AA15752C0A965958260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fE%2fEnglish%20Language |title=Puerto Rico Elevates English |date=29 January 1993 |work=the New York Times |access-date=6 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080122011853/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D8163AF93AA15752C0A965958260&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FE%2FEnglish%20Language |archive-date=22 January 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Uruguay]], and [[Venezuela]]. ====United States==== {{Main|Spanish language in the United States}} {{See also|Spanish language in California|New Mexican Spanish|Isleño Spanish}} [[File:Spanish spoken at home in the United States 2019.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Percentage of the U.S. population aged 5 and over who speaks Spanish at home in 2019, by states]] Spanish language has a long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century.{{Sfn|Lamboy|Salgado-Robles|2020|p=1}} In the wake of the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty]], hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States.{{Sfn|Lamboy|Salgado-Robles|2020|p=1}} The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Spanish across Domains in the United States. Education, Public Space, and Social Media|editor-first=Francisco|editor-last=Salgado-Robles|editor-first2=Edwin M.|editor-last2=Lamboy|publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill]]|isbn=978-90-04-43322-9|year=2020|location=Leiden|page=1|first1=Edwin M.|last1=Lamboy|first2=Francisco|last2=Salgado-Robles|chapter=Introduction: Spanish in the United States and across Domains}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of the U.S. population were of [[Hispanic]] or [[Hispanic America]]n by origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html|title=Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|date=12 August 2021|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=23 January 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815165418/https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S1601|title=American Community Survey Explore Census Data|access-date=24 January 2022|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017182821/https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S1601|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of [[Puerto Rico]], where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/speak/spanish/Espana/elpepucul/20081006elpepicul_1/Tes|title=Más 'speak spanish' que en España|access-date=6 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111353/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/speak/spanish/Espana/elpepucul/20081006elpepicul_1/Tes|archive-date=20 May 2011|url-status=live}} (in Spanish)</ref> While English is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawford |first1=John |title=Language loyalties: a source book on the official English controversy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wLoJ31HXl40C&pg=PA62 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1992 |page=62 |isbn=9780226120164 |access-date=14 November 2023 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130015012/https://books.google.com/books?id=wLoJ31HXl40C&pg=PA62 |url-status=live}}</ref> The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of [[Greater Los Angeles area|Los Angeles]], [[San Diego–Tijuana|San Diego]], [[Miami metropolitan area|Miami]], [[San Antonio metropolitan area|San Antonio]], [[New York metropolitan area|New York]], [[San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco]], [[Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex|Dallas]], [[Greater Tucson|Tucson]] and [[Phoenix metropolitan area|Phoenix]] of the [[Arizona Sun Corridor]], as well as more recently, [[Chicago metropolitan area|Chicago]], [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Greater Boston|Boston]], [[Greater Denver|Denver]], [[Greater Houston|Houston]], [[Greater Indianapolis|Indianapolis]], [[Oklahoma City metropolitan area|Oklahoma City]], [[Greater Philadelphia|Philadelphia]], [[Greater Cleveland|Cleveland]], [[Greater Salt Lake City|Salt Lake City]], [[Greater Atlanta|Atlanta]], [[Greater Nashville|Nashville]], [[Greater Orlando|Orlando]], [[Greater Tampa|Tampa]], [[Greater Raleigh|Raleigh]] and [[Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area|Baltimore-Washington, D.C.]] due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. ====Rest of the Americas==== Although Spanish has no official recognition in the former [[British overseas territories|British colony]] of [[Belize]] (known until 1973 as [[British Honduras]]) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://sib.org.bz/wp-content/uploads/Languages_Infographic_2022.pdf|title=Languages spoken in Belize, 2022 Census|date=2022 |language=en |access-date=11 September 2024}}</ref> Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing [[Trinidadian Spanish|native Spanish speaking]] minority, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched the ''Spanish as a First Foreign Language'' (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tradeind.gov.tt/SIS/FAQ.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103080637/http://www.tradeind.gov.tt/SIS/FAQ.htm |archive-date=3 November 2010 |title=FAQ |work=The Secretariat for The Implementation of Spanish |publisher=Government of the Republic |location=Trinidad and Tobago |access-date=10 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the [[Dutch Caribbean]] islands of [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]] ([[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC Islands]]) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speak Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300471435|title=(PDF) Language and education in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao}}</ref> The local language [[Papiamento|Papiamentu]] (or Papiamento in Aruba) is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of [[Mercosur]] in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in [[Brazil]].{{Sfn|Valle|Villa|2006|p=376}}<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.es/&httpsredir=1&article=1082&context=gc_pubs|title=Spanish in Brazil: Language Policy, Business, and Cultural Propaganda|first1=José del|last1=Valle |first2=Laura|last2=Villa |journal=Language Policy |year=2006|volume=5|issue=4 |doi=10.1007/s10993-006-9035-2|pages=376–377 |s2cid=144373408|access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.es%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1082&context=gc_pubs|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 2005, the [[National Congress of Brazil]] approved a bill, signed into law by the [[President of Brazil|President]], making it mandatory for [[school]]s to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/2005/Lei/L11161.htm |title = Brazilian Law 11.161 |publisher = Presidência da República |date = 5 August 2005 |access-date = 31 March 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131031191701/http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/2005/Lei/L11161.htm |archive-date = 31 October 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref> In September 2016 this law was revoked by [[Michel Temer]] after the [[impeachment of Dilma Rousseff]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/educacao/novo-ensino-medio-tera-curriculo-flexivel-mais-horas-de-aula-20164798 |title=Novo ensino médio terá currículo flexível e mais horas de aula |newspaper=O Globo |date=23 September 2016 |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923213525/http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/educacao/novo-ensino-medio-tera-curriculo-flexivel-mais-horas-de-aula-20164798 |archive-date=23 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a [[mixed language]] known as [[Riverense Portuñol|Portuñol]] is spoken.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of "portuñol/portunhol" |editor1-first=Timothy L |editor1-last=Face |editor2-first=Carol A |editor2-last=Klee |pages=1–22 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |location=Somerville, MA |publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project |url= http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |access-date=29 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Africa === ==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== {{See also|Equatoguinean Spanish}} [[File:Malabo 08207.JPG|thumb|right|Spanish language signage in [[Malabo]], capital city of [[Equatorial Guinea]]]] [[Equatorial Guinea]] is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the [[Spanish Guinea|Spanish colonial period]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lipski |first=John M. |author-link=John M. Lipski |year=2014 |title=¿Existe un dialecto "ecuatoguineano" del español? |url=https://revista-iberoamericana.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/Iberoamericana/article/viewFile/7202/7335 |url-status=live |journal=Revista Iberoamericana |volume=80 |issue=248–249 |pages=865–882 |doi=10.5195/REVIBEROAMER.2014.7202 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020919/https://revista-iberoamericana.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/Iberoamericana/article/viewFile/7202/7335 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |access-date=19 January 2022 |quote="Se trata de Guinea Ecuatorial, único país del África subsahariana de habla española," |doi-access=free}}</ref> Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in the Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The decline of the indigenous languages of Equatorial Guinea: a manifestation of the loss of cultural identity|first1=Pedro Bayeme|last1=Bituga-Nchama|first2=Cruz Otu |last2=Nvé-Ndumu |year=2021 |journal=Revista Cátedra|volume=4|issue=3|pages=41 |url=https://revistadigital.uce.edu.ec/index.php/CATEDRA/article/view/3147/3969 |access-date=19 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://revistadigital.uce.edu.ec/index.php/CATEDRA/article/view/3147/3969|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is spoken as a native language by a small minority in Equatorial Guinea, primarily in larger cities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Facts |first=Victor Kiprop in World |date=2018-09-24 |title=What Languages Are Spoken In Equatorial Guinea? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-equatorial-guinea.html |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gomashie |first=Grace A. |title=Language Vitality of Spanish in Equatorial Guinea: Language Use and Attitudes |url=https://www.cervantes.es/imagenes/file/biblioteca/situacion_espanol/guinea_ecuatorial_humanities.pdf |journal=Humanities |year=2019 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=33 |doi=10.3390/h8010033 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[Instituto Cervantes]] estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf| title = Gloria Nistal Rosique: El caso del español en Guinea ecuatorial, Instituto Cervantes.| access-date = 7 February 2010| archive-date = 26 October 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121026105600/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies|volume=8|year=2004 |title=The Spanish language of Equatorial Guinea|first=John M.|last=Lipski|author-link=John M. Lipski|page=117 |doi=10.1353/hcs.2011.0376|s2cid=144501371|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2574235.pdf|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121212630/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2574235.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is spoken by very small communities in [[Angola]] due to Cuban influence from the [[Cold War]] and in [[South Sudan]] among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence.<ref>{{Cite news |publisher=Radio France International |language=es |url=http://www.espanol.rfi.fr/africa/20110706-los-cubanos-la-elite-del-sudan-del-sur |title=Los cubanos, la élite de Sudán del Sur |access-date=20 December 2011 |date=6 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112090846/http://www.espanol.rfi.fr/africa/20110706-los-cubanos-la-elite-del-sudan-del-sur |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== North Africa and Macaronesia ==== {{See also|Canarian Spanish|Saharan Spanish}} Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and the [[Canary Islands]], located in the Atlantic Ocean some {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}} off the northwest of the African mainland. The [[Canarian Spanish|Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands]] traces its origins back to the [[Conquest of the Canary Islands|Castilian conquest in the 15th century]], and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/utf/article/view/2332/2255|pages=175–176|first=Javier|last=Medina López|journal=Universitas Tarraconensis. Revista de Filologia|issue=14|year=1992–1993|publisher=Publicacions Universitat Rovira i Virgili|issn=2604-3432|title=Estandarización lingüística en las hablas canarias|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/utf/article/view/2332/2255|url-status=live}}</ref> which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lipski |first=John |author-link=John M. Lipski|date=1994 |title=Latin American Spanish |edition=1st |publisher=Longman|quote=An indisputable influence in the formation of Latin American Spanish, often overshadowed by discussion of the 'Andalusian' contribution, is the Canary Islands.|quote-page=55}}</ref> The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as a second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Annual Review of Linguistics]]|first1=Manuel|last1=Díaz-Campos|first2=Juan M.|last2=Escalona Torres|first3=Valentyna|last3=Filimonova|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|page=369|doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|title=Sociolinguistics of the Spanish-Speaking World|year=2020|volume=6|s2cid=210443649 |issn=2333-9683|access-date=9 December 2023|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209021219/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> While far from its heyday during the [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco]], the Spanish language has some presence in northern [[Morocco]], stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media.{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=[[Ministry of Economy (Spain)|Ministerio de Economía y Empresa]]|url=https://catalogo.ceu.es/pdocs/710471_10353835.pdf|title=The economic and commercial influence of Spanish-based languages|location=Madrid|year=2018|chapter=The endurance of Spanish in the Maghreb|pages=32–46|first=David|last=Fernández Vítores|access-date=9 December 2023|archive-date=13 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113155342/https://catalogo.ceu.es/pdocs/710471_10353835.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish,{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla.{{Sfn|Fernández Vítores|2018|pp=32–46}} Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education).{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} In [[Western Sahara]], formerly [[Spanish Sahara]], a primarily [[Hassaniya Arabic]]-speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] as its secondary official language,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.spsrasd.info/ar/articles/2018/11/29/18612.html |title=الوفد الصحراوي سيحضر لقاء جنيف بإرادة صادقة للتقدم نحو الحل الذي يضمن حق الشعب الصحراوي في تقرير المصير والاستقلال |trans-title=The Sahrawi delegation will attend the Geneva meeting with a sincere will to move towards a solution that guarantees the right of the Sahrawi people to self-determination and independence |date=29 November 2018 |website=[[Sahara Press Service]] |access-date=18 December 2023 |language=ar |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125125903/https://archive.spsrasd.info/ar/articles/2018/11/29/18612.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps|Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf]] ([[Algeria]]), where the Spanish language is still taught as a second language, largely by Cuban educators.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2021/10/20/espana-se-desentiende-de-la-preservacion-del-castellano-en-los-campamentos-saharauis/ |website=El Independiente|date=20 October 2021 |first=Francisco |last=Carrión|title=España se desentiende de la preservación del castellano en los campamentos saharauis |access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020916/https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2021/10/20/espana-se-desentiende-de-la-preservacion-del-castellano-en-los-campamentos-saharauis/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Martos |first1=Isabel |title=Linguistic Policy in the Camps of Sahrawi Refugees |via=researchgate.net |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273993698 |publisher=Universidad de Alcalá |access-date=19 August 2018 |archive-date=22 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522172107/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273993698_Linguistic_Policy_in_the_Camps_of_Sahrawi_Refugees_2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf |title=El Español en los Campamentos de Refugiados Saharauis (Tinduf, Algeria) |publisher=Cvc.cervantes.es |access-date=20 May 2015 |archive-date=26 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226150735/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also an official language of the [[African Union]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=AU languages |url=https://au.int/en/about/languages |access-date=June 6, 2024 |website=African Union |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407001442/https://au.int/en/about/languages |url-status=live }}</ref> === Asia === {{See also|Chavacano|Philippine Spanish|Spanish language in the Philippines}} [[Image:La-solidaridad2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|An 1892 issue of '' [[La Solidaridad]]'', a Spanish-language newspaper on the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|colonial Philippines]] published in [[Barcelona]] by Filipino exiles and international students]] Spanish was an official language of the [[Philippines]] from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Spanish colonization]], it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos (''[[Ilustrados]]''). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing.<ref>{{cite news|language=es |title=Por qué Filipinas no es un país hispanoparlante si fue una colonia de España durante 300 años (y qué huellas quedan de la lengua de Cervantes)|newspaper=BBC News Mundo|date=30 January 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-54724887 |access-date=31 January 2021|archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130181828/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-54724887|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Idioma chabacano.png|thumb|Map of the [[Chavacano]] language in various [[provinces of the Philippines]], as well as [[Sabah]] in [[Malaysia]] (where it is spoken by immigrants)]] Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American administration]] after the [[Spanish–American War]] but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ambeth |last=Ocampo |author-link=Ambeth Ocampo |title=The loss of Spanish |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20071204-104897/The_loss_of_Spanish |date=4 December 2007 |work=Philippine Daily Inquirer (INQUIRER.net) |location=Makati City, Philippines |at=Opinion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311211640/http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20071204-104897/The_loss_of_Spanish |archive-date=11 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref> Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and [[Filipino language|Filipino]], a standardized version of [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]. Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under the administration of [[Ferdinand Marcos]] two months later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno155.html |title=Presidential Decree No. 155: Philippine Laws, Statutes and Codes |publisher=Chanrobles.com |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003012548/http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno155.html |archive-date=3 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.<ref>Article XIV, Sec 7: "For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. <u>Spanish</u> and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."</ref> Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that [[Government of the Philippines|the government]] shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of the country's constitution.<ref>Article XIV, Sec 8: "This Constitution shall be promulgated in Filipino and English and shall be translated into major regional languages, Arabic, and <u>Spanish</u>."</ref> In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rodríguez-Ponga |first1=Rafael |author-link=Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga |title=New Prospects for the Spanish Language in the Philippines |website=[[Elcano Royal Institute|Real Instituto Elcano]] |url=http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/web/rielcano_en/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_in/zonas_in/spanish+language+culture/ari27-2009#.VPUs_lPF9l8 |access-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402171759/http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/web/rielcano_en/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=%2Felcano%2Felcano_in%2Fzonas_in%2Fspanish+language+culture%2Fari27-2009#.VPUs_lPF9l8 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/264032/news/nation/pnoy-and-spains-queen-sofia-welcome-return-of-spanish-language-in-phl-schools |title=PNoy (President Benigno Aquino III) and Spain's Queen Sofia welcome return of Spanish language in Philippine schools |first=Amita O. |last=Legaspi |date=3 July 2012 |publisher=GMA News |access-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707011008/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/264032/news/nation/pnoy-and-spains-queen-sofia-welcome-return-of-spanish-language-in-phl-schools}}</ref> and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system,<ref>{{Cite news | title=Spanish Language Program in Philippine Public Secondary Schools | url=https://www.seameo-innotech.org/portfolio_page/spanish-language-program-in-philippine-public-secondary-schools/ | publisher=[[Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization|SEAMEO Regional Center for Educational Innovation and Technology]] | access-date=May 8, 2023 | archive-date=22 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225404/https://www.seameo-innotech.org/portfolio_page/spanish-language-program-in-philippine-public-secondary-schools/ | url-status=live}}</ref> with over 7,000 students studying the language in the 2021–2022 school year alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying – In the Philippines |url=https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/filipinas/en_PH/estudiar/en-filipinas |publisher=[[Ministry of Education (Spain)|Ministry of Education and Vocational Training of Spain]] |access-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-date=April 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408125717/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/filipinas/en_PH/estudiar/en-filipinas}}</ref> The [[business process outsourcing in the Philippines|local business process outsourcing industry]] has also helped boost the language's economic prospects.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Weedon |first=Alan |title=The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage, and for some it's paying off |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News and Current Affairs]] |date=August 10, 2019 |access-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212035502/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |url-status=live}}</ref> Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is about 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/10/06/opinion/columnists/spanish-is-an-endangered-filipino-language/776874|title=Spanish is an endangered Filipino language|first=Jorge|last=Mojarro |date=6 October 2020 |publisher=The Manila Times |access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118101358/https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/10/06/opinion/columnists/spanish-is-an-endangered-filipino-language/776874|url-status=live}}</ref> a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=Master |last=Andrés Barrenechea |first=Clarissa |title=La enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera en Filipinas. Estudio de caso de la Universidad Ateneo de Manila |trans-title=The Teaching of Spanish as a Foreign Language in the Philippines: Case Study of the Ateneo de Manila University |language=es |url=https://revista.carayanpress.com/resources/RF-CBarrenechea.pdf |publisher=[[Autonomous University of Zacatecas]] |date=June 2013 |access-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410005950/https://revista.carayanpress.com/resources/RF-CBarrenechea.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language called [[Chavacano]] developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.<ref>Spanish creole:{{cite book |author=Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga |title=Pero ¿cuántos hablan español en Filipinas? |date=January 2003 |pages=54, 55 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |publisher=Cervantes virtual |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806190230/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live}} <!-- original reference title does not agree with URL, I did my best, here it is as it was: {{Citation |first=Antonio |last=Quilis |title=La lengua española en Filipinas |year=1996 |page=54 and 55 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |publisher=Cervantes virtual |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806190230/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live}} --></ref> The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rubino|2008|p=279}}</ref> The local [[languages of the Philippines]] also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from [[Mexican Spanish]], owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through [[New Spain]] until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/68-1973-constitution.html|title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines|publisher=The corpus juris |access-date=6 April 2008|at=Article XV, Section 3(3)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417201402/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/68-1973-constitution.html|archive-date=17 April 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spanish Influence on Language, Culture, and Philippine History |url=http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilSpa.html |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305163610/http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilSpa.html |archive-date=5 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Oceania=== [[File:Parque Nacional Rapa Nui.jpg|thumb|Announcement in Spanish on [[Easter Island]], welcoming visitors to [[Rapa Nui National Park]]]] Spanish is the official and most spoken language on [[Easter Island]], which is geographically part of [[Polynesia]] in Oceania and politically part of [[Chile]]. However, Easter Island's traditional language is [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]], an [[Polynesian languages|Eastern Polynesian language]]. As a legacy of comprising the former [[Spanish East Indies]], Spanish loan words are present in the local languages of [[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Marshall Islands]] and [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.als.asn.au/proceedings/als2005/engelberg-german.pdf |title=The Influence of German on the Lexicon of Palauan and Kosraean (Dissertation) |last=Engelberg |first=Stefan |access-date=23 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221131940/http://www.als.asn.au/proceedings/als2005/engelberg-german.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish language in Philippines|url=http://www.spanish-in-the-world.net/Spanish/philippines.php|access-date=1 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318055051/http://www.spanish-in-the-world.net/Spanish/philippines.php|archive-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> In addition, in Australia and New Zealand, there are native Spanish communities, resulting from emigration from Spanish-speaking countries (mainly from the [[Southern Cone]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_34.pdf |title=cvc.cervantes (Spanish in Australia and New Zealand) |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616051405/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_34.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> === Spanish speakers by country === {{Main|List of countries by Spanish-speaking population}} 20 countries and one United States territory speak Spanish officially, and the language has a significant unofficial presence in the rest of the United States along with Andorra, Belize and the territory of Gibraltar. {| class="wikitable sortable"<!-- If you can make the "sort" function work according to numerical values, then change "wikitable" above back to "wikitable sortable". See Talk/"Spanish speakers by country" table sort doesn't work properly --> |+Worldwide Spanish fluency (<span style="background:#efefef;">grey</span> and * signifies official language) |- ! style="background:#efff;" |Country ! style="background:#efff;"data-sort-type="number" |Population<ref>{{cite web| url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm| title=UN 2011 to 2100 estimate| format=MS Excel PDF| work=UN Population data| access-date=7 February 2018| archive-date=10 May 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510051033/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm| url-status=live}}</ref> ! style="background:#efff;""width:23%;" data-sort-type="number" |Speakers of Spanish as a native language <ref name="viva18">{{cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_25/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2025.pdf |title=El español: una lengua viva – Informe 2025 |last=Fernández Vítores |first=David |date=2025 |publisher=[[Instituto Cervantes]]}} 519.1 million people have a native command of Spanish. 92.1 million people have limited Spanish proficiency. 25.6 million people are learning the Spanish language. 635.7 million people are potential users of Spanish worldwide, 7.5% (page 67).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115154048/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 January 2026|title=Countries - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>Ethnologue, 18th Ed.: [[:es:Anexo:Hablantes de español según Ethnologue (edición 18)]].</ref> ! style="background:#efff;""width:22%;" data-sort-type="number" | Native speakers and proficient speakers as a second language <ref name="viva18"/><ref name="Eurob2023b">{{cite web| url = https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 | title = Europeans and their Languages | year = 2023 |publisher= European Union (eurobarometer) | pages= 11, 58}} Reports and documents - Data annex - Europeans and their languages - page 58. The source offers percentages of people over 12 years old in each EU country, who speak Spanish at a very good level (page 58). Of the total EU population over 12 years old, 9% are native Spanish speakers, another 3% have a very good level of Spanish, and a total of 17% can hold a conversation in Spanish (page 54). Therefore, native and very good Spanish speakers account for 12% (9%+3%).</ref> ! style="background:#efff;" "width:22%;" data-sort-type="number" |Total number of Spanish speakers (including limited competence speakers)<ref name="viva18"/><ref name="Eurob2023">{{cite web | url = https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 | title = Eurobarometer: Report: Europeans and their languages |publisher=European Union | year = 2023 | pages = 11, 21| language = en}} Native and non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.</ref><ref name="DemografíaLengEsp">{{Cite web | url = http://eprints.ucm.es/8936/1/DT03-06.pdf | title = Demografía de la lengua española | page = 10 | language = es | access-date = 23 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100923081035/http://eprints.ucm.es/8936/1/DT03-06.pdf | archive-date = 23 September 2010 | url-status = live}}, to countries with official Spanish status.</ref> |- | [[Mexico]]* | {{formatnum:133367428}}<ref>{{Cite web | title=2025 population estimate| publisher=CONAPO estimate| url=https://conapo.segob.gob.mx/work/models/CONAPO/pry23/PP/index.html |language=es}}</ref> | {{formatnum:125098647}} (93.8%)<ref name="CIAMexico">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/#people-and-society |publisher=CIA |title=Mexico |work=The World Factbook |access-date=1 May 2011 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126164719/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico |url-status=dead}}: Spanish only 92.7%</ref> |{{formatnum:125632117}} (94.2%)<ref name="viva18"/> |{{formatnum:132300489}} (99.2%)<ref name="CIAMexico" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[United States]] | {{formatnum:340110990}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/population-trends-return-to-pre-pandemic-norms.html | publisher = Census Bureau | title = U.S. Population Trends Return to Pre-Pandemic Norms as More States Gain Population | date = December 19, 2023 | archive-date = 2025-09-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250909181704/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/population-trends-return-to-pre-pandemic-norms.html | url-status = live}}</ref> |{{formatnum:44867699}} (13.9% of 321,745,943) <ref>Spanish speakers older than 5 years old ({{Cite web | url = https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2024.S1601?q=LANGUAGE+SPOKEN+AT+HOME++&t=Language+Spoken+at+Home | year = 2024 | title = Language Spoken at Home| publisher = United States Census Bureau. }})</ref> |{{formatnum:49671936}} (15.4% of 321,745,943){{efn|75% of U.S. Hispanics speak Spanish very well or pretty well (according to a 2022 survey).<ref name="Taylor 2022">{{cite web |last=Taylor |first=Paul |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2023/09/20/latinos-views-of-and-experiences-with-the-spanish-language/ |title=Latinos' Views of and Experiences With the Spanish Language |date=2022 |publisher=pewhispanic.org}}</ref> There were 68,013,553 Hispanics in the U.S.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2024.DP05?q=race |title=Census Bureau (01/July/2024) |publisher=Census.gov}}</ref> of which 62,879,127 are over 5 years old,<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2024.B01001I?q=B01001I:+Sex+by+Age+(Hispanic+or+Latino) |title=Census Bureau (01/July/2024) |publisher=Census.gov}}</ref> as of 2024. 75% of this figure is 47,159,345. There were also another 2,512,591 non-Hispanic Spanish speakers at home older than 5 years old (5.6% of 44,867,699) as of 2024.<ref name="lenguaviva.org2">[https://lenguaviva.org/espa%C3%B1ol%3A-una-lengua-viva-1 lenguaviva.org] (page 9)</ref> In 2011, a similar survey tells that 82% of U.S. Hispanics speak Spanish very well or pretty well, and there were another 2.8 million non Hispanics who speak Spanish at home.<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2012/04/04/iv-language-use-among-latinos/ pewresearch.org] (Language Use among Latinos)</ref>}} |{{formatnum:64867699}} {{efn|44,867,699 as a first language + 20,000,000 (Hispanics with limited proficiency, and part of the 8.9 million Spanish students that they are non-Hispanic). Some of the 11 million undocumented Hispanic immigrants not reflected in the census are not included.<ref name="viva18" />}}{{efn|90% of U.S. Hispanics know how to speak at least a little Spanish (according to a 2022 survey).<ref name="Taylor 2022"/> There were 68,013,553 Hispanics in the U.S.<ref name="auto1"/> of which 62,879,127 are over 5 years old,<ref name="auto"/> as of 2024. There were also another 2,512,591 non-Hispanic Spanish speakers at home older than 5 years old (5.6% of 44,867,699) as of 2024.<ref name="lenguaviva.org2"/> Total number of people who speak at least a little Spanish: 59,103,805.<ref name="lenguaviva.org">{{Cite web|url=https://lenguaviva.org/espa%C3%B1ol%3A-una-lengua-viva-1|title=Español: una Lengua Viva}}</ref> To avoid double counting, 7.9 million Spanish students are not included, nor are some of the 7.4 million undocumented Hispanics who may not be reflected in the census).}} |- |[[Colombia]]* |{{formatnum:53110609}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2018/proyecciones-de-poblacion/Nacional/DCD-area-proypoblacion-Nac-2020-2070.xlsx |date=1 January 2025 |title=Proyecciones de Población de DANE de 2020-2070 (DANE Population Projections 2020-2070)|publisher=Dane |location=CO |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322235136/https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/demografia-y-poblacion/proyecciones-de-poblacion|archive-date=22 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:52090885}} (98.1%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/colombia/index.php |title=datosmundial.com (Colombia) |access-date=24 October 2023}}</ref> | 52 962 217 (99.7%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 148,392}}<ref name="IC2024">{{cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf |title=El español: una lengua viva – Informe 2024 |last=Fernández Vítores |first=David |date=2024 |publisher=[[Instituto Cervantes]]}} INDIGENOUS OR NATIVE POPULATIONS IN SPANISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES (pages 44 and 45).</ref> |- | [[Spain]]* | {{formatnum:49315949}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735572981| title = Census INE estimate for 1 July 2025 | archive-date = 2022-01-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220113005818/https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=36643| url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:42214452}} (85.6%)<ref name="INEespañol">[https://www.ine.es/prensa/ecepov_2021.pdf INE (2021)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102180735/https://www.ine.es/prensa/ecepov_2021.pdf |date=2 November 2023}}: In Spain, 85.6% speak Spanish always or frequently in family (77.1% always and 8.5% frequently), 96% speak Spanish well, and 99.5% understand and speak, albeit with difficulty .</ref> | {{formatnum:47343311}} (96%)<ref name="INEespañol" /> | {{formatnum:48908080}} (99.5%)<ref name="INEespañol" /> |- | [[Argentina]]* | {{formatnum:47473760}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indec.gob.ar%2Fftp%2Fcuadros%2Fpoblacion%2Fc1_proyecciones_nac_2010_2040.xls&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Argentinian census INDEC estimate for 2025 |date = 2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:45574810}} (96.0%)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/argentina/index.php |title=datosmundial.com (Argentina) |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417002409/https://www.datosmundial.com/america/argentina/index.php |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:46856601}} (98.7%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:47188917}} (99.4%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- | [[Peru]]* | {{formatnum:34412393}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/principales_indicadores/libro_1.pdf | language = es | title = Estimación y proyección de la población 1950-2050 | trans-title = Population estimation and projection 1950-2050 | year = 2025 | publisher = INEI | page = 140 }}</ref> | {{formatnum:28527874}} (82.9%)<ref>{{Cite web | quote = Spanish (official) 84.1%, Quechua (official) 13%, Aymara 1.7%, Ashaninka 0.3%, other native languages (includes a large number of minor Amazonian languages) 0.7%, other 0.2% | year = 2017 | work = The World factbook | title=Peru | url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ | publisher = CIA | access-date = 4 October 2011 | archive-date = 19 November 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211119135020/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ | url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 5,782,260 people who speak other language as mother tongue (main languages: Quechua (among 32 Quechua's varieties) 4,773,900, Aymara (2 varieties) 661,000, Chinese 100,000). | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=pe | title = Peru | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 21 September 2011 | archive-date = 2 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111202105534/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=pe | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:29594658}} (86.6%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:30600340}} (88.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 335,576}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Venezuela]]* | 28,460,000 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/|title=World Population Prospects 2024 (2024-2050)|publisher=UN |date=2025}}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:27720040}} (97.4%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 1,098,244 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main languages: Chinese 400,000, Portuguese 254,000, Wayuu 199,000, Arabic 110,000) | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/country/VE/languages | publisher = Ethnologue | title = Venezuela | access-date = 30 May 2013 | archive-date = 10 March 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130310032805/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/ve/languages | url-status = dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:28240466}} (99.2%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 219,534}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Chile]]* | {{formatnum:20206953}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.censo2017.cl%2Fdescargas%2Fproyecciones%2Festimaciones-y-proyecciones-chile-1992-2050-base-2017-poblacion-e-indicacores.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK | title = Census estimate for 1992 to 2050 | trans-title = Reports | publisher = INE | year = 2025 | language = es }}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:19317847}} (95.6%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 281,600 people who speak another language, mainly Mapudungun (250.000) |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CL | title = Chile | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 12 October 2011 | archive-date = 3 February 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130203004338/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CL | url-status = live}}</ref> |{{formatnum:19945772}} (99.6%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 85,869}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Ecuador]]* | {{formatnum:18013000}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://proyeccionespoblacionales.ecudatanalytics.com/ | title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Census | date = 2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:16877244}} (93.7%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:17474448}} (97.0%){{efn|People with Spanish limited competence in Ecuador: 537,552. Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 451,533}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |{{formatnum:17642817}} (98.6%)<ref>{{cite web |author=CIA Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador/ |title=(2019) |publisher=CIA Factbook |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador |url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[Guatemala]]* | {{formatnum:18079810}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ine.gob.gt%2Fine%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F08%2FEstimaciones_y_proyecciones_de_poblacion-1950-2050.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Guatemala: Estimaciones y proyecciones de población 1950–2050. |language=es |website=www.oj.gob.gt |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística | date=2025 }}</ref> | {{formatnum:12637787}} (69.9%)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Guatemala | quote = Spanish (official) 69.9%, Amerindian languages 40% | work = The World Factbook | url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guatemala/ | publisher = CIA | access-date = 27 January 2021 | archive-date = 15 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210415030536/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guatemala/ | url-status = dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:13722576}} (75.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:16440943}} (90.8%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 1,638,867}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Bolivia]]* | {{formatnum:12332252}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.gob.bo/index.php/censos-y-proyecciones-de-poblacion-sociales/ |title=Census INE estimate for 2024 |publisher=INE}}</ref> | {{formatnum:7485677}} (60.7%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|title=South America :: Bolivia — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=13 March 2020|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927041747/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:9927463}} (80.5%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:12064523}} (97.8%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 267,729}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Cuba]]* | {{formatnum:11089511}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142555/http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815 |archive-date=11 December 2020 |website=ONEI |title=31 December 2022 estimation}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:10996367}} (99.2%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:10996367}} (99.2%)<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Dominican Republic]]* | {{formatnum:10878267}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.one.gob.do%2Fmedia%2Fc2bh3ckv%2Fcuadro-estimaciones-y-proyecciones-poblaci%25C3%25B3n-total-por-a%25C3%25B1o-seg%25C3%25BAn-sexo-edad-2000-2030.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Census ONE estimate 2000-2030 |language=es |publisher=Oficina Nacional de Estadística |date=2025}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:10323475}} (94.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:10747728}} (98.8%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- | [[Honduras]]* | {{formatnum:10039862}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://181.115.7.199/binhnd/RpWebEngine.exe/Portal?BASE=PROYPOB&lang=ESP |title=INE estimate |date=2025}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:9549917}} (95.1%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>There are 207,750 people who speak another language, mainly Garifuna (98,000).: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=HN Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013214744/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=HN |date=13 October 2011}}</ref> | {{formatnum:9949503}} (99.1%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[France]] | {{formatnum:68381000}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/serie/001641607|title=INSEE estimate to 2024|publisher=Insee.fr|date=2024}}</ref> | {{formatnum:557001}} (1% of 55 700 114) <ref name="Eurob2023"/><ref>There are more than {{formatnum:433000}} emigrants from predominantly Spanish-speaking countries in France, of which 93.6% speak native Spanish ([https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf.pdf Inst. Cerv. Anuario 2024]): {{formatnum:310072}} Spaniards ([https://www.ine.es/jaxi/Datos.htm?path=/t20/p85001/serie/l0/&file=01001.px INE, 2025]) + {{formatnum:31151}} Colombians + {{formatnum:16473}} Chileans + {{formatnum:14807}} Argentines + {{formatnum:13390}} Mexicans + {{formatnum:13361}} Peruvians + {{formatnum:7249}} Venezuelans + {{formatnum:5466}} Cubans + {{formatnum:4730}} Ecuatorians + 3,992 Dominicans + {{formatnum:3598}} Bolivians + 3,423 Guatemalans + {{formatnum:2784}} Uruguayans + {{formatnum:1178}} Paraguayans ([https://datosmacro.expansion.com/demografia/migracion/inmigracion/francia datosmacro 2020]). On the other hand, we should consider Spanish emigrants who have become French citizens and still speak Spanish, or the descendants of Spanish emigrants born in France who speak Spanish at home.</ref> | {{formatnum:1910258}} (4% of 55 700 114){{efn|3% of people in France older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:7798016}} (14% of 55 700 114) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Brazil]] | {{formatnum:212584000}}<ref>{{Cite web | language = pt-br | trans-title = The IBGE publishes the population estimates for 1 July 2024 | url = https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html | title = IBGE population estimations | year = 2024}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1350000}}<ref name="lenguaviva.org"/><ref>There are {{formatnum:1554744}} emigrants from predominantly Spanish-speaking countries in Brazil ([https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/ nepo.unicamp.br 2024]), of which 93.6% speak native Spanish ([https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf.pdf Inst. Cerv. Anuario 2024]): {{formatnum:672894}} Venezuelans + {{formatnum:187562}} Bolivians + {{formatnum:143928}} Spaniards ([https://www.ine.es/jaxi/Datos.htm?path=/t20/p85001/serie/l0/&file=01001.px INE, 2025]) + {{formatnum:108587}} Colombians + {{formatnum:106271}} Argentines + {{formatnum:68650}} Paraguayans + {{formatnum:65976}} Cubans + {{formatnum:61033}} Peruvians + {{formatnum:59562}} Uruguayans + {{formatnum:25064}} Mexicans + {{formatnum:24393}} Chileans + {{formatnum:14793}} Ecuatorians + 4,793 Dominicans + 2,962 Hondurans + 2,179 Costa Ricans + 1,905 Guatemalans. Total Native Spanish speakers 1,454,676.</ref> | {{formatnum:7425818}}{{efn|1,350,000 immigrants native speakers + 96,000 descendants of immigrants<ref name="lenguaviva.org"/> + 1,931,480 [[Portuñol]] speakers in border areas + 4,048,338 Spanish students<ref name="viva18" />.}} |- | [[Nicaragua]]* | {{formatnum:6803886}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.inide.gob.ni/docs/Anuarios/Anuario2022/ANUARIO_ESTADISTICO2022.pdf| title = Census estimate for 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6484103}} (95.3%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109075742/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 January 2021|title=Nicaragua|date=25 June 2025|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov}}</ref><ref>There are 490,124 people who speak another language, mainly Mískito (154,000).: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=NI Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100732/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=NI |date=15 January 2013}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6599769}} (97.1%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:6734219}} (98.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 69,667}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Paraguay]]* | {{formatnum:6417076}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.gov.py/publication-single.php?codec=266|title=Census estimate 1950-2050| date=2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:3946502}} (61.5%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/paraguay/|title=South America :: Paraguay — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=18 March 2020|archive-date=31 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231111825/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/pa.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> | {{formatnum:4318692}} (67.3%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:6397823}} (99,7%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 19,253. Indigenous population that have limited competence: 2,456,048 (page 45, 34 of "Anuario del Instituto Cervantes 2024").}}<ref name="IC2024"/><ref>{{cite web| url = https://es.ripleybelieves.com/what-languages-are-spoken-in-paraguay-1238| title = es.ripleybelieves.com| access-date = 14 January 2022| archive-date = 15 January 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220115062719/https://es.ripleybelieves.com/what-languages-are-spoken-in-paraguay-1238| url-status = live}}</ref> |- | [[El Salvador]]* | {{formatnum:6029976}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://censo2024.bcr.gob.sv/wp-content/uploads/tablas-geoportal/presentacion-de-resultados-censo-de-poblacion-y-vivienda-el-salvador-2024-segunda-entrega.pdf| title = Census estimate for 2024}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6015876}}<ref>There are 14,100 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main language, Kekchí with 12,300 speakers): [http://www.ethnologue.com/country/SV Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207044049/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/SV |date=7 February 2016}}.</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:6023946}} (99.9%)<ref name="IC2024"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Germany]] | {{formatnum:83190556}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Bevoelkerungsstand/Tabellen/zensus-geschlecht-staatsangehoerigkeit-2020.html | title = German census | date = 2020 | publisher = Destatis | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160628112855/https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/SocietyState/Population/CurrentPopulation/Tables/Census_SexAndCitizenship.html | archive-date = 28 June 2016 | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:716772}} (1% of 71 677 231) <ref name="Eurob2023"/><ref>Native command group (GDL): 266,955 non-nationalized Spanish-speaking immigrants, 63,752 nationalized Spanish-speaking immigrants, 44,500 Spanish speakers of children of immigrants (second generation). 375,207 total native speakers, but there are another 37,047 non-mother-tongue speakers with native-level skills. [https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_lengua_viva/pdf/espanol_lengua_viva_2020.pdf Anuario del Instituto Cervantes 2020 (page 325). "Germany and their Spanish speakers"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134448/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_lengua_viva/pdf/espanol_lengua_viva_2019.pdf |date=18 February 2020}}</ref> | {{formatnum:2150317}} (3% of 71 677 231){{efn|2% of people in Germany older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:5734178}} (8% of 71 677 231) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Costa Rica]]* | {{formatnum:5327387}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inec.cr/poblacion/estimaciones-y-proyecciones-de-poblacion |title=INEC estimate for 2024 |publisher=INEC}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:5268786}} (98.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:5326600}} (99.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 897}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Panama]]* | {{formatnum:4565559}}<ref>[https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inec.gob.pa%2Farchivos%2FP4911CUADRO9.XLS&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK Census INEC estimate for 2025]</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3944643}} (86.4)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>There are 501,043 people who speak another language as mother tongue: {{Cite web | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PA | title = PA | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 17 October 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021142552/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PA | archive-date = 21 October 2011 | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:4495892}} (98.4%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 69,667}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Uruguay]]* | {{formatnum:3499451}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gub.uy/instituto-nacional-estadistica/censos2023pvh|title=Censo 2023|website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística}}</ref> | {{formatnum:3348975}} (95.7%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/uruguay/index.php|title=Uruguay: datos de países y estadísticas|website=DatosMundial.com}}</ref><ref>There are 150,200 people who speak another language as mother tongue, {{Cite web | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=UY | title = UY | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 17 October 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111116095609/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=UY | archive-date = 16 November 2011 | url-status = live}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3467956}} (99.1%)<ref name="viva18" /> |- | [[Puerto Rico]]* | {{formatnum:3203295}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/PR/PST045224|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Puerto Rico|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3049537}} (95.2%)<ref>([https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2023.S1601?q=race&t=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&g=040XX00US72&y=2023 Census Bureau 2023] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924081747/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/municipios/totals/2011/tables/PRM-EST2011-01.xls |date=24 September 2015}})</ref> | {{formatnum:3200092}} (99.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[United Kingdom]] | {{formatnum:68265209}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |title=Annual Mid year Population Estimates: 2023 |publisher=U.K. Gov. Census |date=1 July 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:215062}} (0.4%)<ref>[[Languages of the United Kingdom]]</ref> | {{formatnum:518480}} (1% of 51,848,010)<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 goodspeakers">[https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/1049 Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (pages T74, TS2): Non native people who speak Spanish very well.</ref> | {{formatnum:3110880}} (6% of 51,848,010)<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers">[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (page T64): Non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Italy]] | {{formatnum:60542215}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.istat.it/en/population-and-households |title=Census 2021 estimate|publisher=Istat.it |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807053109/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=tps00001&tableSelection=1&footnotes=yes&labeling=labels&plugin=1 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:515597}} (1% of 51,862,391) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:1546790}} (3% of 51,862,391){{efn|2% of people in Italy older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:3093580}} (6% of 51,862,391) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Morocco]] | {{formatnum:36828330}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hcp.ma/Population-legale-du-Royaume-du-Maroc-repartie-par-regions-provinces-et-prefectures-et-communes-selon-les-resultats-du_a3974.html|title=Census estimate for 2024|publisher=HCP}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:136892}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:1888625}}<ref name="viva18" /><ref>[http://www.slideshare.net/magdarol/el-espaol-en-el-contexto-sociolingstico-marroqui-evolucin-y-perspectivas-i El español en el contexto Sociolingüístico marroquí: Evolución y perspectivas (page 39)]: Between 4 and 7 million people have Spanish knowledge (M. Ammadi, 2002) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106191132/http://www.slideshare.net/magdarol/el-espaol-en-el-contexto-sociolingstico-marroqui-evolucin-y-perspectivas-i |date=6 November 2013}}</ref> (10%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Embajadas/RABAT/es/Noticias/Documents/LENGESPMARR.pdf |title=Euromonitor, 2012|page=32|work=exteriores.gob.es|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425134251/http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Embajadas/RABAT/es/Noticias/Documents/LENGESPMARR.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Canada]] | {{formatnum:41465298}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 | title = Population estimates, quarterly | date = 2024 | publisher = Statistics Canada }}</ref> | {{formatnum:600795}} (1.6%)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/language-langue/index-en.html |title=Mother tongue by geography, 2021 Census |date=2021 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114071602/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/language-langue/index-en.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:1171450}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021601&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.1&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.1&pickMembers%5B2%5D=3.1&pickMembers%5B3%5D=4.1 |title=Knowledge of languages by age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions |date=2022 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225258/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021601&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.1&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.1&pickMembers%5B2%5D=3.1&pickMembers%5B3%5D=4.1 |url-status=live}}</ref> (3.2%)<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/#people-and-society cia.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922212931/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/#people-and-society |date=22 September 2021}} (3.2% speak Spanish in Canada)</ref> | {{formatnum:1775000}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tln.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/spanish-speaking-canada-population_2.pdf |title=tln.ca |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207190552/https://www.tln.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/spanish-speaking-canada-population_2.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://allontario.ca/the-importance-of-spanish-in-canada/ |title=allontario.ca |date=14 May 2020 |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927175639/https://allontario.ca/the-importance-of-spanish-in-canada/ |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Netherlands]] | {{formatnum:18070000}}<ref>{{cite web |date=24 March 2025 |title=Bevolkingsteller: Hoeveel mensen wonen nu in Nederland? |trans-title=Population counter: How many people live in the Netherlands now? |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/visualisaties/dashboard-bevolking/bevolkingsteller |access-date=24 March 2025 |publisher=Cbs.nl}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:1328731}} (9% of 14 763 684) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Equatorial Guinea]]* | {{formatnum:1505588}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://inege.gq/ |title=Equatorial Guinea census estimate |year=2021 |publisher=Population statistics |access-date=21 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806160229/http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/estadistica.php |archive-date=6 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:1114135}} (74%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:1320401}} (87.7%)<ref>[https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf cvc.cervantes.es]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227153232/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf |date=27 December 2021}}. 13.7% of the country's Spanish speakers are proficient; the remaining 74% are limited-competence speakers.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Portugal]] | {{formatnum:10639726}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest_boui=645507713&DESTAQUESmodo=2 |title=INE estimate |date=31 Dec 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:48791}}<ref name="port" /> | {{formatnum:178312}} (2% of 8,915,624) <ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:1089995}}<ref name="port" >{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_europa/espanol_portugal/demolinguistica_espanol_portugal.pdf |title= Demo lingüística del español en Portugal |publisher= Instituto Cervantes | page = 31 |access-date=2 December 2023 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222110248/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_europa/espanol_portugal/demolinguistica_espanol_portugal.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Belgium]] | {{formatnum:11812354}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibz.rrn.fgov.be/fileadmin/user_upload/fr/pop/statistiques/population-bevolking-20250101.pdf |title=Census estimate to 2025 |publisher=ibz.rrn.fgov.be}}</ref> | {{formatnum:96193}} (1% of 9,619,330) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:192387}} (2% of 9,619,330){{efn|1% of people in Belgium older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:961933}} (10% of 9,619,330) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Sweden]] | {{formatnum:10588230}}<ref>{{Cite news |title=Population statistics - Statistics Sweden |url=http://www.scb.se:80/Pages/Product____25799.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105201119/http://www.scb.se:80/Pages/Product____25799.aspx |archive-date=2013-11-05 |access-date=2025-08-15 |work=Statistiska Centralbyrån |language=sv}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:85415}} (1% of 8,541,497) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:854149}} (10% of 8,541,497) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Ivory Coast]] | {{formatnum:29389150}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ins.ci/n | title=Census, 2021}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:798095}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Australia]] | 27,309,396 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 |title=2024 Census |publisher= Australian census data |date=30 Sep 2024 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:175491}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:559491}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Switzerland]] | {{formatnum:9060598}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-19 |title=Population counter (real-time estimate) {{!}} Image |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/asset/en/32175841 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Federal Statistical Office |language=en}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:212970}}<ref name="viva18" />(2.3%)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html |title=Bevölkerung |first=Bundesamt für|last=Statistik|website=www.bfs.admin.ch|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114180444/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html|archive-date=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.exteriores.gob.es/documents/fichaspais/suiza_ficha%20pais.pdf exteriores.gob.es] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124220134/http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Documents/FichasPais/SUIZA_FICHA%20PAIS.pdf |date=24 January 2022}}. 2.3% Spanish speakers as a native language according to 2018 census.</ref> | {{formatnum:556131}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Philippines]] | {{formatnum:114123600}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/dhsd/Statistical%20Tables%20CBPP_0.pdf | publisher = National Statistics Office | title = Medium projection | date = 1 Jul 2025 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:6834}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:554530}}<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_18/madrid/p01.htm |title=cvc.cervantes.es |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816002359/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_18/madrid/p01.htm |url-status=live}} There are 4,803 native Spanish speakers + 461,689 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 33,600 Spanish students.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Romania]] | {{formatnum:19051562}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2023r.pdf |title=Eurostat (1/1/2023 estimate) |publisher=insse.ro }}</ref> | | | | {{formatnum:485241}} (3 of 16,174,719) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Denmark]] | {{formatnum:5982117}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/borgere/befolkning/befolkningstal|title=Population figures|website=www.dst.dk}}</ref> | | |{{formatnum:440213}} (9% of 4,891,261) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Western Sahara]] | {{formatnum:590506}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/ | title = 2024 UN estimate | year = 2024 }}</ref> | N/A<ref>The 1970 Spanish census claims there were 16,648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara at the time ([http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_99/otero/p03.htm#7]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917062525/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_99/otero/p03.htm#7|date=17 September 2009}}), but most of them were probably people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation.</ref> | | {{formatnum:423739}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Benin]] | {{formatnum:12910087}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://instad.bj/images/docs/Actualit%C3%A9s/Projection%20r%C3%A9vis%C3%A9e.pdf |title=National annual projection |date=1 Jul 2024}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:412515}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Cameroon]] | {{formatnum:28758503}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=PROJECTIONS DEMOGRAPHIQUES ET ESTIMATIONS DES CIBLES PRIORITAIRES DES DIFFERENTS PROGRAMMES ET INTERVENTIONS DE SANTE – Institut National de la Statistique du Cameroun |url=https://ins-cameroun.cm/document/projections-demographiques-et-estimations-des-cibles-prioritaires-des-differents-programmes-et-interventions-de-sante/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250512231216/https://ins-cameroun.cm/document/projections-demographiques-et-estimations-des-cibles-prioritaires-des-differents-programmes-et-interventions-de-sante/ |archive-date=2025-05-12 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=ins-cameroun.cm |date=30 June 2023 |language=fr-FR}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:403000}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Senegal]] | {{formatnum:12853259}} | | | {{formatnum:356000}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Poland]] | {{formatnum:38036118}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/other-studies/informations-on-socio-economic-situation/statistical-bulletin-no-112022,4,145.html|title=Statistical Bulletin No 11/2022|website=stat.gov.pl}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:319829}} (1% of 31,982,941) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Austria]] | {{formatnum:9198214}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population at beginning of year/quarter |url=https://www.statistik.at/en/statistics/population-and-society/population/population-stock/population-at-beginning-of-year/quarter |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=STATISTICS AUSTRIA |language=en-GB}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:76471}} (1% of 7,647,176)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:305887}} (4% of 7,647,176)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Ireland]] | {{formatnum:5380300}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-27 |title=Population and Migration Estimates, April 2024 - Central Statistics Office |url=https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-pme/populationandmigrationestimatesapril2024/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.cso.ie |language=en}}</ref> | {{formatnum:40059}} (1% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:120177}} (3% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:280414}} (7% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Belize]] | {{formatnum:430191}}<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://www.sib.org.bz/ |title=Spanish in belize |date= |language=es |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204235026/http://www.sib.org.bz/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:224130}} (52.1%)<ref name="Spanish in Belize">{{Cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_42.pdf |title=Spanish in Belize. 52.1% speak Spanish with very well level. 10.7% speak Spanish with intermediate level. |date=2000 |language=es |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203033222/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_42.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:224130}} (52.1%) | 270,160 (62.8%)<ref name="Spanish in Belize" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Czech Republic]] | {{formatnum:10897237}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://csu.gov.cz/home |title=czso.cz |language=cs |publisher=czso.cz |date= September 2024 }}</ref> | | {{formatnum:89820}} (1% of 8,982,036)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:269461}} (3% of 8,982,036)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Algeria]] | {{formatnum:47400000}}<ref>[https://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/Demographie_Algerienne2020_2023.pdf ons.dz], Census estimate for 1 Jan 2025.</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1149}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:263428}}{{efn|There are 1,149 native Spanish speakers + 173,600 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 88,679 Spanish students.}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Curaçao]], [[Sint Maarten]], [[Bonaire]], [[Sint Eustatius]] & [[Saba (island)|Saba]] | 244,700 |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 46,621 <ref name="viva18" /> | 203,339 <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Finland]] | {{formatnum:5638675}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preliminary population structure by Month, Area, Sex, Age and Information |url=https://pxdata.stat.fi/PxWebPxWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__vamuu/statfin_vamuu_pxt_11lj.px/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=PxWeb |language=en}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:186917}} (4% of 4,672,932)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Greece]] | {{formatnum:10400720}}<ref>[https://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/b248e72c-2917-bdae-1d15-98d22787adb7 statistics.gr] 1-January-2024.</ref> | | {{formatnum:91679}} (1% of 9,167,896)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:183358}} (2% of 9,167,896)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Bulgaria]] | {{formatnum:6445481}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Население към 7 септември 2021 година |url=https://www.nsi.bg/press-release/naselenie-kam-7-septemvri-2021-godina-6796 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=НСИ - Национален статистически институт |language=bg}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:59175}} (1% of 5,917,534)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:177526}} (3% of 5,917,534)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Gabon]] | {{formatnum:2408586}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Projection de la population 2019-2025 |url=https://www.statgabon.ga/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rapport-Projection_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250502204210/https://www.statgabon.ga/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rapport-Projection_Final.pdf |archive-date=2025-05-02 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.statgabon.ga}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:167410}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Hungary]] | {{formatnum:9540000}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/nep/en/nep0001.html |title=Census estimate |publisher=ksh.hu |date= 1 January 2025 }}</ref> | | {{formatnum:83135}} (1% of 8,313,539)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:166271}} (2% of 8,313,539)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Russia]] | {{formatnum:146028325}}<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2025_Site.xlsx |title=Census estimate for 2025 |publisher=Russian census estimate |date=1 January 2025 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum: 28924}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:163354}} (134,430 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Japan]] | {{formatnum:123440000}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics Bureau Home Page/Population Estimates Monthly Report |url=https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.htm |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.stat.go.jp}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:131000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:160000}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Slovakia]] | {{formatnum:5421272}} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Stav obyvateľstva v SR k 30. septembru 2024 |url=https://slovak.statistics.sk/wps/portal/ext/products/informationmessages/inf_sprava_detail/3ea24db8-57c6-4e4b-b535-050d5353d478/!ut/p/z1/tVLNUsIwGHwWDz2m-SApCd4Co_wIjoAI5OK0JdAKbWobW_HpTR0vzIjgwVy-ZGZ3s5sNlniJZeqX8dY3sU79vT2vZOt5wga802kIgM6IwGB4N7vvd2-bvbmHF8cAfj-9gcGjeOhNh7QB1MPyd_4TlliGqclMhFc6KPwIFTsUpxvk74wDdqPzxLopU4WKLPfLgwNloczOTqL8Jl0HHHksbCGqaIACj3gIPFjbSdaU8Vo-C-M1Xl2EXpzLW8eBE0uA5csvSLcn-pSNAPio58FA9OfT9oQQEOQb8IvGynpgJz00GF6UsarwPK1fZo9nf4zYBzw814qtPX55fZXCdqNTo94NXv5HOfaeZj7ujrc2gW-iWlrj5UVUmyEOErcKExdcxhkQxjht0nbLI6QWFmlAuBXO1UblKnffcvudI2Oy4toBB6qqcrdab_fKDXXiwE-USBc2-DESZ8k84eSAdpvxDaEyOJCPkVqIq08a31Kc/dz/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319082306/https://slovak.statistics.sk/wps/portal/ext/products/informationmessages/inf_sprava_detail/3ea24db8-57c6-4e4b-b535-050d5353d478/!ut/p/z1/tVLNUsIwGHwWDz2m-SApCd4Co_wIjoAI5OK0JdAKbWobW_HpTR0vzIjgwVy-ZGZ3s5sNlniJZeqX8dY3sU79vT2vZOt5wga802kIgM6IwGB4N7vvd2-bvbmHF8cAfj-9gcGjeOhNh7QB1MPyd_4TlliGqclMhFc6KPwIFTsUpxvk74wDdqPzxLopU4WKLPfLgwNloczOTqL8Jl0HHHksbCGqaIACj3gIPFjbSdaU8Vo-C-M1Xl2EXpzLW8eBE0uA5csvSLcn-pSNAPio58FA9OfT9oQQEOQb8IvGynpgJz00GF6UsarwPK1fZo9nf4zYBzw814qtPX55fZXCdqNTo94NXv5HOfaeZj7ujrc2gW-iWlrj5UVUmyEOErcKExdcxhkQxjht0nbLI6QWFmlAuBXO1UblKnffcvudI2Oy4toBB6qqcrdab_fKDXXiwE-USBc2-DESZ8k84eSAdpvxDaEyOJCPkVqIq08a31Kc/dz/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/ |archive-date=2025-03-19 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=slovak.statistics.sk |language=sk}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:45915}} (1% of 4,591,487)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:91830}} (2% of 4,591,487)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Israel]] | {{formatnum:10045100}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Time Series DataBank |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/Statistics/Pages/Generators/Time-Series-DataBank.aspx |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=en-US}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:104000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:149000}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Norway]] | {{formatnum:5594340}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population |url=https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/folketall/statistikk/befolkning |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=SSB |language=en}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:13000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:132888}}{{efn|There are 13,000 native Spanish speakers + 24,000 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 95,888 Spanish students.}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Aruba]] | {{formatnum:107566}}<ref>{{cite web |date=1 January 2024 |title=General characteristics of Aruba 2023 |url=https://cbs.aw/wp/index.php/2022/09/20/test-2/ |publisher=CBS}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:14737}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:89387}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Luxembourg]] | {{formatnum:672050}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistiques.public.lu/dam-assets/actualite/2024/stn16-pop-2024/stn16-2024-population-2024-v20.pdf|title=January 2024 Census estimate.}}</ref> | {{formatnum:16000}} (3% of 533,335) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:37000}} (7% of 533,335){{efn|4% of people in Italy older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 3% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:80000}} (15% of 533,335) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Andorra]] | {{formatnum:85101}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.estadistica.ad/portal/apps/sites/#/estadistica-ca/pages/estadistiques-i-dades-detall?Idioma=ca&N2=605&N3=606&DV=797|title=2024 Census estimate}}</ref> | {{formatnum:34132}} (43.2%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:49018}} (57.6%)<ref>[https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf static1.ara.cat]: 43.2% speak Spanish as a mother tongue, and 14.4% as a second language.</ref> | {{formatnum:71677}} (80.0%)<ref>[https://www.andorrainfo.com/andorra/idioma.html andorrainfo.com]</ref><ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Trinidad and Tobago]] | {{formatnum:1368333}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-15 |title=Population Statistics Trinidad and Tobago |url=https://cso.gov.tt/subjects/population-and-vital-statistics/population/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=cso.gov.tt/ |language=en-US}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:4000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:70401}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[China]] | {{formatnum:1408280000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/island-areas/guam/population-and-housing-unit-counts/guam-phc-table01.pdf|title=2020 census result}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:15130}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:69028}} (53,898 students) <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[New Zealand]] | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:22000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:58373}} (36,373 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Slovenia]] | | | {{formatnum:35194}} (2%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 goodspeakers" /> of 1,759,701<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population">[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (page TS2): Population older than 15. (age scale used for the Eurobarometer survey)</ref>) | {{formatnum:52791}} (3%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 1,759,701<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[India]] | {{formatnum:1428627663}}<ref>{{cite web |url= https://population.un.org/wpp/ |title= 2024 UN estimate |date= 2024 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:4855}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:51104}} (46,249 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Guam]] | {{formatnum:153836}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202501/t20250117_1958330.html |title=Census estimate for 1 January 2025 |publisher=Stats.gov.cn}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1309}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:32233}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Gibraltar]] | {{formatnum:34003}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistics - FAQ's |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |date=2020 |access-date=24 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105204953/https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/statistics/faqs |archive-date=5 January 2014}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:24958}} (73.4%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inglés y español en Gibraltar: Usos y actitudes lingüísticas entre la población joven |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426213120/https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-date=2024-04-26 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.um.es |quote=(5.2. Datos descriptivos de los usos de español e inglés, Gráfico 2). 77.3% of the Gibraltar population speak Spanish with their mother more, or equal than English.}}</ref>) | {{formatnum:31725}} (93.3 %<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inglés y español en Gibraltar: Usos y actitudes lingüísticas entre la población joven |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426213120/https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-date=2024-04-26 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.um.es |quote=93.3 % speak at least some Spanish with their friends}}</ref>) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Lithuania]] | {{formatnum:2972949}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819130935/http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14= |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2010 |title=(2013) |publisher=db1.stat.gov.lt |access-date=24 March 2014}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:28297}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 2,829,740<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Turkey]] | {{formatnum:85664944}} <ref>{{Cite web |title=TURKSTAT Corporate |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684&dil=2 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=data.tuik.gov.tr}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:5460}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:21660}} <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Egypt]] | {{formatnum:105914499}} <ref>[https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Admin/Pages%20Files/20245121324361-%20pop_new.pdf]: Census estimate (1/1/2025)</ref> | | | {{formatnum:21000}} <ref>{{cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_21/africa/egipto.htm |title=El español en Egipto |publisher=Instituto Cervantes |date=2021}}There are 6,000 Spanish students and 15,000 Egyptian citizens who speak Spanish for professional reasons</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[US Virgin Islands]] | | {{formatnum:16788}} <ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:16788}} | {{formatnum:16788}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Latvia]] | {{formatnum:2209000}} | | | {{formatnum:13943}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 1,447,866<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Cyprus]] | | | | 2%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 660,400<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Estonia]] | | | | {{formatnum:9457}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 945,733<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Jamaica]] | {{formatnum:2711476}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/population.aspx |title=Jamaican Population |publisher=Statinja.gov.jm |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006125038/http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/population.aspx |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:8000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:8000}} | {{formatnum:8000}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Namibia]] | | {{formatnum:666}} | {{formatnum:3866}}<ref>[http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_12.pdf El español en Namibia, 2005.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302153728/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_12.pdf |date=2 March 2013}} ''[[Instituto Cervantes]]''.</ref> | {{formatnum:3866}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Malta]] | | | | {{formatnum:3354}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 335,476<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#efff;" |class=sortbottom | '''Total''' | {{formatnum:8152000000}} (total world population)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/ |title=U.S. and World Population Clock |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |date=18 March 2025 }}</ref> | '''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 125098647 + 44867699 + 52090885 + 42214452 + 45574810 + 28527874 + 27720040 + 19317847 + 16877244 + 12637787 + 7485677 + 10995250 + 10323475 + 9549917 + 557001 + 6484103 + 3946502 + 5788776 + 716772 + 1444616 + 5268786 + 3944643 + 3348975 + 3049537 + 266025 + 515597 + 13204 + 223837 + 88461 + 600795 + 48265 + 96193 + 85415 + 6858 + 175491 + 4284 + 20320 + 224130 + 5150 + 1149 + 210115 + 6068 + 20070 + 104000 + 131000 + 40059 + 27921 + 16950 + 8241 + 15130 + 14737 + 4000 + 1201 + 22000 + 36763 + 47300 + 5872 + 24958 + 16000 + 5460 + 16788 + 4855 + 8000 + 1096 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 49099533900 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="worldcia">According to the CIA Factbook, Spanish is the second most spoken language at 6%, and the fourth most spoken language overall at 6.9%.</ref><ref name="viva18" /> |'''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 125632117 + 49671936 + 52090885 + 47343311 + 46856601 + 29594658 + 27720040 + 19317847 + 17474448 + 13722576 + 9927463 + 10996367 + 10323475 + 9549917 + 2228004 + 6599769 + 4318692 + 6029976 + 2150317 + 1444616 + 5268786 + 3944643 + 3467956 + 3049537 + 518480 + 1546790 + 13204 + 1209048 + 88461 + 1171450 + 178312 + 192387 + 85415 + 6858 + 175491 + 212970 + 16062 + 4284 + 76471 + 120177 + 224130 + 83135 + 173600 + 91679 + 59175 + 83135 + 131000 + 104000 + 46621 + 27921 + 8241 + 130750 + 5872 + 45914 + 16000 + 14737 + 4100 + 15130 + 1201 + 22000 + 49018 + 47300 + 5872 + 24958 + 37000 + 5460 + 16788 + 4855 + 8500 + 3870 + 1096 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 51583312100 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="viva18" /> |'''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 132300489 + 64867699 + 52962217 + 48908080 + 47188917 + 30600340 + 28240466 + 20121084 + 17642817 + 16440943 + 12064523 + 10996350 + 10747728 + 9949503 + 7798016 + 7530494 + 6734219 + 6397823 + 6023946 + 5734178 + 5326600 + 4495892 + 3467956 + 3200092 + 3110880 + 3093580 + 1754485 + 1432886 + 1328731 + 1171450 + 1089995 + 961933 + 854149 + 798095 + 559491 + 554530 + 556131 + 485241 + 440213 + 423739 + 412515 + 403000 + 356000 + 319829 + 305887 + 280414 + 270160 + 269461 + 263428 + 209250 + 203339 + 186917 + 183358 + 177526 + 167410 + 166271 + 160000 + 149000 + 147809 + 140302 + 89387 + 80000 + 71650 + 73656 + 71677 + 71650 + 70401 + 69028 + 60582 + 57883 + 51104 + 48000 + 40628 + 31805 + 31725 + 23733 + 22232 + 21660 + 21000 + 17871 + 16788 + 8500 + 8000 + 6604 + 6099 + 3969 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 58420367500 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="worldcia"/><ref name="viva18" /><ref name="ethnologue200">{{Cite web |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en |quote=Spanish is the fourth most spoken language with 558.5 million speakers.}}</ref> |} == Grammar == {{Main|Spanish grammar}}{{unref section|date=January 2026}}[[File:Cervantes Jáuregui.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Miguel de Cervantes]], considered by many the greatest author of Spanish literature, and author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', widely considered the first modern European novel]] Most of the grammatical and [[Linguistic typology|typological]] features of Spanish are shared with the other [[Romance languages]]. Spanish is a [[fusional language]]. The [[Spanish nouns|noun]] and [[Spanish adjectives|adjective]] systems exhibit two [[Grammatical gender|genders]] and two [[Grammatical number|numbers]]. In addition, articles and some [[Spanish pronouns|pronouns]] and [[Spanish determiners|determiners]] have a neuter gender in their singular form. There are about fifty [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] forms per [[verb]], with 3 tenses: past, present, future; 2 [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]] for past: [[Perfective aspect|perfective]], [[Imperfective aspect|imperfective]]; 4 [[Grammatical mood|moods]]: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; 3 persons: first, second, third; 2 numbers: singular, plural; 3 [[verboid]] forms: infinitive, gerund, and past participle. The indicative mood is the [[Markedness|unmarked]] one, while the subjunctive mood [[Subjunctive mood in Spanish|expresses uncertainty or indetermination]], and is commonly paired with the conditional, which is a mood used to express "would" (as in, "I would eat if I had food"); the imperative is a mood to express a command, commonly a one word phrase – "¡Di!" ("Talk!"). Verbs express [[T–V distinction]] by using different persons for formal and informal addresses. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see [[Spanish verbs]] and [[Spanish irregular verbs]].) Spanish [[syntax]] is considered [[Branching (linguistics)|right-branching]], meaning that subordinate or [[Grammatical modifier|modifying]] [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] tend to be placed after head words. The language uses [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] (rather than postpositions or inflection of nouns for [[Grammatical case|case]]), and usually—though not always—places [[adjective]]s after [[noun]]s, as do most other Romance languages. Spanish is classified as a [[subject–verb–object]] language; however, as in most Romance languages, constituent order is highly variable and governed mainly by [[topicalization]] and [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]]. It is a "[[Pro-drop language|pro-drop]]", or "[[Null-subject language|null-subject]]" language—that is, it allows the deletion of subject pronouns when they are [[Pragmatics|pragmatically]] unnecessary. Spanish is described as a "[[Verb framing|verb-framed]]" language, meaning that the ''direction'' of motion is expressed in the verb while the ''mode'' of locomotion is expressed adverbially (e.g. ''subir corriendo'' or ''salir volando''; the respective English equivalents of these examples—'to run up' and 'to fly out'—show that English is, by contrast, "satellite-framed", with mode of locomotion expressed in the verb and direction in an adverbial modifier). == Phonology == [[File:Miguel Hache - voice.ogg|thumb|Spanish as spoken in Spain]] {{Main|Spanish phonology}} The Spanish phonological system evolved from that of [[Vulgar Latin]]. Its development exhibits some traits in common with other [[Western Romance languages]], others with the neighboring Hispanic varieties—especially [[Leonese dialect|Leonese]] and [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]—as well as other features unique to Spanish. Spanish is alone among its immediate neighbors in having undergone frequent aspiration and eventual loss of the Latin initial {{IPA|/f/}} sound (e.g. Cast. {{lang|es|harina}} vs. Leon. and Arag. {{lang|ast|farina}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zamora Vicente|1967|pp=117 and 222}}</ref> The Latin initial consonant sequences {{lang|la|pl-}}, {{lang|la|cl-}}, and {{lang|la|fl-}} in Spanish typically merge as {{lang|es|ll-}} (originally pronounced {{IPA|[ʎ]}}), while in Aragonese they are preserved in most dialects, and in Leonese they present a variety of outcomes, including {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʎ]}}. Where Latin had {{lang|la|-li-}} before a vowel (e.g. {{lang|la|filius}}) or the ending {{lang|la|-iculus}}, {{lang|la|-icula}} (e.g. {{lang|la|auricula}}), Old Spanish produced {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, that in Modern Spanish became the velar fricative {{IPA|[x]}} ({{lang|es|hijo}}, {{lang|es|oreja}}), whereas neighboring languages have the palatal lateral {{IPA|[ʎ]}} (e.g. Portuguese {{lang|pt|filho}}, {{lang|pt|orelha}}; Catalan {{lang|ca|fill}}, {{lang|ca|orella}}). === Segmental phonology === [[File:Spanish vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Spanish vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Johnson|2010|p=227}}]] The Spanish [[Phoneme|phonemic]] inventory consists of five vowel phonemes ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) and 17 to 19 consonant phonemes (the exact number depending on the dialect<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hualde|2014|p=39}}</ref>). The main [[Allophone|allophonic]] variation among vowels is the reduction of the high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to glides—{{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively—when unstressed and adjacent to another vowel. Some instances of the mid vowels {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, determined lexically, alternate with the diphthongs {{IPA|/je/}} and {{IPA|/we/}} respectively when stressed, in a process that is better described as [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] rather than phonological, as it is not predictable from phonology alone. The Spanish consonant system is characterized by (1) three [[nasal stop|nasal]] phonemes, and one or two (depending on the dialect) [[lateral consonant|lateral]] phoneme(s), which in syllable-final position [[Archiphonemic|lose their contrast]] and are subject to [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] to a following consonant; (2) three [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Plosive|stops]] and the [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}}; (3) three or four (depending on the dialect) [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]]; (4) a set of voiced [[obstruent]]s—{{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, and sometimes {{IPA|/ʝ/}}—which alternate between [[Approximant consonant|approximant]] and [[plosive]] allophones depending on the environment; and (5) a phonemic distinction between the "[[Flap consonant|tapped]]" and "[[Trill consonant|trilled]]" ''r''-sounds (single {{angle bracket|r}} and double {{angle bracket|rr}} in orthography). In the following table of consonant phonemes, {{IPA|/ʎ/}} is marked with an asterisk (*) to indicate that it is preserved only in some dialects. In most dialects it has been merged with {{IPA|/ʝ/}} in the merger called {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}}. Similarly, {{IPA|/θ/}} is also marked with an asterisk to indicate that most dialects do not distinguish it from {{IPA|/s/}} (see {{lang|es|[[seseo]]}}), although this is not a true merger but an outcome of different evolution of sibilants in southern Spain. The phoneme {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is in parentheses () to indicate that it appears only in [[loanwords]]. Each of the voiced obstruent phonemes {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ʝ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} appears to the right of a ''pair'' of voiceless phonemes, to indicate that, while the ''voiceless'' phonemes maintain a phonemic contrast between plosive (or affricate) and fricative, the ''voiced'' ones alternate [[Allophone|allophonically]] (i.e. without phonemic contrast) between plosive and approximant pronunciations. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align: center;" |+ Consonant phonemes<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Martínez-Celdrán|Fernández-Planas|Carrera-Sabaté|2003|p=255}}</ref> |- ! ! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] ! colspan=2 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|m}} | colspan=2 | | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|n}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ɲ}} | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Stop consonant|Stop]] | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|p}}||rowspan=2 style="border-left: 0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|b}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|t̪|t}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|d̪|d}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"| | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|tʃ}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ʝ}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|k}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}} |- ! [[Continuant]] |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|f}} |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|θ}}* |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|s}} |style="border-right: 0;"|({{IPA link|ʃ}}) |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|x}} |- ! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|l}} |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ʎ}}* | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɾ}} | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|r}} | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |} === Prosody === Spanish is classified by its [[Isochrony|rhythm]] as a [[isochrony#syllable timing|syllable-timed language]]: each syllable has approximately the same duration regardless of stress.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Cressey|1978|p=152}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Abercrombie|1967|p=98}}</ref> Spanish [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] varies significantly according to dialect but generally conforms to a pattern of falling tone for declarative sentences and [[Question#Open_questions|wh-questions]] (who, what, why, etc.) and rising tone for [[Yes–no question|yes/no questions]].<ref>{{cite book |author=John B. Dabor |title=Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice |edition=3rd |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |year=1997 |chapter=Ch. 7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/Spanish/FLSP0501/dalvofile.html |title=John B. Dalbor's Voice Files to Accompany ''Spanish Pronunciation'' |publisher=Auburn.edu |access-date=20 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308071525/http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/Spanish/FLSP0501/dalvofile.html |archive-date=8 March 2012}}</ref> There are no syntactic markers to distinguish between questions and statements and thus, the recognition of declarative or interrogative depends entirely on intonation. Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word, with some rare exceptions at the fourth-to-last or earlier syllables. Stress tends to occur as follows:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Eddington|2000|p=96}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} * in words that end with a [[monophthong]], on the penultimate syllable * when the word ends in a [[diphthong]], on the final syllable. * in words that end with a consonant, on the last syllable, with the exception of two grammatical endings: {{lang|es|-n}}, for third-person-plural of verbs, and {{lang|es|-s}}, for plural of nouns and adjectives or for second-person-singular of verbs. However, even though a significant number of nouns and adjectives ending with {{lang|es|-n}} are also stressed on the penult ({{lang|es|joven}}, {{lang|es|virgen}}, {{lang|es|mitin}}), the great majority of nouns and adjectives ending with {{lang|es|-n}} are stressed on their last syllable ({{lang|es|capitán}}, {{lang|es|almacén}}, {{lang|es|jardín}}, {{lang|es|corazón}}). * Preantepenultimate stress (stress on the fourth-to-last syllable) occurs rarely, only on verbs with [[clitic]] pronouns attached (e.g. {{lang|es|guardándoselos}} 'saving them for him/her/them/you'). In addition to the many exceptions to these tendencies, there are numerous [[minimal pair]]s that contrast solely on stress such as {{lang|es|sábana}} ('sheet') and {{lang|es|sabana}} ('savannah'); {{lang|es|límite}} ('boundary'), {{lang|es|limite}} ('he/she limits') and {{lang|es|limité}} ('I limited'); {{lang|es|líquido}} ('liquid'), {{lang|es|liquido}} ('I sell off') and {{lang|es|liquidó}} ('he/she sold off'). The orthographic system unambiguously reflects where the stress occurs: in the absence of an accent mark, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last letter is {{angle bracket|n}}, {{angle bracket|s}}, or a vowel, in which cases the stress falls on the next-to-last (penultimate) syllable. Exceptions to those rules are indicated by an acute accent mark over the vowel of the stressed syllable. (See [[Spanish orthography]].) == Speaker population == Spanish is the official, or national language in [[Hispanic America|18 countries and one territory in the Americas]], [[Spain]], and [[Equatorial Guinea]]. With a population of over 410 million, [[Spanish language in the Americas|Hispanophone America]] accounts for the vast majority of Spanish speakers, of which [[Mexico]] is the most populous Spanish-speaking country. In the [[European Union]], Spanish is the [[First language|mother tongue]] of 8% of the population, with an additional 7% speaking it as a second language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Europeans and their Languages |access-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Additionally, Spanish is the second most spoken language in the [[United States]] and is by far the most popular foreign language among students.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |title=Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S |publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=20 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814042126/http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |archive-date=14 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, it was estimated that over 50 million Americans spoke Spanish, about 41 million of whom were native speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country|title=US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain – only Mexico has more|work=The Guardian|date=29 June 2015|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=23 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123045244/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country|url-status=live}}</ref> With continued immigration and increased use of the language domestically in public spheres and media, the number of Spanish speakers in the United States is expected to continue growing over the forthcoming decades.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2011/demo/2011-Shin-Ortman.html|title=Language Projections: 2010 to 2020|publisher=United States Census Bureau|website=The United States Census Bureau|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819054204/https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2011/demo/2011-Shin-Ortman.html|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Dialectal variation == [[File:Variedades principales del español.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A world map attempting to identify the main dialects of Spanish]] {{Main|Spanish dialects and varieties}} While being mutually intelligible, there are important variations ([[Phonology|phonological]], [[Grammar|grammatical]], and [[Lexicon|lexical]]) in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas. The national variety with the most speakers is [[Mexican Spanish]]. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112&nbsp;million of the total of more than 500&nbsp;million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the [[vowel reduction|reduction]] or loss of [[unstressed vowel]]s, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.<ref>Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) [https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&dq=Mexican+vowels&pg=PA154 ''Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2''], pp. 154–155, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915115219/https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&pg=PA154&dq=Mexican+vowels&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Mexican%20vowels&f=false |date=15 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lope Blanch, Juan M. |year=1972 |chapter=En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano |pages=53–73 |title=Estudios sobre el español de México |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |language=es |url=http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011128/http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf}}</ref> In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. The speech from the educated classes of Madrid is the standard variety for use on radio and television in Spain and it is indicated by many as the one that has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny |2000|p=199}}: "whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard."</ref> Central (European) Spanish speech patterns have been noted to be in the process of merging with more innovative southern varieties (including Eastern Andalusian and Murcian), as an emerging interdialectal levelled ''koine'' buffered between the Madrid's traditional national standard and the Seville speech trends.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Juan Manuel|last1=Hernández Campoy|first2=Juan Andrés |last2=Villena Ponsoda |title=Standardness and nonstandardness in Spain: dialect attrition and revitalization of regional dialects of Spanish |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|year=2009 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2009.021 |issue=196–197 |pages=185–186 |s2cid=145000590 |url=https://www.academia.edu/30322624 |access-date=24 January 2022|url-status=live|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124040200/https://www.academia.edu/30322624/Standardness_and_nonstandardness_in_Spain_dialect_attrition_and_revitalization_of_regional_dialects_of_Spanish}}</ref> === Phonology === {{See also|Phonetic change "f → h" in Spanish}} The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the phoneme {{IPAslink|θ}}, (2) the [[debuccalization]] of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}}, (3) the sound of the spelled {{angle bracket|s}}, (4) and the phoneme {{IPAslink|ʎ}}. * The phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}} (spelled {{lang|es|c}} before {{lang|es|e}} or {{lang|es|i}} and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} elsewhere), a [[voiceless dental fricative]] as in English '''''th'''ing'', is maintained by a majority of Spain's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. In other areas (some parts of southern Spain, the [[Canary Islands]], and the Americas), {{IPA|/θ/}} does not exist and {{IPA|/s/}} occurs instead. The maintenance of phonemic contrast is called {{lang|es|[[distinción]]}} in Spanish, while the merger is generally called {{lang|es|[[seseo]]}} (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as {{IPA|[s]}}) or, occasionally, {{lang|es|[[ceceo]]}} (referring to its interdental realization, {{IPA|[θ]}}, in some parts of southern Spain). In most of Hispanic America, the spelled {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}, and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} is always pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]]. * The debuccalization (pronunciation as {{IPA|[h]}}, or loss) of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is associated with the southern half of Spain and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and {{lang|es|aspiración}} in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is pronounced as [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] or as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] in the same fashion as in the next paragraph. * The sound that corresponds to the letter {{angle bracket|s}} is pronounced in northern and central Spain as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] {{IPA|[s̺]}} (also described acoustically as "[[Grave and acute|grave]]" and articulatorily as "retracted"), with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] fricatives. In [[Andalusia]], [[Canary Islands]] and most of Hispanic America (except in the [[Colombian Spanish#Paisa dialect|Paisa region]] of Colombia) it is pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] {{IPA|[s]}}, much like the most frequent pronunciation of the /s/ of English. * The phoneme {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, spelled {{angle bracket|ll}}, a [[Palatal lateral approximant|palatal lateral]] consonant that can be approximated by the sound of the {{angle bracket|lli}} of English ''million'', tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spain and in the [[Andean Spanish|highland areas of South America]], as well as in [[Paraguayan Spanish|Paraguay]] and [[Bolivian Spanish#Dialects|lowland Bolivia]]. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish speakers, it is merged with {{IPA|/ʝ/}} ("curly-tail ''j''"), a non-lateral, usually voiced, usually fricative, palatal consonant, sometimes compared to English {{IPA|/j/}} (''yod'') as in '''''y'''acht'' and spelled {{angle bracket|y}} in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world languages, the small difference of the spelled {{angle bracket|ll}} and the spelled {{angle bracket|y}} is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}} in Spanish. In [[Rioplatense Spanish]], the merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a postalveolar fricative, either voiced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} (as in English ''measure'' or the French {{angle bracket|j}}) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region ({{lang|es|zheísmo}}), or voiceless {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (as in the French {{angle bracket|ch}} or Portuguese {{angle bracket|x}}) in and around Buenos Aires and Montevideo ({{lang|es|sheísmo}}).<ref>Charles B. Chang, [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213655/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf |date=4 October 2013}}. Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54–63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.</ref> === Morphology === The main [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns, especially those of the second [[Grammatical person|person]] and, to a lesser extent, the [[object pronoun]]s of the third [[Grammatical person|person]]. ==== Voseo ==== {{Main|Voseo}} [[File:Voseo-extension-real.PNG|thumb|An examination of the dominance and stress of the {{lang|es|voseo}} feature in Hispanic America. Data generated as illustrated by the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]. The darker the area, the stronger its dominance.]] Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the [[T–V distinction|distinction]] between a formal and a familiar [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] in the [[Grammatical person|second-person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]] and thus have two different [[pronoun]]s meaning "you": {{lang|es|usted}} in the formal and either {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} varying from one dialect to another. The use of {{lang|es|vos}} and its verb forms is called {{lang|es|[[voseo]]}}. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used, with {{lang|es|usted}}, {{lang|es|tú}}, and {{lang|es|vos}} denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.<ref name="rae.es site">{{cite web |date=2023-06-11 |orig-date=October 2005 |url=http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |title=Diccionario panhispánico de dudas|trans-title=Pan-Hispanic Dictionary of Doubts |publisher=Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española [Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language] |language=es |access-date=2023-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305022017/http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |archive-date=5 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> In {{lang|es|voseo}}, {{lang|es|vos}} is the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] form ({{lang|es|vos decís}}, "you say") and the form for the object of a [[Preposition and postposition|preposition]] ({{lang|es|voy con vos}}, "I am going with you"), while the direct and indirect [[Object (grammar)|object]] forms, and the [[Possessive adjective|possessives]], are the same as those associated with {{lang|es|tú}}: {{lang|es|Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan}} ("You know your friends respect you"). The verb forms of the general {{lang|es|voseo}} are the same as those used with {{lang|es|tú}} except in the present [[grammatical tense|tense]] ([[indicative]] and [[imperative mood|imperative]]) verbs. The forms for {{lang|es|vos}} generally can be derived from those of {{lang|es|vosotros}} (the traditional second-person familiar ''plural'') by deleting the [[semivowel|glide]] {{IPA|[i̯]}}, or {{IPA|/d/}}, where it appears in the ending: {{lang|es|vosotros pensá'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos pensás}}; {{lang|es|vosotros volvé'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos volvés}}, {{lang|es|pensa'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|pensá!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}), {{lang|es|volve'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|volvé!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/voseo |title=Voseo según DPD |language=es |access-date=27 January 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104222442/http://www.rae.es/dpd/?key=voseo |url-status=live}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ General {{lang|es|voseo}} ([[Rioplatense Spanish|River Plate Spanish]]) ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensás}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pienses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|pensá}} |- | {{lang|es|volvés}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''vuelvas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|volvé}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''duermas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|dormí}} |- | colspan=8|The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} In Central American {{lang|es|voseo}}, the {{lang|es|tú}} and {{lang|es|vos}} forms differ in the present subjunctive as well: {| class="wikitable" |+ Central American {{lang|es|voseo}} ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensás}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}} | {{lang|es|pensés}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|pensá}} |- | {{lang|es|volvés}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}} | {{lang|es|volvás}} | {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|volvé}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}} | {{lang|es|durmás}} | {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|dormí}} |- | colspan=8|The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} In Chilean {{lang|es|voseo}}, almost all {{lang|es|vos}} forms are distinct from the corresponding standard {{lang|es|tú}}-forms. {| class="wikitable" |+ Chilean {{lang|es|voseo}} ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baquero Velásquez |first1=Julia M. |last2=Westphal Montt |first2=Germán F. |year=2014 |title=Un análisis sincrónico del voseo verbal chileno y rioplatense |journal=Forma y Función |language=es |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=11–40 |doi=10.15446/fyf.v27n2.47558 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensái(s)}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|pensabais}} | {{lang|es|pensarí(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|pensaráis}} | {{lang|es|pensaríai(s)}} | {{lang|es|pensí(s)}} | {{lang|es|pensarai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|'''piensa'''}} |- | {{lang|es|volví(s)}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|volvíai(s)}} | {{lang|es|volverí(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|volveráis}} | {{lang|es|volveríai(s)}} | {{lang|es|volvái(s)}} | {{lang|es|volvierai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''vuelve'''}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|dormíais}} | {{lang|es|dormirís}}<br />{{lang|es|dormiráis}} | {{lang|es|dormiríais}} | {{lang|es|durmáis}} | {{lang|es|durmierais}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''duerme'''}} |- | colspan="8" |The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} The use of the pronoun {{lang|es|vos}} with the verb forms of {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|vos piensas}}) is called "pronominal {{lang|es|voseo}}". Conversely, the use of the verb forms of {{lang|es|vos}} with the pronoun {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|tú pensás}} or {{lang|es|tú pensái}}) is called "verbal {{lang|es|voseo}}". In Chile, for example, verbal {{lang|es|voseo}} is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun {{lang|es|vos}}, which is usually reserved for highly informal situations. ===== Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas ===== Although {{lang|es|vos}} is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, with wide differences in social consideration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andrew|date=10 April 2018|title=A Brief Guide to Regional Variation of the Forms of Address (Tú, Vos, Usted) in Spanish|url=https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|access-date=2 November 2020|website=Learn Spanish with Andrew|language=en-US|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032144/https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2020}} Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of {{lang|es|tuteo}} (the use of {{lang|es|tú}}) in the following areas: almost all of [[Mexico]], the [[West Indies]], [[Panama]], most of [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] and coastal [[Ecuador]]. {{lang|es|Tuteo}} as a cultured form alternates with {{lang|es|voseo}} as a popular or rural form in [[Bolivia]], in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]]), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that {{lang|es|voseo}} can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.<ref>Katia Salamanca de Abreu, [http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf review of Humberto López Morales, ''Estudios sobre el español de Cuba''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221132209/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf |date=21 December 2012}} (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in ''Thesaurus'', 28 (1973), 138–146.</ref> {{lang|es|Tuteo}} exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar {{lang|es|voseo}} in [[Chile]], in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]], on the Caribbean coast of [[Colombia]], in the [[Azuero Peninsula]] in Panama, in the Mexican state of [[Chiapas]], and in parts of Guatemala. Areas of generalized {{lang|es|voseo}} include [[Argentina]], [[Nicaragua]], eastern [[Bolivia]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]] and the Colombian departments of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], [[Caldas Department|Caldas]], [[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]], [[Quindio]] and [[Valle del Cauca]].<ref name="rae.es site" /> ==== Ustedes ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}}{{lang|es|Ustedes}} functions as formal and informal second-person plural in all of Hispanic America, the [[Canary Islands]], and parts of [[Andalusia]]. It agrees with verbs in the 3rd person plural. Most of Spain maintains the [[T-V distinction|formal/familiar distinction]] with {{lang|es|ustedes}} and {{lang|es|vosotros}} respectively. The use of {{lang|es|ustedes}} with the second person plural is sometimes heard in Andalusia, but it is non-standard. ==== Usted ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}}{{lang|es|Usted}} is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, but it is used jointly with the third-person singular voice of the verb. It is used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a ''familiar'' context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}}. This usage is sometimes called ''{{ill|ustedeo|es}}'' in Spanish. In Central America, especially in Honduras, {{lang|es|usted}} is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. {{lang|es|Usted}} is also used that way between parents and children in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. ==== Third-person object pronouns ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}} Most speakers use (and the {{lang|es|[[Real Academia Española]]}} prefers) the pronouns {{lang|es|lo}} and {{lang|es|la}} for [[Object (grammar)|direct objects]] (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of [[animacy]], meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and {{lang|es|le}} for [[Object (grammar)|indirect objects]] (regardless of [[Grammatical gender|gender]] or [[animacy]], meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). The usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[Dative case|dative]] pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish. A number of dialects (more common in Spain than in the Americas) use additional rules for the pronouns, such as animacy, or [[count noun]] vs. [[mass noun]], rather than just direct vs. indirect object. The ways of using the pronouns in such varieties are called "{{lang|es|[[leísmo]]}}", "{{lang|es|[[loísmo]]}}", or "{{lang|es|[[laísmo]]}}", according to which respective pronoun, {{lang|es|le}}, {{lang|es|lo}}, or {{lang|es|la}}, covers more than just the etymological usage ({{lang|es|le}} as a direct object, or {{lang|es|lo}} or {{lang|es|la}} as an indirect object). === Vocabulary === Some words can be significantly different in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish {{lang|es|mantequilla}}, {{lang|es|aguacate}} and {{lang|es|albaricoque}} (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to {{lang|es|manteca}} (word used for [[lard]] in [[Peninsular Spanish]]), {{lang|es|palta}}, and {{lang|es|damasco}}, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except {{lang|es|manteca}}), Paraguay, Peru (except {{lang|es|manteca}} and {{lang|es|damasco}}), and Uruguay. In the healthcare context, an assessment of the Spanish translation of the [[Quality of well-being scale|QWB-SA]] identified some regional vocabulary choices and US-specific concepts, which cannot be successfully implemented in Spain without adaptation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Congost-Maestre |first=Nereida |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Sociocultural issues in adapting Spanish health survey translation: The case of the QWB-SA (Chapter 10) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=203–220 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211122733/https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vocabulary == Spanish vocabulary has been influenced by several languages. As in other European languages, [[Classical Greek]] words (Hellenisms) are abundant in the terminologies of several fields, including art, science, politics, nature, etc.<ref>Bergua Cavero, J., ''Los helenismos del español : historia y sistema'', Madrid (Gredos) 2004, {{ISBN|9788424927103}}</ref> Its vocabulary has also been [[Influence of Arabic on Spanish|influenced by Arabic]], having developed during the [[Al-Andalus]] era in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], with about 8% of its vocabulary having [[Arabic language|Arabic]] lexical roots.<ref>{{cite book|last=Versteegh |first=Kees |title=The Arabic language|year=2003 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-7486-1436-2|page=228 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHfse3YY6NAC&pg=PA228|edition=Repr.|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626183745/http://books.google.com/books?id=OHfse3YY6NAC&pg=PA228|archive-date=26 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lapesa |first=Raphael|title=Historia de la lengua española|year=1960|publisher=|location=<!--Madrid-->|page=97}}<br />—OR—<br />{{cite book |last=Castro |first=Américo |title=The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History |year=1985 |translator1=Willard F. King |translator2=Selma Margaretten |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05469-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJdbJK_sl2oC&pg=PA255 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=24 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124185157/https://books.google.com/books?id=uJdbJK_sl2oC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}{{verify source|date=November 2023|reason=Which one? The original cite was mixed}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quintana|first1=Lucía |last2=Mora |first2=Juan Pablo |title=Enseñanza del acervo léxico árabe de la lengua española |journal=ASELE. Actas XIII|year=2002 |page=705 |url=http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/13/13_0697.pdf |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528020256/http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/13/13_0697.pdf|archive-date=28 May 2016|url-status=live}}: "El léxico español de procedencia árabe es muy abundante: se ha señalado que constituye, aproximadamente, un 8% del vocabulario total"</ref><ref name="Dworkin83">{{cite book |last=Dworkin|first=Steven N.|title=A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective|year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954114-0|page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915153824/https://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83 |archive-date=15 September 2015|url-status=live}},{{cite book|last=Macpherson|first=I. R.|title=Spanish phonology |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=0-7190-0788-7|page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VrpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223094503/https://books.google.com/books?id=9VrpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 |archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}},{{cite book |last=Martínez Egido|first=José Joaquín |title=Constitución del léxico español|year=2007 |page=15|publisher=Liceus, Servicios de Gestió |isbn=978-84-9822-653-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbVIY4qAA9cC&pg=PA15|access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626183748/http://books.google.com/books?id=cbVIY4qAA9cC&pg=PA15|archive-date=26 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> It may have also been influenced by [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Gothic language|Visigothic]], and other neighboring Ibero-Romance languages.<ref>{{cite web|title=La época visigoda / Susana Rodríguez Rosique |publisher=Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes |website=www.cervantesvirtual.com |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-poca-visigoda-0/html/00f49212-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_2.html|language=es|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208133217/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-poca-visigoda-0/html/00f49212-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_2.html|archive-date=8 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dworkin83" /> Additionally, it has absorbed vocabulary from other languages, particularly other Romance languages such as [[French language|French]], [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], as well as from [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], and [[List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin|other indigenous languages of the Americas]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|1991|pp=224–236}}</ref> In the 18th century, words taken from French referring above all to fashion, cooking and bureaucracy were added to the Spanish lexicon. In the 19th century, new loanwords were incorporated, especially from English and German, but also from Italian in areas related to music, particularly opera and cooking. In the 20th century, the pressure of English in the fields of technology, computing, science and sports was greatly accentuated. In general, [[Hispanic America]] is more susceptible to loanwords from English or Anglicisms. For example: [[Computer mouse|mouse]] (computer mouse) is used in Hispanic America, in [[Spain]] ''ratón'' is used. This happens largely due to closer contact with the [[United States]]. For its part, Spain is known by the use of Gallicisms or words taken from neighboring [[France]] (such as the Gallicism ''ordenador'' in European Spanish, in contrast to the Anglicism ''computador'' or ''computadora'' in American Spanish). == Relation to other languages == {{further|Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish}} Spanish is closely related to the other [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance languages]], including [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. It is somewhat less similar, to varying degrees, from other members of the [[Romance language]] family. It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese and Spanish speakers can communicate in written form, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jensen|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dalby|1998|p=501}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ginsburgh|Weber|2011|p=90}}</ref> [[Mutual intelligibility]] of the ''written'' Spanish and Portuguese languages is high, lexically and grammatically. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' gives estimates of the [[lexical similarity]] between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%, although phonologically the two languages are quite dissimilar. Italian on the other hand, is phonologically similar to Spanish, while sharing lower lexical and grammatical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and [[French language|French]] or between Spanish and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|title=Spanish|work=Ethnologue|access-date=19 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100707/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|archive-date=15 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|title=Similar languages to Spanish|work=EZGlot|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621191245/http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|archive-date=21 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication. The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages: <div style="overflow:auto;"> {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Latin]] ! Spanish ! [[Galician language|Galician]] ! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ! [[Astur-Leonese linguistic group|Astur-Leonese]] ! [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]] ! [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ! [[French language|French]] ! [[Italian language|Italian]] ! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ! [[English language|English]] |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nōs (alterōs)}}|italic=no}}<sup>1,2</sup><br />"we (others)" | {{lang|es|'''nosotros'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''nós''', '''nosoutros'''}}<sup>3</sup> | {{lang|pt|nós, nós outros}}<sup>3</sup> | {{lang|ast|'''nós'''}}, {{lang|ast|'''nosotros'''}} | {{lang|an|'''nusatros'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''nosaltres'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''nós'''}}) | {{lang|fr|nous}}<sup>4</sup> | {{lang|it|noi, noialtri}}<sup>5</sup> | {{lang|ro|noi}} | 'we' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|frātre(m) germānu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"true brother" | {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''irmán'''}} | {{lang|pt|irmão}} | {{lang|ast|'''hermanu'''}} | {{lang|an|'''chirmán'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''frare'''}})<sup>6</sup> | {{lang|fr|frère}} | {{lang|it|fratello}} | {{lang|ro|frate}} | 'brother' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|die(m)&nbsp;mārtis}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;([[Classical Latin|Classical]])<br />"day of Mars"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|tertia(m)&nbsp;fēria(m)}}|italic=no}} ([[Late Latin|Late&nbsp;Latin]])<br />"third (holi)day" | {{lang|es|'''martes'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''Martes''', '''Terza&nbsp;Feira'''}} | {{lang|pt|Terça-Feira}} | {{lang|ast|'''Martes'''}} | {{lang|an|'''Martes'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''Dimarts'''}} | {{lang|fr|Mardi}} | {{lang|it|Martedì}} | {{lang|ro|Marți}} | 'Tuesday' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cantiōne(m)}}<br />{{smallcaps|canticu(m)}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''canción'''}}<sup>7</sup><br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''cançón'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''canción''', '''cançom'''}}<sup>8</sup> | {{lang|pt|canção}} | {{lang|ast|'''canción'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''canciu'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''canta'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''cançó'''}} | {{lang|fr|chanson}} | {{lang|it|canzone}} | {{lang|ro|cântec}} | 'song' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|magis}}|italic=no}}<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|plūs}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''más'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''plus'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''máis'''}} | {{lang|pt|mais}} | {{lang|ast|'''más'''}} | {{lang|an|'''más'''}}<br />(also {{lang|an|'''més'''}}) | {{lang|ca|'''més'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''pus'''}} or {{lang|ca|'''plus'''}}) | {{lang|fr|plus}} | {{lang|it|più}} | {{lang|ro|mai}} | 'more' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|manu(m)&nbsp;sinistra(m)}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;siniestra'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''man&nbsp;esquerda'''}}<sup>9</sup> | {{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;esquerda}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;sẽestra}}) | {{lang|ast|'''manu&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(or&nbsp;{{lang|ast|'''esquierda'''}};<br />also {{lang|ast|'''manzorga'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''man&nbsp;cucha'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;esquerra'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;sinistra'''}}) | {{lang|fr|main&nbsp;gauche}} | {{lang|it|mano&nbsp;sinistra}} | {{lang|ro|mâna&nbsp;stângă}} | 'left&nbsp;hand' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|rēs, rĕm}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nūlla(m)&nbsp;rem nāta(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"no born thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|mīca(m)}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"crumb" | {{lang|es|'''nada'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|gl|'''ren'''}} and {{lang|gl|'''res'''}}) | {{lang|pt|nada (arch. rés)}} | {{lang|ast|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''un res'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''cosa'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''res'''}} | {{lang|fr|rien, nul}} | {{lang|it|niente, nulla}}<br />{{lang|it|mica}} (negative particle) | {{lang|ro|nimic, nul}} | 'nothing' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cāseu(m) fōrmāticu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"form-cheese" | {{lang|es|'''queso'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''queixo'''}} | {{lang|pt|queijo}} | {{lang|ast|'''quesu'''}} | {{lang|an|'''queso'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''formatge'''}} | {{lang|fr|fromage}} | {{lang|it|formaggio/cacio}} | {{lang|ro|caș}}<sup>10</sup> | 'cheese' |}</div> 1. In Romance etymology, Latin terms are given in the Accusative since most forms derive from this case.<br /> 2. As in "us very selves", an emphatic expression.<br /> 3. Also {{lang|pt|nós outros}} in early modern Portuguese (e.g. ''[[The Lusiads]]''), and {{lang|gl|nosoutros}} in Galician.<br /> 4. Alternatively {{lang|fr|nous autres}} in [[French language|French]].<br /> 5. {{lang|it|noialtri}} in many Southern [[List of languages of Italy|Italian dialects and languages]].<br /> 6. Medieval Catalan (e.g. ''[[Llibre dels fets]]'').<br /> 7. Modified with the learned suffix ''-ción''.<br /> 8. Depending on the written norm used (see [[Reintegrationism]]).<br /> 9. From [[Basque language|Basque]] ''esku'', "hand" + ''erdi'', "half, incomplete". This negative meaning also applies for Latin ''sinistra(m)'' ("dark, unfortunate").<br /> 10. Romanian ''caș'' (from Latin {{smallcaps|cāsevs}}) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is ''brânză'' (from unknown etymology).<ref>Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin ''brandeum'' (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *''brandea''. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish ''manteca'', Portuguese ''manteiga'', probably from Latin ''mantica'' ('sack'), Italian ''formaggio'' and French ''fromage'' from ''formaticus''. [http://dexonline.ro./definitie/brânză Romanian Explanatory Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134722/https://dexonline.ro/definitie/br%C3%A2nz%C4%83 |date=18 February 2020}}</ref> === Judaeo-Spanish === {{Further|Judaeo-Spanish}} [[File:Rashiscript.PNG|thumb|The [[Rashi script]], originally used to print Judaeo-Spanish]] [[File:Delacroix letter.png|thumb|upright=0.85|An original letter in Haketia, written in 1832]] Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,<ref name="Ladino">{{cite web |last=Alfassa |first=Shelomo |title=Ladinokomunita |url=http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |date=December 1999 |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture |access-date=4 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402055529/http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |archive-date=2 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and some old Portuguese and is spoken by descendants of the [[Sephardi Jews]] who were [[Alhambra decree|expelled from Spain in the 15th century]].<ref name="Ladino" /> While in Portugal the conversion of Jews occurred earlier and the assimilation of [[New Christians]] was overwhelming, in Spain the Jews kept their language and identity. The relationship of Ladino and Spanish is therefore comparable with that of the [[Yiddish language]] to [[German language|German]]. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively [[Sephardim|Sephardi]] Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.<ref name="Ladino" /> Judaeo-Spanish lacks the [[Amerindian languages|Native American vocabulary]] which was acquired by standard Spanish during the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial period]], and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], French, Greek and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled. Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly ''olim'' (immigrants to [[Israel]]) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In Hispanic American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to assimilation by modern Spanish. A related dialect is [[Haketia]], the Judaeo-Spanish of northern [[Morocco]]. This too, tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region. == Writing system == {{Main|Spanish orthography}} {{Spanish language}} Spanish is written in the [[Latin script]], with the addition of the character {{angle bracket|[[ñ]]}} ({{lang|es|eñe}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]/}}, a letter distinct from {{angle bracket|n}}, although typographically composed of an {{angle bracket|n}} with a [[tilde]]). Formerly the [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] {{angle bracket|ch}} ({{lang|es|che}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}) and {{angle bracket|ll}} ({{lang|es|elle}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/[[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]/}} or {{IPA|/ʝ/}}), were also considered single letters. However, the digraph {{angle bracket|rr}} ({{lang|es|erre fuerte}}, 'strong r', {{lang|es|erre doble}}, 'double r', or simply {{lang|es|erre}}), which also represents a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/r/}}, was not similarly regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 {{angle bracket|ch}} and {{angle bracket|ll}} have been treated as letter pairs for [[collation]] purposes, though they remained a part of the alphabet until 2010. Words with {{angle bracket|ch}} are now alphabetically sorted between those with {{angle bracket|cg}} and {{angle bracket|ci}}, instead of following {{angle bracket|cz}} as they used to. The situation is similar for {{angle bracket|ll}}.<ref>[http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ch Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416180544/http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ch |date=16 April 2008}}, 1st ed.</ref><ref>[http://www.rae.es/ Real Academia Española] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012019/http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?TIPO_HTML=2&LEMA=cedilla |date=11 October 2017}}, [http://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html Explanation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906105503/https://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html |date=6 September 2007}} at [http://www.spanishpronto.com/ Spanish Pronto] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914002335/https://www.spanishpronto.com/ |date=14 September 2007}} {{in lang|es|en}}</ref> Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters: :{{lang|es|A, B, C,<!-- ch considered digraph - see next references. --> D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L,<!-- ll considered digraph - see next references. --> M, N, Ñ, O, P, Q, R, <!-- but not rr See previous paragraph. --> S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.}} Since 2010, none of the digraphs ({{lang|es|ch, ll, rr, gu, qu}}) are considered letters by the Royal Spanish Academy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rae.es/consultas/exclusion-de-ch-y-ll-del-abecedario|title=Exclusión de ch y ll del abecedario &#124; Real Academia Española|website=www.rae.es|access-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428205219/https://www.rae.es/consultas/exclusion-de-ch-y-ll-del-abecedario|archive-date=28 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The letters {{lang|es|k}} and {{lang|es|w}} are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages ({{lang|es|kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi}}, etc.). With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as {{lang|es|México}} (see [[Toponymy of Mexico#Phonetic evolution|Toponymy of Mexico]]), pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the [[syllable]] before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including {{angle bracket|y}}) or with a vowel followed by {{angle bracket|n}} or an {{angle bracket|s}}; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an [[acute accent]] on the [[stress (linguistics)|stressed vowel]]. The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain [[homophone]]s, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a [[clitic]]: compare {{lang|es|el}} ('the', masculine singular definite article) with {{lang|es|él}} ('he' or 'it'), or {{lang|es|te}} ('you', object pronoun) with {{lang|es|té}} ('tea'), {{lang|es|de}} (preposition 'of') versus {{lang|es|dé}} ('give' [formal imperative/third-person present subjunctive]), and {{lang|es|se}} (reflexive pronoun) versus {{lang|es|sé}} ('I know' or imperative 'be'). The interrogative pronouns ({{lang|es|qué}}, {{lang|es|cuál}}, {{lang|es|dónde}}, {{lang|es|quién}}, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives ({{lang|es|ése}}, {{lang|es|éste}}, {{lang|es|aquél}}, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. Accent marks used to be omitted on capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of [[typewriter]]s and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the {{lang|es|Real Academia Española}} advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent. When {{lang|es|u}} is written between {{lang|es|g}} and a front vowel {{lang|es|e}} or {{lang|es|i}}, it indicates a "[[Hard and soft G|hard g]]" pronunciation. A [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] {{lang|es|ü}} indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., {{lang|es|cigüeña}}, 'stork', is pronounced {{IPA|[θiˈɣweɲa]}}; if it were written *{{lang|es|cigueña}}, it would be pronounced *{{IPA|[θiˈɣeɲa]}}). Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with [[inverted question and exclamation marks]] ({{lang|es|¿}} and {{lang|es|¡}}, respectively) and closed by the usual question and exclamation marks. == Organizations == === Royal Spanish Academy === {{main|Royal Spanish Academy}} The Royal Spanish Academy ({{lang|es|Real Academia Española}}), founded in 1713,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1713rae.html |title=Scholarly Societies Project |publisher=Lib.uwaterloo.ca |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923234545/http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1713rae.html |archive-date=23 September 2010}}</ref> together with the 21 other national ones (see [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.<ref>{{cite book |last=Batchelor|first=Ronald Ernest |title=Using Spanish: a guide to contemporary usage|year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26987-3|page=318 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eEWZL1j9ig8C&q=real+academia+espa%C3%B1ola+recognized&pg=PA4|access-date=28 October 2020|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815154930/https://books.google.com/books?id=eEWZL1j9ig8C&q=real+academia+espa%C3%B1ola+recognized&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language ([[Standard Spanish]]) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media. === Association of Spanish Language Academies === {{main|Association of Spanish Language Academies}} [[File:Países con Academia de la Lengua Española.svg|thumb|Member states of the ASALE<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/asale.html |title=Association of Spanish Language Academies |language=es |publisher=Asale |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923155313/http://asale.org/ASALE/asale.html |archive-date=23 September 2010}}</ref>]] The Association of Spanish Language Academies ({{lang|es|Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española}}, or {{lang|es|ASALE}}) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 23 countries, ordered by date of academy foundation: [[Real Academia Española|Spain]] (1713),<ref>{{cite web |title=Real Academia Española |publisher=RAE |location=Spain |url=http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/voTodosporId/CEDF300E8D943D3FC12571360037CC94?OpenDocument&i=0 |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929155935/http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/voTodosporId/CEDF300E8D943D3FC12571360037CC94?OpenDocument&i=0 |archive-date=29 September 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Colombiana de la Lengua|Colombia]] (1871),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30202&menu=2 |title=Presentación de la Academia Colombiana de la Lengua |publisher=Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española |language=es |location=Colombia |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219034313/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30202&menu=2 |archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> [[Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua|Ecuador]] (1874),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30302&menu=2 |title=Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua |language=es |location=Ecuador |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527091026/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30302&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Mexicana de la Lengua|Mexico]] (1875),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.academia.org.mx/historia.php |title=Esbozo Histórico de la Academia Mexicana de la Lengua |publisher=Academia Mexicana de la Lengua |location=Mexico |date=22 September 2010 |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915092057/http://academia.org.mx/historia.php |archive-date=15 September 2010 |url-status=dead |language=es}}</ref> [[Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua|El Salvador]] (1876),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asl.org.sv/Informacion%20institucional.htm |title=Informacion institucional |publisher=Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua |location=El Salvador |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904125413/http://www.asl.org.sv/Informacion%20institucional.htm |archive-date=4 September 2011 |language=es}}</ref> [[Academia Venezolana de la Lengua|Venezuela]] (1883),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30602&menu=2 |title=Academia Venezolana de la Lengua |language=es |location=Venezuela |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090728/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30602&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Chilena de la Lengua|Chile]] (1885),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.institutodechile.cl/lengua/resena.htm |title=Academia Chilena de la Lengua |location=Chile |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905085434/http://www.institutodechile.cl/lengua/resena.htm |archive-date=5 September 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Peruana de la Lengua|Peru]] (1887),<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.academiaperuanadelalengua.org/academia/historia |title= Academia Peruana de la Lengua |location= Peru |access-date= 6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101012010318/http://academiaperuanadelalengua.org/academia/historia |archive-date= 12 October 2010 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> [[Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua|Guatemala]] (1887),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30902&menu=2 |title=Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua |language=es |location=Guatemala |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804011930/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30902&menu=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008}}</ref> [[Academia Costarricense de la Lengua|Costa Rica]] (1923),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acl.ac.cr/i_q.php |title=Academia Costarricense de la Lengua |location=Costa Rica |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323194028/http://www.acl.ac.cr/i_q.php |archive-date=23 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española|Philippines]] (1924),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31102&menu=2 |title=Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española |language=es |publisher=Philippines |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090616/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31102&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Panameña de la Lengua|Panama]] (1926),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apalengua.apalengua.org/historia |title=Academia Panameña de la Lengua |location=Panama |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129171943/http://apalengua.apalengua.org/historia |archive-date=29 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Academia Cubana de la Lengua|Cuba]] (1926),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acul.ohc.cu/ |title=Academia Cubana de la Lengua |location=Cuba |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219083212/http://www.acul.ohc.cu/ |archive-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española|Paraguay]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aparle.org/origenes.asp |title=Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española |location=Paraguay |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728150336/http://www.aparle.org/origenes.asp |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Dominicana de la Lengua|Dominican Republic]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.org.do/content/blogsection/12/46/ |title=Academia Dominicana de la Lengua |location=República Dominicana |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222161225/http://www.academia.org.do/content/blogsection/12/46/ |archive-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Boliviana de la Lengua|Bolivia]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abolen.org/Historia.html |title=Academia Boliviana de la Lengua |location=Bolivia |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129201058/http://www.abolen.org/Historia.html |archive-date=29 November 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua|Nicaragua]] (1928),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31702&menu=2 |title=Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua |language=es |publisher=Nicaragua |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090719/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31702&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Argentina de Letras|Argentina]] (1931),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letras.edu.ar/ |title=Academia Argentina de Letras |location=Argentina |date=25 March 2010 |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728121808/http://www.letras.edu.ar/ |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Nacional de Letras, del Uruguay|Uruguay]] (1943),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mec.gub.uy/academiadeletras/MarcoPrincipal.htm |title=Academia Nacional de Letras del Uruguay |location=Uruguay |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319235222/http://www.mec.gub.uy/academiadeletras/MarcoPrincipal.htm |archive-date=19 March 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Hondureña de la Lengua|Honduras]] (1949),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=32002&menu=2 |title=Academia Hondureña de la Lengua |language=es |location=Honduras |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527085850/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=32002&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española|Puerto Rico]] (1955),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.academiapr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=35&Itemid=61 |title=Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española |location=Puerto Rico |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824060727/http://www.academiapr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=35&Itemid=61 |archive-date=24 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[North American Academy of the Spanish Language|United States]] (1973)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anle.us/ |title=Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española |location=United States |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212025419/http://anle.us/ |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Academia Ecuatoguineana de la Lengua Española|Equatorial Guinea]] (2016).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/academias/academia-ecuatoguineana-de-la-lengua-espanola |title=Academia Ecuatoguineana de la Lengua Española |location=Equatorial Guinea |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331073309/http://www.asale.org/academias/academia-ecuatoguineana-de-la-lengua-espanola |archive-date=31 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{clear left}} === Cervantes Institute === {{main|Instituto Cervantes}} The {{lang|es|Instituto Cervantes|italic=no}} ('Cervantes Institute') is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branches in 45 countries, with 88 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures and Spanish language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Información sobre el Instituto Cervantes. Quiénes somos: qué es el Instituto Cervantes |url=https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/informacion.htm |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.cervantes.es |archive-date=10 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410222035/https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/informacion.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The goals of the Institute are to promote universally the education, the study, and the use of Spanish as a second language, to support methods and activities that help the process of Spanish-language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures in non-Spanish-speaking countries. The institute's 2015 report "El español, una lengua viva" (Spanish, a living language) estimated that there were 559&nbsp;million Spanish speakers worldwide. Its latest annual report "El español en el mundo 2018" (Spanish in the world 2018) counts 577&nbsp;million Spanish speakers worldwide. Among the sources cited in the report is the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]], which estimates that the U.S. will have 138&nbsp;million Spanish speakers by 2050, making it the biggest Spanish-speaking nation on earth, with Spanish the mother tongue of almost a third of its citizens.<ref>Stephen Burgen, [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain – only Mexico has more] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123045244/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country |date=23 November 2018}}, US News, 29 June 2015.</ref> === Official use by international organizations === {{Main list|List of countries where Spanish is an official language#International organizations}}{{unref section|date=January 2026}} Spanish is one of the official languages of the [[United Nations]], the [[European Union]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Organization of American States]], the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]], the [[African Union]], the [[Union of South American Nations]], the [[Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]], the [[Latin Union]], the [[Caricom]], the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and numerous other international organizations. {{clear right}} == Sample text == Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Spanish: :{{Lang|es|Todos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros.}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=ohchr.org|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=spn|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108155322/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=spn|url-status=live}}</ref> Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English: :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|newspaper=United Nations |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal|Language}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Spanish words and phrases=== * [[Café para todos]] * [[Cuento]] * [[List of English–Spanish interlingual homographs]] * [[Longest word in Spanish]] * [[Most common words in Spanish]] * [[Olé]] * [[Olé, Olé, Olé]] * [[Spanish profanity]] * [[Spanish proverbs]] * [[Tertulia]] * [[Vale un Perú]] ===Spanish-speaking world=== * [[Association of Academies of the Spanish Language]] * [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language|Countries where Spanish is an official language]] * [[Hispanic culture]] * [[Hispanicization]] * [[Hispanidad]] * [[Hispanism]] * [[Hispanophone]] * [[Fundéu BBVA]] * [[Instituto Cervantes]] * [[International Conference of the Spanish Language]] * [[List of Spanish-language poets]] * [[Panhispanism]] * [[Royal Spanish Academy]] * [[Spanish-language literature]] * [[Spanish-language music]] {{col-break}} ===Influences on the Spanish language=== * [[Arabic language influence on the Spanish language]] * [[List of Spanish words of Germanic origin]] * [[List of Spanish words of Philippine origin]] ===Dialects and languages influenced by Spanish=== * [[Alemañol]] * [[Barranquenho]] * [[Caló language|Caló]] * [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] * [[Chavacano]] * [[Spanish-based creole languages|Creoles]] * [[Frespañol]] * [[Jopara]] * [[Judaeo-Spanish]] * [[List of English words of Spanish origin]] * [[Llanito]] * [[Media Lengua]] * [[Palenquero]] * [[Papiamento]] * [[Philippine languages]] * [[Portuñol]] * [[Spanglish]] {{col-break}} ===Spanish dialects and varieties=== * [[Spanish dialects and varieties]] * European Spanish ** [[Peninsular Spanish]] *** [[Andalusian Spanish]] **** [[Andalusian language movement]] *** [[Castilian Spanish]] *** [[Castrapo]] (Galician Spanish) *** [[Castúo]] (Extremaduran Spanish) *** [[Murcian Spanish]] ** [[Canarian Spanish]] * [[Spanish language in the Americas]] ** [[North American Spanish]] *** [[Mexican Spanish]] *** [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish in the United States]] ** [[Central American Spanish]] ** [[Caribbean Spanish]] ** [[Spanish language in South America|South American Spanish]] *** [[Bolivian Spanish]] *** [[Chilean Spanish]] *** [[Colombian Spanish]] *** [[Ecuadorian Spanish]] *** [[Paraguayan Spanish]] *** [[Peruvian Spanish]] *** [[Uruguayan Spanish]] *** [[Venezuelan Spanish]] * Spanish in Africa ** [[Equatoguinean Spanish]] ** [[Saharan Spanish]] * Spanish in Asia ** [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish in the Philippines]] {{col-end}} == Notes == {{notelist|30em}} == References == === Citations === {{reflist|23em}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book |last = Abercrombie |first = David |year = 1967 |title = Elements of General Phonetics |location = Edinburgh |publisher = [[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-85224-451-7 }} * {{cite book |last1=Eberhard |first1=David M. |last2=Simons |first2=Gary F. |last3=Fennig |first3=Charles D. |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |url=http://www.ethnologue.com |year=2020 |publisher=SIL International |location=Dallas, Texas |edition=23rd |access-date=22 June 2002 |archive-date=6 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060406012854/http://www.ethnologue.com/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Butt |first1=John |last2=Benjamin |first2=Carmen |title=A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish |url=https://archive.org/details/newreferencegram0000butt |url-access=registration |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-4441-3769-9 |edition=5th }} * {{cite book |last=Cressey |first=William Whitney |year=1978 |title=Spanish Phonology and Morphology: A Generative View |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=0-87840-045-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-231-11568-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA501 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817044903/https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA501 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Eddington |first=David |year=2000 |title=Spanish Stress Assignment within the Analogical Modeling of Language |journal=Language |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=92–109 |url=http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/eddingtond/STRESS.pdf |doi=10.2307/417394 |jstor=417394 |access-date=7 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708183631/http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/eddingtond/STRESS.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2013 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book |last1 = Ginsburgh |first1 = Victor |last2 = Weber |first2 = Shlomo |year = 2011 |title = How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity |publisher = Princeton University Press |isbn = 978-0-691-13689-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA90 |access-date = 28 October 2020 |archive-date = 16 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816181041/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA90 |url-status = live }} * {{Cite journal |last = Harris |first = James |year = 1967 |title = Sound Change in Spanish and the Theory of Markedness |journal = Language |volume = 45 |issue = 3 |pages = 538–52 |doi = 10.2307/411438 |jstor = 411438 }} * {{Cite book |last=Hualde |first=José Ignacio |year=2014 |title=Los sonidos del español |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-16823-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1a3CAQAAQBAJ&q=%22fonemas+conson%C3%A1nticos%22&pg=PR14 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210143921/https://books.google.com/books?id=1a3CAQAAQBAJ&q=%22fonemas+conson%C3%A1nticos%22&pg=PR14 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last = Jensen |first = John B. |year = 1989 |title = On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese |journal = Hispania |volume = 72 |issue = 4 |pages = 848–852 |jstor = 343562 |doi = 10.2307/343562 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ladefoged |first1=Peter |last2=Johnson |first2=Keith |author-link=Peter Ladefoged |year=2010 |title=A Course in Phonetics |edition=6th |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-4282-3126-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjLc1XtqJUUC |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324222411/https://books.google.com/books?id=FjLc1XtqJUUC |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last1 = Martínez-Celdrán |first1 = Eugenio |last2 = Fernández-Planas |first2 = Ana Ma. |last3 = Carrera-Sabaté |first3 = Josefina |year = 2003 |title = Castilian Spanish |journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume = 33 |issue = 2 |pages = 255–59 |doi = 10.1017/S0025100303001373 |doi-access = free }} * {{Cite book |last1=Moreno Fernández |first1=Francisco |last2=Otero Roth |first2=Jaime |author-link=Francisco Moreno Fernández (linguist) |year=2008 |title=Atlas de la lengua española en el mundo |location=Barcelona |publisher=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yrUSulWCJxUC |isbn=9788408084358 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225405/https://books.google.com/books?id=yrUSulWCJxUC |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=1991 |title=A History of the Spanish Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-39784-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C&q=four+spheres |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814152615/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C&q=four+spheres |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=2000 |title=Variation and Change in Spanish |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-78045-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/variationchangei0000penn |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite web | url = http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/DB04_Population_ByAgeSex_Annual/WPP2010_DB4_F1B_POPULATION_BY_AGE_BOTH_SEXES_ANNUAL_2011-2100.XLS | publisher = UN | title = Population by age, both sexes, annual; estimate for 2012 | format = XLS | ref = {{harvid | UN | 2011}} | access-date = 11 March 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100615/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/DB04_Population_ByAgeSex_Annual/WPP2010_DB4_F1B_POPULATION_BY_AGE_BOTH_SEXES_ANNUAL_2011-2100.XLS | archive-date = 15 January 2013 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book |last=Rubino |first=Carl |chapter=Zamboangueño Chavacano and the Potentive Mode. |year=2008 |title=Roots of Creole Structures: Weighing the Contribution of Substrates and Superstrates |editor-last=Michaelis |editor-first=Susanne |publisher=Benjamins |location=Amsterdam |pages=279–299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPUeQLcGMOMC&q=rubino |isbn=978-90-272-5255-5 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219223029/https://books.google.com/books?id=pPUeQLcGMOMC&q=rubino |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |first=Ángeles |year=2011 |last=Vicente |title=La presencia de la lengua española en el Norte de África y su interacción con el árabe marroquí |url=https://www.academia.edu/2535550 |journal=Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana |volume=9 |issue=2 |jstor=41678471 |page=62 |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225403/https://www.academia.edu/2535550 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last = Zamora Vicente |first = Alonso |year = 1967 |title = Dialectología española |location = Madrid |publisher = Gredos |url = https://archive.org/details/dialectologiaesp0000alon/mode/2up |url-access = registration |isbn = 978-8-424-91115-7 }} {{refend}} == External links == * [https://www.rae.es/ Real Academia Española (RAE)], Royal Spanish Academy. Spain's official institution, with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language * [https://www.cervantes.es/default.htm Instituto Cervantes], Cervantes Institute. A Spanish government agency, responsible for promoting the study and the teaching of the Spanish language and culture. * [https://www.fundeu.es/ FundéuRAE], Foundation of Emerging Spanish. A non-profit organization with collaboration of the RAE which mission is to clarify doubts and ambiguities of Spanish. {{Sister bar |auto=1|wikt=Category:Spanish language|d=y|iw=es}} {{Spanish variants by continent}} {{Romance languages|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Spanish Language}} [[Category:West Iberian languages]] [[Category:Spanish language| ]] [[Category:Fusional languages]] [[Category:Languages of Argentina]] [[Category:Languages of Bolivia]] [[Category:Languages of Chile]] [[Category:Languages of Colombia]] [[Category:Languages of Costa Rica]] [[Category:Languages of Cuba]] [[Category:Languages of the Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Languages of Ecuador]] [[Category:Languages of El Salvador]] [[Category:Languages of Equatorial Guinea]] [[Category:Languages of Guatemala]] [[Category:Languages of Honduras]] [[Category:Languages of Mexico]] [[Category:Languages of Nicaragua]] [[Category:Languages of Panama]] [[Category:Languages of Paraguay]] [[Category:Languages of Peru]] [[Category:Languages of Puerto Rico]] [[Category:Languages of Spain]] [[Category:Languages of the United States]] [[Category:Languages of Uruguay]] [[Category:Languages of Venezuela]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Syllable-timed languages]] 1igtp0qp29cn16bz7ij583jn461htq6 687838 687837 2026-07-13T12:31:21Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Spanish_language]] 687837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Romance language}} {{Redirect|Castilian language|the specific variety of the language|Castilian Spanish|the broader branch of Ibero-Romance|West Iberian languages}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}} {{Use American English|date=February 2023}} {{CS1 config|mode=CS1}} {{Infobox language | name = Spanish | altname = Castilian | nativename = {{hlist|{{lang|es|español}}|{{lang|es|castellano}}}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|es|espaˈɲol||Es-español.oga|}}<br />{{IPA|es|kasteˈʎano||Es castellano 001.ogg}}<br />({{small|{{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}} with ''[[yeísmo]]'':}}<br />{{IPA|es|kasteˈʝano||Es-Castellano.oga}}) | states = [[Spain]], [[Hispanic America]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] | speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|519.115|3}} million | date = 2025 | ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=El Español en el mundo|url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_25/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2025.pdf |website=Instituto Cervantes}}</ref> | speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|116.628|3}} million (2025)<br /> Total: {{sigfig|635.744|3}} million (2025) | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]]? | fam9 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] | fam10 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] | fam11 = [[Castilian languages|Castilian]]<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Castilic|chapter-url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cast1243|editor1-first=Harald|editor1-last=Hammarström|editor2-first=Robert|editor2-last=Forkel|editor3-first=Martin|editor3-last=Haspelmath|editor4-first=Sebastian|editor4-last=Bank|year=2022|title=[[Glottolog|Glottolog 4.6]]|edition=|location=Jena, Germany|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology|ref={{sfnref|Glottolog|2022}}|access-date=19 June 2022|archive-date=28 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528095200/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cast1243|url-status=live}}</ref> | ancestor = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Spanish]] | ancestor4 = [[Early Modern Spanish]] | script = [[Latin script]] ([[Spanish alphabet]])<br />[[Spanish Braille]] | nation = {{ubli|[[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Sovereign states|21 countries]], [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Territory|1 dependent territory]], and [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language#Partially recognized state|1 partially recognized country]] |Organizations including the {{enum| |[[African Union|AU]] |[[Andean Community|CAN]] |[[Association of Caribbean States|ACS]] |[[CARICOM]] |[[CELAC]] |[[EU]] |[[ALADI]] |[[Parlatino]] |[[Mercosur]] |[[OSCE]] |[[Organization of American States|OAS]] |[[UN]] |[[USAN]] |[[Organization of Ibero-American States|OEI]] |[[WTO]] }} }} | agency = [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]] | iso1 = es | iso2 = spa | iso3 = spa | lingua = 51-AAA-b | sign = [[Signed Spanish]] (using signs of the local language) | glotto = stan1288 | glottorefname = Spanish | mapscale = 1.25 | map = File:Map-Hispanophone World.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#045a8d|Official majority language}} {{legend|#0674b6|Co-official or administrative language but not majority native language}} {{legend|#9bbae1|Secondary language (more than 20% Spanish speakers) or culturally important}} | notice = IPA }} '''Spanish''' ({{lang|es|español}}) or '''Castilian''' ({{lang|es|castellano}}) is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] that evolved from the [[Vulgar Latin]] spoken on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] of [[Europe]]. It originated in the [[Kingdom of Castile]], a historical kingdom in north-central [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cultura.gob.es/cultura/archivos/diversidad-linguistica/lenguas/castellano.html |title=Castellano |trans-title=Castilian |website=Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte |publisher=Gobierno de España |language=es |quote=Its origins lie in the northern third of the Iberian Peninsula, in the '''Kingdom of Castile''', where other dialects of Latin intermingled, such as Galician–Portuguese, Astur–Leonese, and Navarro–Aragonese. |access-date=11 November 2025}}</ref> Today, it is a [[world language|global language]] with 519 million native speakers, mainly in the [[Americas]] and Spain, and about 636 million speakers total, including [[Second language|second-language speakers]]. Spanish is the official language of [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language|21 countries]], as well as one of the [[Official languages of the United Nations|six official languages]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref name="un1">{{cite web | last=| first=| title=Official Languages | publisher=United Nations | url=https://www.un.org/en/our-work/official-languages | access-date=2024-01-05| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105190533/https://www.un.org/en/our-work/official-languages| archive-date=2024-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=In which countries of the world is this language spoken? |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm |url-status=live |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629022556/https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm |archive-date=29 June 2023}}</ref> Spanish is the world's [[list of languages by number of native speakers|second-most spoken native language]] after [[Mandarin Chinese]];<ref name="size">{{cite web |last1=Eberhard |first1=David M. |last2=Simons |first2=Gary F. |last3=Fennig |first3=Charles D. |date=2022 |title=Summary by language size |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |work=Ethnologue |publisher=SIL International |language=en-US |access-date=2 December 2023 |archive-date=18 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618002011/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Salvador |first=Yolanda Mancebo |title=Calderón en Europa |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31819/9783964565013-007/html |chapter=Hacia una historia de la puesta en escena de La vida es sueño |publisher=Vervuert Verlagsgesellschaft |year=2002 |pages=91–100 |isbn=978-3-96456-501-3 |language=es |doi=10.31819/9783964565013-007 |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303220424/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31819/9783964565013-007/html |url-status=live}}</ref> the world's [[list of languages by total number of speakers|fourth-most spoken language]] overall after [[English language|English]], Mandarin Chinese, and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]]-[[Urdu]]); and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers is [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries with most Spanish speakers 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ |website=[[Statista]] |access-date=17 May 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517000420/https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is part of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance language group]], which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the [[collapse of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vergaz |first=Miguel A. |title=La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano |date=7 November 2010 |url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/07/castillayleon/1289123856.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124225541/http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/07/castillayleon/1289123856.html |newspaper=El Mundo |language=es-es |access-date=24 November 2010 |archive-date=24 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the first systematic written use of the language happened in [[Toledo (Spain)|Toledo]], a prominent city of the [[Kingdom of Castile]], in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the [[early modern period]] spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rice |first=John |date=2010 |title=sejours linguistiques en Espagne |url=http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118163355/http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html |archive-date=18 January 2013 |access-date=3 March 2022 |website=sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com}}</ref> As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. About 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Comparán Rizo |first1=Juan José |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caqn_7i6tvkC&pg=PA17 |title=Raices Griegas y latinas |publisher=Ediciones Umbral |isbn=978-968-5430-01-2 |page=17 |language=es |access-date=22 August 2017 }}</ref> Alongside English and [[French language|French]], it is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world.<ref>[https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ Spanish in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206042553/https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ |date=6 February 2021}}, ''Language Magazine'', 18 November 2019.</ref> Spanish is well represented in the [[humanities]] and [[social science]]s.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 March 2014 |title=El español se atasca como lengua científica |url=https://www.agenciasinc.es/Noticias/El-espanol-se-atasca-como-lengua-cientifica |work=Servicio de Información y Noticias Científicas |language=es |access-date=29 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222204919/https://www.agenciasinc.es/Noticias/El-espanol-se-atasca-como-lengua-cientifica |archive-date=22 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/internet-language |title=What Are The Most-Used Languages On The Internet? |work=+Babbel Magazine |last=Devlin |first=Thomas Moore |date=30 January 2019 |access-date=13 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206012715/https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/internet-language}}</ref> and the second most used language by number of websites after English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language |title=Usage statistics of content languages for websites |date=10 February 2024 |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817192928/https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is used as an official language by [[List of countries and territories where Spanish is an official language#International organizations|many international organizations]], including the United Nations, [[European Union]], [[Organization of Ibero-American States]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Union of South American Nations]], [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States]], [[African Union]], and others.<ref name="un1"/> {{TOC limit|3}} == Name of the language and etymology == {{Main|Names given to the Spanish language}} === Name of the language === In Spain and some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only {{lang|es|[[wikt:español#Spanish|español]]}} but also {{lang|es|[[wikt:castellano#Spanish|castellano]]}} (Castilian), the language from the [[Kingdom of Castile]], contrasting it with other [[languages of Spain|languages spoken in Spain]] such as [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Catalan language|Catalan/Valencian]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and other minor languages. The [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] uses the term {{lang|es|castellano}} to define the [[official language]] of the whole of Spain, in contrast to {{lang|es|las demás lenguas españolas}} ({{lit|the other [[Spanish languages]]}}). Article III reads as follows: {{blockquote|{{lang|es|El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado.&nbsp;... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas...}}{{pb}} Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State.&nbsp;... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities...}} The [[Real Academia Española|Royal Spanish Academy]] ({{Lang|es|Real Academia Española}}), on the other hand, currently uses the term {{lang|es|español}} in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language {{lang|es|castellano}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Problemas de la lengua española (I): La lengua, los niveles y la norma {{!}} Fundación Juan March |url=https://www.march.es/es/madrid/conferencia/problemas-lengua-espanola-i-lengua-niveles-norma |access-date=2024-11-07 |website=www.march.es |language=es}}</ref> The {{lang|es|[[Diccionario panhispánico de dudas]]}} (a language guide published by the Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term {{lang|es|español}} in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms—{{lang|es|español}} and {{lang|es|castellano}}—are regarded as synonymous and equally valid.<ref>Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, 2005, p.&nbsp;271–272.</ref> ===Etymology=== The term {{lang|es|castellano}} is related to [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] ({{lang|es|Castilla}} or archaically {{lang|osp|Castiella}}), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name ''Castile'', in turn, is usually assumed to be derived from {{lang|es|castillo}} ('castle'). In the [[Middle Ages]], the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as {{lang|es|Romance}} and later also as {{lang|es|Lengua vulgar}}.<ref name="espania" /> Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as {{lang|es|Romance castellano}} ({{Lang|es|romanz castellano}}, {{Lang|es|romanz de Castiella}}), {{Lang|es|lenguaje de Castiella}}, and ultimately simply as {{lang|es|castellano}} (noun).<ref name="espania">{{Cite journal|title=De nuevo sobre los nombres medievales de la lengua de Castilla|first=Rafael|last=Cano Aguilar|doi=10.4000/e-spania.22518|journal=E-Spania|year=2013|volume=15 |issue=15|doi-access=free| issn = 1951-6169}}</ref> Different etymologies have been suggested for the term {{lang|es|español}} (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, {{lang|es|español}} derives from the [[Occitan language|Occitan]] word {{Lang|oc|espaignol}} and that, in turn, derives from the [[Vulgar Latin]] *{{lang|la|hispaniolus}} ('of Hispania').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=GUSX1EQ |title=español, la |work=Diccionario de la lengua española |publisher=Real Academia Espańola |access-date=13 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=24 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424193620/http://dle.rae.es/?id=GUSX1EQ}}</ref> [[Hispania]] was the Roman name for the entire [[Iberian Peninsula]]. There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] suggested that the classic {{lang|la|hispanus}} or {{lang|la|hispanicus}} took the suffix {{Lang|la|-one}} from [[Vulgar Latin]], as happened with other words such as {{lang|es|bretón}} (Breton) or {{lang|es|sajón}} (Saxon).{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} == History == {{Main|History of the Spanish language}} [[File:CartulariosValpuesta.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Cartularies of Valpuesta]], written in a late form of Latin, were declared in 2010 by the Royal Spanish Academy as the record of the earliest words written in Castilian, predating those of the [[Glosas Emilianenses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|title=cartularioshistoria|website=www.euskonews.com|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402124945/http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] Like the other [[Romance languages]], the Spanish language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]], which was brought to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] during the [[Second Punic War]], beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called [[Paleohispanic languages]])—some distantly related to Latin as [[Indo-European languages]], and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. These languages included [[Proto-Basque language|Proto-Basque]], [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] and [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]]. The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the [[modern era]], the most important [[Language contact|influence]]s on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring [[Romance languages]]—[[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic]] ([[Andalusi Romance]]), [[Navarro-Aragonese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Catalan language|Catalan/Valencian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and later, [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Spanish also [[Loanword|borrowed]] a considerable number of words from [[Andalusi Arabic]], and a few from [[Basque language|Basque]]. In addition, many more words were borrowed from [[Latin]] through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both [[Classical Latin]] and [[Renaissance Latin]], the form of Latin in use at that time. According to the theories of [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]], local [[sociolect]]s of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of [[Burgos]], and this dialect was later brought to the city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century.<ref name="Penny1p16">{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=16}}</ref> In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, [[Leonese language|Leonese]], and, according to some authors, was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see [[Iberian Romance languages]]). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the {{lang|es|[[Reconquista]]}}, and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the [[Arabic]] of [[Al-Andalus]], much of it indirectly, through the Romance [[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic dialects]] (some 4,000 [[Arabic]]-derived words, make up about 8% of the language today).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=24 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925062202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|archive-date=25 September 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> The written standard for this new language was developed in the cities of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], in the 13th to 16th centuries, and [[Madrid]], from the 1570s.<ref name="Penny1p16" /> The development of the [[Spanish phonology|Spanish sound system]] from that of [[Vulgar Latin]] exhibits most of the changes that are typical of [[Western Romance languages]], including [[lenition]] of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin {{lang|la|vīta}} > Spanish {{lang|es|vida}}). The [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]] of Latin stressed short {{Lang|la|e}} and {{Lang|la|o}}—which occurred in [[Syllable|open syllables]] in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || |English |- | {{smallcaps|petra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|p'''ie'''dra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|pedra}} || {{lang|oc|pedra}}, {{lang|oc|pèira}} || {{lang|fr|p'''ie'''rre}} ||''pedra'', {{lang|sc|perda}}||{{lang|it|p'''ie'''tra}} || {{lang|ro|p'''ia'''tră}} || 'stone' |- | {{smallcaps|terra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|t'''ie'''rra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|terra}} || {{lang|oc|tèrra}} || {{lang|fr|terre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|sc|terra}} || {{lang|ro|țară}} || 'land' |- | {{smallcaps|moritur}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''re}} || {{lang|ast|m'''ue'''rre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|morre}} || {{lang|ca|mor}} || {{lang|oc|morís}} || {{lang|fr|m'''eu'''rt}} || {{lang|sc|mòrit}} || {{lang|it|m'''uo'''re}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''re}} || 'dies (v.)' |- | {{smallcaps|mortem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''rte}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|morte}} || {{lang|ca|mort}} || {{lang|oc|mòrt}} || {{lang|fr|mort}} ||''morte, morti''||{{lang|it|morte}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''rte}} || 'death' |}</div> [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|Chronological map showing linguistic evolution in southwest Europe]] Spanish is marked by [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of the Latin double consonants ([[geminate]]s) {{lang|la|nn}} and {{lang|la|ll}} (thus Latin {{lang|la|annum}} > Spanish {{lang|es|año}}, and Latin {{lang|la|anellum}} > Spanish {{lang|es|anillo}}). The consonant written {{lang|la|u}} or {{lang|la|v}} in Latin and pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} in Classical Latin had probably "[[Fortition|fortified]]" to a bilabial fricative {{IPA|/β/}} in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with the consonant written ''b'' (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is [[betacism|no difference]] between the pronunciation of orthographic {{lang|es|b}} and {{lang|es|v}}. Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring [[Gascon language|Gascon]] extending as far north as the [[Gironde estuary]], and found in a small area of [[Calabria]]), attributed by some scholars to a Basque [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] was the mutation of Latin initial {{lang|la|f}} into {{lang|es|h-}} whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The {{lang|es|h-}}, still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many {{lang|es|f}}-/{{lang|es|h}}- [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublet]]s in modern Spanish: {{lang|es|Fernando}} and {{lang|es|Hernando}} (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), {{lang|es|ferrero}} and {{lang|es|herrero}} (both Spanish for "smith"), {{lang|es|fierro}} and {{lang|es|hierro}} (both Spanish for "iron"), and {{lang|es|fondo}} and {{lang|es|hondo}} (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though {{lang|es|fondo}} means "bottom", while {{lang|es|hondo}} means "deep"); additionally, {{lang|es|hacer}} ("to make") is [[cognate]] to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfacer}} ("to satisfy"), and {{lang|es|hecho}} ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfecho}} ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English |- | {{smallcaps|filium}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''ijo}} || {{lang|lad|fijo}} (or {{lang|lad|hijo}}) || {{lang|an|fillo}} || {{lang|ast|fíu}} || {{lang|gl|fillo}} || {{lang|pt|filho}} || {{lang|ca|fill}} || {{lang|oc|filh}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ilh}} || {{lang|fr|fils}} ||''fizu, fìgiu, fillu''||{{lang|it|figlio}} || {{lang|ro|fiu}} || 'son' |- | {{smallcaps|facere}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''acer}} || {{lang|lad|fazer}} || {{lang|an|fer}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|facer}} || {{lang|pt|fazer}} || {{lang|ca|fer}} || {{lang|oc|far}}, {{lang|oc|faire}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ar}} (or {{lang|oc|'''h'''èr}}) || {{lang|fr|faire}} ||''fàghere, fàere, {{lang|sc|fàiri}}''||{{lang|it|fare}} || {{lang|ro|a face}} || 'to do' |- | {{smallcaps|febrem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|fiebre}} ''(calentura)''|| colspan="3" |{{lang|gl|febre}} || {{lang|oc|fèbre}}, {{lang|oc|frèbe}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''rèbe}} (or<br />{{lang|oc|'''h'''erèbe}}) || {{lang|fr|fièvre}} ||{{lang|sc|calentura}}||{{lang|it|febbre}} || {{lang|ro|febră}} || 'fever' |- | {{smallcaps|focum}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|fuego}} || {{lang|ast|fueu}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|fogo}} || {{lang|ca|foc}} || {{lang|oc|fuòc}}, {{lang|oc|fòc}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''uèc}} || {{lang|fr|feu}} || {{lang|sc|fogu}} || {{lang|it|fuoco}} || {{lang|ro|foc}} || 'fire' |}</div> Some [[consonant cluster]]s of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: <div style="overflow: auto;"> <!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. --> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English |- | {{smallcaps|'''cl'''āvem}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|lad|clave}} || {{lang|an|clau}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|gl|chave}} || {{lang|pt|chave}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|clau}} || {{lang|fr|clé}} ||''giae, crae,'' {{lang|sc|crai}}||{{lang|it|chiave}} || {{lang|ro|cheie}} || 'key' |- | {{smallcaps|'''fl'''amma}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|lad|'''fl'''ama}} || {{lang|ast|chama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|chama}}, {{lang|gl|flama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|flama}} || {{lang|fr|flamme}} || {{lang|sc|framma}} || {{lang|it|fiamma}} || {{lang|ro|flamă}} || 'flame' |- | {{smallcaps|'''pl'''ēnum}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''eno}} || {{lang|lad|pleno}} || {{lang|an|plen}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''enu}} || {{lang|gl|cheo}} || {{lang|pt|cheio}}, {{lang|pt|pleno}} || {{lang|ca|ple}} || {{lang|oc|plen}} || {{lang|fr|plein}} || {{lang|sc|prenu}} || {{lang|it|pieno}} || {{lang|ro|plin}} || 'plenty, full' |- | {{smallcaps|o'''ct'''ō}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|es|o'''ch'''o}} || {{lang|an|güeito}} || {{lang|ast|o'''ch'''o}}, {{lang|ast|oito}} || {{lang|gl|oito}} || {{lang|pt|oito}} ({{lang|pt|oi'''t'''o}}) || {{lang|ca|vuit}}, {{lang|ca|huit}} || {{lang|oc|uè'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uò'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uèit}} || {{lang|fr|huit}} || {{lang|sc|oto}}||{{lang|it|otto}} || {{lang|ro|opt}} || 'eight' |- | {{smallcaps|mu'''lt'''um}} || {{lang|es|mu'''ch'''o}}<br />{{lang|es|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|lad|mu'''nch'''o}}<br />{{lang|lad|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|an|muito}}<br />{{lang|an|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|ast|mu'''nch'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|gl|moito}}<br />{{lang|gl|mo'''i'''}} ||''muito'' ||{{lang|ca|molt}} || {{lang|oc|molt}}&nbsp;(arch.) ||{{lang|fr|très}}, {{lang|fr|beaucoup}}, {{lang|fr|moult}} |{{lang|sc|meda}}||{{lang|it|molto}} || {{lang|ro|mult}} || 'much,<br />very,<br />many' |}</div> [[File:Juan de Zúñiga dibujo con orla (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Antonio de Nebrija]], author of {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, the first grammar of a modern European language<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/dec/13/classics.miguelcervantes |title=Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel &#124; Books &#124; The Guardian |publisher=Books.guardian.co.uk |date=12 December 2003 |access-date=18 July 2009 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614054652/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |archive-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent [[Phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives|a dramatic change]] in the pronunciation of its [[sibilant consonants]], known in Spanish as the {{lang|es|reajuste de las sibilantes}}, which resulted in the distinctive [[Velar consonant|velar]] {{IPA|[x]}} pronunciation of the letter {{angle bracket|j}} and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic [[Interdental consonant|interdental]] {{IPA|[θ]}} ("th-sound") for the letter {{angle bracket|z}} (and for {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}). See [[History of Spanish#Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants|History of Spanish (Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants)]] for details. The {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, written in [[Salamanca]] in 1492 by [[Antonio de Nebrija|Elio Antonio de Nebrija]], was the first grammar written for a modern European language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |title=Spanish Language Facts |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522190202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |archive-date=22 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella I]], she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |title=Spain: the root and the flower |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |year=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24496-2 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817150949/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |url-status=live}}</ref> In his introduction to the grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan |page=78 |year=2005 |publisher=Random House Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7055-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816174720/https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |url-status=live}}</ref> From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered [[Americas|America]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] via [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization of America]]. [[Miguel de Cervantes]], author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called {{lang|es|la lengua de Cervantes}} ("the language of Cervantes").<ref>{{cite web|title=La lengua de Cervantes |language=es |url=http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |publisher=Ministerio de la Presidencia de España |access-date=24 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083955/http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2008}}</ref> In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced to [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Western Sahara]], and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as [[Spanish Harlem]] in [[New York City]]. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see [[Influences on the Spanish language]]. == Geographical distribution == {{See also|Hispanophone}} [[File:El español en el mundo 2023 (Anuario del Instituto Cervantes).svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of the Spanish language {{legend|#ff0000ff|Official or co-official language}} {{legend|#ffcd48ff|Important minority (more than 25%) or majority language, but not official}} {{legend|#ffeeaaff|Notable minority language (less than 25% but more than 500,000 Spanish speakers)}}]] Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2025, it is estimated that about 519 million people speak Spanish as a [[First language|native language]], making it the second [[List of languages by number of native speakers|most spoken language by number of native speakers]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anuario instituto Cervantes 2023 |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_23/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=Centro Virtual Cervantes |language=es |archive-date=2023-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222190339/https://www.bergesinstitutespanish.com/spanish-native-speakers |url-status=live}} Estimate. Corrected as Equatorial Guinea is mistakenly included (no native speakers there)</ref> An additional 117 million speak Spanish as a second or [[Spanish as a foreign language|foreign language]], making it the fourth [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language in the world overall]] after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 636 million speakers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|title=Summary by language size|website=Ethnologue|date=3 October 2018|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also the third [[Languages used on the Internet|most used language on the Internet]], after English and Chinese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm |title=Internet World Users by Language |year=2008 |publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group |access-date=20 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426122721/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm |archive-date=26 April 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Europe === {{main|Peninsular Spanish}} [[File:Knowledge of Spanish in European Union.svg|thumb|Percentage of people who self reportedly know enough Spanish to hold a conversation, in the EU, 2005 {{legend|#554400|Native country}} {{legend|#AA8800|More than 8.99%}} {{legend|#E5B700|Between 4% and 8.99%}} {{legend|#FFDD55|Between 1% and 3.99%}} {{legend|#FFEEAA|Less than 1%}}]] Spanish is the official language of [[Spain]]. Upon the emergence of the [[Castilian Crown]] as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Clara|last=Mar-Molinero|title=The Politics of Language in the Spanish-Speaking World|year=2000|isbn=0-203-44372-1|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=19–20}}</ref> Hard policies imposing the language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward.{{Sfn|Mar-Molinero|2000|p=21}} Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include [[Gibraltar]] and [[Andorra]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |title=Background Note: Andorra |publisher=U.S. Department of State: Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs |date=January 2007 |access-date=20 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194318/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm |archive-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/spanish.shtml |title=BBC Education — Languages Across Europe — Spanish |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=20 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929052158/http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/spanish.shtml |archive-date=29 September 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is the most widely studied [[Romance language]] in Europe. According to Eurostat data, about 27% of secondary school students in the European Union study Spanish, making it the second most taught foreign language after English and the most studied Romance language on the continent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20250714-1|title=Upper secondary education: 60% study 2 or more languages|date=14 July 2025|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> Spanish is an official language of the [[European Union]]. === Americas === ==== Hispanic America ==== {{main|Spanish language in the Americas}} Today, the majority of the Spanish speakers live in [[Hispanic America]]. Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either ''[[de facto]]'' or ''[[de jure]]''—of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]] (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]] (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]] (co-official with [[Guarani language|Guaraní]]),<ref>[http://www.constitution.org/cons/paraguay.htm Constitución de la República del Paraguay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908185557/http://www.constitution.org/cons/paraguay.htm |date=8 September 2014}}, Article 140</ref> [[Peru]] (co-official with [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and "the other indigenous languages"),<ref>[http://www.constitucionpoliticadelperu.com/ Constitución Política del Perú] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517192115/http://constitucionpoliticadelperu.com/ |date=17 May 2014}}, Article 48</ref> [[Puerto Rico]] (co-official with [[English language|English]]),<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D8163AF93AA15752C0A965958260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fSubjects%2fE%2fEnglish%20Language |title=Puerto Rico Elevates English |date=29 January 1993 |work=the New York Times |access-date=6 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080122011853/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D8163AF93AA15752C0A965958260&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FE%2FEnglish%20Language |archive-date=22 January 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Uruguay]], and [[Venezuela]]. ====United States==== {{Main|Spanish language in the United States}} {{See also|Spanish language in California|New Mexican Spanish|Isleño Spanish}} [[File:Spanish spoken at home in the United States 2019.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Percentage of the U.S. population aged 5 and over who speaks Spanish at home in 2019, by states]] Spanish language has a long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century.{{Sfn|Lamboy|Salgado-Robles|2020|p=1}} In the wake of the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty]], hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States.{{Sfn|Lamboy|Salgado-Robles|2020|p=1}} The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Spanish across Domains in the United States. Education, Public Space, and Social Media|editor-first=Francisco|editor-last=Salgado-Robles|editor-first2=Edwin M.|editor-last2=Lamboy|publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill]]|isbn=978-90-04-43322-9|year=2020|location=Leiden|page=1|first1=Edwin M.|last1=Lamboy|first2=Francisco|last2=Salgado-Robles|chapter=Introduction: Spanish in the United States and across Domains}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of the U.S. population were of [[Hispanic]] or [[Hispanic America]]n by origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html|title=Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|date=12 August 2021|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=23 January 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815165418/https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S1601|title=American Community Survey Explore Census Data|access-date=24 January 2022|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017182821/https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S1601|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of [[Puerto Rico]], where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/speak/spanish/Espana/elpepucul/20081006elpepicul_1/Tes|title=Más 'speak spanish' que en España|access-date=6 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520111353/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/speak/spanish/Espana/elpepucul/20081006elpepicul_1/Tes|archive-date=20 May 2011|url-status=live}} (in Spanish)</ref> While English is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawford |first1=John |title=Language loyalties: a source book on the official English controversy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wLoJ31HXl40C&pg=PA62 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1992 |page=62 |isbn=9780226120164 |access-date=14 November 2023 |archive-date=30 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130015012/https://books.google.com/books?id=wLoJ31HXl40C&pg=PA62 |url-status=live}}</ref> The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of [[Greater Los Angeles area|Los Angeles]], [[San Diego–Tijuana|San Diego]], [[Miami metropolitan area|Miami]], [[San Antonio metropolitan area|San Antonio]], [[New York metropolitan area|New York]], [[San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco]], [[Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex|Dallas]], [[Greater Tucson|Tucson]] and [[Phoenix metropolitan area|Phoenix]] of the [[Arizona Sun Corridor]], as well as more recently, [[Chicago metropolitan area|Chicago]], [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Greater Boston|Boston]], [[Greater Denver|Denver]], [[Greater Houston|Houston]], [[Greater Indianapolis|Indianapolis]], [[Oklahoma City metropolitan area|Oklahoma City]], [[Greater Philadelphia|Philadelphia]], [[Greater Cleveland|Cleveland]], [[Greater Salt Lake City|Salt Lake City]], [[Greater Atlanta|Atlanta]], [[Greater Nashville|Nashville]], [[Greater Orlando|Orlando]], [[Greater Tampa|Tampa]], [[Greater Raleigh|Raleigh]] and [[Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area|Baltimore-Washington, D.C.]] due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. ====Rest of the Americas==== Although Spanish has no official recognition in the former [[British overseas territories|British colony]] of [[Belize]] (known until 1973 as [[British Honduras]]) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://sib.org.bz/wp-content/uploads/Languages_Infographic_2022.pdf|title=Languages spoken in Belize, 2022 Census|date=2022 |language=en |access-date=11 September 2024}}</ref> Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing [[Trinidadian Spanish|native Spanish speaking]] minority, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched the ''Spanish as a First Foreign Language'' (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tradeind.gov.tt/SIS/FAQ.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103080637/http://www.tradeind.gov.tt/SIS/FAQ.htm |archive-date=3 November 2010 |title=FAQ |work=The Secretariat for The Implementation of Spanish |publisher=Government of the Republic |location=Trinidad and Tobago |access-date=10 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the [[Dutch Caribbean]] islands of [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]] ([[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC Islands]]) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speak Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300471435|title=(PDF) Language and education in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao}}</ref> The local language [[Papiamento|Papiamentu]] (or Papiamento in Aruba) is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of [[Mercosur]] in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in [[Brazil]].{{Sfn|Valle|Villa|2006|p=376}}<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.es/&httpsredir=1&article=1082&context=gc_pubs|title=Spanish in Brazil: Language Policy, Business, and Cultural Propaganda|first1=José del|last1=Valle |first2=Laura|last2=Villa |journal=Language Policy |year=2006|volume=5|issue=4 |doi=10.1007/s10993-006-9035-2|pages=376–377 |s2cid=144373408|access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.es%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1082&context=gc_pubs|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 2005, the [[National Congress of Brazil]] approved a bill, signed into law by the [[President of Brazil|President]], making it mandatory for [[school]]s to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/2005/Lei/L11161.htm |title = Brazilian Law 11.161 |publisher = Presidência da República |date = 5 August 2005 |access-date = 31 March 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131031191701/http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/2005/Lei/L11161.htm |archive-date = 31 October 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref> In September 2016 this law was revoked by [[Michel Temer]] after the [[impeachment of Dilma Rousseff]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/educacao/novo-ensino-medio-tera-curriculo-flexivel-mais-horas-de-aula-20164798 |title=Novo ensino médio terá currículo flexível e mais horas de aula |newspaper=O Globo |date=23 September 2016 |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923213525/http://oglobo.globo.com/sociedade/educacao/novo-ensino-medio-tera-curriculo-flexivel-mais-horas-de-aula-20164798 |archive-date=23 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a [[mixed language]] known as [[Riverense Portuñol|Portuñol]] is spoken.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of "portuñol/portunhol" |editor1-first=Timothy L |editor1-last=Face |editor2-first=Carol A |editor2-last=Klee |pages=1–22 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |location=Somerville, MA |publisher=Cascadilla Proceedings Project |url= http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |access-date=29 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Africa === ==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== {{See also|Equatoguinean Spanish}} [[File:Malabo 08207.JPG|thumb|right|Spanish language signage in [[Malabo]], capital city of [[Equatorial Guinea]]]] [[Equatorial Guinea]] is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the [[Spanish Guinea|Spanish colonial period]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lipski |first=John M. |author-link=John M. Lipski |year=2014 |title=¿Existe un dialecto "ecuatoguineano" del español? |url=https://revista-iberoamericana.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/Iberoamericana/article/viewFile/7202/7335 |url-status=live |journal=Revista Iberoamericana |volume=80 |issue=248–249 |pages=865–882 |doi=10.5195/REVIBEROAMER.2014.7202 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020919/https://revista-iberoamericana.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/Iberoamericana/article/viewFile/7202/7335 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |access-date=19 January 2022 |quote="Se trata de Guinea Ecuatorial, único país del África subsahariana de habla española," |doi-access=free}}</ref> Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in the Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The decline of the indigenous languages of Equatorial Guinea: a manifestation of the loss of cultural identity|first1=Pedro Bayeme|last1=Bituga-Nchama|first2=Cruz Otu |last2=Nvé-Ndumu |year=2021 |journal=Revista Cátedra|volume=4|issue=3|pages=41 |url=https://revistadigital.uce.edu.ec/index.php/CATEDRA/article/view/3147/3969 |access-date=19 January 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://revistadigital.uce.edu.ec/index.php/CATEDRA/article/view/3147/3969|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is spoken as a native language by a small minority in Equatorial Guinea, primarily in larger cities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Facts |first=Victor Kiprop in World |date=2018-09-24 |title=What Languages Are Spoken In Equatorial Guinea? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-equatorial-guinea.html |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gomashie |first=Grace A. |title=Language Vitality of Spanish in Equatorial Guinea: Language Use and Attitudes |url=https://www.cervantes.es/imagenes/file/biblioteca/situacion_espanol/guinea_ecuatorial_humanities.pdf |journal=Humanities |year=2019 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=33 |doi=10.3390/h8010033 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[Instituto Cervantes]] estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf| title = Gloria Nistal Rosique: El caso del español en Guinea ecuatorial, Instituto Cervantes.| access-date = 7 February 2010| archive-date = 26 October 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121026105600/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies|volume=8|year=2004 |title=The Spanish language of Equatorial Guinea|first=John M.|last=Lipski|author-link=John M. Lipski|page=117 |doi=10.1353/hcs.2011.0376|s2cid=144501371|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2574235.pdf|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121212630/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2574235.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is spoken by very small communities in [[Angola]] due to Cuban influence from the [[Cold War]] and in [[South Sudan]] among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence.<ref>{{Cite news |publisher=Radio France International |language=es |url=http://www.espanol.rfi.fr/africa/20110706-los-cubanos-la-elite-del-sudan-del-sur |title=Los cubanos, la élite de Sudán del Sur |access-date=20 December 2011 |date=6 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112090846/http://www.espanol.rfi.fr/africa/20110706-los-cubanos-la-elite-del-sudan-del-sur |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== North Africa and Macaronesia ==== {{See also|Canarian Spanish|Saharan Spanish}} Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and the [[Canary Islands]], located in the Atlantic Ocean some {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}} off the northwest of the African mainland. The [[Canarian Spanish|Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands]] traces its origins back to the [[Conquest of the Canary Islands|Castilian conquest in the 15th century]], and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/utf/article/view/2332/2255|pages=175–176|first=Javier|last=Medina López|journal=Universitas Tarraconensis. Revista de Filologia|issue=14|year=1992–1993|publisher=Publicacions Universitat Rovira i Virgili|issn=2604-3432|title=Estandarización lingüística en las hablas canarias|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020917/https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/utf/article/view/2332/2255|url-status=live}}</ref> which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lipski |first=John |author-link=John M. Lipski|date=1994 |title=Latin American Spanish |edition=1st |publisher=Longman|quote=An indisputable influence in the formation of Latin American Spanish, often overshadowed by discussion of the 'Andalusian' contribution, is the Canary Islands.|quote-page=55}}</ref> The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as a second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Annual Review of Linguistics]]|first1=Manuel|last1=Díaz-Campos|first2=Juan M.|last2=Escalona Torres|first3=Valentyna|last3=Filimonova|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|page=369|doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|title=Sociolinguistics of the Spanish-Speaking World|year=2020|volume=6|s2cid=210443649 |issn=2333-9683|access-date=9 December 2023|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209021219/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030547|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> While far from its heyday during the [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco]], the Spanish language has some presence in northern [[Morocco]], stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media.{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=[[Ministry of Economy (Spain)|Ministerio de Economía y Empresa]]|url=https://catalogo.ceu.es/pdocs/710471_10353835.pdf|title=The economic and commercial influence of Spanish-based languages|location=Madrid|year=2018|chapter=The endurance of Spanish in the Maghreb|pages=32–46|first=David|last=Fernández Vítores|access-date=9 December 2023|archive-date=13 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113155342/https://catalogo.ceu.es/pdocs/710471_10353835.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish,{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla.{{Sfn|Fernández Vítores|2018|pp=32–46}} Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education).{{Sfn|Vicente|2011|p=67}} In [[Western Sahara]], formerly [[Spanish Sahara]], a primarily [[Hassaniya Arabic]]-speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] as its secondary official language,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.spsrasd.info/ar/articles/2018/11/29/18612.html |title=الوفد الصحراوي سيحضر لقاء جنيف بإرادة صادقة للتقدم نحو الحل الذي يضمن حق الشعب الصحراوي في تقرير المصير والاستقلال |trans-title=The Sahrawi delegation will attend the Geneva meeting with a sincere will to move towards a solution that guarantees the right of the Sahrawi people to self-determination and independence |date=29 November 2018 |website=[[Sahara Press Service]] |access-date=18 December 2023 |language=ar |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125125903/https://archive.spsrasd.info/ar/articles/2018/11/29/18612.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps|Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf]] ([[Algeria]]), where the Spanish language is still taught as a second language, largely by Cuban educators.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2021/10/20/espana-se-desentiende-de-la-preservacion-del-castellano-en-los-campamentos-saharauis/ |website=El Independiente|date=20 October 2021 |first=Francisco |last=Carrión|title=España se desentiende de la preservación del castellano en los campamentos saharauis |access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124020916/https://www.elindependiente.com/espana/2021/10/20/espana-se-desentiende-de-la-preservacion-del-castellano-en-los-campamentos-saharauis/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Martos |first1=Isabel |title=Linguistic Policy in the Camps of Sahrawi Refugees |via=researchgate.net |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273993698 |publisher=Universidad de Alcalá |access-date=19 August 2018 |archive-date=22 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522172107/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273993698_Linguistic_Policy_in_the_Camps_of_Sahrawi_Refugees_2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf |title=El Español en los Campamentos de Refugiados Saharauis (Tinduf, Algeria) |publisher=Cvc.cervantes.es |access-date=20 May 2015 |archive-date=26 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226150735/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Spanish is also an official language of the [[African Union]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=AU languages |url=https://au.int/en/about/languages |access-date=June 6, 2024 |website=African Union |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407001442/https://au.int/en/about/languages |url-status=live }}</ref> === Asia === {{See also|Chavacano|Philippine Spanish|Spanish language in the Philippines}} [[Image:La-solidaridad2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|An 1892 issue of '' [[La Solidaridad]]'', a Spanish-language newspaper on the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|colonial Philippines]] published in [[Barcelona]] by Filipino exiles and international students]] Spanish was an official language of the [[Philippines]] from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Spanish colonization]], it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos (''[[Ilustrados]]''). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing.<ref>{{cite news|language=es |title=Por qué Filipinas no es un país hispanoparlante si fue una colonia de España durante 300 años (y qué huellas quedan de la lengua de Cervantes)|newspaper=BBC News Mundo|date=30 January 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-54724887 |access-date=31 January 2021|archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130181828/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-54724887|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Idioma chabacano.png|thumb|Map of the [[Chavacano]] language in various [[provinces of the Philippines]], as well as [[Sabah]] in [[Malaysia]] (where it is spoken by immigrants)]] Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American administration]] after the [[Spanish–American War]] but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ambeth |last=Ocampo |author-link=Ambeth Ocampo |title=The loss of Spanish |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20071204-104897/The_loss_of_Spanish |date=4 December 2007 |work=Philippine Daily Inquirer (INQUIRER.net) |location=Makati City, Philippines |at=Opinion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311211640/http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20071204-104897/The_loss_of_Spanish |archive-date=11 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref> Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and [[Filipino language|Filipino]], a standardized version of [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]. Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under the administration of [[Ferdinand Marcos]] two months later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno155.html |title=Presidential Decree No. 155: Philippine Laws, Statutes and Codes |publisher=Chanrobles.com |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003012548/http://www.chanrobles.com/presidentialdecrees/presidentialdecreeno155.html |archive-date=3 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.<ref>Article XIV, Sec 7: "For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. <u>Spanish</u> and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."</ref> Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that [[Government of the Philippines|the government]] shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of the country's constitution.<ref>Article XIV, Sec 8: "This Constitution shall be promulgated in Filipino and English and shall be translated into major regional languages, Arabic, and <u>Spanish</u>."</ref> In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rodríguez-Ponga |first1=Rafael |author-link=Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga |title=New Prospects for the Spanish Language in the Philippines |website=[[Elcano Royal Institute|Real Instituto Elcano]] |url=http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/web/rielcano_en/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_in/zonas_in/spanish+language+culture/ari27-2009#.VPUs_lPF9l8 |access-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402171759/http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/web/rielcano_en/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=%2Felcano%2Felcano_in%2Fzonas_in%2Fspanish+language+culture%2Fari27-2009#.VPUs_lPF9l8 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/264032/news/nation/pnoy-and-spains-queen-sofia-welcome-return-of-spanish-language-in-phl-schools |title=PNoy (President Benigno Aquino III) and Spain's Queen Sofia welcome return of Spanish language in Philippine schools |first=Amita O. |last=Legaspi |date=3 July 2012 |publisher=GMA News |access-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707011008/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/264032/news/nation/pnoy-and-spains-queen-sofia-welcome-return-of-spanish-language-in-phl-schools}}</ref> and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system,<ref>{{Cite news | title=Spanish Language Program in Philippine Public Secondary Schools | url=https://www.seameo-innotech.org/portfolio_page/spanish-language-program-in-philippine-public-secondary-schools/ | publisher=[[Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization|SEAMEO Regional Center for Educational Innovation and Technology]] | access-date=May 8, 2023 | archive-date=22 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225404/https://www.seameo-innotech.org/portfolio_page/spanish-language-program-in-philippine-public-secondary-schools/ | url-status=live}}</ref> with over 7,000 students studying the language in the 2021–2022 school year alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studying – In the Philippines |url=https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/filipinas/en_PH/estudiar/en-filipinas |publisher=[[Ministry of Education (Spain)|Ministry of Education and Vocational Training of Spain]] |access-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-date=April 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408125717/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/filipinas/en_PH/estudiar/en-filipinas}}</ref> The [[business process outsourcing in the Philippines|local business process outsourcing industry]] has also helped boost the language's economic prospects.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Weedon |first=Alan |title=The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage, and for some it's paying off |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News and Current Affairs]] |date=August 10, 2019 |access-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212035502/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |url-status=live}}</ref> Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is about 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/10/06/opinion/columnists/spanish-is-an-endangered-filipino-language/776874|title=Spanish is an endangered Filipino language|first=Jorge|last=Mojarro |date=6 October 2020 |publisher=The Manila Times |access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118101358/https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/10/06/opinion/columnists/spanish-is-an-endangered-filipino-language/776874|url-status=live}}</ref> a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=Master |last=Andrés Barrenechea |first=Clarissa |title=La enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera en Filipinas. Estudio de caso de la Universidad Ateneo de Manila |trans-title=The Teaching of Spanish as a Foreign Language in the Philippines: Case Study of the Ateneo de Manila University |language=es |url=https://revista.carayanpress.com/resources/RF-CBarrenechea.pdf |publisher=[[Autonomous University of Zacatecas]] |date=June 2013 |access-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410005950/https://revista.carayanpress.com/resources/RF-CBarrenechea.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language called [[Chavacano]] developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.<ref>Spanish creole:{{cite book |author=Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga |title=Pero ¿cuántos hablan español en Filipinas? |date=January 2003 |pages=54, 55 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |publisher=Cervantes virtual |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806190230/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live}} <!-- original reference title does not agree with URL, I did my best, here it is as it was: {{Citation |first=Antonio |last=Quilis |title=La lengua española en Filipinas |year=1996 |page=54 and 55 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |publisher=Cervantes virtual |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806190230/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01350553135573500088680/209438_0013.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live}} --></ref> The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rubino|2008|p=279}}</ref> The local [[languages of the Philippines]] also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from [[Mexican Spanish]], owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through [[New Spain]] until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/68-1973-constitution.html|title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines|publisher=The corpus juris |access-date=6 April 2008|at=Article XV, Section 3(3)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417201402/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/68-1973-constitution.html|archive-date=17 April 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spanish Influence on Language, Culture, and Philippine History |url=http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilSpa.html |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305163610/http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilSpa.html |archive-date=5 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Oceania=== [[File:Parque Nacional Rapa Nui.jpg|thumb|Announcement in Spanish on [[Easter Island]], welcoming visitors to [[Rapa Nui National Park]]]] Spanish is the official and most spoken language on [[Easter Island]], which is geographically part of [[Polynesia]] in Oceania and politically part of [[Chile]]. However, Easter Island's traditional language is [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]], an [[Polynesian languages|Eastern Polynesian language]]. As a legacy of comprising the former [[Spanish East Indies]], Spanish loan words are present in the local languages of [[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Marshall Islands]] and [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.als.asn.au/proceedings/als2005/engelberg-german.pdf |title=The Influence of German on the Lexicon of Palauan and Kosraean (Dissertation) |last=Engelberg |first=Stefan |access-date=23 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221131940/http://www.als.asn.au/proceedings/als2005/engelberg-german.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish language in Philippines|url=http://www.spanish-in-the-world.net/Spanish/philippines.php|access-date=1 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318055051/http://www.spanish-in-the-world.net/Spanish/philippines.php|archive-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> In addition, in Australia and New Zealand, there are native Spanish communities, resulting from emigration from Spanish-speaking countries (mainly from the [[Southern Cone]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_34.pdf |title=cvc.cervantes (Spanish in Australia and New Zealand) |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616051405/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_34.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> === Spanish speakers by country === {{Main|List of countries by Spanish-speaking population}} 20 countries and one United States territory speak Spanish officially, and the language has a significant unofficial presence in the rest of the United States along with Andorra, Belize and the territory of Gibraltar. {| class="wikitable sortable"<!-- If you can make the "sort" function work according to numerical values, then change "wikitable" above back to "wikitable sortable". See Talk/"Spanish speakers by country" table sort doesn't work properly --> |+Worldwide Spanish fluency (<span style="background:#efefef;">grey</span> and * signifies official language) |- ! style="background:#efff;" |Country ! style="background:#efff;"data-sort-type="number" |Population<ref>{{cite web| url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm| title=UN 2011 to 2100 estimate| format=MS Excel PDF| work=UN Population data| access-date=7 February 2018| archive-date=10 May 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510051033/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm| url-status=live}}</ref> ! style="background:#efff;""width:23%;" data-sort-type="number" |Speakers of Spanish as a native language <ref name="viva18">{{cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_25/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2025.pdf |title=El español: una lengua viva – Informe 2025 |last=Fernández Vítores |first=David |date=2025 |publisher=[[Instituto Cervantes]]}} 519.1 million people have a native command of Spanish. 92.1 million people have limited Spanish proficiency. 25.6 million people are learning the Spanish language. 635.7 million people are potential users of Spanish worldwide, 7.5% (page 67).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115154048/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 January 2026|title=Countries - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>Ethnologue, 18th Ed.: [[:es:Anexo:Hablantes de español según Ethnologue (edición 18)]].</ref> ! style="background:#efff;""width:22%;" data-sort-type="number" | Native speakers and proficient speakers as a second language <ref name="viva18"/><ref name="Eurob2023b">{{cite web| url = https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 | title = Europeans and their Languages | year = 2023 |publisher= European Union (eurobarometer) | pages= 11, 58}} Reports and documents - Data annex - Europeans and their languages - page 58. The source offers percentages of people over 12 years old in each EU country, who speak Spanish at a very good level (page 58). Of the total EU population over 12 years old, 9% are native Spanish speakers, another 3% have a very good level of Spanish, and a total of 17% can hold a conversation in Spanish (page 54). Therefore, native and very good Spanish speakers account for 12% (9%+3%).</ref> ! style="background:#efff;" "width:22%;" data-sort-type="number" |Total number of Spanish speakers (including limited competence speakers)<ref name="viva18"/><ref name="Eurob2023">{{cite web | url = https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 | title = Eurobarometer: Report: Europeans and their languages |publisher=European Union | year = 2023 | pages = 11, 21| language = en}} Native and non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.</ref><ref name="DemografíaLengEsp">{{Cite web | url = http://eprints.ucm.es/8936/1/DT03-06.pdf | title = Demografía de la lengua española | page = 10 | language = es | access-date = 23 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100923081035/http://eprints.ucm.es/8936/1/DT03-06.pdf | archive-date = 23 September 2010 | url-status = live}}, to countries with official Spanish status.</ref> |- | [[Mexico]]* | {{formatnum:133367428}}<ref>{{Cite web | title=2025 population estimate| publisher=CONAPO estimate| url=https://conapo.segob.gob.mx/work/models/CONAPO/pry23/PP/index.html |language=es}}</ref> | {{formatnum:125098647}} (93.8%)<ref name="CIAMexico">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/#people-and-society |publisher=CIA |title=Mexico |work=The World Factbook |access-date=1 May 2011 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126164719/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico |url-status=dead}}: Spanish only 92.7%</ref> |{{formatnum:125632117}} (94.2%)<ref name="viva18"/> |{{formatnum:132300489}} (99.2%)<ref name="CIAMexico" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[United States]] | {{formatnum:340110990}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/population-trends-return-to-pre-pandemic-norms.html | publisher = Census Bureau | title = U.S. Population Trends Return to Pre-Pandemic Norms as More States Gain Population | date = December 19, 2023 | archive-date = 2025-09-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250909181704/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/population-trends-return-to-pre-pandemic-norms.html | url-status = live}}</ref> |{{formatnum:44867699}} (13.9% of 321,745,943) <ref>Spanish speakers older than 5 years old ({{Cite web | url = https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2024.S1601?q=LANGUAGE+SPOKEN+AT+HOME++&t=Language+Spoken+at+Home | year = 2024 | title = Language Spoken at Home| publisher = United States Census Bureau. }})</ref> |{{formatnum:49671936}} (15.4% of 321,745,943){{efn|75% of U.S. Hispanics speak Spanish very well or pretty well (according to a 2022 survey).<ref name="Taylor 2022">{{cite web |last=Taylor |first=Paul |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2023/09/20/latinos-views-of-and-experiences-with-the-spanish-language/ |title=Latinos' Views of and Experiences With the Spanish Language |date=2022 |publisher=pewhispanic.org}}</ref> There were 68,013,553 Hispanics in the U.S.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP1Y2024.DP05?q=race |title=Census Bureau (01/July/2024) |publisher=Census.gov}}</ref> of which 62,879,127 are over 5 years old,<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2024.B01001I?q=B01001I:+Sex+by+Age+(Hispanic+or+Latino) |title=Census Bureau (01/July/2024) |publisher=Census.gov}}</ref> as of 2024. 75% of this figure is 47,159,345. There were also another 2,512,591 non-Hispanic Spanish speakers at home older than 5 years old (5.6% of 44,867,699) as of 2024.<ref name="lenguaviva.org2">[https://lenguaviva.org/espa%C3%B1ol%3A-una-lengua-viva-1 lenguaviva.org] (page 9)</ref> In 2011, a similar survey tells that 82% of U.S. Hispanics speak Spanish very well or pretty well, and there were another 2.8 million non Hispanics who speak Spanish at home.<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/race-and-ethnicity/2012/04/04/iv-language-use-among-latinos/ pewresearch.org] (Language Use among Latinos)</ref>}} |{{formatnum:64867699}} {{efn|44,867,699 as a first language + 20,000,000 (Hispanics with limited proficiency, and part of the 8.9 million Spanish students that they are non-Hispanic). Some of the 11 million undocumented Hispanic immigrants not reflected in the census are not included.<ref name="viva18" />}}{{efn|90% of U.S. Hispanics know how to speak at least a little Spanish (according to a 2022 survey).<ref name="Taylor 2022"/> There were 68,013,553 Hispanics in the U.S.<ref name="auto1"/> of which 62,879,127 are over 5 years old,<ref name="auto"/> as of 2024. There were also another 2,512,591 non-Hispanic Spanish speakers at home older than 5 years old (5.6% of 44,867,699) as of 2024.<ref name="lenguaviva.org2"/> Total number of people who speak at least a little Spanish: 59,103,805.<ref name="lenguaviva.org">{{Cite web|url=https://lenguaviva.org/espa%C3%B1ol%3A-una-lengua-viva-1|title=Español: una Lengua Viva}}</ref> To avoid double counting, 7.9 million Spanish students are not included, nor are some of the 7.4 million undocumented Hispanics who may not be reflected in the census).}} |- |[[Colombia]]* |{{formatnum:53110609}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2018/proyecciones-de-poblacion/Nacional/DCD-area-proypoblacion-Nac-2020-2070.xlsx |date=1 January 2025 |title=Proyecciones de Población de DANE de 2020-2070 (DANE Population Projections 2020-2070)|publisher=Dane |location=CO |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322235136/https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/demografia-y-poblacion/proyecciones-de-poblacion|archive-date=22 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:52090885}} (98.1%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/colombia/index.php |title=datosmundial.com (Colombia) |access-date=24 October 2023}}</ref> | 52 962 217 (99.7%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 148,392}}<ref name="IC2024">{{cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf |title=El español: una lengua viva – Informe 2024 |last=Fernández Vítores |first=David |date=2024 |publisher=[[Instituto Cervantes]]}} INDIGENOUS OR NATIVE POPULATIONS IN SPANISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES (pages 44 and 45).</ref> |- | [[Spain]]* | {{formatnum:49315949}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735572981| title = Census INE estimate for 1 July 2025 | archive-date = 2022-01-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220113005818/https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=36643| url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:42214452}} (85.6%)<ref name="INEespañol">[https://www.ine.es/prensa/ecepov_2021.pdf INE (2021)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102180735/https://www.ine.es/prensa/ecepov_2021.pdf |date=2 November 2023}}: In Spain, 85.6% speak Spanish always or frequently in family (77.1% always and 8.5% frequently), 96% speak Spanish well, and 99.5% understand and speak, albeit with difficulty .</ref> | {{formatnum:47343311}} (96%)<ref name="INEespañol" /> | {{formatnum:48908080}} (99.5%)<ref name="INEespañol" /> |- | [[Argentina]]* | {{formatnum:47473760}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indec.gob.ar%2Fftp%2Fcuadros%2Fpoblacion%2Fc1_proyecciones_nac_2010_2040.xls&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Argentinian census INDEC estimate for 2025 |date = 2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:45574810}} (96.0%)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/argentina/index.php |title=datosmundial.com (Argentina) |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417002409/https://www.datosmundial.com/america/argentina/index.php |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:46856601}} (98.7%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:47188917}} (99.4%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- | [[Peru]]* | {{formatnum:34412393}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/principales_indicadores/libro_1.pdf | language = es | title = Estimación y proyección de la población 1950-2050 | trans-title = Population estimation and projection 1950-2050 | year = 2025 | publisher = INEI | page = 140 }}</ref> | {{formatnum:28527874}} (82.9%)<ref>{{Cite web | quote = Spanish (official) 84.1%, Quechua (official) 13%, Aymara 1.7%, Ashaninka 0.3%, other native languages (includes a large number of minor Amazonian languages) 0.7%, other 0.2% | year = 2017 | work = The World factbook | title=Peru | url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ | publisher = CIA | access-date = 4 October 2011 | archive-date = 19 November 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211119135020/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ | url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 5,782,260 people who speak other language as mother tongue (main languages: Quechua (among 32 Quechua's varieties) 4,773,900, Aymara (2 varieties) 661,000, Chinese 100,000). | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=pe | title = Peru | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 21 September 2011 | archive-date = 2 December 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111202105534/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=pe | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:29594658}} (86.6%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:30600340}} (88.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 335,576}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Venezuela]]* | 28,460,000 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/|title=World Population Prospects 2024 (2024-2050)|publisher=UN |date=2025}}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:27720040}} (97.4%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 1,098,244 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main languages: Chinese 400,000, Portuguese 254,000, Wayuu 199,000, Arabic 110,000) | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/country/VE/languages | publisher = Ethnologue | title = Venezuela | access-date = 30 May 2013 | archive-date = 10 March 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130310032805/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/ve/languages | url-status = dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:28240466}} (99.2%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 219,534}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Chile]]* | {{formatnum:20206953}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.censo2017.cl%2Fdescargas%2Fproyecciones%2Festimaciones-y-proyecciones-chile-1992-2050-base-2017-poblacion-e-indicacores.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK | title = Census estimate for 1992 to 2050 | trans-title = Reports | publisher = INE | year = 2025 | language = es }}</ref> |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:19317847}} (95.6%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web | quote = There are 281,600 people who speak another language, mainly Mapudungun (250.000) |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CL | title = Chile | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 12 October 2011 | archive-date = 3 February 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130203004338/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CL | url-status = live}}</ref> |{{formatnum:19945772}} (99.6%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 85,869}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Ecuador]]* | {{formatnum:18013000}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://proyeccionespoblacionales.ecudatanalytics.com/ | title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Census | date = 2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:16877244}} (93.7%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:17474448}} (97.0%){{efn|People with Spanish limited competence in Ecuador: 537,552. Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 451,533}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |{{formatnum:17642817}} (98.6%)<ref>{{cite web |author=CIA Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador/ |title=(2019) |publisher=CIA Factbook |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador |url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[Guatemala]]* | {{formatnum:18079810}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ine.gob.gt%2Fine%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F08%2FEstimaciones_y_proyecciones_de_poblacion-1950-2050.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Guatemala: Estimaciones y proyecciones de población 1950–2050. |language=es |website=www.oj.gob.gt |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística | date=2025 }}</ref> | {{formatnum:12637787}} (69.9%)<ref>{{Cite web | title=Guatemala | quote = Spanish (official) 69.9%, Amerindian languages 40% | work = The World Factbook | url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guatemala/ | publisher = CIA | access-date = 27 January 2021 | archive-date = 15 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210415030536/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guatemala/ | url-status = dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:13722576}} (75.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:16440943}} (90.8%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 1,638,867}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Bolivia]]* | {{formatnum:12332252}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.gob.bo/index.php/censos-y-proyecciones-de-poblacion-sociales/ |title=Census INE estimate for 2024 |publisher=INE}}</ref> | {{formatnum:7485677}} (60.7%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|title=South America :: Bolivia — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=13 March 2020|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927041747/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |{{formatnum:9927463}} (80.5%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:12064523}} (97.8%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 267,729}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Cuba]]* | {{formatnum:11089511}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211142555/http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815 |archive-date=11 December 2020 |website=ONEI |title=31 December 2022 estimation}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:10996367}} (99.2%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:10996367}} (99.2%)<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Dominican Republic]]* | {{formatnum:10878267}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.one.gob.do%2Fmedia%2Fc2bh3ckv%2Fcuadro-estimaciones-y-proyecciones-poblaci%25C3%25B3n-total-por-a%25C3%25B1o-seg%25C3%25BAn-sexo-edad-2000-2030.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Census ONE estimate 2000-2030 |language=es |publisher=Oficina Nacional de Estadística |date=2025}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:10323475}} (94.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |{{formatnum:10747728}} (98.8%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- | [[Honduras]]* | {{formatnum:10039862}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://181.115.7.199/binhnd/RpWebEngine.exe/Portal?BASE=PROYPOB&lang=ESP |title=INE estimate |date=2025}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:9549917}} (95.1%)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>There are 207,750 people who speak another language, mainly Garifuna (98,000).: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=HN Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013214744/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=HN |date=13 October 2011}}</ref> | {{formatnum:9949503}} (99.1%)<ref name="DemografíaLengEsp" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[France]] | {{formatnum:68381000}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/serie/001641607|title=INSEE estimate to 2024|publisher=Insee.fr|date=2024}}</ref> | {{formatnum:557001}} (1% of 55 700 114) <ref name="Eurob2023"/><ref>There are more than {{formatnum:433000}} emigrants from predominantly Spanish-speaking countries in France, of which 93.6% speak native Spanish ([https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf.pdf Inst. Cerv. Anuario 2024]): {{formatnum:310072}} Spaniards ([https://www.ine.es/jaxi/Datos.htm?path=/t20/p85001/serie/l0/&file=01001.px INE, 2025]) + {{formatnum:31151}} Colombians + {{formatnum:16473}} Chileans + {{formatnum:14807}} Argentines + {{formatnum:13390}} Mexicans + {{formatnum:13361}} Peruvians + {{formatnum:7249}} Venezuelans + {{formatnum:5466}} Cubans + {{formatnum:4730}} Ecuatorians + 3,992 Dominicans + {{formatnum:3598}} Bolivians + 3,423 Guatemalans + {{formatnum:2784}} Uruguayans + {{formatnum:1178}} Paraguayans ([https://datosmacro.expansion.com/demografia/migracion/inmigracion/francia datosmacro 2020]). On the other hand, we should consider Spanish emigrants who have become French citizens and still speak Spanish, or the descendants of Spanish emigrants born in France who speak Spanish at home.</ref> | {{formatnum:1910258}} (4% of 55 700 114){{efn|3% of people in France older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:7798016}} (14% of 55 700 114) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Brazil]] | {{formatnum:212584000}}<ref>{{Cite web | language = pt-br | trans-title = The IBGE publishes the population estimates for 1 July 2024 | url = https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html | title = IBGE population estimations | year = 2024}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1350000}}<ref name="lenguaviva.org"/><ref>There are {{formatnum:1554744}} emigrants from predominantly Spanish-speaking countries in Brazil ([https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/ nepo.unicamp.br 2024]), of which 93.6% speak native Spanish ([https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_24/el_espanol_en_el_mundo_anuario_instituto_cervantes_2024.pdf.pdf Inst. Cerv. Anuario 2024]): {{formatnum:672894}} Venezuelans + {{formatnum:187562}} Bolivians + {{formatnum:143928}} Spaniards ([https://www.ine.es/jaxi/Datos.htm?path=/t20/p85001/serie/l0/&file=01001.px INE, 2025]) + {{formatnum:108587}} Colombians + {{formatnum:106271}} Argentines + {{formatnum:68650}} Paraguayans + {{formatnum:65976}} Cubans + {{formatnum:61033}} Peruvians + {{formatnum:59562}} Uruguayans + {{formatnum:25064}} Mexicans + {{formatnum:24393}} Chileans + {{formatnum:14793}} Ecuatorians + 4,793 Dominicans + 2,962 Hondurans + 2,179 Costa Ricans + 1,905 Guatemalans. Total Native Spanish speakers 1,454,676.</ref> | {{formatnum:7425818}}{{efn|1,350,000 immigrants native speakers + 96,000 descendants of immigrants<ref name="lenguaviva.org"/> + 1,931,480 [[Portuñol]] speakers in border areas + 4,048,338 Spanish students<ref name="viva18" />.}} |- | [[Nicaragua]]* | {{formatnum:6803886}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.inide.gob.ni/docs/Anuarios/Anuario2022/ANUARIO_ESTADISTICO2022.pdf| title = Census estimate for 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6484103}} (95.3%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109075742/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 January 2021|title=Nicaragua|date=25 June 2025|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov}}</ref><ref>There are 490,124 people who speak another language, mainly Mískito (154,000).: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=NI Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100732/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=NI |date=15 January 2013}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6599769}} (97.1%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:6734219}} (98.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 69,667}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Paraguay]]* | {{formatnum:6417076}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.gov.py/publication-single.php?codec=266|title=Census estimate 1950-2050| date=2025}}</ref> | {{formatnum:3946502}} (61.5%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/paraguay/|title=South America :: Paraguay — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=18 March 2020|archive-date=31 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231111825/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/pa.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> | {{formatnum:4318692}} (67.3%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:6397823}} (99,7%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 19,253. Indigenous population that have limited competence: 2,456,048 (page 45, 34 of "Anuario del Instituto Cervantes 2024").}}<ref name="IC2024"/><ref>{{cite web| url = https://es.ripleybelieves.com/what-languages-are-spoken-in-paraguay-1238| title = es.ripleybelieves.com| access-date = 14 January 2022| archive-date = 15 January 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220115062719/https://es.ripleybelieves.com/what-languages-are-spoken-in-paraguay-1238| url-status = live}}</ref> |- | [[El Salvador]]* | {{formatnum:6029976}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://censo2024.bcr.gob.sv/wp-content/uploads/tablas-geoportal/presentacion-de-resultados-censo-de-poblacion-y-vivienda-el-salvador-2024-segunda-entrega.pdf| title = Census estimate for 2024}}</ref> | {{formatnum:6015876}}<ref>There are 14,100 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main language, Kekchí with 12,300 speakers): [http://www.ethnologue.com/country/SV Ethnologue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207044049/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/SV |date=7 February 2016}}.</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:6023946}} (99.9%)<ref name="IC2024"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Germany]] | {{formatnum:83190556}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Bevoelkerungsstand/Tabellen/zensus-geschlecht-staatsangehoerigkeit-2020.html | title = German census | date = 2020 | publisher = Destatis | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160628112855/https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/SocietyState/Population/CurrentPopulation/Tables/Census_SexAndCitizenship.html | archive-date = 28 June 2016 | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:716772}} (1% of 71 677 231) <ref name="Eurob2023"/><ref>Native command group (GDL): 266,955 non-nationalized Spanish-speaking immigrants, 63,752 nationalized Spanish-speaking immigrants, 44,500 Spanish speakers of children of immigrants (second generation). 375,207 total native speakers, but there are another 37,047 non-mother-tongue speakers with native-level skills. [https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_lengua_viva/pdf/espanol_lengua_viva_2020.pdf Anuario del Instituto Cervantes 2020 (page 325). "Germany and their Spanish speakers"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134448/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_lengua_viva/pdf/espanol_lengua_viva_2019.pdf |date=18 February 2020}}</ref> | {{formatnum:2150317}} (3% of 71 677 231){{efn|2% of people in Germany older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:5734178}} (8% of 71 677 231) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Costa Rica]]* | {{formatnum:5327387}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inec.cr/poblacion/estimaciones-y-proyecciones-de-poblacion |title=INEC estimate for 2024 |publisher=INEC}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:5268786}} (98.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:5326600}} (99.9%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 897}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Panama]]* | {{formatnum:4565559}}<ref>[https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inec.gob.pa%2Farchivos%2FP4911CUADRO9.XLS&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK Census INEC estimate for 2025]</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3944643}} (86.4)<ref name="viva18" /><ref>There are 501,043 people who speak another language as mother tongue: {{Cite web | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PA | title = PA | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 17 October 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021142552/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PA | archive-date = 21 October 2011 | url-status = live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:4495892}} (98.4%){{efn|Indigenous population that does not speak Spanish: 69,667}}<ref name="IC2024"/> |- | [[Uruguay]]* | {{formatnum:3499451}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gub.uy/instituto-nacional-estadistica/censos2023pvh|title=Censo 2023|website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística}}</ref> | {{formatnum:3348975}} (95.7%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.datosmundial.com/america/uruguay/index.php|title=Uruguay: datos de países y estadísticas|website=DatosMundial.com}}</ref><ref>There are 150,200 people who speak another language as mother tongue, {{Cite web | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=UY | title = UY | publisher = Ethnologue | access-date = 17 October 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111116095609/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=UY | archive-date = 16 November 2011 | url-status = live}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3467956}} (99.1%)<ref name="viva18" /> |- | [[Puerto Rico]]* | {{formatnum:3203295}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/PR/PST045224|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Puerto Rico|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:3049537}} (95.2%)<ref>([https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2023.S1601?q=race&t=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home&g=040XX00US72&y=2023 Census Bureau 2023] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924081747/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/municipios/totals/2011/tables/PRM-EST2011-01.xls |date=24 September 2015}})</ref> | {{formatnum:3200092}} (99.9%)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[United Kingdom]] | {{formatnum:68265209}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |title=Annual Mid year Population Estimates: 2023 |publisher=U.K. Gov. Census |date=1 July 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:215062}} (0.4%)<ref>[[Languages of the United Kingdom]]</ref> | {{formatnum:518480}} (1% of 51,848,010)<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 goodspeakers">[https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/1049 Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (pages T74, TS2): Non native people who speak Spanish very well.</ref> | {{formatnum:3110880}} (6% of 51,848,010)<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers">[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (page T64): Non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Italy]] | {{formatnum:60542215}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.istat.it/en/population-and-households |title=Census 2021 estimate|publisher=Istat.it |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807053109/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=tps00001&tableSelection=1&footnotes=yes&labeling=labels&plugin=1 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:515597}} (1% of 51,862,391) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:1546790}} (3% of 51,862,391){{efn|2% of people in Italy older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:3093580}} (6% of 51,862,391) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Morocco]] | {{formatnum:36828330}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hcp.ma/Population-legale-du-Royaume-du-Maroc-repartie-par-regions-provinces-et-prefectures-et-communes-selon-les-resultats-du_a3974.html|title=Census estimate for 2024|publisher=HCP}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:136892}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:1888625}}<ref name="viva18" /><ref>[http://www.slideshare.net/magdarol/el-espaol-en-el-contexto-sociolingstico-marroqui-evolucin-y-perspectivas-i El español en el contexto Sociolingüístico marroquí: Evolución y perspectivas (page 39)]: Between 4 and 7 million people have Spanish knowledge (M. Ammadi, 2002) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106191132/http://www.slideshare.net/magdarol/el-espaol-en-el-contexto-sociolingstico-marroqui-evolucin-y-perspectivas-i |date=6 November 2013}}</ref> (10%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Embajadas/RABAT/es/Noticias/Documents/LENGESPMARR.pdf |title=Euromonitor, 2012|page=32|work=exteriores.gob.es|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425134251/http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Embajadas/RABAT/es/Noticias/Documents/LENGESPMARR.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Canada]] | {{formatnum:41465298}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 | title = Population estimates, quarterly | date = 2024 | publisher = Statistics Canada }}</ref> | {{formatnum:600795}} (1.6%)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/language-langue/index-en.html |title=Mother tongue by geography, 2021 Census |date=2021 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114071602/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/language-langue/index-en.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:1171450}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021601&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.1&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.1&pickMembers%5B2%5D=3.1&pickMembers%5B3%5D=4.1 |title=Knowledge of languages by age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions |date=2022 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225258/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021601&pickMembers%5B0%5D=1.1&pickMembers%5B1%5D=2.1&pickMembers%5B2%5D=3.1&pickMembers%5B3%5D=4.1 |url-status=live}}</ref> (3.2%)<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/#people-and-society cia.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922212931/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/#people-and-society |date=22 September 2021}} (3.2% speak Spanish in Canada)</ref> | {{formatnum:1775000}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tln.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/spanish-speaking-canada-population_2.pdf |title=tln.ca |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207190552/https://www.tln.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/spanish-speaking-canada-population_2.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://allontario.ca/the-importance-of-spanish-in-canada/ |title=allontario.ca |date=14 May 2020 |access-date=24 October 2023 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927175639/https://allontario.ca/the-importance-of-spanish-in-canada/ |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Netherlands]] | {{formatnum:18070000}}<ref>{{cite web |date=24 March 2025 |title=Bevolkingsteller: Hoeveel mensen wonen nu in Nederland? |trans-title=Population counter: How many people live in the Netherlands now? |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/visualisaties/dashboard-bevolking/bevolkingsteller |access-date=24 March 2025 |publisher=Cbs.nl}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:1328731}} (9% of 14 763 684) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Equatorial Guinea]]* | {{formatnum:1505588}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://inege.gq/ |title=Equatorial Guinea census estimate |year=2021 |publisher=Population statistics |access-date=21 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806160229/http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/estadistica.php |archive-date=6 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:1114135}} (74%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:1320401}} (87.7%)<ref>[https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf cvc.cervantes.es]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227153232/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_08.pdf |date=27 December 2021}}. 13.7% of the country's Spanish speakers are proficient; the remaining 74% are limited-competence speakers.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Portugal]] | {{formatnum:10639726}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest_boui=645507713&DESTAQUESmodo=2 |title=INE estimate |date=31 Dec 2023}}</ref> | {{formatnum:48791}}<ref name="port" /> | {{formatnum:178312}} (2% of 8,915,624) <ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:1089995}}<ref name="port" >{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_europa/espanol_portugal/demolinguistica_espanol_portugal.pdf |title= Demo lingüística del español en Portugal |publisher= Instituto Cervantes | page = 31 |access-date=2 December 2023 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222110248/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/espanol_europa/espanol_portugal/demolinguistica_espanol_portugal.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Belgium]] | {{formatnum:11812354}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibz.rrn.fgov.be/fileadmin/user_upload/fr/pop/statistiques/population-bevolking-20250101.pdf |title=Census estimate to 2025 |publisher=ibz.rrn.fgov.be}}</ref> | {{formatnum:96193}} (1% of 9,619,330) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:192387}} (2% of 9,619,330){{efn|1% of people in Belgium older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 1% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:961933}} (10% of 9,619,330) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Sweden]] | {{formatnum:10588230}}<ref>{{Cite news |title=Population statistics - Statistics Sweden |url=http://www.scb.se:80/Pages/Product____25799.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105201119/http://www.scb.se:80/Pages/Product____25799.aspx |archive-date=2013-11-05 |access-date=2025-08-15 |work=Statistiska Centralbyrån |language=sv}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:85415}} (1% of 8,541,497) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:854149}} (10% of 8,541,497) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Ivory Coast]] | {{formatnum:29389150}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ins.ci/n | title=Census, 2021}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:798095}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Australia]] | 27,309,396 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 |title=2024 Census |publisher= Australian census data |date=30 Sep 2024 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:175491}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:559491}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Switzerland]] | {{formatnum:9060598}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-19 |title=Population counter (real-time estimate) {{!}} Image |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/asset/en/32175841 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Federal Statistical Office |language=en}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:212970}}<ref name="viva18" />(2.3%)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html |title=Bevölkerung |first=Bundesamt für|last=Statistik|website=www.bfs.admin.ch|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114180444/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html|archive-date=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.exteriores.gob.es/documents/fichaspais/suiza_ficha%20pais.pdf exteriores.gob.es] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124220134/http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Documents/FichasPais/SUIZA_FICHA%20PAIS.pdf |date=24 January 2022}}. 2.3% Spanish speakers as a native language according to 2018 census.</ref> | {{formatnum:556131}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Philippines]] | {{formatnum:114123600}}<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/dhsd/Statistical%20Tables%20CBPP_0.pdf | publisher = National Statistics Office | title = Medium projection | date = 1 Jul 2025 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:6834}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:554530}}<ref name="viva18" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_18/madrid/p01.htm |title=cvc.cervantes.es |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816002359/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_18/madrid/p01.htm |url-status=live}} There are 4,803 native Spanish speakers + 461,689 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 33,600 Spanish students.</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Romania]] | {{formatnum:19051562}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2023r.pdf |title=Eurostat (1/1/2023 estimate) |publisher=insse.ro }}</ref> | | | | {{formatnum:485241}} (3 of 16,174,719) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Denmark]] | {{formatnum:5982117}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/borgere/befolkning/befolkningstal|title=Population figures|website=www.dst.dk}}</ref> | | |{{formatnum:440213}} (9% of 4,891,261) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- | [[Western Sahara]] | {{formatnum:590506}}<ref>{{cite web | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/ | title = 2024 UN estimate | year = 2024 }}</ref> | N/A<ref>The 1970 Spanish census claims there were 16,648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara at the time ([http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_99/otero/p03.htm#7]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917062525/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_99/otero/p03.htm#7|date=17 September 2009}}), but most of them were probably people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation.</ref> | | {{formatnum:423739}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Benin]] | {{formatnum:12910087}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://instad.bj/images/docs/Actualit%C3%A9s/Projection%20r%C3%A9vis%C3%A9e.pdf |title=National annual projection |date=1 Jul 2024}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:412515}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Cameroon]] | {{formatnum:28758503}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=PROJECTIONS DEMOGRAPHIQUES ET ESTIMATIONS DES CIBLES PRIORITAIRES DES DIFFERENTS PROGRAMMES ET INTERVENTIONS DE SANTE – Institut National de la Statistique du Cameroun |url=https://ins-cameroun.cm/document/projections-demographiques-et-estimations-des-cibles-prioritaires-des-differents-programmes-et-interventions-de-sante/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250512231216/https://ins-cameroun.cm/document/projections-demographiques-et-estimations-des-cibles-prioritaires-des-differents-programmes-et-interventions-de-sante/ |archive-date=2025-05-12 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=ins-cameroun.cm |date=30 June 2023 |language=fr-FR}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:403000}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Senegal]] | {{formatnum:12853259}} | | | {{formatnum:356000}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Poland]] | {{formatnum:38036118}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/other-studies/informations-on-socio-economic-situation/statistical-bulletin-no-112022,4,145.html|title=Statistical Bulletin No 11/2022|website=stat.gov.pl}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:319829}} (1% of 31,982,941) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Austria]] | {{formatnum:9198214}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population at beginning of year/quarter |url=https://www.statistik.at/en/statistics/population-and-society/population/population-stock/population-at-beginning-of-year/quarter |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=STATISTICS AUSTRIA |language=en-GB}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:76471}} (1% of 7,647,176)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:305887}} (4% of 7,647,176)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Ireland]] | {{formatnum:5380300}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-27 |title=Population and Migration Estimates, April 2024 - Central Statistics Office |url=https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-pme/populationandmigrationestimatesapril2024/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.cso.ie |language=en}}</ref> | {{formatnum:40059}} (1% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:120177}} (3% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:280414}} (7% of 4,005,909)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Belize]] | {{formatnum:430191}}<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://www.sib.org.bz/ |title=Spanish in belize |date= |language=es |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204235026/http://www.sib.org.bz/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:224130}} (52.1%)<ref name="Spanish in Belize">{{Cite report |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_42.pdf |title=Spanish in Belize. 52.1% speak Spanish with very well level. 10.7% speak Spanish with intermediate level. |date=2000 |language=es |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203033222/https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_42.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:224130}} (52.1%) | 270,160 (62.8%)<ref name="Spanish in Belize" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Czech Republic]] | {{formatnum:10897237}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://csu.gov.cz/home |title=czso.cz |language=cs |publisher=czso.cz |date= September 2024 }}</ref> | | {{formatnum:89820}} (1% of 8,982,036)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:269461}} (3% of 8,982,036)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Algeria]] | {{formatnum:47400000}}<ref>[https://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/Demographie_Algerienne2020_2023.pdf ons.dz], Census estimate for 1 Jan 2025.</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1149}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:263428}}{{efn|There are 1,149 native Spanish speakers + 173,600 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 88,679 Spanish students.}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Curaçao]], [[Sint Maarten]], [[Bonaire]], [[Sint Eustatius]] & [[Saba (island)|Saba]] | 244,700 |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 46,621 <ref name="viva18" /> | 203,339 <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Finland]] | {{formatnum:5638675}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preliminary population structure by Month, Area, Sex, Age and Information |url=https://pxdata.stat.fi/PxWebPxWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__vamuu/statfin_vamuu_pxt_11lj.px/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=PxWeb |language=en}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:186917}} (4% of 4,672,932)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Greece]] | {{formatnum:10400720}}<ref>[https://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/b248e72c-2917-bdae-1d15-98d22787adb7 statistics.gr] 1-January-2024.</ref> | | {{formatnum:91679}} (1% of 9,167,896)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:183358}} (2% of 9,167,896)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Bulgaria]] | {{formatnum:6445481}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Население към 7 септември 2021 година |url=https://www.nsi.bg/press-release/naselenie-kam-7-septemvri-2021-godina-6796 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=НСИ - Национален статистически институт |language=bg}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:59175}} (1% of 5,917,534)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:177526}} (3% of 5,917,534)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Gabon]] | {{formatnum:2408586}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Projection de la population 2019-2025 |url=https://www.statgabon.ga/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rapport-Projection_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250502204210/https://www.statgabon.ga/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rapport-Projection_Final.pdf |archive-date=2025-05-02 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.statgabon.ga}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:167410}} (students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Hungary]] | {{formatnum:9540000}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/nep/en/nep0001.html |title=Census estimate |publisher=ksh.hu |date= 1 January 2025 }}</ref> | | {{formatnum:83135}} (1% of 8,313,539)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:166271}} (2% of 8,313,539)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Russia]] | {{formatnum:146028325}}<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2025_Site.xlsx |title=Census estimate for 2025 |publisher=Russian census estimate |date=1 January 2025 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum: 28924}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:163354}} (134,430 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Japan]] | {{formatnum:123440000}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics Bureau Home Page/Population Estimates Monthly Report |url=https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.htm |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.stat.go.jp}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:131000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:160000}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Slovakia]] | {{formatnum:5421272}} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Stav obyvateľstva v SR k 30. septembru 2024 |url=https://slovak.statistics.sk/wps/portal/ext/products/informationmessages/inf_sprava_detail/3ea24db8-57c6-4e4b-b535-050d5353d478/!ut/p/z1/tVLNUsIwGHwWDz2m-SApCd4Co_wIjoAI5OK0JdAKbWobW_HpTR0vzIjgwVy-ZGZ3s5sNlniJZeqX8dY3sU79vT2vZOt5wga802kIgM6IwGB4N7vvd2-bvbmHF8cAfj-9gcGjeOhNh7QB1MPyd_4TlliGqclMhFc6KPwIFTsUpxvk74wDdqPzxLopU4WKLPfLgwNloczOTqL8Jl0HHHksbCGqaIACj3gIPFjbSdaU8Vo-C-M1Xl2EXpzLW8eBE0uA5csvSLcn-pSNAPio58FA9OfT9oQQEOQb8IvGynpgJz00GF6UsarwPK1fZo9nf4zYBzw814qtPX55fZXCdqNTo94NXv5HOfaeZj7ujrc2gW-iWlrj5UVUmyEOErcKExdcxhkQxjht0nbLI6QWFmlAuBXO1UblKnffcvudI2Oy4toBB6qqcrdab_fKDXXiwE-USBc2-DESZ8k84eSAdpvxDaEyOJCPkVqIq08a31Kc/dz/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319082306/https://slovak.statistics.sk/wps/portal/ext/products/informationmessages/inf_sprava_detail/3ea24db8-57c6-4e4b-b535-050d5353d478/!ut/p/z1/tVLNUsIwGHwWDz2m-SApCd4Co_wIjoAI5OK0JdAKbWobW_HpTR0vzIjgwVy-ZGZ3s5sNlniJZeqX8dY3sU79vT2vZOt5wga802kIgM6IwGB4N7vvd2-bvbmHF8cAfj-9gcGjeOhNh7QB1MPyd_4TlliGqclMhFc6KPwIFTsUpxvk74wDdqPzxLopU4WKLPfLgwNloczOTqL8Jl0HHHksbCGqaIACj3gIPFjbSdaU8Vo-C-M1Xl2EXpzLW8eBE0uA5csvSLcn-pSNAPio58FA9OfT9oQQEOQb8IvGynpgJz00GF6UsarwPK1fZo9nf4zYBzw814qtPX55fZXCdqNTo94NXv5HOfaeZj7ujrc2gW-iWlrj5UVUmyEOErcKExdcxhkQxjht0nbLI6QWFmlAuBXO1UblKnffcvudI2Oy4toBB6qqcrdab_fKDXXiwE-USBc2-DESZ8k84eSAdpvxDaEyOJCPkVqIq08a31Kc/dz/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/ |archive-date=2025-03-19 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=slovak.statistics.sk |language=sk}}</ref> | | {{formatnum:45915}} (1% of 4,591,487)<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:91830}} (2% of 4,591,487)<ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Israel]] | {{formatnum:10045100}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Time Series DataBank |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/Statistics/Pages/Generators/Time-Series-DataBank.aspx |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=en-US}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:104000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:149000}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Norway]] | {{formatnum:5594340}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population |url=https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/folketall/statistikk/befolkning |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=SSB |language=en}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:13000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:132888}}{{efn|There are 13,000 native Spanish speakers + 24,000 Spanish speakers with limited competence + 95,888 Spanish students.}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Aruba]] | {{formatnum:107566}}<ref>{{cite web |date=1 January 2024 |title=General characteristics of Aruba 2023 |url=https://cbs.aw/wp/index.php/2022/09/20/test-2/ |publisher=CBS}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:14737}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:89387}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Luxembourg]] | {{formatnum:672050}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistiques.public.lu/dam-assets/actualite/2024/stn16-pop-2024/stn16-2024-population-2024-v20.pdf|title=January 2024 Census estimate.}}</ref> | {{formatnum:16000}} (3% of 533,335) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> | {{formatnum:37000}} (7% of 533,335){{efn|4% of people in Italy older than 12, speak Spanish very well, and 3% speak Spanish as a native language.}}<ref name="Eurob2023b"/> | {{formatnum:80000}} (15% of 533,335) <ref name="Eurob2023"/> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Andorra]] | {{formatnum:85101}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.estadistica.ad/portal/apps/sites/#/estadistica-ca/pages/estadistiques-i-dades-detall?Idioma=ca&N2=605&N3=606&DV=797|title=2024 Census estimate}}</ref> | {{formatnum:34132}} (43.2%)<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:49018}} (57.6%)<ref>[https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf static1.ara.cat]: 43.2% speak Spanish as a mother tongue, and 14.4% as a second language.</ref> | {{formatnum:71677}} (80.0%)<ref>[https://www.andorrainfo.com/andorra/idioma.html andorrainfo.com]</ref><ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Trinidad and Tobago]] | {{formatnum:1368333}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-15 |title=Population Statistics Trinidad and Tobago |url=https://cso.gov.tt/subjects/population-and-vital-statistics/population/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=cso.gov.tt/ |language=en-US}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:4000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:70401}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[China]] | {{formatnum:1408280000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/island-areas/guam/population-and-housing-unit-counts/guam-phc-table01.pdf|title=2020 census result}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:15130}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:69028}} (53,898 students) <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[New Zealand]] | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:22000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:58373}} (36,373 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Slovenia]] | | | {{formatnum:35194}} (2%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 goodspeakers" /> of 1,759,701<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population">[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf Eurobarometr 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429224902/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_anx_en.pdf |date=29 April 2013}} (page TS2): Population older than 15. (age scale used for the Eurobarometer survey)</ref>) | {{formatnum:52791}} (3%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 1,759,701<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[India]] | {{formatnum:1428627663}}<ref>{{cite web |url= https://population.un.org/wpp/ |title= 2024 UN estimate |date= 2024 }}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:4855}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:51104}} (46,249 students)<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Guam]] | {{formatnum:153836}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202501/t20250117_1958330.html |title=Census estimate for 1 January 2025 |publisher=Stats.gov.cn}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |{{formatnum:1309}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:32233}}<ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Gibraltar]] | {{formatnum:34003}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistics - FAQ's |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |date=2020 |access-date=24 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105204953/https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/statistics/faqs |archive-date=5 January 2014}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:24958}} (73.4%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inglés y español en Gibraltar: Usos y actitudes lingüísticas entre la población joven |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426213120/https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-date=2024-04-26 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.um.es |quote=(5.2. Datos descriptivos de los usos de español e inglés, Gráfico 2). 77.3% of the Gibraltar population speak Spanish with their mother more, or equal than English.}}</ref>) | {{formatnum:31725}} (93.3 %<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inglés y español en Gibraltar: Usos y actitudes lingüísticas entre la población joven |url=https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426213120/https://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum19/secciones/estudios-23-Gibraltar.htm |archive-date=2024-04-26 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.um.es |quote=93.3 % speak at least some Spanish with their friends}}</ref>) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Lithuania]] | {{formatnum:2972949}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819130935/http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/selectvarval/saveselections.asp?MainTable=M3010101&PLanguage=1&TableStyle=&Buttons=&PXSId=7743&IQY=&TC=&ST=ST&rvar0=&rvar1=&rvar2=&rvar3=&rvar4=&rvar5=&rvar6=&rvar7=&rvar8=&rvar9=&rvar10=&rvar11=&rvar12=&rvar13=&rvar14= |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2010 |title=(2013) |publisher=db1.stat.gov.lt |access-date=24 March 2014}}</ref> | | | {{formatnum:28297}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 2,829,740<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Turkey]] | {{formatnum:85664944}} <ref>{{Cite web |title=TURKSTAT Corporate |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684&dil=2 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=data.tuik.gov.tr}}</ref> | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:5460}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:21660}} <ref name="viva18" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Egypt]] | {{formatnum:105914499}} <ref>[https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Admin/Pages%20Files/20245121324361-%20pop_new.pdf]: Census estimate (1/1/2025)</ref> | | | {{formatnum:21000}} <ref>{{cite web |url=https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_21/africa/egipto.htm |title=El español en Egipto |publisher=Instituto Cervantes |date=2021}}There are 6,000 Spanish students and 15,000 Egyptian citizens who speak Spanish for professional reasons</ref> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[US Virgin Islands]] | | {{formatnum:16788}} <ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:16788}} | {{formatnum:16788}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Latvia]] | {{formatnum:2209000}} | | | {{formatnum:13943}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 1,447,866<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Cyprus]] | | | | 2%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 660,400<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" /> |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Estonia]] | | | | {{formatnum:9457}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 945,733<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Jamaica]] | {{formatnum:2711476}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/population.aspx |title=Jamaican Population |publisher=Statinja.gov.jm |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006125038/http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/population.aspx |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> | {{formatnum:8000}}<ref name="viva18" /> | {{formatnum:8000}} | {{formatnum:8000}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Namibia]] | | {{formatnum:666}} | {{formatnum:3866}}<ref>[http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_12.pdf El español en Namibia, 2005.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302153728/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_12.pdf |date=2 March 2013}} ''[[Instituto Cervantes]]''.</ref> | {{formatnum:3866}} |- style="background:#fff;" | [[Malta]] | | | | {{formatnum:3354}} (1%<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 speakers" /> of 335,476<ref name="Eurobarometer 2012 population" />) |- style="background:#efff;" |class=sortbottom | '''Total''' | {{formatnum:8152000000}} (total world population)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/ |title=U.S. and World Population Clock |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |date=18 March 2025 }}</ref> | '''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 125098647 + 44867699 + 52090885 + 42214452 + 45574810 + 28527874 + 27720040 + 19317847 + 16877244 + 12637787 + 7485677 + 10995250 + 10323475 + 9549917 + 557001 + 6484103 + 3946502 + 5788776 + 716772 + 1444616 + 5268786 + 3944643 + 3348975 + 3049537 + 266025 + 515597 + 13204 + 223837 + 88461 + 600795 + 48265 + 96193 + 85415 + 6858 + 175491 + 4284 + 20320 + 224130 + 5150 + 1149 + 210115 + 6068 + 20070 + 104000 + 131000 + 40059 + 27921 + 16950 + 8241 + 15130 + 14737 + 4000 + 1201 + 22000 + 36763 + 47300 + 5872 + 24958 + 16000 + 5460 + 16788 + 4855 + 8000 + 1096 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 49099533900 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="worldcia">According to the CIA Factbook, Spanish is the second most spoken language at 6%, and the fourth most spoken language overall at 6.9%.</ref><ref name="viva18" /> |'''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 125632117 + 49671936 + 52090885 + 47343311 + 46856601 + 29594658 + 27720040 + 19317847 + 17474448 + 13722576 + 9927463 + 10996367 + 10323475 + 9549917 + 2228004 + 6599769 + 4318692 + 6029976 + 2150317 + 1444616 + 5268786 + 3944643 + 3467956 + 3049537 + 518480 + 1546790 + 13204 + 1209048 + 88461 + 1171450 + 178312 + 192387 + 85415 + 6858 + 175491 + 212970 + 16062 + 4284 + 76471 + 120177 + 224130 + 83135 + 173600 + 91679 + 59175 + 83135 + 131000 + 104000 + 46621 + 27921 + 8241 + 130750 + 5872 + 45914 + 16000 + 14737 + 4100 + 15130 + 1201 + 22000 + 49018 + 47300 + 5872 + 24958 + 37000 + 5460 + 16788 + 4855 + 8500 + 3870 + 1096 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 51583312100 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="viva18" /> |'''{{formatnum:{{#expr: 132300489 + 64867699 + 52962217 + 48908080 + 47188917 + 30600340 + 28240466 + 20121084 + 17642817 + 16440943 + 12064523 + 10996350 + 10747728 + 9949503 + 7798016 + 7530494 + 6734219 + 6397823 + 6023946 + 5734178 + 5326600 + 4495892 + 3467956 + 3200092 + 3110880 + 3093580 + 1754485 + 1432886 + 1328731 + 1171450 + 1089995 + 961933 + 854149 + 798095 + 559491 + 554530 + 556131 + 485241 + 440213 + 423739 + 412515 + 403000 + 356000 + 319829 + 305887 + 280414 + 270160 + 269461 + 263428 + 209250 + 203339 + 186917 + 183358 + 177526 + 167410 + 166271 + 160000 + 149000 + 147809 + 140302 + 89387 + 80000 + 71650 + 73656 + 71677 + 71650 + 70401 + 69028 + 60582 + 57883 + 51104 + 48000 + 40628 + 31805 + 31725 + 23733 + 22232 + 21660 + 21000 + 17871 + 16788 + 8500 + 8000 + 6604 + 6099 + 3969 + 227 + 39 round 0}}}}''' ({{formatnum:{{#expr: 58420367500 / 8152000000 round 1 }}}}%)<ref name="worldcia"/><ref name="viva18" /><ref name="ethnologue200">{{Cite web |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en |quote=Spanish is the fourth most spoken language with 558.5 million speakers.}}</ref> |} == Grammar == {{Main|Spanish grammar}}{{unref section|date=January 2026}}[[File:Cervantes Jáuregui.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Miguel de Cervantes]], considered by many the greatest author of Spanish literature, and author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', widely considered the first modern European novel]] Most of the grammatical and [[Linguistic typology|typological]] features of Spanish are shared with the other [[Romance languages]]. Spanish is a [[fusional language]]. The [[Spanish nouns|noun]] and [[Spanish adjectives|adjective]] systems exhibit two [[Grammatical gender|genders]] and two [[Grammatical number|numbers]]. In addition, articles and some [[Spanish pronouns|pronouns]] and [[Spanish determiners|determiners]] have a neuter gender in their singular form. There are about fifty [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] forms per [[verb]], with 3 tenses: past, present, future; 2 [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]] for past: [[Perfective aspect|perfective]], [[Imperfective aspect|imperfective]]; 4 [[Grammatical mood|moods]]: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; 3 persons: first, second, third; 2 numbers: singular, plural; 3 [[verboid]] forms: infinitive, gerund, and past participle. The indicative mood is the [[Markedness|unmarked]] one, while the subjunctive mood [[Subjunctive mood in Spanish|expresses uncertainty or indetermination]], and is commonly paired with the conditional, which is a mood used to express "would" (as in, "I would eat if I had food"); the imperative is a mood to express a command, commonly a one word phrase – "¡Di!" ("Talk!"). Verbs express [[T–V distinction]] by using different persons for formal and informal addresses. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see [[Spanish verbs]] and [[Spanish irregular verbs]].) Spanish [[syntax]] is considered [[Branching (linguistics)|right-branching]], meaning that subordinate or [[Grammatical modifier|modifying]] [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] tend to be placed after head words. The language uses [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] (rather than postpositions or inflection of nouns for [[Grammatical case|case]]), and usually—though not always—places [[adjective]]s after [[noun]]s, as do most other Romance languages. Spanish is classified as a [[subject–verb–object]] language; however, as in most Romance languages, constituent order is highly variable and governed mainly by [[topicalization]] and [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]]. It is a "[[Pro-drop language|pro-drop]]", or "[[Null-subject language|null-subject]]" language—that is, it allows the deletion of subject pronouns when they are [[Pragmatics|pragmatically]] unnecessary. Spanish is described as a "[[Verb framing|verb-framed]]" language, meaning that the ''direction'' of motion is expressed in the verb while the ''mode'' of locomotion is expressed adverbially (e.g. ''subir corriendo'' or ''salir volando''; the respective English equivalents of these examples—'to run up' and 'to fly out'—show that English is, by contrast, "satellite-framed", with mode of locomotion expressed in the verb and direction in an adverbial modifier). == Phonology == [[File:Miguel Hache - voice.ogg|thumb|Spanish as spoken in Spain]] {{Main|Spanish phonology}} The Spanish phonological system evolved from that of [[Vulgar Latin]]. Its development exhibits some traits in common with other [[Western Romance languages]], others with the neighboring Hispanic varieties—especially [[Leonese dialect|Leonese]] and [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]—as well as other features unique to Spanish. Spanish is alone among its immediate neighbors in having undergone frequent aspiration and eventual loss of the Latin initial {{IPA|/f/}} sound (e.g. Cast. {{lang|es|harina}} vs. Leon. and Arag. {{lang|ast|farina}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zamora Vicente|1967|pp=117 and 222}}</ref> The Latin initial consonant sequences {{lang|la|pl-}}, {{lang|la|cl-}}, and {{lang|la|fl-}} in Spanish typically merge as {{lang|es|ll-}} (originally pronounced {{IPA|[ʎ]}}), while in Aragonese they are preserved in most dialects, and in Leonese they present a variety of outcomes, including {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʎ]}}. Where Latin had {{lang|la|-li-}} before a vowel (e.g. {{lang|la|filius}}) or the ending {{lang|la|-iculus}}, {{lang|la|-icula}} (e.g. {{lang|la|auricula}}), Old Spanish produced {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, that in Modern Spanish became the velar fricative {{IPA|[x]}} ({{lang|es|hijo}}, {{lang|es|oreja}}), whereas neighboring languages have the palatal lateral {{IPA|[ʎ]}} (e.g. Portuguese {{lang|pt|filho}}, {{lang|pt|orelha}}; Catalan {{lang|ca|fill}}, {{lang|ca|orella}}). === Segmental phonology === [[File:Spanish vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Spanish vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Johnson|2010|p=227}}]] The Spanish [[Phoneme|phonemic]] inventory consists of five vowel phonemes ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) and 17 to 19 consonant phonemes (the exact number depending on the dialect<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hualde|2014|p=39}}</ref>). The main [[Allophone|allophonic]] variation among vowels is the reduction of the high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to glides—{{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively—when unstressed and adjacent to another vowel. Some instances of the mid vowels {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, determined lexically, alternate with the diphthongs {{IPA|/je/}} and {{IPA|/we/}} respectively when stressed, in a process that is better described as [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] rather than phonological, as it is not predictable from phonology alone. The Spanish consonant system is characterized by (1) three [[nasal stop|nasal]] phonemes, and one or two (depending on the dialect) [[lateral consonant|lateral]] phoneme(s), which in syllable-final position [[Archiphonemic|lose their contrast]] and are subject to [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] to a following consonant; (2) three [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Plosive|stops]] and the [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}}; (3) three or four (depending on the dialect) [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]]; (4) a set of voiced [[obstruent]]s—{{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, and sometimes {{IPA|/ʝ/}}—which alternate between [[Approximant consonant|approximant]] and [[plosive]] allophones depending on the environment; and (5) a phonemic distinction between the "[[Flap consonant|tapped]]" and "[[Trill consonant|trilled]]" ''r''-sounds (single {{angle bracket|r}} and double {{angle bracket|rr}} in orthography). In the following table of consonant phonemes, {{IPA|/ʎ/}} is marked with an asterisk (*) to indicate that it is preserved only in some dialects. In most dialects it has been merged with {{IPA|/ʝ/}} in the merger called {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}}. Similarly, {{IPA|/θ/}} is also marked with an asterisk to indicate that most dialects do not distinguish it from {{IPA|/s/}} (see {{lang|es|[[seseo]]}}), although this is not a true merger but an outcome of different evolution of sibilants in southern Spain. The phoneme {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is in parentheses () to indicate that it appears only in [[loanwords]]. Each of the voiced obstruent phonemes {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ʝ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} appears to the right of a ''pair'' of voiceless phonemes, to indicate that, while the ''voiceless'' phonemes maintain a phonemic contrast between plosive (or affricate) and fricative, the ''voiced'' ones alternate [[Allophone|allophonically]] (i.e. without phonemic contrast) between plosive and approximant pronunciations. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align: center;" |+ Consonant phonemes<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Martínez-Celdrán|Fernández-Planas|Carrera-Sabaté|2003|p=255}}</ref> |- ! ! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] ! colspan=2 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|m}} | colspan=2 | | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|n}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ɲ}} | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Stop consonant|Stop]] | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|p}}||rowspan=2 style="border-left: 0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|b}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|t̪|t}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|d̪|d}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| || rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"| | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|tʃ}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ʝ}} | style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|k}}|| rowspan="2" style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}} |- ! [[Continuant]] |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|f}} |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|θ}}* |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|s}} |style="border-right: 0;"|({{IPA link|ʃ}}) |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|x}} |- ! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|l}} |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ʎ}}* | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɾ}} | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |- ! [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|r}} | colspan=2 | | colspan=2 | |} === Prosody === Spanish is classified by its [[Isochrony|rhythm]] as a [[isochrony#syllable timing|syllable-timed language]]: each syllable has approximately the same duration regardless of stress.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Cressey|1978|p=152}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Abercrombie|1967|p=98}}</ref> Spanish [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] varies significantly according to dialect but generally conforms to a pattern of falling tone for declarative sentences and [[Question#Open_questions|wh-questions]] (who, what, why, etc.) and rising tone for [[Yes–no question|yes/no questions]].<ref>{{cite book |author=John B. Dabor |title=Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice |edition=3rd |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |year=1997 |chapter=Ch. 7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/Spanish/FLSP0501/dalvofile.html |title=John B. Dalbor's Voice Files to Accompany ''Spanish Pronunciation'' |publisher=Auburn.edu |access-date=20 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308071525/http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/Spanish/FLSP0501/dalvofile.html |archive-date=8 March 2012}}</ref> There are no syntactic markers to distinguish between questions and statements and thus, the recognition of declarative or interrogative depends entirely on intonation. Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word, with some rare exceptions at the fourth-to-last or earlier syllables. Stress tends to occur as follows:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Eddington|2000|p=96}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} * in words that end with a [[monophthong]], on the penultimate syllable * when the word ends in a [[diphthong]], on the final syllable. * in words that end with a consonant, on the last syllable, with the exception of two grammatical endings: {{lang|es|-n}}, for third-person-plural of verbs, and {{lang|es|-s}}, for plural of nouns and adjectives or for second-person-singular of verbs. However, even though a significant number of nouns and adjectives ending with {{lang|es|-n}} are also stressed on the penult ({{lang|es|joven}}, {{lang|es|virgen}}, {{lang|es|mitin}}), the great majority of nouns and adjectives ending with {{lang|es|-n}} are stressed on their last syllable ({{lang|es|capitán}}, {{lang|es|almacén}}, {{lang|es|jardín}}, {{lang|es|corazón}}). * Preantepenultimate stress (stress on the fourth-to-last syllable) occurs rarely, only on verbs with [[clitic]] pronouns attached (e.g. {{lang|es|guardándoselos}} 'saving them for him/her/them/you'). In addition to the many exceptions to these tendencies, there are numerous [[minimal pair]]s that contrast solely on stress such as {{lang|es|sábana}} ('sheet') and {{lang|es|sabana}} ('savannah'); {{lang|es|límite}} ('boundary'), {{lang|es|limite}} ('he/she limits') and {{lang|es|limité}} ('I limited'); {{lang|es|líquido}} ('liquid'), {{lang|es|liquido}} ('I sell off') and {{lang|es|liquidó}} ('he/she sold off'). The orthographic system unambiguously reflects where the stress occurs: in the absence of an accent mark, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last letter is {{angle bracket|n}}, {{angle bracket|s}}, or a vowel, in which cases the stress falls on the next-to-last (penultimate) syllable. Exceptions to those rules are indicated by an acute accent mark over the vowel of the stressed syllable. (See [[Spanish orthography]].) == Speaker population == Spanish is the official, or national language in [[Hispanic America|18 countries and one territory in the Americas]], [[Spain]], and [[Equatorial Guinea]]. With a population of over 410 million, [[Spanish language in the Americas|Hispanophone America]] accounts for the vast majority of Spanish speakers, of which [[Mexico]] is the most populous Spanish-speaking country. In the [[European Union]], Spanish is the [[First language|mother tongue]] of 8% of the population, with an additional 7% speaking it as a second language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Europeans and their Languages |access-date=2 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016}}</ref> Additionally, Spanish is the second most spoken language in the [[United States]] and is by far the most popular foreign language among students.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |title=Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S |publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=20 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814042126/http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |archive-date=14 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, it was estimated that over 50 million Americans spoke Spanish, about 41 million of whom were native speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country|title=US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain – only Mexico has more|work=The Guardian|date=29 June 2015|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=23 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123045244/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country|url-status=live}}</ref> With continued immigration and increased use of the language domestically in public spheres and media, the number of Spanish speakers in the United States is expected to continue growing over the forthcoming decades.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2011/demo/2011-Shin-Ortman.html|title=Language Projections: 2010 to 2020|publisher=United States Census Bureau|website=The United States Census Bureau|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819054204/https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2011/demo/2011-Shin-Ortman.html|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Dialectal variation == [[File:Variedades principales del español.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A world map attempting to identify the main dialects of Spanish]] {{Main|Spanish dialects and varieties}} While being mutually intelligible, there are important variations ([[Phonology|phonological]], [[Grammar|grammatical]], and [[Lexicon|lexical]]) in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas. The national variety with the most speakers is [[Mexican Spanish]]. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112&nbsp;million of the total of more than 500&nbsp;million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the [[vowel reduction|reduction]] or loss of [[unstressed vowel]]s, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.<ref>Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) [https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&dq=Mexican+vowels&pg=PA154 ''Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2''], pp. 154–155, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915115219/https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&pg=PA154&dq=Mexican+vowels&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Mexican%20vowels&f=false |date=15 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lope Blanch, Juan M. |year=1972 |chapter=En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano |pages=53–73 |title=Estudios sobre el español de México |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |language=es |url=http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011128/http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf}}</ref> In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. The speech from the educated classes of Madrid is the standard variety for use on radio and television in Spain and it is indicated by many as the one that has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny |2000|p=199}}: "whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard."</ref> Central (European) Spanish speech patterns have been noted to be in the process of merging with more innovative southern varieties (including Eastern Andalusian and Murcian), as an emerging interdialectal levelled ''koine'' buffered between the Madrid's traditional national standard and the Seville speech trends.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Juan Manuel|last1=Hernández Campoy|first2=Juan Andrés |last2=Villena Ponsoda |title=Standardness and nonstandardness in Spain: dialect attrition and revitalization of regional dialects of Spanish |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|year=2009 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2009.021 |issue=196–197 |pages=185–186 |s2cid=145000590 |url=https://www.academia.edu/30322624 |access-date=24 January 2022|url-status=live|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124040200/https://www.academia.edu/30322624/Standardness_and_nonstandardness_in_Spain_dialect_attrition_and_revitalization_of_regional_dialects_of_Spanish}}</ref> === Phonology === {{See also|Phonetic change "f → h" in Spanish}} The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the phoneme {{IPAslink|θ}}, (2) the [[debuccalization]] of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}}, (3) the sound of the spelled {{angle bracket|s}}, (4) and the phoneme {{IPAslink|ʎ}}. * The phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}} (spelled {{lang|es|c}} before {{lang|es|e}} or {{lang|es|i}} and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} elsewhere), a [[voiceless dental fricative]] as in English '''''th'''ing'', is maintained by a majority of Spain's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. In other areas (some parts of southern Spain, the [[Canary Islands]], and the Americas), {{IPA|/θ/}} does not exist and {{IPA|/s/}} occurs instead. The maintenance of phonemic contrast is called {{lang|es|[[distinción]]}} in Spanish, while the merger is generally called {{lang|es|[[seseo]]}} (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as {{IPA|[s]}}) or, occasionally, {{lang|es|[[ceceo]]}} (referring to its interdental realization, {{IPA|[θ]}}, in some parts of southern Spain). In most of Hispanic America, the spelled {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}, and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} is always pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]]. * The debuccalization (pronunciation as {{IPA|[h]}}, or loss) of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is associated with the southern half of Spain and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and {{lang|es|aspiración}} in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is pronounced as [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] or as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] in the same fashion as in the next paragraph. * The sound that corresponds to the letter {{angle bracket|s}} is pronounced in northern and central Spain as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] {{IPA|[s̺]}} (also described acoustically as "[[Grave and acute|grave]]" and articulatorily as "retracted"), with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] fricatives. In [[Andalusia]], [[Canary Islands]] and most of Hispanic America (except in the [[Colombian Spanish#Paisa dialect|Paisa region]] of Colombia) it is pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] {{IPA|[s]}}, much like the most frequent pronunciation of the /s/ of English. * The phoneme {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, spelled {{angle bracket|ll}}, a [[Palatal lateral approximant|palatal lateral]] consonant that can be approximated by the sound of the {{angle bracket|lli}} of English ''million'', tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spain and in the [[Andean Spanish|highland areas of South America]], as well as in [[Paraguayan Spanish|Paraguay]] and [[Bolivian Spanish#Dialects|lowland Bolivia]]. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish speakers, it is merged with {{IPA|/ʝ/}} ("curly-tail ''j''"), a non-lateral, usually voiced, usually fricative, palatal consonant, sometimes compared to English {{IPA|/j/}} (''yod'') as in '''''y'''acht'' and spelled {{angle bracket|y}} in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world languages, the small difference of the spelled {{angle bracket|ll}} and the spelled {{angle bracket|y}} is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}} in Spanish. In [[Rioplatense Spanish]], the merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a postalveolar fricative, either voiced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} (as in English ''measure'' or the French {{angle bracket|j}}) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region ({{lang|es|zheísmo}}), or voiceless {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (as in the French {{angle bracket|ch}} or Portuguese {{angle bracket|x}}) in and around Buenos Aires and Montevideo ({{lang|es|sheísmo}}).<ref>Charles B. Chang, [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213655/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf |date=4 October 2013}}. Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54–63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.</ref> === Morphology === The main [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns, especially those of the second [[Grammatical person|person]] and, to a lesser extent, the [[object pronoun]]s of the third [[Grammatical person|person]]. ==== Voseo ==== {{Main|Voseo}} [[File:Voseo-extension-real.PNG|thumb|An examination of the dominance and stress of the {{lang|es|voseo}} feature in Hispanic America. Data generated as illustrated by the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]. The darker the area, the stronger its dominance.]] Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the [[T–V distinction|distinction]] between a formal and a familiar [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] in the [[Grammatical person|second-person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]] and thus have two different [[pronoun]]s meaning "you": {{lang|es|usted}} in the formal and either {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} varying from one dialect to another. The use of {{lang|es|vos}} and its verb forms is called {{lang|es|[[voseo]]}}. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used, with {{lang|es|usted}}, {{lang|es|tú}}, and {{lang|es|vos}} denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.<ref name="rae.es site">{{cite web |date=2023-06-11 |orig-date=October 2005 |url=http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |title=Diccionario panhispánico de dudas|trans-title=Pan-Hispanic Dictionary of Doubts |publisher=Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española [Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language] |language=es |access-date=2023-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305022017/http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |archive-date=5 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> In {{lang|es|voseo}}, {{lang|es|vos}} is the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] form ({{lang|es|vos decís}}, "you say") and the form for the object of a [[Preposition and postposition|preposition]] ({{lang|es|voy con vos}}, "I am going with you"), while the direct and indirect [[Object (grammar)|object]] forms, and the [[Possessive adjective|possessives]], are the same as those associated with {{lang|es|tú}}: {{lang|es|Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan}} ("You know your friends respect you"). The verb forms of the general {{lang|es|voseo}} are the same as those used with {{lang|es|tú}} except in the present [[grammatical tense|tense]] ([[indicative]] and [[imperative mood|imperative]]) verbs. The forms for {{lang|es|vos}} generally can be derived from those of {{lang|es|vosotros}} (the traditional second-person familiar ''plural'') by deleting the [[semivowel|glide]] {{IPA|[i̯]}}, or {{IPA|/d/}}, where it appears in the ending: {{lang|es|vosotros pensá'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos pensás}}; {{lang|es|vosotros volvé'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos volvés}}, {{lang|es|pensa'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|pensá!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}), {{lang|es|volve'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|volvé!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/voseo |title=Voseo según DPD |language=es |access-date=27 January 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104222442/http://www.rae.es/dpd/?key=voseo |url-status=live}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ General {{lang|es|voseo}} ([[Rioplatense Spanish|River Plate Spanish]]) ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensás}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pienses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|pensá}} |- | {{lang|es|volvés}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''vuelvas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|volvé}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''duermas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|dormí}} |- | colspan=8|The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} In Central American {{lang|es|voseo}}, the {{lang|es|tú}} and {{lang|es|vos}} forms differ in the present subjunctive as well: {| class="wikitable" |+ Central American {{lang|es|voseo}} ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensás}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}} | {{lang|es|pensés}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|pensá}} |- | {{lang|es|volvés}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}} | {{lang|es|volvás}} | {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|volvé}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}} | {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}} | {{lang|es|durmás}} | {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|dormí}} |- | colspan=8|The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} In Chilean {{lang|es|voseo}}, almost all {{lang|es|vos}} forms are distinct from the corresponding standard {{lang|es|tú}}-forms. {| class="wikitable" |+ Chilean {{lang|es|voseo}} ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |Indicative ! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Subjunctive ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Imperative |- ! Present ! Simple past ! Imperfect past ! Future<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baquero Velásquez |first1=Julia M. |last2=Westphal Montt |first2=Germán F. |year=2014 |title=Un análisis sincrónico del voseo verbal chileno y rioplatense |journal=Forma y Función |language=es |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=11–40 |doi=10.15446/fyf.v27n2.47558 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ! Conditional ! Present ! Past |- | {{lang|es|pensái(s)}} | {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}} | {{lang|es|pensabais}} | {{lang|es|pensarí(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|pensaráis}} | {{lang|es|pensaríai(s)}} | {{lang|es|pensí(s)}} | {{lang|es|pensarai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}} | {{lang|es|'''piensa'''}} |- | {{lang|es|volví(s)}} | {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}} | {{lang|es|volvíai(s)}} | {{lang|es|volverí(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|volveráis}} | {{lang|es|volveríai(s)}} | {{lang|es|volvái(s)}} | {{lang|es|volvierai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''vuelve'''}} |- | {{lang|es|dormís}} | {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}} | {{lang|es|dormíais}} | {{lang|es|dormirís}}<br />{{lang|es|dormiráis}} | {{lang|es|dormiríais}} | {{lang|es|durmáis}} | {{lang|es|durmierais}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}} | {{lang|es|'''duerme'''}} |- | colspan="8" |The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''{{lang|es|tú}}'''-conjugation''. |} The use of the pronoun {{lang|es|vos}} with the verb forms of {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|vos piensas}}) is called "pronominal {{lang|es|voseo}}". Conversely, the use of the verb forms of {{lang|es|vos}} with the pronoun {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|tú pensás}} or {{lang|es|tú pensái}}) is called "verbal {{lang|es|voseo}}". In Chile, for example, verbal {{lang|es|voseo}} is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun {{lang|es|vos}}, which is usually reserved for highly informal situations. ===== Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas ===== Although {{lang|es|vos}} is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, with wide differences in social consideration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andrew|date=10 April 2018|title=A Brief Guide to Regional Variation of the Forms of Address (Tú, Vos, Usted) in Spanish|url=https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|access-date=2 November 2020|website=Learn Spanish with Andrew|language=en-US|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032144/https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2020}} Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of {{lang|es|tuteo}} (the use of {{lang|es|tú}}) in the following areas: almost all of [[Mexico]], the [[West Indies]], [[Panama]], most of [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] and coastal [[Ecuador]]. {{lang|es|Tuteo}} as a cultured form alternates with {{lang|es|voseo}} as a popular or rural form in [[Bolivia]], in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]]), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that {{lang|es|voseo}} can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.<ref>Katia Salamanca de Abreu, [http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf review of Humberto López Morales, ''Estudios sobre el español de Cuba''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221132209/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf |date=21 December 2012}} (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in ''Thesaurus'', 28 (1973), 138–146.</ref> {{lang|es|Tuteo}} exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar {{lang|es|voseo}} in [[Chile]], in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]], on the Caribbean coast of [[Colombia]], in the [[Azuero Peninsula]] in Panama, in the Mexican state of [[Chiapas]], and in parts of Guatemala. Areas of generalized {{lang|es|voseo}} include [[Argentina]], [[Nicaragua]], eastern [[Bolivia]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]] and the Colombian departments of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], [[Caldas Department|Caldas]], [[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]], [[Quindio]] and [[Valle del Cauca]].<ref name="rae.es site" /> ==== Ustedes ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}}{{lang|es|Ustedes}} functions as formal and informal second-person plural in all of Hispanic America, the [[Canary Islands]], and parts of [[Andalusia]]. It agrees with verbs in the 3rd person plural. Most of Spain maintains the [[T-V distinction|formal/familiar distinction]] with {{lang|es|ustedes}} and {{lang|es|vosotros}} respectively. The use of {{lang|es|ustedes}} with the second person plural is sometimes heard in Andalusia, but it is non-standard. ==== Usted ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}}{{lang|es|Usted}} is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, but it is used jointly with the third-person singular voice of the verb. It is used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a ''familiar'' context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}}. This usage is sometimes called ''{{ill|ustedeo|es}}'' in Spanish. In Central America, especially in Honduras, {{lang|es|usted}} is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. {{lang|es|Usted}} is also used that way between parents and children in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. ==== Third-person object pronouns ==== {{unref section|date=January 2026}} Most speakers use (and the {{lang|es|[[Real Academia Española]]}} prefers) the pronouns {{lang|es|lo}} and {{lang|es|la}} for [[Object (grammar)|direct objects]] (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of [[animacy]], meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and {{lang|es|le}} for [[Object (grammar)|indirect objects]] (regardless of [[Grammatical gender|gender]] or [[animacy]], meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). The usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[Dative case|dative]] pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish. A number of dialects (more common in Spain than in the Americas) use additional rules for the pronouns, such as animacy, or [[count noun]] vs. [[mass noun]], rather than just direct vs. indirect object. The ways of using the pronouns in such varieties are called "{{lang|es|[[leísmo]]}}", "{{lang|es|[[loísmo]]}}", or "{{lang|es|[[laísmo]]}}", according to which respective pronoun, {{lang|es|le}}, {{lang|es|lo}}, or {{lang|es|la}}, covers more than just the etymological usage ({{lang|es|le}} as a direct object, or {{lang|es|lo}} or {{lang|es|la}} as an indirect object). === Vocabulary === Some words can be significantly different in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish {{lang|es|mantequilla}}, {{lang|es|aguacate}} and {{lang|es|albaricoque}} (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to {{lang|es|manteca}} (word used for [[lard]] in [[Peninsular Spanish]]), {{lang|es|palta}}, and {{lang|es|damasco}}, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except {{lang|es|manteca}}), Paraguay, Peru (except {{lang|es|manteca}} and {{lang|es|damasco}}), and Uruguay. In the healthcare context, an assessment of the Spanish translation of the [[Quality of well-being scale|QWB-SA]] identified some regional vocabulary choices and US-specific concepts, which cannot be successfully implemented in Spain without adaptation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Congost-Maestre |first=Nereida |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Sociocultural issues in adapting Spanish health survey translation: The case of the QWB-SA (Chapter 10) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=203–220 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211122733/https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vocabulary == Spanish vocabulary has been influenced by several languages. As in other European languages, [[Classical Greek]] words (Hellenisms) are abundant in the terminologies of several fields, including art, science, politics, nature, etc.<ref>Bergua Cavero, J., ''Los helenismos del español : historia y sistema'', Madrid (Gredos) 2004, {{ISBN|9788424927103}}</ref> Its vocabulary has also been [[Influence of Arabic on Spanish|influenced by Arabic]], having developed during the [[Al-Andalus]] era in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], with about 8% of its vocabulary having [[Arabic language|Arabic]] lexical roots.<ref>{{cite book|last=Versteegh |first=Kees |title=The Arabic language|year=2003 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-7486-1436-2|page=228 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHfse3YY6NAC&pg=PA228|edition=Repr.|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626183745/http://books.google.com/books?id=OHfse3YY6NAC&pg=PA228|archive-date=26 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lapesa |first=Raphael|title=Historia de la lengua española|year=1960|publisher=|location=<!--Madrid-->|page=97}}<br />—OR—<br />{{cite book |last=Castro |first=Américo |title=The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History |year=1985 |translator1=Willard F. King |translator2=Selma Margaretten |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05469-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJdbJK_sl2oC&pg=PA255 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=24 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124185157/https://books.google.com/books?id=uJdbJK_sl2oC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}{{verify source|date=November 2023|reason=Which one? The original cite was mixed}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quintana|first1=Lucía |last2=Mora |first2=Juan Pablo |title=Enseñanza del acervo léxico árabe de la lengua española |journal=ASELE. Actas XIII|year=2002 |page=705 |url=http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/13/13_0697.pdf |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528020256/http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/13/13_0697.pdf|archive-date=28 May 2016|url-status=live}}: "El léxico español de procedencia árabe es muy abundante: se ha señalado que constituye, aproximadamente, un 8% del vocabulario total"</ref><ref name="Dworkin83">{{cite book |last=Dworkin|first=Steven N.|title=A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective|year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954114-0|page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915153824/https://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83 |archive-date=15 September 2015|url-status=live}},{{cite book|last=Macpherson|first=I. R.|title=Spanish phonology |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=0-7190-0788-7|page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VrpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223094503/https://books.google.com/books?id=9VrpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 |archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}},{{cite book |last=Martínez Egido|first=José Joaquín |title=Constitución del léxico español|year=2007 |page=15|publisher=Liceus, Servicios de Gestió |isbn=978-84-9822-653-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbVIY4qAA9cC&pg=PA15|access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626183748/http://books.google.com/books?id=cbVIY4qAA9cC&pg=PA15|archive-date=26 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> It may have also been influenced by [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Gothic language|Visigothic]], and other neighboring Ibero-Romance languages.<ref>{{cite web|title=La época visigoda / Susana Rodríguez Rosique |publisher=Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes |website=www.cervantesvirtual.com |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-poca-visigoda-0/html/00f49212-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_2.html|language=es|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208133217/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/la-poca-visigoda-0/html/00f49212-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_2.html|archive-date=8 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dworkin83" /> Additionally, it has absorbed vocabulary from other languages, particularly other Romance languages such as [[French language|French]], [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], as well as from [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], and [[List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin|other indigenous languages of the Americas]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|1991|pp=224–236}}</ref> In the 18th century, words taken from French referring above all to fashion, cooking and bureaucracy were added to the Spanish lexicon. In the 19th century, new loanwords were incorporated, especially from English and German, but also from Italian in areas related to music, particularly opera and cooking. In the 20th century, the pressure of English in the fields of technology, computing, science and sports was greatly accentuated. In general, [[Hispanic America]] is more susceptible to loanwords from English or Anglicisms. For example: [[Computer mouse|mouse]] (computer mouse) is used in Hispanic America, in [[Spain]] ''ratón'' is used. This happens largely due to closer contact with the [[United States]]. For its part, Spain is known by the use of Gallicisms or words taken from neighboring [[France]] (such as the Gallicism ''ordenador'' in European Spanish, in contrast to the Anglicism ''computador'' or ''computadora'' in American Spanish). == Relation to other languages == {{further|Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish}} Spanish is closely related to the other [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance languages]], including [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. It is somewhat less similar, to varying degrees, from other members of the [[Romance language]] family. It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese and Spanish speakers can communicate in written form, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jensen|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dalby|1998|p=501}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ginsburgh|Weber|2011|p=90}}</ref> [[Mutual intelligibility]] of the ''written'' Spanish and Portuguese languages is high, lexically and grammatically. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' gives estimates of the [[lexical similarity]] between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%, although phonologically the two languages are quite dissimilar. Italian on the other hand, is phonologically similar to Spanish, while sharing lower lexical and grammatical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and [[French language|French]] or between Spanish and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|title=Spanish|work=Ethnologue|access-date=19 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100707/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|archive-date=15 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|title=Similar languages to Spanish|work=EZGlot|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621191245/http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|archive-date=21 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication. The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages: <div style="overflow:auto;"> {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Latin]] ! Spanish ! [[Galician language|Galician]] ! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ! [[Astur-Leonese linguistic group|Astur-Leonese]] ! [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]] ! [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ! [[French language|French]] ! [[Italian language|Italian]] ! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ! [[English language|English]] |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nōs (alterōs)}}|italic=no}}<sup>1,2</sup><br />"we (others)" | {{lang|es|'''nosotros'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''nós''', '''nosoutros'''}}<sup>3</sup> | {{lang|pt|nós, nós outros}}<sup>3</sup> | {{lang|ast|'''nós'''}}, {{lang|ast|'''nosotros'''}} | {{lang|an|'''nusatros'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''nosaltres'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''nós'''}}) | {{lang|fr|nous}}<sup>4</sup> | {{lang|it|noi, noialtri}}<sup>5</sup> | {{lang|ro|noi}} | 'we' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|frātre(m) germānu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"true brother" | {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''irmán'''}} | {{lang|pt|irmão}} | {{lang|ast|'''hermanu'''}} | {{lang|an|'''chirmán'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''frare'''}})<sup>6</sup> | {{lang|fr|frère}} | {{lang|it|fratello}} | {{lang|ro|frate}} | 'brother' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|die(m)&nbsp;mārtis}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;([[Classical Latin|Classical]])<br />"day of Mars"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|tertia(m)&nbsp;fēria(m)}}|italic=no}} ([[Late Latin|Late&nbsp;Latin]])<br />"third (holi)day" | {{lang|es|'''martes'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''Martes''', '''Terza&nbsp;Feira'''}} | {{lang|pt|Terça-Feira}} | {{lang|ast|'''Martes'''}} | {{lang|an|'''Martes'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''Dimarts'''}} | {{lang|fr|Mardi}} | {{lang|it|Martedì}} | {{lang|ro|Marți}} | 'Tuesday' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cantiōne(m)}}<br />{{smallcaps|canticu(m)}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''canción'''}}<sup>7</sup><br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''cançón'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''canción''', '''cançom'''}}<sup>8</sup> | {{lang|pt|canção}} | {{lang|ast|'''canción'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''canciu'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''canta'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''cançó'''}} | {{lang|fr|chanson}} | {{lang|it|canzone}} | {{lang|ro|cântec}} | 'song' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|magis}}|italic=no}}<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|plūs}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''más'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''plus'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''máis'''}} | {{lang|pt|mais}} | {{lang|ast|'''más'''}} | {{lang|an|'''más'''}}<br />(also {{lang|an|'''més'''}}) | {{lang|ca|'''més'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''pus'''}} or {{lang|ca|'''plus'''}}) | {{lang|fr|plus}} | {{lang|it|più}} | {{lang|ro|mai}} | 'more' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|manu(m)&nbsp;sinistra(m)}}|italic=no}} | {{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;siniestra'''}}) | {{lang|gl|'''man&nbsp;esquerda'''}}<sup>9</sup> | {{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;esquerda}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;sẽestra}}) | {{lang|ast|'''manu&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(or&nbsp;{{lang|ast|'''esquierda'''}};<br />also {{lang|ast|'''manzorga'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''man&nbsp;cucha'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;esquerra'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;sinistra'''}}) | {{lang|fr|main&nbsp;gauche}} | {{lang|it|mano&nbsp;sinistra}} | {{lang|ro|mâna&nbsp;stângă}} | 'left&nbsp;hand' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|rēs, rĕm}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nūlla(m)&nbsp;rem nāta(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"no born thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|mīca(m)}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"crumb" | {{lang|es|'''nada'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|gl|'''ren'''}} and {{lang|gl|'''res'''}}) | {{lang|pt|nada (arch. rés)}} | {{lang|ast|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''un res'''}}) | {{lang|an|'''cosa'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''res'''}} | {{lang|fr|rien, nul}} | {{lang|it|niente, nulla}}<br />{{lang|it|mica}} (negative particle) | {{lang|ro|nimic, nul}} | 'nothing' |- | {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cāseu(m) fōrmāticu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"form-cheese" | {{lang|es|'''queso'''}} | {{lang|gl|'''queixo'''}} | {{lang|pt|queijo}} | {{lang|ast|'''quesu'''}} | {{lang|an|'''queso'''}} | {{lang|ca|'''formatge'''}} | {{lang|fr|fromage}} | {{lang|it|formaggio/cacio}} | {{lang|ro|caș}}<sup>10</sup> | 'cheese' |}</div> 1. In Romance etymology, Latin terms are given in the Accusative since most forms derive from this case.<br /> 2. As in "us very selves", an emphatic expression.<br /> 3. Also {{lang|pt|nós outros}} in early modern Portuguese (e.g. ''[[The Lusiads]]''), and {{lang|gl|nosoutros}} in Galician.<br /> 4. Alternatively {{lang|fr|nous autres}} in [[French language|French]].<br /> 5. {{lang|it|noialtri}} in many Southern [[List of languages of Italy|Italian dialects and languages]].<br /> 6. Medieval Catalan (e.g. ''[[Llibre dels fets]]'').<br /> 7. Modified with the learned suffix ''-ción''.<br /> 8. Depending on the written norm used (see [[Reintegrationism]]).<br /> 9. From [[Basque language|Basque]] ''esku'', "hand" + ''erdi'', "half, incomplete". This negative meaning also applies for Latin ''sinistra(m)'' ("dark, unfortunate").<br /> 10. Romanian ''caș'' (from Latin {{smallcaps|cāsevs}}) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is ''brânză'' (from unknown etymology).<ref>Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin ''brandeum'' (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *''brandea''. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish ''manteca'', Portuguese ''manteiga'', probably from Latin ''mantica'' ('sack'), Italian ''formaggio'' and French ''fromage'' from ''formaticus''. [http://dexonline.ro./definitie/brânză Romanian Explanatory Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134722/https://dexonline.ro/definitie/br%C3%A2nz%C4%83 |date=18 February 2020}}</ref> === Judaeo-Spanish === {{Further|Judaeo-Spanish}} [[File:Rashiscript.PNG|thumb|The [[Rashi script]], originally used to print Judaeo-Spanish]] [[File:Delacroix letter.png|thumb|upright=0.85|An original letter in Haketia, written in 1832]] Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,<ref name="Ladino">{{cite web |last=Alfassa |first=Shelomo |title=Ladinokomunita |url=http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |date=December 1999 |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture |access-date=4 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402055529/http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |archive-date=2 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and some old Portuguese and is spoken by descendants of the [[Sephardi Jews]] who were [[Alhambra decree|expelled from Spain in the 15th century]].<ref name="Ladino" /> While in Portugal the conversion of Jews occurred earlier and the assimilation of [[New Christians]] was overwhelming, in Spain the Jews kept their language and identity. The relationship of Ladino and Spanish is therefore comparable with that of the [[Yiddish language]] to [[German language|German]]. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively [[Sephardim|Sephardi]] Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.<ref name="Ladino" /> Judaeo-Spanish lacks the [[Amerindian languages|Native American vocabulary]] which was acquired by standard Spanish during the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial period]], and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], French, Greek and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled. Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly ''olim'' (immigrants to [[Israel]]) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In Hispanic American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to assimilation by modern Spanish. A related dialect is [[Haketia]], the Judaeo-Spanish of northern [[Morocco]]. This too, tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region. == Writing system == {{Main|Spanish orthography}} {{Spanish language}} Spanish is written in the [[Latin script]], with the addition of the character {{angle bracket|[[ñ]]}} ({{lang|es|eñe}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]/}}, a letter distinct from {{angle bracket|n}}, although typographically composed of an {{angle bracket|n}} with a [[tilde]]). Formerly the [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] {{angle bracket|ch}} ({{lang|es|che}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}) and {{angle bracket|ll}} ({{lang|es|elle}}, representing the phoneme {{IPA|/[[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]/}} or {{IPA|/ʝ/}}), were also considered single letters. However, the digraph {{angle bracket|rr}} ({{lang|es|erre fuerte}}, 'strong r', {{lang|es|erre doble}}, 'double r', or simply {{lang|es|erre}}), which also represents a distinct phoneme {{IPA|/r/}}, was not similarly regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 {{angle bracket|ch}} and {{angle bracket|ll}} have been treated as letter pairs for [[collation]] purposes, though they remained a part of the alphabet until 2010. Words with {{angle bracket|ch}} are now alphabetically sorted between those with {{angle bracket|cg}} and {{angle bracket|ci}}, instead of following {{angle bracket|cz}} as they used to. The situation is similar for {{angle bracket|ll}}.<ref>[http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ch Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416180544/http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=ch |date=16 April 2008}}, 1st ed.</ref><ref>[http://www.rae.es/ Real Academia Española] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012019/http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?TIPO_HTML=2&LEMA=cedilla |date=11 October 2017}}, [http://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html Explanation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906105503/https://www.spanishpronto.com/spanishpronto/spanishalphabet.html |date=6 September 2007}} at [http://www.spanishpronto.com/ Spanish Pronto] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914002335/https://www.spanishpronto.com/ |date=14 September 2007}} {{in lang|es|en}}</ref> Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters: :{{lang|es|A, B, C,<!-- ch considered digraph - see next references. --> D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L,<!-- ll considered digraph - see next references. --> M, N, Ñ, O, P, Q, R, <!-- but not rr See previous paragraph. --> S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.}} Since 2010, none of the digraphs ({{lang|es|ch, ll, rr, gu, qu}}) are considered letters by the Royal Spanish Academy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rae.es/consultas/exclusion-de-ch-y-ll-del-abecedario|title=Exclusión de ch y ll del abecedario &#124; Real Academia Española|website=www.rae.es|access-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428205219/https://www.rae.es/consultas/exclusion-de-ch-y-ll-del-abecedario|archive-date=28 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The letters {{lang|es|k}} and {{lang|es|w}} are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages ({{lang|es|kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi}}, etc.). With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as {{lang|es|México}} (see [[Toponymy of Mexico#Phonetic evolution|Toponymy of Mexico]]), pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the [[syllable]] before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including {{angle bracket|y}}) or with a vowel followed by {{angle bracket|n}} or an {{angle bracket|s}}; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an [[acute accent]] on the [[stress (linguistics)|stressed vowel]]. The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain [[homophone]]s, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a [[clitic]]: compare {{lang|es|el}} ('the', masculine singular definite article) with {{lang|es|él}} ('he' or 'it'), or {{lang|es|te}} ('you', object pronoun) with {{lang|es|té}} ('tea'), {{lang|es|de}} (preposition 'of') versus {{lang|es|dé}} ('give' [formal imperative/third-person present subjunctive]), and {{lang|es|se}} (reflexive pronoun) versus {{lang|es|sé}} ('I know' or imperative 'be'). The interrogative pronouns ({{lang|es|qué}}, {{lang|es|cuál}}, {{lang|es|dónde}}, {{lang|es|quién}}, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives ({{lang|es|ése}}, {{lang|es|éste}}, {{lang|es|aquél}}, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. Accent marks used to be omitted on capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of [[typewriter]]s and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the {{lang|es|Real Academia Española}} advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent. When {{lang|es|u}} is written between {{lang|es|g}} and a front vowel {{lang|es|e}} or {{lang|es|i}}, it indicates a "[[Hard and soft G|hard g]]" pronunciation. A [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] {{lang|es|ü}} indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., {{lang|es|cigüeña}}, 'stork', is pronounced {{IPA|[θiˈɣweɲa]}}; if it were written *{{lang|es|cigueña}}, it would be pronounced *{{IPA|[θiˈɣeɲa]}}). Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with [[inverted question and exclamation marks]] ({{lang|es|¿}} and {{lang|es|¡}}, respectively) and closed by the usual question and exclamation marks. == Organizations == === Royal Spanish Academy === {{main|Royal Spanish Academy}} The Royal Spanish Academy ({{lang|es|Real Academia Española}}), founded in 1713,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1713rae.html |title=Scholarly Societies Project |publisher=Lib.uwaterloo.ca |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923234545/http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/history/1713rae.html |archive-date=23 September 2010}}</ref> together with the 21 other national ones (see [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.<ref>{{cite book |last=Batchelor|first=Ronald Ernest |title=Using Spanish: a guide to contemporary usage|year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26987-3|page=318 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eEWZL1j9ig8C&q=real+academia+espa%C3%B1ola+recognized&pg=PA4|access-date=28 October 2020|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815154930/https://books.google.com/books?id=eEWZL1j9ig8C&q=real+academia+espa%C3%B1ola+recognized&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language ([[Standard Spanish]]) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media. === Association of Spanish Language Academies === {{main|Association of Spanish Language Academies}} [[File:Países con Academia de la Lengua Española.svg|thumb|Member states of the ASALE<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/asale.html |title=Association of Spanish Language Academies |language=es |publisher=Asale |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923155313/http://asale.org/ASALE/asale.html |archive-date=23 September 2010}}</ref>]] The Association of Spanish Language Academies ({{lang|es|Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española}}, or {{lang|es|ASALE}}) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 23 countries, ordered by date of academy foundation: [[Real Academia Española|Spain]] (1713),<ref>{{cite web |title=Real Academia Española |publisher=RAE |location=Spain |url=http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/voTodosporId/CEDF300E8D943D3FC12571360037CC94?OpenDocument&i=0 |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929155935/http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/voTodosporId/CEDF300E8D943D3FC12571360037CC94?OpenDocument&i=0 |archive-date=29 September 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Colombiana de la Lengua|Colombia]] (1871),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30202&menu=2 |title=Presentación de la Academia Colombiana de la Lengua |publisher=Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española |language=es |location=Colombia |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219034313/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30202&menu=2 |archive-date=19 February 2008}}</ref> [[Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua|Ecuador]] (1874),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30302&menu=2 |title=Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua |language=es |location=Ecuador |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527091026/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30302&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Mexicana de la Lengua|Mexico]] (1875),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.academia.org.mx/historia.php |title=Esbozo Histórico de la Academia Mexicana de la Lengua |publisher=Academia Mexicana de la Lengua |location=Mexico |date=22 September 2010 |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915092057/http://academia.org.mx/historia.php |archive-date=15 September 2010 |url-status=dead |language=es}}</ref> [[Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua|El Salvador]] (1876),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asl.org.sv/Informacion%20institucional.htm |title=Informacion institucional |publisher=Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua |location=El Salvador |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904125413/http://www.asl.org.sv/Informacion%20institucional.htm |archive-date=4 September 2011 |language=es}}</ref> [[Academia Venezolana de la Lengua|Venezuela]] (1883),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30602&menu=2 |title=Academia Venezolana de la Lengua |language=es |location=Venezuela |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090728/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30602&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Chilena de la Lengua|Chile]] (1885),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.institutodechile.cl/lengua/resena.htm |title=Academia Chilena de la Lengua |location=Chile |access-date=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100905085434/http://www.institutodechile.cl/lengua/resena.htm |archive-date=5 September 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Peruana de la Lengua|Peru]] (1887),<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.academiaperuanadelalengua.org/academia/historia |title= Academia Peruana de la Lengua |location= Peru |access-date= 6 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101012010318/http://academiaperuanadelalengua.org/academia/historia |archive-date= 12 October 2010 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> [[Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua|Guatemala]] (1887),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30902&menu=2 |title=Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua |language=es |location=Guatemala |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804011930/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=30902&menu=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008}}</ref> [[Academia Costarricense de la Lengua|Costa Rica]] (1923),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acl.ac.cr/i_q.php |title=Academia Costarricense de la Lengua |location=Costa Rica |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323194028/http://www.acl.ac.cr/i_q.php |archive-date=23 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española|Philippines]] (1924),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31102&menu=2 |title=Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española |language=es |publisher=Philippines |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090616/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31102&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Panameña de la Lengua|Panama]] (1926),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apalengua.apalengua.org/historia |title=Academia Panameña de la Lengua |location=Panama |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129171943/http://apalengua.apalengua.org/historia |archive-date=29 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Academia Cubana de la Lengua|Cuba]] (1926),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acul.ohc.cu/ |title=Academia Cubana de la Lengua |location=Cuba |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219083212/http://www.acul.ohc.cu/ |archive-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española|Paraguay]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aparle.org/origenes.asp |title=Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española |location=Paraguay |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728150336/http://www.aparle.org/origenes.asp |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Dominicana de la Lengua|Dominican Republic]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.org.do/content/blogsection/12/46/ |title=Academia Dominicana de la Lengua |location=República Dominicana |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222161225/http://www.academia.org.do/content/blogsection/12/46/ |archive-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Boliviana de la Lengua|Bolivia]] (1927),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abolen.org/Historia.html |title=Academia Boliviana de la Lengua |location=Bolivia |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129201058/http://www.abolen.org/Historia.html |archive-date=29 November 2010}}</ref> [[Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua|Nicaragua]] (1928),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31702&menu=2 |title=Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua |language=es |publisher=Nicaragua |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527090719/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=31702&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Argentina de Letras|Argentina]] (1931),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letras.edu.ar/ |title=Academia Argentina de Letras |location=Argentina |date=25 March 2010 |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728121808/http://www.letras.edu.ar/ |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Academia Nacional de Letras, del Uruguay|Uruguay]] (1943),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mec.gub.uy/academiadeletras/MarcoPrincipal.htm |title=Academia Nacional de Letras del Uruguay |location=Uruguay |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319235222/http://www.mec.gub.uy/academiadeletras/MarcoPrincipal.htm |archive-date=19 March 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Hondureña de la Lengua|Honduras]] (1949),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=32002&menu=2 |title=Academia Hondureña de la Lengua |language=es |location=Honduras |access-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527085850/http://asale.org/ASALE/ConAALEBD?IDDOC=32002&menu=2 |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española|Puerto Rico]] (1955),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.academiapr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=35&Itemid=61 |title=Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española |location=Puerto Rico |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824060727/http://www.academiapr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=35&Itemid=61 |archive-date=24 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[North American Academy of the Spanish Language|United States]] (1973)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anle.us/ |title=Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española |location=United States |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212025419/http://anle.us/ |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Academia Ecuatoguineana de la Lengua Española|Equatorial Guinea]] (2016).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asale.org/academias/academia-ecuatoguineana-de-la-lengua-espanola |title=Academia Ecuatoguineana de la Lengua Española |location=Equatorial Guinea |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331073309/http://www.asale.org/academias/academia-ecuatoguineana-de-la-lengua-espanola |archive-date=31 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{clear left}} === Cervantes Institute === {{main|Instituto Cervantes}} The {{lang|es|Instituto Cervantes|italic=no}} ('Cervantes Institute') is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branches in 45 countries, with 88 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures and Spanish language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Información sobre el Instituto Cervantes. Quiénes somos: qué es el Instituto Cervantes |url=https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/informacion.htm |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.cervantes.es |archive-date=10 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410222035/https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/informacion.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> The goals of the Institute are to promote universally the education, the study, and the use of Spanish as a second language, to support methods and activities that help the process of Spanish-language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures in non-Spanish-speaking countries. The institute's 2015 report "El español, una lengua viva" (Spanish, a living language) estimated that there were 559&nbsp;million Spanish speakers worldwide. Its latest annual report "El español en el mundo 2018" (Spanish in the world 2018) counts 577&nbsp;million Spanish speakers worldwide. Among the sources cited in the report is the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]], which estimates that the U.S. will have 138&nbsp;million Spanish speakers by 2050, making it the biggest Spanish-speaking nation on earth, with Spanish the mother tongue of almost a third of its citizens.<ref>Stephen Burgen, [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain – only Mexico has more] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123045244/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/29/us-second-biggest-spanish-speaking-country |date=23 November 2018}}, US News, 29 June 2015.</ref> === Official use by international organizations === {{Main list|List of countries where Spanish is an official language#International organizations}}{{unref section|date=January 2026}} Spanish is one of the official languages of the [[United Nations]], the [[European Union]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Organization of American States]], the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]], the [[African Union]], the [[Union of South American Nations]], the [[Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]], the [[Latin Union]], the [[Caricom]], the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and numerous other international organizations. {{clear right}} == Sample text == Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Spanish: :{{Lang|es|Todos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros.}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=ohchr.org|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=spn|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108155322/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=spn|url-status=live}}</ref> Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English: :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|newspaper=United Nations |access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal|Language}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Spanish words and phrases=== * [[Café para todos]] * [[Cuento]] * [[List of English–Spanish interlingual homographs]] * [[Longest word in Spanish]] * [[Most common words in Spanish]] * [[Olé]] * [[Olé, Olé, Olé]] * [[Spanish profanity]] * [[Spanish proverbs]] * [[Tertulia]] * [[Vale un Perú]] ===Spanish-speaking world=== * [[Association of Academies of the Spanish Language]] * [[List of countries where Spanish is an official language|Countries where Spanish is an official language]] * [[Hispanic culture]] * [[Hispanicization]] * [[Hispanidad]] * [[Hispanism]] * [[Hispanophone]] * [[Fundéu BBVA]] * [[Instituto Cervantes]] * [[International Conference of the Spanish Language]] * [[List of Spanish-language poets]] * [[Panhispanism]] * [[Royal Spanish Academy]] * [[Spanish-language literature]] * [[Spanish-language music]] {{col-break}} ===Influences on the Spanish language=== * [[Arabic language influence on the Spanish language]] * [[List of Spanish words of Germanic origin]] * [[List of Spanish words of Philippine origin]] ===Dialects and languages influenced by Spanish=== * [[Alemañol]] * [[Barranquenho]] * [[Caló language|Caló]] * [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] * [[Chavacano]] * [[Spanish-based creole languages|Creoles]] * [[Frespañol]] * [[Jopara]] * [[Judaeo-Spanish]] * [[List of English words of Spanish origin]] * [[Llanito]] * [[Media Lengua]] * [[Palenquero]] * [[Papiamento]] * [[Philippine languages]] * [[Portuñol]] * [[Spanglish]] {{col-break}} ===Spanish dialects and varieties=== * [[Spanish dialects and varieties]] * European Spanish ** [[Peninsular Spanish]] *** [[Andalusian Spanish]] **** [[Andalusian language movement]] *** [[Castilian Spanish]] *** [[Castrapo]] (Galician Spanish) *** [[Castúo]] (Extremaduran Spanish) *** [[Murcian Spanish]] ** [[Canarian Spanish]] * [[Spanish language in the Americas]] ** [[North American Spanish]] *** [[Mexican Spanish]] *** [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish in the United States]] ** [[Central American Spanish]] ** [[Caribbean Spanish]] ** [[Spanish language in South America|South American Spanish]] *** [[Bolivian Spanish]] *** [[Chilean Spanish]] *** [[Colombian Spanish]] *** [[Ecuadorian Spanish]] *** [[Paraguayan Spanish]] *** [[Peruvian Spanish]] *** [[Uruguayan Spanish]] *** [[Venezuelan Spanish]] * Spanish in Africa ** [[Equatoguinean Spanish]] ** [[Saharan Spanish]] * Spanish in Asia ** [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish in the Philippines]] {{col-end}} == Notes == {{notelist|30em}} == References == === Citations === {{reflist|23em}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book |last = Abercrombie |first = David |year = 1967 |title = Elements of General Phonetics |location = Edinburgh |publisher = [[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-85224-451-7 }} * {{cite book |last1=Eberhard |first1=David M. |last2=Simons |first2=Gary F. |last3=Fennig |first3=Charles D. |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |url=http://www.ethnologue.com |year=2020 |publisher=SIL International |location=Dallas, Texas |edition=23rd |access-date=22 June 2002 |archive-date=6 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060406012854/http://www.ethnologue.com/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Butt |first1=John |last2=Benjamin |first2=Carmen |title=A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish |url=https://archive.org/details/newreferencegram0000butt |url-access=registration |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-4441-3769-9 |edition=5th }} * {{cite book |last=Cressey |first=William Whitney |year=1978 |title=Spanish Phonology and Morphology: A Generative View |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=0-87840-045-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0-231-11568-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA501 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817044903/https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA501 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Eddington |first=David |year=2000 |title=Spanish Stress Assignment within the Analogical Modeling of Language |journal=Language |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=92–109 |url=http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/eddingtond/STRESS.pdf |doi=10.2307/417394 |jstor=417394 |access-date=7 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708183631/http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/eddingtond/STRESS.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2013 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book |last1 = Ginsburgh |first1 = Victor |last2 = Weber |first2 = Shlomo |year = 2011 |title = How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity |publisher = Princeton University Press |isbn = 978-0-691-13689-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA90 |access-date = 28 October 2020 |archive-date = 16 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816181041/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese%3F&pg=PA90 |url-status = live }} * {{Cite journal |last = Harris |first = James |year = 1967 |title = Sound Change in Spanish and the Theory of Markedness |journal = Language |volume = 45 |issue = 3 |pages = 538–52 |doi = 10.2307/411438 |jstor = 411438 }} * {{Cite book |last=Hualde |first=José Ignacio |year=2014 |title=Los sonidos del español |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-16823-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1a3CAQAAQBAJ&q=%22fonemas+conson%C3%A1nticos%22&pg=PR14 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210143921/https://books.google.com/books?id=1a3CAQAAQBAJ&q=%22fonemas+conson%C3%A1nticos%22&pg=PR14 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last = Jensen |first = John B. |year = 1989 |title = On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese |journal = Hispania |volume = 72 |issue = 4 |pages = 848–852 |jstor = 343562 |doi = 10.2307/343562 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ladefoged |first1=Peter |last2=Johnson |first2=Keith |author-link=Peter Ladefoged |year=2010 |title=A Course in Phonetics |edition=6th |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-4282-3126-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjLc1XtqJUUC |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324222411/https://books.google.com/books?id=FjLc1XtqJUUC |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last1 = Martínez-Celdrán |first1 = Eugenio |last2 = Fernández-Planas |first2 = Ana Ma. |last3 = Carrera-Sabaté |first3 = Josefina |year = 2003 |title = Castilian Spanish |journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume = 33 |issue = 2 |pages = 255–59 |doi = 10.1017/S0025100303001373 |doi-access = free }} * {{Cite book |last1=Moreno Fernández |first1=Francisco |last2=Otero Roth |first2=Jaime |author-link=Francisco Moreno Fernández (linguist) |year=2008 |title=Atlas de la lengua española en el mundo |location=Barcelona |publisher=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yrUSulWCJxUC |isbn=9788408084358 |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225405/https://books.google.com/books?id=yrUSulWCJxUC |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=1991 |title=A History of the Spanish Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-39784-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C&q=four+spheres |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814152615/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjcrhyQlFa0C&q=four+spheres |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=2000 |title=Variation and Change in Spanish |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-78045-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/variationchangei0000penn |url-access=registration }} * {{Cite web | url = http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/DB04_Population_ByAgeSex_Annual/WPP2010_DB4_F1B_POPULATION_BY_AGE_BOTH_SEXES_ANNUAL_2011-2100.XLS | publisher = UN | title = Population by age, both sexes, annual; estimate for 2012 | format = XLS | ref = {{harvid | UN | 2011}} | access-date = 11 March 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100615/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/DB04_Population_ByAgeSex_Annual/WPP2010_DB4_F1B_POPULATION_BY_AGE_BOTH_SEXES_ANNUAL_2011-2100.XLS | archive-date = 15 January 2013 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book |last=Rubino |first=Carl |chapter=Zamboangueño Chavacano and the Potentive Mode. |year=2008 |title=Roots of Creole Structures: Weighing the Contribution of Substrates and Superstrates |editor-last=Michaelis |editor-first=Susanne |publisher=Benjamins |location=Amsterdam |pages=279–299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPUeQLcGMOMC&q=rubino |isbn=978-90-272-5255-5 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219223029/https://books.google.com/books?id=pPUeQLcGMOMC&q=rubino |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |first=Ángeles |year=2011 |last=Vicente |title=La presencia de la lengua española en el Norte de África y su interacción con el árabe marroquí |url=https://www.academia.edu/2535550 |journal=Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana |volume=9 |issue=2 |jstor=41678471 |page=62 |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122225403/https://www.academia.edu/2535550 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last = Zamora Vicente |first = Alonso |year = 1967 |title = Dialectología española |location = Madrid |publisher = Gredos |url = https://archive.org/details/dialectologiaesp0000alon/mode/2up |url-access = registration |isbn = 978-8-424-91115-7 }} {{refend}} == External links == * [https://www.rae.es/ Real Academia Española (RAE)], Royal Spanish Academy. Spain's official institution, with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language * [https://www.cervantes.es/default.htm Instituto Cervantes], Cervantes Institute. A Spanish government agency, responsible for promoting the study and the teaching of the Spanish language and culture. * [https://www.fundeu.es/ FundéuRAE], Foundation of Emerging Spanish. A non-profit organization with collaboration of the RAE which mission is to clarify doubts and ambiguities of Spanish. {{Sister bar |auto=1|wikt=Category:Spanish language|d=y|iw=es}} {{Spanish variants by continent}} {{Romance languages|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Spanish Language}} [[Category:West Iberian languages]] [[Category:Spanish language| ]] [[Category:Fusional languages]] [[Category:Languages of Argentina]] [[Category:Languages of Bolivia]] [[Category:Languages of Chile]] [[Category:Languages of Colombia]] [[Category:Languages of Costa Rica]] [[Category:Languages of Cuba]] [[Category:Languages of the Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Languages of Ecuador]] [[Category:Languages of El Salvador]] [[Category:Languages of Equatorial Guinea]] [[Category:Languages of Guatemala]] [[Category:Languages of Honduras]] [[Category:Languages of Mexico]] [[Category:Languages of Nicaragua]] [[Category:Languages of Panama]] [[Category:Languages of Paraguay]] [[Category:Languages of Peru]] [[Category:Languages of Puerto Rico]] [[Category:Languages of Spain]] [[Category:Languages of the United States]] [[Category:Languages of Uruguay]] [[Category:Languages of Venezuela]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Syllable-timed languages]] 1igtp0qp29cn16bz7ij583jn461htq6 Module:Portuguese language 828 77898 687839 2026-07-02T08:44:41Z Petnog 64602 Undid 7 revisions from [[Special:Diff/1362108428|1362108428]] until [[Special:Diff/1362155926|1362155926]] 687839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Romance language}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Other uses|Portugues (disambiguation){{!}}Portugues}} {{Use American English|date=May 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Portuguese | nativename = {{lang|pt|português}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|pt|puɾtuˈɡeʃ||LL-Q5146 (por)-Gaygarin-português.wav}}<br/>({{small|[[European Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}})<br/>{{IPA|pt|poʁtuˈɡe(j)s||LL-Q5146 (por)-MedK1-português.wav|}}<br/>({{small|[[Brazilian Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}}) | states = [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|Lusophone Africa]], other locations in the [[Portuguese-speaking world]] | speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|249.544530|3}} million | date = 2012–2022 | ref = <ref name="ethnologue">{{Ethnologue28|por}}</ref> | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|17.085880|2}} million (2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/><br/>Total: {{sigfig|266.630410|3}} million (2012–2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]] | fam9 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] | fam10 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] | fam11 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | script = {{plainlist| *[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]]) *[[Portuguese Braille]]}} | nation = {{ubl|[[Angola]]|[[Brazil]]|[[Cape Verde]]|[[Timor-Leste]]|[[Equatorial Guinea]]|[[Guinea-Bissau]]|[[Macau]] ([[China]])<br>[[Mozambique]]|[[Portugal]]|[[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|[[List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language|Numerous international organizations]]}} | agency = {{plainlist| *'''Portugal''':<br />[[Lisbon Academy of Sciences]] <small>([[Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Class of Letters|Lisbon Academy Class of Letters]])</small> *'''Brazil''':<br />[[Brazilian Academy of Letters]] *'''Angola ''':<br />[[Angolan Academy of Letters]]}} | iso1 = pt | iso2 = por | iso3 = por | lingua = 51-AAA-a | map = Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#045A8D|Countries or regions where Portuguese is the native language of the majority}} {{legend|#439DD4|Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official or administrative language but not a majority native language}} {{legend|#9BBAE1|Countries and territories where Portuguese is a significant minority language}} | notice = IPA | sign = [[Manually coded language|Manually coded]] Portuguese | glotto = port1283 | glottorefname = Portuguese }} '''Portuguese''' ({{langx|pt|português|label=[[endonym]]}}) is a [[Western Romance language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], written in the [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]]. With approximately 267 million native speakers, it is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language in the world]], and the most widely spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere. It is the official language of eight countries — [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], and [[Timor-Leste]] — and is co-official with other languages in [[Macau]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]]. Portuguese-speaking people or nations are known as [[Lusophone]] ({{lang|pt|lusófono}}). As a result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese speakers is also found around the world. Portuguese is part of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance group]], which evolved from several dialects of [[Vulgar Latin]] in the medieval [[Kingdom of Galicia]] and the [[County of Portugal]], and has retained some [[Gallaecian language|Celtic]] phonology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |title=The Origin and Formation of The Portuguese Language |website=Judeo-Lusitanica |publisher=Duke University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510110052/https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |archive-date=10 May 2017 |access-date=15 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm |title=Breves considerações sobre o legado das línguas célticas |first=João |last=Bittencourt de Oliveira |website=filologia.org.br |access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621224925/https://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese language structure reflects both its Latin roots and centuries of outside influences. These are seen in [[Portuguese phonology|phonology]], [[Portuguese orthography|orthography]], [[Portuguese grammar|grammar]], and [[Portuguese vocabulary|vocabulary]]. Phonologically, Portuguese has a rich system of [[nasal vowels]], complex consonant variations, and different types of [[guttural R]] – as well as other sounds in its European and Brazilian varieties. Its spelling, based similarly to English on the [[Latin alphabet]], is largely [[phonemic spelling|phonemic]] but is influenced by [[etymology]] and tradition. [[Portuguese spelling reform of 1990|Recent spelling reforms]] have attempted to create a unified spelling for the Portuguese language across [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|all countries that use it]]. Portuguese grammar retains many [[Latin verbs|Latin verb forms]], and possesses several unique features (such as the [[Portuguese conjugation|future subjunctive]] and the [[Portuguese grammar#Infinitive form|personal infinitive]]). Its vocabulary is derived largely from Latin, but also includes {{ill|List of loanwords in Portuguese|pt|Empréstimo (linguística)#Exemplos de empréstimos|lt=numerous loanwords|v=sup}} from Celtic, Germanic, Arabic, African, Amerindian, and Asian languages, resulting from historical contact based on wars, trade, and [[Portuguese colonization|colonization]]. There is significant [[Variation (linguistics)|variation]] in the dialects of Portuguese worldwide, with two primary [[Standard language|standardized varieties]]: [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]], each one having numerous [[regional accent]]s and [[subdialect]]s. African and Asian varieties generally follow the European written standard, though these will often display different [[phonological]], [[lexical item|lexical]], and sometimes even [[syntax|syntactic features]]. While there is broad [[mutual intelligibility]] among the assorted lusophone population, variation may be observed in speech patterns, vocabulary, or grammar. == History == {{Main|History of the Portuguese language}} === Origins and Roman period === Prior to [[Roman people|Roman]] expansion, the territory corresponding to modern [[Portugal]] was inhabited by a heterogeneous set of peoples, including the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celts]], [[Iberians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Ligurians]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} These groups spoke a variety of languages that were gradually supplanted following Roman conquest, but not without leaving a substratum of lexical and morphological influence.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=66}} A significant number of Portuguese words — often associated with the natural environment, agriculture, and material culture — are attributed to these pre-Roman sources.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} The [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Roman presence in the Iberian Peninsula]] began in 218 BC during the [[Second Punic War]], initially as part of military operations against [[Carthage]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=103}} Roman control expanded progressively, with the defeat of Carthaginian forces completed by 209 BC, although full territorial consolidation was not achieved until 19 BC under the rule of [[Augustus]], following campaigns in the northern regions of [[Asturias]] and [[Cantabria]]. During this period, the territory was administratively organized into provinces such as [[Hispania Citerior]] and [[Hispania Ulterior]], later restructured into [[Tarraconensis]], [[Baetica]], and [[Lusitania]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}}{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=104}} By the late [[Roman Empire]], the northwestern region was designated as the province of [[Gallaecia]] (approximately modern-day [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} [[Latin]] served as the administrative and ecclesiastical language of the Roman Empire, and proficiency in it was associated with access to public office and social advancement.{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}} The degree of [[Romanization]] varied regionally: southern areas, particularly Baetica, underwent rapid cultural assimilation and early adoption of Latin, whereas the northern regions, including Gallaecia, remained comparatively isolated and retained indigenous practices for a longer period.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} Latin spread from urban centers outward through cities, educational institutions and administrative networks, where proficiency in Latin was closely tied to the acquisition of Roman citizenship;{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}} the variety spoken by soldiers, settlers and officials was known as [[Vulgar Latin]] ({{lang|la|sermo vulgaris}}), as distinct from [[Classical Latin]], which was used in literary texts.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}} In the northwestern periphery of the empire, the Vulgar Latin spoken in Gallaecia developed distinctive features, attributed in part to reduced contact with the imperial center.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=64}} The most diagnostic phonetic change was the loss of intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'', as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:luna#Latin|luna]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:lua#Portuguese|lua]]}} ({{gloss|moon}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:dolor#Latin|dolor]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dor#Portuguese|dor]]}} ({{gloss|pain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:moneta#Latin|moneta]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:moeda#Portuguese|moeda]]}} ({{gloss|coin}}) — a development not attested in neighbouring varieties such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=47–51}} [[Gemination|Geminate consonants]] were also simplified, as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:caballu#Latin|caballu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:cavalo#Portuguese|cavalo]]}} ({{gloss|horse}}) and {{lang|la|[[wikt:annu#Latin|annu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ano#Portuguese|ano]]}} ({{gloss|year}}),{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=56–57}} and initial [[consonant cluster]]s ''cl-'', ''fl-'', and ''pl-'' evolved into [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatal sounds]], as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:flamma#Latin|flamma]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chama#Portuguese|chama]]}} ({{gloss|flame}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:pluvia#Latin|pluvia]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chuva#Portuguese|chuva]]}} ({{gloss|rain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:plumbum#Latin|plumbum]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chumbo#Portuguese|chumbo]]}} ({{gloss|lead}}).{{sfn|Cunha|2016|p=39}} In 409, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by several Germanic and Iranian peoples, including the [[Vandals]], [[Suebi]], and [[Alans]]. The [[Visigoths]] of the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], already established in [[Aquitaine]] and closely connected to Roman institutions, extended their rule over most of the peninsula during the 5th and 6th centuries. Their integration with the Hispano-Roman population was facilitated by measures such as the legalization of intermarriage under [[Leovigild]], the conversion of [[Reccared I]] to Catholic Christianity in 586, and the promulgation of a unified legal code in 654 under [[Recceswinth]]. These developments contributed to the consolidation of a Romano-Visigothic society in which the vernacular remained a form of Hispano-Romance derived from Vulgar Latin. The Visigothic linguistic contribution to Portuguese was limited, consisting of fewer than forty commonly cited lexical items of [[Gothic language|Gothic]] origin, many shared with other Romance languages. Examples include {{lang|pt|[[wikt:guerra#Portuguese|guerra]]}} ({{gloss|war}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:espora#Portuguese|espora]]}} ({{gloss|spur}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:roupa#Portuguese|roupa]]}} ({{gloss|clothing}}), and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ganso#Portuguese|ganso]]}} ({{gloss|goose}}).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}} === Arab conquest and old Galician–Portuguese === [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|upright=1.65|right|Map showing the linguistic evolution of the Iberian Peninsula between 1000 and 2000. The [[Galician–Portuguese|Galician–Portuguese language]] is shown in blue.]] In 711, Muslim forces crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and defeated the Visigothic king [[Roderic]], leading to the [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Islamic rule of the Iberian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}} The Muslim authorities generally allowed the continued use of local Romance varieties, the preservation of Hispano-Roman customs. In the Muslim-controlled south, Christians living under [[Moorish]] rule, known as [[Mozarabs]], maintained their Latin-derived speech, referred to as [[Andalusi Romance]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=77–78}} In the northern Christian kingdoms, different Romance varieties gradually emerged, including [[Galician–Portuguese]] in the region of Gallaecia, [[Asturleonese]] in the [[Kingdom of León]], [[Old Spanish|Spanish]] in [[County of Castile|Castile]], [[Navarro-Aragonese]] in [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in [[County of Barcelona|Catalonia]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}} The northwestern region, corresponding to Gallaecia, also remained outside sustained Islamic rule.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}} As a result, its local Romance variety Galician–Portuguese developed with greater continuity from Latin.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}} The variety, which was spoken north and south of the [[Minho River]], constituted a unified linguistic system from the 9th to the 14th century.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=83}} Although Latin remained the language of administration and written literature for centuries, the emerging Romance varieties continued to develop in speech, and extensive texts in the vernacular only began to appear later.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=47}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=12}} When the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] became independent in 1143,{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}} its inhabitants continued to use this shared variety, which remained the common vernacular of the region.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=67}} Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Galician–Portuguese served as [[Galician-Portuguese lyric|the literary language of lyric poetry]] across the Iberian Peninsula, drawing on the [[troubadour]] tradition of southern France.{{sfn|Bessa|Feitosa|da Cunha|Brito|2025|p=5}} The poetry of the period is preserved primarily in three major songbooks. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Ajuda]]'', dated to the late 13th century, is the oldest and contains predominantly {{lang|pt|[[cantigas de amor]]}}. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Vaticana]]'' and the ''[[Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional]]'' are 15th-century copies of earlier manuscripts containing secular and satirical compositions.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}} The ''[[Cantiga da Ribeirinha]]'' ({{c.}} 1189 or 1198), composed by [[Paio Soares de Taveirós]] and preserved in the ''Cancioneiro da Ajuda'', is regarded as one of the earliest known pieces of medieval Galician–Portuguese lyric poetry.{{sfn|Brakel|1981|pp=371–372}}{{sfn|Júnior|2007|p=27}} [[File:Testamento de Afonso II de Portugal.jpg|thumb|The Will of Afonso II preserved at the [[Torre do Tombo National Archive]]s]] The identification of the oldest document written in Old Portuguese is a matter of scholarly debate. {{ill|Notícia de Fiadores|pt|Notícia de Fiadores}} (1175) has been identified by philologist {{ill|Ana Maria Martins|pt|Ana Maria Martins}} as the earliest surviving document written in Portuguese. However, she explicitly states that this chronology is not consensual and is the one she personally finds most accurate;{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=161–162}} other scholars argue that the presence of Romance elements in the text is limited and insufficient to classify it as a fully Galician-Portuguese document. The possibly earlier {{ill|Pacto dos irmãos Pais|pt|Pacto dos irmãos Pais}} has also been cited in this context.{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=162–163}} By contrast, the [[Will of Afonso II of Portugal]] (1214) is widely regarded as one of the earliest dated documents written entirely in Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=66}} It consists of three copies of the will of [[Afonso II]] (1211–1223), the third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], drawn up during a period of ill health.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=130}} === Divergence of Galician and Portuguese === The [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese language began to diverge from their common Galician–Portuguese base from around the 11th century. Early signs of separation are attested in Galician prose works, of which the ''{{ill|Crónica Troiana|gl|Crónica troiana}}'' is among the most frequently cited examples.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}} By around 1250, Portuguese texts began to adopt [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] such as ''lh'' and ''nh'', replacing the Latin forms ''ll'' and ''nn''.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}}{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=22}} Between 1350 and 1450, Galicia experienced a second period of lyric production in which Portuguese poets did not participate.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}} In the late 13th century, King [[Denis of Portugal]] issued a decree establishing Portuguese as the mandatory language of royal administration, replacing Latin in the chancery.{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} Documents including laws, forals, royal letters and court records were required to be written in Portuguese. Historian Cleusa Teixeira de Sousa has interpreted this measure as a strategy to strengthen the authority of the Portuguese crown.{{sfn|de Sousa|2022|p=6–9}} Following the rise of the [[House of Aviz]] after the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]] in 1385, the political center of Portugal shifted southward, to Lisbon and [[Coimbra]]. Northern Portugal subsequently came to be regarded as a peripheral region, while [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] was increasingly treated as a foreign territory.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=108–109}} According to Rodolfo Ilari and Renato Basso, around 1420 marks the transition from Old Portuguese to Middle Portuguese, a periodization they attribute to scholars including [[Luís Lindley Cintra]] and {{ill|Serafim da Silva Neto|pt|Serafim da Silva Neto}}.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=114}} Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Portuguese language was commonly referred to as {{lang|pt|romance}} {{lang|pt|romanço}} or {{lang|pt|linguagem}};{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} by the 15th century, the designation "Portuguese language" became more widespread. The earliest known use of the term "Portuguese" ({{lang|pt|português}}) to designate the language dates to around 1430, appearing in a dedicatory letter written by [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra]] to his brother, [[King Duarte]], accompanying his translation of [[Cicero]]'s ''[[De Officiis]]'', in which he writes explicitly: "{{lang|pt|eu lia em português}}" ({{gloss|I was reading in Portuguese}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}} The printing press was introduced to Portugal in the late 15th century; ''{{ill|Sacramental (book)|lt=Sacramental|pt|Sacramental (obra)}}'', a translation from Spanish into Portuguese, is among the earliest known printed works in the language,{{sfn|Machado|2007|p=97}} and contributed to the standardization of Portuguese orthography.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}} During the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese underwent a process of Latinate renewal, reincorporating Latin and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] vocabulary. Much of this influence entered the language through Spanish.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=139}} Some words that had lost intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'' through regular sound change were reintroduced in Latinate or Castilian forms, such as {{lang|pt|maíça}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:malícia#Portuguese|malícia]]}} ({{gloss|malice}}), {{lang|pt|saíva}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saliva#Portuguese|saliva]]}} ({{gloss|saliva}}) and {{lang|pt|paadar}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:paladar#Portuguese|paladar]]}} ({{gloss|taste}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=141}} In orthography, this period saw the adoption of pseudo-etymological spellings imitating Latin and Greek forms,{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=193}} such as {{lang|pt|pharmacia}}, {{lang|pt|theatro}}, and {{lang|pt|rheumatismo}}.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=567}} The period also produced the first grammars of Portuguese. [[Fernão de Oliveira]] published the first in 1536, advocating an orthography based on pronunciation. He is considered one of the first grammaticians of the Portuguese language.{{sfn|Lima|Ribeiro|Souza|Reis|2025|pp=1–6}} [[João de Barros]] followed in 1540 with a grammar informed by humanist principles, at times justifying spellings on the basis of Latin etymologies. The influence of [[Renaissance humanism]] promoted an etymological orthography that brought written Portuguese closer to Latin.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=57}} The publication of [[Luís de Camões]]'s ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'' in 1572 is generally regarded by linguists as the start of Modern Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=154}} He is regarded as Portugal's [[national poet]].{{sfn|Jackson|2000|p=48}} [[Duarte Nunes de Leão]] extended the grammatical tradition with his ''Orthographia'' (1576) and ''Origem da Língua Portuguesa'' (1606), the latter among the earliest works to document dialectal variation in Portuguese.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}} === Overseas expansion and the development of Portuguese in Brazil === Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula began in the 15th century, following the [[conquest of Ceuta]] in 1415.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=137}} Portuguese contact with sub-Saharan Africa proceeded in stages along the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. Settlement and exploration extended to [[Madeira]] and the [[Azores]] (1425–1439), followed by [[Cape Verde]] (1444), [[Guinea]] (1446), [[Angola]] (1483), and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (1485). The Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Mozambique]] in 1498,{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} though the consolidation of Portuguese there was gradual and shaped by prolonged contact with [[Bantu language]]s.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Portuguese functioned as a [[lingua franca]] in major ports across India and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} Portuguese established a network of commercial and administrative bases at [[Goa]] (1510), [[Malacca]] (1511), [[Kingdom of Hormuz|Hormuz]] (1515), [[Macau]] (1557), and [[Timor]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} Following the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the territory now known as [[Brazil]] was claimed for the [[Portuguese Empire]] on 22 April 1500 with [[Discovery of Brazil|the arrival of the Portuguese fleet]] commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]].{{sfn|Boxer|1973|p=98}} At the time of Portuguese arrival, the region was [[Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil|inhabited by Indigenous peoples]] who spoke more than 1,175 languages, with the [[Tupi–Guarani languages]] predominating along the coast. Portuguese therefore did not become the majority language immediately.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=54}} From 1549, Jesuit missionaries systematized several indigenous languages into grammars, among them [[Joseph of Anchieta]]'s [[Art of Grammar of the Most Used Language on the Coast of Brazil|grammar of Old Tupi]] (1595).{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=55}} The [[Atlantic slave trade to Brazil|transatlantic slave trade]] brought speakers of an estimated 200 to 300 African languages to Brazil, primarily from West African and Bantu-speaking regions.{{sfn|Petter|2007|p=70}} Enslaved Africans were prohibited from using their native languages, and adopted Portuguese under conditions of irregular transmission.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|pp=71–72}} The discovery of gold in [[Minas Gerais]] in the 1690s prompted large-scale internal migration and a wave of immigration from Portugal, strengthening the presence of Portuguese in the centre-south of the colony.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=556}} In 1757, the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]] issued the ''{{ill|Diretório dos Índios|pt|Diretório dos Índios}}'', prohibiting use of the widely used indigenous lingua francas and imposing Portuguese as the sole official language of administration and education.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|pp=555–556}} The [[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|transfer of the Portuguese royal court]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1808 reinforced the status of European Portuguese in the capital and introduced the printing press to Brazil.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=74}} Following [[Independence of Brazil|independence in 1822]], a desire for a "Brazilian language" arose among intellectuals.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}} [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers such as [[José de Alencar]] advocated incorporating indigenous and popular terms into written Brazilian Portuguese, while purist grammarians insisted on adherence to European norms.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=558}} From the mid-19th century onward, mass immigration of Italians, Germans, and Japanese, among others, introduced further lexical and phonetic influences,{{sfn|Lipski|2022|pp=309–310}} concentrated primarily in the [[South Region, Brazil|South]] and [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast regions]].{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=76}} Portuguese sovereign presence in Asia has since been largely withdrawn: the territories of [[Goa]], [[Daman district, India|Daman]], and [[Diu district|Diu]] were incorporated into the [[Government of India|Indian Union]] in 1961, [[East Timor]] was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|annexed by Indonesia in 1975]], gaining independence in 2002, and [[Macau]] was [[Handover of Macau|transferred to Chinese administration]] in 1999.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} In African countries where Portuguese is an official language, it also serves as a lingua franca among speakers of diverse native languages,{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} particularly those belonging to the Bantu language family.{{sfn|Ponso|2017|p=123}} Local varieties of Portuguese in Africa developed under sustained contact with indigenous languages, contributing to processes of lexical, phonological, and syntactic variation.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} On 17 July 1996, the Portuguese-speaking countries established the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP) to promote political, cultural, and linguistic cooperation among Lusophone states.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=571}} == Geographic distribution == {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|Geographical distribution of Portuguese speakers}} [[File:Portuguese Language Map - Darker Blue - Mother Language of More than 50%.png|thumb|Portuguese Language Map – World Geographical Distribution {{legend|#002375|Native/Mother language of the majority of the population – > 50%}} {{legend|#080891|Official and administrative language, but minority native language – < 50%}} {{legend|#02ADFD|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a secondary native language - uruguayan portuguese - bayano, fronteiriço or riverense}} {{legend|#CCF4FA|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a minority native or second language}} {{legend|#17E1DE|Galician is an official language – seen by some organizations as the same language as Portuguese}} ]] [[File:Portuguese - Native Language Gradient 2.svg|thumb|Portuguese – Native Language Gradient {{legend|#24334b|Native speakers: 90–100%}} {{legend|#000099|Native speakers: 40–70%}} {{legend|#1ab2ff|Native speakers: 10–20%}} {{legend|#99ceff|Native speakers: 1–5%}} {{legend|#e6f3ff|Native speakers: Less Than 1%}} ]] [[File:Multilingual Emergency Assembly Area Sign in Oizumi.JPG|thumb|Sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in [[Oizumi]], Japan, which has a large [[Lusophone]] community due to the return immigration of [[Japanese Brazilians]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nlxybOVae8C&q=oizumi+brazilians&pg=PT150 |title=Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin |isbn=978-1-135-78765-3 |last1=Carvalho |first1=Daniela de |date=1 February 2013|publisher=Routledge }}</ref>]] Portuguese is spoken by approximately 200 million people in South America, 30 million in Africa, 15 million in Europe, 5 million in North America and 0.33 million in Asia and Oceania. It is the native language of the vast majority of the people in Portugal,<ref name="Special Eurobarometer 243">{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Special Eurobarometer 243 "Europeans and their Languages" |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221061227/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 |access-date=11 May 2011 |publisher=European Commission |page=6}}</ref> Brazil<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |title=Portuguese language in Brazil |publisher=Country Studies US |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083546/http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and São Tomé and Príncipe (95%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hagemeijer |first=Tjerk |year=2009 |title=As Línguas de S. Tomé e Príncipe |url=https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |url-status=deviated |journal=Revista de Crioulos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Espanhola |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224144743/https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2020 |access-date=17 November 2019}}</ref> Around 45% of the population of urban Angola speaks Portuguese natively,<ref name="censoAO">{{cite web|access-date=2025-11-24 |date=2025-11-20 |title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação – 2024 |url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/Arquivos/arquivosCarregados//Carregados/Publicacao_638992698392586291.pdf}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> with approximately 85% fluent; these rates are lower in the countryside.<ref>Medeiros, Adelardo. ''[[Portuguese in Africa]]'' – Angola</ref> Just over 50% (and rapidly increasing) of the population of [[Mozambique]] are native speakers of Portuguese, and 70% are fluent, according to the 2007 census.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Mozambique|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=28 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428022423/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Guinea-Bissau|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003558/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Almost 50% of the East Timorese are fluent in Portuguese. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks the Portuguese-based [[Cape Verdean Creole]]. Portuguese is mentioned in the [[Constitution of South Africa]] as one of the languages spoken by communities within the country for which the [[Pan South African Language Board]] was charged with promoting and ensuring respect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=18 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518042037/https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many territories including [[Andorra]] (17.1%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |title=Coneixements i usos lingüístics de la població d'Andorra: Situació actual i evolució 1995–2018 |date=2019 |language=Portuguese |publisher=Government of Andorra |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322022207/https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bermuda]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |title=Bermuda |publisher=World InfoZone |access-date=21 April 2010 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507021514/https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Canada]] (400,275 people in the 2006 census),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory (2006 Census) |publisher=Statistics Canada |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313161228/https://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> [[France]] (1,625,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |title=Portuguese in Europe · Portuguese-speaking countries & Portuguese language knowledge in Europe |publisher=Languageknowledge.eu |access-date=2022-03-19 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japan]] (400,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |title=Japão: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam língua portuguesa |language=pt |year=2008 |access-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706152346/http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Jersey]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey/ |title=4.6% according to the 2001 census, see |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113013826/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Luxembourg]] (about 25% of the population as of 2021), [[Namibia]] (about 4–5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the north of the country),<ref name="www.namibian.com.na">{{cite web|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|title=The Namibian|author=Carin Pretorius – Developed CEIT Development CC|access-date=16 March 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082932/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Paraguay]] (10.7% or 636,000 people),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Paraguay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] (550,000 in 2019, learning + mother tongue),<ref>{{cite report |year=2019 |title=Lingue della Svizzera |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |work=Pratiche linguistiche in Svizzera: Primi risultati dell'Indagine sulla lingua, la religione e la cultura 2019 |language=it |access-date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Venezuela]] (554,000),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Venezuela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> and the United States (868,900).<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Census Bureau |title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2017–2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/language-use/2017-2021-lang-tables.html |website=www.census.gov |date=June 2025 |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref> In some parts of former [[Portuguese India]], namely [[Goa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010529163919/http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 May 2001 |title=Portuguese Language in Goa |publisher=Colaco.net |access-date=21 April 2010 }}</ref> and [[Daman and Diu]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |title=The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu |publisher=Rjmacau.com |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721135904/http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |archive-date=21 July 2006 }}</ref> the language is still spoken by about 10,000 people. In 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|title=1.500 pessoas estudam português em Goa|publisher=Revistamacau.com|date=2 June 2014|access-date=10 July 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003451/http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 2% of the people of Macau, China are fluent speakers of Portuguese. Additionally, the language is being very actively studied in the Chinese school system right up to the doctorate level. The [[Kristang people]] in [[Malaysia]] speak [[Kristang language|Kristang]], a Portuguese-Malay creole; however, the Portuguese language itself is not widely spoken in the country. === Official status === {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language}} The [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]<ref name="CPLP">{{cite web |url=https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |title=Estados-membros |date=7 February 2017 |website=Community of Portuguese Language Countries |language=pt |trans-title=Member States |access-date=7 February 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207182400/https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> (in Portuguese ''Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa'', with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of the nine independent countries that have Portuguese as an [[official language]]: [[Angola]], [[Brazil]], [[Cape Verde]], [[East Timor]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mozambique]], [[Portugal]] and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].<ref name="CPLP" /> [[Equatorial Guinea]] made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010, a status given only to states with Portuguese as an official language.<ref>{{cite web |author=Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. |url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |title=El portugués será el tercer idioma oficial de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial – Página Oficial del Gobierno de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial |publisher=Guineaecuatorialpress.com |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104083320/http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese became its third official language (besides [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]])<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|title=Equatorial Guinea Adds Portuguese as the Country's Third Official Language|website=PR Newswire|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163747/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2011, and in July 2014, the country was accepted as a member of the CPLP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|title=Equatorial Guinea, member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries|author=Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea|access-date=1 November 2016|archive-date=27 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227223516/https://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|url-status=live}}</ref> Portuguese is also one of the official languages of the Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China of Macau (alongside [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) and of several international organizations, including [[Mercosul]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |title=Official languages of Mercosul as agreed in the ''Protocol of Ouro Preto'' |publisher=Actrav.itcilo.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722053855/http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]],<ref>Statutes, Article 1{{cite web |url=http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |title=Official statute of the organization |publisher=Oei.es |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628144938/http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Union of South American Nations]],<ref>Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations, Article 23 {{Cite web |title=Tratado Constitutivo de la Unión de Naciones Suramericanas |url=https://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |access-date=4 October 2018 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715170723/http://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of American States]],<ref>General Assembly of the OAS, [http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515221257/http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm |date=15 May 2011 }}, 5 June 2000</ref> the [[African Union]],<ref name="africa-union.org">Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union {{cite web |url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |title=Protocol on the Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208183015/http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=5 February 2016}}</ref> the [[Economic Community of West African States]],<ref name="africa-union.org" /> the [[Southern African Development Community]]<ref name="africa-union.org" /> and the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Languages in Europe&nbsp;– Official EU Languages |publisher=EUROPA web portal |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |access-date=12 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |archive-date=2 February 2009 }}</ref> === Lusophone countries === According to ''[[The World Factbook]]''{{'}}s country population estimates for 2018, the population of each of the ten jurisdictions is as follows (by descending order): {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_main|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712165513/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|title=IBGE &#124; Projeção da população|website=www.ibge.gov.br|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=16 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116063907/http://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|title=Population by Country (2022) – Worldometer|website=www.worldometers.info|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=5 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105162622/http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> ! More information ! Native language<br />of the majority ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Brazil}} [[Brazil]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 203,062,512 || [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese in Brazil]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.ST">{{e26|por}}, 2022</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Angola}} [[Angola]] || style="text-align:right;"| 35,981,281 || [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese in Angola]]||{{na}}||45% as a native language,<ref name="censoAO" /> 82% total<ref name="Ethn.AO">{{e26|por}}, 2021</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] || style="text-align:right;"| 32,513,805 || [[Mozambican Portuguese|Portuguese in Mozambique]]||{{na}}||40% as a native language, 60% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Portugal}} [[Portugal]] || style="text-align:right;"| 10,467,366 || [[European Portuguese|Portuguese in Portugal]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.PT">{{e26|por}}</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 2,078,820 || [[Guinean Portuguese|Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau]]||{{na}}||5% as a native language, 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL">{{e26|por}}, 2015</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]]<sup>2</sup>|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,679,172 || [[Languages of Equatorial Guinea|Portuguese in Equatorial Guinea]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|East Timor}} [[East Timor]]|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,340,513 || [[East Timorese Portuguese|Portuguese in East Timor]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language; 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Macau}} [[Macau]]<sup>1</sup>||style="text-align:right;"| 682,300 || [[Macanese Portuguese|Portuguese in Macau]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language, 7% total<ref name="Ethn.MO">{{e26|por}}, 2017 (L1), 2021 census (L2)</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] || style="text-align:right;"| 561,901 || [[Cape Verdean Portuguese|Portuguese in Cape Verde]]||{{na}}|| 5% as a native language, 80% total<ref name="Ethn.CV">{{e26|por}}, 2010 census</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"|{{flagdeco|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|| style="text-align:right;"| 220,372 || [[São Tomean Portuguese|Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe]]||{{ya}}||75% as a native language, 99% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- class="sortbottom" |style="text-align:left;"| '''Total''' || style="text-align:right;"| 288,588,042 ||colspan=3|[[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] |} {{smalldiv|1= Notes: #[[Macau]] is one of the two autonomous [[Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China]] (the other being [[English language|Anglophone]] [[Hong Kong]], a former British colony). # [[Equatorial Guinea]] adopted Portuguese as one of its official languages in 2007, being admitted to CPLP in 2014. The use of the Portuguese language in this country is limited, but quickly growing. }} The combined population of the entire [[Lusophone]] area was estimated at 300 million in January 2022.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109182931/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref> This number does not include the Lusophone [[diaspora]], estimated at 10 million people (including 4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians), although there are no official accurate figures for diasporic Portuguese speakers because a significant portion of these citizens are naturalized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. Additionally, a large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian and [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|PALOP]] emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil. The Portuguese language therefore serves more than 250 million people daily, who have direct or indirect legal, juridical and social contact with it, varying from the only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs, public information and advertising in Portuguese. === Portuguese as a foreign language === Portuguese is a mandatory subject in the school curriculum in [[Uruguay]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |title=Governo uruguaio torna obrigatório ensino do português |date=5 November 2007 |website=UOL Notícias |language=pt |trans-title=Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory |access-date=13 July 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003353/https://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other countries where Portuguese is commonly taught in schools or where it has been introduced as an option include [[Venezuela]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:lingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6:noticia&Itemid=13/ |title=Portuguese language will be option in the official Venezuelan teachings |language=pt |date=24 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522092756/https://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93%3Alingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6%3Anoticia&Itemid=13%2F |archive-date=22 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Zambia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528221719/http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=28 May 2009 |title=Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic school |language=pt |date=26 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 }}</ref> the [[Republic of the Congo]],<ref name="estadao">{{cite web|url=https://cultura.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,congo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas,561666 |title=Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools |language=pt |date=4 June 2010 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807021226/http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/arteelazer%2Ccongo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas%2C561666%2C0.htm |archive-date=7 August 2010 }}</ref> [[Senegal]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Namibia]],<ref name="www.namibian.com.na" /> [[Eswatini]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[South Africa]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Ivory Coast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |title=Português entra no currículo escolar da Costa do Marfim no próximo ano letivo |date=23 June 2016 |website=www.portugal.gov.pt |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese enters the Ivory Coast school curriculum next school year |access-date=19 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003345/https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|title=República da Maurícia|website=www.cplp.org|access-date=19 July 2019|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003439/https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, a project was launched to introduce Portuguese as a school subject in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué |date=18 January 2017 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese to be introduced to secondary education in Zimbabwe |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133303/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país |date=19 January 2017 |agency=Angola Press – ANGOP |language=pt |trans-title=Zimbabwe: Portuguese to be introduced into the country's secondary education |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, according to Portugal's Minister of Foreign Affairs, the language will be part of the school curriculum of a total of 32 countries by 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |title=Português será língua curricular em 32 países no próximo ano letivo |date=22 July 2019 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese will be curricular language in 32 countries next school year |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003350/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |url-status=live }}</ref> In such countries, Portuguese is spoken either as a native language by vast majorities due to their Portuguese colonial past or as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in bordering and multilingual regions, such as on the Brazilian borders of Uruguay and Paraguay and in regions of Angola and Namibia. In many other countries, Portuguese is spoken by majorities as a second language. There remain communities of thousands of Portuguese (or [[Creole language|Creole]]) first language speakers in [[Goa]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Daman and Diu]], and other areas due to [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonization]]. In [[Timor-Leste|East Timor]], the number of Portuguese speakers is quickly increasing as Portuguese and Brazilian teachers are making great strides in teaching Portuguese in the schools all over the island.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|title=Portuguese language in Timor Leste|access-date=10 April 2022|archive-date=16 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616050638/https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, there are many large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities all over the world. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|title=The World Factbook – Field Listing – Population – CIA|access-date=2015-03-07|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004113653/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />(July 2017 est.) ! More information ! Compulsory education ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Uruguay}} ||style="text-align: right"| 3,444,006 || [[Uruguayan Portuguese|Portuguese in Uruguay]]||{{ya}}||Significant minority as a native language; significant minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Argentina}} || style="text-align: right"|43,847,430 || [[Portuguese in Argentina]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Paraguay}} || style="text-align: right"| 7,052,984 || [[Portuguese in Paraguay]]||{{na}}||Significant minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Venezuela}} || style="text-align: right"|31,568,179 || [[Portuguese in Venezuela]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|South Africa}} || style="text-align: right"| 57,725,600 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in South Africa]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Namibia}} || style="text-align: right"|2,606,971 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Namibia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Congo}} || style="text-align: right"|5,125,821 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Congo]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Zambia}} || style="text-align: right"|16,591,390 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Zambia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Senegal}} || style="text-align: right"| 15,411,614 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Senegal]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Eswatini}} || style="text-align: right"| 1,343,098 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Eswatini]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |} === Future === [[File:MC 澳門 Macau 港珠澳大橋 HK-Zhu-Macau Bridge port building Jan 2019 IX2 63.jpg|thumb|Multilingual signage in Chinese, Portuguese and English at the [[Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge]] port building in [[Macau]]. Portuguese is a co-official language in Macau.]] According to estimates by [[UNESCO]], Portuguese is the fastest-growing [[European language]] after [[English language|English]] and it has the highest potential for growth as an international language in [[southern Africa]] and [[South America]].<ref name="The Portugal News">{{cite web|url=http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|title=Portuguese language gaining popularity|publisher=Anglopress Edicões e Publicidade Lda|date=5 May 2007|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318152307/http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|archive-date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Portuguese is a globalized language spoken officially on five continents, and as a second language by millions worldwide. Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of [[Mercosul]] with other South American nations, namely [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Paraguay]], Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools of those South American countries. Although early in the 21st century, after [[Macau]] was returned to [[China]] and immigration of Brazilians of [[Japanese Brazilian|Japanese descent]] to [[Japan]] slowed down, the use of Portuguese was in decline in [[Asia]], it is once again becoming a language of opportunity there, mostly because of increased diplomatic and financial ties with economically powerful Portuguese-speaking countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leach |first=Michael |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |title=talking Portuguese; China and East Timor |access-date=18 May 2011 |website=Arena Magazine |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105033001/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |archive-date=5 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |title=Promising future for Portuguese language in China |last=Bilrero |first=António |date=15 March 2018 |website=Macao Magazine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702230400/https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |archive-date=2019-07-02}}</ref> ===Current status and importance=== Portuguese, being a language spread on all continents, has official status in several international organizations. It is one of twenty official languages of the [[European Union]], an official language of NATO, the [[Organization of American States]] (alongside Spanish, French and English), and one of eighteen official languages of the [[European Space Agency]]. Portuguese is a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] (alongside English, German, Spanish, French, Arabic and Russian), [[Amnesty International]] (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, French, German, and Italian), and [[Médecins sans Frontières]] (used alongside English, Spanish, French and Arabic), in addition to being the official legal language in the [[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]], also in [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization formed essentially by [[Lusophone|lusophone countries]]. == Linguistic demography == With approximately 250 million native speakers and 17 million [[second language]] speakers, Portuguese has approximately 267 million total speakers.<ref>{{Ethnologue28|por}},</ref> It is usually listed as the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Emmanuel|last=da Silva|chapter=Socioliguistic Tensions in Toronoto|page=129|editor-first=Luiz Paulo|editor-last=Moita-Lopes|title=Global Portuguese: Linguistic Ideologies in Late Modernity|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-31763-304-4}}</ref> the third-most spoken European language in the world in terms of native speakers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=CIA World Factbook|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the second-most spoken [[Romance languages|Romance language]] in the world, surpassed only by [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Being the first most widely spoken language in [[South America]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Different Languages of South America|url=https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Latino Bridge|language=en|date=7 November 2022|archive-date=12 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212165044/https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2012 World Population Data Sheet Interactive Map – Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?rev_t=20230622000824&url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=La langue espagnole (présentation) |url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/Langues/2vital_inter_espagnol.htm |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca}}</ref> and the most-spoken language in the [[Southern Hemisphere]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Potencial Económico da Língua Portuguesa|url=http://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|website=University of Coimbra|access-date=21 June 2020|archive-date=24 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024163947/https://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Portuguese Language Day|url=https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|website=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=17 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117112028/https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=20 Most Spoken Languages in the World in 2023|url=https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|website=[[Berlitz Corporation]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=21 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121060019/https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|url-status=live}}</ref> it is also the second-most spoken language, after Spanish, in [[Latin America]], one of the 10 most spoken languages in [[Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |website=Africa Facts |title=Top 11 Most Spoken Languages in Africa |date=2017-10-18 |access-date=10 October 2018 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918174122/https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and an official language of the [[European Union]], [[Mercosul]]<!-- This is the Portuguese spelling of Mercosur, Portuguese being an official language of that organization. -->, the [[Organization of American States#Official languages|Organization of American States]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]], the [[African Union]], and the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization made up of all of the world's officially [[Lusophone]] nations. In 1997, a comprehensive academic study ranked Portuguese as one of the 10 most influential languages in the world.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130507110651/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm "The World's 10 most influential languages"], George Weber, 1997, ''Language Today'', "...includes besides many other languages, Bengali, English, French, German, Hindi/Urdu, Italian, Marathi, Panjabi, Persian, Brazilian (Portuguese), Russian, the Scandinavian languages, and Spanish." "''Portuguese'' today means above all Brazilian."</ref><ref>Bernard Comrie, Encarta Encyclopedia (1998); George Weber, [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm "Top Languages: The World's 10 Most Influential Languages"], ''Language Today'' (Vol. 2, December 1997). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927062910/http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Archived] from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-09-28.</ref> == Classification and related languages == [[File:Lenguas y dialectos iberorromances.PNG|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Map showing mostly contemporary [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] and [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] languages, as well many of their mainland European dialects (areas colored green, [[Aragonese language|gold]] or pink/purple represent languages deemed [[Endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]], so this may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and the [[Fala language|Fala]] as not only closely related but as [[dialect continuum]], though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira–[[Canarian Spanish|Canaries]] is not shown either).{{Image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]] {{Main|Iberian Romance languages| Galician–Portuguese |Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese}} Portuguese belongs to the [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] branch of the [[Romance language]]s, and it has special ties with the following members of this group: * [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Fala language|Fala]]. * [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] and [[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]] ([[Astur-Leonese languages]]). Mirandese is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal). * [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Caló language|''calão'']] (the Portuguese term for ''caló'', language of the Iberian [[Romani people|Romani]]). Portuguese and other Romance languages (namely [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) share considerable similarities in both vocabulary and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and [[Galician language|Galician]] are fully mutually intelligible. Spanish is relatively intelligible for lusophones, owing to their geographic proximity and history as [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] ([[Ibero-Romance languages]]), historical contact between speakers and mutual influence, shared [[areal features]] as well as modern lexical, structural, and grammatical similarity (over 85%) between them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=John B. |year=1989 |title=On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese |journal=Hispania |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=848–852 |jstor=343562 |doi=10.2307/343562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=2000 |title=Variation and Change in Spanish |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-78045-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105110/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-11568-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb |url-access=registration |quote=how well do spanish speakers understand portuguese?. |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb/page/501 501]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ginsburgh |first1=Victor |last2=Weber |first2=Shlomo |year=2011 |title=How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-13689-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90 |page=90 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105241/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Similar languages to Portuguese |url=https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |website=EZ Glot |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302192659/https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |url-status=live }}</ref> Many young Portuguese speakers however, will often choose [[English language|English]] as the lingua-franca of choice, with Spanish, French, Italian, other Europeans, and speakers of other languages. Over 97% of 18 to 24 year olds in Portugal speak a second language fluently, 95% of those have English as L2, some 33.7% speak French, 23% German, and 14% Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsenglish.pt/pt/wse/blog/portugueses-falam-cada-vez-mais-e-melhor-l%C3%ADnguas-estrangeiras/ |title=Portugueses falam cada vez mais (e melhor) línguas estrangeiras |language=pt |editor=wse english|date=2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2016 |publisher=The Portugal News |title=Portugal's students amongst Europe's most bilingual |url=https://www.theportugalnews.com/news/portugals-students-among-europes-most-bilingual/37355}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> [[Portuñol]]/Portunhol, a form of [[code-switching]], has a lively use and is mentioned in popular culture in South America. Said code-switching is not to be confused with the Portuguese varieties spoken on the borders of Brazil with Uruguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto do pampa}}) and Paraguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto dos [[Brasiguayos|brasiguaios]]}}), and of Portugal with Spain ({{lang|pt|[[barranquenho]]}}), that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thousands of people, which have been heavily influenced by Spanish.<ref name="Lipski">{{Cite conference |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |editor-last=Face |editor-first=Timothy L |editor2-last=Klee |editor2-first=Carol A |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol' |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |pages=1–22 |access-date=21 June 2015 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance languages, and perhaps the only Romance languages in Latin-America, with such thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have formed, in which functional bilingual communication is achieved through attempting an approximation to the target foreign language (known as 'Portuñol') without a learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates communication. There is an emerging literature focused on such phenomena in South America (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).<ref name="Lipski" /> === Galician–Portuguese in Spain === {{see also|Reintegrationism}} The closest relative of Portuguese is Galician, which is spoken in the autonomous community and historical nationality of Galicia ([[Spain]]). The two were part of a common dialect continuum during the Middle Ages, known today as [[Galician–Portuguese]], but they have diverged especially in pronunciation and vocabulary due to the political separation of [[County of Portugal|Portugal]] from [[Kingdom of Galicia|Galicia]]. There is, however, still a linguistic continuity consisting of the variant of Galician referred to as ''galego-português baixo-limiao'', which is spoken in several Galician and Portuguese villages within the transboundary biosphere reserve of [[Peneda-Gerês National Park|Gerês]]-[[Baixa Limia – Serra do Xurés|Xurés]]. It is "considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged from [[Cantabria]] to [[Mondego River|Mondego]] [...]".<ref name="agal-gz.or">{{Cite web |title=A Fala Galego-Portuguesa da Baixa-Limia e Castro Laboreiro |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |trans-title=The Galician–Portuguese Speech of Baixa-Limia and Castro Laboreiro |language=pt |access-date=2018-10-05 |archive-date=13 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080652/http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As reported by [[UNESCO]], due to the pressure of Spanish on the standard official version of Galician and centuries-old [[Hispanization|Castilianization]], the Galician language was on the verge of disappearing.<ref name="agal-gz.or" /> According to the UNESCO philologist Tapani Salminen, the proximity to Portuguese protects Galician.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 February 2009 |title=O galego deixa de ser unha das linguas 'en perigo' para a Unesco |language=gl |trans-title=Galician is no longer one of the "endangered" languages for Unesco |work=Galicia Hoxe |url=http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106122417/http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. Within the EU, Galician, while not being a [[European Parliament]] official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents due to its similarity with Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |title=O Galego já é oficial na UE [GL/PT] |publisher=Associaçom Galega da Lingua |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030142629/http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |archive-date=30 October 2004 }}</ref><ref name="moniz1">{{cite journal|last=Moniz|first=Alexandre|date=2021|url=https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|title=Galician: How to Kill a Language|website=Cambridge Engage|access-date=21 Sep 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050757/https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Galician like Portuguese, uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility estimated at 85% is excellent between Galicians and Portuguese.<ref>{{e25|glg|Galician}}</ref> Despite political efforts in Spain to define them as separate languages, many linguists consider [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese to be co-dialects of the same language with regional variations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua|title=O galego e o português são a mesma língua/|date=27 January 2020|access-date=21 September 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921022638/https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="moniz1"/> Another member of the Galician–Portuguese group, most commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in the [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]] region in a western strip in [[Asturias]] and the westernmost parts of the provinces of [[Province of León|León]] and [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], along the frontier with Galicia, between the [[Eo (river)|Eo]] and [[Navia (river)|Navia]] rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is called ''eonaviego'' or ''gallego-asturiano'' by its speakers. The Fala language, known by its speakers as ''xalimés'', ''mañegu'', ''a fala de Xálima'' and ''chapurráu'' and in Portuguese as ''a fala de Xálima'', ''a fala da Estremadura'', ''o galego da Estremadura'', ''valego'' or ''galaico-estremenho'', is another descendant of Galician–Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of [[Valverde del Fresno]] (''Valverdi du Fresnu''), [[Eljas]] (''As Ellas'') and [[San Martín de Trevejo]] (''Sa Martín de Trevellu'') in the autonomous community of [[Extremadura]], near the border with Portugal. There are a number of other places in Spain in which the native language of the common people is a descendant of the Galician–Portuguese group, such as [[La Alamedilla]], [[Cedillo]] (''Cedilho''), [[Herrera de Alcántara]] (''Ferreira d'Alcântara'') and [[Olivenza]] (''Olivença''), but in these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream. In the kingdom of Portugal, ''Ladinho'' (or ''Lingoagem Ladinha'') was the name given to the pure Portuguese romance language, without any mixture of Aravia or Gerigonça Judenga.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft/page/140 140]|quote=aravia.|title=Diccionario da lingua portugueza|publisher=Na typ. de M. P. de Lacerda|access-date=30 May 2015|last1=Silva|first1=António de Morais|year=1823}}</ref> While the term ''língua vulgar'' was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided to call it "Portuguese language",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osório |first=Jorge A. |date=1993 |title=D. Dinis: o Rei a Língua e o Reino |trans-title=D. Dinis: the King the Language and the Kingdom |url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |hdl=10216/20003 |journal=Máthesis |language=pt |issue=2 |pages=17–36 |access-date=12 June 2015 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816084101/https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the erudite version used and known as Galician–Portuguese (the language of the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspective the Portuguese language was never just one dialect. Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past there was Galician–Portuguese as the "standard", coexisting with other dialects. === Influence on other languages === [[File:St_Peter_Church_Melaka_3.jpg|thumb|An Old Portuguese [[memento mori]] memorial sign in [[Malacca City]]]] {{See also|List of English words of Portuguese origin|Loan words in Malayalam#Portuguese|Loan words in Indonesian|Japanese words of Portuguese origin|List of Malay loanwords|Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala|Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese|Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language|Hindustani etymology#Loanwords from Portuguese|Gujarati language#Portuguese|Burmese language|Bengali vocabulary#Portuguese (পর্তুগিজ Pôrtugij)|Thai language#Portuguese-origin|Chittagonian language|Tok Pisin}} Portuguese has provided [[loanword]]s to many languages, such as [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Manado Malay]], [[Malayalam]], [[Sri Lanka Tamils (native)|Sri Lankan Tamil]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English (language)|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Tsonga language|Xitsonga]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Lanc-Patuá creole|Lanc-Patuá]], [[Esan people#Language|Esan]], [[Bandar Abbas|Bandari]] (spoken in Iran) and [[Sranan Tongo]] (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong influence on the ''[[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]]'', a [[Tupi–Guarani language]], which was the most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around [[Sikka Regency|Sikka]] in [[Flores]] Island, [[Indonesia]]. In nearby [[Larantuka]], Portuguese is used for prayers in [[Holy Week]] rituals. The Japanese–Portuguese dictionary ''[[Nippo Jisho]]'' (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the ''[[Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum]]'' (Annamite–Portuguese–Latin dictionary) of [[Alexandre de Rhodes]] (1651) introduced the modern [[Vietnamese alphabet|orthography of Vietnamese]], which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The [[Romanization]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding [[List of common Chinese surnames|Chinese surnames]]; one example is ''Mei''. During 1583–88 Italian Jesuits [[Michele Ruggieri]] and [[Matteo Ricci]] created a Portuguese–Chinese dictionary&nbsp;– the first ever European–Chinese dictionary.<ref name=camus>{{cite web|url=http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|title=Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies|last=Camus|first=Yves|access-date=12 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090942/http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="ricciDict">''Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary'', by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional. {{ISBN|972-565-298-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C Partial preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183226/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C |date=15 December 2022 }} available on [[Google Books]]</ref> For instance, as [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese merchants]] were presumably the first to introduce the [[sweet orange]] in Europe, in several modern [[Indo-European languages]] the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian ''[[wikt:portokall#Albanian|portokall]]'', Bosnian (archaic) ''portokal'', ''prtokal'', Bulgarian [[wikt:портокал#Bulgarian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Greek [[wikt:πορτοκάλι#Greek|πορτοκάλι]] (''portokáli''), [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''{{transliteration|mk|portokal}}'', Persian [[wikt:پرتقال#Persian|پرتقال]] (''porteghal''), and Romanian ''[[wikt:portocală#Romanian|portocală]]''.<ref name="plantname">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus Names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |publisher=[[University of Melbourne]] |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515001035/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OstergrenBosse2011">{{cite book |author1=Ostergren, Robert C. |author2=Le Bosse, Mathias |name-list-style=amp |title=The Europeans, Second Edition: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA129 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-60918-140-6 |page=129}}</ref> Related names can be found in other languages,<!--"[[Amharic language|Amharic]] birtukan": NOT in sources--> such as Arabic [[wikt:البرتقال#Arabic|البرتقال]] (''burtuqāl''), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ფორთოხალი#Georgian|ფორთოხალი]] (''p'ort'oxali''), Turkish ''[[wikt:portakal#Turkish|portakal]]'' and [[Amharic]] ''birtukan''.<ref name="plantname" /> Also, in southern [[Italian language|Italian dialects]] (e.g. [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]), an orange is ''[[:wikt:portogallo|portogallo]]'' or ''[[:wikt:it:purtuallo|purtuallo]]'', literally "(the) Portuguese (one)", in contrast to [[standard Italian]] ''arancia''. [[File:2014 Lusophony Games map.svg|thumb|right|Participating countries of the [[Lusophony Games]]]] === Derived languages === {{Main|Portuguese-based creole languages}} Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many [[pidgin]]s with varying amounts of Portuguese influence. As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged [[creole language]]s, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century. Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, namely [[Cape Verdean Creole]] and [[Papiamento]]. Portuguese-based creoles are spoken by over three million people worldwide, especially people of partial [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ancestry. == Phonology == {{Main|Portuguese phonology}} {{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal |image1=WIKITONGUES- Sara speaking Portuguese.webm |caption1=Sara, a native speaker of the [[European Portuguese]] of Lisbon |image2=WIKITONGUES- Freddie speaking Portuguese.webm |caption2=Freddie, a native speaker of the [[Brazilian Portuguese]] of São Paulo }} [[Portuguese phonology]] and [[phonetics]] vary across regional dialects, but these differences generally do not impede [[mutual intelligibility]] among speakers. Portuguese has one of the larger phonological inventories among the Romance languages.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=1–2}} This overview mainly describes [[European Portuguese]] (EP) and [[Brazilian Portuguese]] (BP), the [[standard varieties]] of Portugal and Brazil respectively.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=113}} === Vowels === {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = European Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption1 = Monophthongs of European Portuguese as they are pronounced in Lisbon, from {{Harvcoltxt|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}. The vowel transcribed {{IPA|/ɯ/}} on this chart appears only in unstressed syllables and corresponds to the symbol {{IPA|/ɨ/|cat=no}} in this article | image2 = Brazilian Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption2 = Monophthongs of Brazilian Portuguese as they are pronounced in São Paulo, from {{Harvcoltxt|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}. The vowels {{IPA|[ɪ, ʊ, ë]|cat=no}} appear only in unstressed syllables. | class1 = skin-invert-image | class2 = skin-invert-image }} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Vowel phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}} |- !rowspan="2"| !colspan="2"|[[Front vowel|Front]] !colspan="2"|[[Central vowel|Central]] !colspan="2"|[[Back vowel|Back]] |- !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} |- ![[Close vowel|Close]] |{{IPA link|i}} |{{IPA link|ĩ}} |({{IPA link|ɯ̽|ɨ}}) | |{{IPA link|u}} |{{IPA link|ũ}} |- ![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] |{{IPA link|ɪ}} | |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ʊ}} | |- ![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] |{{IPA link|e}} |{{IPA link|ẽ}} |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|o}} |{{IPA link|õ}} |- ![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] |{{IPA link|ɛ}} | |{{IPA link|ɐ}} |{{IPA link|ɐ̃}} |{{IPA link|ɔ}} | |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ä|a}} | |colspan="2"| |} EP has nine oral vowels ({{IPA|/a, ɐ, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u, ɨ/}}) and 19 consonants,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP is generally analyzed as having seven oral vowels in stressed position ({{IPA|/i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/}}).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} Both varieties have five [[nasal vowel]]s,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} though linguists Maria Helena Mateus and Ernesto d'Andrade analyze these as [[allophone]]s of the oral vowels rather than independent phonemes.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=20}} Portuguese has ten oral [[diphthong]]s and five nasal diphthongs.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} In unstressed positions, EP frequently reduces or deletes vowels in colloquial speech, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dever#Portuguese|dever]]}} ({{gloss|to owe}}) realized as {{IPA|pt|ˈdveɾ||}}. In both varieties, the tense mid vowels /e/ and /o/ tend to raise when unstressed, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:menino#Portuguese|menino]]}} ({{gloss|boy}}) {{IPA|pt|mĩ.ˈnĩ.nu||}}. In BP, this raising is especially consistent in word-final position, while in other syllables tends to vary depending on the accent, where the most common vocalic realizations are {{IPA|/i/|}}, {{IPA|/a/|}} and {{IPA|/u/|}}, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sabe#Portuguese|sabe]]}} ({{gloss|he/she knows}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈsa.bi||}} and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:juro#Portuguese|juro]]}} ({{gloss|I swear}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈʒu.ɾu||}}.{{sfn|Ferreira|Holt|2014|pp=131–132}} BP frequently employs vowel [[epenthesis]] to break up consonant clusters, typically inserting a high front vowel such as {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, although many times it can be completely removed or reduced to palatalization ("prática" [ˈpɾatʃikɐ > ˈpɾatʃkɐ]; "truque" ['tɾuki > 'tɾukʲ]).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=227}} [[Semivowel]]s contrast with unstressed high vowels in verbal conjugation, as in {{lang|pt|(eu) rio}} ({{gloss|I laugh}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁi.u/}} and {{lang|pt|(ele) riu}} ({{gloss|he laughed}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁiw/}}.{{sfn|Rodrigues|2012|pp=39–40}} Phonologists discuss whether their nature is vowel or consonant.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=123}} === Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Consonant phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2012|p=20}}{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}} ! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | ! rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan=2| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]](-[[postalveolar|alveolar]]) ! colspan=2| [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] |- ! {{small|plain}} ! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}} |- !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} |colspan=2| |- !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|kʷ}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} | {{IPA link|dʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʷ}} |- !rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} |colspan=2| |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | {{IPA link|ʁ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Sonorant]] ! {{small|[[median consonant|median]]}} | {{IPA link|w}} | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | ({{IPA link|w}}) |- ! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}} | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʎ}} |colspan=2| |} EP has 19 consonant phonemes,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP has 21, including the post-alveolar [[affricate]]s [tʃ] and [dʒ].{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} In most Brazilian varieties, the stops /t/ and /d/ are realized as the affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ] before the high front vowel [i], as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:tia#Portuguese|tia]]}} ({{gloss|aunt}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dia#Portuguese|dia]]}} ({{gloss|day}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|pp=60–61}} Portuguese distinguishes two rhotic phonemes: a flap /ɾ/, occurring intervocalically as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:caro#Portuguese|caro]]}} ({{gloss|cheap}}), and a stronger rhotic /R/, occurring word-initially and in the geminate RR as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:carro#Portuguese|carro]]}} ({{gloss|car}}).{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=15}} The consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ʁ/}} has a variety of realizations depending on dialect. In EP, it is typically a [[uvular trill]] {{IPA|[ʀ]}}; however, a pronunciation as a [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}} may be becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[χ]}}, and the original pronunciation as an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} also remains very common in various dialects.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=5–6, 11}} A common realization of the word-initial {{IPA|/r/}} in the Lisbon accent is a [[voiced uvular fricative trill]] {{IPA|ʀ̝}}.{{sfn|Grønnum|2005|p=157}} In Brazil, {{IPA|/ʁ/}} can be [[velar consonant|velar]], [[uvular consonant|uvular]], or [[glottal consonant|glottal]] and may be voiceless unless between voiced sounds.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} The typical syllable-final rhotic is the {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in Portugal and the hard {{IPA|/ʁ/}} (or other common allophones) in Brazil, although the pronunciation as {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and {{IPA|/ɹ/}} ~ {{IPA|/ɻ/}} exists in some accents of the country.{{Sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} Portuguese has a strong tendency toward falling diphthongs, in which a vowel is followed by a semivowel, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:feira#Portuguese|feira]]}} ({{gloss|market}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:noivo#Portuguese|noivo]]}} ({{gloss|fiancé}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ruivo#Portuguese|ruivo]]}} ({{gloss|auburn}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=177}} Sequences of two vowels in separate syllables, known as [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], also occur, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saída#Portuguese|saída]]}} ({{gloss|exit}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=59}} The lateral /l/ in syllable-final position is realised as the semivowel [w] in most of Brazil, making {{lang|pt|[[wikt:alto#Portuguese|alto]]}} ({{gloss|high}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:auto#Portuguese|auto]]}} ({{gloss|public deed}}) phonetically identical in those varieties;{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=59}} in EP, the same consonant is realised as a velarized {{IPAblink|ɫ}}.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=120}} Many speakers of BP further shift {{IPA|ɫ}} to {{IPA|[w]}} in closed syllables.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} {{Harvcoltxt|Bisol|2005|p=122}} proposes that Portuguese possesses labio-velar stops {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} as additional phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and {{IPA|/w/}}.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}} [[Sibilant]]s in syllable-final position are realised as the palato-alveolar fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ] in EP{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=156}} and in the Rio de Janeiro variety of BP, while most other Brazilian varieties retain the alveolar [s] and [z].{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=358}} In most of Brazil and Angola, the consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is realized as a [[nasal palatal approximant]] {{IPAblink|ȷ̃|j̃}}, which [[Nasalization|nasalizes]] the vowel that precedes it: {{IPA|[ˈnĩj̃u]}}.{{sfn|Thomas|1974|p=8}} In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops ({{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) are usually lenited to [[fricative]]s {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPAblink|ð}}, and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}, respectively, except at the beginning of words or after nasal vowels.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}} === Stress, rhythm and intonation === Prosodically, [[stress (linguistics)|syllabic stress]] in Portuguese falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. [[Paroxytone]]s, with stress on the penultimate syllable, are the most frequent pattern, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:barro#Portuguese|barro]]}} ({{gloss|clay}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:poderoso#Portuguese|poderoso]]}} ({{gloss|powerful}}), followed by [[oxytone]]s, with stress on the final syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:café#Portuguese|café]]}} ({{gloss|coffee}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:principal#Portuguese|principal]]}} ({{gloss|principal}}), and [[proparoxytone]]s, with stress on the antepenultimate syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sólido#Portuguese|sólido]]}} ({{gloss|solid}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:felicíssimo#Portuguese|felicíssimo]]}} ({{gloss|very happy}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=77}} European Portuguese is generally described as [[stress-timed]], with unstressed syllables subject to significant reduction. Brazilian Portuguese is more syllable-timed, with unstressed vowels better preserved.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=130}} In [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], declarative sentences are typically characterized by a falling pitch contour,{{sfn|Queiroz|2008|p=305}} while [[yes/no question]]s are marked by a rise in pitch on the final stressed syllable; in BP, a pattern with pitch rising on both the first and last accented syllables is common.{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=362}} [[Wh-question|''Wh''-question]]s typically carry a falling contour when seeking information.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=93}} == Orthography == {{excerpt|Portuguese orthography|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1-2}} === Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 === {{excerpt|Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990|Changes|only=table|tables=2}} == Grammar == {{Main|Portuguese grammar}} A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any other major [[Romance language]]. Portuguese and Spanish share very similar grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure. Portuguese also has some grammatical innovations not found in other Romance languages (except Galician and Fala): * The [[present perfect]] has an iterative sense unique to the Galician–Portuguese language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the past but expected to occur again in the future. For instance, the sentence ''Tenho tentado falar contigo'' would be translated to "I have been trying to talk to you", not "I have tried to talk to you." On the other hand, the correct translation of "Have you heard the latest news?" is not ''*Tens ouvido as últimas?'' but ''Ouviste as últimas?'' since no repetition is implied.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Verbal Periphrases in Romance: Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization |last=Squartini |first=Mario |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-11-016160-1 |location=Berlin |oclc=39007172}}</ref> * Portuguese makes use of the future [[subjunctive mood]], which developed from medieval [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance]]. In modern Spanish and Galician, it has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs the present tense under the same circumstances: :''Se eu ''for'' eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.'' :If ''I am'' elected president, I will change the law. :''Quando ''fores'' mais velho, vais entender.'' :When ''you grow'' older, you will understand. * The personal [[infinitive]] can [[inflection|inflect]] according to its subject in [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[Grammatical number|number]]. It often shows who is expected to perform a certain action. ''É melhor voltares'' "It is better [for you] to go back", ''É melhor voltarmos'' "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for that reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages. == Vocabulary == {{Main|Portuguese vocabulary}} The Portuguese lexicon consists of around 228,500 entries, 382,000 definitions, 415,500 synonyms, 26,400 antonyms and 57,000 [[Archaism|archaic word]]s, according to an estimate based on the 2001 edition of the ''[[Houaiss Dictionary of the Portuguese Language]]''.{{sfn|de Albuquerque|Coelho|Antunes|do Nascimento|2015|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Timbane|2012|p=21}} Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived, directly or through other Romance languages, from Latin.{{sfn|Azevedo|2005|p=171}} A number of Portuguese words can still be traced to the [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal]], which included the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celtici]] and [[Cynetes]]. Most of these words derived from the Hispano-Celtic [[Gallaecian language]] of northwestern Iberia, and are very often shared with [[Galician language|Galician]] since both languages have the same origin in the medieval language of Galician–Portuguese. A few of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from other [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] sources, often [[Gaulish]]. Altogether these are over 3,000 words, verbs, toponymic names of towns, rivers, surnames, tools, lexicon linked to rural life and natural world.<ref name="Filppula-Klemola">{{cite journal |last1=Filppula |first1=Markku |last2=Klemola |first2=Juhani |title=Celtic Influences in English: A Re-Evaluation |journal=Neuphilologische Mitteilungen |volume=115 |number=1 |date=2014 |pages=33–53 |jstor=43344757 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120002914/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman [[Hispania]]) was conquered by the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Suebi]] and [[Visigoths]]. As they adopted the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization and language, however, these people contributed with some 500 [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] words to the lexicon. Many of these words are related to: * '''warfare''', such as {{lang|pt|espora}} 'spur', {{lang|pt|estaca}} ('stake'), and {{lang|pt|guerra}} ('war'), from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''*spaúra'', ''*stakka'', and ''*wirro'' respectively; * '''natural world''', such as {{lang|pt|suino}} ('swine') from ''*sweina'', {{lang|pt|gavião}} ('hawk') from ''*gabilans'', {{lang|pt|vaga}} ('spot') from ''*vigan''; * '''human emotions''', such as {{lang|pt|orgulho}} or {{lang|pt|orgulhoso}} ('pride', 'proud') from Old Germanic ''*urguol'', and * '''verbs''' like {{lang|pt|gravar}} ('to craft, record, graft') from ''*graba'' or {{lang|pt|esmagar}} ('to squeeze, quash, grind') from Suebian ''*magōn'' or {{lang|pt|esfarrapar}} ('to shred') from ''*harpō''. The [[Germanic languages]] influence also exists in [[toponymic surname]]s and [[patronymic surname]]s borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such as [[Ermesinde]], [[Esposende]] and [[Resende, Portugal|Resende]] where ''sinde'' and ''sende'' are derived from the Germanic ''sinths'' ('military expedition') and in the case of Resende, the prefix ''re'' comes from Germanic ''reths'' ('council'). Other examples of Portuguese names, surnames and town names of Germanic [[toponymic]] origin include Henrique, [[Henriques (surname)|Henriques]], Vermoim, Mandim, Calquim, Baguim, Gemunde, Guetim, Sermonde and many more, are quite common mainly in the old [[Suebi]] and later [[Visigothic]] dominated regions, covering today's Northern half of Portugal and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. Between the 9th and early 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired some 400 to 600 words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] by influence of [[al-Andalus|Moorish Iberia]]. They are often recognizable by the initial [[Definite article in Arabic|Arabic article ''a(l)-'']], and include common words such as {{lang|pt|aldeia}} ('village') from الضيعة ''aḍ-ḍayʿa'', {{lang|pt|alface}} ('lettuce') from الخسة ''al-khassa'', {{lang|pt|armazém}} ('warehouse') from المخزن ''al-makhzan'', and {{lang|pt|azeite}} ('olive oil') from الزيت ''az-zayt''. [[File:State_Central_Library,_Goa_Dec_27,_2012_14.JPG|thumb|left|A sign at [[Goa State Central Library|Goa Central Library]], in [[Panaji]], India, listing three Portuguese-language newspapers]] Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance, {{lang|pt|catana}} ('[[cutlass]]') from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''[[katana]]'', {{lang|pt|chá}} ('tea') from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''[[Tea#Etymology|chá]]'', and ''[[Canja de galinha|canja]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Canja |url=https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |website=Dicionário Priberam |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033808/https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |url-status=live }}</ref> ('chicken-soup, piece of cake') from [[Malayalam]]. . From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several words of African and [[indigenous peoples of Brazil|Amerind]] origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. From [[Kimbundu language|Kimbundu]], for example, came ''kifumate'' > {{lang|pt|cafuné}} ('head caress') (Brazil), ''kusula'' > {{lang|pt|caçula}} ('youngest child') (Brazil), {{lang|pt|marimbondo}} ('tropical wasp') (Brazil), and ''kubungula'' > {{lang|pt|bungular}} ('to dance like a wizard') (Angola). From South America came {{lang|pt|batata}} ('[[potato]]'), from [[Taíno language|Taino]]; {{lang|pt|ananás}} and {{lang|pt|abacaxi}}, from [[Tupi–Guarani languages|Tupi–Guarani]] ''naná'' and [[Tupi language|Tupi]] ''ibá cati'', respectively (two species of [[pineapple]]), and {{lang|pt|pipoca}} ('[[popcorn]]') from Tupi and {{lang|pt|tucano}} ('[[toucan]]') from [[Guarani language|Guarani]] ''tucan''. Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages, especially French and [[English language|English]]. These are by far the most important languages when referring to loanwords. There are many examples such as: {{lang|pt|colchete}}/{{lang|pt|crochê}} ('bracket'/'crochet'), {{lang|pt|paletó}} ('jacket'), {{lang|pt|batom}} ('lipstick'), and {{lang|pt|filé}}/{{lang|pt|filete}} ('steak'/'slice'), {{lang|pt|rua}} ('street'), respectively, from French {{lang|fr|crochet}}, {{lang|fr|paletot}}, {{lang|fr|bâton}}, {{lang|fr|filet}}, {{lang|fr|rue}}; and {{lang|pt|bife}} ('steak'), {{lang|pt|futebol}}, {{lang|pt|revólver}}, {{lang|pt|stock}}/{{lang|pt|estoque}}, {{lang|pt|folclore}}, from English "beef", "football", "revolver", "stock", "folklore". Examples from other European languages: {{lang|pt|macarrão}} ('pasta'), {{lang|pt|piloto}} ('pilot'), {{lang|pt|carroça}} ('carriage'), and {{lang|pt|barraca}} ('barrack'), from Italian {{lang|it|maccherone}}, {{lang|it|pilota}}, {{lang|it|carrozza}}, and {{lang|it|baracca}}; {{lang|pt|melena}} ('hair lock'), {{lang|pt|fiambre}} ('wet-cured ham') (in Portugal, in contrast with ''presunto'' 'dry-cured ham' from Latin ''prae-exsuctus'' 'dehydrated') or ('canned ham') (in Brazil, in contrast with non-canned, wet-cured (''presunto cozido'') and dry-cured (''presunto cru'')), or ''castelhano'' ('Castilian'), from Spanish ''melena'' ('mane'), ''fiambre'' and ''castellano.'' == Dialects, accents and varieties == Modern Standard [[European Portuguese]] ({{lang|pt|português padrão}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoescola.com/linguistica/portugues-na-europa/|title=Português na Europa|website=InfoEscola}}</ref> or {{lang|pt|português continental}}) is based on the Portuguese spoken in the area including and surrounding the cities of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]], in central Portugal. Standard European Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries. As such, and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in many dialects of Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. The same occur with the Santomean, Mozambican, Bissau-Guinean, Angolan and Cape Verdean dialects, being exclusive to Africa. See [[Portuguese in Africa]]. Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below. There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation. === Portugal === [[File:Portugal portuguese dialects.png|thumb|Portugal's Portuguese dialects]] [[File:Lusofonia Angola Censo.png|thumb|Map of Angola 2024 – percentage of native speakers in each municipality.]] [[File:Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique - Proportion of Speakers.png|thumb|Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique – Proportion of Speakers]] [[File:Edificio de Correos y Telégrafos, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 03.jpg|thumb|right|The main [[post office]] building of [[Macau]]]] {{Pie chart |caption = Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country (c. 2023)<ref name="Publico25">{{cite web | last1=Sanches | first1=Andreia | last2=Mendon&#xE7 | first2=tia | last3=Moreira | first3=Cristiana Faria | last4=G&#xF3 | first4=Gabriela | last5=Pedro | first5=Gabriela | title=A língua portuguesa no mundo | website=PÚBLICO | date=2025-03-04 | url=https://www.publico.pt/2025/03/04/infografia/lingua-portuguesa-mundo-854 | language=pt | access-date=2025-03-08}}</ref> |value1=80.1 |label1=Brazil |color1=#009440 |value2=9.0 |label2=Angola |color2=Black |value3=5.9 |label3=Mozambique |color3=#FCCF03 |value4=4.1 |label4=Portugal |color4=#FF0000 |value5=0.9 |label5= Others |color5=Blue }} # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som69.html ''Micaelense (Açores)''] (São Miguel) – [[Azores]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som40.html ''Alentejano''] – [[Alentejo]] ([[Alentejan Portuguese]]), with the [[Oliventine Portuguese|Oliventine]] subdialect. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som44.html ''Algarvio''] – [[Algarve]] (there is a particular dialect in a small part of western Algarve). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som1.html ''Minhoto'']&nbsp;– Districts of [[Braga]] and Viana do Castelo (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som49.html ''Beirão''; ''Alto-Alentejano''] – Central Portugal (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som9.html ''Beirão''] – Central Portugal. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som22.html ''Estremenho'']&nbsp;– Regions of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]] (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra and is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that are not only not shared with that of Coimbra, but also significantly distinct and recognizable to most native speakers from elsewhere in Portugal). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som60.html ''Madeirense''] (Madeiran)&nbsp;– [[Madeira]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som14.html ''Portuense'']&nbsp;– Regions of the district of [[Porto]] and parts of [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som6.html ''Transmontano'']&nbsp;– [[Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro]]. [[File:Uso dos pronomes de segunda pessoa no Brasil.svg|thumb|The status of second person pronouns in Brazil: {{col-begin}} {{legend|#A40000|Near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|você}} (greater than 96%)}} {{legend|#5B4FDE|Decidedly predominant use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (greater than 80%), but with near exclusive third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#590000|50-50 {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} variation, with {{lang|pt|tu}} being nearly always accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#00C4DC|Decidedly predominant to near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (76% to 95%) with reasonable frequency of second person ({{lang|pt|tu}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#85C700|Balanced você/tu distribution, being {{lang|pt|tu}} exclusively accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#006700|Balanced {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} distribution, {{lang|pt|tu}} being predominantly accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#E6E6E6|No data}} {{col-end}}]] [[File:2018 Rio de Janeiro - Fachada do Real Gabinete Português de Leitura - Luis de Camões.jpg|thumb|right|[[Statue]] of the Portuguese poet [[Luís de Camões]] at the entrance of the [[Royal Portuguese Cabinet of Reading]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]]] [[File:Estação da luz-13.jpg|thumb|right|[[Museum of the Portuguese Language]] in [[São Paulo]]]] Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|title=Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese|access-date=12 June 2015|publisher=[[Instituto Camões]]|archive-date=27 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427031743/http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation. === Brazil === [[File:Brazil dialect map.png|thumb|Brazil's Portuguese dialects]] # ''[[Caipira dialect|Caipira]]''&nbsp;– Spoken in the states of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (most markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southern [[Minas Gerais]], northern [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] and southeastern [[Mato Grosso do Sul]]. Depending on the vision of what constitutes ''caipira'', [[Triângulo Mineiro]], border areas of [[Goiás]] and the remaining parts of Mato Grosso do Sul are included, and the frontier of ''caipira'' in Minas Gerais is expanded further northerly, though not reaching metropolitan [[Belo Horizonte]]. It is often said that ''caipira'' appeared by [[decreolization]] of the [[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]] and the related [[língua geral paulista]], then spoken in almost all of what is now São Paulo, a former [[lingua franca]] in most of the contemporary [[Centro-Sul]] of Brazil before the 18th century, brought by the ''[[bandeirante]]s'', interior pioneers of [[Colonial Brazil]], closely related to its northern counterpart [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]], and that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |title=Nheengatu and caipira dialect |publisher=Sosaci.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215070133/http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |archive-date=15 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It has striking remarkable differences in comparison to other Brazilian dialects in phonology, prosody and grammar, often [[Social stigma|stigmatized]] as being strongly associated with a [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|substandard variant]], now mostly rural.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Ferraz |first=Irineu da Silva |title=Características fonético-acústicas do /r/ retroflexo do portugues brasileiro: dados de informantes de Pato Branco (PR) |date=2005 |degree=Master's |publisher=Universidade Federal do Paraná |url=http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |hdl=1884/3955 |trans-title=Acoustic-phonetic characteristics of the Brazilian Portuguese's retroflex /r/: data from respondents in Pato Branco, Paraná |pages=19–21 |lang=pt |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175335/http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leite |first=Cândida Mara Britto |date=2010 |title=O /r/ em posição de coda silábica na capital do interior paulista: uma abordagem sociolinguística |trans-title=Syllable coda /r/ in the "capital" of the Paulista hinterland: a sociolinguistic analysis |url=http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766 |journal=Sínteses |language=pt |volume=15 |page=111 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Callou |first1=Dinah |title=Iniciação à Fonética e à Fonologia |last2=Leite |first2=Yonne |publisher=Jorge Zahar Editora |year=2001 |page=24 |language=pt |trans-title=Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Castilho |first=Ataliba T. de |title=Saber uma língua é separar o certo do errado? A língua é um organismo vivo que varia conforme o contexto e vai muito além de uma coleção de regras e normas de como falar e escrever |url=http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |trans-title=To know a language is really about separating correct from awry? Language is a living organism that varies by context and goes far beyond a collection of rules and norms of how to speak and write |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082936/http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |publisher=[[Museu da Língua Portuguesa]] |language=pt |archive-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Linguistic prejudice and the surprising (academic and formal) unity of Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021055958/http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |archive-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> # [[North coast Portuguese|''Cearense'' or ''Costa norte'']]&nbsp;– is a dialect spoken more sharply in the states of Ceará and Piauí. The variant of Ceará includes fairly distinctive traits it shares with the one spoken in Piauí, though, such as distinctive regional phonology and vocabulary (for example, a debuccalization process stronger than that of Portuguese, a different system of the vowel harmony that spans Brazil from ''fluminense'' and ''mineiro'' to ''amazofonia'' but is especially prevalent in ''nordestino'', a very coherent coda sibilant palatalization as those of Portugal and Rio de Janeiro but allowed in fewer environments than in other accents of ''nordestino'', a greater presence of dental stop palatalization to palato-alveolar in comparison to other accents of ''nordestino'', among others, as well as a great number of archaic Portuguese words).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |title=As descrições fonológicas do português do Ceará: de Aguiar a Macambira |first=José Lemos |last=Monteiro |journal=Revista do GELNE |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=2000 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308002954/http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Maia |first=Viviane dos Santos |title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?': manifestações da segunda pessoa na fala carioca |date=2012 |degree=Master's |publisher=Federal University of Rio de Janeiro |url=http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |language=pt |trans-title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?: manifestations of the second person in Carioca speech |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052321/http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |title=Aspectos Fonético-Fonológicos do Falar do Ceará: O Que Tem Surgido nos Inquéritos Experimentais do Atlas Lingüístico do Brasil – ALiB-Ce |url=http://www.profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |trans-title=Phonetic-Phonological Aspects of the Speech of Ceará: What Has Appeared in Experimental Surveys of the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil – ALiB-Ce |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172230/https://profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |language=pt |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Seung Hwa |date=2006 |title=Sobre as vogais pré-tônicas no Português Brasileiro |trans-title=About pre-tonic vowels in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXV |pages=166–175 |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052324/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |date=2009 |title=Os estudos fonético-fonológicos nos estados da Paraíba e do Ceará |trans-title=Phonetic-phonological studies in the states of Paraíba and Ceará |url=http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Revista da ABRALIN |language=pt |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=163–184 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052325/http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nascimento |first1=Katiene |last2=Guimarães |first2=Daniela |last3=Barboza |first3=Clerton |last4=Silva |first4=Thaïs Cristófaro |display-authors=3 |year=2012 |title=Revisitando a palatalização no português brasileiro |trans-title=Revisiting palatalization in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |journal=Revista de Estudos da Linguagem |language=pt |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=59–89 |doi=10.17851/2237-2083.20.2.59-89 |access-date=18 April 2013 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203130207/http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> # ''Baiano''&nbsp;– Found in [[Bahia]] and border regions with [[Goiás]] and [[Tocantins]]. Similar to ''nordestino'', it has a very characteristic [[Stress timing|syllable-timed rhythm]] and the greatest tendency to pronounce unstressed vowels as open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}} and {{IPAblink|ɔ}}. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som90.html ''Fluminense'']&nbsp;– A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states of [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]] and neighboring eastern regions of [[Minas Gerais]]. ''Fluminense'' formed in these previously ''caipira''-speaking areas due to the gradual influence of European migrants, causing many people to distance their speech from their original dialect and incorporate new terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|title=Learn about Portuguese language|newspaper=Sibila – Revista de Poesia e Crítica Literária |date=25 April 2009|publisher=Sibila|access-date=27 November 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Fluminense'' is sometimes referred to as ''carioca'', however ''carioca'' is a more specific term referring to the accent of the [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]] area by speakers with a ''fluminense'' dialect. # ''[[Gaúcho dialect|Gaúcho]]''&nbsp;– in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], similar to ''sulista''. There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants of diverse origins who have settled in colonies throughout the state, and to the proximity to [[Hispanosphere|Spanish-speaking nations]]. The word ''gaúcho'' itself is a Spanish [[loanword]] into Portuguese, of obscure [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous Amerindian]] origins. # ''[[Mineiro]]''&nbsp;– [[Minas Gerais]] (but not prevalent in the [[Triângulo Mineiro]]). As with the ''fluminense'' area, its associated region was formerly a sparsely populated land where ''caipira'' was spoken, but [[Minas Gerais#History|the discovery of gold and gems made it the most prosperous Brazilian region]], attracting Portuguese colonists, commoners from other parts of Brazil, and their African slaves. The south-southwestern, [[Zona da Mata (Minas Gerais)|southeastern]], and northern areas of the state each have fairly distinctive speech, actually approximating to ''caipira'', ''fluminense'' (popularly and often pejoratively called ''carioca do brejo'', "marsh carioca"), and ''baiano'' respectively. [[Belo Horizonte]] and the area surrounding it have a distinctive accent. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som91.html ''Nordestino'']<ref name="ReferenceB">Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his experience with ''nordestino'' and ''nortista'' accents.</ref>&nbsp;– more marked in the [[Sertão]] (7), where, in the 19th and 20th centuries and especially in the area including and surrounding the ''sertão'' (the dry land after [[Agreste]]) of Pernambuco and southern Ceará, it could sound less comprehensible to speakers of other Portuguese dialects than Galician or [[Rioplatense Spanish]], and nowadays less distinctive from other variants in the metropolitan cities [[Zona da Mata|along the coasts]]. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northern [[Maranhão]] and southern of [[Piauí]], and other that goes from [[Ceará]] to [[Alagoas]]. # ''Nortista'' or ''[[amazofonia]]''&nbsp;– Most of [[Amazon Basin]] states, i.e. [[North Region, Brazil|Northern Brazil]]. Before the 20th century, most people from the ''nordestino'' area fleeing the droughts and their associated poverty settled here, so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the cities of [[Belém]] and [[Manaus]] has a more European flavor in phonology, prosody and grammar. # ''[[Paulistano dialect|Paulistano]]''&nbsp;– Variants spoken around [[Greater São Paulo]] in its maximum definition and more easterly areas of São Paulo state, as well as perhaps "educated speech" from anywhere in [[São Paulo (state)|the state of São Paulo]] (where it coexists with ''caipira''). ''Caipira'' is the hinterland sociolect of much of the [[Centro-Sul|Central-Southern half]] of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historically [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|low prestige]] in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in São Paulo itself. [[Sociolinguistics]], or what by times is described as "[[linguistic discrimination|linguistic prejudice]]", often correlated with [[Class discrimination|classism]],<ref>{{cite web |title=O MEC, o "português errado" e a linguistica... |url=http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |date=2011-05-17 |website=Imprenca.com |language=pt |trans-title=MEC, "wrong Portuguese" and linguistics… |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419090139/http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=23 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cartilha do MEC ensina erro de Português |url=http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |date=18 May 2011 |website=Saindo da Matrix |language=pt |trans-title=MEC primer teaches Portuguese error |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=12 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612030228/http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |title=Livro do MEC ensina o português errado ou apenas valoriza as formas linguísticas? |work=Jornal de Beltrão |language=pt |date=26 May 2011 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111080402/http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of [[Adoniran Barbosa#Musical production|Adoniran Barbosa]]. Also, the "Paulistano" accent was heavily influenced by the presence of immigrants in the city of São Paulo, especially the Italians. # ''Sertanejo''&nbsp;– [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-Western states]], and also much of [[Tocantins]] and [[Rondônia]]. It is closer to ''mineiro'', ''caipira'', ''nordestino'' or ''nortista'' depending on the location. # ''Sulista''&nbsp;– The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and southern regions of São Paulo state, encompassing most of [[South Region, Brazil|southern Brazil]]. The city of [[Curitiba]] does have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative majority of speakers around and in [[Florianópolis]] also speak this variant (many speak ''florianopolitano'' or ''manezinho da ilha'' instead, related to the European Portuguese dialects spoken in [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]]). Speech of northern Paraná is closer to that of inland São Paulo. # ''[[Florianopolitan dialect|Florianopolitano]]''&nbsp;– Variants heavily influenced by European Portuguese spoken in [[Florianópolis]] city (due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its [[Autonomous regions of Portugal|insular regions]]) and much of its metropolitan area, [[Grande Florianópolis]], said to be a continuum between those whose speech most resemble ''sulista'' dialects and those whose speech most resemble ''fluminense'' and European ones, called ''manezinho da ilha''. # ''[[Carioca]]''&nbsp;– Not a dialect, but [[sociolect]]s of the ''fluminense'' variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]]. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|Portuguese royal family fled]] in the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and the ''carioca'' sociolect, and the educated speech (in Portuguese ''norma culta'', which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with marked recent Portuguese influences, the nearest ones among the country's dialects along ''florianopolitano''), so that not all people native to the state of Rio de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but most ''carioca'' speakers will use the standard variant not influenced by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending on context (emphasis or formality, for example). # ''Brasiliense''&nbsp;– used in [[Brasília]] and its metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sotaque branco |url=http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |publisher=Meia Maratona Internacional CAIXA de Brasília |language=pt |trans-title=White accent |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517200320/http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> It is not considered a dialect, but more of a regional variant&nbsp;– often deemed to be closer to ''fluminense'' than the dialect commonly spoken in most of Goiás, ''sertanejo''. # ''Arco do desflorestamento'' or ''[[:pt:Dialeto da serra amazônica|serra amazônica]]''&nbsp;– Known in its region as the "accent of the migrants", it has similarities with ''caipira'', ''sertanejo'' and often ''sulista'' that make it differing from ''amazofonia'' (in the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it is placed along ''nordestino'', ''baiano'', ''mineiro'' and ''fluminense''). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land offer in recently [[Deforestation|deforested]] areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=O Que É? Amazônia |url=http://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2,9399/ |date=1 September 2009 |website=Amarnatureza.org.br |publisher=Associação de Defesa do Meio Ambiente Araucária (AMAR) |language=pt |trans-title=What is? Amazon |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222084453/https://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2%2C9399/ |archive-date=22 December 2012 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> # ''Recifense''&nbsp;– used in [[Recife]] and its metropolitan area. # ''Amazônico Ocidental'' — used in the extreme [[Amazônia Legal|Western Amazon]] region, namely: Southwestern [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]], including the region of [[Boca do Acre]] and throughout the State of [[Acre (state)|Acre]], which share important historical-cultural aspects, such as, once belonging to [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]], the First [[Amazon rubber cycle]] and [[Time in Brazil|Acre Time Zone]], sociologically, is considered a homogenous region. Differing from the traditional Northern dialect, in which the phonetic realization of the "s" always has the sound of ''ch'', in the Brazilian Western Amazon region, there will only be the sound of ''ch'' whose words the "s" are in the middle of the word, as examples; ''costa'', ''festa'' or ''destino'', as well as the one observed in [[North coast Portuguese|dialect of the north coast]]. Within the [[:pt:Interior do Brasil|Brazilian countryside]], it is one of the few areas where the phonetic realization of "r" resembles those observed in the Carioca dialect (open), other examples where this phenomenon is observed: Brasília dialect and [[Mineiro|Belo Horizonte dialect]].<ref>[https://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/8/8136/tde-07052002-130429/publico/tese04b. pdf] – Seringueiros da Amazônia, University of São Paulo (USP), Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences, Department of Geography</ref> {{lang|pt|Você}}, a pronoun meaning "you", is used for educated, formal, and colloquial respectful speech in most Portuguese-speaking regions. In a few Brazilian states such as [[Rio Grande do Sul]], Pará, among others, {{lang|pt|você}} is virtually absent from the spoken language. Riograndense and European Portuguese normally distinguishes formal from informal speech by verbal conjugation. Informal speech employs {{lang|pt|tu}} followed by second person verbs, formal language retains the formal {{lang|pt|você}}, followed by the third person conjugation. Conjugation of verbs in {{lang|pt|tu}} has three different forms in Brazil (verb "to see": {{lang|pt|tu viste?}}, in the traditional second person; {{lang|pt|tu viu?}}, in the third person; and {{lang|pt|tu visse?}}, in the innovative second person), the conjugation used in the Brazilian states of Pará, Santa Catarina and Maranhão being generally traditional second person, the kind that is used in other Portuguese-speaking countries and learned in Brazilian schools. The predominance of Southeastern-based media products has established {{lang|pt|você}} as the pronoun of choice for the second person singular in both writing and multimedia communications. However, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, the country's main cultural center, the usage of {{lang|pt|tu}} has been expanding ever since the end of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |title=A Constituição de Corpora Orais Para a Análise das Formas de Tratamento |last=Viviane Maia dos Santos |publisher=Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL Palhoça, SC, out. 2010 Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034721/http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> being most frequent among youngsters, and a number of studies have also shown an increase in its use in a number of other Brazilian dialects.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |title='Por onde tá "o tu"?' no português falado no Maranhão |last=Béliche Alves |first=Cibelle Corrêa |journal=Signum: Estudos da Linguagem |volume=15 |number=1 |pages=13–31 |year=2012 |doi=10.5433/2237-4876.2012v15n1p13 |access-date=10 August 2017 |doi-access=free |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630172240/http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loregian-Penkal |first=Loremi |date=2005 |title=Alternância tu/você em Santa Catarina: uma abordagem variacionista |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXIV |pages=362–367 |access-date=10 August 2017 |via=Tu/você alternation in Santa Catarina: a variationist approach |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052320/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other countries and dependencies === * {{flag|Angola}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html ''Angolano''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806102044/http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html |date=6 August 2020 }} ([[Angolan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Cape Verde}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som87.html ''Cabo-verdiano''] ([[Cape Verdean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|India}}&nbsp;– ''Damaense'' (Damanese Portuguese) and ''Goês'' ([[Goan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som88.html ''Guineense''] ([[Guinean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Macau}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som92.html ''Macaense''] ([[Macanese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Mozambique}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som89.html ''Moçambicano''] ([[Mozambican Portuguese]]) * {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som83.html ''Santomense''] ([[São Tomean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Timor-Leste}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som84.html ''Timorense''] ([[East Timorese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Uruguay}}&nbsp;– [[Riverense Portuñol language|''Dialetos Portugueses do Uruguai (DPU)'']] Differences between dialects are mostly of [[Accent (dialect)|accent]] and [[vocabulary]], but between the Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there can also be some grammatical differences. The [[Portuguese creole|Portuguese-based creoles]] spoken in various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages. === Characterization and peculiarities === Portuguese, like [[Catalan language|Catalan]], preserves the stressed vowels of [[Vulgar Latin]] which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard. ''[[wikt:pedra|pedra]]''; Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|pierre}}'', Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|piedra}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|pietra}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|piatră}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|petra}}'' ("stone"); or Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|fogo}}'', Cat. ''{{Wikt-lang|ca|foc}}'', Sard. ''{{Wikt-lang|sc|fogu}}''; Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|fuego}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|fuoco}}'', Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|feu}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|foc}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|focus}}'' ("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of [[:wiktionary:intervocalic|intervocalic]] ''l'' and ''n'', sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of an [[epenthesis|epenthetic vowel]] between them: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|salire}}'' ("to exit"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|tenere}}'' ("to have"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|catena}}'' ("jail"), Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|sair}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|ter}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cadeia}}''. When the [[elision|elided]] consonant was ''n'', it often [[nasalization|nasalized]] the preceding vowel: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|manum}}'' ("hand"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ranam}}'' ("frog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|bonum}}'' ("good"), Old Portuguese ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rãa}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bõo}}'' (Portuguese: ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rã}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bom}}''). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings ''-anem'', ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-anum}}'' and ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-onem}}'' became ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|-ão}}'' in most cases, cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|canis}}'' ("dog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|germanus}}'' ("brother"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ratio}}'' ("reason") with Modern Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|irmão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|razão}}'', and their plurals ''-anes'', ''-anos'', ''-ones'' normally became ''-ães'', ''-ãos'', ''-ões'', cf. ''cães'', ''irmãos'', ''razões''. This also occurs in the minority Swiss [[Romansh language|Romansh]] language in many equivalent words such as ''maun'' ("hand"), ''bun'' ("good"), or ''chaun'' ("dog").<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|title=Apprendre la langue romanche et le vocabulaire, dictionnaire Rumantsch|website=romansh.romanche.free.fr|access-date=10 May 2023|archive-date=10 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510203459/http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Portuguese language is the only [[Romance language]] that preserves the clitic case [[mesoclisis]]: cf. {{lang|pt|dar-te-ei}} (I'll give thee), {{lang|pt|amar-te-ei}} (I'll love you), {{lang|pt|contactá-los-ei}} (I'll contact them). Like [[Galician language|Galician]], it also retains the Latin synthetic [[pluperfect]] tense: {{lang|pt|eu estivera}} (I had been), {{lang|pt|eu vivera}} (I had lived), {{lang|pt|vós vivêreis}} (you had lived).<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GILmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |chapter=On the Italian, Latin, and Portuguese Temporal Systems |title=Tense and Aspect: From Semantics to Morphosyntax |isbn=978-0-19-509193-9|last1=Giorgi|first1=Alessandra|last2=Pianesi|first2=Fabio|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> [[Romanian language|Romanian]] also has this tense, but uses the -s- form. == Sample text == Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Portuguese:<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Portuguese (Portugal) |website=Unicode |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109134209/https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |url-status=live }}</ref> :{{lang|pt|Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.}} Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|publisher=United Nations|access-date=9 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}</ref> :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.'' Phonetic transcription ([[Brazilian Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoduz us ˈseɾiz uˈmɐnuz ˈnasẽȷ̃ ˈlivɾiz i‿iˈgwajz ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒigniˈdad͡ʒi‿i‿ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒiˈɾejtus {{!}} doˈtaduz d͡ʒi ʁaˈzɐ̃w i d͡ʒi kõsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} devẽȷ̃ aˈʒiʁ ũs ˈpaɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ẽȷ̃‿sˈpiɾitu d͡ʒi fɾateʁniˈdad͡ʒi ‖] Phonetic transcription ([[European Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoðuz uʃ ˈseɾɨz uˈmɐnuʒ ˈnaʃsɐ̃j ˈɫivɾɨz i‿iˈɣwajz ɐ̃j diɣniˈðaðɨ‿i‿ɐ̃j diˈɾɐjtuʃ {{!}} duˈtaðuʒ dɨ ʁɐˈzɐ̃w i dɨ kõʃsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} ˈdevɐ̃j ɐˈʒiɾ ũʃ ˈpɐɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ɐ̃j‿ʃˈpiɾɨtu dɨ fɾɐtɨɾniˈðaðɨ ‖] == See also == {{Portal|Portugal|Language}} * [[Portuguese literature]] * [[Portuguese Africans]] * [[Angolan literature]] * [[Brazilian literature]] * [[Gallaecian language]] *[[Indo-Portuguese]] * [[Reintegrationism|Galician Reintegrationism]] * [[International Portuguese Language Institute]] * [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language]] * [[List of international organizations which have Portuguese as an official language]] * [[List of Portuguese-language poets]] * [[Lusitanian language]] * [[Mozambican Portuguese]] * [[Portuguese language in Asia]] * [[Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990]] * [[Portuguese poetry]] ==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{Cite journal |last1=de Albuquerque |first1=Iana Ciara Santos |last2=Coelho |first2=Jéssica Fernanda Ramos |last3=Antunes |first3=João Pedro Lobo |last4=do Nascimento |first4=Cínthia Diniz |last5=de Lima |first5=Darlla Layse Torres |last6=Costa Rodolfo |first6=da Silva |last7=da Silva |first7=Neyvan Renato Rodrigues |title=Construção de um dicionário virtual para incremento do aprendizado de Biologia no ensino propedêutico |journal=Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação |volume=23 |issue=03 |date=29 December 2015 |issn=1414-5685 |doi=10.5753/rbie.2015.23.03.131 |page=131 |url=http://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/3304 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Azevedo |first=Milton M. |title=Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005-01-13 |isbn=978-0-521-80515-5 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511755057 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511755057/type/book |access-date=2026-05-13 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Barbosa |first1=Plínio A. |last2=Albano |first2=Eleonora C. |year=2004 |title=Brazilian Portuguese |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/brazilian-portuguese/8EE69D52AE2D06C1EDA2841EA2E14FEC |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1017/S0025100304001756 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Renato |last2=Gonçalves |first2=Rodrigo Tadeu |title=História concisa da língua portuguesa |trans-title=Concise history of the Portuguese language |publisher=Editora Vozes |date=2014 |isbn=978-85-326-4648-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Bechara |first=Evanildo |title=Moderna gramática portuguesa |publisher=Nova Fronteira |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro, RJ |date=26 December 2024 |isbn=978-65-5640-430-1 |author-link=Evanildo Bechara |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Bessa |first1=Waldemberg Araújo |last2=Feitosa |first2=Luziane de Sousa |last3=da Cunha |first3=Silvia Helena Muniz |last4=Brito |first4=Deyse Gabriely Machado |last5=Barroso |first5=Erika Vanessa Melo |last6=Reis |first6=Ynnara Soares |last7=Silva |first7=Jardinara Santos |last8=Sousa |first8=Everlly Karollynne da Costa |last9=Nascimento |first9=Vitor Ferreira |last10=Moreira |first10=Milena Lima |last11=Pereira e Silva |first11=Rita de Cassia da Costa |last12=Moura |first12=Sabrina Campos |title=Trovadorismo português: a ressignificação dos elementos da poética trovadoresca na música popular contemporânea |url=https://periodicos.newsciencepubl.com/arace/article/view/11477 |journal=ARACÊ |publisher=Seven Events |volume=7 |issue=12 |date=29 December 2025 |issn=2358-2472 |doi=10.56238/arev7n12-323 }} * {{Cite book |last=Bisol |first=Leda |year=2005 |title=Introdução a estudos de fonologia do português brasileiro |location=Porto Alegre – Rio Grande do Sul |publisher=EDIPUCRS |language=pt-br |isbn=978-85-7430-529-5 |author-link=Leda Bisol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105113/https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bottaro |first=Silvia Etel Gutiérrez |title=El portugués uruguayo y las marcas de la oralidad en la poesía del escritor uruguayo Agustín R. Bisio |date=2014 |url=http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |journal=Abehache |volume=4 |issue=6 |trans-title=Uruguayan Portuguese and oral marks in the poetry of Uruguayan writer Agustín R. Bisio |language=es |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812061109/http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2019 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Boxer |first=Charles Ralph |authorlink=C. R. Boxer |title=The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |publication-place=Harmondsworth |date=1973 |isbn=978-0-14-021647-9 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Brakel |first=Arthur |title=Rethinking "''A Cantiga da Ribeirinha''" |journal=Romance Notes |publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill for its Department of Romance Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |year=1981 |issn=00357995 |jstor=43801732 |pages=371–375 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43801732 |access-date=8 May 2026 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Carvalho |first=Joana |date=2012 |title=Sobre os Ditongos do Português Europeu |url=http://cl.up.pt/elingup/vol4n1/article/article_2.pdf |journal=ELingUp |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=11–30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129081825/http://cl.up.pt/elingup/vol4n1/article/article_2.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2015 |language=pt-pt }} * {{Cite journal |last=Cruz-Ferreira |first=Madalena |year=1995 |title=European Portuguese |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/european-portuguese/0A8156D240CCB941A73C4C0EC1672A19 |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=90–94 |doi=10.1017/S0025100300005223 |s2cid=249414876 |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }} * {{Cite book |last=Cunha |first=Cristina da Silva |title=Ortografia da língua portuguesa a partir do acordo ortográfico vigente em 2016: Acordo ortográfico da língua portuguesa – 1990 |publisher=Editora da [[Universidade do Estado da Bahia]] |publication-place=Salvador |date=2016 |isbn=978-85-7887-313-4 |language=pt-br }} * {{Cite book |last1=da Cunha |first1=Celso Ferreira |title=Nova gramática do português contemporâneo |trans-title=New grammar of contemporary Portuguese |last2=Cintra |first2=Luís Filipe Lindley |authorlink2= Luís Lindley Cintra |date=2016 |publisher=Lexikon |isbn=978-85-8300-026-6 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ferreira |first1=Letania |last2=Holt |first2=D. Eric |title=Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics |chapter=On the partially divergent phonology of Spanish, Portuguese and points in between |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |publication-place=Amsterdam |volume=1 |date=30 October 2014 |isbn=978-90-272-5800-7 |doi=10.1075/ihll.1.08fer |url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/ihll.1.08fer |access-date=26 April 2026 }} * {{Cite book |last=Grønnum |first=Nina |author-link=Nina Grønnum |year=2005 |title=Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk |edition=3rd |publisher=Akademisk Forlag |location=Copenhagen |isbn=978-87-500-3865-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 December 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112193003/https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Kevin |authorlink=Kevin Jackson (writer) |title=Invisible Forms: A Guide to Literary Curiosities |publisher=St. Martin's Press |publication-place=New York |date=2000 |isbn=978-1-4668-8854-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Júnior |first=Benjamin Abdala |title=Literaturas de língua portuguesa |publisher=Arte & Ciência |publication-place=São Paulo |date=2007 |isbn=978-85-7473-336-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Kabatek |first=Johannes |last2=Wall |first2=Albert |title=Manual of Brazilian Portuguese Linguistics |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |date=10 October 2022 |isbn=978-3-11-040595-8 |doi=10.1515/9783110405958 |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110405958/html |pages=1–639 |access-date=28 April 2026 }} ** {{harvc|last=Lobo |first=Tânia |chapter=2: The social history of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=53–84 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Noll |first=Volker |chapter=4: Historical phonetics and phonology |pages=113–132 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Lipski |first=John M. |chapter=11: Brazilian Portuguese: contemporary language contacts |pages=309–336 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=da Hora |first=Dermeval |last2=Battisti |first2=Elisa |chapter=12: Sound-related aspects of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=337–368 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Fiorin |first=José Luiz |chapter=19: Linguistic policy and the orthographic agreement |pages=553–578 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Lima |first1=Alexander da Silva |last2=Ribeiro |first2=Andryelle Brito da Silva |last3=Souza |first3=Karla Andrea Azevedo de |last4=Reis |first4=Valéria Assunção |last5=Santana |first5=Isis Terezinha Santos de |last6=Amorim |first6=Jhonata Jankowitsch |last7=Alves |first7=Marcos Túlio Elias |last8=Costa |first8=Robson Antônio Tavares |last9=Pinheiro |first9=Weider Silva |title=Texto de Fernão de Oliveira de 1536 e sua contribuição na formação da língua portuguesa |journal=Cognitionis Scientific Journal |publisher=Brazilian Journals |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=21 March 2025 |issn=2595-8801 |doi=10.38087/2595.8801.600 |page=e600 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=José Barbosa |title=Signo e significação no primeiro livro impresso em língua portuguesa |journal=Revista de Letras |publisher=[[University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro]] |volume=2 |number=3 |date=December 2007 |url=https://revistadeletras.utad.pt/index.php/revistadeletras/issue/view/36 |language=pt-pt |access-date=9 May 2026 }} * {{Cite book |last=Machungo |first=Inês |title=Pesquisa e ensino em línguas moçambicanas: um tributo a Bento Sitoe |chapter=Empréstimos lexicais no Português de Moçambique |date=2022 |publisher=Gala-Gala edições |isbn=978-989-53245-9-0 |language=pt-MZ |pages=100–113 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Mateus |first1=Maria Helena |last2=d'Andrade |first2=Ernesto |year=2000 |title=The Phonology of Portuguese |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1 |isbn=978-0-19-823581-1 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105242/https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite thesis |last=Martins |first=Ana Maria |title=O Primeiro Século do Português Escrito |date=2007 |access-date=April 27, 2026 |publisher=[[University of Lisbon]] |url=https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |language=pt-pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223124127/https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2024 |pages=161–184 }} * {{Cite book |last=Neto |first=Serafim da Silva |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Presença |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro |date=1986 |isbn=978-85-252-0008-2 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last=Petter |first=Margarida Maria Taddoni |title=Línguas africanas no Brasil |journal=África |issue=27-28 |date=2007-12-09 |issn=2526-303X |doi=10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i27-28p63-89 |pages=63–89 |url=https://www.revistas.usp.br/africa/article/view/96063 |access-date=2026-05-12 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last=Ponso |first=Letícia Cao |title=O contato entre o português e as línguas bantu em Moçambique: a alternância de atitudes sobre o estatuto social das línguas em jovens universitários |journal=Cadernos de Letras da UFF |volume=26 |issue=53 |date=2017-01-15 |issn=2447-4207 |doi=10.22409/cadletrasuff.2016n53a302 |url=https://periodicos.uff.br/cadernosdeletras/article/view/43646 |access-date=2026-05-21 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Queiroz |first=Horácio dos Santos |title=As Letras E O Seu Ensino: Anais Da Ix Semana De Letras |section=As funções gramatical e expressiva da entonação |publisher=Ala |date=12 September 2008 |isbn=978-85-89269-28-5 |language=pt-BR |pages=304–307 }} * {{Cite thesis |last=Rodrigues |first=Marisandra Costa |date=2012 |title=Encontros Vocálicos Finais em Português: Descrição e Análise Otimalista |publisher=Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro |url=http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/doutorado/GomesMCR.pdf |access-date=25 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052326/http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/doutorado/GomesMCR.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite journal |last=de Sousa |first=Cleusa Teixeira |title=A relevância da escrita e a oficialização do uso da língua portuguesa na documentação régia de Portugal no tempo de D. Dinis (1279-1325) |journal=Acta Scientiarum. Education |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Maringá |volume=44 |date=3 March 2022 |issn=2178-5201 |doi=10.4025/actascieduc.v44i1.54713 |doi-access=free |hdl=10316/100586 |hdl-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Teyssier |first=Paul |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Livraria Sa Da Costa |publication-place=Lisboa |date=2001 |isbn=978-972-562-129-5 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |title=A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |location=Nashville, TN |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8265-1197-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC |access-date=8 January 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105116/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Timbane |first=Alexandre António |title=A criatividade lexical da língua portuguesa: uma análise com brasileirismos e moçambicanismos |journal=Caligrama: Revista de Estudos Românicos |volume=18 |issue=2 |date=8 November 2012 |issn=2238-3824 |doi=10.17851/2238-3824.18.2.7-30 |pages=7–30 |url=https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/caligrama/article/view/30064 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Venâncio |first=Fernando |title=Assim nasceu uma língua |publisher=Tinta-da-China Brasil |publication-place=São Paulo, SP |date=2024-04-15 |isbn=978-65-84835-22-1 |language=pt-BR }} {{refend}} == External links == * [http://crandall.altervista.org/p/phonetic-portuguese-portugues-fonetico.html ''Automatic Transcription of Phonemic and Phonetic Portuguese''] {{Sister bar|auto=1|d=Q5146|wikt=Category:Portuguese language|b=Portuguese|commons=Category:Portuguese language|voy=Portuguese phrasebook|v=Category:Portuguese|iw=pt}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Languages of Portugal}} {{Languages of Brazil}} {{Languages of Africa}} {{Languages of Macau}} {{Languages of East Timor}} {{Romance languages}} {{Languages of Europe}} {{South America topic|Languages of}} {{Portuguese dialects}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Portuguese language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested since the 9th century]] [[Category:Fusional languages]] [[Category:Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Galician-Portuguese]] [[Category:Languages of Angola]] [[Category:Languages of Brazil]] [[Category:Languages of Cape Verde]] [[Category:Languages of Timor-Leste]] [[Category:Languages of Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Languages of Macau]] [[Category:Languages of Mozambique]] [[Category:Languages of Portugal]] [[Category:Languages of São Tomé and Príncipe]] [[Category:Languages of India]] [[Category:Languages of Paraguay]] [[Category:Languages of Uruguay]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] dwk9yktnxdygw1jb6ovb2011mqpidkw 687840 687839 2026-07-13T12:31:24Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Portuguese_language]] 687839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Romance language}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Other uses|Portugues (disambiguation){{!}}Portugues}} {{Use American English|date=May 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Portuguese | nativename = {{lang|pt|português}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|pt|puɾtuˈɡeʃ||LL-Q5146 (por)-Gaygarin-português.wav}}<br/>({{small|[[European Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}})<br/>{{IPA|pt|poʁtuˈɡe(j)s||LL-Q5146 (por)-MedK1-português.wav|}}<br/>({{small|[[Brazilian Portuguese]] {{abbr|pron.|pronunciation}}}}) | states = [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|Lusophone Africa]], other locations in the [[Portuguese-speaking world]] | speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|249.544530|3}} million | date = 2012–2022 | ref = <ref name="ethnologue">{{Ethnologue28|por}}</ref> | speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|17.085880|2}} million (2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/><br/>Total: {{sigfig|266.630410|3}} million (2012–2022)<ref name="ethnologue"/> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]] | fam9 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]] | fam10 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] | fam11 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Galician–Portuguese]] | script = {{plainlist| *[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]]) *[[Portuguese Braille]]}} | nation = {{ubl|[[Angola]]|[[Brazil]]|[[Cape Verde]]|[[Timor-Leste]]|[[Equatorial Guinea]]|[[Guinea-Bissau]]|[[Macau]] ([[China]])<br>[[Mozambique]]|[[Portugal]]|[[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|[[List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language|Numerous international organizations]]}} | agency = {{plainlist| *'''Portugal''':<br />[[Lisbon Academy of Sciences]] <small>([[Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Class of Letters|Lisbon Academy Class of Letters]])</small> *'''Brazil''':<br />[[Brazilian Academy of Letters]] *'''Angola ''':<br />[[Angolan Academy of Letters]]}} | iso1 = pt | iso2 = por | iso3 = por | lingua = 51-AAA-a | map = Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg | mapcaption = {{legend|#045A8D|Countries or regions where Portuguese is the native language of the majority}} {{legend|#439DD4|Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official or administrative language but not a majority native language}} {{legend|#9BBAE1|Countries and territories where Portuguese is a significant minority language}} | notice = IPA | sign = [[Manually coded language|Manually coded]] Portuguese | glotto = port1283 | glottorefname = Portuguese }} '''Portuguese''' ({{langx|pt|português|label=[[endonym]]}}) is a [[Western Romance language]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], written in the [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]]. With approximately 267 million native speakers, it is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language in the world]], and the most widely spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere. It is the official language of eight countries — [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]], [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], and [[Timor-Leste]] — and is co-official with other languages in [[Macau]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]]. Portuguese-speaking people or nations are known as [[Lusophone]] ({{lang|pt|lusófono}}). As a result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese speakers is also found around the world. Portuguese is part of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance group]], which evolved from several dialects of [[Vulgar Latin]] in the medieval [[Kingdom of Galicia]] and the [[County of Portugal]], and has retained some [[Gallaecian language|Celtic]] phonology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |title=The Origin and Formation of The Portuguese Language |website=Judeo-Lusitanica |publisher=Duke University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510110052/https://sites.duke.edu/judeolusitanica/2013/07/21/the-origin-and-formation-of-the-portuguese-language/ |archive-date=10 May 2017 |access-date=15 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm |title=Breves considerações sobre o legado das línguas célticas |first=João |last=Bittencourt de Oliveira |website=filologia.org.br |access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621224925/https://www.filologia.org.br/vcnlf/anais%20v/civ8_03.htm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese language structure reflects both its Latin roots and centuries of outside influences. These are seen in [[Portuguese phonology|phonology]], [[Portuguese orthography|orthography]], [[Portuguese grammar|grammar]], and [[Portuguese vocabulary|vocabulary]]. Phonologically, Portuguese has a rich system of [[nasal vowels]], complex consonant variations, and different types of [[guttural R]] – as well as other sounds in its European and Brazilian varieties. Its spelling, based similarly to English on the [[Latin alphabet]], is largely [[phonemic spelling|phonemic]] but is influenced by [[etymology]] and tradition. [[Portuguese spelling reform of 1990|Recent spelling reforms]] have attempted to create a unified spelling for the Portuguese language across [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|all countries that use it]]. Portuguese grammar retains many [[Latin verbs|Latin verb forms]], and possesses several unique features (such as the [[Portuguese conjugation|future subjunctive]] and the [[Portuguese grammar#Infinitive form|personal infinitive]]). Its vocabulary is derived largely from Latin, but also includes {{ill|List of loanwords in Portuguese|pt|Empréstimo (linguística)#Exemplos de empréstimos|lt=numerous loanwords|v=sup}} from Celtic, Germanic, Arabic, African, Amerindian, and Asian languages, resulting from historical contact based on wars, trade, and [[Portuguese colonization|colonization]]. There is significant [[Variation (linguistics)|variation]] in the dialects of Portuguese worldwide, with two primary [[Standard language|standardized varieties]]: [[European Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]], each one having numerous [[regional accent]]s and [[subdialect]]s. African and Asian varieties generally follow the European written standard, though these will often display different [[phonological]], [[lexical item|lexical]], and sometimes even [[syntax|syntactic features]]. While there is broad [[mutual intelligibility]] among the assorted lusophone population, variation may be observed in speech patterns, vocabulary, or grammar. == History == {{Main|History of the Portuguese language}} === Origins and Roman period === Prior to [[Roman people|Roman]] expansion, the territory corresponding to modern [[Portugal]] was inhabited by a heterogeneous set of peoples, including the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celts]], [[Iberians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Ligurians]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} These groups spoke a variety of languages that were gradually supplanted following Roman conquest, but not without leaving a substratum of lexical and morphological influence.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=66}} A significant number of Portuguese words — often associated with the natural environment, agriculture, and material culture — are attributed to these pre-Roman sources.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} The [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Roman presence in the Iberian Peninsula]] began in 218 BC during the [[Second Punic War]], initially as part of military operations against [[Carthage]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=103}} Roman control expanded progressively, with the defeat of Carthaginian forces completed by 209 BC, although full territorial consolidation was not achieved until 19 BC under the rule of [[Augustus]], following campaigns in the northern regions of [[Asturias]] and [[Cantabria]]. During this period, the territory was administratively organized into provinces such as [[Hispania Citerior]] and [[Hispania Ulterior]], later restructured into [[Tarraconensis]], [[Baetica]], and [[Lusitania]].{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}}{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=104}} By the late [[Roman Empire]], the northwestern region was designated as the province of [[Gallaecia]] (approximately modern-day [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} [[Latin]] served as the administrative and ecclesiastical language of the Roman Empire, and proficiency in it was associated with access to public office and social advancement.{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}} The degree of [[Romanization]] varied regionally: southern areas, particularly Baetica, underwent rapid cultural assimilation and early adoption of Latin, whereas the northern regions, including Gallaecia, remained comparatively isolated and retained indigenous practices for a longer period.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=13}} Latin spread from urban centers outward through cities, educational institutions and administrative networks, where proficiency in Latin was closely tied to the acquisition of Roman citizenship;{{sfn|Neto|1986|p=80}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}} the variety spoken by soldiers, settlers and officials was known as [[Vulgar Latin]] ({{lang|la|sermo vulgaris}}), as distinct from [[Classical Latin]], which was used in literary texts.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=11}} In the northwestern periphery of the empire, the Vulgar Latin spoken in Gallaecia developed distinctive features, attributed in part to reduced contact with the imperial center.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=64}} The most diagnostic phonetic change was the loss of intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'', as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:luna#Latin|luna]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:lua#Portuguese|lua]]}} ({{gloss|moon}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:dolor#Latin|dolor]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dor#Portuguese|dor]]}} ({{gloss|pain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:moneta#Latin|moneta]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:moeda#Portuguese|moeda]]}} ({{gloss|coin}}) — a development not attested in neighbouring varieties such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=47–51}} [[Gemination|Geminate consonants]] were also simplified, as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:caballu#Latin|caballu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:cavalo#Portuguese|cavalo]]}} ({{gloss|horse}}) and {{lang|la|[[wikt:annu#Latin|annu]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ano#Portuguese|ano]]}} ({{gloss|year}}),{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=56–57}} and initial [[consonant cluster]]s ''cl-'', ''fl-'', and ''pl-'' evolved into [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatal sounds]], as in {{lang|la|[[wikt:flamma#Latin|flamma]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chama#Portuguese|chama]]}} ({{gloss|flame}}), {{lang|la|[[wikt:pluvia#Latin|pluvia]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chuva#Portuguese|chuva]]}} ({{gloss|rain}}), and {{lang|la|[[wikt:plumbum#Latin|plumbum]]}} to {{lang|pt|[[wikt:chumbo#Portuguese|chumbo]]}} ({{gloss|lead}}).{{sfn|Cunha|2016|p=39}} In 409, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by several Germanic and Iranian peoples, including the [[Vandals]], [[Suebi]], and [[Alans]]. The [[Visigoths]] of the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], already established in [[Aquitaine]] and closely connected to Roman institutions, extended their rule over most of the peninsula during the 5th and 6th centuries. Their integration with the Hispano-Roman population was facilitated by measures such as the legalization of intermarriage under [[Leovigild]], the conversion of [[Reccared I]] to Catholic Christianity in 586, and the promulgation of a unified legal code in 654 under [[Recceswinth]]. These developments contributed to the consolidation of a Romano-Visigothic society in which the vernacular remained a form of Hispano-Romance derived from Vulgar Latin. The Visigothic linguistic contribution to Portuguese was limited, consisting of fewer than forty commonly cited lexical items of [[Gothic language|Gothic]] origin, many shared with other Romance languages. Examples include {{lang|pt|[[wikt:guerra#Portuguese|guerra]]}} ({{gloss|war}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:espora#Portuguese|espora]]}} ({{gloss|spur}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:roupa#Portuguese|roupa]]}} ({{gloss|clothing}}), and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ganso#Portuguese|ganso]]}} ({{gloss|goose}}).{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}} === Arab conquest and old Galician–Portuguese === [[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|upright=1.65|right|Map showing the linguistic evolution of the Iberian Peninsula between 1000 and 2000. The [[Galician–Portuguese|Galician–Portuguese language]] is shown in blue.]] In 711, Muslim forces crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and defeated the Visigothic king [[Roderic]], leading to the [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Islamic rule of the Iberian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=16}} The Muslim authorities generally allowed the continued use of local Romance varieties, the preservation of Hispano-Roman customs. In the Muslim-controlled south, Christians living under [[Moorish]] rule, known as [[Mozarabs]], maintained their Latin-derived speech, referred to as [[Andalusi Romance]].{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=77–78}} In the northern Christian kingdoms, different Romance varieties gradually emerged, including [[Galician–Portuguese]] in the region of Gallaecia, [[Asturleonese]] in the [[Kingdom of León]], [[Old Spanish|Spanish]] in [[County of Castile|Castile]], [[Navarro-Aragonese]] in [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in [[County of Barcelona|Catalonia]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}} The northwestern region, corresponding to Gallaecia, also remained outside sustained Islamic rule.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}} As a result, its local Romance variety Galician–Portuguese developed with greater continuity from Latin.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=10}} The variety, which was spoken north and south of the [[Minho River]], constituted a unified linguistic system from the 9th to the 14th century.{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=18}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=83}} Although Latin remained the language of administration and written literature for centuries, the emerging Romance varieties continued to develop in speech, and extensive texts in the vernacular only began to appear later.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=47}}{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=12}} When the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] became independent in 1143,{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}} its inhabitants continued to use this shared variety, which remained the common vernacular of the region.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=67}} Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Galician–Portuguese served as [[Galician-Portuguese lyric|the literary language of lyric poetry]] across the Iberian Peninsula, drawing on the [[troubadour]] tradition of southern France.{{sfn|Bessa|Feitosa|da Cunha|Brito|2025|p=5}} The poetry of the period is preserved primarily in three major songbooks. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Ajuda]]'', dated to the late 13th century, is the oldest and contains predominantly {{lang|pt|[[cantigas de amor]]}}. The ''[[Cancioneiro da Vaticana]]'' and the ''[[Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional]]'' are 15th-century copies of earlier manuscripts containing secular and satirical compositions.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}} The ''[[Cantiga da Ribeirinha]]'' ({{c.}} 1189 or 1198), composed by [[Paio Soares de Taveirós]] and preserved in the ''Cancioneiro da Ajuda'', is regarded as one of the earliest known pieces of medieval Galician–Portuguese lyric poetry.{{sfn|Brakel|1981|pp=371–372}}{{sfn|Júnior|2007|p=27}} [[File:Testamento de Afonso II de Portugal.jpg|thumb|The Will of Afonso II preserved at the [[Torre do Tombo National Archive]]s]] The identification of the oldest document written in Old Portuguese is a matter of scholarly debate. {{ill|Notícia de Fiadores|pt|Notícia de Fiadores}} (1175) has been identified by philologist {{ill|Ana Maria Martins|pt|Ana Maria Martins}} as the earliest surviving document written in Portuguese. However, she explicitly states that this chronology is not consensual and is the one she personally finds most accurate;{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=161–162}} other scholars argue that the presence of Romance elements in the text is limited and insufficient to classify it as a fully Galician-Portuguese document. The possibly earlier {{ill|Pacto dos irmãos Pais|pt|Pacto dos irmãos Pais}} has also been cited in this context.{{sfn|Martins|2007|pp=162–163}} By contrast, the [[Will of Afonso II of Portugal]] (1214) is widely regarded as one of the earliest dated documents written entirely in Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=120}}{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=66}} It consists of three copies of the will of [[Afonso II]] (1211–1223), the third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], drawn up during a period of ill health.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=130}} === Divergence of Galician and Portuguese === The [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese language began to diverge from their common Galician–Portuguese base from around the 11th century. Early signs of separation are attested in Galician prose works, of which the ''{{ill|Crónica Troiana|gl|Crónica troiana}}'' is among the most frequently cited examples.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}} By around 1250, Portuguese texts began to adopt [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] such as ''lh'' and ''nh'', replacing the Latin forms ''ll'' and ''nn''.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=194}}{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=22}} Between 1350 and 1450, Galicia experienced a second period of lyric production in which Portuguese poets did not participate.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=34}} In the late 13th century, King [[Denis of Portugal]] issued a decree establishing Portuguese as the mandatory language of royal administration, replacing Latin in the chancery.{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} Documents including laws, forals, royal letters and court records were required to be written in Portuguese. Historian Cleusa Teixeira de Sousa has interpreted this measure as a strategy to strengthen the authority of the Portuguese crown.{{sfn|de Sousa|2022|p=6–9}} Following the rise of the [[House of Aviz]] after the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]] in 1385, the political center of Portugal shifted southward, to Lisbon and [[Coimbra]]. Northern Portugal subsequently came to be regarded as a peripheral region, while [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] was increasingly treated as a foreign territory.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|pp=108–109}} According to Rodolfo Ilari and Renato Basso, around 1420 marks the transition from Old Portuguese to Middle Portuguese, a periodization they attribute to scholars including [[Luís Lindley Cintra]] and {{ill|Serafim da Silva Neto|pt|Serafim da Silva Neto}}.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=114}} Throughout much of the Middle Ages, the Portuguese language was commonly referred to as {{lang|pt|romance}} {{lang|pt|romanço}} or {{lang|pt|linguagem}};{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} by the 15th century, the designation "Portuguese language" became more widespread. The earliest known use of the term "Portuguese" ({{lang|pt|português}}) to designate the language dates to around 1430, appearing in a dedicatory letter written by [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra]] to his brother, [[King Duarte]], accompanying his translation of [[Cicero]]'s ''[[De Officiis]]'', in which he writes explicitly: "{{lang|pt|eu lia em português}}" ({{gloss|I was reading in Portuguese}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}} The printing press was introduced to Portugal in the late 15th century; ''{{ill|Sacramental (book)|lt=Sacramental|pt|Sacramental (obra)}}'', a translation from Spanish into Portuguese, is among the earliest known printed works in the language,{{sfn|Machado|2007|p=97}} and contributed to the standardization of Portuguese orthography.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=34}} During the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese underwent a process of Latinate renewal, reincorporating Latin and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] vocabulary. Much of this influence entered the language through Spanish.{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=139}} Some words that had lost intervocalic ''l'' and ''n'' through regular sound change were reintroduced in Latinate or Castilian forms, such as {{lang|pt|maíça}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:malícia#Portuguese|malícia]]}} ({{gloss|malice}}), {{lang|pt|saíva}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saliva#Portuguese|saliva]]}} ({{gloss|saliva}}) and {{lang|pt|paadar}} > {{lang|pt|[[wikt:paladar#Portuguese|paladar]]}} ({{gloss|taste}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=141}} In orthography, this period saw the adoption of pseudo-etymological spellings imitating Latin and Greek forms,{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=193}} such as {{lang|pt|pharmacia}}, {{lang|pt|theatro}}, and {{lang|pt|rheumatismo}}.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=567}} The period also produced the first grammars of Portuguese. [[Fernão de Oliveira]] published the first in 1536, advocating an orthography based on pronunciation. He is considered one of the first grammaticians of the Portuguese language.{{sfn|Lima|Ribeiro|Souza|Reis|2025|pp=1–6}} [[João de Barros]] followed in 1540 with a grammar informed by humanist principles, at times justifying spellings on the basis of Latin etymologies. The influence of [[Renaissance humanism]] promoted an etymological orthography that brought written Portuguese closer to Latin.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=57}} The publication of [[Luís de Camões]]'s ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'' in 1572 is generally regarded by linguists as the start of Modern Portuguese.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=154}} He is regarded as Portugal's [[national poet]].{{sfn|Jackson|2000|p=48}} [[Duarte Nunes de Leão]] extended the grammatical tradition with his ''Orthographia'' (1576) and ''Origem da Língua Portuguesa'' (1606), the latter among the earliest works to document dialectal variation in Portuguese.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}} === Overseas expansion and the development of Portuguese in Brazil === Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula began in the 15th century, following the [[conquest of Ceuta]] in 1415.{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=137}} Portuguese contact with sub-Saharan Africa proceeded in stages along the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. Settlement and exploration extended to [[Madeira]] and the [[Azores]] (1425–1439), followed by [[Cape Verde]] (1444), [[Guinea]] (1446), [[Angola]] (1483), and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (1485). The Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Mozambique]] in 1498,{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} though the consolidation of Portuguese there was gradual and shaped by prolonged contact with [[Bantu language]]s.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Portuguese functioned as a [[lingua franca]] in major ports across India and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} Portuguese established a network of commercial and administrative bases at [[Goa]] (1510), [[Malacca]] (1511), [[Kingdom of Hormuz|Hormuz]] (1515), [[Macau]] (1557), and [[Timor]].{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=11}} Following the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the territory now known as [[Brazil]] was claimed for the [[Portuguese Empire]] on 22 April 1500 with [[Discovery of Brazil|the arrival of the Portuguese fleet]] commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]].{{sfn|Boxer|1973|p=98}} At the time of Portuguese arrival, the region was [[Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil|inhabited by Indigenous peoples]] who spoke more than 1,175 languages, with the [[Tupi–Guarani languages]] predominating along the coast. Portuguese therefore did not become the majority language immediately.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=54}} From 1549, Jesuit missionaries systematized several indigenous languages into grammars, among them [[Joseph of Anchieta]]'s [[Art of Grammar of the Most Used Language on the Coast of Brazil|grammar of Old Tupi]] (1595).{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=55}} The [[Atlantic slave trade to Brazil|transatlantic slave trade]] brought speakers of an estimated 200 to 300 African languages to Brazil, primarily from West African and Bantu-speaking regions.{{sfn|Petter|2007|p=70}} Enslaved Africans were prohibited from using their native languages, and adopted Portuguese under conditions of irregular transmission.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|pp=71–72}} The discovery of gold in [[Minas Gerais]] in the 1690s prompted large-scale internal migration and a wave of immigration from Portugal, strengthening the presence of Portuguese in the centre-south of the colony.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=556}} In 1757, the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]] issued the ''{{ill|Diretório dos Índios|pt|Diretório dos Índios}}'', prohibiting use of the widely used indigenous lingua francas and imposing Portuguese as the sole official language of administration and education.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|pp=555–556}} The [[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|transfer of the Portuguese royal court]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 1808 reinforced the status of European Portuguese in the capital and introduced the printing press to Brazil.{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=74}} Following [[Independence of Brazil|independence in 1822]], a desire for a "Brazilian language" arose among intellectuals.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=33}} [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers such as [[José de Alencar]] advocated incorporating indigenous and popular terms into written Brazilian Portuguese, while purist grammarians insisted on adherence to European norms.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=558}} From the mid-19th century onward, mass immigration of Italians, Germans, and Japanese, among others, introduced further lexical and phonetic influences,{{sfn|Lipski|2022|pp=309–310}} concentrated primarily in the [[South Region, Brazil|South]] and [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast regions]].{{sfn|Lobo|2022|p=76}} Portuguese sovereign presence in Asia has since been largely withdrawn: the territories of [[Goa]], [[Daman district, India|Daman]], and [[Diu district|Diu]] were incorporated into the [[Government of India|Indian Union]] in 1961, [[East Timor]] was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|annexed by Indonesia in 1975]], gaining independence in 2002, and [[Macau]] was [[Handover of Macau|transferred to Chinese administration]] in 1999.{{sfn|Teyssier|2001|p=76}} In African countries where Portuguese is an official language, it also serves as a lingua franca among speakers of diverse native languages,{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} particularly those belonging to the Bantu language family.{{sfn|Ponso|2017|p=123}} Local varieties of Portuguese in Africa developed under sustained contact with indigenous languages, contributing to processes of lexical, phonological, and syntactic variation.{{sfn|Machungo|2022|p=100}} On 17 July 1996, the Portuguese-speaking countries established the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP) to promote political, cultural, and linguistic cooperation among Lusophone states.{{sfn|Fiorin|2022|p=571}} == Geographic distribution == {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language|Geographical distribution of Portuguese speakers}} [[File:Portuguese Language Map - Darker Blue - Mother Language of More than 50%.png|thumb|Portuguese Language Map – World Geographical Distribution {{legend|#002375|Native/Mother language of the majority of the population – > 50%}} {{legend|#080891|Official and administrative language, but minority native language – < 50%}} {{legend|#02ADFD|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a secondary native language - uruguayan portuguese - bayano, fronteiriço or riverense}} {{legend|#CCF4FA|Cultural or secondary language - not official but spoken as a minority native or second language}} {{legend|#17E1DE|Galician is an official language – seen by some organizations as the same language as Portuguese}} ]] [[File:Portuguese - Native Language Gradient 2.svg|thumb|Portuguese – Native Language Gradient {{legend|#24334b|Native speakers: 90–100%}} {{legend|#000099|Native speakers: 40–70%}} {{legend|#1ab2ff|Native speakers: 10–20%}} {{legend|#99ceff|Native speakers: 1–5%}} {{legend|#e6f3ff|Native speakers: Less Than 1%}} ]] [[File:Multilingual Emergency Assembly Area Sign in Oizumi.JPG|thumb|Sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in [[Oizumi]], Japan, which has a large [[Lusophone]] community due to the return immigration of [[Japanese Brazilians]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nlxybOVae8C&q=oizumi+brazilians&pg=PT150 |title=Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin |isbn=978-1-135-78765-3 |last1=Carvalho |first1=Daniela de |date=1 February 2013|publisher=Routledge }}</ref>]] Portuguese is spoken by approximately 200 million people in South America, 30 million in Africa, 15 million in Europe, 5 million in North America and 0.33 million in Asia and Oceania. It is the native language of the vast majority of the people in Portugal,<ref name="Special Eurobarometer 243">{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Special Eurobarometer 243 "Europeans and their Languages" |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221061227/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 |access-date=11 May 2011 |publisher=European Commission |page=6}}</ref> Brazil<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |title=Portuguese language in Brazil |publisher=Country Studies US |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083546/http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and São Tomé and Príncipe (95%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hagemeijer |first=Tjerk |year=2009 |title=As Línguas de S. Tomé e Príncipe |url=https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |url-status=deviated |journal=Revista de Crioulos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Espanhola |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224144743/https://www.um.edu.mo/fah/ciela/old_ciela/rcblpe/doc/As%20Linguas%20de%20S%20Tome%20e%20Principe.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2020 |access-date=17 November 2019}}</ref> Around 45% of the population of urban Angola speaks Portuguese natively,<ref name="censoAO">{{cite web|access-date=2025-11-24 |date=2025-11-20 |title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação – 2024 |url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/Arquivos/arquivosCarregados//Carregados/Publicacao_638992698392586291.pdf}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> with approximately 85% fluent; these rates are lower in the countryside.<ref>Medeiros, Adelardo. ''[[Portuguese in Africa]]'' – Angola</ref> Just over 50% (and rapidly increasing) of the population of [[Mozambique]] are native speakers of Portuguese, and 70% are fluent, according to the 2007 census.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Mozambique|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=28 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428022423/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.d.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|title=Portuguese in Africa – Guinea-Bissau|last=A. D. Medeiros|first=Adelardo|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003558/http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.4.c.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Almost 50% of the East Timorese are fluent in Portuguese. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks the Portuguese-based [[Cape Verdean Creole]]. Portuguese is mentioned in the [[Constitution of South Africa]] as one of the languages spoken by communities within the country for which the [[Pan South African Language Board]] was charged with promoting and ensuring respect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=2019-06-20|archive-date=18 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518042037/https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#6|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many territories including [[Andorra]] (17.1%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |title=Coneixements i usos lingüístics de la població d'Andorra: Situació actual i evolució 1995–2018 |date=2019 |language=Portuguese |publisher=Government of Andorra |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322022207/https://static1.ara.cat/ara/public/content/file/original/2019/1216/13/principals-dades-de-l-estudi-sobre-coneixements-i-usos-lingueistics-d0807a0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bermuda]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |title=Bermuda |publisher=World InfoZone |access-date=21 April 2010 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507021514/https://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Canada]] (400,275 people in the 2006 census),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory (2006 Census) |publisher=Statistics Canada |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313161228/https://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> [[France]] (1,625,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |title=Portuguese in Europe · Portuguese-speaking countries & Portuguese language knowledge in Europe |publisher=Languageknowledge.eu |access-date=2022-03-19 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/portuguese |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japan]] (400,000 people),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |title=Japão: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam língua portuguesa |language=pt |year=2008 |access-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706152346/http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-portuguesa_43355/ |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Jersey]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey/ |title=4.6% according to the 2001 census, see |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113013826/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jersey |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Luxembourg]] (about 25% of the population as of 2021), [[Namibia]] (about 4–5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the north of the country),<ref name="www.namibian.com.na">{{cite web|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|title=The Namibian|author=Carin Pretorius – Developed CEIT Development CC|access-date=16 March 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082932/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Paraguay]] (10.7% or 636,000 people),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Paraguay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] (550,000 in 2019, learning + mother tongue),<ref>{{cite report |year=2019 |title=Lingue della Svizzera |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |work=Pratiche linguistiche in Svizzera: Primi risultati dell'Indagine sulla lingua, la religione e la cultura 2019 |language=it |access-date=18 March 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326201622/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/it/home/statistiche/popolazione/rilevazioni/esrk.assetdetail.15324911.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Venezuela]] (554,000),<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY Venezuela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231185530/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PY |date=31 December 2022 }} in {{e25}}</ref> and the United States (868,900).<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Census Bureau |title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2017–2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/language-use/2017-2021-lang-tables.html |website=www.census.gov |date=June 2025 |access-date=3 April 2026}}</ref> In some parts of former [[Portuguese India]], namely [[Goa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010529163919/http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 May 2001 |title=Portuguese Language in Goa |publisher=Colaco.net |access-date=21 April 2010 }}</ref> and [[Daman and Diu]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |title=The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu |publisher=Rjmacau.com |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721135904/http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html |archive-date=21 July 2006 }}</ref> the language is still spoken by about 10,000 people. In 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|title=1.500 pessoas estudam português em Goa|publisher=Revistamacau.com|date=2 June 2014|access-date=10 July 2015|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003451/http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 2% of the people of Macau, China are fluent speakers of Portuguese. Additionally, the language is being very actively studied in the Chinese school system right up to the doctorate level. The [[Kristang people]] in [[Malaysia]] speak [[Kristang language|Kristang]], a Portuguese-Malay creole; however, the Portuguese language itself is not widely spoken in the country. === Official status === {{Main|List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language}} The [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]<ref name="CPLP">{{cite web |url=https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |title=Estados-membros |date=7 February 2017 |website=Community of Portuguese Language Countries |language=pt |trans-title=Member States |access-date=7 February 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207182400/https://www.cplp.org/id-2597.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> (in Portuguese ''Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa'', with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of the nine independent countries that have Portuguese as an [[official language]]: [[Angola]], [[Brazil]], [[Cape Verde]], [[East Timor]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mozambique]], [[Portugal]] and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].<ref name="CPLP" /> [[Equatorial Guinea]] made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010, a status given only to states with Portuguese as an official language.<ref>{{cite web |author=Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. |url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |title=El portugués será el tercer idioma oficial de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial – Página Oficial del Gobierno de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial |publisher=Guineaecuatorialpress.com |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104083320/http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703 |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese became its third official language (besides [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]])<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|title=Equatorial Guinea Adds Portuguese as the Country's Third Official Language|website=PR Newswire|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163747/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/equatorial-guinea-adds-portuguese-as-the-countrys-third-official-language-131882808.html|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2011, and in July 2014, the country was accepted as a member of the CPLP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|title=Equatorial Guinea, member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries|author=Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea|access-date=1 November 2016|archive-date=27 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227223516/https://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|url-status=live}}</ref> Portuguese is also one of the official languages of the Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China of Macau (alongside [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) and of several international organizations, including [[Mercosul]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |title=Official languages of Mercosul as agreed in the ''Protocol of Ouro Preto'' |publisher=Actrav.itcilo.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722053855/http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]],<ref>Statutes, Article 1{{cite web |url=http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |title=Official statute of the organization |publisher=Oei.es |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628144938/http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Union of South American Nations]],<ref>Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations, Article 23 {{Cite web |title=Tratado Constitutivo de la Unión de Naciones Suramericanas |url=https://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |access-date=4 October 2018 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715170723/http://www.unasursg.org/images/descargas/DOCUMENTOS%20CONSTITUTIVOS%20DE%20UNASUR/Tratado-UNASUR-solo.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[Organization of American States]],<ref>General Assembly of the OAS, [http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515221257/http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/agres_1737_xxxo00.htm |date=15 May 2011 }}, 5 June 2000</ref> the [[African Union]],<ref name="africa-union.org">Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union {{cite web |url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |title=Protocol on the Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208183015/http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20Amendments%20to%20the%20Constitutive%20Act.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=5 February 2016}}</ref> the [[Economic Community of West African States]],<ref name="africa-union.org" /> the [[Southern African Development Community]]<ref name="africa-union.org" /> and the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Languages in Europe&nbsp;– Official EU Languages |publisher=EUROPA web portal |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |access-date=12 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |archive-date=2 February 2009 }}</ref> === Lusophone countries === According to ''[[The World Factbook]]''{{'}}s country population estimates for 2018, the population of each of the ten jurisdictions is as follows (by descending order): {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_main|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712165513/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|title=IBGE &#124; Projeção da população|website=www.ibge.gov.br|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=16 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116063907/http://www.ibge.gov.br/apps/populacao/projecao/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|title=Population by Country (2022) – Worldometer|website=www.worldometers.info|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=5 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105162622/http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> ! More information ! Native language<br />of the majority ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Brazil}} [[Brazil]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 203,062,512 || [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese in Brazil]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.ST">{{e26|por}}, 2022</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Angola}} [[Angola]] || style="text-align:right;"| 35,981,281 || [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese in Angola]]||{{na}}||45% as a native language,<ref name="censoAO" /> 82% total<ref name="Ethn.AO">{{e26|por}}, 2021</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] || style="text-align:right;"| 32,513,805 || [[Mozambican Portuguese|Portuguese in Mozambique]]||{{na}}||40% as a native language, 60% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Portugal}} [[Portugal]] || style="text-align:right;"| 10,467,366 || [[European Portuguese|Portuguese in Portugal]]||{{ya}}||95% as a native language<ref name="Ethn.PT">{{e26|por}}</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] ||style="text-align:right;"| 2,078,820 || [[Guinean Portuguese|Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau]]||{{na}}||5% as a native language, 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL">{{e26|por}}, 2015</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]]<sup>2</sup>|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,679,172 || [[Languages of Equatorial Guinea|Portuguese in Equatorial Guinea]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" | {{flagdeco|East Timor}} [[East Timor]]|| style="text-align:right;" | 1,340,513 || [[East Timorese Portuguese|Portuguese in East Timor]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language; 50% total<ref name="Ethn.TL"/> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Macau}} [[Macau]]<sup>1</sup>||style="text-align:right;"| 682,300 || [[Macanese Portuguese|Portuguese in Macau]]||{{na}}||0.5% as a native language, 7% total<ref name="Ethn.MO">{{e26|por}}, 2017 (L1), 2021 census (L2)</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flagdeco|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] || style="text-align:right;"| 561,901 || [[Cape Verdean Portuguese|Portuguese in Cape Verde]]||{{na}}|| 5% as a native language, 80% total<ref name="Ethn.CV">{{e26|por}}, 2010 census</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;"|{{flagdeco|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]|| style="text-align:right;"| 220,372 || [[São Tomean Portuguese|Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe]]||{{ya}}||75% as a native language, 99% total<ref name="Ethn.ST"/> |- class="sortbottom" |style="text-align:left;"| '''Total''' || style="text-align:right;"| 288,588,042 ||colspan=3|[[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] |} {{smalldiv|1= Notes: #[[Macau]] is one of the two autonomous [[Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China]] (the other being [[English language|Anglophone]] [[Hong Kong]], a former British colony). # [[Equatorial Guinea]] adopted Portuguese as one of its official languages in 2007, being admitted to CPLP in 2014. The use of the Portuguese language in this country is limited, but quickly growing. }} The combined population of the entire [[Lusophone]] area was estimated at 300 million in January 2022.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|title=Statistics Portugal – Web Portal|website=www.ine.pt|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109182931/https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpgid=ine_main&xpid=INE|url-status=live}}</ref> This number does not include the Lusophone [[diaspora]], estimated at 10 million people (including 4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians), although there are no official accurate figures for diasporic Portuguese speakers because a significant portion of these citizens are naturalized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. Additionally, a large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian and [[Portuguese-speaking African countries|PALOP]] emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil. The Portuguese language therefore serves more than 250 million people daily, who have direct or indirect legal, juridical and social contact with it, varying from the only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs, public information and advertising in Portuguese. === Portuguese as a foreign language === Portuguese is a mandatory subject in the school curriculum in [[Uruguay]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |title=Governo uruguaio torna obrigatório ensino do português |date=5 November 2007 |website=UOL Notícias |language=pt |trans-title=Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory |access-date=13 July 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003353/https://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other countries where Portuguese is commonly taught in schools or where it has been introduced as an option include [[Venezuela]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:lingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6:noticia&Itemid=13/ |title=Portuguese language will be option in the official Venezuelan teachings |language=pt |date=24 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522092756/https://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93%3Alingua-portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6%3Anoticia&Itemid=13%2F |archive-date=22 May 2011 }}</ref> [[Zambia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528221719/http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-basico/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=28 May 2009 |title=Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic school |language=pt |date=26 May 2009 |access-date=13 July 2010 }}</ref> the [[Republic of the Congo]],<ref name="estadao">{{cite web|url=https://cultura.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,congo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas,561666 |title=Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools |language=pt |date=4 June 2010 |access-date=13 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807021226/http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/arteelazer%2Ccongo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-escolas%2C561666%2C0.htm |archive-date=7 August 2010 }}</ref> [[Senegal]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Namibia]],<ref name="www.namibian.com.na" /> [[Eswatini]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[South Africa]],<ref name="estadao" /> [[Ivory Coast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |title=Português entra no currículo escolar da Costa do Marfim no próximo ano letivo |date=23 June 2016 |website=www.portugal.gov.pt |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese enters the Ivory Coast school curriculum next school year |access-date=19 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003345/https://www.portugal.gov.pt/pt/gc21/comunicacao/noticia?i=20160623-mne-costa-marfim |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|title=República da Maurícia|website=www.cplp.org|access-date=19 July 2019|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003439/https://www.cplp.org/id-4440.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, a project was launched to introduce Portuguese as a school subject in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué |date=18 January 2017 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese to be introduced to secondary education in Zimbabwe |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133303/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país |date=19 January 2017 |agency=Angola Press – ANGOP |language=pt |trans-title=Zimbabwe: Portuguese to be introduced into the country's secondary education |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, according to Portugal's Minister of Foreign Affairs, the language will be part of the school curriculum of a total of 32 countries by 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |title=Português será língua curricular em 32 países no próximo ano letivo |date=22 July 2019 |website=SAPO 24 |language=pt |trans-title=Portuguese will be curricular language in 32 countries next school year |access-date=23 July 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501003350/https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-sera-lingua-curricular-em-32-paises-no-proximo-ano-letivo |url-status=live }}</ref> In such countries, Portuguese is spoken either as a native language by vast majorities due to their Portuguese colonial past or as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in bordering and multilingual regions, such as on the Brazilian borders of Uruguay and Paraguay and in regions of Angola and Namibia. In many other countries, Portuguese is spoken by majorities as a second language. There remain communities of thousands of Portuguese (or [[Creole language|Creole]]) first language speakers in [[Goa]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Daman and Diu]], and other areas due to [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonization]]. In [[Timor-Leste|East Timor]], the number of Portuguese speakers is quickly increasing as Portuguese and Brazilian teachers are making great strides in teaching Portuguese in the schools all over the island.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|title=Portuguese language in Timor Leste|access-date=10 April 2022|archive-date=16 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616050638/https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/479/1/17753_Disserta00E700E3odeMestradoLCP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, there are many large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities all over the world. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Country ! Population<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|title=The World Factbook – Field Listing – Population – CIA|access-date=2015-03-07|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004113653/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />(July 2017 est.) ! More information ! Compulsory education ! Spoken by |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Uruguay}} ||style="text-align: right"| 3,444,006 || [[Uruguayan Portuguese|Portuguese in Uruguay]]||{{ya}}||Significant minority as a native language; significant minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Argentina}} || style="text-align: right"|43,847,430 || [[Portuguese in Argentina]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Paraguay}} || style="text-align: right"| 7,052,984 || [[Portuguese in Paraguay]]||{{na}}||Significant minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Venezuela}} || style="text-align: right"|31,568,179 || [[Portuguese in Venezuela]]||{{ya}}||Minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|South Africa}} || style="text-align: right"| 57,725,600 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in South Africa]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Namibia}} || style="text-align: right"|2,606,971 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Namibia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Congo}} || style="text-align: right"|5,125,821 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Congo]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Zambia}} || style="text-align: right"|16,591,390 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Zambia]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Senegal}} || style="text-align: right"| 15,411,614 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Senegal]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;"| {{flag|Eswatini}} || style="text-align: right"| 1,343,098 || [[Portuguese language in Africa|Portuguese in Eswatini]]||{{na}}||Small minority as a second language |} === Future === [[File:MC 澳門 Macau 港珠澳大橋 HK-Zhu-Macau Bridge port building Jan 2019 IX2 63.jpg|thumb|Multilingual signage in Chinese, Portuguese and English at the [[Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge]] port building in [[Macau]]. Portuguese is a co-official language in Macau.]] According to estimates by [[UNESCO]], Portuguese is the fastest-growing [[European language]] after [[English language|English]] and it has the highest potential for growth as an international language in [[southern Africa]] and [[South America]].<ref name="The Portugal News">{{cite web|url=http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|title=Portuguese language gaining popularity|publisher=Anglopress Edicões e Publicidade Lda|date=5 May 2007|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318152307/http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9|archive-date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Portuguese is a globalized language spoken officially on five continents, and as a second language by millions worldwide. Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of [[Mercosul]] with other South American nations, namely [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Paraguay]], Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools of those South American countries. Although early in the 21st century, after [[Macau]] was returned to [[China]] and immigration of Brazilians of [[Japanese Brazilian|Japanese descent]] to [[Japan]] slowed down, the use of Portuguese was in decline in [[Asia]], it is once again becoming a language of opportunity there, mostly because of increased diplomatic and financial ties with economically powerful Portuguese-speaking countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leach |first=Michael |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |title=talking Portuguese; China and East Timor |access-date=18 May 2011 |website=Arena Magazine |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105033001/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/ |archive-date=5 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |title=Promising future for Portuguese language in China |last=Bilrero |first=António |date=15 March 2018 |website=Macao Magazine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702230400/https://www.macaomagazine.net/china/promising-future-portuguese-language-china |archive-date=2019-07-02}}</ref> ===Current status and importance=== Portuguese, being a language spread on all continents, has official status in several international organizations. It is one of twenty official languages of the [[European Union]], an official language of NATO, the [[Organization of American States]] (alongside Spanish, French and English), and one of eighteen official languages of the [[European Space Agency]]. Portuguese is a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] (alongside English, German, Spanish, French, Arabic and Russian), [[Amnesty International]] (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, French, German, and Italian), and [[Médecins sans Frontières]] (used alongside English, Spanish, French and Arabic), in addition to being the official legal language in the [[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]], also in [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization formed essentially by [[Lusophone|lusophone countries]]. == Linguistic demography == With approximately 250 million native speakers and 17 million [[second language]] speakers, Portuguese has approximately 267 million total speakers.<ref>{{Ethnologue28|por}},</ref> It is usually listed as the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fifth-most spoken native language]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Emmanuel|last=da Silva|chapter=Socioliguistic Tensions in Toronoto|page=129|editor-first=Luiz Paulo|editor-last=Moita-Lopes|title=Global Portuguese: Linguistic Ideologies in Late Modernity|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1-31763-304-4}}</ref> the third-most spoken European language in the world in terms of native speakers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=CIA World Factbook|access-date=12 June 2015|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the second-most spoken [[Romance languages|Romance language]] in the world, surpassed only by [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Being the first most widely spoken language in [[South America]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Different Languages of South America|url=https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Latino Bridge|language=en|date=7 November 2022|archive-date=12 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212165044/https://latinobridge.com/blog/the-different-languages-of-south-america-2/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2012 World Population Data Sheet Interactive Map – Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?rev_t=20230622000824&url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2012/world-population-data-sheet/world-map.aspx#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=La langue espagnole (présentation) |url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/Langues/2vital_inter_espagnol.htm |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca}}</ref> and the most-spoken language in the [[Southern Hemisphere]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Potencial Económico da Língua Portuguesa|url=http://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|website=University of Coimbra|access-date=21 June 2020|archive-date=24 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024163947/https://www.uc.pt/international-applicants/oportunidades/linguas/economic_potential_portuguese.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Portuguese Language Day|url=https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|website=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=17 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117112028/https://www.unesco.org/en/days/portuguese-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=20 Most Spoken Languages in the World in 2023|url=https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|website=[[Berlitz Corporation]]|access-date=20 November 2023|archive-date=21 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121060019/https://www.berlitz.com/blog/most-spoken-languages-world|url-status=live}}</ref> it is also the second-most spoken language, after Spanish, in [[Latin America]], one of the 10 most spoken languages in [[Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |website=Africa Facts |title=Top 11 Most Spoken Languages in Africa |date=2017-10-18 |access-date=10 October 2018 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918174122/https://africa-facts.org/top-10-most-spoken-languages-in-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and an official language of the [[European Union]], [[Mercosul]]<!-- This is the Portuguese spelling of Mercosur, Portuguese being an official language of that organization. -->, the [[Organization of American States#Official languages|Organization of American States]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]], the [[African Union]], and the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], an international organization made up of all of the world's officially [[Lusophone]] nations. In 1997, a comprehensive academic study ranked Portuguese as one of the 10 most influential languages in the world.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130507110651/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm "The World's 10 most influential languages"], George Weber, 1997, ''Language Today'', "...includes besides many other languages, Bengali, English, French, German, Hindi/Urdu, Italian, Marathi, Panjabi, Persian, Brazilian (Portuguese), Russian, the Scandinavian languages, and Spanish." "''Portuguese'' today means above all Brazilian."</ref><ref>Bernard Comrie, Encarta Encyclopedia (1998); George Weber, [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm "Top Languages: The World's 10 Most Influential Languages"], ''Language Today'' (Vol. 2, December 1997). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927062910/http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Archived] from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-09-28.</ref> == Classification and related languages == [[File:Lenguas y dialectos iberorromances.PNG|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Map showing mostly contemporary [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] and [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]] languages, as well many of their mainland European dialects (areas colored green, [[Aragonese language|gold]] or pink/purple represent languages deemed [[Endangered language|endangered]] by [[UNESCO]], so this may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and the [[Fala language|Fala]] as not only closely related but as [[dialect continuum]], though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira–[[Canarian Spanish|Canaries]] is not shown either).{{Image reference needed|date=November 2022}}]] {{Main|Iberian Romance languages| Galician–Portuguese |Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese}} Portuguese belongs to the [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] branch of the [[Romance language]]s, and it has special ties with the following members of this group: * [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Fala language|Fala]]. * [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] and [[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]] ([[Astur-Leonese languages]]). Mirandese is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal). * [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Caló language|''calão'']] (the Portuguese term for ''caló'', language of the Iberian [[Romani people|Romani]]). Portuguese and other Romance languages (namely [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) share considerable similarities in both vocabulary and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and [[Galician language|Galician]] are fully mutually intelligible. Spanish is relatively intelligible for lusophones, owing to their geographic proximity and history as [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]] ([[Ibero-Romance languages]]), historical contact between speakers and mutual influence, shared [[areal features]] as well as modern lexical, structural, and grammatical similarity (over 85%) between them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=John B. |year=1989 |title=On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese |journal=Hispania |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=848–852 |jstor=343562 |doi=10.2307/343562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Ralph |year=2000 |title=Variation and Change in Spanish |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-78045-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105110/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVNGMlx7cOYC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA14#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-11568-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb |url-access=registration |quote=how well do spanish speakers understand portuguese?. |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb/page/501 501]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ginsburgh |first1=Victor |last2=Weber |first2=Shlomo |year=2011 |title=How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-13689-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90 |page=90 |access-date=19 November 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105241/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QX8ri2o1TUC&q=how+well+do+spanish+speakers+understand+portuguese&pg=PA90#v=snippet&q=how%20well%20do%20spanish%20speakers%20understand%20portuguese&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Similar languages to Portuguese |url=https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |website=EZ Glot |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302192659/https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=por |url-status=live }}</ref> Many young Portuguese speakers however, will often choose [[English language|English]] as the lingua-franca of choice, with Spanish, French, Italian, other Europeans, and speakers of other languages. Over 97% of 18 to 24 year olds in Portugal speak a second language fluently, 95% of those have English as L2, some 33.7% speak French, 23% German, and 14% Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsenglish.pt/pt/wse/blog/portugueses-falam-cada-vez-mais-e-melhor-l%C3%ADnguas-estrangeiras/ |title=Portugueses falam cada vez mais (e melhor) línguas estrangeiras |language=pt |editor=wse english|date=2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2016 |publisher=The Portugal News |title=Portugal's students amongst Europe's most bilingual |url=https://www.theportugalnews.com/news/portugals-students-among-europes-most-bilingual/37355}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> [[Portuñol]]/Portunhol, a form of [[code-switching]], has a lively use and is mentioned in popular culture in South America. Said code-switching is not to be confused with the Portuguese varieties spoken on the borders of Brazil with Uruguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto do pampa}}) and Paraguay ({{lang|pt|dialeto dos [[Brasiguayos|brasiguaios]]}}), and of Portugal with Spain ({{lang|pt|[[barranquenho]]}}), that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thousands of people, which have been heavily influenced by Spanish.<ref name="Lipski">{{Cite conference |last=Lipski |first=John M |year=2006 |editor-last=Face |editor-first=Timothy L |editor2-last=Klee |editor2-first=Carol A |title=Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol' |url=http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |pages=1–22 |access-date=21 June 2015 |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216225441/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance languages, and perhaps the only Romance languages in Latin-America, with such thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have formed, in which functional bilingual communication is achieved through attempting an approximation to the target foreign language (known as 'Portuñol') without a learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates communication. There is an emerging literature focused on such phenomena in South America (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).<ref name="Lipski" /> === Galician–Portuguese in Spain === {{see also|Reintegrationism}} The closest relative of Portuguese is Galician, which is spoken in the autonomous community and historical nationality of Galicia ([[Spain]]). The two were part of a common dialect continuum during the Middle Ages, known today as [[Galician–Portuguese]], but they have diverged especially in pronunciation and vocabulary due to the political separation of [[County of Portugal|Portugal]] from [[Kingdom of Galicia|Galicia]]. There is, however, still a linguistic continuity consisting of the variant of Galician referred to as ''galego-português baixo-limiao'', which is spoken in several Galician and Portuguese villages within the transboundary biosphere reserve of [[Peneda-Gerês National Park|Gerês]]-[[Baixa Limia – Serra do Xurés|Xurés]]. It is "considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged from [[Cantabria]] to [[Mondego River|Mondego]] [...]".<ref name="agal-gz.or">{{Cite web |title=A Fala Galego-Portuguesa da Baixa-Limia e Castro Laboreiro |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |trans-title=The Galician–Portuguese Speech of Baixa-Limia and Castro Laboreiro |language=pt |access-date=2018-10-05 |archive-date=13 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080652/http://www.agal-gz.org/pdf/falabaixalimia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> As reported by [[UNESCO]], due to the pressure of Spanish on the standard official version of Galician and centuries-old [[Hispanization|Castilianization]], the Galician language was on the verge of disappearing.<ref name="agal-gz.or" /> According to the UNESCO philologist Tapani Salminen, the proximity to Portuguese protects Galician.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 February 2009 |title=O galego deixa de ser unha das linguas 'en perigo' para a Unesco |language=gl |trans-title=Galician is no longer one of the "endangered" languages for Unesco |work=Galicia Hoxe |url=http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106122417/http://www.galiciahoxe.com/mare/gh/galego-deixa-ser-unha-das-linguas-perigo-unesco/idNoticia-397878 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. Within the EU, Galician, while not being a [[European Parliament]] official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents due to its similarity with Portuguese.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |title=O Galego já é oficial na UE [GL/PT] |publisher=Associaçom Galega da Lingua |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030142629/http://www.agal-gz.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1349 |archive-date=30 October 2004 }}</ref><ref name="moniz1">{{cite journal|last=Moniz|first=Alexandre|date=2021|url=https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|title=Galician: How to Kill a Language|website=Cambridge Engage|access-date=21 Sep 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050757/https://www.cambridge.org/engage/api-gateway/coe/assets/orp/resource/item/60fb35650b093e286fe31ba8/original/how-to-kill-a-language-planning-diglossia-bi-normativism-the-internet-and-galician.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Galician like Portuguese, uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility estimated at 85% is excellent between Galicians and Portuguese.<ref>{{e25|glg|Galician}}</ref> Despite political efforts in Spain to define them as separate languages, many linguists consider [[Galician language|Galician]] and Portuguese to be co-dialects of the same language with regional variations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua|title=O galego e o português são a mesma língua/|date=27 January 2020|access-date=21 September 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921022638/https://lusojornal.com/nuno-gomes-garcia-conversa-com-eduardo-maragoto-o-galego-e-o-portugues-sao-a-mesma-lingua/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="moniz1"/> Another member of the Galician–Portuguese group, most commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in the [[Galician-Asturian|Eonavian]] region in a western strip in [[Asturias]] and the westernmost parts of the provinces of [[Province of León|León]] and [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], along the frontier with Galicia, between the [[Eo (river)|Eo]] and [[Navia (river)|Navia]] rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is called ''eonaviego'' or ''gallego-asturiano'' by its speakers. The Fala language, known by its speakers as ''xalimés'', ''mañegu'', ''a fala de Xálima'' and ''chapurráu'' and in Portuguese as ''a fala de Xálima'', ''a fala da Estremadura'', ''o galego da Estremadura'', ''valego'' or ''galaico-estremenho'', is another descendant of Galician–Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns of [[Valverde del Fresno]] (''Valverdi du Fresnu''), [[Eljas]] (''As Ellas'') and [[San Martín de Trevejo]] (''Sa Martín de Trevellu'') in the autonomous community of [[Extremadura]], near the border with Portugal. There are a number of other places in Spain in which the native language of the common people is a descendant of the Galician–Portuguese group, such as [[La Alamedilla]], [[Cedillo]] (''Cedilho''), [[Herrera de Alcántara]] (''Ferreira d'Alcântara'') and [[Olivenza]] (''Olivença''), but in these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream. In the kingdom of Portugal, ''Ladinho'' (or ''Lingoagem Ladinha'') was the name given to the pure Portuguese romance language, without any mixture of Aravia or Gerigonça Judenga.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/diccionariodalin02morauoft/page/140 140]|quote=aravia.|title=Diccionario da lingua portugueza|publisher=Na typ. de M. P. de Lacerda|access-date=30 May 2015|last1=Silva|first1=António de Morais|year=1823}}</ref> While the term ''língua vulgar'' was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided to call it "Portuguese language",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Osório |first=Jorge A. |date=1993 |title=D. Dinis: o Rei a Língua e o Reino |trans-title=D. Dinis: the King the Language and the Kingdom |url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |hdl=10216/20003 |journal=Máthesis |language=pt |issue=2 |pages=17–36 |access-date=12 June 2015 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816084101/https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/20003/2/jaosoriomathesis41993000083737.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the erudite version used and known as Galician–Portuguese (the language of the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspective the Portuguese language was never just one dialect. Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past there was Galician–Portuguese as the "standard", coexisting with other dialects. === Influence on other languages === [[File:St_Peter_Church_Melaka_3.jpg|thumb|An Old Portuguese [[memento mori]] memorial sign in [[Malacca City]]]] {{See also|List of English words of Portuguese origin|Loan words in Malayalam#Portuguese|Loan words in Indonesian|Japanese words of Portuguese origin|List of Malay loanwords|Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala|Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese|Sri Lanka Indo-Portuguese language|Hindustani etymology#Loanwords from Portuguese|Gujarati language#Portuguese|Burmese language|Bengali vocabulary#Portuguese (পর্তুগিজ Pôrtugij)|Thai language#Portuguese-origin|Chittagonian language|Tok Pisin}} Portuguese has provided [[loanword]]s to many languages, such as [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Manado Malay]], [[Malayalam]], [[Sri Lanka Tamils (native)|Sri Lankan Tamil]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English (language)|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Tsonga language|Xitsonga]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Lanc-Patuá creole|Lanc-Patuá]], [[Esan people#Language|Esan]], [[Bandar Abbas|Bandari]] (spoken in Iran) and [[Sranan Tongo]] (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong influence on the ''[[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]]'', a [[Tupi–Guarani language]], which was the most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around [[Sikka Regency|Sikka]] in [[Flores]] Island, [[Indonesia]]. In nearby [[Larantuka]], Portuguese is used for prayers in [[Holy Week]] rituals. The Japanese–Portuguese dictionary ''[[Nippo Jisho]]'' (1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries, the ''[[Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum]]'' (Annamite–Portuguese–Latin dictionary) of [[Alexandre de Rhodes]] (1651) introduced the modern [[Vietnamese alphabet|orthography of Vietnamese]], which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The [[Romanization]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding [[List of common Chinese surnames|Chinese surnames]]; one example is ''Mei''. During 1583–88 Italian Jesuits [[Michele Ruggieri]] and [[Matteo Ricci]] created a Portuguese–Chinese dictionary&nbsp;– the first ever European–Chinese dictionary.<ref name=camus>{{cite web|url=http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|title=Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies|last=Camus|first=Yves|access-date=12 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090942/http://www.riccimac.org/doc/JesuitsJourneys.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="ricciDict">''Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary'', by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional. {{ISBN|972-565-298-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C Partial preview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183226/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7h5YbM5M60C |date=15 December 2022 }} available on [[Google Books]]</ref> For instance, as [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese merchants]] were presumably the first to introduce the [[sweet orange]] in Europe, in several modern [[Indo-European languages]] the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian ''[[wikt:portokall#Albanian|portokall]]'', Bosnian (archaic) ''portokal'', ''prtokal'', Bulgarian [[wikt:портокал#Bulgarian|портокал]] (''portokal''), Greek [[wikt:πορτοκάλι#Greek|πορτοκάλι]] (''portokáli''), [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''{{transliteration|mk|portokal}}'', Persian [[wikt:پرتقال#Persian|پرتقال]] (''porteghal''), and Romanian ''[[wikt:portocală#Romanian|portocală]]''.<ref name="plantname">{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus Names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |publisher=[[University of Melbourne]] |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515001035/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Citrus_2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OstergrenBosse2011">{{cite book |author1=Ostergren, Robert C. |author2=Le Bosse, Mathias |name-list-style=amp |title=The Europeans, Second Edition: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA129 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-60918-140-6 |page=129}}</ref> Related names can be found in other languages,<!--"[[Amharic language|Amharic]] birtukan": NOT in sources--> such as Arabic [[wikt:البرتقال#Arabic|البرتقال]] (''burtuqāl''), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ფორთოხალი#Georgian|ფორთოხალი]] (''p'ort'oxali''), Turkish ''[[wikt:portakal#Turkish|portakal]]'' and [[Amharic]] ''birtukan''.<ref name="plantname" /> Also, in southern [[Italian language|Italian dialects]] (e.g. [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]), an orange is ''[[:wikt:portogallo|portogallo]]'' or ''[[:wikt:it:purtuallo|purtuallo]]'', literally "(the) Portuguese (one)", in contrast to [[standard Italian]] ''arancia''. [[File:2014 Lusophony Games map.svg|thumb|right|Participating countries of the [[Lusophony Games]]]] === Derived languages === {{Main|Portuguese-based creole languages}} Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many [[pidgin]]s with varying amounts of Portuguese influence. As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged [[creole language]]s, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century. Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, namely [[Cape Verdean Creole]] and [[Papiamento]]. Portuguese-based creoles are spoken by over three million people worldwide, especially people of partial [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ancestry. == Phonology == {{Main|Portuguese phonology}} {{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal |image1=WIKITONGUES- Sara speaking Portuguese.webm |caption1=Sara, a native speaker of the [[European Portuguese]] of Lisbon |image2=WIKITONGUES- Freddie speaking Portuguese.webm |caption2=Freddie, a native speaker of the [[Brazilian Portuguese]] of São Paulo }} [[Portuguese phonology]] and [[phonetics]] vary across regional dialects, but these differences generally do not impede [[mutual intelligibility]] among speakers. Portuguese has one of the larger phonological inventories among the Romance languages.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=1–2}} This overview mainly describes [[European Portuguese]] (EP) and [[Brazilian Portuguese]] (BP), the [[standard varieties]] of Portugal and Brazil respectively.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=113}} === Vowels === {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = European Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption1 = Monophthongs of European Portuguese as they are pronounced in Lisbon, from {{Harvcoltxt|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}. The vowel transcribed {{IPA|/ɯ/}} on this chart appears only in unstressed syllables and corresponds to the symbol {{IPA|/ɨ/|cat=no}} in this article | image2 = Brazilian Portuguese vowel chart.svg | caption2 = Monophthongs of Brazilian Portuguese as they are pronounced in São Paulo, from {{Harvcoltxt|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}. The vowels {{IPA|[ɪ, ʊ, ë]|cat=no}} appear only in unstressed syllables. | class1 = skin-invert-image | class2 = skin-invert-image }} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Vowel phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}} |- !rowspan="2"| !colspan="2"|[[Front vowel|Front]] !colspan="2"|[[Central vowel|Central]] !colspan="2"|[[Back vowel|Back]] |- !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} !{{small|oral}} !{{small|nasal}} |- ![[Close vowel|Close]] |{{IPA link|i}} |{{IPA link|ĩ}} |({{IPA link|ɯ̽|ɨ}}) | |{{IPA link|u}} |{{IPA link|ũ}} |- ![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]] |{{IPA link|ɪ}} | |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ʊ}} | |- ![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] |{{IPA link|e}} |{{IPA link|ẽ}} |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|o}} |{{IPA link|õ}} |- ![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] |{{IPA link|ɛ}} | |{{IPA link|ɐ}} |{{IPA link|ɐ̃}} |{{IPA link|ɔ}} | |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] |colspan="2"| |{{IPA link|ä|a}} | |colspan="2"| |} EP has nine oral vowels ({{IPA|/a, ɐ, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u, ɨ/}}) and 19 consonants,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP is generally analyzed as having seven oral vowels in stressed position ({{IPA|/i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/}}).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} Both varieties have five [[nasal vowel]]s,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} though linguists Maria Helena Mateus and Ernesto d'Andrade analyze these as [[allophone]]s of the oral vowels rather than independent phonemes.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=20}} Portuguese has ten oral [[diphthong]]s and five nasal diphthongs.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} In unstressed positions, EP frequently reduces or deletes vowels in colloquial speech, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dever#Portuguese|dever]]}} ({{gloss|to owe}}) realized as {{IPA|pt|ˈdveɾ||}}. In both varieties, the tense mid vowels /e/ and /o/ tend to raise when unstressed, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:menino#Portuguese|menino]]}} ({{gloss|boy}}) {{IPA|pt|mĩ.ˈnĩ.nu||}}. In BP, this raising is especially consistent in word-final position, while in other syllables tends to vary depending on the accent, where the most common vocalic realizations are {{IPA|/i/|}}, {{IPA|/a/|}} and {{IPA|/u/|}}, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sabe#Portuguese|sabe]]}} ({{gloss|he/she knows}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈsa.bi||}} and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:juro#Portuguese|juro]]}} ({{gloss|I swear}}) {{IPA|pt|ˈʒu.ɾu||}}.{{sfn|Ferreira|Holt|2014|pp=131–132}} BP frequently employs vowel [[epenthesis]] to break up consonant clusters, typically inserting a high front vowel such as {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, although many times it can be completely removed or reduced to palatalization ("prática" [ˈpɾatʃikɐ > ˈpɾatʃkɐ]; "truque" ['tɾuki > 'tɾukʲ]).{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=227}} [[Semivowel]]s contrast with unstressed high vowels in verbal conjugation, as in {{lang|pt|(eu) rio}} ({{gloss|I laugh}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁi.u/}} and {{lang|pt|(ele) riu}} ({{gloss|he laughed}}) {{IPA|/ˈʁiw/}}.{{sfn|Rodrigues|2012|pp=39–40}} Phonologists discuss whether their nature is vowel or consonant.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=123}} === Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- |+ Consonant phonemes of Portuguese{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}}{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2012|p=20}}{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}} ! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | ! rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan=2| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]](-[[postalveolar|alveolar]]) ! colspan=2| [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] |- ! {{small|plain}} ! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}} |- !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}} |colspan=2| |- !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|kʷ}} |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} | {{IPA link|dʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʷ}} |- !rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} |colspan=2| |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | {{IPA link|ʁ}} | |- !rowspan=2| [[Sonorant]] ! {{small|[[median consonant|median]]}} | {{IPA link|w}} | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | ({{IPA link|w}}) |- ! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}} | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʎ}} |colspan=2| |} EP has 19 consonant phonemes,{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=91}} while BP has 21, including the post-alveolar [[affricate]]s [tʃ] and [dʒ].{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} In most Brazilian varieties, the stops /t/ and /d/ are realized as the affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ] before the high front vowel [i], as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:tia#Portuguese|tia]]}} ({{gloss|aunt}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:dia#Portuguese|dia]]}} ({{gloss|day}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|pp=60–61}} Portuguese distinguishes two rhotic phonemes: a flap /ɾ/, occurring intervocalically as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:caro#Portuguese|caro]]}} ({{gloss|cheap}}), and a stronger rhotic /R/, occurring word-initially and in the geminate RR as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:carro#Portuguese|carro]]}} ({{gloss|car}}).{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=15}} The consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ʁ/}} has a variety of realizations depending on dialect. In EP, it is typically a [[uvular trill]] {{IPA|[ʀ]}}; however, a pronunciation as a [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}} may be becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[χ]}}, and the original pronunciation as an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} also remains very common in various dialects.{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=5–6, 11}} A common realization of the word-initial {{IPA|/r/}} in the Lisbon accent is a [[voiced uvular fricative trill]] {{IPA|ʀ̝}}.{{sfn|Grønnum|2005|p=157}} In Brazil, {{IPA|/ʁ/}} can be [[velar consonant|velar]], [[uvular consonant|uvular]], or [[glottal consonant|glottal]] and may be voiceless unless between voiced sounds.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=228}} The typical syllable-final rhotic is the {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in Portugal and the hard {{IPA|/ʁ/}} (or other common allophones) in Brazil, although the pronunciation as {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and {{IPA|/ɹ/}} ~ {{IPA|/ɻ/}} exists in some accents of the country.{{Sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} Portuguese has a strong tendency toward falling diphthongs, in which a vowel is followed by a semivowel, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:feira#Portuguese|feira]]}} ({{gloss|market}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:noivo#Portuguese|noivo]]}} ({{gloss|fiancé}}), {{lang|pt|[[wikt:ruivo#Portuguese|ruivo]]}} ({{gloss|auburn}}).{{sfn|Venâncio|2024|p=177}} Sequences of two vowels in separate syllables, known as [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], also occur, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:saída#Portuguese|saída]]}} ({{gloss|exit}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=59}} The lateral /l/ in syllable-final position is realised as the semivowel [w] in most of Brazil, making {{lang|pt|[[wikt:alto#Portuguese|alto]]}} ({{gloss|high}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:auto#Portuguese|auto]]}} ({{gloss|public deed}}) phonetically identical in those varieties;{{sfn|da Cunha|Cintra|2016|p=59}} in EP, the same consonant is realised as a velarized {{IPAblink|ɫ}}.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=120}} Many speakers of BP further shift {{IPA|ɫ}} to {{IPA|[w]}} in closed syllables.{{sfn|Barbosa|Albano|2004|p=229}} {{Harvcoltxt|Bisol|2005|p=122}} proposes that Portuguese possesses labio-velar stops {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} as additional phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and {{IPA|/w/}}.{{sfn|Bisol|2005|p=122}} [[Sibilant]]s in syllable-final position are realised as the palato-alveolar fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ] in EP{{sfn|Basso|Gonçalves|2014|p=156}} and in the Rio de Janeiro variety of BP, while most other Brazilian varieties retain the alveolar [s] and [z].{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=358}} In most of Brazil and Angola, the consonant hereafter denoted as {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is realized as a [[nasal palatal approximant]] {{IPAblink|ȷ̃|j̃}}, which [[Nasalization|nasalizes]] the vowel that precedes it: {{IPA|[ˈnĩj̃u]}}.{{sfn|Thomas|1974|p=8}} In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops ({{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) are usually lenited to [[fricative]]s {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPAblink|ð}}, and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}, respectively, except at the beginning of words or after nasal vowels.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=92}}{{sfn|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=11}} === Stress, rhythm and intonation === Prosodically, [[stress (linguistics)|syllabic stress]] in Portuguese falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. [[Paroxytone]]s, with stress on the penultimate syllable, are the most frequent pattern, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:barro#Portuguese|barro]]}} ({{gloss|clay}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:poderoso#Portuguese|poderoso]]}} ({{gloss|powerful}}), followed by [[oxytone]]s, with stress on the final syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:café#Portuguese|café]]}} ({{gloss|coffee}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:principal#Portuguese|principal]]}} ({{gloss|principal}}), and [[proparoxytone]]s, with stress on the antepenultimate syllable, as in {{lang|pt|[[wikt:sólido#Portuguese|sólido]]}} ({{gloss|solid}}) and {{lang|pt|[[wikt:felicíssimo#Portuguese|felicíssimo]]}} ({{gloss|very happy}}).{{sfn|Bechara|2024|p=77}} European Portuguese is generally described as [[stress-timed]], with unstressed syllables subject to significant reduction. Brazilian Portuguese is more syllable-timed, with unstressed vowels better preserved.{{sfn|Noll|2022|p=130}} In [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], declarative sentences are typically characterized by a falling pitch contour,{{sfn|Queiroz|2008|p=305}} while [[yes/no question]]s are marked by a rise in pitch on the final stressed syllable; in BP, a pattern with pitch rising on both the first and last accented syllables is common.{{sfn|da Hora|Battisti|2022|p=362}} [[Wh-question|''Wh''-question]]s typically carry a falling contour when seeking information.{{sfn|Cruz-Ferreira|1995|p=93}} == Orthography == {{excerpt|Portuguese orthography|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1-2}} === Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990 === {{excerpt|Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990|Changes|only=table|tables=2}} == Grammar == {{Main|Portuguese grammar}} A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any other major [[Romance language]]. Portuguese and Spanish share very similar grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure. Portuguese also has some grammatical innovations not found in other Romance languages (except Galician and Fala): * The [[present perfect]] has an iterative sense unique to the Galician–Portuguese language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the past but expected to occur again in the future. For instance, the sentence ''Tenho tentado falar contigo'' would be translated to "I have been trying to talk to you", not "I have tried to talk to you." On the other hand, the correct translation of "Have you heard the latest news?" is not ''*Tens ouvido as últimas?'' but ''Ouviste as últimas?'' since no repetition is implied.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Verbal Periphrases in Romance: Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization |last=Squartini |first=Mario |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-11-016160-1 |location=Berlin |oclc=39007172}}</ref> * Portuguese makes use of the future [[subjunctive mood]], which developed from medieval [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance]]. In modern Spanish and Galician, it has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs the present tense under the same circumstances: :''Se eu ''for'' eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.'' :If ''I am'' elected president, I will change the law. :''Quando ''fores'' mais velho, vais entender.'' :When ''you grow'' older, you will understand. * The personal [[infinitive]] can [[inflection|inflect]] according to its subject in [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[Grammatical number|number]]. It often shows who is expected to perform a certain action. ''É melhor voltares'' "It is better [for you] to go back", ''É melhor voltarmos'' "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for that reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages. == Vocabulary == {{Main|Portuguese vocabulary}} The Portuguese lexicon consists of around 228,500 entries, 382,000 definitions, 415,500 synonyms, 26,400 antonyms and 57,000 [[Archaism|archaic word]]s, according to an estimate based on the 2001 edition of the ''[[Houaiss Dictionary of the Portuguese Language]]''.{{sfn|de Albuquerque|Coelho|Antunes|do Nascimento|2015|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Timbane|2012|p=21}} Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived, directly or through other Romance languages, from Latin.{{sfn|Azevedo|2005|p=171}} A number of Portuguese words can still be traced to the [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal]], which included the [[Gallaeci]], [[Lusitanians]], [[Celtici]] and [[Cynetes]]. Most of these words derived from the Hispano-Celtic [[Gallaecian language]] of northwestern Iberia, and are very often shared with [[Galician language|Galician]] since both languages have the same origin in the medieval language of Galician–Portuguese. A few of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from other [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] sources, often [[Gaulish]]. Altogether these are over 3,000 words, verbs, toponymic names of towns, rivers, surnames, tools, lexicon linked to rural life and natural world.<ref name="Filppula-Klemola">{{cite journal |last1=Filppula |first1=Markku |last2=Klemola |first2=Juhani |title=Celtic Influences in English: A Re-Evaluation |journal=Neuphilologische Mitteilungen |volume=115 |number=1 |date=2014 |pages=33–53 |jstor=43344757 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120002914/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43344757 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman [[Hispania]]) was conquered by the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Suebi]] and [[Visigoths]]. As they adopted the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization and language, however, these people contributed with some 500 [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] words to the lexicon. Many of these words are related to: * '''warfare''', such as {{lang|pt|espora}} 'spur', {{lang|pt|estaca}} ('stake'), and {{lang|pt|guerra}} ('war'), from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''*spaúra'', ''*stakka'', and ''*wirro'' respectively; * '''natural world''', such as {{lang|pt|suino}} ('swine') from ''*sweina'', {{lang|pt|gavião}} ('hawk') from ''*gabilans'', {{lang|pt|vaga}} ('spot') from ''*vigan''; * '''human emotions''', such as {{lang|pt|orgulho}} or {{lang|pt|orgulhoso}} ('pride', 'proud') from Old Germanic ''*urguol'', and * '''verbs''' like {{lang|pt|gravar}} ('to craft, record, graft') from ''*graba'' or {{lang|pt|esmagar}} ('to squeeze, quash, grind') from Suebian ''*magōn'' or {{lang|pt|esfarrapar}} ('to shred') from ''*harpō''. The [[Germanic languages]] influence also exists in [[toponymic surname]]s and [[patronymic surname]]s borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such as [[Ermesinde]], [[Esposende]] and [[Resende, Portugal|Resende]] where ''sinde'' and ''sende'' are derived from the Germanic ''sinths'' ('military expedition') and in the case of Resende, the prefix ''re'' comes from Germanic ''reths'' ('council'). Other examples of Portuguese names, surnames and town names of Germanic [[toponymic]] origin include Henrique, [[Henriques (surname)|Henriques]], Vermoim, Mandim, Calquim, Baguim, Gemunde, Guetim, Sermonde and many more, are quite common mainly in the old [[Suebi]] and later [[Visigothic]] dominated regions, covering today's Northern half of Portugal and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. Between the 9th and early 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired some 400 to 600 words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] by influence of [[al-Andalus|Moorish Iberia]]. They are often recognizable by the initial [[Definite article in Arabic|Arabic article ''a(l)-'']], and include common words such as {{lang|pt|aldeia}} ('village') from الضيعة ''aḍ-ḍayʿa'', {{lang|pt|alface}} ('lettuce') from الخسة ''al-khassa'', {{lang|pt|armazém}} ('warehouse') from المخزن ''al-makhzan'', and {{lang|pt|azeite}} ('olive oil') from الزيت ''az-zayt''. [[File:State_Central_Library,_Goa_Dec_27,_2012_14.JPG|thumb|left|A sign at [[Goa State Central Library|Goa Central Library]], in [[Panaji]], India, listing three Portuguese-language newspapers]] Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance, {{lang|pt|catana}} ('[[cutlass]]') from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''[[katana]]'', {{lang|pt|chá}} ('tea') from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''[[Tea#Etymology|chá]]'', and ''[[Canja de galinha|canja]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Canja |url=https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |website=Dicionário Priberam |access-date=23 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924033808/https://dicionario.priberam.org/Canja |url-status=live }}</ref> ('chicken-soup, piece of cake') from [[Malayalam]]. . From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several words of African and [[indigenous peoples of Brazil|Amerind]] origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. From [[Kimbundu language|Kimbundu]], for example, came ''kifumate'' > {{lang|pt|cafuné}} ('head caress') (Brazil), ''kusula'' > {{lang|pt|caçula}} ('youngest child') (Brazil), {{lang|pt|marimbondo}} ('tropical wasp') (Brazil), and ''kubungula'' > {{lang|pt|bungular}} ('to dance like a wizard') (Angola). From South America came {{lang|pt|batata}} ('[[potato]]'), from [[Taíno language|Taino]]; {{lang|pt|ananás}} and {{lang|pt|abacaxi}}, from [[Tupi–Guarani languages|Tupi–Guarani]] ''naná'' and [[Tupi language|Tupi]] ''ibá cati'', respectively (two species of [[pineapple]]), and {{lang|pt|pipoca}} ('[[popcorn]]') from Tupi and {{lang|pt|tucano}} ('[[toucan]]') from [[Guarani language|Guarani]] ''tucan''. Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages, especially French and [[English language|English]]. These are by far the most important languages when referring to loanwords. There are many examples such as: {{lang|pt|colchete}}/{{lang|pt|crochê}} ('bracket'/'crochet'), {{lang|pt|paletó}} ('jacket'), {{lang|pt|batom}} ('lipstick'), and {{lang|pt|filé}}/{{lang|pt|filete}} ('steak'/'slice'), {{lang|pt|rua}} ('street'), respectively, from French {{lang|fr|crochet}}, {{lang|fr|paletot}}, {{lang|fr|bâton}}, {{lang|fr|filet}}, {{lang|fr|rue}}; and {{lang|pt|bife}} ('steak'), {{lang|pt|futebol}}, {{lang|pt|revólver}}, {{lang|pt|stock}}/{{lang|pt|estoque}}, {{lang|pt|folclore}}, from English "beef", "football", "revolver", "stock", "folklore". Examples from other European languages: {{lang|pt|macarrão}} ('pasta'), {{lang|pt|piloto}} ('pilot'), {{lang|pt|carroça}} ('carriage'), and {{lang|pt|barraca}} ('barrack'), from Italian {{lang|it|maccherone}}, {{lang|it|pilota}}, {{lang|it|carrozza}}, and {{lang|it|baracca}}; {{lang|pt|melena}} ('hair lock'), {{lang|pt|fiambre}} ('wet-cured ham') (in Portugal, in contrast with ''presunto'' 'dry-cured ham' from Latin ''prae-exsuctus'' 'dehydrated') or ('canned ham') (in Brazil, in contrast with non-canned, wet-cured (''presunto cozido'') and dry-cured (''presunto cru'')), or ''castelhano'' ('Castilian'), from Spanish ''melena'' ('mane'), ''fiambre'' and ''castellano.'' == Dialects, accents and varieties == Modern Standard [[European Portuguese]] ({{lang|pt|português padrão}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoescola.com/linguistica/portugues-na-europa/|title=Português na Europa|website=InfoEscola}}</ref> or {{lang|pt|português continental}}) is based on the Portuguese spoken in the area including and surrounding the cities of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]], in central Portugal. Standard European Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries. As such, and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in many dialects of Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. The same occur with the Santomean, Mozambican, Bissau-Guinean, Angolan and Cape Verdean dialects, being exclusive to Africa. See [[Portuguese in Africa]]. Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below. There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation. === Portugal === [[File:Portugal portuguese dialects.png|thumb|Portugal's Portuguese dialects]] [[File:Lusofonia Angola Censo.png|thumb|Map of Angola 2024 – percentage of native speakers in each municipality.]] [[File:Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique - Proportion of Speakers.png|thumb|Portuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique – Proportion of Speakers]] [[File:Edificio de Correos y Telégrafos, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 03.jpg|thumb|right|The main [[post office]] building of [[Macau]]]] {{Pie chart |caption = Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country (c. 2023)<ref name="Publico25">{{cite web | last1=Sanches | first1=Andreia | last2=Mendon&#xE7 | first2=tia | last3=Moreira | first3=Cristiana Faria | last4=G&#xF3 | first4=Gabriela | last5=Pedro | first5=Gabriela | title=A língua portuguesa no mundo | website=PÚBLICO | date=2025-03-04 | url=https://www.publico.pt/2025/03/04/infografia/lingua-portuguesa-mundo-854 | language=pt | access-date=2025-03-08}}</ref> |value1=80.1 |label1=Brazil |color1=#009440 |value2=9.0 |label2=Angola |color2=Black |value3=5.9 |label3=Mozambique |color3=#FCCF03 |value4=4.1 |label4=Portugal |color4=#FF0000 |value5=0.9 |label5= Others |color5=Blue }} # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som69.html ''Micaelense (Açores)''] (São Miguel) – [[Azores]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som40.html ''Alentejano''] – [[Alentejo]] ([[Alentejan Portuguese]]), with the [[Oliventine Portuguese|Oliventine]] subdialect. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som44.html ''Algarvio''] – [[Algarve]] (there is a particular dialect in a small part of western Algarve). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som1.html ''Minhoto'']&nbsp;– Districts of [[Braga]] and Viana do Castelo (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som49.html ''Beirão''; ''Alto-Alentejano''] – Central Portugal (hinterland). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som9.html ''Beirão''] – Central Portugal. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som22.html ''Estremenho'']&nbsp;– Regions of [[Coimbra]] and [[Lisbon]] (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra and is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that are not only not shared with that of Coimbra, but also significantly distinct and recognizable to most native speakers from elsewhere in Portugal). # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som60.html ''Madeirense''] (Madeiran)&nbsp;– [[Madeira]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som14.html ''Portuense'']&nbsp;– Regions of the district of [[Porto]] and parts of [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]]. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som6.html ''Transmontano'']&nbsp;– [[Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro]]. [[File:Uso dos pronomes de segunda pessoa no Brasil.svg|thumb|The status of second person pronouns in Brazil: {{col-begin}} {{legend|#A40000|Near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|você}} (greater than 96%)}} {{legend|#5B4FDE|Decidedly predominant use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (greater than 80%), but with near exclusive third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#590000|50-50 {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} variation, with {{lang|pt|tu}} being nearly always accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#00C4DC|Decidedly predominant to near exclusive use of {{lang|pt|tu}} (76% to 95%) with reasonable frequency of second person ({{lang|pt|tu}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#85C700|Balanced você/tu distribution, being {{lang|pt|tu}} exclusively accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#006700|Balanced {{lang|pt|você}}/{{lang|pt|tu}} distribution, {{lang|pt|tu}} being predominantly accompanied by third person ({{lang|pt|você}}-like) verbal conjugation.}} {{legend|#E6E6E6|No data}} {{col-end}}]] [[File:2018 Rio de Janeiro - Fachada do Real Gabinete Português de Leitura - Luis de Camões.jpg|thumb|right|[[Statue]] of the Portuguese poet [[Luís de Camões]] at the entrance of the [[Royal Portuguese Cabinet of Reading]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]]] [[File:Estação da luz-13.jpg|thumb|right|[[Museum of the Portuguese Language]] in [[São Paulo]]]] Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|title=Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese|access-date=12 June 2015|publisher=[[Instituto Camões]]|archive-date=27 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427031743/http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/mapa07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation. === Brazil === [[File:Brazil dialect map.png|thumb|Brazil's Portuguese dialects]] # ''[[Caipira dialect|Caipira]]''&nbsp;– Spoken in the states of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (most markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southern [[Minas Gerais]], northern [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] and southeastern [[Mato Grosso do Sul]]. Depending on the vision of what constitutes ''caipira'', [[Triângulo Mineiro]], border areas of [[Goiás]] and the remaining parts of Mato Grosso do Sul are included, and the frontier of ''caipira'' in Minas Gerais is expanded further northerly, though not reaching metropolitan [[Belo Horizonte]]. It is often said that ''caipira'' appeared by [[decreolization]] of the [[Old Tupi|língua brasílica]] and the related [[língua geral paulista]], then spoken in almost all of what is now São Paulo, a former [[lingua franca]] in most of the contemporary [[Centro-Sul]] of Brazil before the 18th century, brought by the ''[[bandeirante]]s'', interior pioneers of [[Colonial Brazil]], closely related to its northern counterpart [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]], and that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |title=Nheengatu and caipira dialect |publisher=Sosaci.org |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215070133/http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm |archive-date=15 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It has striking remarkable differences in comparison to other Brazilian dialects in phonology, prosody and grammar, often [[Social stigma|stigmatized]] as being strongly associated with a [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|substandard variant]], now mostly rural.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Ferraz |first=Irineu da Silva |title=Características fonético-acústicas do /r/ retroflexo do portugues brasileiro: dados de informantes de Pato Branco (PR) |date=2005 |degree=Master's |publisher=Universidade Federal do Paraná |url=http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |hdl=1884/3955 |trans-title=Acoustic-phonetic characteristics of the Brazilian Portuguese's retroflex /r/: data from respondents in Pato Branco, Paraná |pages=19–21 |lang=pt |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175335/http://dspace.c3sl.ufpr.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1884/3955/CARACTER%C3%8DSTICAS%20FON%C3%89TICO.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leite |first=Cândida Mara Britto |date=2010 |title=O /r/ em posição de coda silábica na capital do interior paulista: uma abordagem sociolinguística |trans-title=Syllable coda /r/ in the "capital" of the Paulista hinterland: a sociolinguistic analysis |url=http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766 |journal=Sínteses |language=pt |volume=15 |page=111 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://cedae.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/sinteses/article/download/1198/1766}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Callou |first1=Dinah |title=Iniciação à Fonética e à Fonologia |last2=Leite |first2=Yonne |publisher=Jorge Zahar Editora |year=2001 |page=24 |language=pt |trans-title=Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Castilho |first=Ataliba T. de |title=Saber uma língua é separar o certo do errado? A língua é um organismo vivo que varia conforme o contexto e vai muito além de uma coleção de regras e normas de como falar e escrever |url=http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |trans-title=To know a language is really about separating correct from awry? Language is a living organism that varies by context and goes far beyond a collection of rules and norms of how to speak and write |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082936/http://www.poiesis.org.br/files/mlp/texto_16.pdf |publisher=[[Museu da Língua Portuguesa]] |language=pt |archive-date=22 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Linguistic prejudice and the surprising (academic and formal) unity of Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021055958/http://www.lendo.org/preconceito-linguistico-o-portugues-do-brasil-apresenta-uma-unidade-surpreendente/ |archive-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> # [[North coast Portuguese|''Cearense'' or ''Costa norte'']]&nbsp;– is a dialect spoken more sharply in the states of Ceará and Piauí. The variant of Ceará includes fairly distinctive traits it shares with the one spoken in Piauí, though, such as distinctive regional phonology and vocabulary (for example, a debuccalization process stronger than that of Portuguese, a different system of the vowel harmony that spans Brazil from ''fluminense'' and ''mineiro'' to ''amazofonia'' but is especially prevalent in ''nordestino'', a very coherent coda sibilant palatalization as those of Portugal and Rio de Janeiro but allowed in fewer environments than in other accents of ''nordestino'', a greater presence of dental stop palatalization to palato-alveolar in comparison to other accents of ''nordestino'', among others, as well as a great number of archaic Portuguese words).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |title=As descrições fonológicas do português do Ceará: de Aguiar a Macambira |first=José Lemos |last=Monteiro |journal=Revista do GELNE |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=2000 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308002954/http://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/31547/1/2000_art_jlmonteiro.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Maia |first=Viviane dos Santos |title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?': manifestações da segunda pessoa na fala carioca |date=2012 |degree=Master's |publisher=Federal University of Rio de Janeiro |url=http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |language=pt |trans-title='Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?: manifestations of the second person in Carioca speech |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052321/http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/mestrado/SantosVM.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |title=Aspectos Fonético-Fonológicos do Falar do Ceará: O Que Tem Surgido nos Inquéritos Experimentais do Atlas Lingüístico do Brasil – ALiB-Ce |url=http://www.profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |trans-title=Phonetic-Phonological Aspects of the Speech of Ceará: What Has Appeared in Experimental Surveys of the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil – ALiB-Ce |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172230/https://profala.ufc.br/trabalho6.pdf |language=pt |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Seung Hwa |date=2006 |title=Sobre as vogais pré-tônicas no Português Brasileiro |trans-title=About pre-tonic vowels in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXV |pages=166–175 |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052324/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2006/sistema06/shl.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aragão |first=Maria do Socorro Silva de |date=2009 |title=Os estudos fonético-fonológicos nos estados da Paraíba e do Ceará |trans-title=Phonetic-phonological studies in the states of Paraíba and Ceará |url=http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Revista da ABRALIN |language=pt |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=163–184 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052325/http://www.abralin.org/site/data/uploads/revistas/2009-vol-8-n-1/mariasocorro.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nascimento |first1=Katiene |last2=Guimarães |first2=Daniela |last3=Barboza |first3=Clerton |last4=Silva |first4=Thaïs Cristófaro |display-authors=3 |year=2012 |title=Revisitando a palatalização no português brasileiro |trans-title=Revisiting palatalization in Brazilian Portuguese |url=http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |journal=Revista de Estudos da Linguagem |language=pt |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=59–89 |doi=10.17851/2237-2083.20.2.59-89 |access-date=18 April 2013 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203130207/http://www.periodicos.letras.ufmg.br/index.php/relin/article/view/2744/2699 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> # ''Baiano''&nbsp;– Found in [[Bahia]] and border regions with [[Goiás]] and [[Tocantins]]. Similar to ''nordestino'', it has a very characteristic [[Stress timing|syllable-timed rhythm]] and the greatest tendency to pronounce unstressed vowels as open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}} and {{IPAblink|ɔ}}. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som90.html ''Fluminense'']&nbsp;– A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states of [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]] and neighboring eastern regions of [[Minas Gerais]]. ''Fluminense'' formed in these previously ''caipira''-speaking areas due to the gradual influence of European migrants, causing many people to distance their speech from their original dialect and incorporate new terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|title=Learn about Portuguese language|newspaper=Sibila – Revista de Poesia e Crítica Literária |date=25 April 2009|publisher=Sibila|access-date=27 November 2012|archive-date=22 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082929/http://sibila.com.br/english/learn-about-portuguese-language-2/2721|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Fluminense'' is sometimes referred to as ''carioca'', however ''carioca'' is a more specific term referring to the accent of the [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]] area by speakers with a ''fluminense'' dialect. # ''[[Gaúcho dialect|Gaúcho]]''&nbsp;– in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], similar to ''sulista''. There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants of diverse origins who have settled in colonies throughout the state, and to the proximity to [[Hispanosphere|Spanish-speaking nations]]. The word ''gaúcho'' itself is a Spanish [[loanword]] into Portuguese, of obscure [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous Amerindian]] origins. # ''[[Mineiro]]''&nbsp;– [[Minas Gerais]] (but not prevalent in the [[Triângulo Mineiro]]). As with the ''fluminense'' area, its associated region was formerly a sparsely populated land where ''caipira'' was spoken, but [[Minas Gerais#History|the discovery of gold and gems made it the most prosperous Brazilian region]], attracting Portuguese colonists, commoners from other parts of Brazil, and their African slaves. The south-southwestern, [[Zona da Mata (Minas Gerais)|southeastern]], and northern areas of the state each have fairly distinctive speech, actually approximating to ''caipira'', ''fluminense'' (popularly and often pejoratively called ''carioca do brejo'', "marsh carioca"), and ''baiano'' respectively. [[Belo Horizonte]] and the area surrounding it have a distinctive accent. # [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som91.html ''Nordestino'']<ref name="ReferenceB">Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his experience with ''nordestino'' and ''nortista'' accents.</ref>&nbsp;– more marked in the [[Sertão]] (7), where, in the 19th and 20th centuries and especially in the area including and surrounding the ''sertão'' (the dry land after [[Agreste]]) of Pernambuco and southern Ceará, it could sound less comprehensible to speakers of other Portuguese dialects than Galician or [[Rioplatense Spanish]], and nowadays less distinctive from other variants in the metropolitan cities [[Zona da Mata|along the coasts]]. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northern [[Maranhão]] and southern of [[Piauí]], and other that goes from [[Ceará]] to [[Alagoas]]. # ''Nortista'' or ''[[amazofonia]]''&nbsp;– Most of [[Amazon Basin]] states, i.e. [[North Region, Brazil|Northern Brazil]]. Before the 20th century, most people from the ''nordestino'' area fleeing the droughts and their associated poverty settled here, so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the cities of [[Belém]] and [[Manaus]] has a more European flavor in phonology, prosody and grammar. # ''[[Paulistano dialect|Paulistano]]''&nbsp;– Variants spoken around [[Greater São Paulo]] in its maximum definition and more easterly areas of São Paulo state, as well as perhaps "educated speech" from anywhere in [[São Paulo (state)|the state of São Paulo]] (where it coexists with ''caipira''). ''Caipira'' is the hinterland sociolect of much of the [[Centro-Sul|Central-Southern half]] of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historically [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|low prestige]] in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in São Paulo itself. [[Sociolinguistics]], or what by times is described as "[[linguistic discrimination|linguistic prejudice]]", often correlated with [[Class discrimination|classism]],<ref>{{cite web |title=O MEC, o "português errado" e a linguistica... |url=http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |date=2011-05-17 |website=Imprenca.com |language=pt |trans-title=MEC, "wrong Portuguese" and linguistics… |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419090139/http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=23 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cartilha do MEC ensina erro de Português |url=http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |date=18 May 2011 |website=Saindo da Matrix |language=pt |trans-title=MEC primer teaches Portuguese error |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=12 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612030228/http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |title=Livro do MEC ensina o português errado ou apenas valoriza as formas linguísticas? |work=Jornal de Beltrão |language=pt |date=26 May 2011 |access-date=23 July 2012 |archive-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111080402/http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/noticia/63414/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of [[Adoniran Barbosa#Musical production|Adoniran Barbosa]]. Also, the "Paulistano" accent was heavily influenced by the presence of immigrants in the city of São Paulo, especially the Italians. # ''Sertanejo''&nbsp;– [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-Western states]], and also much of [[Tocantins]] and [[Rondônia]]. It is closer to ''mineiro'', ''caipira'', ''nordestino'' or ''nortista'' depending on the location. # ''Sulista''&nbsp;– The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and southern regions of São Paulo state, encompassing most of [[South Region, Brazil|southern Brazil]]. The city of [[Curitiba]] does have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative majority of speakers around and in [[Florianópolis]] also speak this variant (many speak ''florianopolitano'' or ''manezinho da ilha'' instead, related to the European Portuguese dialects spoken in [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]]). Speech of northern Paraná is closer to that of inland São Paulo. # ''[[Florianopolitan dialect|Florianopolitano]]''&nbsp;– Variants heavily influenced by European Portuguese spoken in [[Florianópolis]] city (due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its [[Autonomous regions of Portugal|insular regions]]) and much of its metropolitan area, [[Grande Florianópolis]], said to be a continuum between those whose speech most resemble ''sulista'' dialects and those whose speech most resemble ''fluminense'' and European ones, called ''manezinho da ilha''. # ''[[Carioca]]''&nbsp;– Not a dialect, but [[sociolect]]s of the ''fluminense'' variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]]. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|Portuguese royal family fled]] in the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and the ''carioca'' sociolect, and the educated speech (in Portuguese ''norma culta'', which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with marked recent Portuguese influences, the nearest ones among the country's dialects along ''florianopolitano''), so that not all people native to the state of Rio de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but most ''carioca'' speakers will use the standard variant not influenced by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending on context (emphasis or formality, for example). # ''Brasiliense''&nbsp;– used in [[Brasília]] and its metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sotaque branco |url=http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |publisher=Meia Maratona Internacional CAIXA de Brasília |language=pt |trans-title=White accent |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517200320/http://www.meiamaratonadebrasilia.com.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73&Itemid=71 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> It is not considered a dialect, but more of a regional variant&nbsp;– often deemed to be closer to ''fluminense'' than the dialect commonly spoken in most of Goiás, ''sertanejo''. # ''Arco do desflorestamento'' or ''[[:pt:Dialeto da serra amazônica|serra amazônica]]''&nbsp;– Known in its region as the "accent of the migrants", it has similarities with ''caipira'', ''sertanejo'' and often ''sulista'' that make it differing from ''amazofonia'' (in the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it is placed along ''nordestino'', ''baiano'', ''mineiro'' and ''fluminense''). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land offer in recently [[Deforestation|deforested]] areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=O Que É? Amazônia |url=http://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2,9399/ |date=1 September 2009 |website=Amarnatureza.org.br |publisher=Associação de Defesa do Meio Ambiente Araucária (AMAR) |language=pt |trans-title=What is? Amazon |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222084453/https://amarnatureza.org.br/site/amazonia-2%2C9399/ |archive-date=22 December 2012 |access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> # ''Recifense''&nbsp;– used in [[Recife]] and its metropolitan area. # ''Amazônico Ocidental'' — used in the extreme [[Amazônia Legal|Western Amazon]] region, namely: Southwestern [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]], including the region of [[Boca do Acre]] and throughout the State of [[Acre (state)|Acre]], which share important historical-cultural aspects, such as, once belonging to [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]], the First [[Amazon rubber cycle]] and [[Time in Brazil|Acre Time Zone]], sociologically, is considered a homogenous region. Differing from the traditional Northern dialect, in which the phonetic realization of the "s" always has the sound of ''ch'', in the Brazilian Western Amazon region, there will only be the sound of ''ch'' whose words the "s" are in the middle of the word, as examples; ''costa'', ''festa'' or ''destino'', as well as the one observed in [[North coast Portuguese|dialect of the north coast]]. Within the [[:pt:Interior do Brasil|Brazilian countryside]], it is one of the few areas where the phonetic realization of "r" resembles those observed in the Carioca dialect (open), other examples where this phenomenon is observed: Brasília dialect and [[Mineiro|Belo Horizonte dialect]].<ref>[https://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/8/8136/tde-07052002-130429/publico/tese04b. pdf] – Seringueiros da Amazônia, University of São Paulo (USP), Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences, Department of Geography</ref> {{lang|pt|Você}}, a pronoun meaning "you", is used for educated, formal, and colloquial respectful speech in most Portuguese-speaking regions. In a few Brazilian states such as [[Rio Grande do Sul]], Pará, among others, {{lang|pt|você}} is virtually absent from the spoken language. Riograndense and European Portuguese normally distinguishes formal from informal speech by verbal conjugation. Informal speech employs {{lang|pt|tu}} followed by second person verbs, formal language retains the formal {{lang|pt|você}}, followed by the third person conjugation. Conjugation of verbs in {{lang|pt|tu}} has three different forms in Brazil (verb "to see": {{lang|pt|tu viste?}}, in the traditional second person; {{lang|pt|tu viu?}}, in the third person; and {{lang|pt|tu visse?}}, in the innovative second person), the conjugation used in the Brazilian states of Pará, Santa Catarina and Maranhão being generally traditional second person, the kind that is used in other Portuguese-speaking countries and learned in Brazilian schools. The predominance of Southeastern-based media products has established {{lang|pt|você}} as the pronoun of choice for the second person singular in both writing and multimedia communications. However, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, the country's main cultural center, the usage of {{lang|pt|tu}} has been expanding ever since the end of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |title=A Constituição de Corpora Orais Para a Análise das Formas de Tratamento |last=Viviane Maia dos Santos |publisher=Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL Palhoça, SC, out. 2010 Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034721/http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/09/artigos/Viviane%20dos%20Santos.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> being most frequent among youngsters, and a number of studies have also shown an increase in its use in a number of other Brazilian dialects.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |title='Por onde tá "o tu"?' no português falado no Maranhão |last=Béliche Alves |first=Cibelle Corrêa |journal=Signum: Estudos da Linguagem |volume=15 |number=1 |pages=13–31 |year=2012 |doi=10.5433/2237-4876.2012v15n1p13 |access-date=10 August 2017 |doi-access=free |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630172240/http://www.uel.br/revistas/uel/index.php/signum/article/view/11776/11181 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loregian-Penkal |first=Loremi |date=2005 |title=Alternância tu/você em Santa Catarina: uma abordagem variacionista |url=http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |journal=Estudos Lingüísticos |language=pt |volume=XXXIV |pages=362–367 |access-date=10 August 2017 |via=Tu/você alternation in Santa Catarina: a variationist approach |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052320/http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/edicoesanteriores/4publica-estudos-2005/4publica-estudos-2005-pdfs/alternancia-tu-voce-411.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> === Other countries and dependencies === * {{flag|Angola}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html ''Angolano''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806102044/http://www.cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som85.html |date=6 August 2020 }} ([[Angolan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Cape Verde}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som87.html ''Cabo-verdiano''] ([[Cape Verdean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|India}}&nbsp;– ''Damaense'' (Damanese Portuguese) and ''Goês'' ([[Goan Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som88.html ''Guineense''] ([[Guinean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Macau}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som92.html ''Macaense''] ([[Macanese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Mozambique}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som89.html ''Moçambicano''] ([[Mozambican Portuguese]]) * {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som83.html ''Santomense''] ([[São Tomean Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Timor-Leste}}&nbsp;– [[File:Loudspeaker.svg|11px]] [http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/geografia/som84.html ''Timorense''] ([[East Timorese Portuguese]]) * {{flag|Uruguay}}&nbsp;– [[Riverense Portuñol language|''Dialetos Portugueses do Uruguai (DPU)'']] Differences between dialects are mostly of [[Accent (dialect)|accent]] and [[vocabulary]], but between the Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there can also be some grammatical differences. The [[Portuguese creole|Portuguese-based creoles]] spoken in various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages. === Characterization and peculiarities === Portuguese, like [[Catalan language|Catalan]], preserves the stressed vowels of [[Vulgar Latin]] which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard. ''[[wikt:pedra|pedra]]''; Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|pierre}}'', Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|piedra}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|pietra}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|piatră}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|petra}}'' ("stone"); or Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|fogo}}'', Cat. ''{{Wikt-lang|ca|foc}}'', Sard. ''{{Wikt-lang|sc|fogu}}''; Sp. ''{{Wikt-lang|es|fuego}}'', It. ''{{Wikt-lang|it|fuoco}}'', Fr. ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|feu}}'', Ro. ''{{Wikt-lang|ro|foc}}'', from Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|focus}}'' ("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of [[:wiktionary:intervocalic|intervocalic]] ''l'' and ''n'', sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of an [[epenthesis|epenthetic vowel]] between them: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|salire}}'' ("to exit"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|tenere}}'' ("to have"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|catena}}'' ("jail"), Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|sair}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|ter}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cadeia}}''. When the [[elision|elided]] consonant was ''n'', it often [[nasalization|nasalized]] the preceding vowel: cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|manum}}'' ("hand"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ranam}}'' ("frog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|bonum}}'' ("good"), Old Portuguese ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rãa}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bõo}}'' (Portuguese: ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|mão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|rã}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|bom}}''). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings ''-anem'', ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-anum}}'' and ''{{Wikt-lang|la|-onem}}'' became ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|-ão}}'' in most cases, cf. Lat. ''{{Wikt-lang|la|canis}}'' ("dog"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|germanus}}'' ("brother"), ''{{Wikt-lang|la|ratio}}'' ("reason") with Modern Port. ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|cão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|irmão}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|razão}}'', and their plurals ''-anes'', ''-anos'', ''-ones'' normally became ''-ães'', ''-ãos'', ''-ões'', cf. ''cães'', ''irmãos'', ''razões''. This also occurs in the minority Swiss [[Romansh language|Romansh]] language in many equivalent words such as ''maun'' ("hand"), ''bun'' ("good"), or ''chaun'' ("dog").<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|title=Apprendre la langue romanche et le vocabulaire, dictionnaire Rumantsch|website=romansh.romanche.free.fr|access-date=10 May 2023|archive-date=10 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510203459/http://romansh.romanche.free.fr/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Portuguese language is the only [[Romance language]] that preserves the clitic case [[mesoclisis]]: cf. {{lang|pt|dar-te-ei}} (I'll give thee), {{lang|pt|amar-te-ei}} (I'll love you), {{lang|pt|contactá-los-ei}} (I'll contact them). Like [[Galician language|Galician]], it also retains the Latin synthetic [[pluperfect]] tense: {{lang|pt|eu estivera}} (I had been), {{lang|pt|eu vivera}} (I had lived), {{lang|pt|vós vivêreis}} (you had lived).<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GILmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |chapter=On the Italian, Latin, and Portuguese Temporal Systems |title=Tense and Aspect: From Semantics to Morphosyntax |isbn=978-0-19-509193-9|last1=Giorgi|first1=Alessandra|last2=Pianesi|first2=Fabio|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> [[Romanian language|Romanian]] also has this tense, but uses the -s- form. == Sample text == Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Portuguese:<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Portuguese (Portugal) |website=Unicode |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109134209/https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_por_PT.html |url-status=live }}</ref> :{{lang|pt|Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.}} Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|publisher=United Nations|access-date=9 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}</ref> :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.'' Phonetic transcription ([[Brazilian Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoduz us ˈseɾiz uˈmɐnuz ˈnasẽȷ̃ ˈlivɾiz i‿iˈgwajz ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒigniˈdad͡ʒi‿i‿ẽȷ̃ d͡ʒiˈɾejtus {{!}} doˈtaduz d͡ʒi ʁaˈzɐ̃w i d͡ʒi kõsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} devẽȷ̃ aˈʒiʁ ũs ˈpaɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ẽȷ̃‿sˈpiɾitu d͡ʒi fɾateʁniˈdad͡ʒi ‖] Phonetic transcription ([[European Portuguese]]): :[ˈtoðuz uʃ ˈseɾɨz uˈmɐnuʒ ˈnaʃsɐ̃j ˈɫivɾɨz i‿iˈɣwajz ɐ̃j diɣniˈðaðɨ‿i‿ɐ̃j diˈɾɐjtuʃ {{!}} duˈtaðuʒ dɨ ʁɐˈzɐ̃w i dɨ kõʃsiˈẽsjɐ {{!}} ˈdevɐ̃j ɐˈʒiɾ ũʃ ˈpɐɾɐ kõ‿uz ˈotɾuz ɐ̃j‿ʃˈpiɾɨtu dɨ fɾɐtɨɾniˈðaðɨ ‖] == See also == {{Portal|Portugal|Language}} * [[Portuguese literature]] * [[Portuguese Africans]] * [[Angolan literature]] * [[Brazilian literature]] * [[Gallaecian language]] *[[Indo-Portuguese]] * [[Reintegrationism|Galician Reintegrationism]] * [[International Portuguese Language Institute]] * [[List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language]] * [[List of international organizations which have Portuguese as an official language]] * [[List of Portuguese-language poets]] * [[Lusitanian language]] * [[Mozambican Portuguese]] * [[Portuguese language in Asia]] * [[Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990]] * [[Portuguese poetry]] ==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{Cite journal |last1=de Albuquerque |first1=Iana Ciara Santos |last2=Coelho |first2=Jéssica Fernanda Ramos |last3=Antunes |first3=João Pedro Lobo |last4=do Nascimento |first4=Cínthia Diniz |last5=de Lima |first5=Darlla Layse Torres |last6=Costa Rodolfo |first6=da Silva |last7=da Silva |first7=Neyvan Renato Rodrigues |title=Construção de um dicionário virtual para incremento do aprendizado de Biologia no ensino propedêutico |journal=Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação |volume=23 |issue=03 |date=29 December 2015 |issn=1414-5685 |doi=10.5753/rbie.2015.23.03.131 |page=131 |url=http://www.br-ie.org/pub/index.php/rbie/article/view/3304 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Azevedo |first=Milton M. |title=Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005-01-13 |isbn=978-0-521-80515-5 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511755057 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511755057/type/book |access-date=2026-05-13 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Barbosa |first1=Plínio A. |last2=Albano |first2=Eleonora C. |year=2004 |title=Brazilian Portuguese |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/brazilian-portuguese/8EE69D52AE2D06C1EDA2841EA2E14FEC |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1017/S0025100304001756 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Renato |last2=Gonçalves |first2=Rodrigo Tadeu |title=História concisa da língua portuguesa |trans-title=Concise history of the Portuguese language |publisher=Editora Vozes |date=2014 |isbn=978-85-326-4648-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Bechara |first=Evanildo |title=Moderna gramática portuguesa |publisher=Nova Fronteira |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro, RJ |date=26 December 2024 |isbn=978-65-5640-430-1 |author-link=Evanildo Bechara |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Bessa |first1=Waldemberg Araújo |last2=Feitosa |first2=Luziane de Sousa |last3=da Cunha |first3=Silvia Helena Muniz |last4=Brito |first4=Deyse Gabriely Machado |last5=Barroso |first5=Erika Vanessa Melo |last6=Reis |first6=Ynnara Soares |last7=Silva |first7=Jardinara Santos |last8=Sousa |first8=Everlly Karollynne da Costa |last9=Nascimento |first9=Vitor Ferreira |last10=Moreira |first10=Milena Lima |last11=Pereira e Silva |first11=Rita de Cassia da Costa |last12=Moura |first12=Sabrina Campos |title=Trovadorismo português: a ressignificação dos elementos da poética trovadoresca na música popular contemporânea |url=https://periodicos.newsciencepubl.com/arace/article/view/11477 |journal=ARACÊ |publisher=Seven Events |volume=7 |issue=12 |date=29 December 2025 |issn=2358-2472 |doi=10.56238/arev7n12-323 }} * {{Cite book |last=Bisol |first=Leda |year=2005 |title=Introdução a estudos de fonologia do português brasileiro |location=Porto Alegre – Rio Grande do Sul |publisher=EDIPUCRS |language=pt-br |isbn=978-85-7430-529-5 |author-link=Leda Bisol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105113/https://books.google.com/books?id=TFzWAq-S7I0C&pg=PA215#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Bottaro |first=Silvia Etel Gutiérrez |title=El portugués uruguayo y las marcas de la oralidad en la poesía del escritor uruguayo Agustín R. Bisio |date=2014 |url=http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |journal=Abehache |volume=4 |issue=6 |trans-title=Uruguayan Portuguese and oral marks in the poetry of Uruguayan writer Agustín R. Bisio |language=es |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812061109/http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2019 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Boxer |first=Charles Ralph |authorlink=C. R. 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|publication-place=New York |date=2000 |isbn=978-1-4668-8854-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Júnior |first=Benjamin Abdala |title=Literaturas de língua portuguesa |publisher=Arte & Ciência |publication-place=São Paulo |date=2007 |isbn=978-85-7473-336-4 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Kabatek |first=Johannes |last2=Wall |first2=Albert |title=Manual of Brazilian Portuguese Linguistics |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |date=10 October 2022 |isbn=978-3-11-040595-8 |doi=10.1515/9783110405958 |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110405958/html |pages=1–639 |access-date=28 April 2026 }} ** {{harvc|last=Lobo |first=Tânia |chapter=2: The social history of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=53–84 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Noll |first=Volker |chapter=4: Historical phonetics and phonology |pages=113–132 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Lipski |first=John M. |chapter=11: Brazilian Portuguese: contemporary language contacts |pages=309–336 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=da Hora |first=Dermeval |last2=Battisti |first2=Elisa |chapter=12: Sound-related aspects of Brazilian Portuguese |pages=337–368 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} ** {{harvc|last=Fiorin |first=José Luiz |chapter=19: Linguistic policy and the orthographic agreement |pages=553–578 |year=2022 |in=Kabatek |in2=Wall}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Lima |first1=Alexander da Silva |last2=Ribeiro |first2=Andryelle Brito da Silva |last3=Souza |first3=Karla Andrea Azevedo de |last4=Reis |first4=Valéria Assunção |last5=Santana |first5=Isis Terezinha Santos de |last6=Amorim |first6=Jhonata Jankowitsch |last7=Alves |first7=Marcos Túlio Elias |last8=Costa |first8=Robson Antônio Tavares |last9=Pinheiro |first9=Weider Silva |title=Texto de Fernão de Oliveira de 1536 e sua contribuição na formação da língua portuguesa |journal=Cognitionis Scientific Journal |publisher=Brazilian Journals |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=21 March 2025 |issn=2595-8801 |doi=10.38087/2595.8801.600 |page=e600 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=José Barbosa |title=Signo e significação no primeiro livro impresso em língua portuguesa |journal=Revista de Letras |publisher=[[University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro]] |volume=2 |number=3 |date=December 2007 |url=https://revistadeletras.utad.pt/index.php/revistadeletras/issue/view/36 |language=pt-pt |access-date=9 May 2026 }} * {{Cite book |last=Machungo |first=Inês |title=Pesquisa e ensino em línguas moçambicanas: um tributo a Bento Sitoe |chapter=Empréstimos lexicais no Português de Moçambique |date=2022 |publisher=Gala-Gala edições |isbn=978-989-53245-9-0 |language=pt-MZ |pages=100–113 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Mateus |first1=Maria Helena |last2=d'Andrade |first2=Ernesto |year=2000 |title=The Phonology of Portuguese |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1 |isbn=978-0-19-823581-1 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105242/https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr9OFylajYC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{Cite thesis |last=Martins |first=Ana Maria |title=O Primeiro Século do Português Escrito |date=2007 |access-date=April 27, 2026 |publisher=[[University of Lisbon]] |url=https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |language=pt-pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223124127/https://www.clul.ulisboa.pt/files/ana_maria_martins/MartinsPrimeiroSeculo.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2024 |pages=161–184 }} * {{Cite book |last=Neto |first=Serafim da Silva |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Presença |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro |date=1986 |isbn=978-85-252-0008-2 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite journal |last=Petter |first=Margarida Maria Taddoni |title=Línguas africanas no Brasil |journal=África |issue=27-28 |date=2007-12-09 |issn=2526-303X |doi=10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i27-28p63-89 |pages=63–89 |url=https://www.revistas.usp.br/africa/article/view/96063 |access-date=2026-05-12 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last=Ponso |first=Letícia Cao |title=O contato entre o português e as línguas bantu em Moçambique: a alternância de atitudes sobre o estatuto social das línguas em jovens universitários |journal=Cadernos de Letras da UFF |volume=26 |issue=53 |date=2017-01-15 |issn=2447-4207 |doi=10.22409/cadletrasuff.2016n53a302 |url=https://periodicos.uff.br/cadernosdeletras/article/view/43646 |access-date=2026-05-21 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Queiroz |first=Horácio dos Santos |title=As Letras E O Seu Ensino: Anais Da Ix Semana De Letras |section=As funções gramatical e expressiva da entonação |publisher=Ala |date=12 September 2008 |isbn=978-85-89269-28-5 |language=pt-BR |pages=304–307 }} * {{Cite thesis |last=Rodrigues |first=Marisandra Costa |date=2012 |title=Encontros Vocálicos Finais em Português: Descrição e Análise Otimalista |publisher=Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro |url=http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/doutorado/GomesMCR.pdf |access-date=25 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052326/http://www.letras.ufrj.br/posverna/doutorado/GomesMCR.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite journal |last=de Sousa |first=Cleusa Teixeira |title=A relevância da escrita e a oficialização do uso da língua portuguesa na documentação régia de Portugal no tempo de D. Dinis (1279-1325) |journal=Acta Scientiarum. Education |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Maringá |volume=44 |date=3 March 2022 |issn=2178-5201 |doi=10.4025/actascieduc.v44i1.54713 |doi-access=free |hdl=10316/100586 |hdl-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Teyssier |first=Paul |title=História da língua portuguesa |publisher=Livraria Sa Da Costa |publication-place=Lisboa |date=2001 |isbn=978-972-562-129-5 |language=pt-BR }} * {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Earl W. |title=A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |location=Nashville, TN |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8265-1197-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC |access-date=8 January 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427105116/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Gm8yS1ZKJ5gC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }} * {{Cite journal |last=Timbane |first=Alexandre António |title=A criatividade lexical da língua portuguesa: uma análise com brasileirismos e moçambicanismos |journal=Caligrama: Revista de Estudos Românicos |volume=18 |issue=2 |date=8 November 2012 |issn=2238-3824 |doi=10.17851/2238-3824.18.2.7-30 |pages=7–30 |url=https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/caligrama/article/view/30064 |access-date=28 April 2026 |doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Venâncio |first=Fernando |title=Assim nasceu uma língua |publisher=Tinta-da-China Brasil |publication-place=São Paulo, SP |date=2024-04-15 |isbn=978-65-84835-22-1 |language=pt-BR }} {{refend}} == External links == * [http://crandall.altervista.org/p/phonetic-portuguese-portugues-fonetico.html ''Automatic Transcription of Phonemic and Phonetic Portuguese''] {{Sister bar|auto=1|d=Q5146|wikt=Category:Portuguese language|b=Portuguese|commons=Category:Portuguese language|voy=Portuguese phrasebook|v=Category:Portuguese|iw=pt}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Languages of Portugal}} {{Languages of Brazil}} {{Languages of Africa}} {{Languages of Macau}} {{Languages of East Timor}} {{Romance languages}} {{Languages of Europe}} {{South America topic|Languages of}} {{Portuguese dialects}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Portuguese language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested since the 9th century]] [[Category:Fusional languages]] [[Category:Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Galician-Portuguese]] [[Category:Languages of Angola]] [[Category:Languages of Brazil]] [[Category:Languages of Cape Verde]] [[Category:Languages of Timor-Leste]] [[Category:Languages of Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Languages of Macau]] [[Category:Languages of Mozambique]] [[Category:Languages of Portugal]] [[Category:Languages of São Tomé and Príncipe]] [[Category:Languages of India]] [[Category:Languages of Paraguay]] [[Category:Languages of Uruguay]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] dwk9yktnxdygw1jb6ovb2011mqpidkw Module:Standard Chinese 828 77899 687841 2026-06-21T18:14:35Z Aleain 56780 not native, introduced 687841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Standard form of Mandarin Chinese}} {{Redirect|Huayu||Huayu (disambiguation)|and|Standard Chinese (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Standard Chinese | altname = Standard Mandarin | nativename = {{lang|zh|現代標準漢語}}; {{lang|zh|现代标准汉语}} | states = [[China]] | speakers_label = Speakers | ref = <ref name="over80percent"/>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=251}}{{sfnp|Liang|2014|p=45}} | speakers = [[First language|L1]] and [[Second language|L2]]: 80% of China | familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]] | fam3 = [[Chinese language|Chinese]] | fam4 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] | fam5 = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]] | fam6 = [[Beijing dialect|Beijingese]] | ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]] | ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]] | ancestor3 = [[Eastern Han Chinese]] | ancestor4 = [[Middle Chinese]] | ancestor5 = [[Old Mandarin]] | ancestor6 = [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Middle Mandarin]] | ancestor7 = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]] | script = {{ubl|[[Chinese characters]]|[[Mainland Chinese Braille]]|[[Taiwanese Braille]]|[[Two-cell Chinese Braille]]}} | nation = *China (''de facto'', as ''Putonghua'')<ref name="Adamson & Feng">{{Citation |last1=Adamson |first1=Bob |title=Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages |date=27 December 2021 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-48702-2 |last2=Feng |first2=Anwei |quotation=Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, ''Putonghua'' enjoys ''de facto'' status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese. |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> *Taiwan (''de facto'', as [[Taiwanese Mandarin]]<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言整體發展方案—推廣多元國家語言文化傳承及發展|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/Page/5A8A0CB5B41DA11E/b6cf529e-a421-4f8d-9541-b7b0ef63f9cb |website=www.ey.gov.tw |access-date=7 July 2025 |language=zh-tw }}</ref>){{efn|Taiwan does not have any legally designated official language. Mandarin is the primary language used in business and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Not designated but meets the legal definition, that is "{{lang|zh|本法所稱國家語言，指臺灣各固有族群使用之自然語言及臺灣手語。}}"<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言發展法 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |language=zh |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111221059/https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |url-status=live }}</ref> ("a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language")}} *Singapore (as [[Singaporean Mandarin|Mandarin]]) *United Nations (as Chinese) *[[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] | minority = | agency = {{ubl|{{Indented plainlist| *[[China]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Education]]{{efn|{{ill|National Commission on Language and Script Work|zh|国家语言文字工作委员会}}}} *[[Taiwan]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]] *[[Malaysia]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Malaysia)|Ministry of Education]] and [[Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia|Chinese Language Standardisation Council]] *[[Singapore]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Singapore)|Ministry of Education]]<br>[[Promote Mandarin Council]]}} *[[Philippines]]:<br>[[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]]<br>[[w:zh:菲律宾华教中心|Philippine Chinese Education Research Center]]}} | isoexception = dialect<!--Putonghua has not been assigned an ISO code--> | iso6 = {{Ubl|goyu (Guoyu)|huyu (Huayu)|cosc (Putonghua)}} | notice = IPA | sign = Signed Chinese<ref>{{Citation |last1=Tai |first1=James |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |date=2015 |page=772 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772 |access-date=26 February 2020 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |last2=Tsay |first2=Jane |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | glotto = none | map = Mandarin sphere.svg | mapcaption = Global distribution of Standard Mandarin speakers {{legend|#0E0069|Majority native language}} {{legend|#439DD4|Statutory or de facto national working language}} {{legend|#9FCEFF|More than 1,000,000 L1 and L2 speakers}} {{legend|#D5E8FF|More than 500,000 speakers}} {{legend|#F7D5FF|More than 100,000 speakers}} | mapscale = 1.2 | module = {{Infobox Chinese | child = yes | headercolor = {{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}} | title = ''Putonghua'' | showflag = stp | s = {{linktext|普通话}} | t = {{linktext|普通話}} | p = Pǔtōnghuà | j = Pou2 tung1 waa2 | y = Póutūngwá | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|p|u|3|.|t|ong|1|.|h|ua|4}} | myr = Pǔtūnghwà | w = {{tonesup|P'u3-t'ung1-hua4}} | l = Common speech | altname = ''Guoyu'' | s2 = {{linktext|国语}} | t2 = {{linktext|國語}} | p2 = Guóyǔ | mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|g|uo|2|.|yu|3}} | w2 = {{tonesup|Kuo2-yü3}} | myr2 = Gwóyǔ | l2 = [[National language]] | altname3 = ''Huayu'' | s3 = {{linktext|华语}} | t3 = {{linktext|華語}} | p3 = Huáyǔ | mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|h|ua|2|.|yu|3}} | w3 = {{tonesup|Hua2-yü3}} | myr3 = Hwáyǔ | l3 = Chinese language | bpmf = ㄆㄨˇ ㄊㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˋ | tp = Pǔ-tong-huà | tp2 = Guó-yǔ | bpmf2 = ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄩˇ | bpmf3 = ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ | tp3 = Huá-yǔ }} }} '''Standard Chinese''' ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准汉语|t=現代標準漢語|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ}}), often colloquially called '''Mandarin Chinese''',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633">{{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=611–633 |year=2018 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |quote=in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word |doi-access=free}}</ref> is the modern [[Standard language|standardized]] form of [[Mandarin Chinese]], largely based on the [[Beijing dialect]]. It is the [[official language|official]] ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[People's Republic of China]], one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]], one of the [[national languages]] [[languages of Taiwan|of Taiwan]], and one of the four [[languages of Singapore|official languages of Singapore]]. It is a [[pluricentric language]] with local variations in [[Mainland China]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Singapore]], which mainly differ in [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] and [[lexicon]].{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|p=307}} In Mainland China, Standard Chinese is most commonly called ''Putonghua'', while in Taiwan it is most commonly called ''Guoyu''.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} Like other [[Sinitic languages]], Standard Chinese is an [[analytic language]] with mostly [[compound word]]s, and has five [[tone (linguistics)|phonemic tones]] (four classic tones and a [[Standard Chinese phonology#Neutral tone|neutral tone]]) with [[topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]] organization and [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO) word order. Compared with other [[varieties of Chinese]], Standard Chinese has fewer tones, [[vowel]]s and final [[consonant]]s, but more initial consonants. {{Toclimit|3}} == Naming == ===In English=== Among linguists, Standard Chinese has been referred to as '''Standard Northern Mandarin'''<ref name="John Rohsenow 2004">{{Citation |last=Rohsenow |first=John S. |title=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China |date=2004 |pages=22, 24 |editor-last=Zhou |editor-first=Minglang |chapter=Fifty Years of Script and Written Language Reform in the P.R.C. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XDdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8039-5 |quote=accurately represent and express the sounds of standard Northern Mandarin (Putonghua) [...]. Central to the [[promotion of Putonghua|promotion of ''Putonghua'']] as a national language with a standard pronunciation as well as to assisting literacy in the non-[[Phonemic orthography|phonetic writing system]] of Chinese characters was the development of a [[pinyin|system of phonetic symbols]] with which to convey the pronunciation of spoken words and written characters in '''standard northern Mandarin'''.}}</ref><ref name="Yunyun Ran 2016">{{Citation |last1=Ran |first1=Yunyun |title=Proceedings of the second workshop "Chinese Accents and Accented Chinese" (2nd CAAC) 2016, at the Nordic Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 26-27 October 2015 |date=2016 |page=4 |editor-last=Sloos |editor-first=Marjoleine |editor-last2=Weijer |editor-first2=Jeroen van de |url=http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211200335/http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-11 |chapter=On L2 English Intonation Patterns by Mandarin and Shanghainese Speakers: A Pilot Study |quote=We recorded a number of English sentences spoken by speakers with Mandarin Chinese (standard northern Mandarin) as their first language and by Chinese speakers with [[Shanghainese]] as their first language, [...] |last2=Weijer |first2=Jeroen van de}}</ref><ref name="David Bradley 2008">{{Citation |last=Bradley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |date=2008 |page=500 (e-book) |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Christopher |chapter=Chapter 5: East and Southeast Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79640-2 |quote=As a result of the spread of standard northern Mandarin and major regional varieties of provincial capitals since 1950, many of the smaller ''tuyu'' [土語] are disappearing by being absorbed into larger regional ''fangyan'' [方言], which of course may be a sub-variety of Mandarin or something else. |author-link=David Bradley (linguist) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023006/https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> or '''Standard Beijing Mandarin'''.<ref name="Jeff Siegel 2003">{{Citation |last=Siegel |first=Jeff |title=The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition |date=2003 |page=201 |editor-last=Doughty |editor-first=Catherine J. |editor-last2=Long |editor-first2=Michael H. |chapter=Chapter 8: Social Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing, U.K. |isbn=978-1-4051-5188-7 |quote=Escure [Geneviève Escure, 1997] goes on to analyse second dialect texts of '''Putonghua''' ('''standard Beijing Mandarin Chinese''') produced by speakers of other [[varieties of Chinese]], [in] [[Wuhan]] and [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]. |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ying-Chuan Chen2013">{{cite thesis|title=Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity|first=Ying-Chuan|last=Chen|publisher=[[University of Ottawa]]|date=2013|page=300|url=https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219134255/https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-19|quote=[...] a consistent gender pattern found across all the age [[Cohort (statistics)|cohort]]s is that women were more concerned about their teachers' bad Mandarin pronunciation, and implied that it was an inferior form of Mandarin, which signified their aspiration to speak '''standard Beijing Mandarin''', the good version of the language.}}</ref> It is colloquially referred to as simply '''Mandarin''',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633">{{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=611–633 |year=2018 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |quote=in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word |doi-access=free}}</ref> though this term may also refer to the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin dialect group]] as a whole, or the late imperial [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|form used as a lingua franca]].<ref name="Robert M Sanders 1987">{{Citation |last=Sanders |first=Robert M. |title=The Four Languages of "Mandarin" |date=1987 |work=Sino-Platonic Papers |issue=4 |url=https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307022502/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-07}}</ref>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=136}}<ref>{{Citation |title=Mandarin |work=Oxford Dictionary |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703095204/https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-date=3 July 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633" /> "Mandarin" is a translation of ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=官话|t=官話|first=t|l=bureaucrat speech}}),{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} which referred to the late imperial lingua franca.{{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11–12}} The term '''Modern Standard Mandarin''' is used to distinguish it from older forms.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}}{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}} ===In Chinese=== In [[Mainland China]], Standard Chinese is most commonly called ''Putonghua'', while in [[Taiwan]] it is most commonly called ''Guoyu''.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} Among linguists, the language is referred to as Modern Standard Chinese ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准汉语|t=現代標準漢語|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ}}) or Modern Standard Mandarin ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准官话|t=現代標準官話|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn guānhuà}}). For both terms, the word Modern ({{lang-zh|s=现代|t=現代|p=Xiàndài|labels=no}}) is sometimes omitted. ====''Guoyu''==== The word ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|t=國語|s=国语|l=national language}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} was initially used during the late [[Qing dynasty]] to refer to the [[Manchu language]]. The 1655 ''[[Memoir of Qing Dynasty]], Volume: Emperor [[Nurhaci]]'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|清太祖實錄}}) says: "(In 1631) as Manchu ministers do not comprehend the Han language, each ministry shall create a new position to be filled up by [[Han people|Han]] official who can comprehend the national language."<ref>{{Citation |last=张杰 |title=清文化与满族精神 |date=2012 |editor-last=张杰 |url=http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105000708/http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-date=2020-11-05 |chapter=论清代满族语言文字在东北的兴废与影响 |publisher=辽宁民族出版社 |language=zh |quote=[天聪五年, 1631年] 满大臣不解汉语，故每部设启心郎一员，以通晓国语之汉员为之，职正三品，每遇议事，座在其中参预之。}}</ref> However, the sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan in the early 20th century. In 1902, the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] to be the national language.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133–134}} In Taiwan, ''Guoyu'' is the colloquial term for Standard Chinese. In 2017 and 2018, the Taiwanese government introduced two laws explicitly recognizing the indigenous [[Formosan languages]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Council of Indigenous Peoples]] |title=原住民族語言發展法 |date=2017-06-14 |trans-title=Indigenous Languages Development Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Indigenous languages are national languages. To carry out historical justice, promote the preservation and development of indigenous languages, and secure indigenous language usage and heritage, this act is enacted according to... [原住民族語言為國家語言，為實現歷史正義，促進原住民族語言之保存與發展，保障原住民族語言之使用及傳承，依...] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123845/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018">{{Citation |last=Wang |first=Baojian |author-mask=Wang Baojian (王保鍵) |year=2018 |work=Journal of Civil Service |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=89, 92–96 |script-title=zh:客家基本法之制定與發展：兼論 2018 年修法重點 |url=https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105103333/https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-05}}</ref> and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Hakka Affairs Council]] |title=客家基本法 |date=2018-01-31 |trans-title=Hakka Basic Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Hakka language is one of the national languages, equal to the languages of other ethnic groups. The people shall be given guarantee on their right to study in Hakka language and use it in enjoying public services and partaking of the dissemination of resources. [客語為國家語言之一，與各族群語言平等。人民以客語作為學習語言、接近使用公共服務及傳播資源等權利，應予保障。] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213124007/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018" /> as "Languages of the nation" ({{lang|zh-Hant|國家語言}}) alongside Standard Chinese. Since then, there have been efforts to redefine ''Guoyu'' as encompassing all "languages of the nation", rather than exclusively referring to Standard Chinese. ====''Putonghua''==== The term ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|t=普通話|s=普通话|l=common tongue}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} dates back to 1906 in writings by [[Zhu Wenxiong]] to differentiate the standard vernacular Mandarin from [[Literary Chinese]] and other [[varieties of Chinese]]. Use of the term ''Putonghua'' ('common tongue') deliberately avoids calling the dialect a 'national language', in order to mitigate the impression of coercing minority groups to adopt the language of the majority. Such concerns were first raised by the early Communist leader [[Qu Qiubai]] in 1931. His concern echoed within the Communist Party, which adopted the term ''Putonghua'' in 1955.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cao |first=Dehe |author-mask=Cao Dehe (曹德和) |year=2011 |publisher=Tribune of Social Sciences |issue=10 |script-title=zh:恢复"国语名"称的建议为何不被接受_──《国家通用语言文字法》学习中的探讨和思考 |language=zh}}</ref><ref>Yuan, Zhongrui. (2008) "[http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html 国语、普通话、华语] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426051531/http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html |date=26 April 2009 }} (Guoyu, Putonghua, Huayu)". ''China Language'' National Language Committee, People's Republic of China</ref> Since 1949, usage of the word ''Guoyu'' was phased out in the PRC, only surviving in established compound nouns, e.g. '[[Mandopop]]' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ liúxíng yīnyuè|s=国语流行音乐}}), or 'Chinese cinema' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ diànyǐng|s=国语电影}}). Since 2000, the Chinese government has used the term "Countrywide common spoken and written language" ({{zhi|s=国家通用语言文字}}), while also making provisions for the use and protection of [[Chinese ethnic minorities|ethnic minority]] languages.<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识">{{Cite web |title=进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识 |url=http://npc.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1116/c14576-31932918.html |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=人民日报}}</ref> The term is derived from the title of a 2000 law which defines ''Putonghua'' as the "Countrywide Common Spoken and Written Language".<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识" /> ====''Huayu''==== Until the mid-1960s, ''Huayu'' ({{zhi|t=華語|s=华语}}) referred to all the language varieties used among the [[Zhonghua minzu|Chinese nation]].<ref name="Xu2018">{{Citation |last=Xu |first=Weixian |pages=36–41 |year=2018 |author-mask=Xu Weixian (許維賢) |trans-title=Chinese films in Malaysia: local and overseas styles and auteur theory |script-title=zh:華語電影在後馬來西亞：土腔風格、華夷風與作者論 |publisher=Lianjing chuban |language=zh |isbn=978-957-08-5098-7}}</ref> For example, [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Cantonese]], [[Cinema of China|Mandarin]], and [[Hokkien films]] produced in Hong Kong were imported into Malaysia and collectively known as "''Huayu'' cinema" until the mid-1960s.<ref name="Xu2018" /> Gradually, the term has been re-appropriated to refer specifically to Standard Chinese. The term is mostly used in [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kane |first=Daniel |title=The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage |pages=22–23, 93 |year=2006 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5}}</ref> ====''Hanyu'' and ''Zhongwen''==== Among Chinese people, ''Hanyu'' ({{zhi|t=漢語|s=汉语|l=Han language}}) refers to all spoken [[varieties of Chinese]]. ''Zhongwen'' ({{zhi|c=中文|l=Chinese script}}){{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11}} refers to written Chinese. Among foreigners, the term ''Hanyu'' is most commonly used in textbooks and Standard Chinese education, such as in the [[Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi]] (HSK) test. == History == {{Main|History of Standard Chinese}} The [[Chinese language]] has had considerable dialectal variation throughout its history, including [[prestige dialect]]s and [[linguae francae]] used throughout the territory controlled by the dynastic states of China. For example, [[Confucius]] is thought to have used a dialect known as ''[[Yayan (language)|yayan]]'' rather than regional dialects; during the [[Han dynasty]], texts also referred to {{transliteration|zh|tōngyǔ}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|通語}}|l=common language}}). The [[rime book]]s that were written starting in the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Northern and Southern period]] may have reflected standard systems of pronunciation. However, these standard dialects were mostly used by the educated elite, whose pronunciation may still have possessed great variation. For these elites, the Chinese language was unified in [[Literary Chinese]], a form that was primarily written, as opposed to spoken. === Late empire === {{main|Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)}} [[File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png|thumb|right|''Zhongguo Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=中国官话|t=中國官話|first=t}}), or {{lang|la|Medii Regni Communis Loquela}} ('Middle Kingdom's Common Speech'), used on the [[book frontispiece|frontispiece]] of an early Chinese grammar published by [[Étienne Fourmont]] (with [[Arcadio Huang]]) in 1742<ref>{{Citation |last=Fourmont|first=Étienne|title=Linguæ Sinarum Mandarinicæ Hieroglyphicæ Grammatica Duplex|trans-title=Grammar of the Mandarin Chinese Hieroglyphics|language=la|author-link=Étienne Fourmont|year=1742|url=https://archive.org/details/b30448955/page/n7/mode/2up|location=Paris|publisher=Hippolyte-Louis Guérin}}</ref>]] The term ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|t=官話|s=官话|first=t|l=official speech}}) was used during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties to refer to [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|the lingua franca]] spoken within the imperial courts. The term "Mandarin" is borrowed directly from the Portuguese word {{lang|pt|mandarim}}, in turn derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word {{transliteration|sa|[[mantri]]n}} ('minister')—and was initially used to refer to Chinese [[scholar-official]]s. The Portuguese then began referring to ''Guanhua'' as "the language of the mandarins".{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}} {{blockquote|text=The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... [They] also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among ourselves.... Two of our fathers [Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci] have been learning this mandarin language...|author=[[Alessandro Valignano]]|source={{lang|es|Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compañia de Jesus en las Indias Orientales}} (1542–1564)<ref>Translation quoted in {{harvp|Coblin|2000|p=539}}</ref>}} During the 17th century, the state had set up [[orthoepy]] academies ({{zhi|t=正音書院|p=zhèngyīn shūyuàn}}) in an attempt to conform the speech of bureaucrats to the standard. These attempts had little success: as late as the 19th century, the emperor had difficulty understanding some of his ministers in court, who did not always follow a standard pronunciation. Before the 19th century, the lingua franca was based on the [[Nanjing dialect]], but later the [[Beijing dialect]] became increasingly influential, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various dialects in the capital, [[Beijing]].{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=549–550}} By some accounts, as late as 1900 the position of the Nanjing dialect was considered by some to be above that of Beijing; the [[postal romanization]] standards established in 1906 included spellings that reflected elements of Nanjing pronunciation.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Richard |first1=Louis |title=Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies |year=1908 |url=http://archive.org/details/lrichardscompreh00rich |access-date=2024-03-06 |place=Shanghai |publisher=Tusewei Press |last2=Kennelly |first2=M. |page=iv}}</ref> The sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan; in 1902 the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] as ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|s=国语|t=國語}}), the 'national language'. === Republican era === [[File:Madarin in Chinese Mainland EN.PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of Mandarin subgroups in mainland China, as of 1987]] After the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A [[Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation]] was convened with delegates from the entire country.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=16–17}} A ''Dictionary of National Pronunciation'' ({{zhi|s=国音字典|t=國音字典|first=t}}) was published in 1919, defining a [[Old National Pronunciation|hybrid pronunciation]] that did not match any existing speech.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=134}}{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=18}} Meanwhile, despite the lack of a workable standardized pronunciation, colloquial literature in [[written vernacular Chinese]] continued to develop.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=10}} Gradually, the members of the National Language Commission came to settle upon the Beijing dialect, which became the major source of standard national pronunciation due to its prestigious status. In 1932, the commission published the ''Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use'' ({{zhi|s=国音常用字汇|t=國音常用字彙|first=t}}), with little fanfare or official announcement. This dictionary was similar to the previous published one except that it normalized the pronunciations for all characters into the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=15}} Following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) continued standardisation efforts on the mainland, and in 1955 officially began using ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|s=普通话|t=普通話|l=common speech}}) instead of ''Guoyu'', which remains the name used in [[Taiwan]]. The forms of Standard Chinese used in China and Taiwan have diverged somewhat since the end of the Civil War, especially in newer vocabulary, and a little in pronunciation.{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|pp=313–314}} In 1956, the PRC officially defined Standard Chinese as "the standard form of Modern Chinese with the Beijing phonological system as its norm of pronunciation, and Northern dialects as its base dialect, and looking to exemplary modern works in [[written vernacular Chinese]] for its grammatical norms."<ref name="langlaw">{{Citation |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |date=31 October 2000 |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |archive-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=live |publisher=Gov.cn |trans-quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.|script-quote=zh:普通话就是现代汉民族共同语，是全国各民族通用的语言。普通话以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作语法规范}}</ref>{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=24}} According to the official definition, Standard Chinese uses: * The [[phonology]] of the Beijing dialect, if not always with each phoneme having the precise [[phonetic]] values as those heard in Beijing. * The [[vocabulary]] of [[Mandarin dialects]] in general, excepting what are deemed to be [[slang]] and regionalisms. The vocabulary of all Chinese varieties, especially in more technical fields like science, law, and government, is very similar—akin to the profusion of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] vocabulary in European languages. This means that much of the vocabulary of Standard Chinese is shared with all varieties of Chinese. Much of the [[colloquialism|colloquial]] vocabulary of the Beijing dialect is not considered part of Standard Chinese, and may not be understood by people outside Beijing.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=37–38}} * The [[grammar]] and idioms of exemplary modern [[Chinese literature]], a form known as [[written vernacular Chinese]]. Written vernacular Chinese is loosely based upon a synthesis of predominantly northern grammar and vocabulary, with southern and Literary elements. This distinguishes Standard Chinese from the dialect heard on the streets of Beijing. Proficiency in the new standard was initially limited, even among Mandarin speakers, but increased over the following decades.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=27–28}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Percentage of population of China proficient in Standard Chinese{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=28}} |- ! rowspan="2" | ! Early 1950s ! colspan="2" | 1984 |- ! Comprehension ! Comprehension ! Speaking |- ! Mandarin-speaking areas | 54 || 91 || 54 |- ! non-Mandarin areas | 11 || 77 || 40 |- ! whole country | 41 || 90 || 50 |} A 2007 survey conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Education indicated that 53.06% of the population were able to effectively communicate using Standard Chinese.<ref>{{Citation |title=More than half of Chinese can speak Mandarin |date=7 March 2007 |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204232341/http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2020, this figure had risen to over 80%.<ref name="over80percent">{{Citation |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin |surname1=Zhao |given1=E'nuo |surname2=Wu |given2=Yue |work=People's Daily |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |date=16 October 2020 |access-date=2021-12-22 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |url-status=live }}</ref> == Status == In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is used in most official contexts, as well as the media and educational system, contributing to its proliferation. As a result, it is now spoken by most people in both countries, though often with some regional or personal variation in vocabulary and pronunciation. In overseas Chinese communities outside Asia where Cantonese once dominated, such as the [[Manhattan Chinatown|Chinatown in Manhattan]], the use of Standard Chinese, which is the primary lingua franca of more recent [[Chinese immigrants]], is rapidly increasing.<ref>{{Citation |last=Semple |first=Kirk |title=In Chinatown, Sound of the Future Is Mandarin |date=21 October 2009 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |access-date=18 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714084739/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mainland China === [[File:Map of sinitic languages cropped-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of the [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese dialect groups]] as of 1987, including Mandarin (light brown)]] While Standard Chinese was made China's official language in the early 20th century, local languages continue to be the main form of everyday communication in much of the country. The language policy adopted by the Chinese government promotes the use of Standard Chinese while also making allowances for the use and preservation of local varieties.<ref>{{Citation |last=Spolsky |first=Bernard |title=Language management in the People's Republic of China |date=December 2014 |work=Linguistic Society of America |volume=90 |pages=168 |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023014/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> From an official point of view, Standard Chinese serves as a [[lingua franca]] to facilitate communication between speakers of mutually unintelligible [[varieties of Chinese]] and [[Languages of China|non-Sinitic languages]]. The name ''Putonghua'', or 'common speech', reinforces this idea. However, due to Standard Chinese being a "public" lingua franca, other Chinese varieties and even non-Sinitic languages have shown signs of losing ground to the standard dialect. In many areas, especially in southern China, it is commonly used for practical reasons, as linguistic diversity is so great that residents of neighboring cities may have difficulties communicating with each other without a lingua franca. According to the Chinese government, their language policy been largely successful, with over 80% of the Chinese population able to speak Standard Chinese as of 2020.<ref name="over80percent" /> The Chinese government's current goal is to have 85% of the country's population speak Standard Chinese by 2025, and virtually the entire country by 2035.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=China says 85% of citizens will use Mandarin by 2025 |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477 |access-date=2021-12-22 |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201112223/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477|archive-date=2021-12-01}}</ref> Throughout the country, Standard Chinese has heavily influenced local languages through [[diglossia]], replacing them entirely in some cases, especially among younger people in urban areas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Zuo |first=Xinyi |title=Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2020) |date=2020-12-16 |pages=56–59 |chapter=Effects of Ways of Communication on the Preservation of Shanghai Dialect |chapter-url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |publisher=Atlantis Press |language=en |doi=10.2991/assehr.k.201214.465 |isbn=978-94-6239-301-1 |s2cid=234515573 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023038/https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Chinese government is keen to promote ''Putonghua'' as the national lingua franca: under the [[Chinese language law|National Common Language and Writing Law]], the government is required to promote its use. Officially, the Chinese government has not stated its intent to replace regional varieties with Standard Chinese. However, regulations enacted by local governments to implement the national law have included measures to control the use of spoken dialects and [[traditional characters]] in writing.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} For example, the [[Guangdong National Language Regulations]] enacted in 2012 generally require broadcasts in the province to be in Standard Chinese, with programs and channels able to broadcast in other varieties if approved by the national or provincial government. Government employees, including teachers, conference holders, broadcasters, and TV staff are required to use Standard Chinese.<ref name="phxtvonline">{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:广东省国家通用语言文字规定 |trans-title=Full Text of Guangdong National Language Regulations |language=zh |work=news.ifeng.com |url=http://news.ifeng.com/mainland/detail_2011_12/18/11402971_0.shtml |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="world1">{{Citation |url=http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮?instance=top_rec |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130209120433/http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-%E5%BB%A3%E6%9D%B1%E9%99%90%E5%88%B6%E7%B2%B5%E8%AA%9E%E5%BB%A3%E6%92%AD%E6%81%90%E7%88%86%E6%8A%97%E8%AD%B0%E6%BD%AE?instance=top_rec |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 February 2013 |website=worldjournal.com |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮 |trans-title=Protests Worries As Guangdong Pushes New Language Bill |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> In addition, public signage is to be written using [[simplified characters]], with exceptions for historical sites, pre-registered logos, or when approved by the state.<ref name="phxtvonline" /> Public brands, seals, documents, websites, signs, and trade names are not to use traditional characters or [[character variants]].<ref>{{Citation |url=https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20111218/00178_008.html |work=Oriental Daily (Hong Kong) |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東廢粵語滅繁體 |trans-title=Guangdong Limits Use of Cantonese Language and Traditional Chinese Characters |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |date=17 December 2011 |work=Guangzhou Daily |language=zh |script-title=zh:粤语将何去何从？广东省国家通用语言文字规定明年实行 |trans-title=Guangdong National Language Regulations Puts Cantonese Language in the Crosshairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101204458/http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:粵嚴令媒體推普限制粵方言 |trans-title=Guangdong's Strict New Media Laws Oppresses Cantonese |language=zh |work=Sing Tao Daily |url=https://hk.news.yahoo.com/粵嚴令媒體-推普限制粵方言-220939679.html |access-date=6 January 2012 |via=Yahoo News Hong Kong}}</ref> Some Chinese speakers who are older or from rural areas cannot speak Standard Chinese fluently or at all, though most are able to understand it. Meanwhile, those from urban areas—as well as younger speakers, who have received their education primarily in Standard Chinese—are almost all fluent in it, with some being unable to speak their local dialect. The Chinese government has disseminated [[public service announcement]]s promoting the use of ''Putonghua'' on television and the radio, as well as on public buses. The standardization campaign has been challenged by local dialectical and ethnic populations, who fear the loss of their cultural identity and native dialect. In the summer of 2010, reports of a planned increase in the use of the ''Putonghua'' on local television in [[Guangdong]] led to demonstrations on the streets by thousands of [[Cantonese]]-speaking citizens.<ref>{{Citation |last=Luo |first=Chris |title=One-third of Chinese do not speak Putonghua, says Education Ministry |date=2014-09-23 |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602081902/http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |archive-date=2 June 2015 |url-status=live |place=Hong Kong}}</ref> While the use of Standard Chinese is encouraged as the common working language in predominantly [[Han Chinese|Han]] areas on the mainland, the PRC has been more sensitive to the status of non-Sinitic minority languages, and has generally not discouraged their social use outside of education. === Hong Kong and Macau === In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], which are [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] of the PRC, there is [[diglossia]] between [[Cantonese]] ({{zhi|t=口語|j=hau2 jyu5|l=spoken language}}) as the primary spoken language, alongside a [[Hong Kong written Chinese|local variety of written vernacular Chinese]] ({{zhi|t=書面語|j=syu1 min6 jyu5|l=written language}}) used as the primary written language.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Lee |first=Siu-lun |title=The Learning and Teaching of Cantonese as a Second Language |year=2023 |place=Abingdon/New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-000-88989-5}}</ref> [[Written Cantonese]] may also be used in informal settings such as advertisements, magazines, popular literature, and comics. Mixture of formal and informal written Chinese occurs to various degrees.<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Shi |first=Dingxu |title=Hong Kong written Chinese: Language change induced by language contact |date=2006-10-12 |journal=Journal of Asian Pacific Communication |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=299–318 |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |language=en |doi=10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |s2cid=143191355 |access-date=28 June 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> After the [[handover of Hong Kong]] from the United Kingdom and [[handover of Macau]] from Portugal, their governments use Standard Chinese to communicate with the PRC's [[Central People's Government]]. There has been significant effort to promote use of Standard Chinese in Hong Kong since the handover,<ref>{{Citation |last=Standing Committee on Language Education & Research |title=Putonghua promotion stepped up |date=25 March 2006 |url=http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092538/http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref> including the training of police<ref>{{Citation |title=Online training to boost Chinese skills |url=http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092725/http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Police Department}}</ref> and teachers.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hong Kong LegCo |title=Panel on Education working reports |date=19 April 1999 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092708/http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref> === Taiwan === {{main|Taiwanese Mandarin}} Standard Chinese is the official language of [[Taiwan]]. Standard Chinese started being widely spoken in Taiwan following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, with the relocation of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) to the island along with an [[Waishengren|influx of refugees]] from the mainland. The Standard Chinese used in Taiwan differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely being in technical vocabulary introduced after 1949.<ref>{{Citation |last=Yao |first=Qian |title=Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China |date=September 2014 |journal=Advanced Materials Research |volume=1030-1032 |pages=1650–1652 |doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650 |s2cid=136508776}}</ref> Prior to 1949, the varieties most commonly spoken by Taiwan's Han population were [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], as well as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] to a lesser extent. Much of the [[Taiwanese Aboriginal]] population spoke their native [[Formosan languages]]. During the period of [[martial law]] between 1949 and 1987, the Taiwanese government revived the [[Mandarin Promotion Council]], discouraging or in some cases forbidding the use of Hokkien and other non-standard varieties. This resulted in Standard Chinese replacing Hokkien as the country's lingua franca,{{sfnp|Scott|Tiun|2007|p=57}} and ultimately, a political backlash in the 1990s. Starting in the 2000s during the administration of President [[Chen Shui-Bian]], the Taiwanese government began making efforts to recognize the country's other languages. They began being taught in schools, and their use increased in media, though Standard Chinese remains the country's lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hubbs |first=Elizabeth |title=Taiwan language-in-education policy: social, cultural and practical implications |work=Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching |volume=20 |pages=76–95 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |url-status=live }}</ref> Chen often used Hokkien in his speeches; later Taiwanese President [[Lee Teng-hui]] also openly spoke Hokkien. In an amendment to the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act ({{lang|zh-tw|護照條例施行細則}}) passed on 9 August 2019, Taiwan's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that romanized spellings of names in [[Hoklo]], Hakka and Aboriginal languages may be used in Taiwanese passports. Previously, only Mandarin names could be romanized.<ref>{{Citation |last=Jason Pan |title=NTU professors' language rule draws groups' ire |date=16 August 2019 |work=[[Taipei Times]] |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817081519/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Singapore === {{Main|Singaporean Mandarin}} Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore, along with English, [[Malay language|Malay]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. Historically, it was seldom used by the [[Chinese Singaporeans|Chinese Singaporean community]], which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of [[Hokkien]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], Cantonese, or [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} [[Standard Singaporean Mandarin]] is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called Singdarin is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination thereof are also common. In Singapore, the government has heavily promoted a "[[Speak Mandarin Campaign]]" since the late 1970s, with the use of other Chinese varieties in broadcast media being prohibited and their use in any context officially discouraged until recently.<ref>{{Citation |title=New Hokkien drama aimed at seniors to be launched on Sep 9 |date=1 September 2016 |work=[[Channel News Asia]] |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219200949/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> This has led to some resentment amongst the older generations, as Singapore's migrant Chinese community is made up almost entirely of people of south Chinese descent. [[Lee Kuan Yew]], the initiator of the campaign, admitted that to most Chinese Singaporeans, Mandarin was a "stepmother tongue" rather than a true mother language. Nevertheless, he saw the need for a unified language among the Chinese community not biased in favor of any existing group.<ref name="Yew 2000">{{Citation |last=Yew |first=Lee Kuan |title=From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965-2000 |date=2000-10-03 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-019776-6 |ol=7275961M}}</ref> ===Malaysia=== {{Main|Malaysian Mandarin}} In Malaysia, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard shared with Singaporean Chinese. Together influenced by the Singaporean Speak Mandarin Campaign and Chinese culture revival movement in the 1980s, Malaysian Chinese started their own promotion of Mandarin too, and similar to Singapore, but to a lesser extent, experienced language shift from other Chinese variants to Mandarin. Today, Mandarin functions as lingua franca among Malaysian Chinese, while Hokkien and Cantonese are still retained in the northern part and central part of Peninsular Malaysia respectively. ===Myanmar=== {{See also|Chinese people in Myanmar}} In some regions controlled by [[List of insurgent groups in Myanmar|insurgent groups]] in northern Myanmar, Mandarin serves as the lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |author=Aung Thein Kha |title=In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language |date=17 September 2019 |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |last2=Gerin |first2=Roseanne |archive-date=5 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505202706/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |url-status=live }}</ref> == Education == [[File:Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg|thumb|A poster outside a high school in [[Yangzhou]] urges people to "Speak Putonghua to welcome guests from all around, use the language of the civilized to give your sincere feelings".]] In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is taught by immersion starting in elementary school. After the second grade, the entire educational system is in Standard Chinese, except for local language classes that have been taught for a few hours each week in Taiwan starting in the mid-1990s. With an increase in internal [[migration in China]], the official [[Putonghua Proficiency Test]] (PSC) has become popular. Employers often require a level of Standard Chinese proficiency from applicants depending on the position, and many university graduates on the mainland take the PSC before looking for a job. == Phonology == {{Main|Standard Chinese phonology}} The pronunciation of Standard Chinese is defined as that of the [[Beijing dialect]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=138}} The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, consisting of an optional initial [[consonant]], an optional medial [[semivowel|glide]], a main vowel and an optional coda, and further distinguished by a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=138–139}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Initial consonants with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=139}} |- ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! Dental [[sibilant]] ! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]s | {{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}} || {{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}} || || || || |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive|Stops]] and<br/>[[affricates]] ! <small>unaspirated</small> | {{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|b}} || {{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|d}} || {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡s}} {{grapheme|z}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ}} {{grapheme|zh}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}} {{grapheme|j}} || {{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|g}} |- ! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | {{IPA link|p|pʰ}} {{grapheme|p}} || {{IPA link|t|tʰ}} {{grapheme|t}} || {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡sʰ}} {{grapheme|c}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ|ʈ͡ʂʰ}} {{grapheme|ch}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ|t͡ɕʰ}} {{grapheme|q}} || {{IPA link|k|kʰ}} {{grapheme|k}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]s | {{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}} || || {{IPA link|s̪|s}} {{grapheme|s}} || {{IPA link|ʂ}} {{grapheme|sh}} || {{IPA link|ɕ}} {{grapheme|x}} || {{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|h}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]s | {{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w}} || {{IPA link|l̪|l}} {{grapheme|l}} || || {{IPA link|ɻ}}~{{IPA link|ʐ}} {{grapheme|r}} || {{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}} || |} The palatal initials {{IPA|[tɕ]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰ]}} and {{IPA|[ɕ]}} pose a classic problem of [[phonemic]] analysis. Since they occur only before high front vowels, they are in [[complementary distribution]] with three other series, the dental sibilants, retroflexes and velars, which never occur in this position.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=140–141}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Syllable finals with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=110}} |- | {{IPA|ɹ̩}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ɤ}} {{angle bracket|''e''}} || {{IPA|a}} {{angle bracket|''a''}} || {{IPA|ei}} {{angle bracket|''ei''}} || {{IPA|ai}} {{angle bracket|''ai''}} || {{IPA|ou}} {{angle bracket|''ou''}} || {{IPA|au}} {{angle bracket|''ao''}} || {{IPA|ən}} {{angle bracket|''en''}} || {{IPA|an}} {{angle bracket|''an''}} || {{IPA|əŋ}} {{angle bracket|''eng''}} || {{IPA|aŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ang''}} || {{IPA|ɚ}} {{angle bracket|''er''}} |- | {{IPA|i}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ie}} {{angle bracket|''ie''}} || {{IPA|ia}} {{angle bracket|''ia''}} || || || {{IPA|iou}} {{angle bracket|''iu''}} || {{IPA|iau}} {{angle bracket|''iao''}} || {{IPA|in}} {{angle bracket|''in''}} || {{IPA|ien}} {{angle bracket|''ian''}} || {{IPA|iŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ing''}} || {{IPA|iaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iang''}} || |- | {{IPA|u}} {{angle bracket|''u''}} || {{IPA|uo}} {{angle bracket|''uo''}} || {{IPA|ua}} {{angle bracket|''ua''}} || {{IPA|uei}} {{angle bracket|''ui''}} || {{IPA|uai}} {{angle bracket|''uai''}} || || || {{IPA|uən}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|uan}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|uŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ong''}} || {{IPA|uaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''uang''}} || |- | {{IPA|y}} {{angle bracket|''ü''}} || {{IPA|ye}} {{angle bracket|''üe''}} || || || || || || {{IPA|yn}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|yen}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|iuŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iong''}} || || |} The {{IPA|[ɹ̩]}} final, which occurs only after dental sibilant and retroflex initials, is a syllabic [[approximant consonant|approximant]], prolonging the initial.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=142}}{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=111}} [[File:Pinyin Tone Chart.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.6|Relative pitch contours of the four full tones]] The [[rhotacized vowel]] {{IPA|[ɚ]}} forms a complete syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=143–144}} A reduced form of this syllable occurs as a sub-syllabic suffix, spelled ''-r'' in pinyin and often with a [[diminutive]] connotation. The suffix modifies the coda of the base syllable in a rhotacizing process called ''[[erhua]]''.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=144–145}} Each full syllable is pronounced with a phonemically distinctive pitch contour. There are four tonal categories, marked in pinyin with diacritics, as in the words {{transliteration|zh|mā}} ({{zhi|s=妈|t=媽|first=t}}; 'mother'), {{transliteration|zh|má}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|麻}}; 'hemp'), {{transliteration|zh|mǎ}} ({{zhi|s=马|t=馬|first=t}}; 'horse') and {{transliteration|zh|mà}} ({{zhi|s=骂|t=罵|first=t}}; 'curse').{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=225}} The tonal categories also have secondary characteristics. For example, the third tone is long and [[murmured voice|murmured]], whereas the fourth tone is relatively short.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=147}}{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=236}} Statistically, vowels and tones are of similar importance in the language.{{efn|"A word pronounced in a wrong tone or inaccurate tone sounds as puzzling as if one said 'bud' in English, meaning 'not good' or 'the thing one sleeps in.{{' "}}{{sfnp|Chao|1948|p=24}}}}<ref>{{citation | surname1 = Surendran | given1 = Dinoj | surname2 = Levow | given2 = Gina-Anne | chapter-url = http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416214008/http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archivedate=2007-04-16 | chapter = The functional load of tone in Mandarin is as high as that of vowels | pages = 99–102 | title = Proceedings of the International Conference on Speech Prosody 2004 | editor1-given = Bernard | editor1-surname = Bel | editor2-given = Isabelle | editor2-surname = Marlien | publisher = SProSIG | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-2-9518233-1-0 }}</ref> There are also weak syllables, including grammatical particles such as the interrogative ''ma'' ({{lang-zh|s=吗|t=嗎|first=t|labels=no}}) and certain syllables in polysyllabic words. These syllables are short, with their pitch determined by the preceding syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=148}} Such syllables are commonly described as being in the neutral tone. === Regional accents === It is common for Standard Chinese to be spoken with the speaker's regional accent, depending on factors such as age, level of education, and the need and frequency to speak in official or formal situations. Due to evolution and standardization, Mandarin, although based on the Beijing dialect, is no longer synonymous with it. Part of this was due to the standardization to reflect a greater vocabulary scheme and a more archaic and "proper-sounding" pronunciation and vocabulary. Distinctive features of the Beijing dialect are more extensive use of ''erhua'' in vocabulary items that are left unadorned in descriptions of the standard such as the ''[[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]]'', as well as more neutral tones.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=39–40}} An example of standard versus Beijing dialect would be the standard {{transliteration|zh|mén}} (door) and Beijing {{transliteration|zh|ménr}}. While the Standard Chinese spoken in Taiwan is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially Taiwanese Hokkien. Notable differences include: the merger of [[retroflex]] sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of ''[[erhua]]'' (rhoticization).{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=47}} [[Code-switching]] between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chiu |first=Miao-chin |title=Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials |date=April 2012 |work=Monumenta Taiwanica |volume=5 |url=http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807182654/http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The stereotypical "southern Chinese" accent does not distinguish between [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] and [[alveolar consonant]]s, pronouncing pinyin ''zh'' [tʂ], ''ch'' [tʂʰ], and ''sh'' [ʂ] in the same way as ''z'' [ts], ''c'' [tsʰ], and ''s'' [s] respectively.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=140}} Southern-accented Standard Chinese may also interchange ''l'' and ''n'', final ''n'' and ''ng'', and vowels ''i'' and ''ü'' [y]. Attitudes towards southern accents, particularly the Cantonese accent, range from disdain to admiration.<ref>{{Citation |last=Blum |first=Susan D. |title=China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom |pages=160–161 |year=2002 |editor-last=Blum |editor-first=Susan Debra |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Lionel M |chapter=Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity in Kunming |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5}}</ref> == Grammar == {{main|Chinese grammar}} Chinese is a strongly [[analytic language]], having almost no [[inflectional morpheme]]s, and relying on word order and [[grammatical particle|particle]]s to express relationships between the parts of a sentence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=159}} Nouns are not marked for [[grammatical case|case]] and rarely marked for [[grammatical number|number]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=11–12}} Verbs are not marked for [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] or [[grammatical tense]], but [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] is marked using post-verbal particles.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=12–13}} The basic word order is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO), as in English.{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=19}} Nouns are generally preceded by any modifiers ([[adjective]]s, [[possessive]]s and [[relative clause]]s), and verbs also generally follow any modifiers ([[adverb]]s, [[auxiliary verb]]s and prepositional phrases).{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=24–26}} {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |他 为/為 他的 朋友 做了 这个/這個 工作。 |Tā wèi tā-de péngyǒu zuò-le zhè-ge gōngzuò. |He for he-GEN friend do-PERF this-CL job |'He did this job for his friends.'{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=169}} }} The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] (linking verb) {{transliteration|zh|shì}} ({{lang|zh|是}}) followed by a noun phrase, etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=141}} In predicative use, Chinese adjectives function as [[stative verb]]s, forming complete predicates in their own right without a copula.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=141–143}} For example, {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |我 不 累。 |Wǒ bú lèi. |I not tired |'I am not tired.' }} Chinese additionally differs from English in that it forms another kind of sentence by [[Topic-prominent language|stating a topic and following it by a comment]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=15–16}} To do this in English, speakers generally flag the topic of a sentence by prefacing it with "as for". For example: {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |妈妈/媽媽 给/給 我们/我們 的 钱/錢, 我 已经/已經 买了/買了 糖果。 |Māma gěi wǒmen de qián, wǒ yǐjīng mǎi-le tángguǒ(r) |Mom give us REL money I already buy-PERF candy |'As for the money that Mom gave us, I have already bought candy with it.' }} The time when something happens can be given by an explicit term such as "yesterday", by relative terms such as "formerly", etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=320–320}} As in many east Asian languages, [[Chinese classifier|classifier]]s or measure words are required when using [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s, [[demonstrative]]s and similar quantifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=104}} There are many different classifiers in the language, and each noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=105}} {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |一顶 帽子, 三本 书/書, 那支 笔/筆 |yī-dǐng màozi, sān-běn shū, nèi-zhī bǐ |one-top hat three-volume book that-branch pen |'a hat, three books, that pen' }} The general classifier ''ge'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|个}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|個}}) is gradually replacing specific classifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=112}} In [[word formation]], the language allows for [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]] and for [[reduplication]]. == Vocabulary == Many [[Chinese honorifics|honorifics]] used in imperial China are also used in daily conversation in modern Mandarin, such as {{transliteration|zh|jiàn}} ({{linktext|賤|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贱}}; '[my] humble') and {{transliteration|zh|guì}} ({{linktext|貴|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贵}}; '[your] honorable'). Although Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between Standard Chinese and the Beijing dialect, there are aspects of Beijing dialect that have made it into the official standard. Standard Chinese has a [[T–V distinction]] between the polite and informal "you" that comes from the Beijing dialect, although its use is quite diminished in daily speech. It also distinguishes between "{{transliteration|zh|zánmen}}" ('we', including the listener) and "{{transliteration|zh|wǒmen}}" ('we', not including the listener). In practice, neither distinction is commonly used by most Chinese, at least outside the Beijing area. The following samples are some phrases from the Beijing dialect which are not yet accepted into Standard Chinese:{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} * {{lang|zh|倍儿}} {{transliteration|zh|bèir}} means 'very much'; {{lang|zh|拌蒜}} {{transliteration|zh|bànsuàn}} means 'stagger'; {{lang|zh|不吝}} {{transliteration|zh|bù lìn}} means 'do not worry about'; {{lang|zh|撮}} {{transliteration|zh|cuō}} means 'eat'; {{lang|zh|出溜}} {{transliteration|zh|chūliū}} means 'slip'; {{lang|zh|(大)老爷儿们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|dà lǎoyermenr}} means 'man, male'. The following samples are some phrases from Beijing dialect which have become accepted as Standard Chinese:{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} * {{lang|zh|二把刀}} {{transliteration|zh|èr bǎ dāo}} means 'not very skillful'; {{lang|zh|哥们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|gēménr}} means 'good male friend', 'buddy'; {{lang|zh|抠门儿}} {{transliteration|zh|kōu ménr}} means 'frugal' or 'stingy'. == Writing system == {{Main|Written vernacular Chinese|Modern Chinese characters}} Standard Chinese is written with characters corresponding to syllables of the language, most of which represent a morpheme. In most cases, these characters come from those used in [[Classical Chinese]] to write cognate morphemes of late [[Old Chinese]], though their pronunciation, and often meaning, has shifted dramatically over two millennia.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=74}} However, there are several words, many of them heavily used, which have no classical counterpart or whose etymology is obscure. Two strategies have been used to write such words:{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=74–75}} * An unrelated character with the same or similar pronunciation might be used, especially if its original sense was no longer common. For example, the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this' and {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that' have no counterparts in Classical Chinese, which used {{lang|zh|此}} {{transliteration|zh|cǐ}} and {{lang|zh|彼}} {{transliteration|zh|bǐ}} respectively. Hence the character {{lang|zh-Hant|這}} (later simplified as {{lang|zh-Hans|这}}) for {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'to meet' was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this', and the character {{lang|zh|那}} for {{transliteration|zh|nà}}, the name of a country and later a rare surname, was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that'. * A new character, usually a phono-semantic or semantic compound, might be created. For example, {{transliteration|zh|gǎn}} 'pursue', 'overtake', is written with a new character {{lang|zh|趕}}, composed of the signific {{lang|zh|走}} {{transliteration|zh|zǒu}} 'run' and the phonetic {{lang|zh|旱}} {{transliteration|zh|hàn}} 'drought'.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=76}} This method was used to represent many [[Chemical elements in East Asian languages#Chinese|elements in the periodic table]]. The PRC, as well as several other governments and institutions, has promulgated a set of simplified character forms. Under this system, the forms of the words {{transliteration|zh|zhèlǐ}} ('here') and {{transliteration|zh|nàlǐ}} ('there') changed from {{lang|zh-Hant|這裏/這裡}} and {{lang|zh-Hant|那裏/那裡}} to {{lang|zh-Hans|这里}} and {{lang|zh-Hans|那里}}, among many other changes. Chinese characters were traditionally read from top to bottom, right to left, but in modern usage it is more common to read from left to right. == Examples == {| class="wikitable" |- ! English ! Traditional characters ! Simplified characters ! Pinyin |- | Hello! | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|[[wikt:你好|你好]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo!}} |- | What is your name? | {{lang|zh-hant|你叫什麼名字？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你叫什么名字？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?}} |- | My name is... | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我叫...}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ jiào}} ... |- | How are you? | {{lang|zh-hant|你好嗎？/ 你怎麼樣？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你好吗？/ 你怎么样？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo ma? / Nǐ zěnmeyàng?}} |- | I am fine, how about you? | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我很好，你呢？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne?}} |- | I don't want it / I don't want to | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我不要。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ bú yào.}} |- | Thank you! | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:謝謝|謝謝]]！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:谢谢|谢谢]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Xièxie}} |- | Welcome! / You're welcome! (Literally: No need to thank me!) / Don't mention it! (Literally: Don't be so polite!) | {{lang|zh-hant|歡迎！/ 不用謝！/ 不客氣！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|欢迎！/ 不用谢！/ 不客气！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Huānyíng! / Búyòng xiè! / Bú kèqì!}} |- | Yes. / Correct. | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:是|是]]。 / [[wikt:對|對]]。/ 嗯。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|是。 / [[wikt:对|对]]。/ 嗯。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Shì. / Duì. / M.}} |- | No. / Incorrect. | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:不是|不是]]。/ 不對。/ 不。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|不是。/ 不对。/ 不。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Búshì. / Bú duì. / Bù.}} |- | When? | {{lang|zh-hant|什麼時候？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|什么时候？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Shénme shíhou?}} |- | How much money? | {{lang|zh-hant|多少錢？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|多少钱？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Duōshǎo qián?}} |- | Can you speak a little slower? | {{lang|zh-hant|您能說得再慢些嗎？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|您能说得再慢些吗？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nín néng shuō de zài mànxiē ma?}} |- | Good morning! / Good morning! | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|早上好！ / 早安！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Zǎoshang hǎo! / Zǎo'ān!}} |- | Goodbye! | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:再見|再見]]！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:再见|再见]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Zàijiàn!}} |- | How do you get to the airport? | {{lang|zh-hant|去機場怎麼走？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|去机场怎么走？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Qù jīchǎng zěnme zǒu?}} |- | I want to fly to London on the eighteenth | {{lang|zh-hant|我想18號坐飛機到倫敦。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我想18号坐飞机到伦敦。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ xiǎng shíbā hào zuò fēijī dào Lúndūn.}} |- | How much will it cost to get to Munich? | {{lang|zh-hant|到慕尼黑要多少錢？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|到慕尼黑要多少钱？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Dào Mùníhēi yào duōshǎo qián?}} |- | I don't speak Chinese very well. | {{lang|zh-hant|我的漢語說得不太好。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我的汉语说得不太好。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ de Hànyǔ shuō de bú tài hǎo.}} |- | Do you speak English? | {{lang|zh-hant|你會說英語嗎？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你会说英语吗？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ huì shuō Yīngyǔ ma?}} |- | I have no money. | {{lang|zh-hant|我沒有錢。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我没有钱。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ méiyǒu qián.}} |} Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Standard Chinese:<ref>{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |author=United Nations |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |work=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live }}</ref> {{blockquote|{{lang|zh-Hans|人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。}}{{pb}} {{lang|zh-Hant|人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應以兄弟關係的精神相對待。}}{{pb}} {{transliteration|zh|Rén rén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé/hàn quánlì shàng yīlǜ píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé/hàn liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén xiāng duìdài.}}{{pb}} All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.}} == See also == * [[Chinese speech synthesis]] * [[Comparison of national standards of Chinese]] * [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines]] * [[Protection of the varieties of Chinese]] * [[Chinese language law]] * [[Yayan (Old Chinese)]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === Works cited === {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Citation | surname = Adelaar | given = K. Alexander | chapter = Contact languages in Indonesia and Malaysia other than Malay | pages = 695–711 | editor1-surname = Wurm | editor1-given = Stephen A. | editor1-link = Stephen Wurm | editor2-surname = Mühlhäusler | editor2-given = Peter | editor3-surname = Tryon | editor3-given = Darrell T. | title = Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol II: Texts | publisher = de Gruyter Mouton | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-3-11-081972-4 | doi = 10.1515/9783110819724 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Bradley | given = David | author-link = David Bradley (linguist) | chapter = Chinese as a pluricentric language | pages = 305–324 | title = Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations | editor-given = Michael G. | editor-surname = Clyne | publisher = Walter de Gruyter | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-3-11-012855-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | title = Mandarin Primer: an Intensive Course in Spoken Chinese | surname = Chao | given = Yuen Ren | author-link = Yuen Ren Chao | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | year = 1948 | isbn = 978-0-674-73288-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Chen | given = Ping | title = Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-521-64572-0 | postscript = . | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/modernchinesehis00chen }} * {{Citation | surname = Coblin | given = W. South | author-link = Weldon South Coblin | title = A brief history of Mandarin | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 120 | number = 4 | year = 2000 | pages = 537–552 | jstor = 606615 | postscript = . | doi=10.2307/606615 }} * {{Citation | title = The phonology of standard Chinese | given = San | surname = Duanmu | publisher = Oxford University Press | edition = 2nd | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-921579-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | title = Standard Chinese (Beijing) | surname1 = Lee | given1 = Wai-Sum | surname2 = Zee | given2 = Eric | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 109–112 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1017/S0025100303001208 | postscript = . | doi-access = free}} * {{Citation | given1 = Charles N. | surname1 = Li | given2 = Sandra A. | surname2 = Thompson | author-link = Sandra Thompson (linguist) | title = Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar | location = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-520-06610-6 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Li | first = Yuming | title = Language Planning in China | year = 2015 | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | isbn = 978-1-61451-558-6 | series = Language Policies and Practices in China | location = Berlin}} * {{Citation | given = Sihua | surname = Liang | title = Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography | publisher = Springer International | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-3-319-12618-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | given = Helen T. | surname = Lin | title = Essential Grammar for Modern Chinese | location = Boston | publisher = Cheng & Tsui | year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-917056-10-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Mair | given = Victor H. | author-link = Victor H. Mair | title = What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms | url = https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf | journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | volume = 29 | year = 1991 | pages = 1–31 | postscript = . | access-date = 15 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180510155608/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf | archive-date = 10 May 2018 | url-status = dead }} * {{Citation | surname = Mair | given = Victor H. | author-mask = 3 | author-link = Victor H. Mair | chapter = The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is "Chinese"? | chapter-url = http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf | title = Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond | place = Beijing | publisher = Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica | year = 2013 | pages = 735–754 | editor-given1 = Guangshun | editor-surname1 = Cao | editor-given2 = Redouane | editor-surname2 = Djamouri | editor-given3 = Hilary | editor-surname3 = Chappell | editor-given4 = Thekla | editor-surname4 = Wiebusch | postscript = . | access-date = 15 April 2018 | archive-date = 16 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180416012634/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{Citation | surname = Norman | given = Jerry | author-link = Jerry Norman (sinologist) | title = Chinese | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-521-29653-3 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Ramsey | given = S. Robert |author-link=S. Robert Ramsey | title = The languages of China | location = Princeton, NJ | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-691-01468-5 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname1 = Scott | given1 = Mandy | surname2 = Tiun | given2 = Hak-khiam | title = Mandarin-Only to Mandarin-Plus: Taiwan | journal = Language Policy | year = 2007 | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–72 | doi = 10.1007/s10993-006-9040-5 | s2cid = 145009251 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Tam | given = Gina Anne | title = Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2020 | isbn = 978-1-108-77640-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Wang | given = Xiaomei | title = Mandarin Spread in Malaysia | publisher = The University of Malaya Press | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-983-100-958-1 | postscript = . }} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last=Chao |first=Yuen Ren |title=A Grammar of Spoken Chinese |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofspokenc0000chao |edition=2nd |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-00219-7 |url-access=registration}} * Hsia, T., ''China's Language Reforms'', Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven), 1956. * Ladefoged, Peter; & Maddieson, Ian (1996). ''The sounds of the world's languages''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-631-19814-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|978-0-631-19815-4}} (pbk). * {{Citation |last1=Ladefoged |first1=Peter |title=Places of articulation: An investigation of Pekingese fricatives and affricates |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=267–278 |year=1984 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30883-6 |last2=Wu |first2=Zhongji |doi-access=free}} * Lehmann, W. P. (ed.), ''Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China'', University of Texas Press, (Austin), 1975. * {{cite JIPA |last1=Le |first1=Wai-Sum |last2=Zee |first2=Eric |title=Standard Chinese (Beijing) |printdate=2003 June |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=109-112 |doi=10.1017/S0025100303001208 }} * Lin, Y., ''Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'', The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972. * Milsky, C., "New Developments in Language Reform", ''The China Quarterly'', No. 53, (January–March 1973), pp.&nbsp;98–133. * Seybolt, P. J. and Chiang, G. K. (eds.), ''Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary'', M. E. Sharpe (White Plains), 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-87332-081-8}}. * Simon, W., ''A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition'', Lund Humphries (London), 1975. * {{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What Is Mandarin? The Social Project of Language Standardization in Early Republican China |date=2018 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=611–633 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |s2cid=166176089 |ref=none |doi-access=free}} {{refend}} == External links == {{InterWiki |code = zh }} * {{Wikibooks inline|Chinese (Mandarin)}} * {{wikivoyage inline|Chinese phrasebook - Traditional|Standard Chinese}} * Video {{Citation |title=A History of Mandarin: China's Search for a Common Language |date=2018-02-23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wjy0WfKhQc |publisher=[[NYU Shanghai]]}} - Talk by David Moser<!--This is an officially-hosted YouTube video--> {{Chinese language}} {{Languages of China}} {{Languages of Hong Kong}} {{Languages of Macau}} {{Languages of Taiwan}} {{Languages of Malaysia}} {{Languages of Singapore}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Standard Chinese| ]] [[Category:Languages of China]] [[Category:Languages of Taiwan]] [[Category:Chinese languages in Singapore]] [[Category:Standard languages|Chinese]] [[Category:Chinese language reform]] rovkh5q2efojv3ahfkz6icjh9i7yhbs 687842 687841 2026-07-13T12:31:26Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Standard_Chinese]] 687841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Standard form of Mandarin Chinese}} {{Redirect|Huayu||Huayu (disambiguation)|and|Standard Chinese (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Standard Chinese | altname = Standard Mandarin | nativename = {{lang|zh|現代標準漢語}}; {{lang|zh|现代标准汉语}} | states = [[China]] | speakers_label = Speakers | ref = <ref name="over80percent"/>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=251}}{{sfnp|Liang|2014|p=45}} | speakers = [[First language|L1]] and [[Second language|L2]]: 80% of China | familycolor = Sino-Tibetan | fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]] | fam3 = [[Chinese language|Chinese]] | fam4 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] | fam5 = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]] | fam6 = [[Beijing dialect|Beijingese]] | ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]] | ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]] | ancestor3 = [[Eastern Han Chinese]] | ancestor4 = [[Middle Chinese]] | ancestor5 = [[Old Mandarin]] | ancestor6 = [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Middle Mandarin]] | ancestor7 = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]] | script = {{ubl|[[Chinese characters]]|[[Mainland Chinese Braille]]|[[Taiwanese Braille]]|[[Two-cell Chinese Braille]]}} | nation = *China (''de facto'', as ''Putonghua'')<ref name="Adamson & Feng">{{Citation |last1=Adamson |first1=Bob |title=Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages |date=27 December 2021 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-48702-2 |last2=Feng |first2=Anwei |quotation=Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, ''Putonghua'' enjoys ''de facto'' status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese. |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> *Taiwan (''de facto'', as [[Taiwanese Mandarin]]<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言整體發展方案—推廣多元國家語言文化傳承及發展|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/Page/5A8A0CB5B41DA11E/b6cf529e-a421-4f8d-9541-b7b0ef63f9cb |website=www.ey.gov.tw |access-date=7 July 2025 |language=zh-tw }}</ref>){{efn|Taiwan does not have any legally designated official language. Mandarin is the primary language used in business and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Not designated but meets the legal definition, that is "{{lang|zh|本法所稱國家語言，指臺灣各固有族群使用之自然語言及臺灣手語。}}"<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言發展法 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |language=zh |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111221059/https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |url-status=live }}</ref> ("a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language")}} *Singapore (as [[Singaporean Mandarin|Mandarin]]) *United Nations (as Chinese) *[[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] | minority = | agency = {{ubl|{{Indented plainlist| *[[China]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Education]]{{efn|{{ill|National Commission on Language and Script Work|zh|国家语言文字工作委员会}}}} *[[Taiwan]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]] *[[Malaysia]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Malaysia)|Ministry of Education]] and [[Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia|Chinese Language Standardisation Council]] *[[Singapore]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Singapore)|Ministry of Education]]<br>[[Promote Mandarin Council]]}} *[[Philippines]]:<br>[[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]]<br>[[w:zh:菲律宾华教中心|Philippine Chinese Education Research Center]]}} | isoexception = dialect<!--Putonghua has not been assigned an ISO code--> | iso6 = {{Ubl|goyu (Guoyu)|huyu (Huayu)|cosc (Putonghua)}} | notice = IPA | sign = Signed Chinese<ref>{{Citation |last1=Tai |first1=James |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |date=2015 |page=772 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772 |access-date=26 February 2020 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |last2=Tsay |first2=Jane |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | glotto = none | map = Mandarin sphere.svg | mapcaption = Global distribution of Standard Mandarin speakers {{legend|#0E0069|Majority native language}} {{legend|#439DD4|Statutory or de facto national working language}} {{legend|#9FCEFF|More than 1,000,000 L1 and L2 speakers}} {{legend|#D5E8FF|More than 500,000 speakers}} {{legend|#F7D5FF|More than 100,000 speakers}} | mapscale = 1.2 | module = {{Infobox Chinese | child = yes | headercolor = {{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}} | title = ''Putonghua'' | showflag = stp | s = {{linktext|普通话}} | t = {{linktext|普通話}} | p = Pǔtōnghuà | j = Pou2 tung1 waa2 | y = Póutūngwá | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|p|u|3|.|t|ong|1|.|h|ua|4}} | myr = Pǔtūnghwà | w = {{tonesup|P'u3-t'ung1-hua4}} | l = Common speech | altname = ''Guoyu'' | s2 = {{linktext|国语}} | t2 = {{linktext|國語}} | p2 = Guóyǔ | mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|g|uo|2|.|yu|3}} | w2 = {{tonesup|Kuo2-yü3}} | myr2 = Gwóyǔ | l2 = [[National language]] | altname3 = ''Huayu'' | s3 = {{linktext|华语}} | t3 = {{linktext|華語}} | p3 = Huáyǔ | mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|h|ua|2|.|yu|3}} | w3 = {{tonesup|Hua2-yü3}} | myr3 = Hwáyǔ | l3 = Chinese language | bpmf = ㄆㄨˇ ㄊㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˋ | tp = Pǔ-tong-huà | tp2 = Guó-yǔ | bpmf2 = ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄩˇ | bpmf3 = ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ | tp3 = Huá-yǔ }} }} '''Standard Chinese''' ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准汉语|t=現代標準漢語|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ}}), often colloquially called '''Mandarin Chinese''',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633">{{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=611–633 |year=2018 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |quote=in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word |doi-access=free}}</ref> is the modern [[Standard language|standardized]] form of [[Mandarin Chinese]], largely based on the [[Beijing dialect]]. It is the [[official language|official]] ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[People's Republic of China]], one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]], one of the [[national languages]] [[languages of Taiwan|of Taiwan]], and one of the four [[languages of Singapore|official languages of Singapore]]. It is a [[pluricentric language]] with local variations in [[Mainland China]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Singapore]], which mainly differ in [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] and [[lexicon]].{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|p=307}} In Mainland China, Standard Chinese is most commonly called ''Putonghua'', while in Taiwan it is most commonly called ''Guoyu''.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} Like other [[Sinitic languages]], Standard Chinese is an [[analytic language]] with mostly [[compound word]]s, and has five [[tone (linguistics)|phonemic tones]] (four classic tones and a [[Standard Chinese phonology#Neutral tone|neutral tone]]) with [[topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]] organization and [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO) word order. Compared with other [[varieties of Chinese]], Standard Chinese has fewer tones, [[vowel]]s and final [[consonant]]s, but more initial consonants. {{Toclimit|3}} == Naming == ===In English=== Among linguists, Standard Chinese has been referred to as '''Standard Northern Mandarin'''<ref name="John Rohsenow 2004">{{Citation |last=Rohsenow |first=John S. |title=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China |date=2004 |pages=22, 24 |editor-last=Zhou |editor-first=Minglang |chapter=Fifty Years of Script and Written Language Reform in the P.R.C. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XDdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8039-5 |quote=accurately represent and express the sounds of standard Northern Mandarin (Putonghua) [...]. Central to the [[promotion of Putonghua|promotion of ''Putonghua'']] as a national language with a standard pronunciation as well as to assisting literacy in the non-[[Phonemic orthography|phonetic writing system]] of Chinese characters was the development of a [[pinyin|system of phonetic symbols]] with which to convey the pronunciation of spoken words and written characters in '''standard northern Mandarin'''.}}</ref><ref name="Yunyun Ran 2016">{{Citation |last1=Ran |first1=Yunyun |title=Proceedings of the second workshop "Chinese Accents and Accented Chinese" (2nd CAAC) 2016, at the Nordic Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 26-27 October 2015 |date=2016 |page=4 |editor-last=Sloos |editor-first=Marjoleine |editor-last2=Weijer |editor-first2=Jeroen van de |url=http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211200335/http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-11 |chapter=On L2 English Intonation Patterns by Mandarin and Shanghainese Speakers: A Pilot Study |quote=We recorded a number of English sentences spoken by speakers with Mandarin Chinese (standard northern Mandarin) as their first language and by Chinese speakers with [[Shanghainese]] as their first language, [...] |last2=Weijer |first2=Jeroen van de}}</ref><ref name="David Bradley 2008">{{Citation |last=Bradley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |date=2008 |page=500 (e-book) |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Christopher |chapter=Chapter 5: East and Southeast Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79640-2 |quote=As a result of the spread of standard northern Mandarin and major regional varieties of provincial capitals since 1950, many of the smaller ''tuyu'' [土語] are disappearing by being absorbed into larger regional ''fangyan'' [方言], which of course may be a sub-variety of Mandarin or something else. |author-link=David Bradley (linguist) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023006/https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> or '''Standard Beijing Mandarin'''.<ref name="Jeff Siegel 2003">{{Citation |last=Siegel |first=Jeff |title=The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition |date=2003 |page=201 |editor-last=Doughty |editor-first=Catherine J. |editor-last2=Long |editor-first2=Michael H. |chapter=Chapter 8: Social Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing, U.K. |isbn=978-1-4051-5188-7 |quote=Escure [Geneviève Escure, 1997] goes on to analyse second dialect texts of '''Putonghua''' ('''standard Beijing Mandarin Chinese''') produced by speakers of other [[varieties of Chinese]], [in] [[Wuhan]] and [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]. |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ying-Chuan Chen2013">{{cite thesis|title=Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity|first=Ying-Chuan|last=Chen|publisher=[[University of Ottawa]]|date=2013|page=300|url=https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219134255/https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-19|quote=[...] a consistent gender pattern found across all the age [[Cohort (statistics)|cohort]]s is that women were more concerned about their teachers' bad Mandarin pronunciation, and implied that it was an inferior form of Mandarin, which signified their aspiration to speak '''standard Beijing Mandarin''', the good version of the language.}}</ref> It is colloquially referred to as simply '''Mandarin''',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633">{{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=611–633 |year=2018 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |quote=in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word |doi-access=free}}</ref> though this term may also refer to the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin dialect group]] as a whole, or the late imperial [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|form used as a lingua franca]].<ref name="Robert M Sanders 1987">{{Citation |last=Sanders |first=Robert M. |title=The Four Languages of "Mandarin" |date=1987 |work=Sino-Platonic Papers |issue=4 |url=https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307022502/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-07}}</ref>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=136}}<ref>{{Citation |title=Mandarin |work=Oxford Dictionary |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703095204/https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-date=3 July 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633" /> "Mandarin" is a translation of ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=官话|t=官話|first=t|l=bureaucrat speech}}),{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} which referred to the late imperial lingua franca.{{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11–12}} The term '''Modern Standard Mandarin''' is used to distinguish it from older forms.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}}{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}} ===In Chinese=== In [[Mainland China]], Standard Chinese is most commonly called ''Putonghua'', while in [[Taiwan]] it is most commonly called ''Guoyu''.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} Among linguists, the language is referred to as Modern Standard Chinese ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准汉语|t=現代標準漢語|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ}}) or Modern Standard Mandarin ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准官话|t=現代標準官話|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn guānhuà}}). For both terms, the word Modern ({{lang-zh|s=现代|t=現代|p=Xiàndài|labels=no}}) is sometimes omitted. ====''Guoyu''==== The word ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|t=國語|s=国语|l=national language}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} was initially used during the late [[Qing dynasty]] to refer to the [[Manchu language]]. The 1655 ''[[Memoir of Qing Dynasty]], Volume: Emperor [[Nurhaci]]'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|清太祖實錄}}) says: "(In 1631) as Manchu ministers do not comprehend the Han language, each ministry shall create a new position to be filled up by [[Han people|Han]] official who can comprehend the national language."<ref>{{Citation |last=张杰 |title=清文化与满族精神 |date=2012 |editor-last=张杰 |url=http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105000708/http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-date=2020-11-05 |chapter=论清代满族语言文字在东北的兴废与影响 |publisher=辽宁民族出版社 |language=zh |quote=[天聪五年, 1631年] 满大臣不解汉语，故每部设启心郎一员，以通晓国语之汉员为之，职正三品，每遇议事，座在其中参预之。}}</ref> However, the sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan in the early 20th century. In 1902, the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] to be the national language.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133–134}} In Taiwan, ''Guoyu'' is the colloquial term for Standard Chinese. In 2017 and 2018, the Taiwanese government introduced two laws explicitly recognizing the indigenous [[Formosan languages]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Council of Indigenous Peoples]] |title=原住民族語言發展法 |date=2017-06-14 |trans-title=Indigenous Languages Development Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Indigenous languages are national languages. To carry out historical justice, promote the preservation and development of indigenous languages, and secure indigenous language usage and heritage, this act is enacted according to... [原住民族語言為國家語言，為實現歷史正義，促進原住民族語言之保存與發展，保障原住民族語言之使用及傳承，依...] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123845/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018">{{Citation |last=Wang |first=Baojian |author-mask=Wang Baojian (王保鍵) |year=2018 |work=Journal of Civil Service |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=89, 92–96 |script-title=zh:客家基本法之制定與發展：兼論 2018 年修法重點 |url=https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105103333/https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-05}}</ref> and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Hakka Affairs Council]] |title=客家基本法 |date=2018-01-31 |trans-title=Hakka Basic Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Hakka language is one of the national languages, equal to the languages of other ethnic groups. The people shall be given guarantee on their right to study in Hakka language and use it in enjoying public services and partaking of the dissemination of resources. [客語為國家語言之一，與各族群語言平等。人民以客語作為學習語言、接近使用公共服務及傳播資源等權利，應予保障。] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213124007/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018" /> as "Languages of the nation" ({{lang|zh-Hant|國家語言}}) alongside Standard Chinese. Since then, there have been efforts to redefine ''Guoyu'' as encompassing all "languages of the nation", rather than exclusively referring to Standard Chinese. ====''Putonghua''==== The term ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|t=普通話|s=普通话|l=common tongue}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} dates back to 1906 in writings by [[Zhu Wenxiong]] to differentiate the standard vernacular Mandarin from [[Literary Chinese]] and other [[varieties of Chinese]]. Use of the term ''Putonghua'' ('common tongue') deliberately avoids calling the dialect a 'national language', in order to mitigate the impression of coercing minority groups to adopt the language of the majority. Such concerns were first raised by the early Communist leader [[Qu Qiubai]] in 1931. His concern echoed within the Communist Party, which adopted the term ''Putonghua'' in 1955.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cao |first=Dehe |author-mask=Cao Dehe (曹德和) |year=2011 |publisher=Tribune of Social Sciences |issue=10 |script-title=zh:恢复"国语名"称的建议为何不被接受_──《国家通用语言文字法》学习中的探讨和思考 |language=zh}}</ref><ref>Yuan, Zhongrui. (2008) "[http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html 国语、普通话、华语] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426051531/http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html |date=26 April 2009 }} (Guoyu, Putonghua, Huayu)". ''China Language'' National Language Committee, People's Republic of China</ref> Since 1949, usage of the word ''Guoyu'' was phased out in the PRC, only surviving in established compound nouns, e.g. '[[Mandopop]]' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ liúxíng yīnyuè|s=国语流行音乐}}), or 'Chinese cinema' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ diànyǐng|s=国语电影}}). Since 2000, the Chinese government has used the term "Countrywide common spoken and written language" ({{zhi|s=国家通用语言文字}}), while also making provisions for the use and protection of [[Chinese ethnic minorities|ethnic minority]] languages.<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识">{{Cite web |title=进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识 |url=http://npc.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1116/c14576-31932918.html |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=人民日报}}</ref> The term is derived from the title of a 2000 law which defines ''Putonghua'' as the "Countrywide Common Spoken and Written Language".<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识" /> ====''Huayu''==== Until the mid-1960s, ''Huayu'' ({{zhi|t=華語|s=华语}}) referred to all the language varieties used among the [[Zhonghua minzu|Chinese nation]].<ref name="Xu2018">{{Citation |last=Xu |first=Weixian |pages=36–41 |year=2018 |author-mask=Xu Weixian (許維賢) |trans-title=Chinese films in Malaysia: local and overseas styles and auteur theory |script-title=zh:華語電影在後馬來西亞：土腔風格、華夷風與作者論 |publisher=Lianjing chuban |language=zh |isbn=978-957-08-5098-7}}</ref> For example, [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Cantonese]], [[Cinema of China|Mandarin]], and [[Hokkien films]] produced in Hong Kong were imported into Malaysia and collectively known as "''Huayu'' cinema" until the mid-1960s.<ref name="Xu2018" /> Gradually, the term has been re-appropriated to refer specifically to Standard Chinese. The term is mostly used in [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kane |first=Daniel |title=The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage |pages=22–23, 93 |year=2006 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5}}</ref> ====''Hanyu'' and ''Zhongwen''==== Among Chinese people, ''Hanyu'' ({{zhi|t=漢語|s=汉语|l=Han language}}) refers to all spoken [[varieties of Chinese]]. ''Zhongwen'' ({{zhi|c=中文|l=Chinese script}}){{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11}} refers to written Chinese. Among foreigners, the term ''Hanyu'' is most commonly used in textbooks and Standard Chinese education, such as in the [[Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi]] (HSK) test. == History == {{Main|History of Standard Chinese}} The [[Chinese language]] has had considerable dialectal variation throughout its history, including [[prestige dialect]]s and [[linguae francae]] used throughout the territory controlled by the dynastic states of China. For example, [[Confucius]] is thought to have used a dialect known as ''[[Yayan (language)|yayan]]'' rather than regional dialects; during the [[Han dynasty]], texts also referred to {{transliteration|zh|tōngyǔ}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|通語}}|l=common language}}). The [[rime book]]s that were written starting in the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Northern and Southern period]] may have reflected standard systems of pronunciation. However, these standard dialects were mostly used by the educated elite, whose pronunciation may still have possessed great variation. For these elites, the Chinese language was unified in [[Literary Chinese]], a form that was primarily written, as opposed to spoken. === Late empire === {{main|Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)}} [[File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png|thumb|right|''Zhongguo Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=中国官话|t=中國官話|first=t}}), or {{lang|la|Medii Regni Communis Loquela}} ('Middle Kingdom's Common Speech'), used on the [[book frontispiece|frontispiece]] of an early Chinese grammar published by [[Étienne Fourmont]] (with [[Arcadio Huang]]) in 1742<ref>{{Citation |last=Fourmont|first=Étienne|title=Linguæ Sinarum Mandarinicæ Hieroglyphicæ Grammatica Duplex|trans-title=Grammar of the Mandarin Chinese Hieroglyphics|language=la|author-link=Étienne Fourmont|year=1742|url=https://archive.org/details/b30448955/page/n7/mode/2up|location=Paris|publisher=Hippolyte-Louis Guérin}}</ref>]] The term ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|t=官話|s=官话|first=t|l=official speech}}) was used during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties to refer to [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|the lingua franca]] spoken within the imperial courts. The term "Mandarin" is borrowed directly from the Portuguese word {{lang|pt|mandarim}}, in turn derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word {{transliteration|sa|[[mantri]]n}} ('minister')—and was initially used to refer to Chinese [[scholar-official]]s. The Portuguese then began referring to ''Guanhua'' as "the language of the mandarins".{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}} {{blockquote|text=The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... [They] also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among ourselves.... Two of our fathers [Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci] have been learning this mandarin language...|author=[[Alessandro Valignano]]|source={{lang|es|Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compañia de Jesus en las Indias Orientales}} (1542–1564)<ref>Translation quoted in {{harvp|Coblin|2000|p=539}}</ref>}} During the 17th century, the state had set up [[orthoepy]] academies ({{zhi|t=正音書院|p=zhèngyīn shūyuàn}}) in an attempt to conform the speech of bureaucrats to the standard. These attempts had little success: as late as the 19th century, the emperor had difficulty understanding some of his ministers in court, who did not always follow a standard pronunciation. Before the 19th century, the lingua franca was based on the [[Nanjing dialect]], but later the [[Beijing dialect]] became increasingly influential, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various dialects in the capital, [[Beijing]].{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=549–550}} By some accounts, as late as 1900 the position of the Nanjing dialect was considered by some to be above that of Beijing; the [[postal romanization]] standards established in 1906 included spellings that reflected elements of Nanjing pronunciation.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Richard |first1=Louis |title=Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies |year=1908 |url=http://archive.org/details/lrichardscompreh00rich |access-date=2024-03-06 |place=Shanghai |publisher=Tusewei Press |last2=Kennelly |first2=M. |page=iv}}</ref> The sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan; in 1902 the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] as ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|s=国语|t=國語}}), the 'national language'. === Republican era === [[File:Madarin in Chinese Mainland EN.PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of Mandarin subgroups in mainland China, as of 1987]] After the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A [[Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation]] was convened with delegates from the entire country.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=16–17}} A ''Dictionary of National Pronunciation'' ({{zhi|s=国音字典|t=國音字典|first=t}}) was published in 1919, defining a [[Old National Pronunciation|hybrid pronunciation]] that did not match any existing speech.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=134}}{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=18}} Meanwhile, despite the lack of a workable standardized pronunciation, colloquial literature in [[written vernacular Chinese]] continued to develop.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=10}} Gradually, the members of the National Language Commission came to settle upon the Beijing dialect, which became the major source of standard national pronunciation due to its prestigious status. In 1932, the commission published the ''Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use'' ({{zhi|s=国音常用字汇|t=國音常用字彙|first=t}}), with little fanfare or official announcement. This dictionary was similar to the previous published one except that it normalized the pronunciations for all characters into the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=15}} Following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) continued standardisation efforts on the mainland, and in 1955 officially began using ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|s=普通话|t=普通話|l=common speech}}) instead of ''Guoyu'', which remains the name used in [[Taiwan]]. The forms of Standard Chinese used in China and Taiwan have diverged somewhat since the end of the Civil War, especially in newer vocabulary, and a little in pronunciation.{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|pp=313–314}} In 1956, the PRC officially defined Standard Chinese as "the standard form of Modern Chinese with the Beijing phonological system as its norm of pronunciation, and Northern dialects as its base dialect, and looking to exemplary modern works in [[written vernacular Chinese]] for its grammatical norms."<ref name="langlaw">{{Citation |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |date=31 October 2000 |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |archive-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=live |publisher=Gov.cn |trans-quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.|script-quote=zh:普通话就是现代汉民族共同语，是全国各民族通用的语言。普通话以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作语法规范}}</ref>{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=24}} According to the official definition, Standard Chinese uses: * The [[phonology]] of the Beijing dialect, if not always with each phoneme having the precise [[phonetic]] values as those heard in Beijing. * The [[vocabulary]] of [[Mandarin dialects]] in general, excepting what are deemed to be [[slang]] and regionalisms. The vocabulary of all Chinese varieties, especially in more technical fields like science, law, and government, is very similar—akin to the profusion of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] vocabulary in European languages. This means that much of the vocabulary of Standard Chinese is shared with all varieties of Chinese. Much of the [[colloquialism|colloquial]] vocabulary of the Beijing dialect is not considered part of Standard Chinese, and may not be understood by people outside Beijing.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=37–38}} * The [[grammar]] and idioms of exemplary modern [[Chinese literature]], a form known as [[written vernacular Chinese]]. Written vernacular Chinese is loosely based upon a synthesis of predominantly northern grammar and vocabulary, with southern and Literary elements. This distinguishes Standard Chinese from the dialect heard on the streets of Beijing. Proficiency in the new standard was initially limited, even among Mandarin speakers, but increased over the following decades.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=27–28}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Percentage of population of China proficient in Standard Chinese{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=28}} |- ! rowspan="2" | ! Early 1950s ! colspan="2" | 1984 |- ! Comprehension ! Comprehension ! Speaking |- ! Mandarin-speaking areas | 54 || 91 || 54 |- ! non-Mandarin areas | 11 || 77 || 40 |- ! whole country | 41 || 90 || 50 |} A 2007 survey conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Education indicated that 53.06% of the population were able to effectively communicate using Standard Chinese.<ref>{{Citation |title=More than half of Chinese can speak Mandarin |date=7 March 2007 |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204232341/http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2020, this figure had risen to over 80%.<ref name="over80percent">{{Citation |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin |surname1=Zhao |given1=E'nuo |surname2=Wu |given2=Yue |work=People's Daily |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |date=16 October 2020 |access-date=2021-12-22 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |url-status=live }}</ref> == Status == In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is used in most official contexts, as well as the media and educational system, contributing to its proliferation. As a result, it is now spoken by most people in both countries, though often with some regional or personal variation in vocabulary and pronunciation. In overseas Chinese communities outside Asia where Cantonese once dominated, such as the [[Manhattan Chinatown|Chinatown in Manhattan]], the use of Standard Chinese, which is the primary lingua franca of more recent [[Chinese immigrants]], is rapidly increasing.<ref>{{Citation |last=Semple |first=Kirk |title=In Chinatown, Sound of the Future Is Mandarin |date=21 October 2009 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |access-date=18 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714084739/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mainland China === [[File:Map of sinitic languages cropped-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of the [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese dialect groups]] as of 1987, including Mandarin (light brown)]] While Standard Chinese was made China's official language in the early 20th century, local languages continue to be the main form of everyday communication in much of the country. The language policy adopted by the Chinese government promotes the use of Standard Chinese while also making allowances for the use and preservation of local varieties.<ref>{{Citation |last=Spolsky |first=Bernard |title=Language management in the People's Republic of China |date=December 2014 |work=Linguistic Society of America |volume=90 |pages=168 |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023014/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> From an official point of view, Standard Chinese serves as a [[lingua franca]] to facilitate communication between speakers of mutually unintelligible [[varieties of Chinese]] and [[Languages of China|non-Sinitic languages]]. The name ''Putonghua'', or 'common speech', reinforces this idea. However, due to Standard Chinese being a "public" lingua franca, other Chinese varieties and even non-Sinitic languages have shown signs of losing ground to the standard dialect. In many areas, especially in southern China, it is commonly used for practical reasons, as linguistic diversity is so great that residents of neighboring cities may have difficulties communicating with each other without a lingua franca. According to the Chinese government, their language policy been largely successful, with over 80% of the Chinese population able to speak Standard Chinese as of 2020.<ref name="over80percent" /> The Chinese government's current goal is to have 85% of the country's population speak Standard Chinese by 2025, and virtually the entire country by 2035.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=China says 85% of citizens will use Mandarin by 2025 |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477 |access-date=2021-12-22 |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201112223/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477|archive-date=2021-12-01}}</ref> Throughout the country, Standard Chinese has heavily influenced local languages through [[diglossia]], replacing them entirely in some cases, especially among younger people in urban areas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Zuo |first=Xinyi |title=Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2020) |date=2020-12-16 |pages=56–59 |chapter=Effects of Ways of Communication on the Preservation of Shanghai Dialect |chapter-url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |publisher=Atlantis Press |language=en |doi=10.2991/assehr.k.201214.465 |isbn=978-94-6239-301-1 |s2cid=234515573 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023038/https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Chinese government is keen to promote ''Putonghua'' as the national lingua franca: under the [[Chinese language law|National Common Language and Writing Law]], the government is required to promote its use. Officially, the Chinese government has not stated its intent to replace regional varieties with Standard Chinese. However, regulations enacted by local governments to implement the national law have included measures to control the use of spoken dialects and [[traditional characters]] in writing.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} For example, the [[Guangdong National Language Regulations]] enacted in 2012 generally require broadcasts in the province to be in Standard Chinese, with programs and channels able to broadcast in other varieties if approved by the national or provincial government. Government employees, including teachers, conference holders, broadcasters, and TV staff are required to use Standard Chinese.<ref name="phxtvonline">{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:广东省国家通用语言文字规定 |trans-title=Full Text of Guangdong National Language Regulations |language=zh |work=news.ifeng.com |url=http://news.ifeng.com/mainland/detail_2011_12/18/11402971_0.shtml |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="world1">{{Citation |url=http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮?instance=top_rec |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130209120433/http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-%E5%BB%A3%E6%9D%B1%E9%99%90%E5%88%B6%E7%B2%B5%E8%AA%9E%E5%BB%A3%E6%92%AD%E6%81%90%E7%88%86%E6%8A%97%E8%AD%B0%E6%BD%AE?instance=top_rec |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 February 2013 |website=worldjournal.com |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮 |trans-title=Protests Worries As Guangdong Pushes New Language Bill |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> In addition, public signage is to be written using [[simplified characters]], with exceptions for historical sites, pre-registered logos, or when approved by the state.<ref name="phxtvonline" /> Public brands, seals, documents, websites, signs, and trade names are not to use traditional characters or [[character variants]].<ref>{{Citation |url=https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20111218/00178_008.html |work=Oriental Daily (Hong Kong) |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東廢粵語滅繁體 |trans-title=Guangdong Limits Use of Cantonese Language and Traditional Chinese Characters |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |date=17 December 2011 |work=Guangzhou Daily |language=zh |script-title=zh:粤语将何去何从？广东省国家通用语言文字规定明年实行 |trans-title=Guangdong National Language Regulations Puts Cantonese Language in the Crosshairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101204458/http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:粵嚴令媒體推普限制粵方言 |trans-title=Guangdong's Strict New Media Laws Oppresses Cantonese |language=zh |work=Sing Tao Daily |url=https://hk.news.yahoo.com/粵嚴令媒體-推普限制粵方言-220939679.html |access-date=6 January 2012 |via=Yahoo News Hong Kong}}</ref> Some Chinese speakers who are older or from rural areas cannot speak Standard Chinese fluently or at all, though most are able to understand it. Meanwhile, those from urban areas—as well as younger speakers, who have received their education primarily in Standard Chinese—are almost all fluent in it, with some being unable to speak their local dialect. The Chinese government has disseminated [[public service announcement]]s promoting the use of ''Putonghua'' on television and the radio, as well as on public buses. The standardization campaign has been challenged by local dialectical and ethnic populations, who fear the loss of their cultural identity and native dialect. In the summer of 2010, reports of a planned increase in the use of the ''Putonghua'' on local television in [[Guangdong]] led to demonstrations on the streets by thousands of [[Cantonese]]-speaking citizens.<ref>{{Citation |last=Luo |first=Chris |title=One-third of Chinese do not speak Putonghua, says Education Ministry |date=2014-09-23 |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602081902/http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |archive-date=2 June 2015 |url-status=live |place=Hong Kong}}</ref> While the use of Standard Chinese is encouraged as the common working language in predominantly [[Han Chinese|Han]] areas on the mainland, the PRC has been more sensitive to the status of non-Sinitic minority languages, and has generally not discouraged their social use outside of education. === Hong Kong and Macau === In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], which are [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] of the PRC, there is [[diglossia]] between [[Cantonese]] ({{zhi|t=口語|j=hau2 jyu5|l=spoken language}}) as the primary spoken language, alongside a [[Hong Kong written Chinese|local variety of written vernacular Chinese]] ({{zhi|t=書面語|j=syu1 min6 jyu5|l=written language}}) used as the primary written language.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Lee |first=Siu-lun |title=The Learning and Teaching of Cantonese as a Second Language |year=2023 |place=Abingdon/New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-000-88989-5}}</ref> [[Written Cantonese]] may also be used in informal settings such as advertisements, magazines, popular literature, and comics. Mixture of formal and informal written Chinese occurs to various degrees.<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Shi |first=Dingxu |title=Hong Kong written Chinese: Language change induced by language contact |date=2006-10-12 |journal=Journal of Asian Pacific Communication |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=299–318 |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |language=en |doi=10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |s2cid=143191355 |access-date=28 June 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> After the [[handover of Hong Kong]] from the United Kingdom and [[handover of Macau]] from Portugal, their governments use Standard Chinese to communicate with the PRC's [[Central People's Government]]. There has been significant effort to promote use of Standard Chinese in Hong Kong since the handover,<ref>{{Citation |last=Standing Committee on Language Education & Research |title=Putonghua promotion stepped up |date=25 March 2006 |url=http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092538/http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref> including the training of police<ref>{{Citation |title=Online training to boost Chinese skills |url=http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092725/http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Police Department}}</ref> and teachers.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hong Kong LegCo |title=Panel on Education working reports |date=19 April 1999 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092708/http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref> === Taiwan === {{main|Taiwanese Mandarin}} Standard Chinese is the official language of [[Taiwan]]. Standard Chinese started being widely spoken in Taiwan following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, with the relocation of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) to the island along with an [[Waishengren|influx of refugees]] from the mainland. The Standard Chinese used in Taiwan differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely being in technical vocabulary introduced after 1949.<ref>{{Citation |last=Yao |first=Qian |title=Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China |date=September 2014 |journal=Advanced Materials Research |volume=1030-1032 |pages=1650–1652 |doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650 |s2cid=136508776}}</ref> Prior to 1949, the varieties most commonly spoken by Taiwan's Han population were [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], as well as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] to a lesser extent. Much of the [[Taiwanese Aboriginal]] population spoke their native [[Formosan languages]]. During the period of [[martial law]] between 1949 and 1987, the Taiwanese government revived the [[Mandarin Promotion Council]], discouraging or in some cases forbidding the use of Hokkien and other non-standard varieties. This resulted in Standard Chinese replacing Hokkien as the country's lingua franca,{{sfnp|Scott|Tiun|2007|p=57}} and ultimately, a political backlash in the 1990s. Starting in the 2000s during the administration of President [[Chen Shui-Bian]], the Taiwanese government began making efforts to recognize the country's other languages. They began being taught in schools, and their use increased in media, though Standard Chinese remains the country's lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hubbs |first=Elizabeth |title=Taiwan language-in-education policy: social, cultural and practical implications |work=Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching |volume=20 |pages=76–95 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |url-status=live }}</ref> Chen often used Hokkien in his speeches; later Taiwanese President [[Lee Teng-hui]] also openly spoke Hokkien. In an amendment to the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act ({{lang|zh-tw|護照條例施行細則}}) passed on 9 August 2019, Taiwan's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that romanized spellings of names in [[Hoklo]], Hakka and Aboriginal languages may be used in Taiwanese passports. Previously, only Mandarin names could be romanized.<ref>{{Citation |last=Jason Pan |title=NTU professors' language rule draws groups' ire |date=16 August 2019 |work=[[Taipei Times]] |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817081519/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Singapore === {{Main|Singaporean Mandarin}} Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore, along with English, [[Malay language|Malay]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. Historically, it was seldom used by the [[Chinese Singaporeans|Chinese Singaporean community]], which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of [[Hokkien]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], Cantonese, or [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} [[Standard Singaporean Mandarin]] is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called Singdarin is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination thereof are also common. In Singapore, the government has heavily promoted a "[[Speak Mandarin Campaign]]" since the late 1970s, with the use of other Chinese varieties in broadcast media being prohibited and their use in any context officially discouraged until recently.<ref>{{Citation |title=New Hokkien drama aimed at seniors to be launched on Sep 9 |date=1 September 2016 |work=[[Channel News Asia]] |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219200949/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> This has led to some resentment amongst the older generations, as Singapore's migrant Chinese community is made up almost entirely of people of south Chinese descent. [[Lee Kuan Yew]], the initiator of the campaign, admitted that to most Chinese Singaporeans, Mandarin was a "stepmother tongue" rather than a true mother language. Nevertheless, he saw the need for a unified language among the Chinese community not biased in favor of any existing group.<ref name="Yew 2000">{{Citation |last=Yew |first=Lee Kuan |title=From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965-2000 |date=2000-10-03 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-019776-6 |ol=7275961M}}</ref> ===Malaysia=== {{Main|Malaysian Mandarin}} In Malaysia, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard shared with Singaporean Chinese. Together influenced by the Singaporean Speak Mandarin Campaign and Chinese culture revival movement in the 1980s, Malaysian Chinese started their own promotion of Mandarin too, and similar to Singapore, but to a lesser extent, experienced language shift from other Chinese variants to Mandarin. Today, Mandarin functions as lingua franca among Malaysian Chinese, while Hokkien and Cantonese are still retained in the northern part and central part of Peninsular Malaysia respectively. ===Myanmar=== {{See also|Chinese people in Myanmar}} In some regions controlled by [[List of insurgent groups in Myanmar|insurgent groups]] in northern Myanmar, Mandarin serves as the lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |author=Aung Thein Kha |title=In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language |date=17 September 2019 |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |last2=Gerin |first2=Roseanne |archive-date=5 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505202706/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |url-status=live }}</ref> == Education == [[File:Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg|thumb|A poster outside a high school in [[Yangzhou]] urges people to "Speak Putonghua to welcome guests from all around, use the language of the civilized to give your sincere feelings".]] In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is taught by immersion starting in elementary school. After the second grade, the entire educational system is in Standard Chinese, except for local language classes that have been taught for a few hours each week in Taiwan starting in the mid-1990s. With an increase in internal [[migration in China]], the official [[Putonghua Proficiency Test]] (PSC) has become popular. Employers often require a level of Standard Chinese proficiency from applicants depending on the position, and many university graduates on the mainland take the PSC before looking for a job. == Phonology == {{Main|Standard Chinese phonology}} The pronunciation of Standard Chinese is defined as that of the [[Beijing dialect]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=138}} The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, consisting of an optional initial [[consonant]], an optional medial [[semivowel|glide]], a main vowel and an optional coda, and further distinguished by a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=138–139}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Initial consonants with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=139}} |- ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! Dental [[sibilant]] ! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]s | {{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}} || {{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}} || || || || |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive|Stops]] and<br/>[[affricates]] ! <small>unaspirated</small> | {{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|b}} || {{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|d}} || {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡s}} {{grapheme|z}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ}} {{grapheme|zh}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}} {{grapheme|j}} || {{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|g}} |- ! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | {{IPA link|p|pʰ}} {{grapheme|p}} || {{IPA link|t|tʰ}} {{grapheme|t}} || {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡sʰ}} {{grapheme|c}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ|ʈ͡ʂʰ}} {{grapheme|ch}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ|t͡ɕʰ}} {{grapheme|q}} || {{IPA link|k|kʰ}} {{grapheme|k}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]s | {{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}} || || {{IPA link|s̪|s}} {{grapheme|s}} || {{IPA link|ʂ}} {{grapheme|sh}} || {{IPA link|ɕ}} {{grapheme|x}} || {{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|h}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]s | {{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w}} || {{IPA link|l̪|l}} {{grapheme|l}} || || {{IPA link|ɻ}}~{{IPA link|ʐ}} {{grapheme|r}} || {{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}} || |} The palatal initials {{IPA|[tɕ]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰ]}} and {{IPA|[ɕ]}} pose a classic problem of [[phonemic]] analysis. Since they occur only before high front vowels, they are in [[complementary distribution]] with three other series, the dental sibilants, retroflexes and velars, which never occur in this position.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=140–141}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ Syllable finals with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=110}} |- | {{IPA|ɹ̩}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ɤ}} {{angle bracket|''e''}} || {{IPA|a}} {{angle bracket|''a''}} || {{IPA|ei}} {{angle bracket|''ei''}} || {{IPA|ai}} {{angle bracket|''ai''}} || {{IPA|ou}} {{angle bracket|''ou''}} || {{IPA|au}} {{angle bracket|''ao''}} || {{IPA|ən}} {{angle bracket|''en''}} || {{IPA|an}} {{angle bracket|''an''}} || {{IPA|əŋ}} {{angle bracket|''eng''}} || {{IPA|aŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ang''}} || {{IPA|ɚ}} {{angle bracket|''er''}} |- | {{IPA|i}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ie}} {{angle bracket|''ie''}} || {{IPA|ia}} {{angle bracket|''ia''}} || || || {{IPA|iou}} {{angle bracket|''iu''}} || {{IPA|iau}} {{angle bracket|''iao''}} || {{IPA|in}} {{angle bracket|''in''}} || {{IPA|ien}} {{angle bracket|''ian''}} || {{IPA|iŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ing''}} || {{IPA|iaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iang''}} || |- | {{IPA|u}} {{angle bracket|''u''}} || {{IPA|uo}} {{angle bracket|''uo''}} || {{IPA|ua}} {{angle bracket|''ua''}} || {{IPA|uei}} {{angle bracket|''ui''}} || {{IPA|uai}} {{angle bracket|''uai''}} || || || {{IPA|uən}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|uan}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|uŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ong''}} || {{IPA|uaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''uang''}} || |- | {{IPA|y}} {{angle bracket|''ü''}} || {{IPA|ye}} {{angle bracket|''üe''}} || || || || || || {{IPA|yn}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|yen}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|iuŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iong''}} || || |} The {{IPA|[ɹ̩]}} final, which occurs only after dental sibilant and retroflex initials, is a syllabic [[approximant consonant|approximant]], prolonging the initial.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=142}}{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=111}} [[File:Pinyin Tone Chart.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.6|Relative pitch contours of the four full tones]] The [[rhotacized vowel]] {{IPA|[ɚ]}} forms a complete syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=143–144}} A reduced form of this syllable occurs as a sub-syllabic suffix, spelled ''-r'' in pinyin and often with a [[diminutive]] connotation. The suffix modifies the coda of the base syllable in a rhotacizing process called ''[[erhua]]''.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=144–145}} Each full syllable is pronounced with a phonemically distinctive pitch contour. There are four tonal categories, marked in pinyin with diacritics, as in the words {{transliteration|zh|mā}} ({{zhi|s=妈|t=媽|first=t}}; 'mother'), {{transliteration|zh|má}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|麻}}; 'hemp'), {{transliteration|zh|mǎ}} ({{zhi|s=马|t=馬|first=t}}; 'horse') and {{transliteration|zh|mà}} ({{zhi|s=骂|t=罵|first=t}}; 'curse').{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=225}} The tonal categories also have secondary characteristics. For example, the third tone is long and [[murmured voice|murmured]], whereas the fourth tone is relatively short.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=147}}{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=236}} Statistically, vowels and tones are of similar importance in the language.{{efn|"A word pronounced in a wrong tone or inaccurate tone sounds as puzzling as if one said 'bud' in English, meaning 'not good' or 'the thing one sleeps in.{{' "}}{{sfnp|Chao|1948|p=24}}}}<ref>{{citation | surname1 = Surendran | given1 = Dinoj | surname2 = Levow | given2 = Gina-Anne | chapter-url = http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416214008/http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archivedate=2007-04-16 | chapter = The functional load of tone in Mandarin is as high as that of vowels | pages = 99–102 | title = Proceedings of the International Conference on Speech Prosody 2004 | editor1-given = Bernard | editor1-surname = Bel | editor2-given = Isabelle | editor2-surname = Marlien | publisher = SProSIG | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-2-9518233-1-0 }}</ref> There are also weak syllables, including grammatical particles such as the interrogative ''ma'' ({{lang-zh|s=吗|t=嗎|first=t|labels=no}}) and certain syllables in polysyllabic words. These syllables are short, with their pitch determined by the preceding syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=148}} Such syllables are commonly described as being in the neutral tone. === Regional accents === It is common for Standard Chinese to be spoken with the speaker's regional accent, depending on factors such as age, level of education, and the need and frequency to speak in official or formal situations. Due to evolution and standardization, Mandarin, although based on the Beijing dialect, is no longer synonymous with it. Part of this was due to the standardization to reflect a greater vocabulary scheme and a more archaic and "proper-sounding" pronunciation and vocabulary. Distinctive features of the Beijing dialect are more extensive use of ''erhua'' in vocabulary items that are left unadorned in descriptions of the standard such as the ''[[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]]'', as well as more neutral tones.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=39–40}} An example of standard versus Beijing dialect would be the standard {{transliteration|zh|mén}} (door) and Beijing {{transliteration|zh|ménr}}. While the Standard Chinese spoken in Taiwan is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially Taiwanese Hokkien. Notable differences include: the merger of [[retroflex]] sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of ''[[erhua]]'' (rhoticization).{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=47}} [[Code-switching]] between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chiu |first=Miao-chin |title=Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials |date=April 2012 |work=Monumenta Taiwanica |volume=5 |url=http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807182654/http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The stereotypical "southern Chinese" accent does not distinguish between [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] and [[alveolar consonant]]s, pronouncing pinyin ''zh'' [tʂ], ''ch'' [tʂʰ], and ''sh'' [ʂ] in the same way as ''z'' [ts], ''c'' [tsʰ], and ''s'' [s] respectively.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=140}} Southern-accented Standard Chinese may also interchange ''l'' and ''n'', final ''n'' and ''ng'', and vowels ''i'' and ''ü'' [y]. Attitudes towards southern accents, particularly the Cantonese accent, range from disdain to admiration.<ref>{{Citation |last=Blum |first=Susan D. |title=China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom |pages=160–161 |year=2002 |editor-last=Blum |editor-first=Susan Debra |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Lionel M |chapter=Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity in Kunming |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5}}</ref> == Grammar == {{main|Chinese grammar}} Chinese is a strongly [[analytic language]], having almost no [[inflectional morpheme]]s, and relying on word order and [[grammatical particle|particle]]s to express relationships between the parts of a sentence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=159}} Nouns are not marked for [[grammatical case|case]] and rarely marked for [[grammatical number|number]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=11–12}} Verbs are not marked for [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] or [[grammatical tense]], but [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] is marked using post-verbal particles.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=12–13}} The basic word order is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO), as in English.{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=19}} Nouns are generally preceded by any modifiers ([[adjective]]s, [[possessive]]s and [[relative clause]]s), and verbs also generally follow any modifiers ([[adverb]]s, [[auxiliary verb]]s and prepositional phrases).{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=24–26}} {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |他 为/為 他的 朋友 做了 这个/這個 工作。 |Tā wèi tā-de péngyǒu zuò-le zhè-ge gōngzuò. |He for he-GEN friend do-PERF this-CL job |'He did this job for his friends.'{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=169}} }} The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] (linking verb) {{transliteration|zh|shì}} ({{lang|zh|是}}) followed by a noun phrase, etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=141}} In predicative use, Chinese adjectives function as [[stative verb]]s, forming complete predicates in their own right without a copula.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=141–143}} For example, {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |我 不 累。 |Wǒ bú lèi. |I not tired |'I am not tired.' }} Chinese additionally differs from English in that it forms another kind of sentence by [[Topic-prominent language|stating a topic and following it by a comment]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=15–16}} To do this in English, speakers generally flag the topic of a sentence by prefacing it with "as for". For example: {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |妈妈/媽媽 给/給 我们/我們 的 钱/錢, 我 已经/已經 买了/買了 糖果。 |Māma gěi wǒmen de qián, wǒ yǐjīng mǎi-le tángguǒ(r) |Mom give us REL money I already buy-PERF candy |'As for the money that Mom gave us, I have already bought candy with it.' }} The time when something happens can be given by an explicit term such as "yesterday", by relative terms such as "formerly", etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=320–320}} As in many east Asian languages, [[Chinese classifier|classifier]]s or measure words are required when using [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s, [[demonstrative]]s and similar quantifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=104}} There are many different classifiers in the language, and each noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=105}} {{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3 |一顶 帽子, 三本 书/書, 那支 笔/筆 |yī-dǐng màozi, sān-běn shū, nèi-zhī bǐ |one-top hat three-volume book that-branch pen |'a hat, three books, that pen' }} The general classifier ''ge'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|个}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|個}}) is gradually replacing specific classifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=112}} In [[word formation]], the language allows for [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]] and for [[reduplication]]. == Vocabulary == Many [[Chinese honorifics|honorifics]] used in imperial China are also used in daily conversation in modern Mandarin, such as {{transliteration|zh|jiàn}} ({{linktext|賤|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贱}}; '[my] humble') and {{transliteration|zh|guì}} ({{linktext|貴|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贵}}; '[your] honorable'). Although Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between Standard Chinese and the Beijing dialect, there are aspects of Beijing dialect that have made it into the official standard. Standard Chinese has a [[T–V distinction]] between the polite and informal "you" that comes from the Beijing dialect, although its use is quite diminished in daily speech. It also distinguishes between "{{transliteration|zh|zánmen}}" ('we', including the listener) and "{{transliteration|zh|wǒmen}}" ('we', not including the listener). In practice, neither distinction is commonly used by most Chinese, at least outside the Beijing area. The following samples are some phrases from the Beijing dialect which are not yet accepted into Standard Chinese:{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} * {{lang|zh|倍儿}} {{transliteration|zh|bèir}} means 'very much'; {{lang|zh|拌蒜}} {{transliteration|zh|bànsuàn}} means 'stagger'; {{lang|zh|不吝}} {{transliteration|zh|bù lìn}} means 'do not worry about'; {{lang|zh|撮}} {{transliteration|zh|cuō}} means 'eat'; {{lang|zh|出溜}} {{transliteration|zh|chūliū}} means 'slip'; {{lang|zh|(大)老爷儿们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|dà lǎoyermenr}} means 'man, male'. The following samples are some phrases from Beijing dialect which have become accepted as Standard Chinese:{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} * {{lang|zh|二把刀}} {{transliteration|zh|èr bǎ dāo}} means 'not very skillful'; {{lang|zh|哥们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|gēménr}} means 'good male friend', 'buddy'; {{lang|zh|抠门儿}} {{transliteration|zh|kōu ménr}} means 'frugal' or 'stingy'. == Writing system == {{Main|Written vernacular Chinese|Modern Chinese characters}} Standard Chinese is written with characters corresponding to syllables of the language, most of which represent a morpheme. In most cases, these characters come from those used in [[Classical Chinese]] to write cognate morphemes of late [[Old Chinese]], though their pronunciation, and often meaning, has shifted dramatically over two millennia.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=74}} However, there are several words, many of them heavily used, which have no classical counterpart or whose etymology is obscure. Two strategies have been used to write such words:{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=74–75}} * An unrelated character with the same or similar pronunciation might be used, especially if its original sense was no longer common. For example, the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this' and {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that' have no counterparts in Classical Chinese, which used {{lang|zh|此}} {{transliteration|zh|cǐ}} and {{lang|zh|彼}} {{transliteration|zh|bǐ}} respectively. Hence the character {{lang|zh-Hant|這}} (later simplified as {{lang|zh-Hans|这}}) for {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'to meet' was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this', and the character {{lang|zh|那}} for {{transliteration|zh|nà}}, the name of a country and later a rare surname, was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that'. * A new character, usually a phono-semantic or semantic compound, might be created. For example, {{transliteration|zh|gǎn}} 'pursue', 'overtake', is written with a new character {{lang|zh|趕}}, composed of the signific {{lang|zh|走}} {{transliteration|zh|zǒu}} 'run' and the phonetic {{lang|zh|旱}} {{transliteration|zh|hàn}} 'drought'.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=76}} This method was used to represent many [[Chemical elements in East Asian languages#Chinese|elements in the periodic table]]. The PRC, as well as several other governments and institutions, has promulgated a set of simplified character forms. Under this system, the forms of the words {{transliteration|zh|zhèlǐ}} ('here') and {{transliteration|zh|nàlǐ}} ('there') changed from {{lang|zh-Hant|這裏/這裡}} and {{lang|zh-Hant|那裏/那裡}} to {{lang|zh-Hans|这里}} and {{lang|zh-Hans|那里}}, among many other changes. Chinese characters were traditionally read from top to bottom, right to left, but in modern usage it is more common to read from left to right. == Examples == {| class="wikitable" |- ! English ! Traditional characters ! Simplified characters ! Pinyin |- | Hello! | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|[[wikt:你好|你好]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo!}} |- | What is your name? | {{lang|zh-hant|你叫什麼名字？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你叫什么名字？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?}} |- | My name is... | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我叫...}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ jiào}} ... |- | How are you? | {{lang|zh-hant|你好嗎？/ 你怎麼樣？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你好吗？/ 你怎么样？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo ma? / Nǐ zěnmeyàng?}} |- | I am fine, how about you? | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我很好，你呢？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne?}} |- | I don't want it / I don't want to | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我不要。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ bú yào.}} |- | Thank you! | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:謝謝|謝謝]]！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:谢谢|谢谢]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Xièxie}} |- | Welcome! / You're welcome! (Literally: No need to thank me!) / Don't mention it! (Literally: Don't be so polite!) | {{lang|zh-hant|歡迎！/ 不用謝！/ 不客氣！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|欢迎！/ 不用谢！/ 不客气！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Huānyíng! / Búyòng xiè! / Bú kèqì!}} |- | Yes. / Correct. | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:是|是]]。 / [[wikt:對|對]]。/ 嗯。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|是。 / [[wikt:对|对]]。/ 嗯。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Shì. / Duì. / M.}} |- | No. / Incorrect. | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:不是|不是]]。/ 不對。/ 不。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|不是。/ 不对。/ 不。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Búshì. / Bú duì. / Bù.}} |- | When? | {{lang|zh-hant|什麼時候？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|什么时候？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Shénme shíhou?}} |- | How much money? | {{lang|zh-hant|多少錢？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|多少钱？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Duōshǎo qián?}} |- | Can you speak a little slower? | {{lang|zh-hant|您能說得再慢些嗎？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|您能说得再慢些吗？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nín néng shuō de zài mànxiē ma?}} |- | Good morning! / Good morning! | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|早上好！ / 早安！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Zǎoshang hǎo! / Zǎo'ān!}} |- | Goodbye! | {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:再見|再見]]！}} | {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:再见|再见]]！}} | {{transliteration|zh|Zàijiàn!}} |- | How do you get to the airport? | {{lang|zh-hant|去機場怎麼走？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|去机场怎么走？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Qù jīchǎng zěnme zǒu?}} |- | I want to fly to London on the eighteenth | {{lang|zh-hant|我想18號坐飛機到倫敦。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我想18号坐飞机到伦敦。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ xiǎng shíbā hào zuò fēijī dào Lúndūn.}} |- | How much will it cost to get to Munich? | {{lang|zh-hant|到慕尼黑要多少錢？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|到慕尼黑要多少钱？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Dào Mùníhēi yào duōshǎo qián?}} |- | I don't speak Chinese very well. | {{lang|zh-hant|我的漢語說得不太好。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我的汉语说得不太好。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ de Hànyǔ shuō de bú tài hǎo.}} |- | Do you speak English? | {{lang|zh-hant|你會說英語嗎？}} | {{lang|zh-hans|你会说英语吗？}} | {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ huì shuō Yīngyǔ ma?}} |- | I have no money. | {{lang|zh-hant|我沒有錢。}} | {{lang|zh-hans|我没有钱。}} | {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ méiyǒu qián.}} |} Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Standard Chinese:<ref>{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |author=United Nations |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |work=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live }}</ref> {{blockquote|{{lang|zh-Hans|人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。}}{{pb}} {{lang|zh-Hant|人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應以兄弟關係的精神相對待。}}{{pb}} {{transliteration|zh|Rén rén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé/hàn quánlì shàng yīlǜ píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé/hàn liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén xiāng duìdài.}}{{pb}} All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.}} == See also == * [[Chinese speech synthesis]] * [[Comparison of national standards of Chinese]] * [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines]] * [[Protection of the varieties of Chinese]] * [[Chinese language law]] * [[Yayan (Old Chinese)]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === Works cited === {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Citation | surname = Adelaar | given = K. Alexander | chapter = Contact languages in Indonesia and Malaysia other than Malay | pages = 695–711 | editor1-surname = Wurm | editor1-given = Stephen A. | editor1-link = Stephen Wurm | editor2-surname = Mühlhäusler | editor2-given = Peter | editor3-surname = Tryon | editor3-given = Darrell T. | title = Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol II: Texts | publisher = de Gruyter Mouton | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-3-11-081972-4 | doi = 10.1515/9783110819724 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Bradley | given = David | author-link = David Bradley (linguist) | chapter = Chinese as a pluricentric language | pages = 305–324 | title = Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations | editor-given = Michael G. | editor-surname = Clyne | publisher = Walter de Gruyter | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-3-11-012855-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | title = Mandarin Primer: an Intensive Course in Spoken Chinese | surname = Chao | given = Yuen Ren | author-link = Yuen Ren Chao | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | year = 1948 | isbn = 978-0-674-73288-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Chen | given = Ping | title = Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-521-64572-0 | postscript = . | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/modernchinesehis00chen }} * {{Citation | surname = Coblin | given = W. South | author-link = Weldon South Coblin | title = A brief history of Mandarin | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 120 | number = 4 | year = 2000 | pages = 537–552 | jstor = 606615 | postscript = . | doi=10.2307/606615 }} * {{Citation | title = The phonology of standard Chinese | given = San | surname = Duanmu | publisher = Oxford University Press | edition = 2nd | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-921579-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | title = Standard Chinese (Beijing) | surname1 = Lee | given1 = Wai-Sum | surname2 = Zee | given2 = Eric | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 109–112 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1017/S0025100303001208 | postscript = . | doi-access = free}} * {{Citation | given1 = Charles N. | surname1 = Li | given2 = Sandra A. | surname2 = Thompson | author-link = Sandra Thompson (linguist) | title = Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar | location = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-520-06610-6 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Li | first = Yuming | title = Language Planning in China | year = 2015 | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | isbn = 978-1-61451-558-6 | series = Language Policies and Practices in China | location = Berlin}} * {{Citation | given = Sihua | surname = Liang | title = Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography | publisher = Springer International | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-3-319-12618-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | given = Helen T. | surname = Lin | title = Essential Grammar for Modern Chinese | location = Boston | publisher = Cheng & Tsui | year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-917056-10-9 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Mair | given = Victor H. | author-link = Victor H. Mair | title = What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms | url = https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf | journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | volume = 29 | year = 1991 | pages = 1–31 | postscript = . | access-date = 15 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180510155608/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf | archive-date = 10 May 2018 | url-status = dead }} * {{Citation | surname = Mair | given = Victor H. | author-mask = 3 | author-link = Victor H. Mair | chapter = The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is "Chinese"? | chapter-url = http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf | title = Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond | place = Beijing | publisher = Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica | year = 2013 | pages = 735–754 | editor-given1 = Guangshun | editor-surname1 = Cao | editor-given2 = Redouane | editor-surname2 = Djamouri | editor-given3 = Hilary | editor-surname3 = Chappell | editor-given4 = Thekla | editor-surname4 = Wiebusch | postscript = . | access-date = 15 April 2018 | archive-date = 16 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180416012634/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{Citation | surname = Norman | given = Jerry | author-link = Jerry Norman (sinologist) | title = Chinese | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-521-29653-3 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Ramsey | given = S. Robert |author-link=S. Robert Ramsey | title = The languages of China | location = Princeton, NJ | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-691-01468-5 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname1 = Scott | given1 = Mandy | surname2 = Tiun | given2 = Hak-khiam | title = Mandarin-Only to Mandarin-Plus: Taiwan | journal = Language Policy | year = 2007 | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–72 | doi = 10.1007/s10993-006-9040-5 | s2cid = 145009251 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Tam | given = Gina Anne | title = Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2020 | isbn = 978-1-108-77640-0 | postscript = . }} * {{Citation | surname = Wang | given = Xiaomei | title = Mandarin Spread in Malaysia | publisher = The University of Malaya Press | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-983-100-958-1 | postscript = . }} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last=Chao |first=Yuen Ren |title=A Grammar of Spoken Chinese |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofspokenc0000chao |edition=2nd |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-00219-7 |url-access=registration}} * Hsia, T., ''China's Language Reforms'', Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven), 1956. * Ladefoged, Peter; & Maddieson, Ian (1996). ''The sounds of the world's languages''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-631-19814-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|978-0-631-19815-4}} (pbk). * {{Citation |last1=Ladefoged |first1=Peter |title=Places of articulation: An investigation of Pekingese fricatives and affricates |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=267–278 |year=1984 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30883-6 |last2=Wu |first2=Zhongji |doi-access=free}} * Lehmann, W. P. (ed.), ''Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China'', University of Texas Press, (Austin), 1975. * {{cite JIPA |last1=Le |first1=Wai-Sum |last2=Zee |first2=Eric |title=Standard Chinese (Beijing) |printdate=2003 June |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=109-112 |doi=10.1017/S0025100303001208 }} * Lin, Y., ''Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'', The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972. * Milsky, C., "New Developments in Language Reform", ''The China Quarterly'', No. 53, (January–March 1973), pp.&nbsp;98–133. * Seybolt, P. J. and Chiang, G. K. (eds.), ''Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary'', M. E. Sharpe (White Plains), 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-87332-081-8}}. * Simon, W., ''A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition'', Lund Humphries (London), 1975. * {{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What Is Mandarin? The Social Project of Language Standardization in Early Republican China |date=2018 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=611–633 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |s2cid=166176089 |ref=none |doi-access=free}} {{refend}} == External links == {{InterWiki |code = zh }} * {{Wikibooks inline|Chinese (Mandarin)}} * {{wikivoyage inline|Chinese phrasebook - Traditional|Standard Chinese}} * Video {{Citation |title=A History of Mandarin: China's Search for a Common Language |date=2018-02-23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wjy0WfKhQc |publisher=[[NYU Shanghai]]}} - Talk by David Moser<!--This is an officially-hosted YouTube video--> {{Chinese language}} {{Languages of China}} {{Languages of Hong Kong}} {{Languages of Macau}} {{Languages of Taiwan}} {{Languages of Malaysia}} {{Languages of Singapore}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Standard Chinese| ]] [[Category:Languages of China]] [[Category:Languages of Taiwan]] [[Category:Chinese languages in Singapore]] [[Category:Standard languages|Chinese]] [[Category:Chinese language reform]] rovkh5q2efojv3ahfkz6icjh9i7yhbs Module:Jinyu Chinese language 828 77900 687843 2019-03-30T17:41:11Z EmausBot 2058 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Jin Chinese]] 687843 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Jin Chinese]] 37z2fhir6keqizozxfcrpu4e30pahut 687844 687843 2026-07-13T12:31:29Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Jinyu_Chinese_language]] 687843 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Jin Chinese]] 37z2fhir6keqizozxfcrpu4e30pahut Module:Hindustani language 828 77901 687845 2026-06-27T18:10:56Z JJMC89 bot III 27027 Moving [[:Category:Languages attested from the 13th century]] to [[:Category:Languages attested since the 13th century]] per [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2026 June 13#Category:Languages attested from the 1st century BC]] 687845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Indo-Aryan language}} {{For-multi|its official forms|Hindi|and|Urdu|other languages named Hindustani based on Maithili, Bhojpuri and Awadhi|Fiji Hindi{{!}}Fijian Hindustani|and|Caribbean Hindustani}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Use Indian English|date=April 2021}} {{Infobox language | name = Hindustani | nativename = {{hlist|हिन्दुस्तानी|{{nq|ہندوستانی}}}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|hns|ɦɪnd̪ʊst̪ɑːniː|}} | altname = Hindi–Urdu | image = Hindustani.svg | imagescale = 0.7 | imagecaption = The word ''Hindustani'' in the [[Devanagari]] and the [[Nastaliq]]-style [[Perso-Arabic script]]s | image_class = skin-invert-image | states = [[Languages of South Asia|South Asia]] | region = [[Western Uttar Pradesh]]/[[Delhi]] ([[Hindi Belt|Hindustani Belt]])<br> and [[Deccan]] ([[South India]]),<br>[[Pakistan]]<ref>{{cite journal |editor1=Robina Kausar |editor2=Muhammad Sarwar |editor3=Muhammad Shabbir |title=The History of the Urdu Language Together with Its Origin and Geographic Distribution |journal=International Journal of Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences |volume=2 |issue=1 |url=https://www.ijires.org/administrator/components/com_jresearch/files/publications/IJIRES-154_final.pdf}}</ref> | speakers = [[L1 speakers]]: {{circa|250}} million | date = 2011 & 2017 censuses | ref = <ref name=ethnologue>"Hindi" L1: 322 million (2011 Indian census), including perhaps 150 million speakers of other languages that reported their language as "Hindi" on the census. L2: 274 million (2016, source unknown). Urdu L1: 67 million (2011 & 2017 censuses), L2: 102 million (1999 Pakistan, source unknown, and 2001 Indian census): ''Ethnologue'' 21. {{e21|hin|Hindi}}. {{e21|ur|Urdu}}.</ref> | speakers2 = [[L2 speakers]]: ~500 million (1999–2016)<!--includes the 140M subtracted from the L1 census total of 390M estimated to speak something other than Hindustani. Not all of these will be able to speak Hindustani even as an L2, another reason the numbers can be only very approximate--><ref name=ethnologue /> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] | fam4 = [[Hindi languages|Central Zone]] | fam5 = [[Western Hindi]] | ancestor = [[Shauraseni Prakrit]] | ancestor2 = [[Apabhraṃśa]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Hindi]] | stand1 = [[Modern Standard Hindi]] | stand2 = [[Urdu]] | dia1 = [[Andaman Creole Hindi]] | dia2 = Arunachali Hindi | dia3 = [[Begamati language|Begamati]] | dia4 = [[Bihari Hindi]]{{efn|Not to be confused with the [[Bihari languages]], a group of [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]].}} | dia5 = [[Bangalori Urdu|Bangluri Hindi]] | dia6 = [[Bombay Hindi]] | dia7 = [[Dhakaiya Urdu]] | dia8 = [[Deccani language|Deccani]] | dia9 = [[Haflong Hindi]] | dia10 = [[Hyderabadi Urdu]] | dia11 = [[Kalkatiya Urdu]] | dia12 = [[Karkhandari Urdu]] | dia13 = [[Kauravi dialect|Kauravi]] | dia14 = [[Judeo-Urdu]] | dia15 = [[Rekhta]] | script = {{Unbulleted list |[[Brahmic script|Brahmic]] [[Devanagari]] ([[Hindi phonology|Hindi alphabet]])<ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011"/> |[[Perso-Arabic script|Perso-Arabic]] [[Nastaliq]] ([[Urdu alphabet]]) (Urdu)<ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011"/> |[[Kaithi]] (historical) |[[Bengali–Assamese script]] (for [[Eastern Hindi]] in [[East India]] and [[Urdu]] in [[Bangladesh]]) |[[Hebrew script|Indo-Hebrew]] ([[Judeo-Urdu]]) |[[Laṇḍā scripts|Laṇḍā]] (historical)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gangopadhyay|first=Avik|title=Glimpses of Indian Languages|publisher=Evincepub publishing|year=2020|isbn=9789390197828|pages=43}}</ref> |[[Hindi Braille]] |[[Urdu Braille]] |[[Latin script]] ([[Roman Urdu]])}} | sign = [[Indian Signing System]] (ISS)<ref>[http://share.pdfonline.com/51071726f49f47ea858865837b25f8f9/dedse_dhh09.htm Norms & Guidelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113022437/http://share.pdfonline.com/51071726f49f47ea858865837b25f8f9/dedse_dhh09.htm |date=13 January 2014 }}, 2009. D.Ed. Special Education (Deaf & Hard of Hearing), [http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in Rehabilitation Council of India]</ref> | nation = {{plainlist| *India <br/>(as [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]) *Pakistan <br/> (as [[Urdu]]) *[[Fiji]] <br/>(as [[Fiji Hindi|Fijian Hindustani]]) <ref>{{Cite web| title=Fiji islands - Constitution amendment act 1997 | url=https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1997_constitution.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029081012/http://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1997_constitution.pdf | archive-date=2019-10-29}}</ref> }} | minority = {{ublist| | South Africa ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] - protected language)<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref> | United Arab Emirates ([[Hindi]] - third official court language)<ref name="thehindu.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/abu-dhabi-includes-hindi-as-third-official-court-language/article26229023.ece|title=Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language|newspaper=The Hindu|date=10 February 2019|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>}} | agency = {{plainlist| *[[Central Hindi Directorate]] (Hindi, India)<ref>The Central Hindi Directorate regulates the use of [[Devanagari]] and Hindi spelling in [[India]]. Source: [http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/introduction.html Central Hindi Directorate: Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415010138/http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/introduction.html |date=15 April 2010 }}</ref> *[[National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language]] (Urdu, India)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/|title=National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language|website=www.urducouncil.nic.in}}</ref> *[[National Language Promotion Department]] (Urdu, Pakistan)<ref>Zia, K. (1999). ''[http://users.skynet.be/hugocoolens/urdu-code/standardcodetableurdu.htm Standard Code Table for Urdu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408004715/http://users.skynet.be/hugocoolens/urdu-code/standardcodetableurdu.htm |date=8 April 2019 }}''. 4th Symposium on Multilingual Information Processing, (MLIT-4), [[Yangon]], [[Myanmar]]. CICC, [[Japan]]. Retrieved on 28 May 2008.</ref>}} | lingua = 59-AAF-qa to -qf | glotto = hind1270 | glottorefname = Hindustani | map = Hindustani-speaking world nations.png | mapcaption = Spread of Hindustani across the world{{legenda|#084081|Majority/Official language}}{{legenda|#0868ac|Significant Minority/Recognized language}}{{legenda|#74a9cf|Minority language}} | map2 = | mapcaption2 = {{legend|#FF7F36|Provincial or state level}} {{legend|#FFCC2E|Secondary provincial or state language}} {{legend|#FDF72F|National level}} | notice = IPA {{InterWiki|code=hi}} {{InterWiki|code=ur}} | Dialect 16 = Dakshina Hindi (Madrasi and Kerala Hindi) }} {{Contains special characters | special = uncommon [[Unicode]] characters | fix = Help:Multilingual support#Kaithi | image = Replacement character.svg | link = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character | alt = <?> | compact = yes }} {{Hindustani_language}} '''Hindustani'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|n|d|ʊ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n|i}}; [[Devanagari]]: {{lang|inc-Deva|हिन्दुस्तानी}},{{efn|Also written as {{lang|hi|हिंदुस्तानी}}}} [[Nastaliq script|Nastaliq]]: {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہندوستانی}}}},{{efn|This will only display in a [[Nastaliq]] font if one is installed, otherwise it may display in a modern [[Arabic typography|Arabic font]] in a style more common for writing [[Arabic]].}} [[transliteration]]: {{transliteration|inc|ISO|Hindustānī}}, {{IPA|hns|ɦɪnd̪ʊst̪ɑːniː|pron}}, {{lit|of [[Hindustan]]}}<ref name=hindustani-devn-spelling> *{{citation|editor-last=McGregor |editor-first=R. S. |author-link=R. S. McGregor|title=The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी |page=1071|quote=2. ''hindustani'' [P. hindustani] f Hindustani (a mixed Hindi dialect of the Delhi region which came to be used as a lingua franca widely throughout India and what is now Pakistan)}} *{{citation|title=बृहत हिंदी कोश खंड 2 (Large Hindi Dictionary, Volume 2) |publisher=केन्द्रीय हिंदी निदेशालय, भारत सरकार (Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India)|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी|page =1458|url=http://www.chdpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/b101/html5forpc.html?page=0|access-date=17 October 2021}} *{{citation|last=Das|first=Shyamasundar|title=Hindi Shabda Sagar (Hindi dictionary) in 11 volumes, revised edition|publisher=[[Nagari Pracharini Sabha]]|year=1975|location=Kashi (Varanasi)|page=5505|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/dasa-hindi_query.py?page=5505|quote=हिंदुस्तानी hindustānī३ संज्ञा स्त्री॰ १. हिंदुस्तान की भाषा । २. बोलचाल या व्यवहार की वह हिंदी जिसमें न तो बहुत अरबी फारसी के शब्द हों न संस्कृत के । उ॰—साहिब लोगों ने इस देश की भाषा का एक नया नाम हिंदुस्तानी रखा । Translation: Hindustani hindustānī3 noun feminine 1. The language of Hindustan. 2. That version of Hindi employed for common speech or business in which neither many Arabic or Persian words nor Sanskrit words are present. Context: The British gave the new name Hindustani to the language of this country.}}<!-- You can't put notes inside references{{efn|cited in {{citation|editor=R. R. K. Hartman|title=Lexicography, Critical Concepts, Volume II: Reference works across time, space and languages|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8LpWk9sPOEC&pg=PA156|page=156|year=2003}}}}--> *{{citation|last=Chaturvedi|first=Mahendra|title=A Practical Hindi-English Dictionary|location=Delhi|publisher=National Publishing House|year=1970|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी |quote=hindustānī hīndusta:nī: a theoretically existent style of the Hindi language which is supposed to consist of current and simple words of any sources whatever and is neither too much biassed in favour of Perso-Arabic elements nor has any place for too much high-flown Sanskritized vocabulary}}</ref><ref name="NCSU-Hindustani">{{Cite web|url = http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm|title = About Hindi-Urdu|publisher = [[North Carolina State University]]|access-date = 9 August 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090815023328/http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm|archive-date = 15 August 2009|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011">{{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=Aniruddha|title=The Varied Facets of History: Essays in Honour of Aniruddha Ray|date=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-16-0|language=en|quote=There was the ''Hindustani Dictionary'' of Fallon published in 1879; and two years later (1881), John J. Platts produced his ''Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi and English'', which implied that Hindi and Urdu were literary forms of a single language. More recently, Christopher R. King in his ''One Language, Two Scripts'' (1994) has presented the late history of the single spoken language in two forms, with the clarity and detail that the subject deserves.}}</ref>}} is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] spoken in [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]] as the [[lingua franca]] of the region.<ref name="siddiqi1994" /> It is also spoken by the [[Deccani people|Deccani-speaking community]] in [[South India]]. Hindustani is a [[pluricentric language]] with two [[Standard language|standard]] [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]], known as [[Hindi]] ([[Prakrit|Prakritised]] and [[Sanskritisation (linguistics)|Sanskritised]] register written in the [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic script]]) and [[Urdu]] ([[Persianization|Persianised]] and [[Arabization|Arabised]] register written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]]), which serve as official languages of India and Pakistan, respectively.<ref name="britannica-2018-hindustani-language">{{cite web|title=Hindustani language|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=1 November 2018|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language|access-date=18 October 2021|quote=(subscription required) lingua franca of northern India and Pakistan. Two variants of Hindustani, Urdu and Hindi, are official languages in Pakistan and India, respectively. Hindustani began to develop during the 13th century CE in and around the Indian cities of Delhi and Meerut in response to the increasing linguistic diversity that resulted from Muslim hegemony. In the 19th century its use was widely promoted by the British, who initiated an effort at standardization. Hindustani is widely recognized as India's most common lingua franca, but its status as a vernacular renders it difficult to measure precisely its number of speakers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Yoon |editor1-first=Bogum |editor2-last=Pratt |editor2-first=Kristen L. |title=Primary Language Impact on Second Language and Literacy Learning |date=15 January 2023 |publisher=Lexington Books |page=198 |language=en |quote=In terms of cross-linguistic relations, Urdu's combinations of Arabic-Persian orthography and Sanskrit linguistic roots provides interesting theoretical as well as practical comparisons demonstrated in table 12.1.}}</ref> Thus, it is also called '''Hindi–Urdu'''.<ref name="trask-hclinguistics">{{citation |last=Trask |first=R. L. |title=Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics |date=8 August 2019 |pages=149&ndash;150 |chapter=Hindi-Urdu |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jacxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474473316 |quote='''Hindi-Urdu''' The most important modern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by well over 250 million people, mainly in India and Pakistan. At the spoken level ''Hindi'' and ''Urdu'' are the same language (called ''Hindustani'' before the political partition), but the two varieties are written in different alphabets and differ substantially in their abstract and technical vocabularies}}</ref><ref name="dcrystal-dict-lang">{{citation |last=Crystal |first=David |title=A Dictionary of Language |pages= |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3GU5FWs1pBEC |location=[[Chicago]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226122038 |quote=(p. 115) Figure: A family of languages: the Indo-European family tree, reflecting geographical distribution. Proto Indo-European>Indo-Iranian>Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit)> Midland (Rajasthani, Bihari, Hindi/Urdu); (p. 149) '''Hindi''' There is little structural difference between Hindi and Urdu, and the two are often grouped together under the single label Hindi/Urdu, sometimes abbreviated to Hirdu, and formerly often called Hindustani; (p. 160) '''India''' ... With such linguistic diversity, Hindi/Urdu has come to be widely used as a lingua franca. |author-link=David Crystal}}</ref><ref name="gandhi-hindi-urdu">{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=M. K. |author-link1=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5BNDwAAQBAJ |title=An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth: A Critical Edition |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |others=annotation by Suhrud, Tridip |year=2018 |isbn=9780300234077 |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and London |translator-last=Desai |translator-first=Mahadev |quote=(p. 737) I was handicapped for want of suitable Hindi or Urdu words. This was my first occasion for delivering an argumentative speech before an audience especially composed of Mussalmans of the North. I had spoken in Urdu at the Muslim League at Calcutta, but it was only for a few minutes, and the speech was intended only to be a feeling appeal to the audience. Here, on the contrary, I was faced with a critical, if not hostile, audience, to whom I had to explain and bring home my view-point. But I had cast aside all shyness. I was not there to deliver an address in the faultless, polished Urdu of the Delhi Muslims, but to place before the gathering my views in such broken Hindi as I could command. And in this I was successful. This meeting afforded me a direct proof of the fact that Hindi-Urdu alone could become the lingua franca<Footnote M8> of India. (M8: "national language" in the Gujarati original). |translator-link=Mahadev Desai}}</ref> Colloquial registers of the language fall on a spectrum between these standards.<ref name="Basu2017" /><ref name="GubeGao2019" /> The concept of a Hindustani language as a "unifying language" or "fusion language" that could transcend communal and religious divisions across the subcontinent was endorsed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thefederal.com/analysis/how-gandhi-changed-his-mind-about-the-south-after-experiments-with-hindi-as-national-language/|title=After experiments with Hindi as national language, how Gandhi changed his mind|work=Prabhu Mallikarjunan|date=3 October 2019|publisher=The Feral}}</ref> as it was not seen to be associated with either the Hindu or Muslim communities as was the case with Hindi and Urdu respectively, and it was also considered a simpler language for people to learn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rai |first=Alok |title=The Persistence of Hindustani |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28623900 |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lelyveld |first=David |date=1993-01-01 |title=Colonial knowledge and the fate of Hindustani |url=https://www.academia.edu/2252261 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=665–682 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500018661 |s2cid=144180838 }}</ref> The conversion from Hindi to Urdu (or vice versa) is generally achieved by merely [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration|transliterating between the two scripts]]. Translation, on the other hand, is generally only required for religious and literary texts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhat |first1=Riyaz Ahmad |last2=Bhat |first2=Irshad Ahmad |last3=Jain |first3=Naman |last4=Sharma |first4=Dipti Misra |title=A House United: Bridging the Script and Lexical Barrier between Hindi and Urdu |url=http://irshadbhat.github.io/papers-pdf/house-united.pdf |publisher=Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational Linguistics |access-date=18 October 2021 |language=en |date=2016 |quote=Hindi and Urdu transliteration has received a lot of attention from the NLP research community of South Asia (Malik et al., 2008; Lehal and Saini, 2012; Lehal and Saini, 2014). It has been seen to break the barrier that makes the two look different.}}</ref> Scholars trace the language's first written poetry, in the form of [[Old Hindi]], to the Delhi Sultanate era around the twelfth and thirteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Indo-Aryan languages|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|editor1=Dhanesh Jain |editor2=George Cardona |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9|location=London|oclc=648298147 |quote=Such an early date for the inception of a Hindi literature, one made possible only by subsuming the large body of Apabhraṁśa literature into Hindi, has not, however, been generally accepted by scholars (p. 279).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kachru |first=Yamuna |author-link=Yamuna Kachru |year=2006 |title=Hindi |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |quote=The period '''between 1000 AD-1200/1300 AD''' is designated the Old NIA stage because it is at this stage that the NIA languages such as Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, '''Hindi''', Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi assumed distinct identities (p. 1, emphasis added)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dua |first=Hans |year=2008 |chapter=Hindustani |editor1=Keith Brown |editor2=Sarah Ogilvie |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |pages=497–500 |location=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |quote=Hindustani as a colloquial speech developed over almost seven centuries from '''1100''' to 1800 (p. 497, emphasis added).}} </ref> During the period of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which covered most of today's India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh<ref>Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106-134.</ref> and which resulted in the [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb|Hindu-Muslim cultures]], the [[Prakrit]] base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from [[Persian language|Persian]], evolving into the present form of Hindustani.<ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Rekhta2020">{{cite web |title=Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/women-of-the-indian-sub-continent-makings-of-a-culture-rekhta-foundation/dwJy7qboNi3fIg?hl=en |publisher=[[Google Arts & Culture]] |access-date=25 February 2020 |language=en |quote=The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.}}</ref><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985">{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=David John |last2=Shackle |first2=C. |last3=Husain |first3=Shahanara |title=Urdu literature |date=1985 |publisher=Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies |isbn=978-0-907962-30-4 |language=en |quote=But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'.}}</ref><ref name="Dhulipala2000">{{cite book |last1=Dhulipala |first1=Venkat |title=The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |page=27 |language=en |quote=Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.}}</ref><ref name="IJSW1943">{{cite book |title=Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4 |date=1943 |publisher=[[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] |page=264 |language=en |quote=... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008"/><ref name="Kesavan1997">{{cite book |last1=Kesavan |first1=B. S. |title=History Of Printing And Publishing In India |date=1997 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |isbn=978-81-237-2120-0 |page=31 |language=en |quote=It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.}}</ref> The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the [[Indian independence movement|Indian Independence movement]],<ref name="Hock1991">{{cite book |author1=Hans Henrich Hock |title=Principles of Historical Linguistics |date=1991 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-012962-5 |page=475 |language=en |quote=During the time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the Dravidian south. ... Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, its national language.|author1-link=Hans Henrich Hock }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=masica|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|last=Masica|first=Colin P.|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29944-2|pages=430 (Appendix I)|language=en|quote=Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India, much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani 1983: 90-1].}}</ref> and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name="Ashmore1961">{{cite book |last1=Ashmore |first1=Harry S. |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11 |date=1961 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |page=579 |language=en |quote=The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.}}</ref> which is reflected in the [[Hindustani vocabulary]] of [[Bollywood]] films and songs.<ref name="Tunstall2008">{{cite book |last1=Tunstall |first1=Jeremy |title=The media were American: U.S. mass media in decline |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518146-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 160] |language=en |quote=The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words. |url=https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 }}</ref><ref name="Hiro2015">{{cite book |last1=Hiro |first1=Dilip |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |date=2015 |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-56858-503-1 |page=398 |language=en|quote=Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are written in Hindustani.}}</ref> The language's core vocabulary is derived from Prakrit and Sanskrit (via Prakrit),<ref name="GubeGao2019">{{cite book |last1=Gube |first1=Jan |last2=Gao |first2=Fang |title=Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context |date=2019 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-981-13-3125-1 |language=en |quote=The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000).}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="Ahmed2024">{{cite web |title=Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ties-between-urdu-sanskrit-deeply-rooted-scholar/articleshow/108415962.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=8 May 2024 |date=12 March 2024 |quote=The linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled "Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit.}}</ref><ref name="Kuiper2010">{{cite book |last1=Kuiper |first1=Kathleen |title=The Culture of India |date=2010 |publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-61530-149-2 |language=en |quote=Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.}}</ref><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997">{{cite book |last1=Chatterji |first1=Suniti Kumar |last2=Siṃha |first2=Udaẏa Nārāẏana |last3=Padikkal |first3=Shivarama |title=Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0353-2 |language=en |quote=High Hindi written in Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi.}}</ref> with substantial [[Hindustani etymology|loanwords]] from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).<ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Draper2003">{{cite book |last1=Draper |first1=Allison Stark |title=India: A Primary Source Cultural Guide |date=2003 |publisher=[[Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-8239-3838-4 |language=en |quote=People in Delhi spoke Khari Boli, a language the British called Hindustani. It used an Indo-Aryan grammatical structure and numerous Persian "loan-words."}}</ref><ref name="Ahmad2002">{{cite book|last=Ahmad|first=Aijaz|title=Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia|year=2002|publisher=Verso|language=en|isbn=9781859843581|page=113|quote=On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. ''Farhang-e-Asafiya'' is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It twas compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that is draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as Farsi, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi.}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="Dalmia2017">{{cite book|last=Dalmia|first=Vasudha|title=Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories|date=31 July 2017|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|language=en|isbn=9781438468075|page=310|quote=On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112-13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.}}</ref> It is often written in the [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]] or [[Nastaliq|Nastaliq script]] in the case of Hindi and Urdu respectively, with [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration|romanisation]] increasingly employed in modern times as a neutral script.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brandt |first1=Carmen |last2=Sohoni |first2=Pushkar |date=2018-01-02 |title=Script and identity – the politics of writing in South Asia: an introduction |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19472498.2017.1411048 |journal=South Asian History and Culture |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/19472498.2017.1411048 |s2cid=148802248 |issn=1947-2498|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brandt |first=Carmen |date=2020-01-01 |title=From a Symbol of Colonial Conquest to the Scripta Franca: The Roman Script for South Asian Languages |url=https://www.academia.edu/44049525 |journal=Academia |archive-date=20 July 2024 |access-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720122053/https://www.academia.edu/44049525 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of 2025, [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] together constitute the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|3rd-most-spoken language in the world]] after [[English language|English]] and [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], with 855 million native and second-language speakers, according to ''[[Ethnologue]]'',<ref>Not considering whether speakers may be bilingual in Hindi and Urdu. {{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|website=Ethnologue|date=2025|access-date=2025-05-11}}</ref> though this includes millions who self-reported their language as 'Hindi' on the Indian census but speak a number of other [[Hindi languages]] than Hindustani.<ref>{{cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]|date=29 June 2018}}</ref> The total number of Hindustani speakers was reported to be over 300 million in 1995, making Hindustani the third- or fourth-most spoken language in the world.<ref name="Gambhir1995">{{cite book |last1=Gambhir |first1=Vijay |title=The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages |date=1995 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|isbn=978-0-8122-3328-5 |language=en |quote=The position of Hindi–Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish.}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005">{{cite book |last1=Delacy |first1=Richard |last2=Ahmed |first2=Shahara |title=Hindi, Urdu & Bengali |date=2005 |publisher=Lonely Planet |pages=11–12 |quote=Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions. That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets (and watch the same Bollywood films) have no problems understanding each other.}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Hindustani}} {{See also|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}} Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan]] ''[[apabhraṃśa]]'' [[vernacular]]s of present-day [[North India]] in the 7th–13th centuries.<ref name="Brill1993">{{cite book|title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936|year=1993|publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]]|language=en|isbn=9789004097964|page=1024|quote=Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian, which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language, the common language of the country continued to be Hindi, derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit. On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language, which brought a new language, Urdu, into existence. Sir George Grierson, in the Linguistic Survey of India, assigns no distinct place to Urdu, but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008">{{cite book |last1=Mody |first1=Sujata Sudhakar |title=Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920 |date=2008 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |page=7 |language=en |quote=...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).}}</ref> Hindustani emerged as a contact language around the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]), a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred during the [[Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{cite book|editor=Kathleen Kuiper|year=2011 |title=The Culture of India|publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]]|language=en|isbn=9781615301492|page=80|quote=Hindustani began to develop during the 13th century AD in and around the Indian cities of Dehli and Meerut in response to the increasing linguistic diversity that resulted from Muslim hegemony.}}</ref> [[Amir Khusrow]], who lived in the thirteenth century during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] period in North India, used these forms (which was the ''lingua franca'' of the period) in his writings and referred to it as ''Hindavi'' ({{langx|fa|ھندوی|lit=of ''Hindus'' or Indians}}).<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |publisher=Elsevier |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |quote=Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi[.]}}</ref><ref name="Kesavan1997"/> By the end of the century, the military exploits of [[Alauddin Khalji]], introduced the language in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, which led to the development of its southern dialect [[Deccani language|Deccani]], which was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ">{{cite book|last1=Prakāśaṃ|first1=Vennelakaṇṭi|title=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories|date=2008|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788184242799|page=186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC&pg=PA185|quote=In Deccan the dialect developed and flourished independently. It is here that it received, among others, the name Dakkhni. The kings of many independent kingdoms such as Bahmani, Ādil Shahi and Qutb Shahi that came into being in Deccan patronized the dialect. It was elevated as the official language.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Mustafa|2008|p=185}} The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan]] dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi,<ref name=Gat>{{cite book|last1=Gat|first1=Azar|author-link1=Azar Gat|last2=Yakobson|first2=Alexander|author-link2=Alexander Yakobson|title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC&pg=PA126|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-00785-7|page=126}}</ref> was succeeded by the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1526 and preceded by the [[Ghorid dynasty]] and [[Ghaznavid Empire]] before that. Ancestors of the language were known as ''Hindui'', ''Hindavi'', ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan|Hind]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of India'}}), ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), ''Hindustan ki boli'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), [[Rekhta]], and Hindi.<ref name="siddiqi1994">{{Citation | title=Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts | author=Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi | year=1994 | publisher=University of Wisconsin | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnrTAAAAMAAJ | quote=... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...}}</ref><ref name="pulsipher2005">{{Citation | title=World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives |author1=Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher |author2=Alex Pulsipher |author3=Holly M. Hapke | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7167-1904-5 | publisher=Macmillan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfNaSNNAppQC | quote=... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the ''lingua franca'' of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...}}</ref> Its regional dialects became known as ''Zabān-e Dakhani'' in southern India, ''Zabān-e Gujari'' ({{Translation|'Language of Gujars'}}) in Gujarat, and as ''Zabān-e Dehlavi'' or Urdu around Delhi. It is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], deriving its base from the [[Central Indo-Aryan languages#Languages|Western Hindi]] dialect of the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]) known as [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]]—the contemporary form being classed under the umbrella of [[Old Hindi]].<ref name="Elsevier2010">{{cite book |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-087775-4 |page=497 |language=en |quote=Hindustani is a Central Indo-Aryan language based on Khari Boli (Khaṛi Boli). Its origin, development, and function reflect the dynamics of the sociolinguistic contact situation from which it emerged as a colloquial speech. It is inextricably linked with the emergence and standardisation of Urdu and Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="WilliamsMalhotraHawley2018">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Tyler |last2=Malhotra |first2=Anshu |last3=Hawley |first3=John S. |title=Text and Tradition in Early Modern North India |date=3 January 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-909167-6 |language=en|quote=These traditions intensively fed into each other and can be perceived as forming a 'super-tradition', which with a modern, heuristic term is called Old Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Britannica2000"/> Although the Mughals were of [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] (''Gurkānī'') [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] descent,<ref name="Thackston">{{Citation |title=The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor |publisher=Modern Library Classics |isbn=978-0-375-76137-9 |date=10 September 2002 |author=Zahir ud-Din Mohammad |editor=Thackston, Wheeler M. |quote=Note: ''Gurkānī'' is the Persianized form of the Mongolian word "kürügän" ("son-in-law"), the title given to the dynasty's founder after his marriage into [[Genghis Khan]]'s family. |url= https://archive.org/details/babarinizam00babu }}</ref> they were [[Persianization|Persianised]], and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after [[Babur]].<ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref><ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation: "Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia. ... Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.")</ref><ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia |title = Timurids |url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |edition = Sixth |publisher = [[Columbia University]] |location = New York City |access-date = 8 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205073939/http://bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |archive-date = 5 December 2006 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' article: [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26937/Islamic-world Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids], Online Edition, 2007.</ref> Mughal patronage led to a continuation and reinforcement of Persian by Central Asian [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] rulers in the Indian Subcontinent,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Clinton|author-link1=Clinton Bennett|last2=Ramsey|first2=Charles M.|title=South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EQJHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|year=2012|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-5127-8|page=18}}</ref> since Persian was also patronized by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate who laid the basis for the introduction and use of Persian in the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laet|first=Sigfried J. de Laet|author-link=Sigfried J. de Laet|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA734|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-102813-7|page=734}}</ref> Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526 AD) and [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1858 AD) in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Taj"/> Hindustani retained the [[Hindustani grammar|grammar]], as well as the [[Hindustani vocabulary|core Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary]], of the local Indian language of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab called [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]].<ref name="Britannica2000">{{cite book |title=Students' Britannica India |date=2000 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |page=299 |language=en |quote=Hindustani developed as lingua franca in the medieval ages in and around Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur because of the interaction between the speakers of ''Khariboli'' (a dialect developed in this region out of Shauraseni Prakrit) and the speakers of Persian, Turkish, and various dialects of Arabic who migrated to North India. Initially it was known by various names such as ''Rekhta'' (mixed), ''Urdu'' (language of the camp) and ''Hindvi'' or ''Hindustani'' (language of Hindustan). Though ''Khariboli'' supplied its basic vocabulary and grammar, it borrowed quite a lot of words from Persian and Arabic}}</ref><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Taj">{{cite web |last1=Taj |first1=Afroz |title=About Hindi-Urdu |url=http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |publisher=[[The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] |access-date=30 June 2019 |language=en |date=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419162950/http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |archive-date=19 April 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Strnad2013">{{cite book |last1=Strnad |first1=Jaroslav |title=Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān |date=2013 |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-25489-3 |language=en |quote=Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending ''-a'' in the dir. plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings.}}</ref><ref name="Grajcar2024">{{cite web |last1=Grajcar |first1=Rhône |title=In Delhi, an Urdu Wala, and a 'Dying' Language's Quiet, Vibrant Life |url=https://mangoprism.com/in-delhi-an-urdu-wala-and-a-dying-languages-quiet-vibrant-life/ |publisher=Mangoprism |access-date=15 October 2024 |language=en |date=6 February 2024 |quote=But those who make this claim focus more on the fate of Urdu in its place of origin, the Doab plains between the Ganga and Jamuna rivers of Northern India.}}</ref> However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the [[Hindu-Muslim unity|contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures]] in Hindustan that created a composite [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]].<ref name="Dhulipala2000"/><ref name="Rekhta2020"/><ref name="IJSW1943"/><ref name="Farooqi2012">{{cite book |last1=Farooqi |first1=M. |title=Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari |date=2012 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|isbn=978-1-137-02692-7 |language=en |quote=Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims.}}</ref> The language was also known as ''[[Rekhta]]'', or 'mixed', which implies that the Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary base of Old Hindi was mixed with Persian loanwords.<ref name="Strnad2013"/><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985"/><ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{ELL2|Hindustani}}</ref><ref name="Ayres2009">{{cite book|author=Alyssa Ayres|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre|url-access=limited|date=23 July 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51931-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre/page/n32 19]–}}</ref> Written in the [[Urdu alphabet|Perso-Arabic]], [[Devanagari]],<ref name="mcgregor_912">{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|author-link=Sheldon Pollock|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xowUxYhv0QgC&pg=RA1-PA912|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4|page=912}}</ref> and occasionally [[Kaithi]] or [[Gurmukhi]] scripts,<ref name="Wayback Machine">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|title=Rekhta: Poetry in Mixed Language, The Emergence of Khari Boli Literature in North India|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|access-date=23 April 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328003510/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2016}}</ref> it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as [[Sufi]], [[sant (religion)|Nirgun Sant]], [[bhakti|Krishna Bhakta]] circles, and [[Rajput]] Hindu courts. Its major centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, [[Lucknow]], [[Agra]] and [[Lahore]] as well as the Rajput courts of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] and [[Jaipur]].<ref name="Wayback Machine" /> In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of [[apabhraṃśa]] vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the [[lingua franca]] among the educated elite [[upper class]] particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term ''Hindustani'' was given to that language.<ref> Nijhawan, S. 2016. "Hindi, Urdu or Hindustani? Revisiting 'National Language' Debates through Radio Broadcasting in Late Colonial India." ''[[South Asia Research]]'' 36(1):80–97. {{doi|10.1177/0262728015615486}}.</ref> The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: ''Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla'' ('language of the court') or ''Zabān-e Urdū'' ({{lang|fa|زبان اردو}}, 'language of the camp'). The etymology of the word ''Urdu'' is of [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]] origin, ''Ordū'' ('camp'), cognate with English ''[[wikt:horde|horde]]'', and known in local translation as ''Lashkari Zabān'' ({{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|لشکری زبان}}|rtl=yes}}),<ref>Khalid, Kanwal. "Lahore During the Ghanavid Period".</ref> which is shortened to ''Lashkari'' ({{Lang|ur|{{nq|لشکری}}|rtl=yes}}).<ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite book|author=Aijazuddin Ahmad|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA120|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|pages=120–}}</ref> This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became an official language of northern parts of [[British India]] in 1837.<ref name="Coatsworth2015">{{Cite book|url=http://www.overstock.com/Books-Movies-Music-Games/Global-Connections-Politics-Exchange-and-Social-Life-in-World-History-Hardcover/9911619/product.html#more|title=Global Connections: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History|last=Coatsworth|first=John|publisher=Cambridge Univ Pr|year=2015|isbn=9780521761062|location=United States|pages=159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Tariq Rahman|author-link=Tariq Rahman|date=2011|title=Urdu as the Language of Education in British India|url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/1.%20URDU%20AS%20THE%20LANGUAGE,%20Tariq%20Rahman%20FINAL.pdf|journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture|publisher=NIHCR|volume=32|issue=2|pages=1–42}}</ref> Hindi as a standardised literary [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of the Hindustani arose in the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. [[Lallu Lal]], [[Insha Allah Khan]]), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of Hindustani written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu's official position.<ref>{{cite book| last=King |first=Christopher R. |year=1994 |title=One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> [[John Fletcher Hurst]] in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the [[Mughal Empire]]'s courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Hindi]] with admixture of Persian. He continued: "But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken by many [[Hindu]]s in [[North India]] and by [[Muslim|Musalman]] population in all parts of India." Next to English it was the official language of [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]], was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|author-link=John Fletcher Hurst|title=Indika, The country and People of India and Ceylon|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=j_1ykl3ZHXcC&pg=PA344|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=344|id=GGKEY:P8ZHWWKEKAJ}}</ref> The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from [[Persian language|Persian]], such as ''rajmahal'' 'palace' (''raja'' 'royal, king' + ''mahal'' 'house, place') and ''rangmahal'' 'fashion house' (''rang'' 'colour, dye' + ''mahal'' 'house, place').<ref name="Britannica2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-01 |title=Hindustani language: Origins & Vocabulary |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220401050423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |url-status=dead |archive-date=2022-04-01 |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> As [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim rule]] expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], for instance, [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] blended with [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and came to be called [[Deccani language|Dakhani]]. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, ''dekh'' 'see' became ''dek'', ''ghula'' 'dissolved' became ''gula'', ''kuch'' 'some' became ''kuc'', and ''samajh'' 'understand' became ''samaj''.<ref name="Britannica2022"/> When the British colonised the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words 'Hindustani', 'Hindi', and 'Urdu' interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of [[British India]],<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|author-link=Florian Coulmas|title=Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kmKLxzTnL9IC&pg=PA232|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6|page=232}}</ref> further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word 'Hindustani' declined, being largely replaced by 'Hindi' and 'Urdu', or 'Hindi–Urdu' when either of those was too specific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |pages=430 |quote=after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it [Hindustani] fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it as their mother language}}</ref> More recently, the word 'Hindustani' has been used for the colloquial language of [[Bollywood]] films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu. British rule over India also introduced some English words into Hindustani, with these [[Englishization|influences]] increasing with the later spread of English as a world language. This has created a new variant of Hindustani known as [[Hinglish]] or [[Urdish]].<ref name="Coleman2014">{{cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=Julie |title=Global English Slang: Methodologies and Perspectives |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-93476-9 |page=130 |language=en |quote=Within India, however, other regional forms exist, all denoting a mixing of English with indigenous languages. ''Bonglish'' (derived from the slang term ''Bong'' 'a Bengali') or ''Benglish'' refers to 'a mixture of Bengali and English', ''Gunglish'' or ''Gujlish'' 'Gujarati + English', ''Kanglish'' 'Kannada + English', ''Manglish'' 'Malayalam + English', ''Marlish'' 'Marathi + English', ''Tamlish'' or ''Tanglish'' 'Tamil + English' and ''Urdish'' 'Urdu + English'. These terms are found in texts on regional variations of Indian English, usually in complaint-tradition discussions of failing standards of language purity.}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Vajpeyi |first1=Ananya |date=2012 |title=Hindi, Hinglish: Head to Head |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/world-policy-journal/article-abstract/29/2/97/78965/Hindi-Hinglish-Head-to-Head |journal=World Policy Journal |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=97–103 |doi=10.1177/0740277512451519 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-10-29}}</ref><ref name=":3">Salwathura, A. N. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anusha-Salwathura/publication/346595689_EVOLUTIONARY_DEVELOPMENT_OF_'HINGLISH'_LANGUAGE_WITHIN_THE_INDIAN_SUB-CONTINENT/links/5fc8df9aa6fdcc697bd861a3/EVOLUTIONARY-DEVELOPMENT-OF-HINGLISH-LANGUAGE-WITHIN-THE-INDIAN-SUB-CONTINENT.pdf Evolutionary development of ‘hinglish’language within the Indian sub-continent.]" ''International Journal of Research-GRANTHAALAYAH''. Vol. 8. No. 11. Granthaalayah Publications and Printers, 2020. 41-48.</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Vanita |first=Ruth |date=2009-04-01 |title=Eloquent Parrots; Mixed Language and the Examples of Hinglish and Rekhti |url=https://scholarworks.umt.edu/libstudies_pubs/2 |journal=International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter |issue=50 |pages=16–17}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Rajendra |date=1985-01-01 |title=Modern Hindustani and Formal and Social Aspects of Language Contact |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/itl.70.02sin |journal=ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics |language=en |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=33–60 |doi=10.1075/itl.70.02sin |issn=0019-0829 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> ==Registers== {{See also|Hindi–Urdu controversy|Register (sociolinguistics)|digraphia}} At the spoken level, Hindi and Urdu are considered [[register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] of a single language, Hindustani or Hindi–Urdu, as they share a common [[Hindustani grammar|grammar]] and core vocabulary.<ref name="Basu2017">{{cite book|last1=Basu|first1=Manisha|title=The Rhetoric of Hindutva|date=2017|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-14987-8|language=en|quote=Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Dehlavi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.}}</ref><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="PeterDass2019">{{cite book|last1=Peter-Dass|first1=Rakesh|title=Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India|date=2019|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-00-070224-8|language=en|quote=Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.}}</ref><ref name="Kuiper2010"/><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/> They differ in literary and formal vocabulary: where literary Hindi draws heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent [[Prakrit]], literary Urdu draws heavily on Persian and Arabic loanwords.<ref name="JainCardona2007">{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Danesh |last2=Cardona |first2=George |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9 |language=en |quote=The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by ''tatsama'' forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a throrough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.}}</ref> The grammar and base vocabulary (most pronouns, verbs, adpositions, etc.) of both Hindi and Urdu, however, are the same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have Persian/Arabic influence.<ref name="PeterDass2019"/> [[File:A grammar of the Hindustani language (IA dli.csl.7322).pdf|thumb|A grammar of the Hindustani language, published 1843]] [[File:Trilingual road sign in India.png|thumb|A road sign using Hindi, Urdu, and English]] The standardised registers Hindi and Urdu are collectively known as ''Hindi–Urdu''.<ref name="NCSU-Hindustani"/> Hindustani is the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the north and west of the [[Indian subcontinent]], though it is understood fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas.<ref name="siddiqi1994"/> This has led it to be characterised as a continuum that ranges between Hindi and Urdu.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Rahman|first=Tariq|url=http://www.tariqrahman.net/content/hindiurdu1.pdf|title=From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|pages=99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010094507/http://www.tariqrahman.net/content/hindiurdu1.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2014}}</ref> A common vernacular sharing characteristics with Sanskritised Hindi, regional Hindi and Urdu, Hindustani is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly Sanskritised Hindi or highly Persianised Urdu.<ref name="Ashmore1961"/> This can be seen in the popular culture of [[Bollywood]] or, more generally, the vernacular of North Indians and Pakistanis, which generally employs a lexicon common to both Hindi and Urdu speakers.<ref name="Hiro2015"/> Minor subtleties in region will also affect the 'brand' of Hindustani, sometimes pushing the Hindustani closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the Hindustani spoken in [[Lucknow]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] (known for its usage of Urdu) and [[Varanasi]] (a holy city for Hindus and thus using highly Sanskritised Hindi) is somewhat different.<ref name="NCSU-Hindustani"/> In modern times, a third variety of Hindustani with significant English influences has also appeared, which is sometimes called [[Hinglish]] or [[Urdish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kothari |first1=Rita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4tmwFFhoAEC&pg=PA37 |title=Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish |last2=Snell |first2=Rupert |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341639-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ===Standard Hindi=== {{Main|Hindi}} Standard Hindi, one of the [[official languages of India|22 officially recognized languages of India]] and the [[official language]] of the Union, is usually written in the indigenous [[Devanagari]] script of India and exhibits less Persian and Arabic influence than Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion and philosophy. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects and registers, with the highly Persianised Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskritised variety spoken in the region around [[Varanasi]], at the other end. In common usage in India, the term ''Hindi'' includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word ''Hindi'' include, among others:{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} # standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India (except some states such as Tamil Nadu), # formal or official Hindi advocated by [[Purushottam Das Tandon]] and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit, # the vernacular dialects of Hindustani as spoken throughout India, # the neutralized form of Hindustani used in popular television and films (which is nearly identical to colloquial Urdu), or # the more formal neutralized form of Hindustani used in television and print news reports. ===Standard Urdu=== {{Main|Urdu}} [[File:Zaban urdu mualla.png|thumb|The phrase ''Zubān-e Urdu-ye Mualla'' in [[Nastaʿlīq]]]] Urdu is the [[national language]] and [[state language]] of Pakistan and one of the [[official languages of India|22 officially recognised languages of India]]. It is written, except in some parts of India, in the [[Nastaliq]] style of the [[Urdu alphabet]], an extended Perso-Arabic script incorporating Indic phonemes. It is heavily influenced by [[Dari Persian|Persian]] vocabulary and was historically also known as [[Rekhta]]. [[File:Lashkari Zaban calligraphy.png|thumb|''Lashkari Zabān'' title in the Perso-Arabic script]] As [[Dakhini]] (or Deccani) where it also draws words from local languages, it survives and enjoys a rich history in the [[Deccan]] and other parts of [[South India]], with the prestige dialect being [[Hyderabadi Urdu]] spoken in and around the capital of the [[Nizams of Hyderabad|Nizams]] and the [[Deccan Sultanates]]. Earliest forms of the language's literature may be traced back to the 13th–14th century works of [[Amir Khusrau|Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī]], often called the "father of [[Urdu literature]]", while [[Wali Dakhni|Walī Deccani]] is seen as the progenitor of [[Urdu poetry]]. ===Bazaar Hindustani=== The term ''[[bazaar]] Hindustani'', in other words, the 'street talk' or literally 'marketplace Hindustani', also known as ''Colloquial Hindi''{{efn|<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agnihotri |first=Rama Kant |title=Hindi: an essential grammar |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35671-8 |edition=1. publ |series=Essential grammars |location=London |pages=05 |language=en}}</ref> ({{langx|hi|बोलचाल हिन्दी}}, {{langx|ur|بول چال ہندی}})}} or ''Simplified Urdu'',{{efn|<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shackle |first1=C. |title=Hindi and Urdu since 1800: a common reader |last2=Snell |first2=Rupert |publisher=Heritage Publishers |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-7026-162-9 |location=New Delhi, India |pages=09 |language=en, hi, ur}}</ref> ({{langx|hi|आसान उर्दू}}, {{langx|ur|آسان اردو}})}} has arisen to denote a colloquial register of the language that uses vocabulary common to both Hindi and Urdu while eschewing high-register and specialized Arabic or Sanskrit derived words.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Robert D. |date=2001-01-10 |title=The poisonous potency of script: Hindi and Urdu |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2001.035 |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=150 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2001.035 |issn=0165-2516|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It has emerged in various South Asian cities where Hindustani is not the main language, in order to facilitate communication across language barriers. It is characterized by loanwords from local languages.<ref>Smith, Ian (2008). "Pidgins, Creoles, and Bazaar Hindi". In Kachru, Braj B; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S.N (eds.). ''Language in South Asia''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 254. {{ISBN|1139465503}}</ref> ==Names== [[Amir Khusro]] {{circa|1300}} referred to this language of his writings as ''Dehlavi'' ({{lang|inc-Deva|देहलवी}} / {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|دہلوی}}}}, 'of Delhi') or ''Hindavi'' ({{lang|inc-Deva|हिन्दवी}} / {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہندوی}}}}). During this period, Hindustani was used by [[Sufis]] in promulgating their message across the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} After the advent of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in the subcontinent, Hindustani acquired more Persian loanwords. ''[[Rekhta]]'' ('mixture'), ''Hindi'' ('Indian'), Hindustani, Hindvi, [[Lahori]], and [[Dakni]] (amongst others) became popular names for the same language until the 18th century.<ref name="mcgregor_912"/><ref name="faruqi_806">{{citation|last=Faruqi|first=Shamsur Rahman|title=Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xowUxYhv0QgC&q=0520228219&pg=PA806|page=806|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press |editor-last=Pollock|contribution=A Long History of Urdu Literarature, Part 1|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4}}</ref> The name ''Urdu'' (from ''Zabān-i-Ordu'', or ''Orda'') appeared around 1780.<ref name="faruqi_806" /> It is believed to have been coined by the poet [[Mashafi]].<ref>Garcia, Maria Isabel Maldonado. 2011. "The Urdu language reforms." ''[[Studies (journal)|Studies]]'' 26(97).</ref> In local literature and speech, it was also known as the ''Lashkari Zabān'' (military language) or ''Lashkari''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alyssa Ayres|url=https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|date=23 July 2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521519311|page=[https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre/page/n32 19]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Mashafi was the first person to simply modify the name ''Zabān-i-Ordu'' to ''[[Urdu]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Marathwada Under the Nizams|author=P.V.Kate|page=136|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tjndiykddsIC&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi&pg=PA136|isbn=9788170990178|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications }}</ref> During the [[British Raj]], the term ''Hindustani'' was used by British officials.<ref name="faruqi_806"/> In 1796, [[John Borthwick Gilchrist]] published "A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language".<ref name="faruqi_806"/><ref name="Gilchrist">{{Citation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_rwIAAAAQAAJ&q=hindoostanee+language| title = A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language|publisher = Chronicle Press|access-date = 8 January 2007|year = 1796}}</ref> Upon [[partition of India|partition]], India and Pakistan established national standards that they called ''Hindi'' and ''Urdu,'' respectively, and attempted to make distinct, with the result that ''Hindustani'' commonly, but mistakenly, came to be seen as a "mixture" of Hindi and Urdu. [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in his highly influential ''[[Linguistic Survey of India]]'', proposed that the names ''Hindustani, Urdu,'' and ''Hindi'' be separated in use for different varieties of the Hindustani language, rather than as the overlapping synonyms they frequently were: {{blockquote|text=We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the ''lingua franca'' of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name 'Urdū' can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, 'Hindī' can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.<ref name="Grierson">Grierson, vol. 9–1, p. 47. ''We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the ''lingua franca'' of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name 'Urdū' can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, 'Hindī' can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.''</ref>}} ==Official status== [[File:South asia.jpg|thumb|Hindustani, in its standardised registers, is one of the official languages of both India (Hindi) and Pakistan (Urdu).]] Before 1947, Hindustani was officially recognised by the British Raj. In the post-independence period however, the term Hindustani has lost currency and is not given any official recognition by the Indian or Pakistani governments. The language is instead recognised by its standard forms, Hindi and Urdu.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidt|first=Ruth L|title=Urdu|work=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9780700711307|editor-last=Cardona|editor-first=George|pages=318–319|editor-last2=Jain|editor-first2=Dhanesh}}</ref> === Hindi === Hindi is declared by Article 343(1), [[Part XVII of the Constitution of India|Part 17]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] as the "official language ({{lang|inc-Deva|राजभाषा}}, {{transliteration|inc|ISO|rājabhāṣā}}) of the Union." (In this context, "Union" means the Federal Government and not the entire country{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}—India has [[languages with official status in India|23 official languages]].) At the same time, however, the definitive text of federal laws is officially the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be conducted in English. At the state level, Hindi is one of the official languages in 10 of the 29 Indian states and three [[Union territory|Union Territories]], respectively: [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[West Bengal]]; [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]], and Delhi. In the remaining states, Hindi is not an official language. In states like [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]], studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However, an option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a third language (the first two languages being the state's official language and English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies.<ref>[http://education.nic.in/natpol_new.asp Government of India: National Policy on Education] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620100111/http://education.nic.in/natpol_new.asp |date=20 June 2006 }}.</ref> === Urdu === Urdu is the national language ({{Lang|ur|{{nq|قومی زبان}}|rtl=yes}}, {{Lang|ur-Latn|qaumi zabān}}) of Pakistan, where it shares [[official language]] status with [[Pakistani English|English]]. Although English is spoken by many, and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is the native language of the majority of the population, Urdu is the ''lingua franca''. In India, Urdu is one of the languages recognised in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India]] and is an official language of the Indian states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Telangana]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[West Bengal]], and also the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. Although the government school system in most other states emphasises Standard Hindi, at universities in cities such as [[Lucknow]], [[Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh|Aligarh]] and [[Hyderabad]], Urdu is spoken and learnt. ==Geographical distribution== {{Main|Hindustani-speaking world}} [[File:Hindustani-speaking world nations.png|thumb|300x300px|Spread of Hindustani across the world{{legenda|#084081|Majority/Official}}{{legenda|#0868ac|Significant Minority/Recognized}}{{legenda|#74a9cf|Minority}}]] Besides being the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of North India and Pakistan in South Asia,<ref name="siddiqi1994"/><ref name="Ashmore1961"/> Hindustani is also spoken by many in the South Asian diaspora and their descendants around the world, including [[North America]] (e.g., in Canada, Hindustani is one of the fastest growing languages),<ref>{{cite web|title=Census data shows Canada increasingly bilingual, linguistically diverse|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/census-wednesday-language-1.4231213}}</ref> [[Europe]], and the [[Middle East]]. * A sizeable population in [[Afghanistan]], especially in [[Kabul]], can also speak and understand Hindi–Urdu due to the popularity and influence of [[Bollywood]] films and songs in the region, as well as the fact that many Afghan refugees spent time in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Hakala2012">{{cite web|url=http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf|title=Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan's Cultures|last=Hakala|first=Walter N.|year=2012|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=In the 1980s and '90s, at least three million Afghans--mostly Pashtun--fled to Pakistan, where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban Pashtuns.|archive-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314042412/http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurthy2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.gatewayhouse.in/kabul-diary-discovering-the-indian-connection/|title=Kabul Diary: Discovering the Indian connection|last=Krishnamurthy|first=Rajeshwari|date=28 June 2013|publisher=Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country.}}</ref> * [[Fiji Hindi]] was derived from the Hindustani linguistic group and is spoken widely by Fijians of [[Indian people|Indian]] origin. * Hindustani was also one of the languages that was spoken widely during [[British rule in Burma]]. Many older citizens of [[Myanmar]], particularly [[Anglo-Indian]]s and the [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]], still know it, although it has had no official status in the country since [[Myanmar#Military rule (1962–2011)|military rule]] began. * Hindustani is also spoken in the countries of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]], where [[migrant worker]]s from various countries live and work for several years. ==Phonology== {{Main|Hindustani phonology}} Hindustani phonology, shared by both Hindi and Urdu, is characterized by a symmetrical ten-vowel system, where vowels are distinguished by length, with long vowels typically being tense and short vowels lax. The language also includes [[Nasalization|nasalized]] vowels, as well as a wide array of consonants, including [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and murmured sounds. Hindustani maintains a four-way phonation distinction among plosives, unlike the two-way distinction in English. ==Grammar== {{Main|Hindustani grammar}} ==Vocabulary== {{see also|Hindustani etymology|Hindustani vocabulary}} Hindi–Urdu's core vocabulary has an Indic base, being derived from [[Prakrit]] and [[Classical Sanskrit]], which in turn both derive from [[Vedic Sanskrit]],<ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="Kuiper2010"/><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997"/> as well as a substantial number of [[Hindustani etymology|loanwords]] from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]] (via Persian).<ref name="JainCardona2007"/><ref name="Draper2003"/> Hindustani contains around 5,500 words of Persian and Arabic origin.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuczkiewicz-Fraś|first1=Agnieszka|title=Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani|date=2008|location=Kraków|publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka|isbn=978-83-7188-161-9|page=x}}</ref> There are also quite a few words borrowed from English, as well as some words from other European languages such as [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chandola |first=Anoop Chandra |date=1963 |title=Some Linguistic Influences of English on Hindi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30022405 |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=9–13 |jstor=30022405 |issn=0003-5483}}</ref> [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] also borrowed Persian prefixes to create new words. Persian affixes became so assimilated that they were used with original [[Kauravi dialect|Khari Boli]] words as well. ==Writing system== {{Main|Hindustani orthography|Devanagari Braille|Urdu Braille}} [[File:Surahi in samrup rachna calligraphy.jpg|thumb|right|"Surahi" in [[Samrup Rachna]] calligraphy]] Historically, Hindustani was written in the [[Urdu Script|Urdu]], Devanagari and sometimes in the [[Kaithi]] script.<ref name="mcgregor_912"/> During the [[British Raj]], Hindustani was offiicially generally written in a derivation of the [[Perso-Arabic script]], now known as the [[Urdu alphabet]] (written in the [[Nastaʿlīq]] style). Kaithi and Devanagari are two of the [[Brahmic scripts]] which were employed alongside the Urdu alphabet. This remained to be the case until the 20th century when Hindi in the Devanagari script was sanctioned as an official language in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kashif |first=Mohd |date=2025-03-18 |title=Urdu and Hindi: A History of Division, Politics, and Power |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/society/hindi-urdu-history-politics-india/article69340548.ece |access-date=2025-11-09 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref> In India, the Hindi register is officially written in Devanagari, and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet, to the extent that these standards are partly defined by their script. Today, it continues to be written in the Urdu alphabet in Pakistan. Popular publications in India, Urdu is also written in Devanagari, with slight variations in attempts to establish a Devanagari Urdu alphabet alongside the Devanagari Hindi alphabet. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Devanagari ! {{lang|hi|अ}} ! {{lang|hi|आ}} ! {{lang|hi|इ}} ! {{lang|hi|ई}} ! {{lang|hi|उ}} ! {{lang|hi|ऊ}} ! {{lang|hi|ए}} ! {{lang|hi|ऐ}} ! {{lang|hi|ओ}} ! {{lang|hi|औ}} |- | {{IPA link|ə}} | {{IPA link|aː}} | {{IPA link|ɪ}} | {{IPA link|iː}} | {{IPA link|ʊ}} | {{IPA link|uː}} | {{IPA link|eː}} | {{IPA link|ɛː}} | {{IPA link|oː}} | {{IPA link|ɔː}} |- ! {{lang|hi|क}} ! {{lang|hi|क़}} ! {{lang|hi|ख}} ! {{lang|hi|ख़}} ! {{lang|hi|ग}} ! {{lang|hi|ग़}} ! {{lang|hi|घ}} ! {{lang|hi|ङ}} |- | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|q}} | {{IPA|kʰ}} | {{IPA link|x}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɣ}} | {{IPA|ɡʱ}} | {{IPA link|ŋ}} |- ! {{lang|hi|च}} ! {{lang|hi|छ}} ! {{lang|hi|ज}} ! {{lang|hi|ज़}} ! {{lang|hi|झ}} ! {{lang|hi|झ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ञ}} |- | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} | {{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}} | {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} | {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA|d͡ʒʱ}} | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}}<ref>{{citation |last=Kachru |first=Yamuna |author-link=Yamuna Kachru |year=2006 |title=Hindi |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |page=17 |isbn=90-272-3812-X}}</ref> |- ! {{lang|hi|ट}} ! {{lang|hi|ठ}} ! {{lang|hi|ड}} ! {{lang|hi|ड़}} ! {{lang|hi|ढ}} ! {{lang|hi|ढ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ण}} |- | {{IPA link|ʈ}} | {{IPA|ʈʰ}} | {{IPA link|ɖ}} | {{IPA link|ɽ}} | {{IPA|ɖʱ}} | {{IPA|ɽʱ}} | {{IPA link|ɳ}} |- ! {{lang|hi|त}} ! {{lang|hi|थ}} ! {{lang|hi|द}} ! {{lang|hi|ध}} ! {{lang|hi|न}} |- | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | {{IPA|tʰ}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | {{IPA|dʱ}} | {{IPA link|n}} |- ! {{lang|hi|प}} ! {{lang|hi|फ}} ! {{lang|hi|फ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ब}} ! {{lang|hi|भ}} ! {{lang|hi|म}} |- | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA|pʰ}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA|bʱ}} | {{IPA link|m}} |- ! {{lang|hi|य}} ! {{lang|hi|र}} ! {{lang|hi|ल}} ! {{lang|hi|व}} ! {{lang|hi|श}} ! {{lang|hi|ष}} ! {{lang|hi|स}} ! {{lang|hi|ह}} |- | {{IPA link|j}} | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʋ}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} | {{IPA link|ʂ}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ɦ}} |} {| class="wikitable" |+Urdu alphabet ! Letter !! Name of letter !! Transliteration !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ا}}}} || ''alif'' || a, ā, i, or u || {{IPAslink|ə}}, {{IPAslink|aː}}, {{IPAslink|ɪ}}, or {{IPAslink|ʊ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ب}}}} || ''be'' || b || {{IPAslink|b}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|پ}}}} || ''pe'' || p || {{IPAslink|p}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ت}}}} || ''te'' || t || {{IPAslink|t̪|t}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ٹ}}}} || ''ṭe'' || ṭ || {{IPAslink|ʈ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ث}}}} || ''se'' || s || {{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ج}}}} || ''jīm'' || j || {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|چ}}}} || ''che'' || c || {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ح}}}} || ''baṛī he'' || h̤ || /{{IPA link|h}} ~ {{IPA link|ɦ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|خ}}}} || khe || k͟h ||{{IPAslink|x}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|د}}}} || ''dāl'' || d || {{IPAslink|d̪|d}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڈ}}}} || ''ḍāl'' || ḍ || {{IPAslink|ɖ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ذ}}}} || ''zāl'' || z ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ر}}}} || ''re'' || r || /{{IPA link|r}} ~ {{IPA link|ɾ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڑ}}}} || ''ṛe'' || ṛ || {{IPAslink|ɽ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ز}}}} || ''ze'' || z || {{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ژ}}}} || ''zhe'' || ž || {{IPAslink|ʒ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|س}}}} || ''sīn'' || s || {{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ش}}}} || ''shīn'' || sh || {{IPAslink|ʃ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ص}}}} || ''su'ād'' || s̤ ||{{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ض}}}} || ''zu'ād'' || ż ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ط}}}} || ''to'e'' || t̤ || {{IPAslink|t}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ظ}}}} || ''zo'e'' || ẓ ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ع}}}} || ''‘ain'' || ‘ || – |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|غ}}}} || ''ghain'' || ġ ||{{IPAslink|ɣ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ف}}}} || ''fe'' || f || {{IPAslink|f}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ق}}}} || ''qāf'' || q || {{IPAslink|q}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ک}}}} || ''kāf'' || k || {{IPAslink|k}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|گ}}}} || ''gāf'' || g || {{IPAslink|ɡ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ل}}}} || ''lām'' || l || {{IPAslink|l}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|م}}}} || ''mīm'' || m || {{IPAslink|m}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ن}}}} || ''nūn'' || n || {{IPAslink|n}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ں}}}} ||''nūn ghunna'' || ṁ or m̐ || {{IPAslink|◌̃}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|و}}}} || ''wā'o'' || w, v, ō, or ū || {{IPAslink|ʋ}}, {{IPAslink|oː}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}} or {{IPAslink|uː}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ہ}}}} || ''choṭī he'' || h || /{{IPA link|h}} ~ {{IPA link|ɦ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ھ}}}} || ''do chashmī he'' || h || {{IPAslink|ʰ}} or {{IPAslink|ʱ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ء}}}} || ''hamza'' || ' || {{IPAslink|ʔ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ی}}}} || ''ye'' || y or ī || {{IPAslink|j}} or {{IPAslink|iː}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ے}}}} || ''baṛī ye'' || ai or ē || {{IPAslink|ɛː}}, or {{IPAslink|eː}} |} Because of [[Indian English|anglicisation]] in South Asia and the international use of the [[Latin script]], Hindustani is occasionally written in the Latin script. This adaptation is called [[Roman Urdu]] or Romanised Hindi, depending upon the register used. Since Urdu and Hindi are [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] when spoken, Romanised Hindi and Roman Urdu (unlike Devanagari Hindi and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet) are mostly mutually intelligible as well. ==Sample text== ===Colloquial Hindustani=== An example of colloquial Hindustani:<ref name="DelacyAhmed2005" /> *'''Devanagari''': {{lang|inc-Deva|ये कितने का है?}} *'''Urdu''': {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|یہ کتنے کا ہے؟}}}} *'''Romanisation''': {{transliteration|inc|ISO|Ye kitnē kā hai?}} *'''English''': How much is this? The following is a sample text, Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], in the two official registers of Hindustani, Hindi and Urdu. Because this is a formal legal text, differences in vocabulary are most pronounced. ===Literary Hindi=== {{lang|hi|अनुच्छेद १ — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के विषय में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता और समानता प्राप्त हैं। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिए।}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=UDHR - Hindi |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/hnd.pdf |website=UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Urdu transliteration |- |{{lang|hi-Aran|{{Nq|انُچھید ١ : سبھی منُشیوں کو گورو اور ادھکاروں کے وِشئے میں جنمجات سوَتنتْرتا پراپت ہیں۔ اُنہیں بدھی اور انتراتما کی دین پراپت ہے اور پرسپر اُنہیں بھائی چارے کے بھاؤ سے برتاؤ کرنا چاہئے۔}}|rtl=yes}} |- !Transliteration (ISO 15919) |- |{{transliteration|hi|ISO|Anucchēd 1: Sabhī manuṣyō̃ kō gaurav aur adhikārō̃ kē viṣay mē̃ janmajāt svatantratā aur samāntā prāpt haĩ. Unhē̃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī dēn prāpt hai aur paraspar unhē̃ bhāīcārē kē bhāv sē bartāv karnā cāhiē.}} |- !Transcription ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) |- |{{IPA|[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk {{!}} səbʰiː mənʊʂjõː koː ɡɔːɾəʋ ɔːɾ ədʰɪkɑːɾõː keː ʋɪʂəj mẽː dʒənmədʒɑːt sʋətəntɾətɑː ɔːɾ səmɑːntɑː pɾɑːpt ɦɛ̃ː ‖ ʊnʰẽː bʊdːʰɪ ɔːɾ əntəɾɑːtmɑː kiː deːn pɾɑːpt ɦɛː ɔːɾ pəɾəspəɾ ʊnʰẽː bʰɑːiːtʃɑːɾeː keː bʰɑːʋ seː bəɾtɑːʋ kəɾnɑː tʃɑːɦɪeː ‖]}} |- !Gloss (word-to-word) |- |Article 1—''All'' human-beings to dignity and rights' matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience's endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood's spirit with behaviour to do should. |- !Translation (grammatical) |- |Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |} ===Literary Urdu=== {{lang|ur-Aran|{{Nq|:دفعہ ١: تمام اِنسان آزاد اور حُقوق و عِزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پَیدا ہُوئے ہَیں۔ انہیں ضمِیر اور عقل ودِیعت ہوئی ہَیں۔ اِس لئے انہیں ایک دُوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سُلُوک کرنا چاہئے۔}}|rtl=yes}} {| class="wikitable" !Devanagari transliteration |- |{{lang|ur-Deva|दफ़ा १ — तमाम इनसान आज़ाद और हुक़ूक़ ओ इज़्ज़त के ऐतबार से बराबर पैदा हुए हैं। उन्हें ज़मीर और अक़्ल वदीयत हुई हैं। इसलिए उन्हें एक दूसरे के साथ भाई चारे का सुलूक करना चाहीए।}} |- !Transliteration (ISO 15919) |- |{{transliteration|ur|ISO|Dafʻah 1: Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq ō ʻizzat kē iʻtibār sē barābar paidā hu’ē haĩ. Unhē̃ żamīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī haĩ. Isli’ē unhē̃ ēk dūsrē kē sāth bhā’ī cārē kā sulūk karnā cāhi’ē.}} |- !Transcription ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) |- |{{IPA|dəfaː eːk təmaːm ɪnsaːn aːzaːd ɔːɾ hʊquːq oː izːət keː ɛːtəbaːɾ seː bəɾaːbəɾ pɛːdaː hʊeː hɛ̃ː ʊnʱẽː zəmiːɾ ɔːɾ əql ʋədiːət hʊiː hɛ̃ː ɪs lɪeː ʊnʱẽː eːk duːsɾeː keː saːtʰ bʱaːiː tʃaːɾeː kaː sʊluːk kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː}} |- !Gloss (word-to-word) |- |Article 1: All humans free[,] and rights and dignity's consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another's with brotherhood's treatment do must. |- !Translation (grammatical) |- |Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |} ==Hindustani and Bollywood== The predominant Indian film industry [[Bollywood]], located in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], uses Standard Hindi, colloquial Hindustani, [[Bombay Hindi]], [[Urdu]],<ref name="scienceandmediamuseum">{{cite web|title=Decoding the Bollywood poster|url=https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/decoding-the-bollywood-poster/|website=[[National Science and Media Museum]]|date=28 February 2013}}</ref> [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], and [[Braj Bhasha]], along with [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and with the liberal use of [[English language|English]] or [[Hinglish]] in scripts and soundtrack lyrics. Film titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and occasionally Perso-Arabic. The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film's context: historical films set in the [[Delhi Sultanate]] or [[Mughal Empire]] are almost entirely in Urdu, whereas films based on [[Hindu mythology]] or [[Middle kingdoms of India|ancient India]] make heavy use of Hindi with Sanskrit vocabulary. In recent years, [[Hindutva boycott of Bollywood films|boycotts]] have been launched against Bollywood films by [[Hindutva|Hindu nationalists]] partially on the basis that the films feature too much Urdu, with some critics employing the epithet "Urduwood".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is the Hindu Nationalist 'Boycott Bollywood' Campaign Impacting the Box Office? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/09/is-hindu-nationalists-boycott-bollywood-campaign-impacting-the-box-office/ |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Raj |first1=Kaushik |last2=Gurmat |first2=Sabah |date=2022-09-30 |title=Bollywood under siege as rightwing social media boycotts start to bite |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/sep/30/bollywood-under-siege-as-rightwing-social-media-boycotts-start-to-bite |access-date=2023-10-31 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The siege of Bollywood |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2021/02/25/the-siege-of-bollywood |access-date=2023-10-31 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|India|Pakistan|Language}} * [[Caribbean Hindustani]] * [[Hindustani profanity]] * [[Hindustan]] * [[Languages of India]] * [[Languages of Pakistan]] * [[List of Hindi authors]] * [[List of Urdu authors]] * [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration]] * [[Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation]] ==Notes== {{notelist|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} * Asher, R. E. 1994. "Hindi." Pp.&nbsp;1547–49 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. {{ISBN|0-08-035943-4|}}. * Bailey, Thomas G. 1950. ''Teach yourself Hindustani''. London: English Universities Press. * Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. ''Indo-Aryan and Hindi'' (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. * Dua, Hans R. 1992. "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language." In ''Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations'', edited by M. G. Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3-11-012855-1|}}. * Dua, Hans R. 1994a. "Hindustani." Pp.&nbsp;1554 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. *{{Citation|last=Mustafa|first=K.S|title=Dakkhni|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories|pages=185–186|year=2008|editor-last=Prakāśaṃ|editor-first=Vennelakaṇṭi|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-1139465502}} * —— 1994b. "Urdu." Pp.&nbsp;4863–64 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. * Rai, Amrit. 1984. ''A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani''. Delhi: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-561643-X|}}{{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8xAAAAMAAJ |title=English and Urdu dictionary, romanized |author=Henry Blochmann |year=1877 |publisher=Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school-book society |edition=8 |location=Calcutta |page=215 |access-date=6 July 2011 |author-link=Henry Blochmann}}the University of Michigan * {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofurduorh00dowsiala |title=A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language |author=John Dowson |year=1908 |publisher=K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. |edition=3 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/grammarofurduorh00dowsiala/page/264 264] |access-date=6 July 2011}}the University of Michigan * {{cite book |author=Duncan Forbes |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryhindus00forb/page/n5 |title=A dictionary, Hindustani and English, accompanied by a reversed dictionary, English and Hindustani. |access-date=18 October 2018 |publisher=Sampson Low, Marston & Company |location=London |year=1857 |edition=2nd |page=1144 |oclc=1043011501 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20181019223400/https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryhindus00forb/dictionaryhindus00forb_djvu.txt |archive-date=19 October 2018 |url-status=live |author-link=Duncan Forbes (linguist)}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFIIAAAAQAAJ |title=A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1874 |publisher=W.H. Allen |location=London |page=399 |volume=6423 of Harvard College Library preservation microfilm program |access-date=6 July 2011}}Oxford University * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBoYAAAAYAAJ |title=A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1892 |publisher=W.H. Allen |location=London |page=399 |author-mask=2 |access-date=6 July 2011}}the New York Public Library * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDtbAAAAQAAJ |title=A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1884 |publisher=H. Milford |edition=reprint |location=London |page=1259 |author-mask=2 |access-date=6 July 2011}}Oxford University * Shakespear, John. [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/shakespear/ A Dictionary, Hindustani and English.] 3rd ed., much enl. London: Printed for the author by J.L. Cox and Son: Sold by Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1834. * Taylor, Joseph. ''[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nnc1.cu58965823;view=1up;seq=1 A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English]''. Available at [[HathiTrust]]. (A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English / abridged from the quarto edition of Major Joseph Taylor; as edited by the late W. Hunter; by William Carmichael Smyth.) {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wikivoyage|Hindi-Urdu_phrasebook}} {{EB1911 poster|Hindostani}} * [http://boltidictionary.com/en/ Bolti Dictionary (Hindustani)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130601231148/http://www.hamariboli.com/ Hamari Boli (Hindustani)] * [http://www.languageinindia.com/march2003/hindustani.html Hindustani as an anxiety between Hindi–Urdu Commitment] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060923205724/http://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/Hindinote.html Hindi? Urdu? Hindustani? Hindi-Urdu?] * [http://www.lexicool.com/dlink.asp?ID=0FW3HU5663&L1=34&L2=44 Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List] * [http://globalrecordings.net/language/747 GRN Report for Hindustani] * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060615203847/http://indolink.com/Poetry/ Hindustani Poetry]}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827233430/http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/lss/staff/erica/CALL/hindi.html Hindustani online resources] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070804053902/http://www.nla.gov.pk/ National Language Authority (Urdu), Pakistan (muqtadera qaumi zaban)] {{Hindi topics}} {{Urdu topics}} {{Central Indo-Aryan languages}} {{Languages of South Asia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hindustani Language}} [[Category:Hindustani language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested since the 13th century]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]] [[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] 5xgcikcid7idwukn6exfctvs9zw6r38 687846 687845 2026-07-13T12:31:29Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Hindustani_language]] 687845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Indo-Aryan language}} {{For-multi|its official forms|Hindi|and|Urdu|other languages named Hindustani based on Maithili, Bhojpuri and Awadhi|Fiji Hindi{{!}}Fijian Hindustani|and|Caribbean Hindustani}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Use Indian English|date=April 2021}} {{Infobox language | name = Hindustani | nativename = {{hlist|हिन्दुस्तानी|{{nq|ہندوستانی}}}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|hns|ɦɪnd̪ʊst̪ɑːniː|}} | altname = Hindi–Urdu | image = Hindustani.svg | imagescale = 0.7 | imagecaption = The word ''Hindustani'' in the [[Devanagari]] and the [[Nastaliq]]-style [[Perso-Arabic script]]s | image_class = skin-invert-image | states = [[Languages of South Asia|South Asia]] | region = [[Western Uttar Pradesh]]/[[Delhi]] ([[Hindi Belt|Hindustani Belt]])<br> and [[Deccan]] ([[South India]]),<br>[[Pakistan]]<ref>{{cite journal |editor1=Robina Kausar |editor2=Muhammad Sarwar |editor3=Muhammad Shabbir |title=The History of the Urdu Language Together with Its Origin and Geographic Distribution |journal=International Journal of Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences |volume=2 |issue=1 |url=https://www.ijires.org/administrator/components/com_jresearch/files/publications/IJIRES-154_final.pdf}}</ref> | speakers = [[L1 speakers]]: {{circa|250}} million | date = 2011 & 2017 censuses | ref = <ref name=ethnologue>"Hindi" L1: 322 million (2011 Indian census), including perhaps 150 million speakers of other languages that reported their language as "Hindi" on the census. L2: 274 million (2016, source unknown). Urdu L1: 67 million (2011 & 2017 censuses), L2: 102 million (1999 Pakistan, source unknown, and 2001 Indian census): ''Ethnologue'' 21. {{e21|hin|Hindi}}. {{e21|ur|Urdu}}.</ref> | speakers2 = [[L2 speakers]]: ~500 million (1999–2016)<!--includes the 140M subtracted from the L1 census total of 390M estimated to speak something other than Hindustani. Not all of these will be able to speak Hindustani even as an L2, another reason the numbers can be only very approximate--><ref name=ethnologue /> | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] | fam4 = [[Hindi languages|Central Zone]] | fam5 = [[Western Hindi]] | ancestor = [[Shauraseni Prakrit]] | ancestor2 = [[Apabhraṃśa]] | ancestor3 = [[Old Hindi]] | stand1 = [[Modern Standard Hindi]] | stand2 = [[Urdu]] | dia1 = [[Andaman Creole Hindi]] | dia2 = Arunachali Hindi | dia3 = [[Begamati language|Begamati]] | dia4 = [[Bihari Hindi]]{{efn|Not to be confused with the [[Bihari languages]], a group of [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]].}} | dia5 = [[Bangalori Urdu|Bangluri Hindi]] | dia6 = [[Bombay Hindi]] | dia7 = [[Dhakaiya Urdu]] | dia8 = [[Deccani language|Deccani]] | dia9 = [[Haflong Hindi]] | dia10 = [[Hyderabadi Urdu]] | dia11 = [[Kalkatiya Urdu]] | dia12 = [[Karkhandari Urdu]] | dia13 = [[Kauravi dialect|Kauravi]] | dia14 = [[Judeo-Urdu]] | dia15 = [[Rekhta]] | script = {{Unbulleted list |[[Brahmic script|Brahmic]] [[Devanagari]] ([[Hindi phonology|Hindi alphabet]])<ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011"/> |[[Perso-Arabic script|Perso-Arabic]] [[Nastaliq]] ([[Urdu alphabet]]) (Urdu)<ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011"/> |[[Kaithi]] (historical) |[[Bengali–Assamese script]] (for [[Eastern Hindi]] in [[East India]] and [[Urdu]] in [[Bangladesh]]) |[[Hebrew script|Indo-Hebrew]] ([[Judeo-Urdu]]) |[[Laṇḍā scripts|Laṇḍā]] (historical)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gangopadhyay|first=Avik|title=Glimpses of Indian Languages|publisher=Evincepub publishing|year=2020|isbn=9789390197828|pages=43}}</ref> |[[Hindi Braille]] |[[Urdu Braille]] |[[Latin script]] ([[Roman Urdu]])}} | sign = [[Indian Signing System]] (ISS)<ref>[http://share.pdfonline.com/51071726f49f47ea858865837b25f8f9/dedse_dhh09.htm Norms & Guidelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113022437/http://share.pdfonline.com/51071726f49f47ea858865837b25f8f9/dedse_dhh09.htm |date=13 January 2014 }}, 2009. D.Ed. Special Education (Deaf & Hard of Hearing), [http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in Rehabilitation Council of India]</ref> | nation = {{plainlist| *India <br/>(as [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]) *Pakistan <br/> (as [[Urdu]]) *[[Fiji]] <br/>(as [[Fiji Hindi|Fijian Hindustani]]) <ref>{{Cite web| title=Fiji islands - Constitution amendment act 1997 | url=https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1997_constitution.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029081012/http://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1997_constitution.pdf | archive-date=2019-10-29}}</ref> }} | minority = {{ublist| | South Africa ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] - protected language)<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref> | United Arab Emirates ([[Hindi]] - third official court language)<ref name="thehindu.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/abu-dhabi-includes-hindi-as-third-official-court-language/article26229023.ece|title=Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language|newspaper=The Hindu|date=10 February 2019|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>}} | agency = {{plainlist| *[[Central Hindi Directorate]] (Hindi, India)<ref>The Central Hindi Directorate regulates the use of [[Devanagari]] and Hindi spelling in [[India]]. Source: [http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/introduction.html Central Hindi Directorate: Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415010138/http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/introduction.html |date=15 April 2010 }}</ref> *[[National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language]] (Urdu, India)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/|title=National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language|website=www.urducouncil.nic.in}}</ref> *[[National Language Promotion Department]] (Urdu, Pakistan)<ref>Zia, K. (1999). ''[http://users.skynet.be/hugocoolens/urdu-code/standardcodetableurdu.htm Standard Code Table for Urdu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408004715/http://users.skynet.be/hugocoolens/urdu-code/standardcodetableurdu.htm |date=8 April 2019 }}''. 4th Symposium on Multilingual Information Processing, (MLIT-4), [[Yangon]], [[Myanmar]]. CICC, [[Japan]]. Retrieved on 28 May 2008.</ref>}} | lingua = 59-AAF-qa to -qf | glotto = hind1270 | glottorefname = Hindustani | map = Hindustani-speaking world nations.png | mapcaption = Spread of Hindustani across the world{{legenda|#084081|Majority/Official language}}{{legenda|#0868ac|Significant Minority/Recognized language}}{{legenda|#74a9cf|Minority language}} | map2 = | mapcaption2 = {{legend|#FF7F36|Provincial or state level}} {{legend|#FFCC2E|Secondary provincial or state language}} {{legend|#FDF72F|National level}} | notice = IPA {{InterWiki|code=hi}} {{InterWiki|code=ur}} | Dialect 16 = Dakshina Hindi (Madrasi and Kerala Hindi) }} {{Contains special characters | special = uncommon [[Unicode]] characters | fix = Help:Multilingual support#Kaithi | image = Replacement character.svg | link = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character | alt = <?> | compact = yes }} {{Hindustani_language}} '''Hindustani'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|n|d|ʊ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n|i}}; [[Devanagari]]: {{lang|inc-Deva|हिन्दुस्तानी}},{{efn|Also written as {{lang|hi|हिंदुस्तानी}}}} [[Nastaliq script|Nastaliq]]: {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہندوستانی}}}},{{efn|This will only display in a [[Nastaliq]] font if one is installed, otherwise it may display in a modern [[Arabic typography|Arabic font]] in a style more common for writing [[Arabic]].}} [[transliteration]]: {{transliteration|inc|ISO|Hindustānī}}, {{IPA|hns|ɦɪnd̪ʊst̪ɑːniː|pron}}, {{lit|of [[Hindustan]]}}<ref name=hindustani-devn-spelling> *{{citation|editor-last=McGregor |editor-first=R. S. |author-link=R. S. McGregor|title=The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी |page=1071|quote=2. ''hindustani'' [P. hindustani] f Hindustani (a mixed Hindi dialect of the Delhi region which came to be used as a lingua franca widely throughout India and what is now Pakistan)}} *{{citation|title=बृहत हिंदी कोश खंड 2 (Large Hindi Dictionary, Volume 2) |publisher=केन्द्रीय हिंदी निदेशालय, भारत सरकार (Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India)|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी|page =1458|url=http://www.chdpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/b101/html5forpc.html?page=0|access-date=17 October 2021}} *{{citation|last=Das|first=Shyamasundar|title=Hindi Shabda Sagar (Hindi dictionary) in 11 volumes, revised edition|publisher=[[Nagari Pracharini Sabha]]|year=1975|location=Kashi (Varanasi)|page=5505|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/dasa-hindi_query.py?page=5505|quote=हिंदुस्तानी hindustānī३ संज्ञा स्त्री॰ १. हिंदुस्तान की भाषा । २. बोलचाल या व्यवहार की वह हिंदी जिसमें न तो बहुत अरबी फारसी के शब्द हों न संस्कृत के । उ॰—साहिब लोगों ने इस देश की भाषा का एक नया नाम हिंदुस्तानी रखा । Translation: Hindustani hindustānī3 noun feminine 1. The language of Hindustan. 2. That version of Hindi employed for common speech or business in which neither many Arabic or Persian words nor Sanskrit words are present. Context: The British gave the new name Hindustani to the language of this country.}}<!-- You can't put notes inside references{{efn|cited in {{citation|editor=R. R. K. Hartman|title=Lexicography, Critical Concepts, Volume II: Reference works across time, space and languages|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8LpWk9sPOEC&pg=PA156|page=156|year=2003}}}}--> *{{citation|last=Chaturvedi|first=Mahendra|title=A Practical Hindi-English Dictionary|location=Delhi|publisher=National Publishing House|year=1970|chapter=हिंदुस्तानी |quote=hindustānī hīndusta:nī: a theoretically existent style of the Hindi language which is supposed to consist of current and simple words of any sources whatever and is neither too much biassed in favour of Perso-Arabic elements nor has any place for too much high-flown Sanskritized vocabulary}}</ref><ref name="NCSU-Hindustani">{{Cite web|url = http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm|title = About Hindi-Urdu|publisher = [[North Carolina State University]]|access-date = 9 August 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090815023328/http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm|archive-date = 15 August 2009|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Grierson"/><ref name="Ray2011">{{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=Aniruddha|title=The Varied Facets of History: Essays in Honour of Aniruddha Ray|date=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-16-0|language=en|quote=There was the ''Hindustani Dictionary'' of Fallon published in 1879; and two years later (1881), John J. Platts produced his ''Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi and English'', which implied that Hindi and Urdu were literary forms of a single language. More recently, Christopher R. King in his ''One Language, Two Scripts'' (1994) has presented the late history of the single spoken language in two forms, with the clarity and detail that the subject deserves.}}</ref>}} is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] spoken in [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]] as the [[lingua franca]] of the region.<ref name="siddiqi1994" /> It is also spoken by the [[Deccani people|Deccani-speaking community]] in [[South India]]. Hindustani is a [[pluricentric language]] with two [[Standard language|standard]] [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]], known as [[Hindi]] ([[Prakrit|Prakritised]] and [[Sanskritisation (linguistics)|Sanskritised]] register written in the [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic script]]) and [[Urdu]] ([[Persianization|Persianised]] and [[Arabization|Arabised]] register written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]]), which serve as official languages of India and Pakistan, respectively.<ref name="britannica-2018-hindustani-language">{{cite web|title=Hindustani language|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=1 November 2018|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language|access-date=18 October 2021|quote=(subscription required) lingua franca of northern India and Pakistan. Two variants of Hindustani, Urdu and Hindi, are official languages in Pakistan and India, respectively. Hindustani began to develop during the 13th century CE in and around the Indian cities of Delhi and Meerut in response to the increasing linguistic diversity that resulted from Muslim hegemony. In the 19th century its use was widely promoted by the British, who initiated an effort at standardization. Hindustani is widely recognized as India's most common lingua franca, but its status as a vernacular renders it difficult to measure precisely its number of speakers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Yoon |editor1-first=Bogum |editor2-last=Pratt |editor2-first=Kristen L. |title=Primary Language Impact on Second Language and Literacy Learning |date=15 January 2023 |publisher=Lexington Books |page=198 |language=en |quote=In terms of cross-linguistic relations, Urdu's combinations of Arabic-Persian orthography and Sanskrit linguistic roots provides interesting theoretical as well as practical comparisons demonstrated in table 12.1.}}</ref> Thus, it is also called '''Hindi–Urdu'''.<ref name="trask-hclinguistics">{{citation |last=Trask |first=R. L. |title=Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics |date=8 August 2019 |pages=149&ndash;150 |chapter=Hindi-Urdu |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jacxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474473316 |quote='''Hindi-Urdu''' The most important modern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by well over 250 million people, mainly in India and Pakistan. At the spoken level ''Hindi'' and ''Urdu'' are the same language (called ''Hindustani'' before the political partition), but the two varieties are written in different alphabets and differ substantially in their abstract and technical vocabularies}}</ref><ref name="dcrystal-dict-lang">{{citation |last=Crystal |first=David |title=A Dictionary of Language |pages= |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3GU5FWs1pBEC |location=[[Chicago]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226122038 |quote=(p. 115) Figure: A family of languages: the Indo-European family tree, reflecting geographical distribution. Proto Indo-European>Indo-Iranian>Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit)> Midland (Rajasthani, Bihari, Hindi/Urdu); (p. 149) '''Hindi''' There is little structural difference between Hindi and Urdu, and the two are often grouped together under the single label Hindi/Urdu, sometimes abbreviated to Hirdu, and formerly often called Hindustani; (p. 160) '''India''' ... With such linguistic diversity, Hindi/Urdu has come to be widely used as a lingua franca. |author-link=David Crystal}}</ref><ref name="gandhi-hindi-urdu">{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=M. K. |author-link1=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5BNDwAAQBAJ |title=An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth: A Critical Edition |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |others=annotation by Suhrud, Tridip |year=2018 |isbn=9780300234077 |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and London |translator-last=Desai |translator-first=Mahadev |quote=(p. 737) I was handicapped for want of suitable Hindi or Urdu words. This was my first occasion for delivering an argumentative speech before an audience especially composed of Mussalmans of the North. I had spoken in Urdu at the Muslim League at Calcutta, but it was only for a few minutes, and the speech was intended only to be a feeling appeal to the audience. Here, on the contrary, I was faced with a critical, if not hostile, audience, to whom I had to explain and bring home my view-point. But I had cast aside all shyness. I was not there to deliver an address in the faultless, polished Urdu of the Delhi Muslims, but to place before the gathering my views in such broken Hindi as I could command. And in this I was successful. This meeting afforded me a direct proof of the fact that Hindi-Urdu alone could become the lingua franca<Footnote M8> of India. (M8: "national language" in the Gujarati original). |translator-link=Mahadev Desai}}</ref> Colloquial registers of the language fall on a spectrum between these standards.<ref name="Basu2017" /><ref name="GubeGao2019" /> The concept of a Hindustani language as a "unifying language" or "fusion language" that could transcend communal and religious divisions across the subcontinent was endorsed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thefederal.com/analysis/how-gandhi-changed-his-mind-about-the-south-after-experiments-with-hindi-as-national-language/|title=After experiments with Hindi as national language, how Gandhi changed his mind|work=Prabhu Mallikarjunan|date=3 October 2019|publisher=The Feral}}</ref> as it was not seen to be associated with either the Hindu or Muslim communities as was the case with Hindi and Urdu respectively, and it was also considered a simpler language for people to learn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rai |first=Alok |title=The Persistence of Hindustani |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28623900 |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lelyveld |first=David |date=1993-01-01 |title=Colonial knowledge and the fate of Hindustani |url=https://www.academia.edu/2252261 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=665–682 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500018661 |s2cid=144180838 }}</ref> The conversion from Hindi to Urdu (or vice versa) is generally achieved by merely [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration|transliterating between the two scripts]]. Translation, on the other hand, is generally only required for religious and literary texts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhat |first1=Riyaz Ahmad |last2=Bhat |first2=Irshad Ahmad |last3=Jain |first3=Naman |last4=Sharma |first4=Dipti Misra |title=A House United: Bridging the Script and Lexical Barrier between Hindi and Urdu |url=http://irshadbhat.github.io/papers-pdf/house-united.pdf |publisher=Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational Linguistics |access-date=18 October 2021 |language=en |date=2016 |quote=Hindi and Urdu transliteration has received a lot of attention from the NLP research community of South Asia (Malik et al., 2008; Lehal and Saini, 2012; Lehal and Saini, 2014). It has been seen to break the barrier that makes the two look different.}}</ref> Scholars trace the language's first written poetry, in the form of [[Old Hindi]], to the Delhi Sultanate era around the twelfth and thirteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Indo-Aryan languages|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|editor1=Dhanesh Jain |editor2=George Cardona |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9|location=London|oclc=648298147 |quote=Such an early date for the inception of a Hindi literature, one made possible only by subsuming the large body of Apabhraṁśa literature into Hindi, has not, however, been generally accepted by scholars (p. 279).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kachru |first=Yamuna |author-link=Yamuna Kachru |year=2006 |title=Hindi |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |quote=The period '''between 1000 AD-1200/1300 AD''' is designated the Old NIA stage because it is at this stage that the NIA languages such as Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, '''Hindi''', Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi assumed distinct identities (p. 1, emphasis added)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dua |first=Hans |year=2008 |chapter=Hindustani |editor1=Keith Brown |editor2=Sarah Ogilvie |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |pages=497–500 |location=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |quote=Hindustani as a colloquial speech developed over almost seven centuries from '''1100''' to 1800 (p. 497, emphasis added).}} </ref> During the period of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which covered most of today's India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh<ref>Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106-134.</ref> and which resulted in the [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb|Hindu-Muslim cultures]], the [[Prakrit]] base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from [[Persian language|Persian]], evolving into the present form of Hindustani.<ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Rekhta2020">{{cite web |title=Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/women-of-the-indian-sub-continent-makings-of-a-culture-rekhta-foundation/dwJy7qboNi3fIg?hl=en |publisher=[[Google Arts & Culture]] |access-date=25 February 2020 |language=en |quote=The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.}}</ref><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985">{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=David John |last2=Shackle |first2=C. |last3=Husain |first3=Shahanara |title=Urdu literature |date=1985 |publisher=Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies |isbn=978-0-907962-30-4 |language=en |quote=But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'.}}</ref><ref name="Dhulipala2000">{{cite book |last1=Dhulipala |first1=Venkat |title=The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |page=27 |language=en |quote=Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.}}</ref><ref name="IJSW1943">{{cite book |title=Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4 |date=1943 |publisher=[[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] |page=264 |language=en |quote=... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008"/><ref name="Kesavan1997">{{cite book |last1=Kesavan |first1=B. S. |title=History Of Printing And Publishing In India |date=1997 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |isbn=978-81-237-2120-0 |page=31 |language=en |quote=It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.}}</ref> The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the [[Indian independence movement|Indian Independence movement]],<ref name="Hock1991">{{cite book |author1=Hans Henrich Hock |title=Principles of Historical Linguistics |date=1991 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-012962-5 |page=475 |language=en |quote=During the time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the Dravidian south. ... Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, its national language.|author1-link=Hans Henrich Hock }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=masica|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|last=Masica|first=Colin P.|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29944-2|pages=430 (Appendix I)|language=en|quote=Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India, much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani 1983: 90-1].}}</ref> and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name="Ashmore1961">{{cite book |last1=Ashmore |first1=Harry S. |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11 |date=1961 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |page=579 |language=en |quote=The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.}}</ref> which is reflected in the [[Hindustani vocabulary]] of [[Bollywood]] films and songs.<ref name="Tunstall2008">{{cite book |last1=Tunstall |first1=Jeremy |title=The media were American: U.S. mass media in decline |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518146-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 160] |language=en |quote=The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words. |url=https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 }}</ref><ref name="Hiro2015">{{cite book |last1=Hiro |first1=Dilip |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |date=2015 |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-56858-503-1 |page=398 |language=en|quote=Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are written in Hindustani.}}</ref> The language's core vocabulary is derived from Prakrit and Sanskrit (via Prakrit),<ref name="GubeGao2019">{{cite book |last1=Gube |first1=Jan |last2=Gao |first2=Fang |title=Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context |date=2019 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-981-13-3125-1 |language=en |quote=The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000).}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="Ahmed2024">{{cite web |title=Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ties-between-urdu-sanskrit-deeply-rooted-scholar/articleshow/108415962.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=8 May 2024 |date=12 March 2024 |quote=The linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled "Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit.}}</ref><ref name="Kuiper2010">{{cite book |last1=Kuiper |first1=Kathleen |title=The Culture of India |date=2010 |publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-61530-149-2 |language=en |quote=Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.}}</ref><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997">{{cite book |last1=Chatterji |first1=Suniti Kumar |last2=Siṃha |first2=Udaẏa Nārāẏana |last3=Padikkal |first3=Shivarama |title=Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0353-2 |language=en |quote=High Hindi written in Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi.}}</ref> with substantial [[Hindustani etymology|loanwords]] from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).<ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Draper2003">{{cite book |last1=Draper |first1=Allison Stark |title=India: A Primary Source Cultural Guide |date=2003 |publisher=[[Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-8239-3838-4 |language=en |quote=People in Delhi spoke Khari Boli, a language the British called Hindustani. It used an Indo-Aryan grammatical structure and numerous Persian "loan-words."}}</ref><ref name="Ahmad2002">{{cite book|last=Ahmad|first=Aijaz|title=Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia|year=2002|publisher=Verso|language=en|isbn=9781859843581|page=113|quote=On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. ''Farhang-e-Asafiya'' is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It twas compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that is draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as Farsi, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi.}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="Dalmia2017">{{cite book|last=Dalmia|first=Vasudha|title=Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories|date=31 July 2017|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|language=en|isbn=9781438468075|page=310|quote=On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112-13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.}}</ref> It is often written in the [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]] or [[Nastaliq|Nastaliq script]] in the case of Hindi and Urdu respectively, with [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration|romanisation]] increasingly employed in modern times as a neutral script.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brandt |first1=Carmen |last2=Sohoni |first2=Pushkar |date=2018-01-02 |title=Script and identity – the politics of writing in South Asia: an introduction |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19472498.2017.1411048 |journal=South Asian History and Culture |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/19472498.2017.1411048 |s2cid=148802248 |issn=1947-2498|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brandt |first=Carmen |date=2020-01-01 |title=From a Symbol of Colonial Conquest to the Scripta Franca: The Roman Script for South Asian Languages |url=https://www.academia.edu/44049525 |journal=Academia |archive-date=20 July 2024 |access-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720122053/https://www.academia.edu/44049525 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of 2025, [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] together constitute the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|3rd-most-spoken language in the world]] after [[English language|English]] and [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], with 855 million native and second-language speakers, according to ''[[Ethnologue]]'',<ref>Not considering whether speakers may be bilingual in Hindi and Urdu. {{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages?|website=Ethnologue|date=2025|access-date=2025-05-11}}</ref> though this includes millions who self-reported their language as 'Hindi' on the Indian census but speak a number of other [[Hindi languages]] than Hindustani.<ref>{{cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]|date=29 June 2018}}</ref> The total number of Hindustani speakers was reported to be over 300 million in 1995, making Hindustani the third- or fourth-most spoken language in the world.<ref name="Gambhir1995">{{cite book |last1=Gambhir |first1=Vijay |title=The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages |date=1995 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|isbn=978-0-8122-3328-5 |language=en |quote=The position of Hindi–Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish.}}</ref><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005">{{cite book |last1=Delacy |first1=Richard |last2=Ahmed |first2=Shahara |title=Hindi, Urdu & Bengali |date=2005 |publisher=Lonely Planet |pages=11–12 |quote=Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions. That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets (and watch the same Bollywood films) have no problems understanding each other.}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Hindustani}} {{See also|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}} Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan]] ''[[apabhraṃśa]]'' [[vernacular]]s of present-day [[North India]] in the 7th–13th centuries.<ref name="Brill1993">{{cite book|title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936|year=1993|publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]]|language=en|isbn=9789004097964|page=1024|quote=Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian, which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language, the common language of the country continued to be Hindi, derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit. On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language, which brought a new language, Urdu, into existence. Sir George Grierson, in the Linguistic Survey of India, assigns no distinct place to Urdu, but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008">{{cite book |last1=Mody |first1=Sujata Sudhakar |title=Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920 |date=2008 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |page=7 |language=en |quote=...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).}}</ref> Hindustani emerged as a contact language around the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]), a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred during the [[Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{cite book|editor=Kathleen Kuiper|year=2011 |title=The Culture of India|publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]]|language=en|isbn=9781615301492|page=80|quote=Hindustani began to develop during the 13th century AD in and around the Indian cities of Dehli and Meerut in response to the increasing linguistic diversity that resulted from Muslim hegemony.}}</ref> [[Amir Khusrow]], who lived in the thirteenth century during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] period in North India, used these forms (which was the ''lingua franca'' of the period) in his writings and referred to it as ''Hindavi'' ({{langx|fa|ھندوی|lit=of ''Hindus'' or Indians}}).<ref name="brown2008">{{Citation |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |author1=Keith Brown |author2=Sarah Ogilvie |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |publisher=Elsevier |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC |quote=Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi[.]}}</ref><ref name="Kesavan1997"/> By the end of the century, the military exploits of [[Alauddin Khalji]], introduced the language in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region, which led to the development of its southern dialect [[Deccani language|Deccani]], which was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.<ref name="Prakāśaṃ">{{cite book|last1=Prakāśaṃ|first1=Vennelakaṇṭi|title=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories|date=2008|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788184242799|page=186|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC&pg=PA185|quote=In Deccan the dialect developed and flourished independently. It is here that it received, among others, the name Dakkhni. The kings of many independent kingdoms such as Bahmani, Ādil Shahi and Qutb Shahi that came into being in Deccan patronized the dialect. It was elevated as the official language.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Mustafa|2008|p=185}} The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan]] dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi,<ref name=Gat>{{cite book|last1=Gat|first1=Azar|author-link1=Azar Gat|last2=Yakobson|first2=Alexander|author-link2=Alexander Yakobson|title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC&pg=PA126|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-00785-7|page=126}}</ref> was succeeded by the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1526 and preceded by the [[Ghorid dynasty]] and [[Ghaznavid Empire]] before that. Ancestors of the language were known as ''Hindui'', ''Hindavi'', ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan|Hind]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of India'}}), ''Zabān-e [[Hindustan]]'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), ''Hindustan ki boli'' ({{Translation|'Language of Hindustan'}}), [[Rekhta]], and Hindi.<ref name="siddiqi1994">{{Citation | title=Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts | author=Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi | year=1994 | publisher=University of Wisconsin | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnrTAAAAMAAJ | quote=... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...}}</ref><ref name="pulsipher2005">{{Citation | title=World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives |author1=Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher |author2=Alex Pulsipher |author3=Holly M. Hapke | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7167-1904-5 | publisher=Macmillan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfNaSNNAppQC | quote=... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the ''lingua franca'' of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...}}</ref> Its regional dialects became known as ''Zabān-e Dakhani'' in southern India, ''Zabān-e Gujari'' ({{Translation|'Language of Gujars'}}) in Gujarat, and as ''Zabān-e Dehlavi'' or Urdu around Delhi. It is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], deriving its base from the [[Central Indo-Aryan languages#Languages|Western Hindi]] dialect of the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]] and [[Saharanpur]]) known as [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]]—the contemporary form being classed under the umbrella of [[Old Hindi]].<ref name="Elsevier2010">{{cite book |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-087775-4 |page=497 |language=en |quote=Hindustani is a Central Indo-Aryan language based on Khari Boli (Khaṛi Boli). Its origin, development, and function reflect the dynamics of the sociolinguistic contact situation from which it emerged as a colloquial speech. It is inextricably linked with the emergence and standardisation of Urdu and Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="WilliamsMalhotraHawley2018">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Tyler |last2=Malhotra |first2=Anshu |last3=Hawley |first3=John S. |title=Text and Tradition in Early Modern North India |date=3 January 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-909167-6 |language=en|quote=These traditions intensively fed into each other and can be perceived as forming a 'super-tradition', which with a modern, heuristic term is called Old Hindi.}}</ref><ref name="Britannica2000"/> Although the Mughals were of [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] (''Gurkānī'') [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] descent,<ref name="Thackston">{{Citation |title=The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor |publisher=Modern Library Classics |isbn=978-0-375-76137-9 |date=10 September 2002 |author=Zahir ud-Din Mohammad |editor=Thackston, Wheeler M. |quote=Note: ''Gurkānī'' is the Persianized form of the Mongolian word "kürügän" ("son-in-law"), the title given to the dynasty's founder after his marriage into [[Genghis Khan]]'s family. |url= https://archive.org/details/babarinizam00babu }}</ref> they were [[Persianization|Persianised]], and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after [[Babur]].<ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref><ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation: "Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia. ... Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.")</ref><ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia |title = Timurids |url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |edition = Sixth |publisher = [[Columbia University]] |location = New York City |access-date = 8 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205073939/http://bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html |archive-date = 5 December 2006 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' article: [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26937/Islamic-world Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids], Online Edition, 2007.</ref> Mughal patronage led to a continuation and reinforcement of Persian by Central Asian [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] rulers in the Indian Subcontinent,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Clinton|author-link1=Clinton Bennett|last2=Ramsey|first2=Charles M.|title=South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EQJHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|year=2012|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-5127-8|page=18}}</ref> since Persian was also patronized by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate who laid the basis for the introduction and use of Persian in the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laet|first=Sigfried J. de Laet|author-link=Sigfried J. de Laet|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA734|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-102813-7|page=734}}</ref> Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526 AD) and [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1858 AD) in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Taj"/> Hindustani retained the [[Hindustani grammar|grammar]], as well as the [[Hindustani vocabulary|core Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary]], of the local Indian language of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab called [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]].<ref name="Britannica2000">{{cite book |title=Students' Britannica India |date=2000 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |page=299 |language=en |quote=Hindustani developed as lingua franca in the medieval ages in and around Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur because of the interaction between the speakers of ''Khariboli'' (a dialect developed in this region out of Shauraseni Prakrit) and the speakers of Persian, Turkish, and various dialects of Arabic who migrated to North India. Initially it was known by various names such as ''Rekhta'' (mixed), ''Urdu'' (language of the camp) and ''Hindvi'' or ''Hindustani'' (language of Hindustan). Though ''Khariboli'' supplied its basic vocabulary and grammar, it borrowed quite a lot of words from Persian and Arabic}}</ref><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="Taj">{{cite web |last1=Taj |first1=Afroz |title=About Hindi-Urdu |url=http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |publisher=[[The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] |access-date=30 June 2019 |language=en |date=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419162950/http://www.unc.edu/~taj/abturdu.htm |archive-date=19 April 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Strnad2013">{{cite book |last1=Strnad |first1=Jaroslav |title=Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān |date=2013 |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-25489-3 |language=en |quote=Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending ''-a'' in the dir. plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings.}}</ref><ref name="Grajcar2024">{{cite web |last1=Grajcar |first1=Rhône |title=In Delhi, an Urdu Wala, and a 'Dying' Language's Quiet, Vibrant Life |url=https://mangoprism.com/in-delhi-an-urdu-wala-and-a-dying-languages-quiet-vibrant-life/ |publisher=Mangoprism |access-date=15 October 2024 |language=en |date=6 February 2024 |quote=But those who make this claim focus more on the fate of Urdu in its place of origin, the Doab plains between the Ganga and Jamuna rivers of Northern India.}}</ref> However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the [[Hindu-Muslim unity|contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures]] in Hindustan that created a composite [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]].<ref name="Dhulipala2000"/><ref name="Rekhta2020"/><ref name="IJSW1943"/><ref name="Farooqi2012">{{cite book |last1=Farooqi |first1=M. |title=Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari |date=2012 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|isbn=978-1-137-02692-7 |language=en |quote=Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims.}}</ref> The language was also known as ''[[Rekhta]]'', or 'mixed', which implies that the Sanskritic and Prakritic vocabulary base of Old Hindi was mixed with Persian loanwords.<ref name="Strnad2013"/><ref name="Brill1993"/><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985"/><ref name="Britannica2000"/><ref>{{ELL2|Hindustani}}</ref><ref name="Ayres2009">{{cite book|author=Alyssa Ayres|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre|url-access=limited|date=23 July 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51931-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre/page/n32 19]–}}</ref> Written in the [[Urdu alphabet|Perso-Arabic]], [[Devanagari]],<ref name="mcgregor_912">{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|author-link=Sheldon Pollock|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xowUxYhv0QgC&pg=RA1-PA912|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4|page=912}}</ref> and occasionally [[Kaithi]] or [[Gurmukhi]] scripts,<ref name="Wayback Machine">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|title=Rekhta: Poetry in Mixed Language, The Emergence of Khari Boli Literature in North India|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|access-date=23 April 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328003510/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/workshop2012/bangha_rekhta.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2016}}</ref> it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as [[Sufi]], [[sant (religion)|Nirgun Sant]], [[bhakti|Krishna Bhakta]] circles, and [[Rajput]] Hindu courts. Its major centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, [[Lucknow]], [[Agra]] and [[Lahore]] as well as the Rajput courts of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] and [[Jaipur]].<ref name="Wayback Machine" /> In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of [[apabhraṃśa]] vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the [[lingua franca]] among the educated elite [[upper class]] particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term ''Hindustani'' was given to that language.<ref> Nijhawan, S. 2016. "Hindi, Urdu or Hindustani? Revisiting 'National Language' Debates through Radio Broadcasting in Late Colonial India." ''[[South Asia Research]]'' 36(1):80–97. {{doi|10.1177/0262728015615486}}.</ref> The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: ''Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla'' ('language of the court') or ''Zabān-e Urdū'' ({{lang|fa|زبان اردو}}, 'language of the camp'). The etymology of the word ''Urdu'' is of [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]] origin, ''Ordū'' ('camp'), cognate with English ''[[wikt:horde|horde]]'', and known in local translation as ''Lashkari Zabān'' ({{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|لشکری زبان}}|rtl=yes}}),<ref>Khalid, Kanwal. "Lahore During the Ghanavid Period".</ref> which is shortened to ''Lashkari'' ({{Lang|ur|{{nq|لشکری}}|rtl=yes}}).<ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite book|author=Aijazuddin Ahmad|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA120|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|pages=120–}}</ref> This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became an official language of northern parts of [[British India]] in 1837.<ref name="Coatsworth2015">{{Cite book|url=http://www.overstock.com/Books-Movies-Music-Games/Global-Connections-Politics-Exchange-and-Social-Life-in-World-History-Hardcover/9911619/product.html#more|title=Global Connections: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History|last=Coatsworth|first=John|publisher=Cambridge Univ Pr|year=2015|isbn=9780521761062|location=United States|pages=159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Tariq Rahman|author-link=Tariq Rahman|date=2011|title=Urdu as the Language of Education in British India|url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/1.%20URDU%20AS%20THE%20LANGUAGE,%20Tariq%20Rahman%20FINAL.pdf|journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture|publisher=NIHCR|volume=32|issue=2|pages=1–42}}</ref> Hindi as a standardised literary [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of the Hindustani arose in the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. [[Lallu Lal]], [[Insha Allah Khan]]), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of Hindustani written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu's official position.<ref>{{cite book| last=King |first=Christopher R. |year=1994 |title=One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> [[John Fletcher Hurst]] in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the [[Mughal Empire]]'s courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Hindi]] with admixture of Persian. He continued: "But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken by many [[Hindu]]s in [[North India]] and by [[Muslim|Musalman]] population in all parts of India." Next to English it was the official language of [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]], was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurst|first=John Fletcher|author-link=John Fletcher Hurst|title=Indika, The country and People of India and Ceylon|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=j_1ykl3ZHXcC&pg=PA344|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=344|id=GGKEY:P8ZHWWKEKAJ}}</ref> The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from [[Persian language|Persian]], such as ''rajmahal'' 'palace' (''raja'' 'royal, king' + ''mahal'' 'house, place') and ''rangmahal'' 'fashion house' (''rang'' 'colour, dye' + ''mahal'' 'house, place').<ref name="Britannica2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-01 |title=Hindustani language: Origins & Vocabulary |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220401050423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language |url-status=dead |archive-date=2022-04-01 |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> As [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim rule]] expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], for instance, [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] blended with [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and came to be called [[Deccani language|Dakhani]]. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, ''dekh'' 'see' became ''dek'', ''ghula'' 'dissolved' became ''gula'', ''kuch'' 'some' became ''kuc'', and ''samajh'' 'understand' became ''samaj''.<ref name="Britannica2022"/> When the British colonised the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words 'Hindustani', 'Hindi', and 'Urdu' interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of [[British India]],<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|last=Coulmas|first=Florian|author-link=Florian Coulmas|title=Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kmKLxzTnL9IC&pg=PA232|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78737-6|page=232}}</ref> further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word 'Hindustani' declined, being largely replaced by 'Hindi' and 'Urdu', or 'Hindi–Urdu' when either of those was too specific.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |pages=430 |quote=after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it [Hindustani] fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86-98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it as their mother language}}</ref> More recently, the word 'Hindustani' has been used for the colloquial language of [[Bollywood]] films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu. British rule over India also introduced some English words into Hindustani, with these [[Englishization|influences]] increasing with the later spread of English as a world language. This has created a new variant of Hindustani known as [[Hinglish]] or [[Urdish]].<ref name="Coleman2014">{{cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=Julie |title=Global English Slang: Methodologies and Perspectives |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-93476-9 |page=130 |language=en |quote=Within India, however, other regional forms exist, all denoting a mixing of English with indigenous languages. ''Bonglish'' (derived from the slang term ''Bong'' 'a Bengali') or ''Benglish'' refers to 'a mixture of Bengali and English', ''Gunglish'' or ''Gujlish'' 'Gujarati + English', ''Kanglish'' 'Kannada + English', ''Manglish'' 'Malayalam + English', ''Marlish'' 'Marathi + English', ''Tamlish'' or ''Tanglish'' 'Tamil + English' and ''Urdish'' 'Urdu + English'. These terms are found in texts on regional variations of Indian English, usually in complaint-tradition discussions of failing standards of language purity.}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Vajpeyi |first1=Ananya |date=2012 |title=Hindi, Hinglish: Head to Head |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/world-policy-journal/article-abstract/29/2/97/78965/Hindi-Hinglish-Head-to-Head |journal=World Policy Journal |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=97–103 |doi=10.1177/0740277512451519 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-10-29}}</ref><ref name=":3">Salwathura, A. N. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anusha-Salwathura/publication/346595689_EVOLUTIONARY_DEVELOPMENT_OF_'HINGLISH'_LANGUAGE_WITHIN_THE_INDIAN_SUB-CONTINENT/links/5fc8df9aa6fdcc697bd861a3/EVOLUTIONARY-DEVELOPMENT-OF-HINGLISH-LANGUAGE-WITHIN-THE-INDIAN-SUB-CONTINENT.pdf Evolutionary development of ‘hinglish’language within the Indian sub-continent.]" ''International Journal of Research-GRANTHAALAYAH''. Vol. 8. No. 11. Granthaalayah Publications and Printers, 2020. 41-48.</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Vanita |first=Ruth |date=2009-04-01 |title=Eloquent Parrots; Mixed Language and the Examples of Hinglish and Rekhti |url=https://scholarworks.umt.edu/libstudies_pubs/2 |journal=International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter |issue=50 |pages=16–17}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Rajendra |date=1985-01-01 |title=Modern Hindustani and Formal and Social Aspects of Language Contact |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/itl.70.02sin |journal=ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics |language=en |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=33–60 |doi=10.1075/itl.70.02sin |issn=0019-0829 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> ==Registers== {{See also|Hindi–Urdu controversy|Register (sociolinguistics)|digraphia}} At the spoken level, Hindi and Urdu are considered [[register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] of a single language, Hindustani or Hindi–Urdu, as they share a common [[Hindustani grammar|grammar]] and core vocabulary.<ref name="Basu2017">{{cite book|last1=Basu|first1=Manisha|title=The Rhetoric of Hindutva|date=2017|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-14987-8|language=en|quote=Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Dehlavi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.}}</ref><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="PeterDass2019">{{cite book|last1=Peter-Dass|first1=Rakesh|title=Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India|date=2019|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-00-070224-8|language=en|quote=Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.}}</ref><ref name="Kuiper2010"/><ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/> They differ in literary and formal vocabulary: where literary Hindi draws heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent [[Prakrit]], literary Urdu draws heavily on Persian and Arabic loanwords.<ref name="JainCardona2007">{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Danesh |last2=Cardona |first2=George |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9 |language=en |quote=The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by ''tatsama'' forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a throrough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.}}</ref> The grammar and base vocabulary (most pronouns, verbs, adpositions, etc.) of both Hindi and Urdu, however, are the same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have Persian/Arabic influence.<ref name="PeterDass2019"/> [[File:A grammar of the Hindustani language (IA dli.csl.7322).pdf|thumb|A grammar of the Hindustani language, published 1843]] [[File:Trilingual road sign in India.png|thumb|A road sign using Hindi, Urdu, and English]] The standardised registers Hindi and Urdu are collectively known as ''Hindi–Urdu''.<ref name="NCSU-Hindustani"/> Hindustani is the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the north and west of the [[Indian subcontinent]], though it is understood fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas.<ref name="siddiqi1994"/> This has led it to be characterised as a continuum that ranges between Hindi and Urdu.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Rahman|first=Tariq|url=http://www.tariqrahman.net/content/hindiurdu1.pdf|title=From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|pages=99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010094507/http://www.tariqrahman.net/content/hindiurdu1.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2014}}</ref> A common vernacular sharing characteristics with Sanskritised Hindi, regional Hindi and Urdu, Hindustani is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly Sanskritised Hindi or highly Persianised Urdu.<ref name="Ashmore1961"/> This can be seen in the popular culture of [[Bollywood]] or, more generally, the vernacular of North Indians and Pakistanis, which generally employs a lexicon common to both Hindi and Urdu speakers.<ref name="Hiro2015"/> Minor subtleties in region will also affect the 'brand' of Hindustani, sometimes pushing the Hindustani closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the Hindustani spoken in [[Lucknow]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] (known for its usage of Urdu) and [[Varanasi]] (a holy city for Hindus and thus using highly Sanskritised Hindi) is somewhat different.<ref name="NCSU-Hindustani"/> In modern times, a third variety of Hindustani with significant English influences has also appeared, which is sometimes called [[Hinglish]] or [[Urdish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kothari |first1=Rita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4tmwFFhoAEC&pg=PA37 |title=Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish |last2=Snell |first2=Rupert |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341639-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ===Standard Hindi=== {{Main|Hindi}} Standard Hindi, one of the [[official languages of India|22 officially recognized languages of India]] and the [[official language]] of the Union, is usually written in the indigenous [[Devanagari]] script of India and exhibits less Persian and Arabic influence than Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion and philosophy. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects and registers, with the highly Persianised Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskritised variety spoken in the region around [[Varanasi]], at the other end. In common usage in India, the term ''Hindi'' includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word ''Hindi'' include, among others:{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} # standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India (except some states such as Tamil Nadu), # formal or official Hindi advocated by [[Purushottam Das Tandon]] and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit, # the vernacular dialects of Hindustani as spoken throughout India, # the neutralized form of Hindustani used in popular television and films (which is nearly identical to colloquial Urdu), or # the more formal neutralized form of Hindustani used in television and print news reports. ===Standard Urdu=== {{Main|Urdu}} [[File:Zaban urdu mualla.png|thumb|The phrase ''Zubān-e Urdu-ye Mualla'' in [[Nastaʿlīq]]]] Urdu is the [[national language]] and [[state language]] of Pakistan and one of the [[official languages of India|22 officially recognised languages of India]]. It is written, except in some parts of India, in the [[Nastaliq]] style of the [[Urdu alphabet]], an extended Perso-Arabic script incorporating Indic phonemes. It is heavily influenced by [[Dari Persian|Persian]] vocabulary and was historically also known as [[Rekhta]]. [[File:Lashkari Zaban calligraphy.png|thumb|''Lashkari Zabān'' title in the Perso-Arabic script]] As [[Dakhini]] (or Deccani) where it also draws words from local languages, it survives and enjoys a rich history in the [[Deccan]] and other parts of [[South India]], with the prestige dialect being [[Hyderabadi Urdu]] spoken in and around the capital of the [[Nizams of Hyderabad|Nizams]] and the [[Deccan Sultanates]]. Earliest forms of the language's literature may be traced back to the 13th–14th century works of [[Amir Khusrau|Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī]], often called the "father of [[Urdu literature]]", while [[Wali Dakhni|Walī Deccani]] is seen as the progenitor of [[Urdu poetry]]. ===Bazaar Hindustani=== The term ''[[bazaar]] Hindustani'', in other words, the 'street talk' or literally 'marketplace Hindustani', also known as ''Colloquial Hindi''{{efn|<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agnihotri |first=Rama Kant |title=Hindi: an essential grammar |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35671-8 |edition=1. publ |series=Essential grammars |location=London |pages=05 |language=en}}</ref> ({{langx|hi|बोलचाल हिन्दी}}, {{langx|ur|بول چال ہندی}})}} or ''Simplified Urdu'',{{efn|<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shackle |first1=C. |title=Hindi and Urdu since 1800: a common reader |last2=Snell |first2=Rupert |publisher=Heritage Publishers |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-7026-162-9 |location=New Delhi, India |pages=09 |language=en, hi, ur}}</ref> ({{langx|hi|आसान उर्दू}}, {{langx|ur|آسان اردو}})}} has arisen to denote a colloquial register of the language that uses vocabulary common to both Hindi and Urdu while eschewing high-register and specialized Arabic or Sanskrit derived words.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Robert D. |date=2001-01-10 |title=The poisonous potency of script: Hindi and Urdu |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2001.035 |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=150 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2001.035 |issn=0165-2516|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It has emerged in various South Asian cities where Hindustani is not the main language, in order to facilitate communication across language barriers. It is characterized by loanwords from local languages.<ref>Smith, Ian (2008). "Pidgins, Creoles, and Bazaar Hindi". In Kachru, Braj B; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S.N (eds.). ''Language in South Asia''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 254. {{ISBN|1139465503}}</ref> ==Names== [[Amir Khusro]] {{circa|1300}} referred to this language of his writings as ''Dehlavi'' ({{lang|inc-Deva|देहलवी}} / {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|دہلوی}}}}, 'of Delhi') or ''Hindavi'' ({{lang|inc-Deva|हिन्दवी}} / {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہندوی}}}}). During this period, Hindustani was used by [[Sufis]] in promulgating their message across the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} After the advent of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in the subcontinent, Hindustani acquired more Persian loanwords. ''[[Rekhta]]'' ('mixture'), ''Hindi'' ('Indian'), Hindustani, Hindvi, [[Lahori]], and [[Dakni]] (amongst others) became popular names for the same language until the 18th century.<ref name="mcgregor_912"/><ref name="faruqi_806">{{citation|last=Faruqi|first=Shamsur Rahman|title=Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xowUxYhv0QgC&q=0520228219&pg=PA806|page=806|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press |editor-last=Pollock|contribution=A Long History of Urdu Literarature, Part 1|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4}}</ref> The name ''Urdu'' (from ''Zabān-i-Ordu'', or ''Orda'') appeared around 1780.<ref name="faruqi_806" /> It is believed to have been coined by the poet [[Mashafi]].<ref>Garcia, Maria Isabel Maldonado. 2011. "The Urdu language reforms." ''[[Studies (journal)|Studies]]'' 26(97).</ref> In local literature and speech, it was also known as the ''Lashkari Zabān'' (military language) or ''Lashkari''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alyssa Ayres|url=https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|date=23 July 2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521519311|page=[https://archive.org/details/speakinglikestat00ayre/page/n32 19]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Mashafi was the first person to simply modify the name ''Zabān-i-Ordu'' to ''[[Urdu]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Marathwada Under the Nizams|author=P.V.Kate|page=136|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tjndiykddsIC&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi&pg=PA136|isbn=9788170990178|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications }}</ref> During the [[British Raj]], the term ''Hindustani'' was used by British officials.<ref name="faruqi_806"/> In 1796, [[John Borthwick Gilchrist]] published "A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language".<ref name="faruqi_806"/><ref name="Gilchrist">{{Citation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_rwIAAAAQAAJ&q=hindoostanee+language| title = A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language|publisher = Chronicle Press|access-date = 8 January 2007|year = 1796}}</ref> Upon [[partition of India|partition]], India and Pakistan established national standards that they called ''Hindi'' and ''Urdu,'' respectively, and attempted to make distinct, with the result that ''Hindustani'' commonly, but mistakenly, came to be seen as a "mixture" of Hindi and Urdu. [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in his highly influential ''[[Linguistic Survey of India]]'', proposed that the names ''Hindustani, Urdu,'' and ''Hindi'' be separated in use for different varieties of the Hindustani language, rather than as the overlapping synonyms they frequently were: {{blockquote|text=We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the ''lingua franca'' of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name 'Urdū' can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, 'Hindī' can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.<ref name="Grierson">Grierson, vol. 9–1, p. 47. ''We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the ''lingua franca'' of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name 'Urdū' can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, 'Hindī' can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.''</ref>}} ==Official status== [[File:South asia.jpg|thumb|Hindustani, in its standardised registers, is one of the official languages of both India (Hindi) and Pakistan (Urdu).]] Before 1947, Hindustani was officially recognised by the British Raj. In the post-independence period however, the term Hindustani has lost currency and is not given any official recognition by the Indian or Pakistani governments. The language is instead recognised by its standard forms, Hindi and Urdu.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidt|first=Ruth L|title=Urdu|work=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9780700711307|editor-last=Cardona|editor-first=George|pages=318–319|editor-last2=Jain|editor-first2=Dhanesh}}</ref> === Hindi === Hindi is declared by Article 343(1), [[Part XVII of the Constitution of India|Part 17]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] as the "official language ({{lang|inc-Deva|राजभाषा}}, {{transliteration|inc|ISO|rājabhāṣā}}) of the Union." (In this context, "Union" means the Federal Government and not the entire country{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}—India has [[languages with official status in India|23 official languages]].) At the same time, however, the definitive text of federal laws is officially the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be conducted in English. At the state level, Hindi is one of the official languages in 10 of the 29 Indian states and three [[Union territory|Union Territories]], respectively: [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[West Bengal]]; [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]], and Delhi. In the remaining states, Hindi is not an official language. In states like [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]], studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However, an option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a third language (the first two languages being the state's official language and English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies.<ref>[http://education.nic.in/natpol_new.asp Government of India: National Policy on Education] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620100111/http://education.nic.in/natpol_new.asp |date=20 June 2006 }}.</ref> === Urdu === Urdu is the national language ({{Lang|ur|{{nq|قومی زبان}}|rtl=yes}}, {{Lang|ur-Latn|qaumi zabān}}) of Pakistan, where it shares [[official language]] status with [[Pakistani English|English]]. Although English is spoken by many, and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is the native language of the majority of the population, Urdu is the ''lingua franca''. In India, Urdu is one of the languages recognised in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India]] and is an official language of the Indian states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Telangana]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[West Bengal]], and also the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. Although the government school system in most other states emphasises Standard Hindi, at universities in cities such as [[Lucknow]], [[Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh|Aligarh]] and [[Hyderabad]], Urdu is spoken and learnt. ==Geographical distribution== {{Main|Hindustani-speaking world}} [[File:Hindustani-speaking world nations.png|thumb|300x300px|Spread of Hindustani across the world{{legenda|#084081|Majority/Official}}{{legenda|#0868ac|Significant Minority/Recognized}}{{legenda|#74a9cf|Minority}}]] Besides being the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of North India and Pakistan in South Asia,<ref name="siddiqi1994"/><ref name="Ashmore1961"/> Hindustani is also spoken by many in the South Asian diaspora and their descendants around the world, including [[North America]] (e.g., in Canada, Hindustani is one of the fastest growing languages),<ref>{{cite web|title=Census data shows Canada increasingly bilingual, linguistically diverse|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/census-wednesday-language-1.4231213}}</ref> [[Europe]], and the [[Middle East]]. * A sizeable population in [[Afghanistan]], especially in [[Kabul]], can also speak and understand Hindi–Urdu due to the popularity and influence of [[Bollywood]] films and songs in the region, as well as the fact that many Afghan refugees spent time in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Hakala2012">{{cite web|url=http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf|title=Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan's Cultures|last=Hakala|first=Walter N.|year=2012|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=In the 1980s and '90s, at least three million Afghans--mostly Pashtun--fled to Pakistan, where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban Pashtuns.|archive-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314042412/http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurthy2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.gatewayhouse.in/kabul-diary-discovering-the-indian-connection/|title=Kabul Diary: Discovering the Indian connection|last=Krishnamurthy|first=Rajeshwari|date=28 June 2013|publisher=Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country.}}</ref> * [[Fiji Hindi]] was derived from the Hindustani linguistic group and is spoken widely by Fijians of [[Indian people|Indian]] origin. * Hindustani was also one of the languages that was spoken widely during [[British rule in Burma]]. Many older citizens of [[Myanmar]], particularly [[Anglo-Indian]]s and the [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]], still know it, although it has had no official status in the country since [[Myanmar#Military rule (1962–2011)|military rule]] began. * Hindustani is also spoken in the countries of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]], where [[migrant worker]]s from various countries live and work for several years. ==Phonology== {{Main|Hindustani phonology}} Hindustani phonology, shared by both Hindi and Urdu, is characterized by a symmetrical ten-vowel system, where vowels are distinguished by length, with long vowels typically being tense and short vowels lax. The language also includes [[Nasalization|nasalized]] vowels, as well as a wide array of consonants, including [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and murmured sounds. Hindustani maintains a four-way phonation distinction among plosives, unlike the two-way distinction in English. ==Grammar== {{Main|Hindustani grammar}} ==Vocabulary== {{see also|Hindustani etymology|Hindustani vocabulary}} Hindi–Urdu's core vocabulary has an Indic base, being derived from [[Prakrit]] and [[Classical Sanskrit]], which in turn both derive from [[Vedic Sanskrit]],<ref name="DelacyAhmed2005"/><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="Kuiper2010"/><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997"/> as well as a substantial number of [[Hindustani etymology|loanwords]] from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]] (via Persian).<ref name="JainCardona2007"/><ref name="Draper2003"/> Hindustani contains around 5,500 words of Persian and Arabic origin.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kuczkiewicz-Fraś|first1=Agnieszka|title=Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani|date=2008|location=Kraków|publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka|isbn=978-83-7188-161-9|page=x}}</ref> There are also quite a few words borrowed from English, as well as some words from other European languages such as [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chandola |first=Anoop Chandra |date=1963 |title=Some Linguistic Influences of English on Hindi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30022405 |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=9–13 |jstor=30022405 |issn=0003-5483}}</ref> [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] also borrowed Persian prefixes to create new words. Persian affixes became so assimilated that they were used with original [[Kauravi dialect|Khari Boli]] words as well. ==Writing system== {{Main|Hindustani orthography|Devanagari Braille|Urdu Braille}} [[File:Surahi in samrup rachna calligraphy.jpg|thumb|right|"Surahi" in [[Samrup Rachna]] calligraphy]] Historically, Hindustani was written in the [[Urdu Script|Urdu]], Devanagari and sometimes in the [[Kaithi]] script.<ref name="mcgregor_912"/> During the [[British Raj]], Hindustani was offiicially generally written in a derivation of the [[Perso-Arabic script]], now known as the [[Urdu alphabet]] (written in the [[Nastaʿlīq]] style). Kaithi and Devanagari are two of the [[Brahmic scripts]] which were employed alongside the Urdu alphabet. This remained to be the case until the 20th century when Hindi in the Devanagari script was sanctioned as an official language in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kashif |first=Mohd |date=2025-03-18 |title=Urdu and Hindi: A History of Division, Politics, and Power |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/society/hindi-urdu-history-politics-india/article69340548.ece |access-date=2025-11-09 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref> In India, the Hindi register is officially written in Devanagari, and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet, to the extent that these standards are partly defined by their script. Today, it continues to be written in the Urdu alphabet in Pakistan. Popular publications in India, Urdu is also written in Devanagari, with slight variations in attempts to establish a Devanagari Urdu alphabet alongside the Devanagari Hindi alphabet. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Devanagari ! {{lang|hi|अ}} ! {{lang|hi|आ}} ! {{lang|hi|इ}} ! {{lang|hi|ई}} ! {{lang|hi|उ}} ! {{lang|hi|ऊ}} ! {{lang|hi|ए}} ! {{lang|hi|ऐ}} ! {{lang|hi|ओ}} ! {{lang|hi|औ}} |- | {{IPA link|ə}} | {{IPA link|aː}} | {{IPA link|ɪ}} | {{IPA link|iː}} | {{IPA link|ʊ}} | {{IPA link|uː}} | {{IPA link|eː}} | {{IPA link|ɛː}} | {{IPA link|oː}} | {{IPA link|ɔː}} |- ! {{lang|hi|क}} ! {{lang|hi|क़}} ! {{lang|hi|ख}} ! {{lang|hi|ख़}} ! {{lang|hi|ग}} ! {{lang|hi|ग़}} ! {{lang|hi|घ}} ! {{lang|hi|ङ}} |- | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|q}} | {{IPA|kʰ}} | {{IPA link|x}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɣ}} | {{IPA|ɡʱ}} | {{IPA link|ŋ}} |- ! {{lang|hi|च}} ! {{lang|hi|छ}} ! {{lang|hi|ज}} ! {{lang|hi|ज़}} ! {{lang|hi|झ}} ! {{lang|hi|झ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ञ}} |- | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} | {{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}} | {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} | {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA|d͡ʒʱ}} | {{IPA link|ʒ}} | {{IPA link|ɲ}}<ref>{{citation |last=Kachru |first=Yamuna |author-link=Yamuna Kachru |year=2006 |title=Hindi |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |page=17 |isbn=90-272-3812-X}}</ref> |- ! {{lang|hi|ट}} ! {{lang|hi|ठ}} ! {{lang|hi|ड}} ! {{lang|hi|ड़}} ! {{lang|hi|ढ}} ! {{lang|hi|ढ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ण}} |- | {{IPA link|ʈ}} | {{IPA|ʈʰ}} | {{IPA link|ɖ}} | {{IPA link|ɽ}} | {{IPA|ɖʱ}} | {{IPA|ɽʱ}} | {{IPA link|ɳ}} |- ! {{lang|hi|त}} ! {{lang|hi|थ}} ! {{lang|hi|द}} ! {{lang|hi|ध}} ! {{lang|hi|न}} |- | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} | {{IPA|tʰ}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | {{IPA|dʱ}} | {{IPA link|n}} |- ! {{lang|hi|प}} ! {{lang|hi|फ}} ! {{lang|hi|फ़}} ! {{lang|hi|ब}} ! {{lang|hi|भ}} ! {{lang|hi|म}} |- | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA|pʰ}} | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA|bʱ}} | {{IPA link|m}} |- ! {{lang|hi|य}} ! {{lang|hi|र}} ! {{lang|hi|ल}} ! {{lang|hi|व}} ! {{lang|hi|श}} ! {{lang|hi|ष}} ! {{lang|hi|स}} ! {{lang|hi|ह}} |- | {{IPA link|j}} | {{IPA link|ɾ}} | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|ʋ}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} | {{IPA link|ʂ}} | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ɦ}} |} {| class="wikitable" |+Urdu alphabet ! Letter !! Name of letter !! Transliteration !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ا}}}} || ''alif'' || a, ā, i, or u || {{IPAslink|ə}}, {{IPAslink|aː}}, {{IPAslink|ɪ}}, or {{IPAslink|ʊ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ب}}}} || ''be'' || b || {{IPAslink|b}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|پ}}}} || ''pe'' || p || {{IPAslink|p}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ت}}}} || ''te'' || t || {{IPAslink|t̪|t}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ٹ}}}} || ''ṭe'' || ṭ || {{IPAslink|ʈ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ث}}}} || ''se'' || s || {{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ج}}}} || ''jīm'' || j || {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|چ}}}} || ''che'' || c || {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ح}}}} || ''baṛī he'' || h̤ || /{{IPA link|h}} ~ {{IPA link|ɦ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|خ}}}} || khe || k͟h ||{{IPAslink|x}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|د}}}} || ''dāl'' || d || {{IPAslink|d̪|d}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڈ}}}} || ''ḍāl'' || ḍ || {{IPAslink|ɖ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ذ}}}} || ''zāl'' || z ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ر}}}} || ''re'' || r || /{{IPA link|r}} ~ {{IPA link|ɾ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڑ}}}} || ''ṛe'' || ṛ || {{IPAslink|ɽ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ز}}}} || ''ze'' || z || {{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ژ}}}} || ''zhe'' || ž || {{IPAslink|ʒ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|س}}}} || ''sīn'' || s || {{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ش}}}} || ''shīn'' || sh || {{IPAslink|ʃ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ص}}}} || ''su'ād'' || s̤ ||{{IPAslink|s}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ض}}}} || ''zu'ād'' || ż ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ط}}}} || ''to'e'' || t̤ || {{IPAslink|t}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ظ}}}} || ''zo'e'' || ẓ ||{{IPAslink|z}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ع}}}} || ''‘ain'' || ‘ || – |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|غ}}}} || ''ghain'' || ġ ||{{IPAslink|ɣ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ف}}}} || ''fe'' || f || {{IPAslink|f}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ق}}}} || ''qāf'' || q || {{IPAslink|q}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ک}}}} || ''kāf'' || k || {{IPAslink|k}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|گ}}}} || ''gāf'' || g || {{IPAslink|ɡ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ل}}}} || ''lām'' || l || {{IPAslink|l}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|م}}}} || ''mīm'' || m || {{IPAslink|m}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ن}}}} || ''nūn'' || n || {{IPAslink|n}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ں}}}} ||''nūn ghunna'' || ṁ or m̐ || {{IPAslink|◌̃}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|و}}}} || ''wā'o'' || w, v, ō, or ū || {{IPAslink|ʋ}}, {{IPAslink|oː}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}} or {{IPAslink|uː}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ہ}}}} || ''choṭī he'' || h || /{{IPA link|h}} ~ {{IPA link|ɦ}}/ |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ھ}}}} || ''do chashmī he'' || h || {{IPAslink|ʰ}} or {{IPAslink|ʱ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ء}}}} || ''hamza'' || ' || {{IPAslink|ʔ}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ی}}}} || ''ye'' || y or ī || {{IPAslink|j}} or {{IPAslink|iː}} |- | {{lang|ur|{{nq|ے}}}} || ''baṛī ye'' || ai or ē || {{IPAslink|ɛː}}, or {{IPAslink|eː}} |} Because of [[Indian English|anglicisation]] in South Asia and the international use of the [[Latin script]], Hindustani is occasionally written in the Latin script. This adaptation is called [[Roman Urdu]] or Romanised Hindi, depending upon the register used. Since Urdu and Hindi are [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] when spoken, Romanised Hindi and Roman Urdu (unlike Devanagari Hindi and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet) are mostly mutually intelligible as well. ==Sample text== ===Colloquial Hindustani=== An example of colloquial Hindustani:<ref name="DelacyAhmed2005" /> *'''Devanagari''': {{lang|inc-Deva|ये कितने का है?}} *'''Urdu''': {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|یہ کتنے کا ہے؟}}}} *'''Romanisation''': {{transliteration|inc|ISO|Ye kitnē kā hai?}} *'''English''': How much is this? The following is a sample text, Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], in the two official registers of Hindustani, Hindi and Urdu. Because this is a formal legal text, differences in vocabulary are most pronounced. ===Literary Hindi=== {{lang|hi|अनुच्छेद १ — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के विषय में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता और समानता प्राप्त हैं। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिए।}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=UDHR - Hindi |url=https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/hnd.pdf |website=UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Urdu transliteration |- |{{lang|hi-Aran|{{Nq|انُچھید ١ : سبھی منُشیوں کو گورو اور ادھکاروں کے وِشئے میں جنمجات سوَتنتْرتا پراپت ہیں۔ اُنہیں بدھی اور انتراتما کی دین پراپت ہے اور پرسپر اُنہیں بھائی چارے کے بھاؤ سے برتاؤ کرنا چاہئے۔}}|rtl=yes}} |- !Transliteration (ISO 15919) |- |{{transliteration|hi|ISO|Anucchēd 1: Sabhī manuṣyō̃ kō gaurav aur adhikārō̃ kē viṣay mē̃ janmajāt svatantratā aur samāntā prāpt haĩ. Unhē̃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī dēn prāpt hai aur paraspar unhē̃ bhāīcārē kē bhāv sē bartāv karnā cāhiē.}} |- !Transcription ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) |- |{{IPA|[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk {{!}} səbʰiː mənʊʂjõː koː ɡɔːɾəʋ ɔːɾ ədʰɪkɑːɾõː keː ʋɪʂəj mẽː dʒənmədʒɑːt sʋətəntɾətɑː ɔːɾ səmɑːntɑː pɾɑːpt ɦɛ̃ː ‖ ʊnʰẽː bʊdːʰɪ ɔːɾ əntəɾɑːtmɑː kiː deːn pɾɑːpt ɦɛː ɔːɾ pəɾəspəɾ ʊnʰẽː bʰɑːiːtʃɑːɾeː keː bʰɑːʋ seː bəɾtɑːʋ kəɾnɑː tʃɑːɦɪeː ‖]}} |- !Gloss (word-to-word) |- |Article 1—''All'' human-beings to dignity and rights' matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience's endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood's spirit with behaviour to do should. |- !Translation (grammatical) |- |Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |} ===Literary Urdu=== {{lang|ur-Aran|{{Nq|:دفعہ ١: تمام اِنسان آزاد اور حُقوق و عِزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پَیدا ہُوئے ہَیں۔ انہیں ضمِیر اور عقل ودِیعت ہوئی ہَیں۔ اِس لئے انہیں ایک دُوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سُلُوک کرنا چاہئے۔}}|rtl=yes}} {| class="wikitable" !Devanagari transliteration |- |{{lang|ur-Deva|दफ़ा १ — तमाम इनसान आज़ाद और हुक़ूक़ ओ इज़्ज़त के ऐतबार से बराबर पैदा हुए हैं। उन्हें ज़मीर और अक़्ल वदीयत हुई हैं। इसलिए उन्हें एक दूसरे के साथ भाई चारे का सुलूक करना चाहीए।}} |- !Transliteration (ISO 15919) |- |{{transliteration|ur|ISO|Dafʻah 1: Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq ō ʻizzat kē iʻtibār sē barābar paidā hu’ē haĩ. Unhē̃ żamīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī haĩ. Isli’ē unhē̃ ēk dūsrē kē sāth bhā’ī cārē kā sulūk karnā cāhi’ē.}} |- !Transcription ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) |- |{{IPA|dəfaː eːk təmaːm ɪnsaːn aːzaːd ɔːɾ hʊquːq oː izːət keː ɛːtəbaːɾ seː bəɾaːbəɾ pɛːdaː hʊeː hɛ̃ː ʊnʱẽː zəmiːɾ ɔːɾ əql ʋədiːət hʊiː hɛ̃ː ɪs lɪeː ʊnʱẽː eːk duːsɾeː keː saːtʰ bʱaːiː tʃaːɾeː kaː sʊluːk kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː}} |- !Gloss (word-to-word) |- |Article 1: All humans free[,] and rights and dignity's consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another's with brotherhood's treatment do must. |- !Translation (grammatical) |- |Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |} ==Hindustani and Bollywood== The predominant Indian film industry [[Bollywood]], located in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], uses Standard Hindi, colloquial Hindustani, [[Bombay Hindi]], [[Urdu]],<ref name="scienceandmediamuseum">{{cite web|title=Decoding the Bollywood poster|url=https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/decoding-the-bollywood-poster/|website=[[National Science and Media Museum]]|date=28 February 2013}}</ref> [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], and [[Braj Bhasha]], along with [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and with the liberal use of [[English language|English]] or [[Hinglish]] in scripts and soundtrack lyrics. Film titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and occasionally Perso-Arabic. The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film's context: historical films set in the [[Delhi Sultanate]] or [[Mughal Empire]] are almost entirely in Urdu, whereas films based on [[Hindu mythology]] or [[Middle kingdoms of India|ancient India]] make heavy use of Hindi with Sanskrit vocabulary. In recent years, [[Hindutva boycott of Bollywood films|boycotts]] have been launched against Bollywood films by [[Hindutva|Hindu nationalists]] partially on the basis that the films feature too much Urdu, with some critics employing the epithet "Urduwood".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is the Hindu Nationalist 'Boycott Bollywood' Campaign Impacting the Box Office? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/09/is-hindu-nationalists-boycott-bollywood-campaign-impacting-the-box-office/ |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Raj |first1=Kaushik |last2=Gurmat |first2=Sabah |date=2022-09-30 |title=Bollywood under siege as rightwing social media boycotts start to bite |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/sep/30/bollywood-under-siege-as-rightwing-social-media-boycotts-start-to-bite |access-date=2023-10-31 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The siege of Bollywood |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2021/02/25/the-siege-of-bollywood |access-date=2023-10-31 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|India|Pakistan|Language}} * [[Caribbean Hindustani]] * [[Hindustani profanity]] * [[Hindustan]] * [[Languages of India]] * [[Languages of Pakistan]] * [[List of Hindi authors]] * [[List of Urdu authors]] * [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration]] * [[Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation]] ==Notes== {{notelist|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} * Asher, R. E. 1994. "Hindi." Pp.&nbsp;1547–49 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. {{ISBN|0-08-035943-4|}}. * Bailey, Thomas G. 1950. ''Teach yourself Hindustani''. London: English Universities Press. * Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. ''Indo-Aryan and Hindi'' (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. * Dua, Hans R. 1992. "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language." In ''Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations'', edited by M. G. Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3-11-012855-1|}}. * Dua, Hans R. 1994a. "Hindustani." Pp.&nbsp;1554 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. *{{Citation|last=Mustafa|first=K.S|title=Dakkhni|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories|pages=185–186|year=2008|editor-last=Prakāśaṃ|editor-first=Vennelakaṇṭi|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-1139465502}} * —— 1994b. "Urdu." Pp.&nbsp;4863–64 in ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. * Rai, Amrit. 1984. ''A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani''. Delhi: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-561643-X|}}{{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY8xAAAAMAAJ |title=English and Urdu dictionary, romanized |author=Henry Blochmann |year=1877 |publisher=Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school-book society |edition=8 |location=Calcutta |page=215 |access-date=6 July 2011 |author-link=Henry Blochmann}}the University of Michigan * {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofurduorh00dowsiala |title=A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language |author=John Dowson |year=1908 |publisher=K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. |edition=3 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/grammarofurduorh00dowsiala/page/264 264] |access-date=6 July 2011}}the University of Michigan * {{cite book |author=Duncan Forbes |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryhindus00forb/page/n5 |title=A dictionary, Hindustani and English, accompanied by a reversed dictionary, English and Hindustani. |access-date=18 October 2018 |publisher=Sampson Low, Marston & Company |location=London |year=1857 |edition=2nd |page=1144 |oclc=1043011501 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20181019223400/https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryhindus00forb/dictionaryhindus00forb_djvu.txt |archive-date=19 October 2018 |url-status=live |author-link=Duncan Forbes (linguist)}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFIIAAAAQAAJ |title=A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1874 |publisher=W.H. Allen |location=London |page=399 |volume=6423 of Harvard College Library preservation microfilm program |access-date=6 July 2011}}Oxford University * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBoYAAAAYAAJ |title=A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1892 |publisher=W.H. Allen |location=London |page=399 |author-mask=2 |access-date=6 July 2011}}the New York Public Library * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDtbAAAAQAAJ |title=A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English |author=John Thompson Platts |year=1884 |publisher=H. Milford |edition=reprint |location=London |page=1259 |author-mask=2 |access-date=6 July 2011}}Oxford University * Shakespear, John. [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/shakespear/ A Dictionary, Hindustani and English.] 3rd ed., much enl. London: Printed for the author by J.L. Cox and Son: Sold by Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1834. * Taylor, Joseph. ''[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nnc1.cu58965823;view=1up;seq=1 A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English]''. Available at [[HathiTrust]]. (A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English / abridged from the quarto edition of Major Joseph Taylor; as edited by the late W. Hunter; by William Carmichael Smyth.) {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wikivoyage|Hindi-Urdu_phrasebook}} {{EB1911 poster|Hindostani}} * [http://boltidictionary.com/en/ Bolti Dictionary (Hindustani)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130601231148/http://www.hamariboli.com/ Hamari Boli (Hindustani)] * [http://www.languageinindia.com/march2003/hindustani.html Hindustani as an anxiety between Hindi–Urdu Commitment] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060923205724/http://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/Hindinote.html Hindi? Urdu? Hindustani? Hindi-Urdu?] * [http://www.lexicool.com/dlink.asp?ID=0FW3HU5663&L1=34&L2=44 Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List] * [http://globalrecordings.net/language/747 GRN Report for Hindustani] * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060615203847/http://indolink.com/Poetry/ Hindustani Poetry]}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827233430/http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/lss/staff/erica/CALL/hindi.html Hindustani online resources] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070804053902/http://www.nla.gov.pk/ National Language Authority (Urdu), Pakistan (muqtadera qaumi zaban)] {{Hindi topics}} {{Urdu topics}} {{Central Indo-Aryan languages}} {{Languages of South Asia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hindustani Language}} [[Category:Hindustani language| ]] [[Category:Languages attested since the 13th century]] [[Category:Lingua francas]] [[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]] [[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]] 5xgcikcid7idwukn6exfctvs9zw6r38 Module:Franco-Provençal language 828 77902 687847 2022-03-01T01:29:35Z MB 38148 MB moved page [[Franco-Provençal language]] to [[Franco-Provençal]] over redirect: undiscussed move/restore title, there is no dab here so no need to add language to title 687847 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Franco-Provençal]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from move}} }} 1fm5g97kcq04zy4clk8yrwqvsfat2id 687848 687847 2026-07-13T12:31:31Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Franco-Provençal_language]] 687847 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Franco-Provençal]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from move}} }} 1fm5g97kcq04zy4clk8yrwqvsfat2id Module:Isan language 828 77903 687849 2026-06-14T01:27:40Z Oklopfer 64603 now subst-only link template 687849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dialect of the Lao language}} {{Distinguish|text=the [[Esan language]] of Nigeria}} {{Multiple issues| {{More citations needed|date=March 2021}} {{Original research|date=March 2021}} }} {{Infobox language | name = Isan | altname = Northeastern Thai, Thai Isan, Thai Lao | nativename = ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน, ภาษาลาว | states = [[Thailand]] | region = [[Isan]] (Northeastern Thailand)<br>Also in adjacent areas and Bangkok | ethnicity = [[Isan people|Isan]] (Tai Lao), [[Northern Khmer people|Northern Khmer]], [[Kuy people|Kuy]], [[Phuan people|Phuan]] <br>L2 or L3 of numerous minorities of the Isan region | speakers = 13-16 million | date = 2005 | ref = <ref name="CERD">International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. (2011). Reports submitted by States parties under article 9 of the Convention: First to third periodic reports of States parties due in 2008, Thailand. (GE.11-46262 (E) 141011 181011). New York NY: United Nations.</ref> | speakers2 = 22 million (L1 and L2, 2013)<ref name="CERD"/> | familycolor = Tai–Kadai | fam2 = [[Tai languages|Tai]] | fam3 = [[Southwestern Tai languages]] | fam4 = Lao–Phutai | fam5 = [[Lao language|Lao]] | script = [[Thai alphabet]] ([[de facto]])<br/>[[Tai Noi script|Tai Noi]] (former, secular)<br>[[Tai Tham alphabet|Tai Tham]] (former, religious) | iso3 = tts | glotto = nort2741 | minority = {{flag|Thailand}} | agency = Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, [[Mahidol University]] | glottorefname = Northeastern Thai | image = Isan_text.png | imagescale = | imagecaption = [[Tai Noi script]] former use (top)<br/>[[Thai script]] currently popular with non-standard form (bottom) | map = Isan language.jpg }} {{Contains special characters|Thai}} {{Contains special characters|Lao}} '''Isan''' or '''Northeastern Thai''' ([[Endonym and exonym|autonym]]: {{lang|tts|ภาษาลาว}}/{{lang|tts|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰâː.sǎː lâːw|IPA}}; {{Langx|th|ภาษาอีสาน}}, {{RTGS|Phasa Isan}}) refers to the local development of the [[Lao language]] in Thailand, after the political split of the Lao-speaking world at the [[Mekong River]] at the conclusion of the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]]. The language is still referred to as '''Lao''' by native speakers.<ref name="Identity">Keyes, Charles F. (1966). "Ethnic Identity and Loyalty of Villagers in Northeastern Thailand". ''Asian Survey''.</ref> As a [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]] of the Lao language, Isan belongs to the [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern branch of Tai languages]] in the [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra-Dai language family]]. It is most closely related to (other than Lao) "tribal" Tai languages such as [[Phu Thai language|Phu Thai]] and [[Tai Yo language|Tai Yo]]. Isan is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language by the Thai government. Although (Central) Thai is a closely related Southwestern Tai language, it falls within a different subbranch. Central Thai and Isan are [[mutually intelligible]] only with difficulty; even though they share over 80% cognate vocabulary, they have very different tonal patterns and vowel qualities, and many commonly used words in Isan differ from Thai, thus hampering comprehension.<ref name="DraperJ2004">{{cite journal |last1 = Draper |first1 = John |year = 2004 |title = Isan: The planning context for language maintenance and revitalization |journal = Second Language Learning and Teaching |volume = 4 |url = http://www.apacall.org/member/sonjb/sllt/4/Draper04.html |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140311070346/http://www.apacall.org/member/sonjb/sllt/4/Draper04.html |archive-date = 2014-03-11 }}</ref> The Lao language has had a long presence in Isan, arriving with migrants who followed the river valleys into Southeast Asia from southern China some time in the 8th to 10th centuries. The region of what is now Isan was nominally under the Lao kingdom of [[Lan Xang]] from 1354 to 1707. After the fall of Lan Xang, the Lao splinter kingdoms became tributary states of Siam. During the late 18th and much of the 19th century, Siamese soldiers carried out forced migrations of Lao people from the western bank of the Mekong River to the eastern bank, now Isan. As a result of these massive movements, Isan speakers comprise almost one-third of the population of Thailand and represent more than 80% of the population of Lao speakers overall. Isan is natively spoken by roughly 13–16 million people of the [[Isan]] region (2005), although the total population of speakers, including Isan people in other regions of Thailand and those that speak it as a second language, likely exceeds 22&nbsp;million.<ref name="ethny"/><ref name="CERD"/> The Lao language in Thailand was preserved due to the Isan region's large population, mountains that separated the region from the rest of the country, a conservative culture and ethnic appreciation of local traditions. The language was officially banned from being referred to as the Lao language in official Thai documents at the turn of the 20th century. Assimilatory laws of the 1930s that promoted [[Thai nationalism]], Central Thai culture and mandatory use of Standard Thai led to a [[diglossia|diglossic]] situation with the region's inhabitants largely being bilingual and viewing themselves as Thai citizens. Isan is reserved as the language of the home, agrarian economy and provincial life. The [[Tai Noi script]] was also banned, thus making Isan a spoken language, although an ad hoc system of using Thai script and spelling of cognate words is used in informal communication.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> Isan is also one of the poorest, least developed regions of Thailand, with many Isan people having little education, often employed as laborers, domestic workers, cooks, taxi drivers, and in other service jobs. Combined with historic open prejudice toward Isan people, this has fueled a negative perception of the language. Despite its vigorous usage, since the mid-20th century, the language has been undergoing a slow [[relexification]] by Thai or [[language shift]] to Thai altogether, threatening the vitality of the language.<ref>Simpson, A. & Thammasathien, N. (2007). "Thailand and Laos", Simpson, A. (ed.) in ''Language and National Identity in Asia''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (p. 401).</ref><ref>Chanthao, R. (2002). ''Code-mixing between Central Thai and Northeastern Thai of the Students in Khon Kaen Province''. Bangkok: Mahidol University.</ref> However, with attitudes toward regional cultures becoming more relaxed in the late 20th century onwards, increased research into the language by Thai academics at Isan universities and an ethno-political stance often at odds with Bangkok, some efforts to help stem the slow disappearance of the language are beginning to take root, fostered by a growing awareness and appreciation of local culture, literature and history.<ref name="Toad">Phra Ariyuwat. (1996). ''Phya Khankhaak, the Toad King: A Translation of an Isan Fertility Myth in Verse .'' Wajuppa Tossa (translator). (pp. 27–34). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.</ref><ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ==Classification== {{Further|Tai–Kadai languages}} {{clade |label1=[[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-Dai]] |1={{clade | 1=[[Hlai languages]] | 2=[[Kam-Sui languages]] | 3=[[Kra languages]] | 4=[[Be language]] | label5=[[Tai languages]] | 5={{clade | 1=[[Northern Tai languages]] | 2=[[Central Tai languages]] | label4=[[Southwestern Tai languages]] | 4={{clade | label1=Northwestern Tai languages | 1={{clade | 1=[[Khamti language]] | 2=[[Shan language]] | 3=others}} | label2=Chiang Saen languages | 2={{clade | 1=[[Northern Thai language]] | 2=[[Tai Lue language]] | label3=Sukhothai language | 3={{clade | 1=[[Thai language]] | 2=[[Southern Thai language]]}}}} | label3=Lao-Phuthai languages | 3={{clade | 1=[[Tai Yo language]] | 2=[[Phu Thai language]] | 3=[[Lao language]] (PDR Lao, '''Isan language''') }} }} }} }} }} As an umbrella term for the Lao varieties as spoken in Northeastern Thailand, Isan remains essentially the same as the Lao language of Laos, albeit nonetheless differentiated in [[orthography]] and some minor lexical elements. Both right and left bank varieties are most closely related to the other Lao-Phuthai (Lao-Phoutai) languages such as [[Phu Thai language|Phuthai]] (Phoutai) and [[Tai Yo language|Tai Yo]] (Tai Gno), all which are mutually intelligible to each other. The Lao-Phuthai languages are closely related and somewhat mutually intelligible with the other [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern]] branch [[Tai languages]] such as the Chiang Saen languages, which includes Standard Thai, and the Northwestern languages, comprising the speech of the [[Dai people|Dai]]/[[Shan people|Shan]] peoples. Lao and Thai, despite separate development, were pushed closer together due to proximity and adoption of the same Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words. Lao is distantly related to the various [[Zhuang languages]] that comprise the [[Northern Tai languages|Northern]] and [[Central Tai languages|Central]] branches of Tai languages, and even more distantly to the other Kra-Dai languages. Within Thailand, Isan is officially classified as a 'Northeastern' dialect of the Thai language and is referred to as such in most official and academic works concerning the language produced in Thailand. The use of 'Northeastern Thai' to refer to the language is re-enforced internationally with the descriptors in the [[ISO 639-3]] and ''[[Glottolog]]'' language codes.<ref name="SILI">SIL International (2020). '[https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tts Northeastern Thai].' ISO 639-3 Registrar. Dallax, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</ref><ref name="Glotto">Hammarström, H. and Nordhoff, S. (2011). '[https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nort2741 Northeastern Thai].' 'LangDoc: Bibliographic Infrastructure for Linguistic Typology.' ''Oslo Studies in Language.'' 3(2). pp. 31–43.</ref> Outside of official and academic Thai contexts, Isan is usually classified as a particular sub-grouping of the Lao language such as by native speakers, Laotian Lao and many linguists, it is also classified as a separate language in light of its unique history and Thai-language influence, such as its classification in ''Glottolog'' and ''[[Ethnologue]]''.<ref name="Identity"/><ref name="Glotto"/><ref name="ethny">{{e25|tts|Thai, Northeastern}}</ref> ==Names== ===Endonyms=== Isan people have traditionally referred to their speech as the ''Lao'' language ({{lang|tts|ภาษาลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰâː.săː lâːw|}}). This is sometimes modified with the word ''tai'' ({{lang|tts|ไท}}, {{lang|tts|ໄທ}}, {{IPA|tts|tʰâj|}}, {{Literal translation|inhabitant|person}}) or the related form ''Thai'' ({{lang|tts|ไทย}}, {{lang|tts|ໄທ}}, {{IPA|tts|tʰâj|}}), which refers to Thailand or the Thai people, thus yielding ''Phasa Tai Lao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาไทลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, 'language of the Lao people') and ''Phasa Thai Lao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาไทยลาว}}, {{lang|lo|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, 'Lao language of Thailand'). ''Lao'' derives from an ancient Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *''k.ra:w'', which signified a '(venerable) person' and is also ultimately the source of the Isan words ''lao'' ({{lang|tts|ลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|lâːw|}}, 'he/she/it'), and ''hao'' ({{lang|tts|เฮา}}, {{lang|tts|ເຮົາ}}, {{IPA|tts|hâw|}}, 'we/us'). ''Tai'' and ''Thai'' both derive from another Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *''k.riː'', which signifies a '(free) person'. The various [[Kra–Dai-speaking peoples|Kra–Dai peoples]] have traditionally used variants of either *''k.riː'' or *''k.ra:w'' as ethnic and linguistic self-appellations, sometimes even interchangeably.<ref>Ferlus, Michel (2009). Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia. 42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Nov 2009, Chiang Mai, Thailand. 2009, pp.3–4.</ref> Isan people tend to refer to themselves and their language as ''Lao'' only when in settings with other Isan people, where the language can be used freely, typically away from other Thai-speaking people. Isan speakers typically find the term ''Lao'' offensive when used by outsiders, due to its usage as a discriminatory slur, often insinuating their rural upbringings, superstitious beliefs, links with the Lao people of Laos (i.e., not Thai) and traditional, agrarian lifestyles. In dealings with Lao people from Laos, Isan people may sometimes use ''Phasa Lao Isan'' or 'Isan Lao language' or simply ''Isan'' when clarification is needed as to their origins or why their accents differ. The use of ''Lao'' or ''Lao Isan'' identity, although eschewed by younger generations, is making a comeback, but use of these terms outside of private settings or with other Lao people has strong political associations, especially with the far-left political movements advocating greater autonomy for the region.<ref name="TaiNoi">Wattasoke, S. (2019 Feb.) '[https://theisaanrecord.co/2019/02/07/isaan-siamese-colonization-tai-noi/ Isaan under Siamese colonization: Eradicating the Tai Noi script]'. ''The Isaan Record''. Culture Section. Khon Khaen, Thailand. Last retrieved 21 Jun 2021.</ref> As a result, younger people have adopted the [[neologism]] ''Isan'' to describe themselves and their language, as it conveniently avoids ambiguity with the Laotian Lao as well as association with movements, historical and current, that tend to be leftist and at odds with the central government in Bangkok. The language is also called affectionately ''Phasa Ban Hao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาบ้านเฮา}}, {{lang|lo|ພາສາບ້ານເຮົາ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰáː.sǎː bâːn háw|}}), which can be translated as either 'our home language' or 'our village language'.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} ===Exonyms=== Isan is known in Thai by the following two names, officially and academically: ''Phasa Thai Tawan Ok Chiang Nuea'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː tʰāj ta.wān ʔɔ̀ːk tɕʰǐaŋ nɯ̌a|}}, 'Northeastern Thai language'), and ''Phasa Thai Thin Isan'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː tʰāj tʰìn ʔīː.săːn|}}, 'Thai language of the Isan region'). These names emphasise the official position of Isan speech as a dialect of the Thai language. In more relaxed contexts, Thai people generally refer to the language as ''Phasa Thai Isan'' ({{Langx|th|ภาษาไทยอีสาน|lit=Isan Thai language|label=none}}) or simply ''Phasa Isan'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาอีสาน}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.săː ʔīː.săːn|}}, 'Isan language').<ref name="Glotto"/><ref name="ethny"/> The term ''Isan'' derives from an older form ({{lang|th|อีศาน}}), which in turn is a derivative of Sanskrit ''Īśāna'' ({{lang|sa|ईशान}}), which signifies the 'northeast' or 'northeastern direction' as well as the name of an aspect of Lord [[Shiva]] as guardian of that direction. It was also the name of the Khmer capital of [[Chenla]] whose rule extended over the southern part of the region. After the integration of the ''Monthon Lao'' into Siam in 1893, the Siamese also abolished the use of the terms of ''Lao'' in place names as well as self-references in the census to encourage assimilation of the Lao people within its new borders. However, due to the distinct culture and language and the need to disassociate the people and region from [[Laos]], the term ''Isan'' came into being for the region of Isan as well as its ethnic Lao people and their Lao speech, although it originally only referred to districts which now comprise the southern portion of Northeastern Thailand.<ref>Phatharathananunth, S. (2006). ''Civil Society and Democratization: Social Movements in Northeast Thailand.'' (p. 25). Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies.</ref> Use of ''Lao'' by native Thai speakers was originally for all Tai peoples that were not Siamese, and was once for [[Northern Thai people]] as well, but the term gradually came to be thought of only referring to the ethnic Lao people of Isan and contemporary Laos. When used by Thai people, it is often offensive, given the history of prejudice against Isan people for their distinct culture and language, as well as perceived links with the communist Lao in Laos. Nevertheless, within Northeastern Thailand, ''Lao'' is the general term used by the various ethnic minorities that speak it as a first, second or third language. Thai speakers may also use ''Phasa Ban Nok'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาบ้านนอก}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.săː bân nɔ̑ːk|}}), which can translate as 'rural', 'upcountry' or 'provincial language'. Although it is often used by Thai speakers to refer to the Isan language, since the region is synonymous in Thai minds to rural agriculture, it is also used for any rural, unsophisticated accent, even of Central Thai.<ref>บ้านนอก. (2019). [https://www.thai2english.com/ Thai to English Dictionary].</ref> In Laos, the Lao people also refer to the language as ''Phasa Lao'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː láːw|}}), but when necessary to distinguish it from the dialects spoken in Laos, the terms ''Phasa Tai Lao'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː tʰáj láːw|}}, 'Lao language of Thailand') and ''Phasa Lao Isan'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາລາວອີສານ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː láːw ʔìː.săːn|}}, 'Isan Lao language') can also be used. In most other languages of the world, 'Isan' or translations of 'Northeastern Thai language' are used.<ref name="SILI"/><ref name="Glotto"/> ==Geographical distribution== [[File:Thailand Isan.png|thumb|150 px|right|A map showing the provinces of Northeastern Thailand or Isan. The region is a stronghold of the language.]] The homeland of the Isan language is mainly the twenty provinces of [[Northeastern Thailand]], also known as ''Phak Isan'' ({{lang|tts|ภาคอีสาน}}), 'Isan region' or just ''Isan''. The region is covered by the flat topography of the [[Khorat Plateau]]. The Lao language was able to thrive in the region due to its historical settlement pattern, which included the vast depopulation of the left bank of the Mekong to the right bank and its geographical isolation from the rest of what is now Thailand. The peaks of the [[Phetchabun Mountains|Phetsabun]] and [[Dong Phaya Yen|Dong Phanya Nyen]] mountains to the west and the [[Sankamphaeng Range|Sankamphaeng]] to the southwest separate the region from the rest of Thailand and the [[Dangrek Mountains|Damlek]] ridges forming the border with [[Cambodia]]. The [[Phu Phan Mountains]] divide the plateau into a northern third drained by the [[Loei River|Loei]] and [[Songkhram River|Songkhram]] rivers and a southern third drained by the [[Mun River]] and its predominate tributary, the [[Chi River|Si]]. The [[Mekong River]] 'separates' Isan speakers from Lao speakers in Laos as it is the geopolitical boundary between Thailand and Laos, with a few exceptions. Isan speakers spill over into some portions of [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]] and [[Phitsanulok Province|Phitsanulok]] provinces as well as the northernmost fringes of [[Phetchabun Province|Phetsabun]] to the northwest of the Isan region, with speakers in these areas generally speaking dialects akin to Luang Phrabang{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}. In the southwest, Isan speakers are also found in portions of [[Sa Kaeo Province|Sa Kaeo]] and [[Prachinburi Province|Phrasinburi]] provinces. In addition, large numbers of Isan people have left the region for other major cities of Thailand for employment, with large pockets of speakers found in [[Bangkok]] and its surrounding areas as well as major cities across the region. Outside of Thailand, it is likely that Isan speakers can also be found in the [[United States]], [[South Korea]], [[Australia]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Germany]] which house the largest populations of [[Overseas Thai]]. ==History== ===Shared history with the Lao language=== {{main|Lao language#History}} ===Separate development of the Isan language=== ====Integration Period (1893–1932)==== After the French established their protectorate over the left bank Lao-speaking territories that became Laos during the conclusion of the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]], the right bank was absorbed into Siam which was then ruled by King [[Vajiravudh|Wachirawut]]. To prevent further territorial concessions, the Siamese implemented a series of reforms that introduced Western concepts of statehood, administrative reforms and various measures to integrate the region which was until this point ruled as semi-autonomous out-lying territories nominally under the authority of the Lao kings. With the creation of provinces grouped into districts known as ''[[monthon]]'' ({{lang|tts|มณฑล}}, {{lang|lo|ມົນທົນ}}, {{IPA|/món.tʰón/}}), the power of local Lao princes of the ''mueang'' in tax collection and administration was moved and replaced by crown-appointed governors from Bangkok which removed the official use of Lao written in Tai Noi in local administration. To achieve this, King Wachirawut had the help of his brother, Prince [[Damrong Rajanubhab|Damrongrachanuphap]] who recommended the system. The end of local autonomy and the presence of foreign troops led the Lao people to rebel under the influence of [[Millennialism|millennialist]] cult leaders or ''phu mi bun'' ({{lang|tts|ผู้มีบุญ}}, {{lang|lo|ຜູ້ມີບຸນ}}, {{IPA|/pʰȕː míː bùn/}}) during the [[Holy Man's Rebellion]] (1901—1902), the last united Lao resistance to Siamese rule, but the rebellion was brutally suppressed by Siamese troops and the reforms were fully implemented in the region shortly afterward.<ref name="Ivarson">Ivarsson, S. (2008). ''Creating Laos: Making of A Laos Space Between Indochina and Siam.'' (pp. 71–83.) Copenhagen, Denmark: NIAS Press.</ref><ref>Murdoch, J. B. (1974). [http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf "The 1901-1902 'holy man's' rebellion"]. ''Journal of the Siam Society'', 59(1), 47-66.</ref><ref name="Vacha">Keyes, Charles (2013), Finding Their Voice: Northeastern Villagers and the Thai State, Silkworm Books.</ref> Further reforms were implemented to assimilate and integrate the people of the "Lao ''Monthon''" into Siam. References to the 'Lao' and many cities and towns were renamed, such as the former districts Monthon Lao Gao and Monthon Lao Phuan which were renamed as 'Monthon Ubon' and 'Monthon Udon', respectively, shortly after their creation in 1912. Self-designation as Lao in the census was banned after 1907, with the Lao forced to declare themselves as Thai and speakers of a Thai dialect. The unofficial use of Lao to refer to them was discouraged, and the term 'Isan', originally just a name of the southern part of the 'Lao ''Monthon''<nowiki/>', was extended to the entire region, its primary ethnic group and language. The name change and replacement of the Lao language by Thai at the administrative level and reforms to implement Thai had very little effect as the region's large Lao population and isolation prevented quick implementation. Monks still taught young boys to read the Tai Noi script written on palm-leaf manuscripts since there were no schools, passages from old literature were often read during festivals and traveling troupes of ''[[morlam|mo lam]]'' and [[shadow play|shadow puppet]] performers relied on written manuscripts for the lyrics to poetry and old stories set to song and accompanied by the ''[[khaen]]'' alone or alongside other local instruments. Mountains, lack of roads, large areas without access to water during the dry season and flooding in the wet season continued to shield the Isan people and their language from direct Thai-language influence.<ref name="Ivarson"/><ref name="Vacha"/> ====Thaification (1930s–1960s)==== {{Main|Thaification}} Suppression of the Isan language came with the '[[Thai cultural mandates]]' and other reforms that aimed to elevate Central Thai culture and language, reverence to the monarchy and the symbols of state and complete integration into Thailand, known as '[[Thaification]]'. Most of these reforms were implemented by [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]], who changed the English name of Siam to 'Thailand' and whose ultra-nationalistic policies would mark Thailand during his rule from 1938 to 1944 and 1948–1957. These policies implemented an official [[diglossia]]. Isan was removed from public and official discourse to make way for Thai and the written language was banned, relegating Isan to an unwritten language of the home. Public schools, which finally were built in the region, focussed heavily on indoctrinating Isan people to revere the Thai monarchy, loyalty to the state and its symbols and mastery of the Thai language, with Isan treated as an inferior dialect. Pride in the language was erased as students were punished or humiliated for using the language in the classroom or writing in Tai Noi, planting the seed for future [[language shift]] as the region became bilingual.<ref name="Vacha"/><ref name="Ivarson"/><ref name="Platt">Platt, M. B. (2013). ''Isan Writers, Thai Literature Writing and Regionalism in Modern Thailand.'' (pp. 145–149). Singapore: NUS Press.</ref> The old written language and the rich literature written in it were banned and was not discussed in schools. Numerous temples had their libraries seized and destroyed, replacing the old Lao religious texts, local histories, literature and poetry collections with Thai-script, Thai-centric manuscripts. The public schools also dismissed the old monks from their role as educators unless they complied with the new curriculum. This severed the Isan people from knowledge of their written language, shared literary history and ability to communicate via writing with the left bank Lao. In tandem with its removal from education and official contexts, the Thai language made a greater appearance in people's lives with the extension of the railroad to Ubon and Khon Kaen and with it the telegraph, radio and a larger number of Thai civil servants, teachers and government officials in the region that did not learn the local language.<ref>Smits, M. (2015). ''Southeast Asian Energy Transitions: Between Modernity and Sustainability''. (pp. 58–75). Ashgate Publishers.</ref> Words for new technologies and the political realities of belonging to the Thai state arrived from Thai, including words of English and Chinese (primarily Teochew) origin, as well as neologisms created from Sanskrit roots. Laos, still under French rule, turned to French, Vietnamese, repurposing of old Lao vocabulary as well as Sanskrit-derived coinages that were generally the same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai. For example, the word or aeroplane (UK)/airplane (US) in Isan was ''huea bin'' ({{langx|tts|ເຮືອບິນ}} {{IPA|/hɯ́a bìn/}}) 'flying boat', but was generally replaced by Thai-influenced ''khrueang bin'' ({{langx|tts|เครื่องบิน|links=no}} {{IPA|/kʰɯ̄aŋ bìn/}}) 'flying machine', whereas Lao retained ''hua bin'' ({{langx|lo|ເຮືອບິນ}} {{IPA|/hɯ́a bìn/}}) RTGS ''huea bin''. Similarly, a game of [[billiards]] {{IPA|/bɪljədz/}} in Isan is ({{langx|tts|บิลเลียด}} {{IPA|/bìn.lȋat/}} from English via Thai; whereas on the left bank, people play ''biya'' ({{langx|lo|ບີຢາ|links=no}} {{IPA|/bìː.jàː/}}) from French ''billard'' {{IPA|/bi jaʁ/}}. Despite this slow shift, the spoken language maintained its Lao features since most of the population was still engaged in agriculture, where Thai was not needed, thus many Isan people never mastered Thai fully even if they used it as a written language and understood it fine.<ref name="Vacha"/><ref name="Platt"/> ====1960s to Present==== The language shift to Thai and the increased influence of the Thai language accelerated in the 1960s due to several factors. Roads were finally built into the region, making Isan no longer unreachable for much of the year, and the arrival of television with its popular news broadcasts and soap operas penetrated into people's homes at this time. As lands new lands to clear for cultivation were no longer available, urbanization began to occur, as well as the massive seasonal migration of Isan people to Bangkok during the dry season, taking advantage of the economic boom occurring in Thailand with increased western investment due to its more stable, non-communist government and openness. Having improved their Thai during employment in Bangkok, the Isan people returned to their villages, introducing the Bangkok slang words back home and peppering their speech with more and more Thai words.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Around the 1990s, although the perceived political oppression continued and Thaification policies remained, attitudes towards regional languages relaxed. Academics at Isan universities began exploring the local language, history, culture and other folklore, publishing works that helped bring serious attention to preserving the Lao features of the language and landscape, albeit under an Isan banner. Students can participate in clubs that promote local music, sung in the local Lao language, or local dances native to the area. Knowledge about the history of the region and its long neglect and abuse by Siamese authorities and resurrection of pride in local culture are coming to the fore, increasing expressions of 'Isan-ness' in the region. However, Thaification policies and the [[language shift]] to Thai continue unabated. Recognition of the Isan language as an important regional language of Thailand did not provide any funding for its preservation or maintenance other than a token of acknowledgment of its existence.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/><ref>Keyes, C. (1967). ''Isan: Regionalism in Northeastern Thailand''. New York: Cornell. Thailand Project.</ref> ==Language status== ===Legal status=== ''Ethnologue'' describes the Isan language as the ''"de facto'' language of provincial identity" which "is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business." Although Thailand does recognise the regional Tai languages, including Isan, as important aspects of regional culture and communication, the Isan language and other minority languages are still inferior to the social and cultural prestige of Standard Thai and its government sanctioned promotion in official, educational and national usage. However, the Thaification laws that banned the old Lao alphabet and forced the Lao to refer to themselves and their language as 'Thai Isan' never banned the language in the home nor the fields and the Isan people steadfastly clung to their spoken language.<ref name="Identity"/> This situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity. Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct, non-Thai language and although influenced by Thai-language media and culture, strive to maintain 'good Lao'. Although spelling has changed, the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use a modified form of the ''Tai Noi'' script, the modern [[Lao alphabet]].<ref name="LaoLaw">Session VI of the People's Supreme Assembly, II Legislature. [http://www.un.int/lao/constitution.htm The Constitution of the Lao People's Democratic Republic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806080917/http://www.un.int/lao/constitution.htm |date=2011-08-06 }}. (15, Aug 1991).</ref> ===Spoken status=== According to the [[Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale|EGIDS scale]], Isan is at Stage 6a, or 'vigorous', meaning the language is used for 'face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable'.<ref name=EGIDS>Lewis, M. P., Simons, G. F., and Fennig, C. D. (eds.). 2013. EGIDS. [http://www.ethnologue.com/about/language-status#EGIDS-origins "EGIDS Explanation"].</ref> Although various studies indicate that Isan is spoken by almost everyone in Northeastern Thailand, the language is under threat from Thai, as Thai replaces the unique vocabulary specific to Lao speakers, and language shift, as more and more children are being raised to speak only Standard Thai. The lack of prestige of the language and the need for Thai to advance in government, education and professional realms or seek employment outside of Northeastern Thailand, such as Bangkok, necessitate the use and mastery of proper Thai over proper Lao.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> The language suffers from a negative perception and diglossia, so speakers have to limit their use of the language to comfortable, informal settings. Parents often view the language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must master Standard Thai to advance in school or career paths outside of agriculture. The use of the Thai script, spelling cognate words in Isan as they are in Thai, also gives a false perception of the dialectal subordination of Isan and the errors of Isan pronunciation which deviate from Thai. As a result, a generational gap has arisen with old speakers using normative Lao and younger speakers using a very 'Thaified' version of Isan, increased code-switching or outright exclusive use of Thai. Many linguists and scholars of the Isan language believe that Thai relexification cannot be halted unless the script is returned, but this has little public or government support.<ref name="Tossa-2007">{{cite book|last1=Tossa|first1=Wajuppa|title=STORYTELLING, A MEANS TO REVITALIZE A DISAPPEARING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN NORTHEAST THAILAND (ISAN)|date=2007|publisher=The 3rd International Conference on Gross National Happiness 2007|location=Bangkok|url=http://gnh-movement.org/papers/tossa.pdf|access-date=18 September 2017|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213650/http://gnh-movement.org/papers/tossa.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ===Written language usage and vitality=== [[File:Legal text in Isan (Lao) written in Tai Noi.jpg|thumb|center|450px|Portions of an ancient legal text written in the Tai Noi script on a palm-leaf manuscript. The script was banned in the 1930s but survived in Laos as the modern Lao alphabet.]] The written language is currently at Stage&nbsp; 9 on the EGIDS scale, which is a 'language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency'.<ref name="EGIDS"/> This applies to both the ''Tai Noi'' script used for secular literature and the ''Tua Tham'' script previously used for Buddhist texts. Only a handful of people of very advanced age and caretakers of monasteries whose libraries were not destroyed during the Thaification implementation in the 1930s are able to read either script. Evidence for the use of the written language is hard to find, but well-worn murals of very old temples often have small bits of writing in the old script.<ref name="ronn">Ronnakiat, N. (1992). Evidence of the Thai noi alphabet found in inscriptions. ''The third international symposium on language and linguistics.'' Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn University. (pp. 1326–1334).</ref> In Laos, the orthography is a direct descendant of ''Tai Noi'' and continues its role as the official written language of the Lao language of the left bank as well as the script used to transcribe minority languages. The Lao written language has unified the dialects to some extent as well, as though the differences between dialects are sharper in Laos than Isan, one common writing system unites them.<ref name="LaoLaw"/><ref name="ronn"/> ===Language threats=== ====Negative perceptions==== Acknowledgment of the unique history of the Isan language and the fact it is derived from a closely related albeit separate language is lacking, with the official and public position being that the language is a dialect of Thai. As a result of the great difference from Thai, based on tone, nasal vowels of a different quality and a special set of Lao vocabulary unfamiliar to Thai speakers, it is considered an 'inferior form of Thai' as opposed to its own separate language. The traditional avoidance of the language in the formal sphere re-enforces the superiority of Thai, which the Isan people have [[internalized oppression|internalized]] to the point many do not have high opinions of their first language. Combined with vocabulary retentions, many of which sound oddly archaic or have become pejorative in Standard Thai, perpetuate the myth and negative perception of Isan as an uncouth language of rural poverty and hard agricultural life. Due to associations with [[Laos]], the language was also viewed as a potential fifth column for Lao [[irredentism]] and the spread of [[communism]] into Thailand.<ref name="Signs">Draper, J. (2013). Introducing Multilingual Thai - Isan - English Signage in a Thai University. Journal of Lao Studies, 4(1), 11–42.</ref> It was in the recent past quite common for Isan people to be corrected or ridiculed when they spoke because of their incomplete mastery of Standard Thai.<ref name="Alex"/> In polling of language favorability amongst the general population of Thailand, the Isan language ranks last after Standard Thai and the primary Thai dialect of the other regions.<ref name="Hugo">Lee, Hugo, Y.-H. (2014). '[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.639.8792&rep=rep1&type=pdf Speaking like a love entrepreneur: Language choices and ideologies of social mobility among daughters of peasants in Thailand's tourist sites]'. ''Language, Discourse and Society'', 3(1), pp. 110-143. Madrid, Spain: International Sociological Association.</ref> As a result of the need for Standard Thai proficiency in order to have better educational and employment prospects and avoid discrimination, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more Isan children are being raised in the Thai language and are discouraged from using the local language at home.<ref name="Alex">Alexander, S. T. and McCargo, D. (2014), Diglossia and identity in Northeast Thailand: Linguistic, social, and political hierarchy. J Sociolinguistics, 18: 60–86.</ref> The Thai language has already begun to displace the predominance of Isan in the major market towns, in part because they are often also administrative centers, and in some major cities, universities have attracted students from other regions.<ref name="Signs"/> ====Code-switching==== Since the late 1930s, Isan has been a bilingual area, with most people using Isan at home and in the village, but due to diglossia, switching to Thai for school, work and formal situations. Like all bilingual societies, Isan speakers often [[code-switching|code-switch]] in and out of the Thai language. For example, in an analysis of the eighty-eight volumes of the comic ''หนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้'' ({{lit|Little Hin}} in the city), the Thai language was used 62.91 percent of the time to properly quote someone—such as someone that speaks Thai, 21.19 percent of the time to provide further explanation and 8.61 percent of the time to re-iterate a previous statement for clarification.<ref>พิมพ์โพยม พิทักษ์1 และ บัญญัติ สาลี. (2559/2016). [https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/gshskku/article/view/73660/59377 หน้าที่ของการสลับภาษาระหว่างภาษาไทยกลางและภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน ของหนูหิ่น ในการ์ตูนเรื่อง หนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้]. มนุษยศาสตร์สังคมศาสตร์. 5(2). pp. 91-109. (Thai and English)</ref> There are seven areas where the Thai language is employed, aside from direct quotation, such as the following: explanations, interjections, Thai culture, emphasis, re-iterations and jokes.<ref>พระมหาอธิวัฒน์ บุดดานาง และ รัตนา จันทร์เทาว. (2561/2018). หน้าที่ของการสลับภาษาระหว่างภาษาไทยกลาง ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสานและภาษาบาลี ในการแสดงธรรม ของพระอาจารย์สมภพ โชติปญฺโญ. วารสารภาษา ศาสนา และวัฒนธรรม. 7(1). pp. 123-153.</ref> Although some Isan people may not speak the language well, Thai is a convenient language of clarification, especially between Isan speakers of different dialects that may be unfamiliar with local terms of the other speaker. As Isan does not exist in formal, technical, political or academic domains, it is generally more comfortable for Isan speakers to use Thai in these areas as a result of the diglossia, with many Isan speakers unaware or unfamiliar with native terms and ''[[belles-lettres]]'' that are still used in contemporary Lao. Thai is also sometimes used to avoid Isan features that are stigmatized in Thai, such as retention of vocabulary that is pejorative or archaic as well as Lao pronunciations of cognate words that sound 'folksy'. Despite the fact that code-switching is a natural phenomenon, younger generations are blurring the distinction between languages, using more Thai-like features and as they forget to switch back to Isan, language shift takes hold.<ref name="Alex"/><ref name="Tossa-2007"/> ====Thai-influenced language shift==== The Thai language may not be the primary language of Isan, but Isan people are in constant exposure to it. It is required to watch the ever-popular [[soap opera]]s, news, and sports broadcasts or sing popular songs, most of it produced in Bangkok or at least in its accent. Thai is also needed as a written language for instructions, to read labels on packages, road signs, newspapers and books. Isan children who may struggle to acquire the language, are forced to learn the language as part of [[compulsory education]] and often when they are older, for employment. Although attitudes towards regional cultures and languages began to relax in the late 1980s, the legal and social pressures of Thaification and the need for Thai to participate in daily life and wider society continue. The influence of Thai aside, anecdotal evidence suggests that many older Isan lament the corruption of the spoken language spoken by younger generations and that the younger generations are no longer familiar with the traditional Lao forms used by previous generations.<ref name="Tossa-2007"/><ref name="Planning">Draper, J. (2015). Towards a curriculum for the Thai Lao of Northeast Thailand. Current Issues in Language Planning, 16(3), 238-258.</ref> In a 2016 study of language shift, villagers in an Isan-speaking village were divided by age and asked to respond to various questionnaires to determine lexical usage of Lao terms, with those born prior to 1955, those born between 1965 and 1990 and those born after 1990. The results show what would be expected of a language undergoing language shift. As Isan and Thai already have a similar grammatical structure and syntax, the main variance is in lexical shift, essentially the replacement of Isan vocabulary. The oldest generation, at the time in their 60s or older, uses very normative Lao features little different than those found in Laos. The middle generations, ranging from 35 to 50 years of age, had a greater prevalence of Thai vocabulary, but overall maintained a traditional Isan lexicon, with the Thai terms usually not the primary spoken forms. The youngest generation, although still arguably using very many Lao phrases and vocabulary, had a remarkable replacement of Isan vocabulary, with Thai forms becoming either the primary variant or replacing the Isan word altogether. Similarly, when Isan usage has two variants, generally a common one not understood in Thai and another that is usually a cognate, younger speakers tend to use the cognates with greater frequency, pushing their speech to Thai as older speakers will use them in variance.<ref name="Prom">Promkandorn, S. (2016). Language Vitality and Lexical Variation of the Isan Language in Rongsan Village, Phayao Province. [Unpublished Master's of Linguistics Thesis]. Phayap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.</ref> Thai loan words were generally localized in pronunciation, easing them into the flow of Isan conversation and unnoticeable to most but the oldest members of the community that preserve 'proper Isan' usage. Although the youngest generation was still speaking a distinct language, each generation brings the increased risk of the Isan language's extinction as it becomes relexified to the point of no longer being a separate language but a dialect of Thai with some Lao influence. The lack of official usage, official support for its maintenance and lack of language prestige hinder attempts to revitalize or strengthen the language against the advance of Thai.<ref name="Planning"/> {| class="wikitable" |+ Thai relexification in the speech of Isan youth in Rongsan Village<ref name="Prom"/> ! colspan="2" | Central Thai ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" |Isan youth ! Gloss |- | {{lang|th|โหระพา}}<br>''horapha'' | {{IPA|/hǒː.ráʔ.pʰāː/}} | {{lang|tts|อีตู่}}<br>''i tu'' | {{IPA|/ʔìː túː/}} | {{lang|lo|ອີ່ຕູ່}}<br>''i tou'' | {{IPA|/ʔīː tūː/}} | {{lang|tts|โหระพา}}<br>''horapha'' | {{IPA|/hǒː.làʔ.pʰâː/}} | 'Thai basil' |- | {{lang|th|พี่สาว}}<br>''phi sao'' | {{IPA|/pʰîː sǎːw/}} | {{lang|tts|เอื้อย}}<br>''ueai'' | {{IPA|/ʔɯ̂aj/}} | {{lang|lo|ເອື້ອຍ}}<br>''ueai'' | {{IPA|/ʔɯ̂aj/}} | {{lang|tts|พี่สาว}}<br>''phi sao'' | {{IPA|/pʰīː sǎːw/}} | 'older sister' |- | {{lang|th|คนใบ้}}<br>''khon bai'' | {{IPA|/kʰōn bâj/}} | {{lang|tts|คนปากกืก}}<br>''khon pak kuek'' | {{IPA|/kʰôn pàːk kɯ̀ːk/}} | {{lang|lo|ຄົນປາກກືກ}}<br>''khôn pak kuk'' | {{IPA|/kʰón pȁːk kɯ̏ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|คนใบ้}}<br>''khon bai'' | {{IPA|/kʰôn bâj/}} | 'mute' (person) |- | {{lang|th|กระรอก}}<br>''krarok'' | {{IPA|/kràʔ.rɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|กระฮอก}}<br>''krahok'' | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.hɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|lo|ກະຮອກ}}<br>''kahok'' | {{IPA|/káʔ.hɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|กระรอก}}<br>''krarok'' | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.lɔ̑ːk/}} | 'squirrel' |- | {{lang|th|กระซิบ}}<br>''krasip'' | {{IPA|/kràʔ.síp/}} | {{lang|tts|ซิ่ม}}<br>''sim'' | {{IPA|/sīm/}} | {{lang|lo|ຊັບຊິຶ່ມ}}<br>''sap suem'' | {{IPA|/sāp sɯ̄m/}} | {{lang|tts|กระซิบ}}<br>''krasip''<br> | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.sìp/}} | 'to whisper' |- | {{lang|th|งีบ}}<br>''ngip'' | {{IPA|/ŋîːp/}} | {{lang|tts|เซือบ}}<br>''suep'' | {{IPA|/sɯ̂ap/}} | {{lang|lo|ເຊືອບ}}<br>''suep'' | {{IPA|/sɯ̂ap/}} | {{lang|th|งีบ}}<br>''ngip'' | {{IPA|/ŋîːp/}} | 'to nap' |- | {{lang|th|รวม}}<br>''ruam'' | {{IPA|/rūam/}} | {{lang|tts|โฮม}}<br>''hom'' | {{IPA|/hôːm/}} | {{lang|lo|ໂຮມ}}<br>''hôm'' | {{IPA|/hóːm/}} | {{lang|tts|รวม}}<br>''ruam'' | {{IPA|/lûam/}} | 'to gather together'<br>'to assemble' |- | {{lang|th|ลูก}}<br>''luk'' | /lûːk/ | {{lang|tts|หน่วย}}<br>''nuai'' | /nūaj/ | {{lang|lo|ຫນ່ວຍ}}/{{lang|lo|ໜ່ວຍ}}<br>''nouay'' | /nūaj/ | {{lang|tts|ลูก}}<br>''luk'' | /lȗːk/ | 'fruit'<br>(classifier) |- | {{lang|th|ไหล่}}<br>''lai'' | /làj/ | {{lang|tts|บ่า}}<br>''ba'' | /báː/ | {{lang|lo|ບ່າ}}<br>''ba'' | /bāː/ | {{lang|tts|ไหล่}}<br>''lai'' | /lāj/ | 'shoulder'<br /> |} ===Continued survival=== The development of 'Isan' identity and a resurgence in attention to the language has brought increased attention and study of the language. Academics at universities are now offering courses in the language and its grammar, conducting research into the old literature archives that were preserved. Digitizing palm-leaf manuscripts and providing Thai-script transcription is being conducted as a way to both preserve the rapidly decaying documents and re-introduce them to the public. The language can be heard on national television during off-peak hours, when music videos featuring many Isan artists of [[morlam|molam]] and Isan adaptations of Central Thai [[luk thung]] music. In 2003, HRH Princess Royal [[Sirindhorn|Sirinthon]] was the patron of the Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ==Phonology== ===Consonants=== ====Initials==== Isan shares its consonant inventory with the Lao language from which it derives. The [[stop consonant|plosive]] and [[affricate consonant|affricate]] consonants can be further divided into three [[voice-onset time]]s of [[voiced consonant|voiced]], [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] and [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] consonants. For example, Isan has the plosive set of voiced {{IPAslink|b}}, tenuis {{IPAslink|p}} which is like the 'p' in 'spin' and aspirated {{IPAslink|pʰ}} like the 'p' in 'puff'. Isan and Lao lack the sound {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}} and its allophone {{IPAslink|ʃ}} of Thai, replacing these sounds with {{IPAslink|s}} in analogous environments. Similarly, {{IPAslink|r}} is rare. Words in Isan and Lao cognate to Thai word with {{IPAslink|r}} have either {{IPAslink|h}} or {{IPAslink|l}} in their place, although educated speakers in Isan or Laos may pronounce some words with {{IPAslink|r}}. In Central and Southern Thai, words with {{IPAslink|r}} may be pronounced as {{IPAslink|l}} ([[lambdacism]]) in casual environments although this is frowned upon in formal or cultivated speech. Unlike Central and Southern Thai, Isan and Lao have a {{IPAslink|j}}–{{IPAslink|ɲ}} distinction, whereas cognate words from Isan and Lao with {{IPAslink|ɲ}} are all {{IPAslink|j}} in Central and Southern Thai. Substitution of {{IPAslink|w}} with {{IPAslink|ʋ}}, which is not used in Thai, is common in large areas of both Laos and Isan but is not universal in either region, but is particularly associated with areas influenced by Vientiane and Central Lao dialects. The glottal stop occurs any time a word begins with a vowel, which is always built around a null consonant. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan consonant distribution with Thai and Lao alphabets. ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! ([[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-]]) [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPAslink|m}} ม, หม{{ref|ligature|4}}ມ, ໝ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫມ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|n}} ณ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, น, หน{{ref|ligature|4}}ນ, ໜ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫນ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|ɲ}}{{ref|NotThai|2}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoFinal|5}} ญ{{ref|ThaiY|3}}, ย{{ref|ThaiY|3}}, หญ{{ref|ThaiY|3}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ligature|4}}, หย{{ref|ThaiY|3}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ligature|4}}ຍ{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, ຫຽ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}/ຫຍ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} ง, หง{{ref|ligature|4}}ງ, ຫງ{{ref|ligature|4}} | |- ! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]] ! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | {{IPAslink|p}} ป ປ | {{IPAslink|t}} ฏ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}},ต ຕ | {{IPAslink|tɕ}} จ ຈ | {{IPAslink|k}} ก ກ | {{IPAslink|ʔ}}{{ref|glottalstop|10}} อ{{ref|glottalstop|10}} ອ{{ref|glottalstop|10}} |- ! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | {{IPAslink|pʰ}} ผ, พ, ภ ຜ, ພ | {{IPAslink|tʰ}} ฐ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ฑ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ฒ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ถ, ท, ธ ຖ, ທ | {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}}{{ref|ThaiCH|6}} ฉ{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}, ช{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}, ฌ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}ຊ{{ref|ThaiCH|6}} | {{IPAslink|kʰ}} ข, ฃ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ค, ฅ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ฆ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}ຂ, ຄ | |- ! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | {{IPAslink|b}} บ ບ | {{IPAslink|d}} ฎ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ด ດ | | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | {{IPAslink|f}} ฝ, ฟ ຝ, ຟ | {{IPAslink|s}} ซ, ศ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ษ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ส ສ, ຊ | | {{IPAblink|x}}{{ref|Dialect|13}} ข, ฃ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ค, ฅ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ฆ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}ຂ, ຄ | {{IPAslink|h}} ห, ฮ{{ref|LaoH|9}}ຫ, ຮ{{ref|LaoH|9}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | {{IPAblink|ʋ}}{{ref|NotThai|2}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoFinal|5}} ว{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, หว{{ref|ligature|4}}ວ{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, ຫວ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|l}} ล, ฬ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ร{{ref|informal|12}}, หล{{ref|ligature|4}}, หร{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|informal|12}}ຣ{{ref|OldLao|11}}, ລ, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫລ{{ref|ligature|4}}, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}/ຫຣ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | {{IPAslink|j}} ย, อย, หย{{ref|ligature|4}}ຢ, ຫຽ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | {{IPAslink|w}} ว, หว{{ref|ligature|4}}ວ, ຫວ{{ref|ligature|4}} | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]/[[Liquid consonant|Liquid]] | | {{IPAslink|r}}{{ref|LaoR|8}} ร{{ref|LaoR|8}}, หร{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}} ຣ{{ref|LaoR|8}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}}/ຫຣ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | | | |} *{{note|Sanskrit|1}} Only used in Sanskrit or Pali loan words. *{{note|NotThai|2}} Unique to Isan and Lao, does not occur in Thai but {{IPAslink|ʋ}} is only an allophone of {{IPAslink|w}} whereas {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is phonemic. *{{note|ThaiY|3}} Central and Southern Thai spelling does not distinguish {{IPAslink|j}} from {{IPAslink|ɲ}}. *{{note|ligature|4}} Lao ligature of silent {{IPAslink|h}} (ຫ) or digraph; Thai digraph with silent {{IPAslink|h}} (ห). *{{note|LaoFinal|5}} Only as syllable-initial consonants. *{{note|ThaiCH|6}} Use of {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}} is Thai interference in Isan and rare in Laos, usually interference from a northern tribal Tai language, almost always {{IPAslink|s}}. *{{note|obsolte|7}} Still taught as part of the alphabet, 'ฃ' and 'ฅ' are obsolete and have been replaced by 'ข' and 'ค', respectively. *{{note|LaoR|8}} Mark of interference from Isan or erudition in Laos. Usually replaced by {{IPAslink|l}} and even by 'ລ' {{IPAslink|l}} in modern Lao writing. *{{note|LaoH|9}} Used to mark {{IPAslink|h}} in words that are etymologically {{IPAslink|r}}. *{{note|glottalstop|10}} All words that begin with vowels must be written with the anchor consonant and are pronounced with a glottal stop. *{{note|OldLao|11}} Generally used in pre-1970s Lao. *{{note|informal|12}} Only in very casual, informal Thai. *{{note|Dialect|13}} {{IPAblink|x}} is allophone of {{IPAslink|kʰ}} in some dialects. ====Clusters==== Consonant clusters are rare in spoken Lao as they disappear shortly after the adoption of writing. In native words, only /kw/ and /kʰw/ are permissible, but these can only occur before certain vowels due to the [[diphthongization]] that occurs before the vowels /aC/, /am/, /aː/ and /aːj/. Isan speakers, who are educated in Thai and often use Thai spelling of etymological vocabulary to transcribe Isan, will generally not pronounce consonant clusters but may do so when code-switching to Thai or when pronouncing high-brow words of Sanskrit, Pali or Khmer derivation. Lao speakers from Laos will sometimes pronounce clusters in these borrowed loan words, but this is restricted to aging speakers of the Laotian diaspora. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Lack of consonant clusters in Isan |- ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao |- | ก | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/k/}} | ก | {{IPA|/k/}} | rowspan="3" | ກ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/k/}} | ค | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ค | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ຄ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ป | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/p/}} | ป | {{IPA|/p/}} | rowspan="3" | ປ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/p/}}<br /> |- | กร | กร | {{IPA|/kr/}} | คร | คร | {{IPA|/kʰr/}} | ปร | ปร | {{IPA|/pr/}} |- | กล | กล | {{IPA|/kl/}} | คล | คล | {{IPA|/kʰl/}} | ปล | ปล | /pl/ |- | กว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | กว | /kw/ | ກວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | คว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | คว | {{IPA|/kʰw/}} | ຄວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | /kʰw/{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | ผ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | ผ | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | rowspan="2" | ຜ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} |- | ข | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ข | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ຂ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ต | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} | ต | {{IPA|/t/}} | rowspan="2" | ຕ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} | ผล | ผล | {{IPA|/pʰl/}} |- | ขร | ขร | {{IPA|/kʰr/}} | ตร | ตร | {{IPA|/tr/}} | พ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | พ | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ພ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} |- | ขล | ขล | {{IPA|/kʰl/}} | rowspan="2" colspan="6" | | พร | พร | {{IPA|/pʰr/}} |- | ขว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | ขว | {{IPA|/kʰw/}} | ຂວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw}}/{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | พล | พล | {{IPA|/pʰl/}} |} *{{note|LaoDiph|1}} Before /aC/, /aː/, /aːj/ and /am/ [[diphthongization]] occurs which assimilates the {{IPA|/w/}} so it is only a true cluster in other vowel environments, only occurs in Isan and Lao. ====Finals==== Isan shares with both Lao and Thai a restrictive set of permissible consonant sounds at the end of a syllable or word. Isan, using its current method of writing according to Thai etymological spelling, preserves the spelling to imply the former sound of borrowed loan words even if the pronunciation has been assimilated. Due to spelling reforms in Laos, the letters that can end a word were restricted to a special set of letters, but older writers and those in the Lao diaspora occasionally use some of the more etymological spellings. In pronunciation, all [[plosive consonant|plosive sounds]] (besides the [[glottal stop]] /ʔ/) are [[unreleased stop|unreleased]]; as a result, there is no voicing of final consonants or any release of air. The finals {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are thus actually pronounced {{IPA|[p̚]}}, {{IPA|[t̚]}}, and {{IPA|[k̚]}}, respectively. Of the consonant letters, excluding the disused ฃ and ฅ, six (ฉ ผ ฝ ห อ ฮ) cannot be used as a final and the other 36 are grouped as following. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan final consonants with Lao script for comparison |- style="font-weight:bold;" ! style="font-weight:normal;" | ! colspan="2" | Labial ! colspan="2" | Alveolar ! Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! Glottal |- ! rowspan="3" | Nasal | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|m}}<br /> | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|n}}<br /> | rowspan="6" | | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} | rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;" | |- | colspan="2" | ม | colspan="2" | ญ, ณ, น, ร, ล, ฬ | colspan="2" | ง |- | colspan="2" | ມ | ນ{{ref|only|1}} | ຣ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ລ{{ref|oldish|2}} | colspan="2" | ງ |- ! rowspan="3" | Plosive | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|p}} | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|t}} | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|k}} | {{IPAslink|ʔ}} |- | colspan="2" | บ, ป, พ, ฟ, ภ | colspan="2" | จ, ช, ซ, ฌ, ฎ, ฏ, ฐ, ฑ, ฒ, ด, ต, ถ, ท, ธ, ศ, ษ, ส | colspan="2" | ก, ข, ค, ฆ | rowspan="2" | *{{ref|glottal stop|3}} |- | ບ{{ref|only|1}} | ປ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ພ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຟ{{ref|oldish|2}} | ດ{{ref|only|1}} | ຈ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ສ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຊ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຕ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຖ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ທ{{ref|oldish|2}} | ກ{{ref|only|1}} | ຂ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຄ{{ref|oldish|2}} |- ! rowspan="3" | Approximant | colspan="2" | /w/{{ref|vowel|4}} | rowspan="3" colspan="2" | | /j/{{ref|vowel|4}} | rowspan="3" colspan="3" | |- style="text-align:left;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ว | style="text-align:center;" | ย |- style="text-align:left;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ວ | style="text-align:center;" | ຍ |} *{{note|only|1}} Where alternative spellings once existed, only these consonants can end words in modern Lao. *{{note|oldish|2}} Used in pre-1970s Lao spelling as word-final letters. *{{note|glottal stop|3}} Glottal stop is unwritten but is pronounced at the end of short vowels that occur at the end of a consonant. *{{note|vowel|4}} These occur only as parts of diphthongs or triphthongs and are usually included as parts of vowels. ===Vowels=== The vowel structure of Isan is similar to the central and southern Lao dialects of Laos. The vowel quality is also similar to Thai, but differs in that the two back vowels, [[close back unrounded vowel]] /ɯ/ and the [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]] /ɤ/, centralized as the [[close central unrounded vowel]] /ɨ/ and the [[mid central vowel]] /ə/ in some speakers, respectively, as well as in diphthongs that may include these sounds. To Thai speakers, Isan and Lao vowels tend to have a nasal quality. In many cases, especially diphthongs with /u/ as first element is lengthened in Isan as it is in Standard Lao, so that the word ''tua'' which means 'body' ({{langx|th|ตัว}}, written the same in Isan) is pronounced {{IPA|/tua/}} in Thai but in Isan as {{IPA|/tuːa/}} in some dialects, similar to {{langx|lo|ຕົວ}}. The symbol '◌' indicates the required presence of a consonant, or for words that begin with a vowel sound, the 'null consonant' 'อ' or its Lao equivalent, 'ອ', which in words that begin with a vowel, represents the glottal stop /ʔ/. Short vowels that end with '◌ะ' or Lao '◌ະ' also end with a glottal stop. Thai and Lao are both [[abugida]] scripts, so certain vowels are pronounced without being written, taking the form of /a/ in open syllables and /o/ in closed syllables, i.e., ending in a consonant. For example, the Khmer loan word ''phanom'' or 'hill' found in many place names in Isan is {{langx|tts|พนม}} or 'PH-N-M' but pronounced {{IPA|/pʰàʔ.no᷇m/}}, with 'PH' as the open syllable and 'N-M' as the closed syllable. In Lao orthography, inherited from Tai Noi, closed syllables are marked with a 'ົ' over the consonants and the /a/ of open syllables was unwritten, thus {{langx|lo|ພນົມ}} or 'Ph-N-<sup>o</sup>-M'. In current practice as a result of spelling reforms, all vowels are written out and in modern {{langx|lo|ພະນົມ}} or 'Ph-a-N-<sup>o</sup>-M' is more common thus modern Lao is no longer a true abugida. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan vowel distribution |- style="font-weight:bold; vertical-align:middle; background-color:#EAECF0; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | ! [[Front vowel|Front]] ! [[Central vowel|Central]] ! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPAslink|i}} | {{IPAslink|ɨ}} ~ {{IPAslink|ɯ}} | {{IPAslink|u}} |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPAslink|e}} | {{IPAslink|ə}} ~ {{IPAslink|ɤ}} | {{IPAslink|o}} |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Open vowel|Open]] | {{IPAslink|ɛ}} | {{IPAslink|ä|a}} | {{IPAslink|ɔ}} |} ====Vowel length==== Vowels usually exist in long-short pairs determined by [[vowel length]] which is [[phoneme|phonemic]], but vowel length is not indicated in the RTGS romanization commonly used in Thailand or the [[BGN/PCGN romanization|BGN/PCGN]] French-based scheme commonly used in Laos. The Isan word romanized as ''khao'' can represent both {{langx|tts|เขา}} {{IPA|/kʰǎw/}}, 'he' or 'she', and {{langx|tts|ขาว}} {{IPA|/kʰǎːw/}}, 'white' which corresponds to {{langx|lo|ເຂົາ}} and {{langx|lo|ຂາວ}}, respectively, which are also romanized as ''khao''. In these cases, the pairs of words have the same tone and pronunciation and are differentiated solely by vowel length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Long-Short Vowel Pairs (Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) ! colspan="4" | Long vowels ! colspan="4" | Short vowels |- | Thai | IPA | Lao | IPA | Thai | IPA | Lao | IPA |- | colspan="4";| | ◌ำ | /am/ | ◌ຳ | /am/ |- | ◌า | /aː/ | ◌າ | /aː/ | ◌ะ, ◌ั, *{{ref|assumed|1}} | /aʔ/, /a/ | ◌ະ, ◌ັ | /aʔ/, /a/ |- | ◌ี | /iː/ | ◌ີ | /iː/ | ◌ิ | /i/ | ◌ິ | /i/ |- | ◌ู | /uː/ | ◌ູ | /uː/ | ◌ุ | /u/ | ◌ຸ | /u/ |- | เ◌ | /eː/ | ເ◌ | /eː/ | เ◌ะ, เ◌็ | /eʔ/, /e/ | ເ◌ະ, ເ◌ົ | /eʔ/, /e/ |- | แ◌ | /ɛː/ | ແ◌ | /ɛː/ | แ◌ะ, แ◌็ | /ɛʔ/, /ɛ/ | ແ◌ະ, ແ◌ົ | /ɛʔ/, /ɛ/ |- | ◌ื, ◌ือ | /ɯː/ | ◌ື | /ɯː/ | ◌ื | /ɯ/ | ◌ຶ | /ɯ/ |- | เ◌อ, เ◌ิ | /ɤː/ | ເີ◌ | /ɤː/ | เ◌อะ | /ɤʔ/ | ເິ◌ | /ɤʔ/ |- | โ◌ | /oː/ | ໂ◌ | /oː/ | โ◌ะ, *{{ref|asssumed|2}} | /oʔ/, /o/ | ໂ◌ະ, ◌ົ | /oʔ/, /o/ |- | ◌อ | /ɔː/ | ◌ອ◌, ◌ໍ | /ɔː/ | เ◌าะ | /ɔʔ/ | ເ◌າະ | /ɔʔ/ |} *{{note|assumed|1}} Unwritten in open syllables. *{{note|asssumed|2}} Unwritten in closed syllables. ====Diphthongs==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Diphthongs<br />(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) ! colspan="4" | Long vowels ! colspan="4" | Short vowels |- ! Thai ! IPA ! style="width: 11em; | Lao ! IPA ! Thai ! IPA ! style="width: 11em; | Lao ! IPA |- | colspan="4"| | ◌วำ{{ref|ThaiWam|3}} | /wam/ | ◌ວຳ | /uam/ |- | ◌าย | /aːj/ | ◌າຍ/◌າຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /aːj/ | ไ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ใ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ไ◌ย, ◌ัย | /aj/ | ໄ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ໃ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ໄ◌ຍ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}}/ໄ◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}}, ◌ັຍ{{ref|OldLao|2}}/◌ັຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /aj/ |- | ◌าว | /aːw/ | ◌າວ | /aːw/ | เ◌า{{ref|long|1}} | /aw/ | ເ◌ົາ{{ref|long|1}} | /aw/ |- | colspan="4";| | ◌ิว | /iw/ | ◌ິວ | /iw/ |- | เ◌ีย | /ia/ | ເ◌ຍ/ເ◌ັຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}}, ◌ຽ◌ | /ia/ | เ◌ียะ | /iaʔ/ | ເ◌ັຍ/ເ◌ັຽະ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /iaʔ/ |- | ◌อย | /ɔːj/ | ◌ອຍ/◌ອຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} /◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /ɔːj/ | rowspan="2" colspan="4";| |- | โ◌ย | /oːj/ | ໂ◌ຍ/ໂ◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /oːj/ |- | เ◌ือ, เ◌ือ◌ | /ɯa/ | ເ◌ືອ, ເ◌ືອ◌ | /ɯa/ | เ◌ือะ | /ɯaʔ/ | ເ◌ຶອ | /ɯaʔ/ |- | ◌ัว, ◌ว◌ | /ua/ | ◌ັວ, ◌ວ◌, ◌ວາ, | /ua/ | ◌ัวะ | /uaʔ/ | ◌ົວະ, | /uaʔ/ |- | ◌ูย | /uːj/ | ◌ູຍ/◌ູຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /uːj/ | ◌ຸย | /uj/ | ◌ຸຍ/◌ຸຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /uj/ |- | เ◌ว | /eːw/ | ເ◌ວ | /eːw/ | เ◌็ว | /ew/ | ເ◌ັວ | /ew/ |- | แ◌ว | /ɛːw/ | ແ◌ວ | /ɛːw/ | rowspan="2" colspan="4";| |- | เ◌ย | /ɤːj/ | ເ◌ີຍ/ເ◌ີຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /ɤːj/ |} *{{note|long|1}} Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone. *{{note|OldLao|2}} Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao. *{{note|ThaiWam|3}} The Thai vowel 'ำ' is a short vowel. In Isan, it is diphthongized after /w/ into /uam/. ====Triphthongs==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Triphthongs<br />(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) !Thai !IPA !Lao !IPA |- | เ◌ียว{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/iaw/}} | ◌ຽວ{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/iaw/}} |- | ◌วย{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/uaj/}} | ◌ວຍ/◌ວຽ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}} | {{IPA|/uaj/}} |- | เ◌ือย{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/ɯaj/}} | ເ◌ືວຍ{{ref|long|1}}/ເ◌ືວຽ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}} | {{IPA|/ɯaj/}} |} *{{note|long|1}} Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone. *{{note|OldLao|2}} Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao. ====Tones==== {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Isan Tone Distribution (Khon Kaen-Roi Et)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=J. |year=1971 |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_068_1g_Hartmann_AlignmentOfDialectsInSouthwesternTai.pdf |title=A model for the alignment of dialects in southwestern Tai |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418090250/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_068_1g_Hartmann_AlignmentOfDialectsInSouthwesternTai.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-18 |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=72–87 }}</ref> ||'''Tone Class'''||'''Inherent Tone'''||'''Mai ek ({{lang|th|อ่}})'''||'''Mai tho ({{lang|th|อ้}})'''||'''Long Vowel'''||'''Short Vowel''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! High || Rising || Mid || Low || Low || Mid-low |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! Middle || Low || High || Falling || Low || Rising |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! Low || Falling || Mid || Mid-low || Falling || Low |} ==Grammar== {{unreferenced section|date=August 2021}} Isan words are not inflected, declined, or conjugated, making Isan, like Lao and Thai, an [[analytic language]]. Special particle words function in lieu of prefixes and suffixes to mark verb tense. The majority of Isan words are monosyllabic, but compound words and numerous other very common words exist that are not. Topologically, Isan is a [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO) language, although the subject is often dropped. Word order is an important feature of the language. Although in formal situations, standard Thai is often used, formality is marked in Isan by polite particles attached to the end of statements, and use of formal pronouns. Compared to Thai, Isan sounds very formal as pronouns are used with greater frequency, which occurs in formal Thai, but is more direct and simple compared to Thai. The ending particles เด้อ (doe, {{IPA|/dɤ̂ː/}}) or เด (de, {{IPA|/dèː/}}) function much like ครับ (khrap, {{IPA|/kʰráp/}}), used by males, and ค่ะ (kha, {{IPA|/kʰàʔ/}}), used by females, in Thai. (Isan speakers sometimes use the Thai particles in place of or after เด้อ or เด.) Negative statements often end in ดอก (dok, {{IPA|/dɔ̀ːk/}}), which can also be followed by the particle เด้อ and its variant. ===Nouns=== Nouns in Isan are not marked for plurality, gender or case and do not require an indefinite or definite article. Some words, mainly inherited from Sanskrit or Pali, have separate forms for male or female, such as ''thewa'' ({{langx|tts|เทวา}} {{IPA|/tʰêː.wâː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ເທວາ}} BGN/PCGN ''théva''), 'god' or 'angel' (masculine) and ''thewi'' ({{langx|tts|เทวี}} {{IPA|/tʰêː.wîː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ເທວີ}} BGN/PCGN ''thévi''), 'goddess' or 'angel' (feminine) which derives from masculine ''deva'' ({{langx|sa|देव}} {{IPA|/deʋa/}} and feminine ''devī'' ({{langx|sa|देवी}} {{IPA|/deʋiː/}}). This is also common in names of Sanskrit origin, such as masculine ''Arun'' ({{langx|tts|อรุณ}} {{IPA|/ʔǎ.lûn/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອະລຸນ/ອະຣຸນ}} BGN/PCGN ''Aloun''/''Aroun'') and feminine ''Aruni'' ({{langx|tts|อรุณี}} {{IPA|/ʔǎ.lùʔ.nîː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອະລຸນີ/ອະຣຸນີ}} BGN/PCGN ''Arouni''/''Alounee'') which derives from ''Arun'' {{langx|sa|अरुण}} {{IPA|/aruɳ/}}) and ''Arunī'' {{langx|sa|आरुणि}} {{IPA|/aruɳiː/}}, respectively. In native Tai words which usually do not distinguish gender, animals will take the suffixes ''phu'' ({{langx|tts|ผู้}} {{IPA|/pʰùː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຜູ້}} BGN/PCGN ''phou'') or ''mae'' ({{langx|tts|แม่}} {{IPA|/mɛ̄ː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ແມ່}} BGN/PCGN ''mè''). For example, a cat in general is ''maeo'' ({{langx|tts|แมว}} {{IPA|/mɛ̂ːw/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ແມວ}} BGN/PCGN ''mèo''), but a tomcat is ''maeo phu'' ({{langx|tts|แมวผู้}}) and a queen (female cat) is ''maeo mae'' ({{langx|tts|แมวแม่}}), respectively. ===Classifiers=== {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Isan Classifiers ||'''Classifier''' || '''IPA''' ||'''Category''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คน (ฅน) || {{IPA|/kʰôn/}} ||People in general, except clergy and royals. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คัน || {{IPA|/kʰân/}} ||Vehicles, also used for spoons and forks in Thai. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คู่ || {{IPA|/kʰūː/}} ||Pairs of people, animals, socks, earrings, etc. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||ฉบับ || {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bǎp/}} ||Papers with texts, documents, newspapers, etc. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||ตัว || {{IPA|/tùa/}} ||Animals, shirts, letters; also tables and chairs (but not in Lao). |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||กก || {{IPA|/kǒk/}} ||Trees. ต้น (or Lao ຕົ້ນ) {{IPA|/tôn/}} is used in all three for columns, stalks, and flowers. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||หน่วย || {{IPA|/nūaj/}} ||Eggs, fruits, clouds. ผล {{IPA|/pʰǒn}}/ used for fruits in Thai. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ (khwam) {{IPA|/kʰwâm/}} and การ (kan) {{IPA|/kàːn/}} before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} ===Pronouns=== Isan traditionally uses the Lao-style pronouns, although in formal contexts, the Thai pronouns are sometimes substituted as speakers adjust to the socially mandated use of Standard Thai in very formal events. Although all the Tai languages are [[pro-drop language]]s that omit pronouns if their use is unnecessary due to context, especially in informal contexts, but they are restored in more careful speech. Compared to Thai, Isan and Lao frequently use the first- and second-person pronouns and rarely drop them in speech which can sometimes seem more formal and distant.{{to whom|date=September 2024}} More common is to substitute pronouns with titles of professions or extension of kinship terms based on age, thus it is very common for lovers or close friends to call each other 'brother' and 'sister' and to address the very elderly as 'grandfather' or 'grandmother'. To turn a pronoun into a plural, it is most commonly prefixed with ''mu'' ({{langx|tts|หมู่}} {{IPA|/mūː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຫມູ່/ໝູ່}} BGN/PCGN ''mou'') but the variants ''tu'' ({{langx|tts|ตู}} {{IPA|/tùː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຕູ}} BGN/PCGN ''tou'') and ''phuak'' ({{langx|tts|พวก}} {{IPA|/pʰûak/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ພວກ}} BGN/PCGN ''phouak'') are also used by some speakers. These can also be used for the word ''hao'', 'we', in the sense of 'all of us' for extra emphasis. The vulgar pronouns are used as a mark of close relationship, such as long-standing childhood friends or siblings and can be used publicly, but they can never be used outside of these relationships as they often change statements into very pejorative, crude or inflammatory remarks. {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" | ! Singular ! Plural |- ! rowspan="5" | 1st<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ข้าน้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|kha noi}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰàː nɔ̑ːj/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ข้าน้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu kha noi}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː kʰàː nɔ̑ːj/}} |- ! rowspan="2" | {{small|common}} | rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|tts|ข้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khoi}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰɔ̀j/}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เฮา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|hao}}<br />{{IPA|/hâw/}} |- | {{lang|tts|หมู่เฮา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu hao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː hâw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|ข้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|kha}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰàː/}} | |- ! {{small|vulgar}} | {{lang|tts|กู}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|ku}}<br />{{IPA|/kùː/}} | |- ! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ท่าน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|than}}<br />{{IPA|/tʰāːn/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ท่าน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu than}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː tʰāːn/}} |- ! {{small|common}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|chao}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕȃw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่เจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu chao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː tɕȃw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|เอ็ง}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|eng}}<br />{{IPA|/ʔèŋ/}} | |- ! {{small|vulgar}} | {{lang|tts|มึง}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mueng}}<br />{{IPA|/mɯ̂ŋ/}} | |- ! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เพิ่น}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|phoen}}<br />{{IPA|/pʰɤ̄n/}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ขะเจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khachao}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰȁʔ.tɕȃw/}} |- ! rowspan="2" | {{small|common}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เขา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khao}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰǎw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่เขา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu khao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː kʰǎw/}} |- | {{wikt-lang|tts|ลาว}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|lao}}<br />{{IPA|/lâːw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ลาว}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu lao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː lâːw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|มัน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|man}}<br />{{IPA|/mân/}} | |} ===Numbers=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | Number ! Gloss ! colspan="2" | Number ! Gloss |- | ๐<br>ศูนย์<br>''sun'' | {{IPA|/sǔːn}}/ | 0<br>'zero'<br>''nulla'' | ๒๑<br>ซาวเอ็ด<br>''sao et'' | {{IPA|/sâːw ʔět/}} | 21<br>'twenty-one'<br>XXI |- | ๑<br>หนึ่ง<br>''nueng'' | {{IPA|/nɯ̄ŋ/}} | 1<br>'one'<br>I | ๒๒<br>ซาวสอง<br>''sao song'' | {{IPA|/sâːw sɔ̌ːŋ/}} | 22<br>'twenty-two'<br>XXII |- | ๒<br>สอง<br>''song'' | {{IPA|/sɔ̌ːŋ/}} | 2<br>'two'<br>II | ๒๓<br>ซาวสาม<br>''sao sam'' | {{IPA|/sâːw săːm/}} | 23<br>'twenty-three'<br>XXII |- | ๓<br>สาม<br>''sam'' | /sǎːm/ | 3<br>'three'<br>III | ๓๐<br>สามสิบ<br>''sam sip'' | /săːm sȉp/ | 30<br>thirty<br>XXX |- | ๔<br>สี่<br>''si'' | /sīː/ | 4<br>four<br>IV | ๓๑<br>สามสิบเอ็ด<br>''sam sip et'' | /săːm sȉp ʔět/ | 31<br>'thirty-one'<br>XXXI |- | ๕<br>ห้า<br>''ha'' | /hàː/ | 5<br>'five'<br>V | ๓๒<br>สามสิบสอง<br>''sam sip song'' | /săːm sȉp sɔ̌ːŋ/ | 32<br>'thirty-two'<br>XXXII |- | ๖<br>หก<br>''hok'' | /hȍk/ | 6<br>six<br>VI | ๔๐<br>สี่สิบ<br>''si sip'' | /sīː sȉp/ | 40<br>'forty'<br>VL |- | ๗<br>เจ็ด<br>''chet'' | /tɕět/ | 7<br>'seven'<br>VII | ๕๐<br>ห้าสิบ<br>''ha sip'' | /hàː sȉp/ | 50<br>'fifty'<br>L |- | ๘<br>แปด<br>''paet'' | /pɛ̀ːt/ | 8<br>'eight'<br>VIII | ๖๐<br>หกสิบ<br>''hok sip'' | /hȍk sȉp/ | 60<br>sixty<br>LX |- | ๙<br>เก้า<br>''kao'' | /kâw/ | 9<br>nine<br>IX | ๗๐<br>เจ็ดสิบ<br>''chet sip'' | /tɕět sȉp/ | 70<br>'seventy'<br>LXX |- | ๑๐<br>สิบ<br>''sip'' | /sȉp/ | 10<br>ten<br>X | ๘๐<br>แปดสิบ<br>''paet sip'' | /pɛ̀ːt sȉp/ | 80<br>'eighty'<br>LXXX |- | ๑๑<br>สิบเอ็ด<br>''sip et'' | /sȉp ʔět/ | 11<br>'eleven'<br>XI | ๙๐<br>เก้าสิบ | /kâw sȉp/ | 90<br>'nintety'<br>XC |- | ๑๒<br>สิบสอง | /sȉp sɔ̌ːŋ/ | 12<br>'twelve'<br>XII | ๑๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ฮ้อย | /(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj/ | 100<br>'one hundred'<br>C |- | ๑๓<br>สิบสาม | /síp săːm/ | 13<br>'thirteen'<br>XIII | ๑๐๑<br>(หนึ่ง)ฮ้อยเอ็ด | /(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj ʔět/ | 101<br>'one hundred one'<br>CI |- | ๑๔<br>สิบสี่ | /síp sīː/ | 14<br>'fourteen'<br>XIV | ๑๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พัน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰân/ | 1,000<br>'one thousand'<br>M |- | ๑๕<br>สิบห้า | /sȉp hàː/ | 15<br>'fifteen'<br>XV | ๑๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)หมื่น | /(nɯ̄ŋ) mɯ̄ːn/ | 10,000<br>ten thousand<br><span style="text-decoration:overline">X</span>. |- | ๑๖<br>สิบหก | /síp hók/ | 16<br>'sixteen'<br>XVI | ๑๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)แสน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) sɛ̆ːn/ | 100,000<br>'one hundred thousand'<br><span style="text-decoration:overline">C</span>. |- | ๑๗<br>สิบเจ็ด | /síp tɕět/ | 17<br>seventeen<br>XVII | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn/ | 1,000,000<br>'one million' |- | ๑๘<br>สิบแปด | /síp pɛ̀ːt/ | 18<br>'eighteen'<br>XVIII | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พันล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000<br>'one billion' |- | ๑๗<br>สิบเก้า | /síp kȃw/ | 19<br>'nineteen'<br>XIX | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ล้านล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000,000<br>'one trillion' |- | ๒๐<br>ซาว(หนึ่ง)<br>''sao''(''nueng'') | /sáːw (nɯ̄ŋ)/ | 20<br>'twenty'<br>XX | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พันล้านล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000,000,000<br>'one quadrillion' |} ===Adjectives and adverbs=== There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective. * เด็กหนุ่ม (dek num) {{IPA|/děk nūm/}} ''A young child.'' * เด็กหนุ่ม ๆ (dek num num) {{IPA|/děk nūm nūm/}} ''A very young child.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ (dek num thi wai) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː wȁj/}} ''A child who becomes young quickly.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ ๆ (dek num thi wai wai) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː wȁj wȁj/}} ''A child who becomes young quickly.'' Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa) {{IPA|/kwáː/}}, A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด (thi sut) {{IPA|/tʰīː sȕt/}}, A is most X. * เด็กหนุ่มกว่าผู้แก่ (dek num kwa phukae) {{IPA|/děk nūm kwáː pʰùː.kɛ́ː/}} ''The child is younger than an old person.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่สุด (dek num thi sut) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː sȕt/}} ''The child is youngest.'' Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used. * เด็กซิหนุ่ม (dek si num) {{IPA|/děk sìʔ nūm/}} ''The child will be young.'' * เด็กหนุ่มแล้ว (dek num laew) {{IPA|/děk nūm lɛ̂ːw/}} ''The child was young.'' ===Verbs=== Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as มื้ออื่น (mue uen) {{IPA|/mɯ̏ː ʔɯ́ːn/}} ''tomorrow'' or มื้อวานนี้ (mue wan ni) {{IPA|/mɯ̏ː wâːn nȉː/}} ''yesterday.'' Negation: [[Negation]] is indicated by placing บ่ (bo) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː/}} before the word being negated. * อีน้องกินหมากเลน (i nong kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ kìn màːk lêːn}}/ ''Younger sister eats tomatoes.'' * อีน้องบ่กินหมากเลน (i nong bao bo kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ bɔ́ː kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister does not eat tomatoes.'' [[Future tense]]: Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ (cha) {{IPA|/tɕǎʔ/}} or สิ (si) {{IPA|/sȉʔ/}} before the verb. * อีน้องจะกินหมากเลน (i nong cha kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔīː nɔ̏ːŋ tɕǎʔ kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister will eat tomatoes.'' * อีน้องสิกินหมากเลน (i nong see kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔīː nɔ̏ːŋ sȉʔ kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister will eat tomatoes.'' Past tense: [[Past tense]] is indicated by either placing ได้ (dai) {{IPA|/dâj/}} before the verb or แล้ว (laew) {{IPA|/lɛ̏ːw/}} after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action. * อีน้องได้กินหมากเลน (i nong dai kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ dâj kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister ate tomatoes.'' * อีน้องกินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong kin mak len laew) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ kìn màːk lêːn lɛ̏ːw/}} ''Younger sister (just) ate tomatoes.'' * อีน้องได้กินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong dai kin mak len laew) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ dâj kìn màːk lêːn lɛ̏ːw/}} ''Younger sister (definitely) ate tomatoes.'' [[Present progressive]]: To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง (kamlang) {{IPA|/kàm.lâŋ/}} can be used before the verb or อยู่ (yu) {{IPA|/júː/}} after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม (phuam) /pʰuâm/ is often used instead of กำลัง. * อีน้องกำลังกินหมากเลน (i nong kamlang kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ kàm.lâŋ kīn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' * อีน้องกินอยู่หมากเลน (i nong kin yu mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ kìn júː màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' * อีน้องพวมกินหมากเลน (i nong phuam kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ pʰûam kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]], it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare English ''She is pretty'' and Isan สาวงาม (literally ''lady pretty''). There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น (pen) {{IPA|/pèn/}}, and one for objects and animals, แม่น (maen) {{IPA|/mɛ̄n/}}. * นกเป็นหมอ (Nok pen mo) {{IPA|/nòk pèn mɔ̌ː/}} ''Nok is a doctor.'' * อันนี้แม่นสามล้อ (an ni maen sam lo) {{IPA|/ʔàn.nȉː mɛ̄n sǎːm lɔ̏ː/}} ''This is a pedicab.'' ===Questions and answers=== Unlike [[English language|English]], which indicates questions by a rising tone, or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question-tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark (?) redundant in Isan. General yes/no questions end in {{Wikt-lang|tts|บ่}} (same as บ่, "no, not"). * สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you well?'' Other question words * {{Wikt-lang|tts|จังใด}} (changdai) {{IPA|/tɕàŋ.dàj/}} or {{Wikt-lang|tts|หยัง}} (yang) /ɲǎŋ/ เฮ็ดจั่งใด (het changdai) {{IPA|/hèt tɕàŋ.dàj/}} ''What are you doing?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ใผ}} (phai) {{IPA|/pʰǎj/}} ใผขายไข่ไก่ (phai khai khai kai) {{IPA|/pʰǎj kʰǎːj kʰāj káj/}} ''Who sells chicken eggs?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ใส}} (sai) {{IPA|/sǎj/}} ''Where?'' ห้องน้ำอยู่ใส (hong nam yu sai) /hɔ̀ŋ nȁːm júː sǎj/ ''Where is the toilet?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|อันใด}} (andai) {{IPA|/ʔàn.dàj/}} ''Which?'' เจ้าได้กินอันใด (chao dai kin andai) {{IPA|/tɕâw dâj kìn ʔàn.dàj/}} ''Which one did you eat?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|จัก}} (chak) {{IPA|/tɕǎk/}} ''How many?'' อายุจักปี (ayu chak pi) {{IPA|/ʔàː.ɲùʔ tɕǎk pìː/}} ''How old are you?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ท่อใด}} (thodai) {{IPA|/tʰɔ̄ː.dàj/}} ''How much?'' ควายตัวบทท่อใด (khwai tua bot thodai) {{IPA|/kʰwáj tùa bǒt tʰɔ̄ː.dàj/}} ''How much is that buffalo over there?'' * แม่นบ่ (maen bo) {{IPA|/mɛ̄n bɔ́ː/}} ''Right?, Is it?'' เต่าไวแม่นบ่ (Tao vai maen bo) {{IPA|/táw wâj mɛ̄n bɔ́ː/}} ''Turtles are fast, right?'' * แล้วบ่ (laew bo) {{IPA|/lɛ̂ːw bɔ́ː/}} ''Yet?, Already?'' เขากลับบ้านแล้วบ่ (khao kap laew bo) {{IPA|/kʰǎw kǎp bâːn lɛ̏ːw bɔ́ː/}} ''Did he go home already?'' * หรือบ่ (rue bo) {{IPA|/lɯ̌ː bɔ́ː/}} ''Or not?'' เจ้าหิวข้าวหรือบ่ (chao hio khao rue bo) {{IPA|/tɕâw hǐw kʰàw lɯ̌ː bɔ́ː}}/ ''Are you hungry or not?'' Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification. * Question: สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you well?'' * Response: สบายดี (sabai di) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː/}} ''I am well'' or บ่สบาย (bo sabai) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sȁʔ.bàːj/}} ''I am not well''. Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question. * Question: บ่สบายบ่ (bo sabai bo) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sáʔ.bàːj bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you not well?'' * Response: สบาย (sabai) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bāːj/}} ''I am not well'' or บ่สบาย (bo sabai) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sáʔ.bàːj/}} ''I am well.'' ==Vocabulary== Isan shares a large corpus of cognate, native vocabulary with other Tai languages of Thailand and Laos. They also share many common words and neologisms that were derived from Sanskrit, Pali, Mon and Khmer and other indigenous inhabitants to [[Indochina]]. However, there are traits that distinguish Isan both from Thai and its Lao parent language. Isan is clearly differentiated from Thai by its Lao intonation and vocabulary. However, Isan differs from Lao in that the former has more English and Chinese loanwords, via Thai, not to mention large amounts of Thai influence. The Lao adopted French and Vietnamese loanwords as a legacy of French Indochina. Other differences between Isan and Lao include terminology that reflects the social and political separation since 1893 as well as differences in neologisms created after this. These differences, and a few very small deviations for certain common words, do not, however, diminish nor erase the Lao character of the language. {| class="wikitable" |+Shared vocabulary of Khmer origin ! colspan="5" | Common vocabulary ! colspan="5" | [[Rachasap]] |- ! Isan ! Thai ! Lao ! Khmer ! English ! Isan ! Thai ! Lao ! Khmer ! English |- | กระแทะ<br />''krathae''<br />{{IPA|[kā.tʰɛ̀ʔ]}} | กระแทะ<br />''krathae''<br />{{IPA|[krā.tʰɛ́ʔ]}} | ກະແທະ<br />''kathè''<br />{{IPA|[kā.tʰɛ̄ʔ]}} | រទេះ<br />''rôthéh''<br />{{IPA|/rɔteh/}} | 'oxcart' | บรรทม<br />''banthom''<br />{{IPA|[bàn.tʰôm]}} | บรรทม<br />''banthom''<br />{{IPA|[bān.tʰōm]}} | ບັນທົມ<br />''banthôm''<br />{{IPA|[bàn.tʰóm]}} | បន្ទំ<br />''banthum''<br />{{IPA|/bɑn tum/}} | 'to sleep' |- | เดิน<br />''doen''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̀ːn]}} | เดิน<br />''doen''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̄ːn]}} | ເດີນ<br />''deun''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̀ːn]}} | ដើរ<br />''daeu''<br />{{IPA|/daə/}} | 'to walk' | ตรัส<br />''trat''<br />{{IPA|[tǎt]}} | ตรัส<br />''trat''<br />{{IPA|[tràt]}} | ຕັດ<br />''tat''<br />{{IPA|[tát]}} | ត្រាស់<br />''trah''<br />{{IPA|/trah/}} | 'to speak' |- | พนม<br />''phanom''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nôm]}} | พนม<br />''phanom''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nōm]}} | ພະນົມ/ພນົມ<br />''phanôm''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nóm]}} | ភ្នំ<br />''phnum''/''phnom''<br />{{IPA|/pʰnum/}} | 'mountain' | ขนอง<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]}} | ขนอง<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]}} | ຂະໜອງ/ຂນອງ<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̆ːŋ]}} | ខ្នង<br />''khnâng''<br />{{IPA|/knɑːŋ/}} | 'back', 'dorsal ridge' |- | ถนน<br />''thanon''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ถนน<br />''thanon''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ຖະໜົນ/ຖໜົນ<br />''thanôn''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ថ្នល់<br />''tnâl''<br />{{IPA|/tnɑl/}} | 'road' | ศอ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | ศอ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | ສໍ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | សូ[រង]<br />''sŭ[rang]''<br />{{IPA|/suː [rɑːng]/}} | 'neck' |} {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+Shared Thai and Isan vocabulary distinct from Lao ||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai'''||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"ice" ||<big>น้ำแข็ง</big> {{IPA|[nȁm.kʰɛ̌ŋ]}} ||<big>ນ້ຳກ້ອນ</big> {{IPA|[nâm.kɔ̂ːn]}}{{ref|5|5}} ||<big>น้ำแข็ง</big> {{IPA|[nám.kʰɛ̌ŋ]}} ||"plain" (adj.) ||<big>เปล่า</big> {{IPA|[páw]}} ||<big>ລ້າ</big> {{IPA|[lâː]}} ||<big>เปล่า</big> {{IPA|[plàːw]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"necktie" ||<big>เนกไท</big> {{IPA|[nè(ː)k tʰáj]}} ||<big>ກາຣະວັດ</big> {{IPA|[kàː.lā.wát]}}{{ref|6|6}} ||<big>เนกไท</big> {{IPA|[né(ː)k tʰáj]}} ||"province" ||<big>จังหวัด</big> {{IPA|[tɕàŋ.wȁt]}} ||<big>ແຂວງ</big> {{IPA|[kʰwɛ̌ːŋ]}}{{ref|7|7}} ||<big>จังหวัด</big> {{IPA|[tɕāŋ.wàt]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"wine" ||<big>ไวน์</big> {{IPA|[wâːj]}} ||<big>ແວງ</big> {{IPA|[wɛ́ːŋ]}}{{ref|8|8}} ||<big>ไวน์</big> {{IPA|[wāːj]}} ||"pho" ||<big>ก๋วยเตี๋ยว</big> {{IPA|[kǔaj.tǐaw]}} ||<big>ເຝີ</big> {{IPA|[fɤ̌ː]}}{{ref|9|9}} ||<big>ก๋วยเตี๋ยว</big> {{IPA|[kǔaj.tǐaw]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"January" ||<big>มกราคม</big> {{IPA|[mòk.kā.lâː.kʰôm]}} ||<big>ມັງກອນ</big> {{IPA|[máŋ.kɔ̀ːn]}} ||<big>มกราคม</big> {{IPA|[mók.kā.rāː.kʰōm]}} ||"paper" ||<big>กระดาษ</big> {{IPA|[kā.dàːt]}} ||<big>ເຈ້ຍ</big> {{IPA|[tɕîa]}} ||<big>กระดาษ</big> {{IPA|[krā.dàːt]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"window" ||<big>หน้าต่าง</big> {{IPA|[nàː.táːŋ]}} ||<big>ປ່ອງຢ້ຽມ</big> {{IPA|[pɔ̄ŋ.jîam]}} ||<big>หน้าต่าง</big> {{IPA|[nâː.tàːŋ]}} ||"book" ||<big>หนังสือ</big> {{IPA|[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]}} ||<big>ປຶ້ມ</big> {{IPA|[pɯ̂m]}} ||<big>หนังสือ</big> {{IPA|[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"motorcycle" ||<big>มอเตอร์ไซค์</big> {{IPA|[mɔ̂ː.tɤ̄ː.sâj]}} ||<big>ຣົຖຈັກ</big> {{IPA|[lōt.tɕák]}} ||<big>มอเตอร์ไซค์</big> {{IPA|[mɔ̄ː.tɤ̄ː.sāj]}}{{ref|10|10}} ||"butter" ||<big>เนย</big> {{IPA|[nɤ̂ːj]}} ||<big>ເບີຣ໌</big> {{IPA|[bɤ̀ː]}}{{ref|11|11}} ||<big>เนย</big> {{IPA|[nɤ̄ːj]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} {{smalldiv|1= *{{note|5|5}} Formerly <big>น้ำก้อน</big>, but this is now archaic/obsolete. *{{note|6|6}} From French ''cravate'', /kʁa vat/ *{{note|7|7}} Thai and Isan use <big>แขวง</big> to talk about provinces of Laos. *{{note|8|8}} From French ''vin'', /vɛ̃/ as opposed to Thai and Isan <big>ไวน์</big> from English ''wine''. *{{note|9|9}} From Vietnamese <big>phở</big> /fə̃ː/. *{{note|10|10}} From English "motorcycle". *{{note|11|11}} From French ''beurre'', /bøʁ/}} A small handful of lexical items are unique to Isan and not commonly found in standard Lao, but may exist in other Lao dialects. Some of these words exist alongside more typically Lao or Thai usages. {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+Generally distinct vocabulary |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" ||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai'''||'''Isan Variant''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"to work" ||<big>เฮ็ดงาน</big> {{IPA|[hèt ŋâːn]}}, ''het ngan'' ||<big>ເຮັດວຽກ</big> {{IPA|[hēt wîak]}}, ''het wiak'' ||<big>ทำงาน</big> {{IPA|[tʰām ŋāːn]}}, ''tham ngan'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"papaya" ||<big>บักหุ่ง</big> {{IPA|[bǎk hūŋ]}}, ''bak hung'' ||<big>ໝາກຫຸ່ງ</big> {{IPA|[mȁːk hūŋ]}}, ''mak hung'' ||<big>มะละกอ</big> {{IPA|[máʔ.láʔ.kɔ̄ː]}}, ''malako'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"fried beef" ||<big>ทอดซี้น</big> {{IPA|[tʰɔ̂ːt sîːn]}}, ''thot sin'' ||<big>ຂົ້ວຊີ້ນ</big> {{IPA|[kʰȕa sîːn]}}, ''khua sin'' ||<big>เนื้อทอด</big> {{IPA|[nɯ́a tʰɔ̂ːt]}}, ''nuea thot'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"hundred" ||<big>ร้อย</big> {{IPA|[lɔ̂ːj]}}, ''roi'' ||<big>ຮ້ອຍ</big> {{IPA|[hɔ̂ːj]}}, ''hoi'' ||<big>ร้อย</big> {{IPA|[rɔ́ːj]}}, ''roi'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"barbecued pork" ||<big>หมูปิ้ง</big> {{IPA|[mǔː pîŋ]}}, ''mu ping'' ||<big>ປີ້ງໝູ</big> {{IPA|[pîːŋ mǔː]}}, ''ping mu'' ||<big>หมูย่าง</big> {{IPA|[mǔː jâːŋ]}}, ''mu yang'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'ice cream' || <big>ไอติม</big> {{IPA|[ʔàj.tìm]}}, ''aitim'' || <big>ກາແລ້ມ</big> {{IPA|[kàː.lɛ̂ːm]}}, ''kalèm'' || <big>ไอศกรีม</big> {{IPA|[ʔāj.sā.krīːm]}}, ''aisakrim'' || <big>ไอศกรีม</big> {{IPA|[ʔàj.sā.kìːm]}}, ''aisakrim'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'to be well' || <big>ซำบาย</big> {{IPA|[sâm.bàːj]}}, ''sambai'' || <big>ສະບາຍ</big>/Archaic <big>ສະບາຽ</big> {{IPA|[sā.bàːj]}}, ''sabai'' || <big>สบาย</big> {{IPA|[sā.bāːj]}}, ''sabai'' || <big>สบาย</big> {{IPA|[sā.bàːj]}}, ''sabai'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'fruit' || <big>บัก</big> {{IPA|[bǎk]}}, ''bak'' || <big>ໝາກ</big>/<big>ຫມາກ</big>, {{IPA|[mȁːk]}}, ''mak'' || <big>ผล</big> {{IPA|[pʰŏn]}}, ''phon'' || <big>หมาก</big> {{IPA|[màːk]}}, ''mak'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'lunch' || <big>ข้าวสวย</big> {{IPA|[kʰà(ː)w sŭaj]}}, ''khao suai'' || <big>ອາຫານທ່ຽງ</big> {{IPA|[ʔàː.hăːn tʰīaŋ]}}, ''ahane thiang'' || <big>อาหารกลางวัน</big> {{IPA|[ʔāː.hăːn klāːŋ.wān]}}, ''ahan klangwan'' || <big>ข้าวเที่ยง</big> {{IPA|[kʰà(ː)w tʰīaŋ]}}, ''khao thiang'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'traditional animist ceremony' || <big>บายศรี</big> {{IPA|[bàːj sǐː]}}, ''bai si'' || <big>ບາສີ</big> {{IPA|[bàː sĭː]}}, ''ba si'' || <big>บวงสรวง</big> {{IPA|[būaŋ sǔaŋ]}}, ''buang suang'' || <big>บายศรีสู่ขวัญ</big> {{IPA|[bàːj sǐː sūː kʰwǎn]}}, ''bai si su khwan'' |} ==Dialects== {{Further|Lao language#Dialects}} [[File:Phasa_Lao_thin_Isan.jpg|thumb|right|Geographic distribution of Lao dialects within Northeastern Thailand]] Although Isan is treated separately from the Lao language of Laos due to its use of the Thai script, political sensitivity and the influence of the Thai language, dialectal [[isoglosses]] crisscross the Mekong River, mirroring the downstream migration of the Lao people as well as the settlement of Isan from the east to west, as people were forced to the right bank. Isan can be broken up into at least fourteen varieties, based on small differentiations in tonal quality and distribution as well as small lexical items, but these can be grouped into the same five dialectal regions of Laos. As a result of the movements, Isan varieties are often more similar to the Lao varieties spoken on the opposite banks of the Mekong than to other Isan people up- or downstream although Western Lao, formed from the merger of peoples from different Lao regions, does not occur in Laos and is only found in Isan.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/><ref name="dialectal">เรืองเดช ปันเขื่อนขัติย์. ภาษาถิ่นตระกูลไทย. กทม. สถาบันวิจัยภาษาและวัฒนธรรมเพื่อการพัฒนาชนบทมหาวิทยาลัยมหิดล. 2531.</ref> Isan may have had historical leveling processes. The settlement of the region's interior areas led to dialect mixing and the development of transitional areas. The Vientiane dialect also likely had a major role in bringing Isan varieties closer. The provinces of Loei, Nong Khai and Bueang Kan border areas of Laos where Vientiane Lao is spoken, and together with Nong Bua Lamphu and much of Udon Thani, were long settled by Lao speakers of these dialects from the time of [[Lan Xang]] as well as the [[Kingdom of Vientiane]]. The destruction of [[Vientiane]] and the forced movement of almost the entire population of the city and surrounding region after the [[Lao rebellion (1826–1828)|Lao rebellion]] greatly increased the population of Isan, with these Lao people settled across the region.<ref>Compton, C. J. (2009) ''Contemporary Lao Studies: Research on Development, Language and Culture, and Traditional Medicine''. Compton, C. J., Hartmann, J. F. Sysamouth, V. (eds.). (pp. 160-188). San Francisco, CA: Center for Lao Cultural Studies.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Lao Dialects ||'''Dialect'''||'''Lao Provinces'''||'''Thai Provinces''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Vientiane Lao | [[Vientiane]], [[Vientiane Prefecture]], [[Bolikhamsai Province|Bolikhamxay]] and southern [[Xaisomboun Province|Xaisômboun]] | [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]], [[Nong Bua Lamphu Province|Nong Bua Lamphu]], [[Chaiyaphum Province|Chaiyaphum]], [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], portions of [[Yasothorn Province|Yasothon]], [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]], [[Loei Province|Loei]] and [[Khon Kaen Province|Khon Kaen]] (Khon Chaen) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Northern Lao<br>Louang Phrabang Lao | [[Luang Prabang Province|Louang Phrabang]], [[Sainyabuli Province|Xaignbouli]], [[Oudomxay Province|Oudômxay]], [[Phongsaly Province|Phôngsali]], [[Bokeo Province|Bokèo]] and [[Luang Namtha Province|Louang Namtha]], portions of [[Houaphanh Province|Houaphan]] | [[Loei Province|Loei]], portions of [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], [[Khon Kaen]](Khon Chaen), also [[Phitsanulok Province|Phitsanulok]], [[Phetchabun Province|Phetchabun]] and [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]] (outside Isan) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Northeastern Lao<br>Phuan (Phouan) Lao | [[Xiangkhouang Province|Xiangkhouang]], portions of [[Houaphanh Province|Houaphan]] and [[Xaisomboun Province|Xaisômboun]] | Scattered in isolated villages of [[Chaiyaphum Province|Chaiyaphum]], [[Sakon Nakhon Province|Sakon Nakhon]], [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]], [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]] and [[Loei Province|Loei]]{{efn|Northeastern Lao is sometimes considered a separate language, as it is traditionally spoken by Phuan tribal members, a closely related but distinct [[Tai peoples|Tai]] group. Also spoken in a few small and scattered Tai Phuan villages in [[Sukhothai Province|Sukhothai]], [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]], and [[Phrae Province|Phrae]].}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |Central Lao ({{lang|tts|ลาวกลาง}}, {{lang|lo|ລາວກາງ}}) | [[Khammouane Province|Khammouan]] and portions of [[Bolikhamsai Province|Bolikhamxay]] and [[Savannakhet Province|Savannakhét]] | [[Mukdahan Province|Mukdahan]], [[Sakon Nakhon Province|Sakon Nakhon]], [[Nakhon Phanom Province|Nakhon Phanom]], [[Mukdahan Province|Mukdahan]]; portions of [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]] and [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]] |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Southern Lao |[[Champasak Province|Champasak]], [[Salavan Province|Saravan]], [[Sekong Province|Xékong]], [[Attapeu Province|Attapeu]], portions of [[Savannakhet Province|Savannakhét]] | [[Ubon Ratchathani Province|Ubon Ratchathani]] (Ubon Ratsathani), [[Amnat Charoen Province|Amnat Charoen]], portions of [[Si Sa Ket Province|Si Sa Ket]], [[Surin Province|Surin]], [[Nakhon Ratchasima Province|Nakhon Ratchasima]] (Nakhon Ratsasima), and [[Yasothorn Province|Yasothon]]{{efn|Southern Lao gives way to [[Northern Khmer dialect|Northern Khmer]] in Sisaket, Surin, and Buriram, and to [[Khorat Thai]] and, to some extent, Northern Khmer in Nakhon Ratchasima.}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Western Lao | * Not found in Laos | [[Kalasin Province|Kalasin]], [[Roi Et Province|Roi Et]] (Hoi Et), [[Maha Sarakham Province|Maha Sarakham]], portions of [[Khon Kaen Province|Khon Kaen]] (Khon Chaen), [[Chaiyaphum]] (Saiyaphum) and [[Nakhon Ratchasima]] (Nakhon Ratsasima) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} ==Writing systems== ===Tai Noi script=== {{Further|Tai Noi script}} [[File:Tai_Noi_consonants.png|thumb|left|The consonants of the old Tai Noi alphabet. Letter shapes have been preserved, with few changes, in the modern Lao alphabet.]] The original writing system used for Isan was the ''Akson Thai Noi'' ({{langx|tts|อักษรไทน้อย}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̆ːn tʰâj nɔ̏ːj/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອັກສອນໄທນ້ອຽ}} BGN/PCGN ''Akson Tai Noy''), 'Little Tai alphabet' or ''To Lao'' ({{langx|tts|โตลาว}} {{IPA|/tòː láːw/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ໂຕລາວ}}), which in contemporary Isan and Lao would be ''Tua Lao'' ({{langx|tts|ตัวลาว}} {{IPA|/tùa lâːw/}} and {{langx|lo|ຕົວລາວ}}, respectively, or 'Lao letters.' In Laos, the script is referred to in academic settings as the ''Akson Lao Deum'' ({{langx|lo|ອັກສອນລາວເດີມ}} {{IPA|/ʔák sɔ̆ːn láːw d̀ɤ̀ːm/}}, cf. {{langx|tts|อักษรลาวเดิม}} RTGS ''Akson Lao Doem'') or 'Original Lao script.' The contemporary Lao script is a direct descendant and has preserved the basic letter shapes. The similarity between the modern Thai alphabet and the old and new Lao alphabets is because both scripts derived from a common ancestral Tai script of what is now northern Thailand which was an adaptation of the [[Khmer script]], rounded by the influence of the [[Mon script]], all of which are descendants of the [[Pallava script]] of southern India.<ref name="ronn"/> ===Thai alphabet=== {{Further|Thai alphabet}} [[File:Morlamvcd.jpg|thumb|right|Screenshot of a karaoke VCD from [[mor lam|molam]] singer, [[Jintara Poonlarp|Chintara Phunlap]]. In the Lao script, the lyrics seen would appear as '{{lang|lo|ໜີໄປບວດໃຫ້ມັນແລ້ວສາບໍ້}}'.]] The ban on the ''Tai Noi'' script in the 1930s led to the adoption of writing in Thai with the [[Thai script]]. Very quickly, the Isan people adopted an ''ad hoc'' system of using the Thai script to record the spoken Isan language, using etymological spelling for cognate words but spelling Lao words not found in Thai, and with no known Khmer or Indic etymology, similarly to as they would be in the Lao script. This system remains in informal use today, often seen in letters, text messages, social media posts, lyrics to songs in the Isan language, transcription of Isan dialogue and personal notes. ===Tai Tham=== {{Further|Tai Tham alphabet}} [[File:Sign of Wat Sri Ubon Rattanaram, Ubon Ratchathani.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An example of the [[Tai Tham alphabet]] formerly used in Laos and Isan for religious literature]] The ''[[Tai Tham script|Tai Tham]]'' script ({{langx|tts|อักษรไทธรรม}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːn tʰâj tʰâm/}} RTGS ''akson Thai Tham'', cf. {{langx|lo|ອັກສອນໄທທັມ}}) were also historically known simply as ''tua tham'' ({{langx|tts|ตัวธรรม}} {{IPA|/tùa tʰâm/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຕົວທຳ/ຕົວທັມ}} BGN/PCGN ''toua tham'') or '[[dharma]] letters'. The script is the same as used to write [[Northern Thai language|Tai Lanna]] (Kham Mueang), [[Tai Lue language|Tai Lue]], [[Khün language|Tai Khoen]] and shares similarities with the [[Burmese alphabet]], all of which are ultimately derived from the [[Old Mon script]]. ''Tai Tham'' was introduced during the reign of [[Setthathirath]] who although a prince of Lan Xang, was first crowned king of Lan Na. The dynastic union allowed easy movement of monks from Lan Xang that came to copy the temple libraries to bring back home.<ref name="McDaniel">McDaniel, J. (2005). [http://www.laomanuscripts.net/downloads/literaryheritageoflaos29_mcdaniel_en.pdf Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature]. ''The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives.'' Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives.</ref> As the name suggests, its use in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written in ''Tai Noi'' instead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at ''Wat Tham [[Suwannakhuha District|Suwannakhuha]]'' in [[Nong Bua Lamphu Province|Nong Bua Lamphu]], dated to 1564, and another from ''Wat Mahaphon'' in [[Maha Sarakham Province|Maha Sarakham]] from the same period.<ref name="Dharma">ธวัช ปุณโณทก (Punnothek, T.) อักษรโบราณอีสาน: อักขรวิทยาอักษรตัวธรรมและไทยน้อย. กรุงเทพฯ: สยามเพรส แมเนจเม้นท์, ๒๕๔๐, ๕๔</ref> Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalization also ended its use as the primary written language in [[Northern Thailand]].<ref name="McDaniel"/> ===Khom script=== {{further|Khom Thai script}} [[File:Bhuddha Sutra in Thai-Khmer Font.JPG|thumb|right|A sutra in the Khom script. This Khmer script was used to write Buddhist, Brahmanic and ritual texts.]] The Khom script ({{langx|tts|อักษรขอม}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːn kʰɔ̆ːm/}} ''akson Khom'', cf. Lao ອັກສອນຂອມ, ''Aksone Khom'') was not generally used to write the ancient Lao language of Isan, but was often used to write Pali texts, or Brahmanic rituals often introduced via the Khmer culture. ''[[Khom]]'' is the ancient Tai word for the [[Khmer people]], who once populated and ruled much of the area before Tai migration and the assimilation of the local people to Tai languages. It was generally not used to write the Lao language ''per se'', but was often found in temple inscriptions, used in texts that preserve Brahmanic mantras and ceremonies, local mantras adopted for use in Tai animistic religion and other things usually concerned with Buddhism, Brahmanism or black magic, such as [[yantra]]s and ''[[yantra tattooing|sakyan]]'' tattoos. ==See also== *[[Comparison of Lao and Isan]] *[[Comparison of Lao and Thai]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Incubator|code=tts}} * [http://siamsmile.webs.com/isaan/isaan.html Basic Isaan phrases] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316073018/http://siamsmile.webs.com/isaan/isaan.html |date=2010-03-16 }} (Some basic Isaan phrases with sound files). * [[Duncan McCargo|McCargo, Duncan]], and Krisadawan Hongladarom. "Contesting Isan‐ness: discourses of politics and identity in Northeast Thailand." [http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/thaipol/mccargo-and-krisadawan-2004.pdf ''Asian Ethnicity'' 5.2 (2004): 219-234.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313223328/http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/thaipol/mccargo-and-krisadawan-2004.pdf |date=2014-03-13 }} * [https://esan108.com/ Esan108] (in Thai) {{Languages of Thailand}} {{Tai-Kadai languages}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Isan Language}} [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Isan language| ]] [[Category:Isan| ]] [[Category:Languages of Thailand]] edvucu0rc5dbjsnf2o3wqi9c8j4h3q4 687850 687849 2026-07-13T12:31:31Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Isan_language]] 687849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dialect of the Lao language}} {{Distinguish|text=the [[Esan language]] of Nigeria}} {{Multiple issues| {{More citations needed|date=March 2021}} {{Original research|date=March 2021}} }} {{Infobox language | name = Isan | altname = Northeastern Thai, Thai Isan, Thai Lao | nativename = ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน, ภาษาลาว | states = [[Thailand]] | region = [[Isan]] (Northeastern Thailand)<br>Also in adjacent areas and Bangkok | ethnicity = [[Isan people|Isan]] (Tai Lao), [[Northern Khmer people|Northern Khmer]], [[Kuy people|Kuy]], [[Phuan people|Phuan]] <br>L2 or L3 of numerous minorities of the Isan region | speakers = 13-16 million | date = 2005 | ref = <ref name="CERD">International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. (2011). Reports submitted by States parties under article 9 of the Convention: First to third periodic reports of States parties due in 2008, Thailand. (GE.11-46262 (E) 141011 181011). New York NY: United Nations.</ref> | speakers2 = 22 million (L1 and L2, 2013)<ref name="CERD"/> | familycolor = Tai–Kadai | fam2 = [[Tai languages|Tai]] | fam3 = [[Southwestern Tai languages]] | fam4 = Lao–Phutai | fam5 = [[Lao language|Lao]] | script = [[Thai alphabet]] ([[de facto]])<br/>[[Tai Noi script|Tai Noi]] (former, secular)<br>[[Tai Tham alphabet|Tai Tham]] (former, religious) | iso3 = tts | glotto = nort2741 | minority = {{flag|Thailand}} | agency = Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, [[Mahidol University]] | glottorefname = Northeastern Thai | image = Isan_text.png | imagescale = | imagecaption = [[Tai Noi script]] former use (top)<br/>[[Thai script]] currently popular with non-standard form (bottom) | map = Isan language.jpg }} {{Contains special characters|Thai}} {{Contains special characters|Lao}} '''Isan''' or '''Northeastern Thai''' ([[Endonym and exonym|autonym]]: {{lang|tts|ภาษาลาว}}/{{lang|tts|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰâː.sǎː lâːw|IPA}}; {{Langx|th|ภาษาอีสาน}}, {{RTGS|Phasa Isan}}) refers to the local development of the [[Lao language]] in Thailand, after the political split of the Lao-speaking world at the [[Mekong River]] at the conclusion of the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]]. The language is still referred to as '''Lao''' by native speakers.<ref name="Identity">Keyes, Charles F. (1966). "Ethnic Identity and Loyalty of Villagers in Northeastern Thailand". ''Asian Survey''.</ref> As a [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]] of the Lao language, Isan belongs to the [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern branch of Tai languages]] in the [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra-Dai language family]]. It is most closely related to (other than Lao) "tribal" Tai languages such as [[Phu Thai language|Phu Thai]] and [[Tai Yo language|Tai Yo]]. Isan is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language by the Thai government. Although (Central) Thai is a closely related Southwestern Tai language, it falls within a different subbranch. Central Thai and Isan are [[mutually intelligible]] only with difficulty; even though they share over 80% cognate vocabulary, they have very different tonal patterns and vowel qualities, and many commonly used words in Isan differ from Thai, thus hampering comprehension.<ref name="DraperJ2004">{{cite journal |last1 = Draper |first1 = John |year = 2004 |title = Isan: The planning context for language maintenance and revitalization |journal = Second Language Learning and Teaching |volume = 4 |url = http://www.apacall.org/member/sonjb/sllt/4/Draper04.html |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140311070346/http://www.apacall.org/member/sonjb/sllt/4/Draper04.html |archive-date = 2014-03-11 }}</ref> The Lao language has had a long presence in Isan, arriving with migrants who followed the river valleys into Southeast Asia from southern China some time in the 8th to 10th centuries. The region of what is now Isan was nominally under the Lao kingdom of [[Lan Xang]] from 1354 to 1707. After the fall of Lan Xang, the Lao splinter kingdoms became tributary states of Siam. During the late 18th and much of the 19th century, Siamese soldiers carried out forced migrations of Lao people from the western bank of the Mekong River to the eastern bank, now Isan. As a result of these massive movements, Isan speakers comprise almost one-third of the population of Thailand and represent more than 80% of the population of Lao speakers overall. Isan is natively spoken by roughly 13–16 million people of the [[Isan]] region (2005), although the total population of speakers, including Isan people in other regions of Thailand and those that speak it as a second language, likely exceeds 22&nbsp;million.<ref name="ethny"/><ref name="CERD"/> The Lao language in Thailand was preserved due to the Isan region's large population, mountains that separated the region from the rest of the country, a conservative culture and ethnic appreciation of local traditions. The language was officially banned from being referred to as the Lao language in official Thai documents at the turn of the 20th century. Assimilatory laws of the 1930s that promoted [[Thai nationalism]], Central Thai culture and mandatory use of Standard Thai led to a [[diglossia|diglossic]] situation with the region's inhabitants largely being bilingual and viewing themselves as Thai citizens. Isan is reserved as the language of the home, agrarian economy and provincial life. The [[Tai Noi script]] was also banned, thus making Isan a spoken language, although an ad hoc system of using Thai script and spelling of cognate words is used in informal communication.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> Isan is also one of the poorest, least developed regions of Thailand, with many Isan people having little education, often employed as laborers, domestic workers, cooks, taxi drivers, and in other service jobs. Combined with historic open prejudice toward Isan people, this has fueled a negative perception of the language. Despite its vigorous usage, since the mid-20th century, the language has been undergoing a slow [[relexification]] by Thai or [[language shift]] to Thai altogether, threatening the vitality of the language.<ref>Simpson, A. & Thammasathien, N. (2007). "Thailand and Laos", Simpson, A. (ed.) in ''Language and National Identity in Asia''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (p. 401).</ref><ref>Chanthao, R. (2002). ''Code-mixing between Central Thai and Northeastern Thai of the Students in Khon Kaen Province''. Bangkok: Mahidol University.</ref> However, with attitudes toward regional cultures becoming more relaxed in the late 20th century onwards, increased research into the language by Thai academics at Isan universities and an ethno-political stance often at odds with Bangkok, some efforts to help stem the slow disappearance of the language are beginning to take root, fostered by a growing awareness and appreciation of local culture, literature and history.<ref name="Toad">Phra Ariyuwat. (1996). ''Phya Khankhaak, the Toad King: A Translation of an Isan Fertility Myth in Verse .'' Wajuppa Tossa (translator). (pp. 27–34). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.</ref><ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ==Classification== {{Further|Tai–Kadai languages}} {{clade |label1=[[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-Dai]] |1={{clade | 1=[[Hlai languages]] | 2=[[Kam-Sui languages]] | 3=[[Kra languages]] | 4=[[Be language]] | label5=[[Tai languages]] | 5={{clade | 1=[[Northern Tai languages]] | 2=[[Central Tai languages]] | label4=[[Southwestern Tai languages]] | 4={{clade | label1=Northwestern Tai languages | 1={{clade | 1=[[Khamti language]] | 2=[[Shan language]] | 3=others}} | label2=Chiang Saen languages | 2={{clade | 1=[[Northern Thai language]] | 2=[[Tai Lue language]] | label3=Sukhothai language | 3={{clade | 1=[[Thai language]] | 2=[[Southern Thai language]]}}}} | label3=Lao-Phuthai languages | 3={{clade | 1=[[Tai Yo language]] | 2=[[Phu Thai language]] | 3=[[Lao language]] (PDR Lao, '''Isan language''') }} }} }} }} }} As an umbrella term for the Lao varieties as spoken in Northeastern Thailand, Isan remains essentially the same as the Lao language of Laos, albeit nonetheless differentiated in [[orthography]] and some minor lexical elements. Both right and left bank varieties are most closely related to the other Lao-Phuthai (Lao-Phoutai) languages such as [[Phu Thai language|Phuthai]] (Phoutai) and [[Tai Yo language|Tai Yo]] (Tai Gno), all which are mutually intelligible to each other. The Lao-Phuthai languages are closely related and somewhat mutually intelligible with the other [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern]] branch [[Tai languages]] such as the Chiang Saen languages, which includes Standard Thai, and the Northwestern languages, comprising the speech of the [[Dai people|Dai]]/[[Shan people|Shan]] peoples. Lao and Thai, despite separate development, were pushed closer together due to proximity and adoption of the same Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words. Lao is distantly related to the various [[Zhuang languages]] that comprise the [[Northern Tai languages|Northern]] and [[Central Tai languages|Central]] branches of Tai languages, and even more distantly to the other Kra-Dai languages. Within Thailand, Isan is officially classified as a 'Northeastern' dialect of the Thai language and is referred to as such in most official and academic works concerning the language produced in Thailand. The use of 'Northeastern Thai' to refer to the language is re-enforced internationally with the descriptors in the [[ISO 639-3]] and ''[[Glottolog]]'' language codes.<ref name="SILI">SIL International (2020). '[https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tts Northeastern Thai].' ISO 639-3 Registrar. Dallax, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</ref><ref name="Glotto">Hammarström, H. and Nordhoff, S. (2011). '[https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nort2741 Northeastern Thai].' 'LangDoc: Bibliographic Infrastructure for Linguistic Typology.' ''Oslo Studies in Language.'' 3(2). pp. 31–43.</ref> Outside of official and academic Thai contexts, Isan is usually classified as a particular sub-grouping of the Lao language such as by native speakers, Laotian Lao and many linguists, it is also classified as a separate language in light of its unique history and Thai-language influence, such as its classification in ''Glottolog'' and ''[[Ethnologue]]''.<ref name="Identity"/><ref name="Glotto"/><ref name="ethny">{{e25|tts|Thai, Northeastern}}</ref> ==Names== ===Endonyms=== Isan people have traditionally referred to their speech as the ''Lao'' language ({{lang|tts|ภาษาลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰâː.săː lâːw|}}). This is sometimes modified with the word ''tai'' ({{lang|tts|ไท}}, {{lang|tts|ໄທ}}, {{IPA|tts|tʰâj|}}, {{Literal translation|inhabitant|person}}) or the related form ''Thai'' ({{lang|tts|ไทย}}, {{lang|tts|ໄທ}}, {{IPA|tts|tʰâj|}}), which refers to Thailand or the Thai people, thus yielding ''Phasa Tai Lao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาไทลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, 'language of the Lao people') and ''Phasa Thai Lao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาไทยลาว}}, {{lang|lo|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, 'Lao language of Thailand'). ''Lao'' derives from an ancient Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *''k.ra:w'', which signified a '(venerable) person' and is also ultimately the source of the Isan words ''lao'' ({{lang|tts|ลาว}}, {{lang|tts|ລາວ}}, {{IPA|tts|lâːw|}}, 'he/she/it'), and ''hao'' ({{lang|tts|เฮา}}, {{lang|tts|ເຮົາ}}, {{IPA|tts|hâw|}}, 'we/us'). ''Tai'' and ''Thai'' both derive from another Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *''k.riː'', which signifies a '(free) person'. The various [[Kra–Dai-speaking peoples|Kra–Dai peoples]] have traditionally used variants of either *''k.riː'' or *''k.ra:w'' as ethnic and linguistic self-appellations, sometimes even interchangeably.<ref>Ferlus, Michel (2009). Formation of Ethnonyms in Southeast Asia. 42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Nov 2009, Chiang Mai, Thailand. 2009, pp.3–4.</ref> Isan people tend to refer to themselves and their language as ''Lao'' only when in settings with other Isan people, where the language can be used freely, typically away from other Thai-speaking people. Isan speakers typically find the term ''Lao'' offensive when used by outsiders, due to its usage as a discriminatory slur, often insinuating their rural upbringings, superstitious beliefs, links with the Lao people of Laos (i.e., not Thai) and traditional, agrarian lifestyles. In dealings with Lao people from Laos, Isan people may sometimes use ''Phasa Lao Isan'' or 'Isan Lao language' or simply ''Isan'' when clarification is needed as to their origins or why their accents differ. The use of ''Lao'' or ''Lao Isan'' identity, although eschewed by younger generations, is making a comeback, but use of these terms outside of private settings or with other Lao people has strong political associations, especially with the far-left political movements advocating greater autonomy for the region.<ref name="TaiNoi">Wattasoke, S. (2019 Feb.) '[https://theisaanrecord.co/2019/02/07/isaan-siamese-colonization-tai-noi/ Isaan under Siamese colonization: Eradicating the Tai Noi script]'. ''The Isaan Record''. Culture Section. Khon Khaen, Thailand. Last retrieved 21 Jun 2021.</ref> As a result, younger people have adopted the [[neologism]] ''Isan'' to describe themselves and their language, as it conveniently avoids ambiguity with the Laotian Lao as well as association with movements, historical and current, that tend to be leftist and at odds with the central government in Bangkok. The language is also called affectionately ''Phasa Ban Hao'' ({{lang|tts|ภาษาบ้านเฮา}}, {{lang|lo|ພາສາບ້ານເຮົາ}}, {{IPA|tts|pʰáː.sǎː bâːn háw|}}), which can be translated as either 'our home language' or 'our village language'.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} ===Exonyms=== Isan is known in Thai by the following two names, officially and academically: ''Phasa Thai Tawan Ok Chiang Nuea'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː tʰāj ta.wān ʔɔ̀ːk tɕʰǐaŋ nɯ̌a|}}, 'Northeastern Thai language'), and ''Phasa Thai Thin Isan'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː tʰāj tʰìn ʔīː.săːn|}}, 'Thai language of the Isan region'). These names emphasise the official position of Isan speech as a dialect of the Thai language. In more relaxed contexts, Thai people generally refer to the language as ''Phasa Thai Isan'' ({{Langx|th|ภาษาไทยอีสาน|lit=Isan Thai language|label=none}}) or simply ''Phasa Isan'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาอีสาน}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.săː ʔīː.săːn|}}, 'Isan language').<ref name="Glotto"/><ref name="ethny"/> The term ''Isan'' derives from an older form ({{lang|th|อีศาน}}), which in turn is a derivative of Sanskrit ''Īśāna'' ({{lang|sa|ईशान}}), which signifies the 'northeast' or 'northeastern direction' as well as the name of an aspect of Lord [[Shiva]] as guardian of that direction. It was also the name of the Khmer capital of [[Chenla]] whose rule extended over the southern part of the region. After the integration of the ''Monthon Lao'' into Siam in 1893, the Siamese also abolished the use of the terms of ''Lao'' in place names as well as self-references in the census to encourage assimilation of the Lao people within its new borders. However, due to the distinct culture and language and the need to disassociate the people and region from [[Laos]], the term ''Isan'' came into being for the region of Isan as well as its ethnic Lao people and their Lao speech, although it originally only referred to districts which now comprise the southern portion of Northeastern Thailand.<ref>Phatharathananunth, S. (2006). ''Civil Society and Democratization: Social Movements in Northeast Thailand.'' (p. 25). Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies.</ref> Use of ''Lao'' by native Thai speakers was originally for all Tai peoples that were not Siamese, and was once for [[Northern Thai people]] as well, but the term gradually came to be thought of only referring to the ethnic Lao people of Isan and contemporary Laos. When used by Thai people, it is often offensive, given the history of prejudice against Isan people for their distinct culture and language, as well as perceived links with the communist Lao in Laos. Nevertheless, within Northeastern Thailand, ''Lao'' is the general term used by the various ethnic minorities that speak it as a first, second or third language. Thai speakers may also use ''Phasa Ban Nok'' ({{lang|th|ภาษาบ้านนอก}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.săː bân nɔ̑ːk|}}), which can translate as 'rural', 'upcountry' or 'provincial language'. Although it is often used by Thai speakers to refer to the Isan language, since the region is synonymous in Thai minds to rural agriculture, it is also used for any rural, unsophisticated accent, even of Central Thai.<ref>บ้านนอก. (2019). [https://www.thai2english.com/ Thai to English Dictionary].</ref> In Laos, the Lao people also refer to the language as ''Phasa Lao'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາລາວ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː láːw|}}), but when necessary to distinguish it from the dialects spoken in Laos, the terms ''Phasa Tai Lao'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາໄທລາວ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː tʰáj láːw|}}, 'Lao language of Thailand') and ''Phasa Lao Isan'' ({{lang|lo|ພາສາລາວອີສານ}}, {{IPA|lo|pʰáː.săː láːw ʔìː.săːn|}}, 'Isan Lao language') can also be used. In most other languages of the world, 'Isan' or translations of 'Northeastern Thai language' are used.<ref name="SILI"/><ref name="Glotto"/> ==Geographical distribution== [[File:Thailand Isan.png|thumb|150 px|right|A map showing the provinces of Northeastern Thailand or Isan. The region is a stronghold of the language.]] The homeland of the Isan language is mainly the twenty provinces of [[Northeastern Thailand]], also known as ''Phak Isan'' ({{lang|tts|ภาคอีสาน}}), 'Isan region' or just ''Isan''. The region is covered by the flat topography of the [[Khorat Plateau]]. The Lao language was able to thrive in the region due to its historical settlement pattern, which included the vast depopulation of the left bank of the Mekong to the right bank and its geographical isolation from the rest of what is now Thailand. The peaks of the [[Phetchabun Mountains|Phetsabun]] and [[Dong Phaya Yen|Dong Phanya Nyen]] mountains to the west and the [[Sankamphaeng Range|Sankamphaeng]] to the southwest separate the region from the rest of Thailand and the [[Dangrek Mountains|Damlek]] ridges forming the border with [[Cambodia]]. The [[Phu Phan Mountains]] divide the plateau into a northern third drained by the [[Loei River|Loei]] and [[Songkhram River|Songkhram]] rivers and a southern third drained by the [[Mun River]] and its predominate tributary, the [[Chi River|Si]]. The [[Mekong River]] 'separates' Isan speakers from Lao speakers in Laos as it is the geopolitical boundary between Thailand and Laos, with a few exceptions. Isan speakers spill over into some portions of [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]] and [[Phitsanulok Province|Phitsanulok]] provinces as well as the northernmost fringes of [[Phetchabun Province|Phetsabun]] to the northwest of the Isan region, with speakers in these areas generally speaking dialects akin to Luang Phrabang{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}. In the southwest, Isan speakers are also found in portions of [[Sa Kaeo Province|Sa Kaeo]] and [[Prachinburi Province|Phrasinburi]] provinces. In addition, large numbers of Isan people have left the region for other major cities of Thailand for employment, with large pockets of speakers found in [[Bangkok]] and its surrounding areas as well as major cities across the region. Outside of Thailand, it is likely that Isan speakers can also be found in the [[United States]], [[South Korea]], [[Australia]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Germany]] which house the largest populations of [[Overseas Thai]]. ==History== ===Shared history with the Lao language=== {{main|Lao language#History}} ===Separate development of the Isan language=== ====Integration Period (1893–1932)==== After the French established their protectorate over the left bank Lao-speaking territories that became Laos during the conclusion of the [[Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893]], the right bank was absorbed into Siam which was then ruled by King [[Vajiravudh|Wachirawut]]. To prevent further territorial concessions, the Siamese implemented a series of reforms that introduced Western concepts of statehood, administrative reforms and various measures to integrate the region which was until this point ruled as semi-autonomous out-lying territories nominally under the authority of the Lao kings. With the creation of provinces grouped into districts known as ''[[monthon]]'' ({{lang|tts|มณฑล}}, {{lang|lo|ມົນທົນ}}, {{IPA|/món.tʰón/}}), the power of local Lao princes of the ''mueang'' in tax collection and administration was moved and replaced by crown-appointed governors from Bangkok which removed the official use of Lao written in Tai Noi in local administration. To achieve this, King Wachirawut had the help of his brother, Prince [[Damrong Rajanubhab|Damrongrachanuphap]] who recommended the system. The end of local autonomy and the presence of foreign troops led the Lao people to rebel under the influence of [[Millennialism|millennialist]] cult leaders or ''phu mi bun'' ({{lang|tts|ผู้มีบุญ}}, {{lang|lo|ຜູ້ມີບຸນ}}, {{IPA|/pʰȕː míː bùn/}}) during the [[Holy Man's Rebellion]] (1901—1902), the last united Lao resistance to Siamese rule, but the rebellion was brutally suppressed by Siamese troops and the reforms were fully implemented in the region shortly afterward.<ref name="Ivarson">Ivarsson, S. (2008). ''Creating Laos: Making of A Laos Space Between Indochina and Siam.'' (pp. 71–83.) Copenhagen, Denmark: NIAS Press.</ref><ref>Murdoch, J. B. (1974). [http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf "The 1901-1902 'holy man's' rebellion"]. ''Journal of the Siam Society'', 59(1), 47-66.</ref><ref name="Vacha">Keyes, Charles (2013), Finding Their Voice: Northeastern Villagers and the Thai State, Silkworm Books.</ref> Further reforms were implemented to assimilate and integrate the people of the "Lao ''Monthon''" into Siam. References to the 'Lao' and many cities and towns were renamed, such as the former districts Monthon Lao Gao and Monthon Lao Phuan which were renamed as 'Monthon Ubon' and 'Monthon Udon', respectively, shortly after their creation in 1912. Self-designation as Lao in the census was banned after 1907, with the Lao forced to declare themselves as Thai and speakers of a Thai dialect. The unofficial use of Lao to refer to them was discouraged, and the term 'Isan', originally just a name of the southern part of the 'Lao ''Monthon''<nowiki/>', was extended to the entire region, its primary ethnic group and language. The name change and replacement of the Lao language by Thai at the administrative level and reforms to implement Thai had very little effect as the region's large Lao population and isolation prevented quick implementation. Monks still taught young boys to read the Tai Noi script written on palm-leaf manuscripts since there were no schools, passages from old literature were often read during festivals and traveling troupes of ''[[morlam|mo lam]]'' and [[shadow play|shadow puppet]] performers relied on written manuscripts for the lyrics to poetry and old stories set to song and accompanied by the ''[[khaen]]'' alone or alongside other local instruments. Mountains, lack of roads, large areas without access to water during the dry season and flooding in the wet season continued to shield the Isan people and their language from direct Thai-language influence.<ref name="Ivarson"/><ref name="Vacha"/> ====Thaification (1930s–1960s)==== {{Main|Thaification}} Suppression of the Isan language came with the '[[Thai cultural mandates]]' and other reforms that aimed to elevate Central Thai culture and language, reverence to the monarchy and the symbols of state and complete integration into Thailand, known as '[[Thaification]]'. Most of these reforms were implemented by [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]], who changed the English name of Siam to 'Thailand' and whose ultra-nationalistic policies would mark Thailand during his rule from 1938 to 1944 and 1948–1957. These policies implemented an official [[diglossia]]. Isan was removed from public and official discourse to make way for Thai and the written language was banned, relegating Isan to an unwritten language of the home. Public schools, which finally were built in the region, focussed heavily on indoctrinating Isan people to revere the Thai monarchy, loyalty to the state and its symbols and mastery of the Thai language, with Isan treated as an inferior dialect. Pride in the language was erased as students were punished or humiliated for using the language in the classroom or writing in Tai Noi, planting the seed for future [[language shift]] as the region became bilingual.<ref name="Vacha"/><ref name="Ivarson"/><ref name="Platt">Platt, M. B. (2013). ''Isan Writers, Thai Literature Writing and Regionalism in Modern Thailand.'' (pp. 145–149). Singapore: NUS Press.</ref> The old written language and the rich literature written in it were banned and was not discussed in schools. Numerous temples had their libraries seized and destroyed, replacing the old Lao religious texts, local histories, literature and poetry collections with Thai-script, Thai-centric manuscripts. The public schools also dismissed the old monks from their role as educators unless they complied with the new curriculum. This severed the Isan people from knowledge of their written language, shared literary history and ability to communicate via writing with the left bank Lao. In tandem with its removal from education and official contexts, the Thai language made a greater appearance in people's lives with the extension of the railroad to Ubon and Khon Kaen and with it the telegraph, radio and a larger number of Thai civil servants, teachers and government officials in the region that did not learn the local language.<ref>Smits, M. (2015). ''Southeast Asian Energy Transitions: Between Modernity and Sustainability''. (pp. 58–75). Ashgate Publishers.</ref> Words for new technologies and the political realities of belonging to the Thai state arrived from Thai, including words of English and Chinese (primarily Teochew) origin, as well as neologisms created from Sanskrit roots. Laos, still under French rule, turned to French, Vietnamese, repurposing of old Lao vocabulary as well as Sanskrit-derived coinages that were generally the same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai. For example, the word or aeroplane (UK)/airplane (US) in Isan was ''huea bin'' ({{langx|tts|ເຮືອບິນ}} {{IPA|/hɯ́a bìn/}}) 'flying boat', but was generally replaced by Thai-influenced ''khrueang bin'' ({{langx|tts|เครื่องบิน|links=no}} {{IPA|/kʰɯ̄aŋ bìn/}}) 'flying machine', whereas Lao retained ''hua bin'' ({{langx|lo|ເຮືອບິນ}} {{IPA|/hɯ́a bìn/}}) RTGS ''huea bin''. Similarly, a game of [[billiards]] {{IPA|/bɪljədz/}} in Isan is ({{langx|tts|บิลเลียด}} {{IPA|/bìn.lȋat/}} from English via Thai; whereas on the left bank, people play ''biya'' ({{langx|lo|ບີຢາ|links=no}} {{IPA|/bìː.jàː/}}) from French ''billard'' {{IPA|/bi jaʁ/}}. Despite this slow shift, the spoken language maintained its Lao features since most of the population was still engaged in agriculture, where Thai was not needed, thus many Isan people never mastered Thai fully even if they used it as a written language and understood it fine.<ref name="Vacha"/><ref name="Platt"/> ====1960s to Present==== The language shift to Thai and the increased influence of the Thai language accelerated in the 1960s due to several factors. Roads were finally built into the region, making Isan no longer unreachable for much of the year, and the arrival of television with its popular news broadcasts and soap operas penetrated into people's homes at this time. As lands new lands to clear for cultivation were no longer available, urbanization began to occur, as well as the massive seasonal migration of Isan people to Bangkok during the dry season, taking advantage of the economic boom occurring in Thailand with increased western investment due to its more stable, non-communist government and openness. Having improved their Thai during employment in Bangkok, the Isan people returned to their villages, introducing the Bangkok slang words back home and peppering their speech with more and more Thai words.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Around the 1990s, although the perceived political oppression continued and Thaification policies remained, attitudes towards regional languages relaxed. Academics at Isan universities began exploring the local language, history, culture and other folklore, publishing works that helped bring serious attention to preserving the Lao features of the language and landscape, albeit under an Isan banner. Students can participate in clubs that promote local music, sung in the local Lao language, or local dances native to the area. Knowledge about the history of the region and its long neglect and abuse by Siamese authorities and resurrection of pride in local culture are coming to the fore, increasing expressions of 'Isan-ness' in the region. However, Thaification policies and the [[language shift]] to Thai continue unabated. Recognition of the Isan language as an important regional language of Thailand did not provide any funding for its preservation or maintenance other than a token of acknowledgment of its existence.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/><ref>Keyes, C. (1967). ''Isan: Regionalism in Northeastern Thailand''. New York: Cornell. Thailand Project.</ref> ==Language status== ===Legal status=== ''Ethnologue'' describes the Isan language as the ''"de facto'' language of provincial identity" which "is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business." Although Thailand does recognise the regional Tai languages, including Isan, as important aspects of regional culture and communication, the Isan language and other minority languages are still inferior to the social and cultural prestige of Standard Thai and its government sanctioned promotion in official, educational and national usage. However, the Thaification laws that banned the old Lao alphabet and forced the Lao to refer to themselves and their language as 'Thai Isan' never banned the language in the home nor the fields and the Isan people steadfastly clung to their spoken language.<ref name="Identity"/> This situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity. Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct, non-Thai language and although influenced by Thai-language media and culture, strive to maintain 'good Lao'. Although spelling has changed, the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use a modified form of the ''Tai Noi'' script, the modern [[Lao alphabet]].<ref name="LaoLaw">Session VI of the People's Supreme Assembly, II Legislature. [http://www.un.int/lao/constitution.htm The Constitution of the Lao People's Democratic Republic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806080917/http://www.un.int/lao/constitution.htm |date=2011-08-06 }}. (15, Aug 1991).</ref> ===Spoken status=== According to the [[Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale|EGIDS scale]], Isan is at Stage 6a, or 'vigorous', meaning the language is used for 'face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable'.<ref name=EGIDS>Lewis, M. P., Simons, G. F., and Fennig, C. D. (eds.). 2013. EGIDS. [http://www.ethnologue.com/about/language-status#EGIDS-origins "EGIDS Explanation"].</ref> Although various studies indicate that Isan is spoken by almost everyone in Northeastern Thailand, the language is under threat from Thai, as Thai replaces the unique vocabulary specific to Lao speakers, and language shift, as more and more children are being raised to speak only Standard Thai. The lack of prestige of the language and the need for Thai to advance in government, education and professional realms or seek employment outside of Northeastern Thailand, such as Bangkok, necessitate the use and mastery of proper Thai over proper Lao.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> The language suffers from a negative perception and diglossia, so speakers have to limit their use of the language to comfortable, informal settings. Parents often view the language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must master Standard Thai to advance in school or career paths outside of agriculture. The use of the Thai script, spelling cognate words in Isan as they are in Thai, also gives a false perception of the dialectal subordination of Isan and the errors of Isan pronunciation which deviate from Thai. As a result, a generational gap has arisen with old speakers using normative Lao and younger speakers using a very 'Thaified' version of Isan, increased code-switching or outright exclusive use of Thai. Many linguists and scholars of the Isan language believe that Thai relexification cannot be halted unless the script is returned, but this has little public or government support.<ref name="Tossa-2007">{{cite book|last1=Tossa|first1=Wajuppa|title=STORYTELLING, A MEANS TO REVITALIZE A DISAPPEARING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN NORTHEAST THAILAND (ISAN)|date=2007|publisher=The 3rd International Conference on Gross National Happiness 2007|location=Bangkok|url=http://gnh-movement.org/papers/tossa.pdf|access-date=18 September 2017|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213650/http://gnh-movement.org/papers/tossa.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ===Written language usage and vitality=== [[File:Legal text in Isan (Lao) written in Tai Noi.jpg|thumb|center|450px|Portions of an ancient legal text written in the Tai Noi script on a palm-leaf manuscript. The script was banned in the 1930s but survived in Laos as the modern Lao alphabet.]] The written language is currently at Stage&nbsp; 9 on the EGIDS scale, which is a 'language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency'.<ref name="EGIDS"/> This applies to both the ''Tai Noi'' script used for secular literature and the ''Tua Tham'' script previously used for Buddhist texts. Only a handful of people of very advanced age and caretakers of monasteries whose libraries were not destroyed during the Thaification implementation in the 1930s are able to read either script. Evidence for the use of the written language is hard to find, but well-worn murals of very old temples often have small bits of writing in the old script.<ref name="ronn">Ronnakiat, N. (1992). Evidence of the Thai noi alphabet found in inscriptions. ''The third international symposium on language and linguistics.'' Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn University. (pp. 1326–1334).</ref> In Laos, the orthography is a direct descendant of ''Tai Noi'' and continues its role as the official written language of the Lao language of the left bank as well as the script used to transcribe minority languages. The Lao written language has unified the dialects to some extent as well, as though the differences between dialects are sharper in Laos than Isan, one common writing system unites them.<ref name="LaoLaw"/><ref name="ronn"/> ===Language threats=== ====Negative perceptions==== Acknowledgment of the unique history of the Isan language and the fact it is derived from a closely related albeit separate language is lacking, with the official and public position being that the language is a dialect of Thai. As a result of the great difference from Thai, based on tone, nasal vowels of a different quality and a special set of Lao vocabulary unfamiliar to Thai speakers, it is considered an 'inferior form of Thai' as opposed to its own separate language. The traditional avoidance of the language in the formal sphere re-enforces the superiority of Thai, which the Isan people have [[internalized oppression|internalized]] to the point many do not have high opinions of their first language. Combined with vocabulary retentions, many of which sound oddly archaic or have become pejorative in Standard Thai, perpetuate the myth and negative perception of Isan as an uncouth language of rural poverty and hard agricultural life. Due to associations with [[Laos]], the language was also viewed as a potential fifth column for Lao [[irredentism]] and the spread of [[communism]] into Thailand.<ref name="Signs">Draper, J. (2013). Introducing Multilingual Thai - Isan - English Signage in a Thai University. Journal of Lao Studies, 4(1), 11–42.</ref> It was in the recent past quite common for Isan people to be corrected or ridiculed when they spoke because of their incomplete mastery of Standard Thai.<ref name="Alex"/> In polling of language favorability amongst the general population of Thailand, the Isan language ranks last after Standard Thai and the primary Thai dialect of the other regions.<ref name="Hugo">Lee, Hugo, Y.-H. (2014). '[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.639.8792&rep=rep1&type=pdf Speaking like a love entrepreneur: Language choices and ideologies of social mobility among daughters of peasants in Thailand's tourist sites]'. ''Language, Discourse and Society'', 3(1), pp. 110-143. Madrid, Spain: International Sociological Association.</ref> As a result of the need for Standard Thai proficiency in order to have better educational and employment prospects and avoid discrimination, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more Isan children are being raised in the Thai language and are discouraged from using the local language at home.<ref name="Alex">Alexander, S. T. and McCargo, D. (2014), Diglossia and identity in Northeast Thailand: Linguistic, social, and political hierarchy. J Sociolinguistics, 18: 60–86.</ref> The Thai language has already begun to displace the predominance of Isan in the major market towns, in part because they are often also administrative centers, and in some major cities, universities have attracted students from other regions.<ref name="Signs"/> ====Code-switching==== Since the late 1930s, Isan has been a bilingual area, with most people using Isan at home and in the village, but due to diglossia, switching to Thai for school, work and formal situations. Like all bilingual societies, Isan speakers often [[code-switching|code-switch]] in and out of the Thai language. For example, in an analysis of the eighty-eight volumes of the comic ''หนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้'' ({{lit|Little Hin}} in the city), the Thai language was used 62.91 percent of the time to properly quote someone—such as someone that speaks Thai, 21.19 percent of the time to provide further explanation and 8.61 percent of the time to re-iterate a previous statement for clarification.<ref>พิมพ์โพยม พิทักษ์1 และ บัญญัติ สาลี. (2559/2016). [https://so03.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/gshskku/article/view/73660/59377 หน้าที่ของการสลับภาษาระหว่างภาษาไทยกลางและภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน ของหนูหิ่น ในการ์ตูนเรื่อง หนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้]. มนุษยศาสตร์สังคมศาสตร์. 5(2). pp. 91-109. (Thai and English)</ref> There are seven areas where the Thai language is employed, aside from direct quotation, such as the following: explanations, interjections, Thai culture, emphasis, re-iterations and jokes.<ref>พระมหาอธิวัฒน์ บุดดานาง และ รัตนา จันทร์เทาว. (2561/2018). หน้าที่ของการสลับภาษาระหว่างภาษาไทยกลาง ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสานและภาษาบาลี ในการแสดงธรรม ของพระอาจารย์สมภพ โชติปญฺโญ. วารสารภาษา ศาสนา และวัฒนธรรม. 7(1). pp. 123-153.</ref> Although some Isan people may not speak the language well, Thai is a convenient language of clarification, especially between Isan speakers of different dialects that may be unfamiliar with local terms of the other speaker. As Isan does not exist in formal, technical, political or academic domains, it is generally more comfortable for Isan speakers to use Thai in these areas as a result of the diglossia, with many Isan speakers unaware or unfamiliar with native terms and ''[[belles-lettres]]'' that are still used in contemporary Lao. Thai is also sometimes used to avoid Isan features that are stigmatized in Thai, such as retention of vocabulary that is pejorative or archaic as well as Lao pronunciations of cognate words that sound 'folksy'. Despite the fact that code-switching is a natural phenomenon, younger generations are blurring the distinction between languages, using more Thai-like features and as they forget to switch back to Isan, language shift takes hold.<ref name="Alex"/><ref name="Tossa-2007"/> ====Thai-influenced language shift==== The Thai language may not be the primary language of Isan, but Isan people are in constant exposure to it. It is required to watch the ever-popular [[soap opera]]s, news, and sports broadcasts or sing popular songs, most of it produced in Bangkok or at least in its accent. Thai is also needed as a written language for instructions, to read labels on packages, road signs, newspapers and books. Isan children who may struggle to acquire the language, are forced to learn the language as part of [[compulsory education]] and often when they are older, for employment. Although attitudes towards regional cultures and languages began to relax in the late 1980s, the legal and social pressures of Thaification and the need for Thai to participate in daily life and wider society continue. The influence of Thai aside, anecdotal evidence suggests that many older Isan lament the corruption of the spoken language spoken by younger generations and that the younger generations are no longer familiar with the traditional Lao forms used by previous generations.<ref name="Tossa-2007"/><ref name="Planning">Draper, J. (2015). Towards a curriculum for the Thai Lao of Northeast Thailand. Current Issues in Language Planning, 16(3), 238-258.</ref> In a 2016 study of language shift, villagers in an Isan-speaking village were divided by age and asked to respond to various questionnaires to determine lexical usage of Lao terms, with those born prior to 1955, those born between 1965 and 1990 and those born after 1990. The results show what would be expected of a language undergoing language shift. As Isan and Thai already have a similar grammatical structure and syntax, the main variance is in lexical shift, essentially the replacement of Isan vocabulary. The oldest generation, at the time in their 60s or older, uses very normative Lao features little different than those found in Laos. The middle generations, ranging from 35 to 50 years of age, had a greater prevalence of Thai vocabulary, but overall maintained a traditional Isan lexicon, with the Thai terms usually not the primary spoken forms. The youngest generation, although still arguably using very many Lao phrases and vocabulary, had a remarkable replacement of Isan vocabulary, with Thai forms becoming either the primary variant or replacing the Isan word altogether. Similarly, when Isan usage has two variants, generally a common one not understood in Thai and another that is usually a cognate, younger speakers tend to use the cognates with greater frequency, pushing their speech to Thai as older speakers will use them in variance.<ref name="Prom">Promkandorn, S. (2016). Language Vitality and Lexical Variation of the Isan Language in Rongsan Village, Phayao Province. [Unpublished Master's of Linguistics Thesis]. Phayap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.</ref> Thai loan words were generally localized in pronunciation, easing them into the flow of Isan conversation and unnoticeable to most but the oldest members of the community that preserve 'proper Isan' usage. Although the youngest generation was still speaking a distinct language, each generation brings the increased risk of the Isan language's extinction as it becomes relexified to the point of no longer being a separate language but a dialect of Thai with some Lao influence. The lack of official usage, official support for its maintenance and lack of language prestige hinder attempts to revitalize or strengthen the language against the advance of Thai.<ref name="Planning"/> {| class="wikitable" |+ Thai relexification in the speech of Isan youth in Rongsan Village<ref name="Prom"/> ! colspan="2" | Central Thai ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" |Isan youth ! Gloss |- | {{lang|th|โหระพา}}<br>''horapha'' | {{IPA|/hǒː.ráʔ.pʰāː/}} | {{lang|tts|อีตู่}}<br>''i tu'' | {{IPA|/ʔìː túː/}} | {{lang|lo|ອີ່ຕູ່}}<br>''i tou'' | {{IPA|/ʔīː tūː/}} | {{lang|tts|โหระพา}}<br>''horapha'' | {{IPA|/hǒː.làʔ.pʰâː/}} | 'Thai basil' |- | {{lang|th|พี่สาว}}<br>''phi sao'' | {{IPA|/pʰîː sǎːw/}} | {{lang|tts|เอื้อย}}<br>''ueai'' | {{IPA|/ʔɯ̂aj/}} | {{lang|lo|ເອື້ອຍ}}<br>''ueai'' | {{IPA|/ʔɯ̂aj/}} | {{lang|tts|พี่สาว}}<br>''phi sao'' | {{IPA|/pʰīː sǎːw/}} | 'older sister' |- | {{lang|th|คนใบ้}}<br>''khon bai'' | {{IPA|/kʰōn bâj/}} | {{lang|tts|คนปากกืก}}<br>''khon pak kuek'' | {{IPA|/kʰôn pàːk kɯ̀ːk/}} | {{lang|lo|ຄົນປາກກືກ}}<br>''khôn pak kuk'' | {{IPA|/kʰón pȁːk kɯ̏ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|คนใบ้}}<br>''khon bai'' | {{IPA|/kʰôn bâj/}} | 'mute' (person) |- | {{lang|th|กระรอก}}<br>''krarok'' | {{IPA|/kràʔ.rɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|กระฮอก}}<br>''krahok'' | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.hɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|lo|ກະຮອກ}}<br>''kahok'' | {{IPA|/káʔ.hɔ̂ːk/}} | {{lang|tts|กระรอก}}<br>''krarok'' | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.lɔ̑ːk/}} | 'squirrel' |- | {{lang|th|กระซิบ}}<br>''krasip'' | {{IPA|/kràʔ.síp/}} | {{lang|tts|ซิ่ม}}<br>''sim'' | {{IPA|/sīm/}} | {{lang|lo|ຊັບຊິຶ່ມ}}<br>''sap suem'' | {{IPA|/sāp sɯ̄m/}} | {{lang|tts|กระซิบ}}<br>''krasip''<br> | {{IPA|/kǎʔ.sìp/}} | 'to whisper' |- | {{lang|th|งีบ}}<br>''ngip'' | {{IPA|/ŋîːp/}} | {{lang|tts|เซือบ}}<br>''suep'' | {{IPA|/sɯ̂ap/}} | {{lang|lo|ເຊືອບ}}<br>''suep'' | {{IPA|/sɯ̂ap/}} | {{lang|th|งีบ}}<br>''ngip'' | {{IPA|/ŋîːp/}} | 'to nap' |- | {{lang|th|รวม}}<br>''ruam'' | {{IPA|/rūam/}} | {{lang|tts|โฮม}}<br>''hom'' | {{IPA|/hôːm/}} | {{lang|lo|ໂຮມ}}<br>''hôm'' | {{IPA|/hóːm/}} | {{lang|tts|รวม}}<br>''ruam'' | {{IPA|/lûam/}} | 'to gather together'<br>'to assemble' |- | {{lang|th|ลูก}}<br>''luk'' | /lûːk/ | {{lang|tts|หน่วย}}<br>''nuai'' | /nūaj/ | {{lang|lo|ຫນ່ວຍ}}/{{lang|lo|ໜ່ວຍ}}<br>''nouay'' | /nūaj/ | {{lang|tts|ลูก}}<br>''luk'' | /lȗːk/ | 'fruit'<br>(classifier) |- | {{lang|th|ไหล่}}<br>''lai'' | /làj/ | {{lang|tts|บ่า}}<br>''ba'' | /báː/ | {{lang|lo|ບ່າ}}<br>''ba'' | /bāː/ | {{lang|tts|ไหล่}}<br>''lai'' | /lāj/ | 'shoulder'<br /> |} ===Continued survival=== The development of 'Isan' identity and a resurgence in attention to the language has brought increased attention and study of the language. Academics at universities are now offering courses in the language and its grammar, conducting research into the old literature archives that were preserved. Digitizing palm-leaf manuscripts and providing Thai-script transcription is being conducted as a way to both preserve the rapidly decaying documents and re-introduce them to the public. The language can be heard on national television during off-peak hours, when music videos featuring many Isan artists of [[morlam|molam]] and Isan adaptations of Central Thai [[luk thung]] music. In 2003, HRH Princess Royal [[Sirindhorn|Sirinthon]] was the patron of the Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/> ==Phonology== ===Consonants=== ====Initials==== Isan shares its consonant inventory with the Lao language from which it derives. The [[stop consonant|plosive]] and [[affricate consonant|affricate]] consonants can be further divided into three [[voice-onset time]]s of [[voiced consonant|voiced]], [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] and [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] consonants. For example, Isan has the plosive set of voiced {{IPAslink|b}}, tenuis {{IPAslink|p}} which is like the 'p' in 'spin' and aspirated {{IPAslink|pʰ}} like the 'p' in 'puff'. Isan and Lao lack the sound {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}} and its allophone {{IPAslink|ʃ}} of Thai, replacing these sounds with {{IPAslink|s}} in analogous environments. Similarly, {{IPAslink|r}} is rare. Words in Isan and Lao cognate to Thai word with {{IPAslink|r}} have either {{IPAslink|h}} or {{IPAslink|l}} in their place, although educated speakers in Isan or Laos may pronounce some words with {{IPAslink|r}}. In Central and Southern Thai, words with {{IPAslink|r}} may be pronounced as {{IPAslink|l}} ([[lambdacism]]) in casual environments although this is frowned upon in formal or cultivated speech. Unlike Central and Southern Thai, Isan and Lao have a {{IPAslink|j}}–{{IPAslink|ɲ}} distinction, whereas cognate words from Isan and Lao with {{IPAslink|ɲ}} are all {{IPAslink|j}} in Central and Southern Thai. Substitution of {{IPAslink|w}} with {{IPAslink|ʋ}}, which is not used in Thai, is common in large areas of both Laos and Isan but is not universal in either region, but is particularly associated with areas influenced by Vientiane and Central Lao dialects. The glottal stop occurs any time a word begins with a vowel, which is always built around a null consonant. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan consonant distribution with Thai and Lao alphabets. ! colspan="2" | ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! ([[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-]]) [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPAslink|m}} ม, หม{{ref|ligature|4}}ມ, ໝ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫມ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|n}} ณ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, น, หน{{ref|ligature|4}}ນ, ໜ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫນ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|ɲ}}{{ref|NotThai|2}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoFinal|5}} ญ{{ref|ThaiY|3}}, ย{{ref|ThaiY|3}}, หญ{{ref|ThaiY|3}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ligature|4}}, หย{{ref|ThaiY|3}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ligature|4}}ຍ{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, ຫຽ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}/ຫຍ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} ง, หง{{ref|ligature|4}}ງ, ຫງ{{ref|ligature|4}} | |- ! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]] ! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | {{IPAslink|p}} ป ປ | {{IPAslink|t}} ฏ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}},ต ຕ | {{IPAslink|tɕ}} จ ຈ | {{IPAslink|k}} ก ກ | {{IPAslink|ʔ}}{{ref|glottalstop|10}} อ{{ref|glottalstop|10}} ອ{{ref|glottalstop|10}} |- ! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | {{IPAslink|pʰ}} ผ, พ, ภ ຜ, ພ | {{IPAslink|tʰ}} ฐ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ฑ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ฒ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ถ, ท, ธ ຖ, ທ | {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}}{{ref|ThaiCH|6}} ฉ{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}, ช{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}, ฌ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|ThaiCH|6}}ຊ{{ref|ThaiCH|6}} | {{IPAslink|kʰ}} ข, ฃ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ค, ฅ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ฆ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}ຂ, ຄ | |- ! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | {{IPAslink|b}} บ ບ | {{IPAslink|d}} ฎ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ด ດ | | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | {{IPAslink|f}} ฝ, ฟ ຝ, ຟ | {{IPAslink|s}} ซ, ศ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ษ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ส ສ, ຊ | | {{IPAblink|x}}{{ref|Dialect|13}} ข, ฃ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ค, ฅ{{ref|obsolete|7}}, ฆ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}ຂ, ຄ | {{IPAslink|h}} ห, ฮ{{ref|LaoH|9}}ຫ, ຮ{{ref|LaoH|9}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | {{IPAblink|ʋ}}{{ref|NotThai|2}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoFinal|5}} ว{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, หว{{ref|ligature|4}}ວ{{ref|LaoFinal|5}}, ຫວ{{ref|ligature|4}} | {{IPAslink|l}} ล, ฬ{{ref|Sanskrit|1}}, ร{{ref|informal|12}}, หล{{ref|ligature|4}}, หร{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|informal|12}}ຣ{{ref|OldLao|11}}, ລ, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}/ຫລ{{ref|ligature|4}}, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}/ຫຣ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | {{IPAslink|j}} ย, อย, หย{{ref|ligature|4}}ຢ, ຫຽ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | {{IPAslink|w}} ว, หว{{ref|ligature|4}}ວ, ຫວ{{ref|ligature|4}} | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]/[[Liquid consonant|Liquid]] | | {{IPAslink|r}}{{ref|LaoR|8}} ร{{ref|LaoR|8}}, หร{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}} ຣ{{ref|LaoR|8}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}}, ຫຼ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}}/ຫຣ{{ref|ligature|4}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|LaoR|8}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|11}} | | | |} *{{note|Sanskrit|1}} Only used in Sanskrit or Pali loan words. *{{note|NotThai|2}} Unique to Isan and Lao, does not occur in Thai but {{IPAslink|ʋ}} is only an allophone of {{IPAslink|w}} whereas {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is phonemic. *{{note|ThaiY|3}} Central and Southern Thai spelling does not distinguish {{IPAslink|j}} from {{IPAslink|ɲ}}. *{{note|ligature|4}} Lao ligature of silent {{IPAslink|h}} (ຫ) or digraph; Thai digraph with silent {{IPAslink|h}} (ห). *{{note|LaoFinal|5}} Only as syllable-initial consonants. *{{note|ThaiCH|6}} Use of {{IPAslink|tɕʰ}} is Thai interference in Isan and rare in Laos, usually interference from a northern tribal Tai language, almost always {{IPAslink|s}}. *{{note|obsolte|7}} Still taught as part of the alphabet, 'ฃ' and 'ฅ' are obsolete and have been replaced by 'ข' and 'ค', respectively. *{{note|LaoR|8}} Mark of interference from Isan or erudition in Laos. Usually replaced by {{IPAslink|l}} and even by 'ລ' {{IPAslink|l}} in modern Lao writing. *{{note|LaoH|9}} Used to mark {{IPAslink|h}} in words that are etymologically {{IPAslink|r}}. *{{note|glottalstop|10}} All words that begin with vowels must be written with the anchor consonant and are pronounced with a glottal stop. *{{note|OldLao|11}} Generally used in pre-1970s Lao. *{{note|informal|12}} Only in very casual, informal Thai. *{{note|Dialect|13}} {{IPAblink|x}} is allophone of {{IPAslink|kʰ}} in some dialects. ====Clusters==== Consonant clusters are rare in spoken Lao as they disappear shortly after the adoption of writing. In native words, only /kw/ and /kʰw/ are permissible, but these can only occur before certain vowels due to the [[diphthongization]] that occurs before the vowels /aC/, /am/, /aː/ and /aːj/. Isan speakers, who are educated in Thai and often use Thai spelling of etymological vocabulary to transcribe Isan, will generally not pronounce consonant clusters but may do so when code-switching to Thai or when pronouncing high-brow words of Sanskrit, Pali or Khmer derivation. Lao speakers from Laos will sometimes pronounce clusters in these borrowed loan words, but this is restricted to aging speakers of the Laotian diaspora. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Lack of consonant clusters in Isan |- ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao ! colspan="2" | Isan ! colspan="2" | Thai ! colspan="2" | Lao |- | ก | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/k/}} | ก | {{IPA|/k/}} | rowspan="3" | ກ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/k/}} | ค | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ค | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ຄ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ป | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/p/}} | ป | {{IPA|/p/}} | rowspan="3" | ປ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/p/}}<br /> |- | กร | กร | {{IPA|/kr/}} | คร | คร | {{IPA|/kʰr/}} | ปร | ปร | {{IPA|/pr/}} |- | กล | กล | {{IPA|/kl/}} | คล | คล | {{IPA|/kʰl/}} | ปล | ปล | /pl/ |- | กว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | กว | /kw/ | ກວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | คว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | คว | {{IPA|/kʰw/}} | ຄວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | /kʰw/{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | ผ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | ผ | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | rowspan="2" | ຜ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} |- | ข | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ข | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ຂ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/kʰ/}} | ต | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} | ต | {{IPA|/t/}} | rowspan="2" | ຕ | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} | ผล | ผล | {{IPA|/pʰl/}} |- | ขร | ขร | {{IPA|/kʰr/}} | ตร | ตร | {{IPA|/tr/}} | พ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | พ | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} | rowspan="3" | ພ | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/pʰ/}} |- | ขล | ขล | {{IPA|/kʰl/}} | rowspan="2" colspan="6" | | พร | พร | {{IPA|/pʰr/}} |- | ขว{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw/}}{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | ขว | {{IPA|/kʰw/}} | ຂວ{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | {{IPA|/kʰw}}/{{ref|LaoDiph|1}} | พล | พล | {{IPA|/pʰl/}} |} *{{note|LaoDiph|1}} Before /aC/, /aː/, /aːj/ and /am/ [[diphthongization]] occurs which assimilates the {{IPA|/w/}} so it is only a true cluster in other vowel environments, only occurs in Isan and Lao. ====Finals==== Isan shares with both Lao and Thai a restrictive set of permissible consonant sounds at the end of a syllable or word. Isan, using its current method of writing according to Thai etymological spelling, preserves the spelling to imply the former sound of borrowed loan words even if the pronunciation has been assimilated. Due to spelling reforms in Laos, the letters that can end a word were restricted to a special set of letters, but older writers and those in the Lao diaspora occasionally use some of the more etymological spellings. In pronunciation, all [[plosive consonant|plosive sounds]] (besides the [[glottal stop]] /ʔ/) are [[unreleased stop|unreleased]]; as a result, there is no voicing of final consonants or any release of air. The finals {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are thus actually pronounced {{IPA|[p̚]}}, {{IPA|[t̚]}}, and {{IPA|[k̚]}}, respectively. Of the consonant letters, excluding the disused ฃ and ฅ, six (ฉ ผ ฝ ห อ ฮ) cannot be used as a final and the other 36 are grouped as following. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan final consonants with Lao script for comparison |- style="font-weight:bold;" ! style="font-weight:normal;" | ! colspan="2" | Labial ! colspan="2" | Alveolar ! Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! Glottal |- ! rowspan="3" | Nasal | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|m}}<br /> | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|n}}<br /> | rowspan="6" | | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} | rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;" | |- | colspan="2" | ม | colspan="2" | ญ, ณ, น, ร, ล, ฬ | colspan="2" | ง |- | colspan="2" | ມ | ນ{{ref|only|1}} | ຣ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ລ{{ref|oldish|2}} | colspan="2" | ງ |- ! rowspan="3" | Plosive | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|p}} | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|t}} | colspan="2" | {{IPAslink|k}} | {{IPAslink|ʔ}} |- | colspan="2" | บ, ป, พ, ฟ, ภ | colspan="2" | จ, ช, ซ, ฌ, ฎ, ฏ, ฐ, ฑ, ฒ, ด, ต, ถ, ท, ธ, ศ, ษ, ส | colspan="2" | ก, ข, ค, ฆ | rowspan="2" | *{{ref|glottal stop|3}} |- | ບ{{ref|only|1}} | ປ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ພ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຟ{{ref|oldish|2}} | ດ{{ref|only|1}} | ຈ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ສ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຊ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຕ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຖ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ທ{{ref|oldish|2}} | ກ{{ref|only|1}} | ຂ{{ref|oldish|2}}, ຄ{{ref|oldish|2}} |- ! rowspan="3" | Approximant | colspan="2" | /w/{{ref|vowel|4}} | rowspan="3" colspan="2" | | /j/{{ref|vowel|4}} | rowspan="3" colspan="3" | |- style="text-align:left;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ว | style="text-align:center;" | ย |- style="text-align:left;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ວ | style="text-align:center;" | ຍ |} *{{note|only|1}} Where alternative spellings once existed, only these consonants can end words in modern Lao. *{{note|oldish|2}} Used in pre-1970s Lao spelling as word-final letters. *{{note|glottal stop|3}} Glottal stop is unwritten but is pronounced at the end of short vowels that occur at the end of a consonant. *{{note|vowel|4}} These occur only as parts of diphthongs or triphthongs and are usually included as parts of vowels. ===Vowels=== The vowel structure of Isan is similar to the central and southern Lao dialects of Laos. The vowel quality is also similar to Thai, but differs in that the two back vowels, [[close back unrounded vowel]] /ɯ/ and the [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]] /ɤ/, centralized as the [[close central unrounded vowel]] /ɨ/ and the [[mid central vowel]] /ə/ in some speakers, respectively, as well as in diphthongs that may include these sounds. To Thai speakers, Isan and Lao vowels tend to have a nasal quality. In many cases, especially diphthongs with /u/ as first element is lengthened in Isan as it is in Standard Lao, so that the word ''tua'' which means 'body' ({{langx|th|ตัว}}, written the same in Isan) is pronounced {{IPA|/tua/}} in Thai but in Isan as {{IPA|/tuːa/}} in some dialects, similar to {{langx|lo|ຕົວ}}. The symbol '◌' indicates the required presence of a consonant, or for words that begin with a vowel sound, the 'null consonant' 'อ' or its Lao equivalent, 'ອ', which in words that begin with a vowel, represents the glottal stop /ʔ/. Short vowels that end with '◌ะ' or Lao '◌ະ' also end with a glottal stop. Thai and Lao are both [[abugida]] scripts, so certain vowels are pronounced without being written, taking the form of /a/ in open syllables and /o/ in closed syllables, i.e., ending in a consonant. For example, the Khmer loan word ''phanom'' or 'hill' found in many place names in Isan is {{langx|tts|พนม}} or 'PH-N-M' but pronounced {{IPA|/pʰàʔ.no᷇m/}}, with 'PH' as the open syllable and 'N-M' as the closed syllable. In Lao orthography, inherited from Tai Noi, closed syllables are marked with a 'ົ' over the consonants and the /a/ of open syllables was unwritten, thus {{langx|lo|ພນົມ}} or 'Ph-N-<sup>o</sup>-M'. In current practice as a result of spelling reforms, all vowels are written out and in modern {{langx|lo|ພະນົມ}} or 'Ph-a-N-<sup>o</sup>-M' is more common thus modern Lao is no longer a true abugida. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Isan vowel distribution |- style="font-weight:bold; vertical-align:middle; background-color:#EAECF0; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | ! [[Front vowel|Front]] ! [[Central vowel|Central]] ! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPAslink|i}} | {{IPAslink|ɨ}} ~ {{IPAslink|ɯ}} | {{IPAslink|u}} |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPAslink|e}} | {{IPAslink|ə}} ~ {{IPAslink|ɤ}} | {{IPAslink|o}} |- style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;" ! style="text-align:left;" | [[Open vowel|Open]] | {{IPAslink|ɛ}} | {{IPAslink|ä|a}} | {{IPAslink|ɔ}} |} ====Vowel length==== Vowels usually exist in long-short pairs determined by [[vowel length]] which is [[phoneme|phonemic]], but vowel length is not indicated in the RTGS romanization commonly used in Thailand or the [[BGN/PCGN romanization|BGN/PCGN]] French-based scheme commonly used in Laos. The Isan word romanized as ''khao'' can represent both {{langx|tts|เขา}} {{IPA|/kʰǎw/}}, 'he' or 'she', and {{langx|tts|ขาว}} {{IPA|/kʰǎːw/}}, 'white' which corresponds to {{langx|lo|ເຂົາ}} and {{langx|lo|ຂາວ}}, respectively, which are also romanized as ''khao''. In these cases, the pairs of words have the same tone and pronunciation and are differentiated solely by vowel length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Long-Short Vowel Pairs (Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) ! colspan="4" | Long vowels ! colspan="4" | Short vowels |- | Thai | IPA | Lao | IPA | Thai | IPA | Lao | IPA |- | colspan="4";| | ◌ำ | /am/ | ◌ຳ | /am/ |- | ◌า | /aː/ | ◌າ | /aː/ | ◌ะ, ◌ั, *{{ref|assumed|1}} | /aʔ/, /a/ | ◌ະ, ◌ັ | /aʔ/, /a/ |- | ◌ี | /iː/ | ◌ີ | /iː/ | ◌ิ | /i/ | ◌ິ | /i/ |- | ◌ู | /uː/ | ◌ູ | /uː/ | ◌ุ | /u/ | ◌ຸ | /u/ |- | เ◌ | /eː/ | ເ◌ | /eː/ | เ◌ะ, เ◌็ | /eʔ/, /e/ | ເ◌ະ, ເ◌ົ | /eʔ/, /e/ |- | แ◌ | /ɛː/ | ແ◌ | /ɛː/ | แ◌ะ, แ◌็ | /ɛʔ/, /ɛ/ | ແ◌ະ, ແ◌ົ | /ɛʔ/, /ɛ/ |- | ◌ื, ◌ือ | /ɯː/ | ◌ື | /ɯː/ | ◌ื | /ɯ/ | ◌ຶ | /ɯ/ |- | เ◌อ, เ◌ิ | /ɤː/ | ເີ◌ | /ɤː/ | เ◌อะ | /ɤʔ/ | ເິ◌ | /ɤʔ/ |- | โ◌ | /oː/ | ໂ◌ | /oː/ | โ◌ะ, *{{ref|asssumed|2}} | /oʔ/, /o/ | ໂ◌ະ, ◌ົ | /oʔ/, /o/ |- | ◌อ | /ɔː/ | ◌ອ◌, ◌ໍ | /ɔː/ | เ◌าะ | /ɔʔ/ | ເ◌າະ | /ɔʔ/ |} *{{note|assumed|1}} Unwritten in open syllables. *{{note|asssumed|2}} Unwritten in closed syllables. ====Diphthongs==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Diphthongs<br />(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) ! colspan="4" | Long vowels ! colspan="4" | Short vowels |- ! Thai ! IPA ! style="width: 11em; | Lao ! IPA ! Thai ! IPA ! style="width: 11em; | Lao ! IPA |- | colspan="4"| | ◌วำ{{ref|ThaiWam|3}} | /wam/ | ◌ວຳ | /uam/ |- | ◌าย | /aːj/ | ◌າຍ/◌າຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /aːj/ | ไ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ใ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ไ◌ย, ◌ัย | /aj/ | ໄ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ໃ◌{{ref|long|1}}, ໄ◌ຍ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}}/ໄ◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}}, ◌ັຍ{{ref|OldLao|2}}/◌ັຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /aj/ |- | ◌าว | /aːw/ | ◌າວ | /aːw/ | เ◌า{{ref|long|1}} | /aw/ | ເ◌ົາ{{ref|long|1}} | /aw/ |- | colspan="4";| | ◌ิว | /iw/ | ◌ິວ | /iw/ |- | เ◌ีย | /ia/ | ເ◌ຍ/ເ◌ັຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}}, ◌ຽ◌ | /ia/ | เ◌ียะ | /iaʔ/ | ເ◌ັຍ/ເ◌ັຽະ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /iaʔ/ |- | ◌อย | /ɔːj/ | ◌ອຍ/◌ອຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} /◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /ɔːj/ | rowspan="2" colspan="4";| |- | โ◌ย | /oːj/ | ໂ◌ຍ/ໂ◌ຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /oːj/ |- | เ◌ือ, เ◌ือ◌ | /ɯa/ | ເ◌ືອ, ເ◌ືອ◌ | /ɯa/ | เ◌ือะ | /ɯaʔ/ | ເ◌ຶອ | /ɯaʔ/ |- | ◌ัว, ◌ว◌ | /ua/ | ◌ັວ, ◌ວ◌, ◌ວາ, | /ua/ | ◌ัวะ | /uaʔ/ | ◌ົວະ, | /uaʔ/ |- | ◌ูย | /uːj/ | ◌ູຍ/◌ູຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /uːj/ | ◌ຸย | /uj/ | ◌ຸຍ/◌ຸຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /uj/ |- | เ◌ว | /eːw/ | ເ◌ວ | /eːw/ | เ◌็ว | /ew/ | ເ◌ັວ | /ew/ |- | แ◌ว | /ɛːw/ | ແ◌ວ | /ɛːw/ | rowspan="2" colspan="4";| |- | เ◌ย | /ɤːj/ | ເ◌ີຍ/ເ◌ີຽ{{ref|OldLao|2}} | /ɤːj/ |} *{{note|long|1}} Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone. *{{note|OldLao|2}} Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao. *{{note|ThaiWam|3}} The Thai vowel 'ำ' is a short vowel. In Isan, it is diphthongized after /w/ into /uam/. ====Triphthongs==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Isan Triphthongs<br />(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation) !Thai !IPA !Lao !IPA |- | เ◌ียว{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/iaw/}} | ◌ຽວ{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/iaw/}} |- | ◌วย{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/uaj/}} | ◌ວຍ/◌ວຽ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}} | {{IPA|/uaj/}} |- | เ◌ือย{{ref|long|1}} | {{IPA|/ɯaj/}} | ເ◌ືວຍ{{ref|long|1}}/ເ◌ືວຽ{{ref|long|1}}<sup>,</sup>{{ref|OldLao|2}} | {{IPA|/ɯaj/}} |} *{{note|long|1}} Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone. *{{note|OldLao|2}} Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao. ====Tones==== {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Isan Tone Distribution (Khon Kaen-Roi Et)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=J. |year=1971 |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_068_1g_Hartmann_AlignmentOfDialectsInSouthwesternTai.pdf |title=A model for the alignment of dialects in southwestern Tai |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418090250/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_068_1g_Hartmann_AlignmentOfDialectsInSouthwesternTai.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-18 |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=72–87 }}</ref> ||'''Tone Class'''||'''Inherent Tone'''||'''Mai ek ({{lang|th|อ่}})'''||'''Mai tho ({{lang|th|อ้}})'''||'''Long Vowel'''||'''Short Vowel''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! High || Rising || Mid || Low || Low || Mid-low |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! Middle || Low || High || Falling || Low || Rising |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ! Low || Falling || Mid || Mid-low || Falling || Low |} ==Grammar== {{unreferenced section|date=August 2021}} Isan words are not inflected, declined, or conjugated, making Isan, like Lao and Thai, an [[analytic language]]. Special particle words function in lieu of prefixes and suffixes to mark verb tense. The majority of Isan words are monosyllabic, but compound words and numerous other very common words exist that are not. Topologically, Isan is a [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO) language, although the subject is often dropped. Word order is an important feature of the language. Although in formal situations, standard Thai is often used, formality is marked in Isan by polite particles attached to the end of statements, and use of formal pronouns. Compared to Thai, Isan sounds very formal as pronouns are used with greater frequency, which occurs in formal Thai, but is more direct and simple compared to Thai. The ending particles เด้อ (doe, {{IPA|/dɤ̂ː/}}) or เด (de, {{IPA|/dèː/}}) function much like ครับ (khrap, {{IPA|/kʰráp/}}), used by males, and ค่ะ (kha, {{IPA|/kʰàʔ/}}), used by females, in Thai. (Isan speakers sometimes use the Thai particles in place of or after เด้อ or เด.) Negative statements often end in ดอก (dok, {{IPA|/dɔ̀ːk/}}), which can also be followed by the particle เด้อ and its variant. ===Nouns=== Nouns in Isan are not marked for plurality, gender or case and do not require an indefinite or definite article. Some words, mainly inherited from Sanskrit or Pali, have separate forms for male or female, such as ''thewa'' ({{langx|tts|เทวา}} {{IPA|/tʰêː.wâː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ເທວາ}} BGN/PCGN ''théva''), 'god' or 'angel' (masculine) and ''thewi'' ({{langx|tts|เทวี}} {{IPA|/tʰêː.wîː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ເທວີ}} BGN/PCGN ''thévi''), 'goddess' or 'angel' (feminine) which derives from masculine ''deva'' ({{langx|sa|देव}} {{IPA|/deʋa/}} and feminine ''devī'' ({{langx|sa|देवी}} {{IPA|/deʋiː/}}). This is also common in names of Sanskrit origin, such as masculine ''Arun'' ({{langx|tts|อรุณ}} {{IPA|/ʔǎ.lûn/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອະລຸນ/ອະຣຸນ}} BGN/PCGN ''Aloun''/''Aroun'') and feminine ''Aruni'' ({{langx|tts|อรุณี}} {{IPA|/ʔǎ.lùʔ.nîː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອະລຸນີ/ອະຣຸນີ}} BGN/PCGN ''Arouni''/''Alounee'') which derives from ''Arun'' {{langx|sa|अरुण}} {{IPA|/aruɳ/}}) and ''Arunī'' {{langx|sa|आरुणि}} {{IPA|/aruɳiː/}}, respectively. In native Tai words which usually do not distinguish gender, animals will take the suffixes ''phu'' ({{langx|tts|ผู้}} {{IPA|/pʰùː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຜູ້}} BGN/PCGN ''phou'') or ''mae'' ({{langx|tts|แม่}} {{IPA|/mɛ̄ː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ແມ່}} BGN/PCGN ''mè''). For example, a cat in general is ''maeo'' ({{langx|tts|แมว}} {{IPA|/mɛ̂ːw/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ແມວ}} BGN/PCGN ''mèo''), but a tomcat is ''maeo phu'' ({{langx|tts|แมวผู้}}) and a queen (female cat) is ''maeo mae'' ({{langx|tts|แมวแม่}}), respectively. ===Classifiers=== {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Isan Classifiers ||'''Classifier''' || '''IPA''' ||'''Category''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คน (ฅน) || {{IPA|/kʰôn/}} ||People in general, except clergy and royals. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คัน || {{IPA|/kʰân/}} ||Vehicles, also used for spoons and forks in Thai. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||คู่ || {{IPA|/kʰūː/}} ||Pairs of people, animals, socks, earrings, etc. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||ฉบับ || {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bǎp/}} ||Papers with texts, documents, newspapers, etc. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||ตัว || {{IPA|/tùa/}} ||Animals, shirts, letters; also tables and chairs (but not in Lao). |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||กก || {{IPA|/kǒk/}} ||Trees. ต้น (or Lao ຕົ້ນ) {{IPA|/tôn/}} is used in all three for columns, stalks, and flowers. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||หน่วย || {{IPA|/nūaj/}} ||Eggs, fruits, clouds. ผล {{IPA|/pʰǒn}}/ used for fruits in Thai. |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ (khwam) {{IPA|/kʰwâm/}} and การ (kan) {{IPA|/kàːn/}} before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} ===Pronouns=== Isan traditionally uses the Lao-style pronouns, although in formal contexts, the Thai pronouns are sometimes substituted as speakers adjust to the socially mandated use of Standard Thai in very formal events. Although all the Tai languages are [[pro-drop language]]s that omit pronouns if their use is unnecessary due to context, especially in informal contexts, but they are restored in more careful speech. Compared to Thai, Isan and Lao frequently use the first- and second-person pronouns and rarely drop them in speech which can sometimes seem more formal and distant.{{to whom|date=September 2024}} More common is to substitute pronouns with titles of professions or extension of kinship terms based on age, thus it is very common for lovers or close friends to call each other 'brother' and 'sister' and to address the very elderly as 'grandfather' or 'grandmother'. To turn a pronoun into a plural, it is most commonly prefixed with ''mu'' ({{langx|tts|หมู่}} {{IPA|/mūː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຫມູ່/ໝູ່}} BGN/PCGN ''mou'') but the variants ''tu'' ({{langx|tts|ตู}} {{IPA|/tùː/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຕູ}} BGN/PCGN ''tou'') and ''phuak'' ({{langx|tts|พวก}} {{IPA|/pʰûak/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ພວກ}} BGN/PCGN ''phouak'') are also used by some speakers. These can also be used for the word ''hao'', 'we', in the sense of 'all of us' for extra emphasis. The vulgar pronouns are used as a mark of close relationship, such as long-standing childhood friends or siblings and can be used publicly, but they can never be used outside of these relationships as they often change statements into very pejorative, crude or inflammatory remarks. {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" | ! Singular ! Plural |- ! rowspan="5" | 1st<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ข้าน้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|kha noi}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰàː nɔ̑ːj/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ข้าน้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu kha noi}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː kʰàː nɔ̑ːj/}} |- ! rowspan="2" | {{small|common}} | rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|tts|ข้อย}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khoi}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰɔ̀j/}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เฮา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|hao}}<br />{{IPA|/hâw/}} |- | {{lang|tts|หมู่เฮา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu hao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː hâw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|ข้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|kha}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰàː/}} | |- ! {{small|vulgar}} | {{lang|tts|กู}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|ku}}<br />{{IPA|/kùː/}} | |- ! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ท่าน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|than}}<br />{{IPA|/tʰāːn/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ท่าน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu than}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː tʰāːn/}} |- ! {{small|common}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|chao}}<br />{{IPA|/tɕȃw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่เจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu chao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː tɕȃw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|เอ็ง}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|eng}}<br />{{IPA|/ʔèŋ/}} | |- ! {{small|vulgar}} | {{lang|tts|มึง}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mueng}}<br />{{IPA|/mɯ̂ŋ/}} | |- ! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br>person ! {{small|formal}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เพิ่น}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|phoen}}<br />{{IPA|/pʰɤ̄n/}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|ขะเจ้า}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khachao}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰȁʔ.tɕȃw/}} |- ! rowspan="2" | {{small|common}} | {{wikt-lang|tts|เขา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|khao}}<br />{{IPA|/kʰǎw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่เขา}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu khao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː kʰǎw/}} |- | {{wikt-lang|tts|ลาว}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|lao}}<br />{{IPA|/lâːw/}} | {{lang|tts|หมู่ลาว}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|mu lao}}<br />{{IPA|/mūː lâːw/}} |- ! {{small|informal}} | {{lang|tts|มัน}}<br />{{transliteration|tts|man}}<br />{{IPA|/mân/}} | |} ===Numbers=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | Number ! Gloss ! colspan="2" | Number ! Gloss |- | ๐<br>ศูนย์<br>''sun'' | {{IPA|/sǔːn}}/ | 0<br>'zero'<br>''nulla'' | ๒๑<br>ซาวเอ็ด<br>''sao et'' | {{IPA|/sâːw ʔět/}} | 21<br>'twenty-one'<br>XXI |- | ๑<br>หนึ่ง<br>''nueng'' | {{IPA|/nɯ̄ŋ/}} | 1<br>'one'<br>I | ๒๒<br>ซาวสอง<br>''sao song'' | {{IPA|/sâːw sɔ̌ːŋ/}} | 22<br>'twenty-two'<br>XXII |- | ๒<br>สอง<br>''song'' | {{IPA|/sɔ̌ːŋ/}} | 2<br>'two'<br>II | ๒๓<br>ซาวสาม<br>''sao sam'' | {{IPA|/sâːw săːm/}} | 23<br>'twenty-three'<br>XXII |- | ๓<br>สาม<br>''sam'' | /sǎːm/ | 3<br>'three'<br>III | ๓๐<br>สามสิบ<br>''sam sip'' | /săːm sȉp/ | 30<br>thirty<br>XXX |- | ๔<br>สี่<br>''si'' | /sīː/ | 4<br>four<br>IV | ๓๑<br>สามสิบเอ็ด<br>''sam sip et'' | /săːm sȉp ʔět/ | 31<br>'thirty-one'<br>XXXI |- | ๕<br>ห้า<br>''ha'' | /hàː/ | 5<br>'five'<br>V | ๓๒<br>สามสิบสอง<br>''sam sip song'' | /săːm sȉp sɔ̌ːŋ/ | 32<br>'thirty-two'<br>XXXII |- | ๖<br>หก<br>''hok'' | /hȍk/ | 6<br>six<br>VI | ๔๐<br>สี่สิบ<br>''si sip'' | /sīː sȉp/ | 40<br>'forty'<br>VL |- | ๗<br>เจ็ด<br>''chet'' | /tɕět/ | 7<br>'seven'<br>VII | ๕๐<br>ห้าสิบ<br>''ha sip'' | /hàː sȉp/ | 50<br>'fifty'<br>L |- | ๘<br>แปด<br>''paet'' | /pɛ̀ːt/ | 8<br>'eight'<br>VIII | ๖๐<br>หกสิบ<br>''hok sip'' | /hȍk sȉp/ | 60<br>sixty<br>LX |- | ๙<br>เก้า<br>''kao'' | /kâw/ | 9<br>nine<br>IX | ๗๐<br>เจ็ดสิบ<br>''chet sip'' | /tɕět sȉp/ | 70<br>'seventy'<br>LXX |- | ๑๐<br>สิบ<br>''sip'' | /sȉp/ | 10<br>ten<br>X | ๘๐<br>แปดสิบ<br>''paet sip'' | /pɛ̀ːt sȉp/ | 80<br>'eighty'<br>LXXX |- | ๑๑<br>สิบเอ็ด<br>''sip et'' | /sȉp ʔět/ | 11<br>'eleven'<br>XI | ๙๐<br>เก้าสิบ | /kâw sȉp/ | 90<br>'nintety'<br>XC |- | ๑๒<br>สิบสอง | /sȉp sɔ̌ːŋ/ | 12<br>'twelve'<br>XII | ๑๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ฮ้อย | /(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj/ | 100<br>'one hundred'<br>C |- | ๑๓<br>สิบสาม | /síp săːm/ | 13<br>'thirteen'<br>XIII | ๑๐๑<br>(หนึ่ง)ฮ้อยเอ็ด | /(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj ʔět/ | 101<br>'one hundred one'<br>CI |- | ๑๔<br>สิบสี่ | /síp sīː/ | 14<br>'fourteen'<br>XIV | ๑๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พัน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰân/ | 1,000<br>'one thousand'<br>M |- | ๑๕<br>สิบห้า | /sȉp hàː/ | 15<br>'fifteen'<br>XV | ๑๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)หมื่น | /(nɯ̄ŋ) mɯ̄ːn/ | 10,000<br>ten thousand<br><span style="text-decoration:overline">X</span>. |- | ๑๖<br>สิบหก | /síp hók/ | 16<br>'sixteen'<br>XVI | ๑๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)แสน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) sɛ̆ːn/ | 100,000<br>'one hundred thousand'<br><span style="text-decoration:overline">C</span>. |- | ๑๗<br>สิบเจ็ด | /síp tɕět/ | 17<br>seventeen<br>XVII | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn/ | 1,000,000<br>'one million' |- | ๑๘<br>สิบแปด | /síp pɛ̀ːt/ | 18<br>'eighteen'<br>XVIII | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พันล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000<br>'one billion' |- | ๑๗<br>สิบเก้า | /síp kȃw/ | 19<br>'nineteen'<br>XIX | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)ล้านล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000,000<br>'one trillion' |- | ๒๐<br>ซาว(หนึ่ง)<br>''sao''(''nueng'') | /sáːw (nɯ̄ŋ)/ | 20<br>'twenty'<br>XX | ๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐<br>(หนึ่ง)พันล้านล้าน | /(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn lâːn/ | 1,000,000,000,000,000<br>'one quadrillion' |} ===Adjectives and adverbs=== There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective. * เด็กหนุ่ม (dek num) {{IPA|/děk nūm/}} ''A young child.'' * เด็กหนุ่ม ๆ (dek num num) {{IPA|/děk nūm nūm/}} ''A very young child.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ (dek num thi wai) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː wȁj/}} ''A child who becomes young quickly.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ ๆ (dek num thi wai wai) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː wȁj wȁj/}} ''A child who becomes young quickly.'' Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa) {{IPA|/kwáː/}}, A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด (thi sut) {{IPA|/tʰīː sȕt/}}, A is most X. * เด็กหนุ่มกว่าผู้แก่ (dek num kwa phukae) {{IPA|/děk nūm kwáː pʰùː.kɛ́ː/}} ''The child is younger than an old person.'' * เด็กหนุ่มที่สุด (dek num thi sut) {{IPA|/děk nūm tʰīː sȕt/}} ''The child is youngest.'' Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used. * เด็กซิหนุ่ม (dek si num) {{IPA|/děk sìʔ nūm/}} ''The child will be young.'' * เด็กหนุ่มแล้ว (dek num laew) {{IPA|/děk nūm lɛ̂ːw/}} ''The child was young.'' ===Verbs=== Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as มื้ออื่น (mue uen) {{IPA|/mɯ̏ː ʔɯ́ːn/}} ''tomorrow'' or มื้อวานนี้ (mue wan ni) {{IPA|/mɯ̏ː wâːn nȉː/}} ''yesterday.'' Negation: [[Negation]] is indicated by placing บ่ (bo) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː/}} before the word being negated. * อีน้องกินหมากเลน (i nong kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ kìn màːk lêːn}}/ ''Younger sister eats tomatoes.'' * อีน้องบ่กินหมากเลน (i nong bao bo kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ bɔ́ː kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister does not eat tomatoes.'' [[Future tense]]: Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ (cha) {{IPA|/tɕǎʔ/}} or สิ (si) {{IPA|/sȉʔ/}} before the verb. * อีน้องจะกินหมากเลน (i nong cha kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔīː nɔ̏ːŋ tɕǎʔ kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister will eat tomatoes.'' * อีน้องสิกินหมากเลน (i nong see kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔīː nɔ̏ːŋ sȉʔ kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister will eat tomatoes.'' Past tense: [[Past tense]] is indicated by either placing ได้ (dai) {{IPA|/dâj/}} before the verb or แล้ว (laew) {{IPA|/lɛ̏ːw/}} after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action. * อีน้องได้กินหมากเลน (i nong dai kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ dâj kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister ate tomatoes.'' * อีน้องกินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong kin mak len laew) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ kìn màːk lêːn lɛ̏ːw/}} ''Younger sister (just) ate tomatoes.'' * อีน้องได้กินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong dai kin mak len laew) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̏ːŋ dâj kìn màːk lêːn lɛ̏ːw/}} ''Younger sister (definitely) ate tomatoes.'' [[Present progressive]]: To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง (kamlang) {{IPA|/kàm.lâŋ/}} can be used before the verb or อยู่ (yu) {{IPA|/júː/}} after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม (phuam) /pʰuâm/ is often used instead of กำลัง. * อีน้องกำลังกินหมากเลน (i nong kamlang kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ kàm.lâŋ kīn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' * อีน้องกินอยู่หมากเลน (i nong kin yu mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ kìn júː màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' * อีน้องพวมกินหมากเลน (i nong phuam kin mak len) {{IPA|/ʔìː nɔ̂ːŋ pʰûam kìn màːk lêːn/}} ''Younger sister is eating tomatoes.'' The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]], it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare English ''She is pretty'' and Isan สาวงาม (literally ''lady pretty''). There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น (pen) {{IPA|/pèn/}}, and one for objects and animals, แม่น (maen) {{IPA|/mɛ̄n/}}. * นกเป็นหมอ (Nok pen mo) {{IPA|/nòk pèn mɔ̌ː/}} ''Nok is a doctor.'' * อันนี้แม่นสามล้อ (an ni maen sam lo) {{IPA|/ʔàn.nȉː mɛ̄n sǎːm lɔ̏ː/}} ''This is a pedicab.'' ===Questions and answers=== Unlike [[English language|English]], which indicates questions by a rising tone, or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question-tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark (?) redundant in Isan. General yes/no questions end in {{Wikt-lang|tts|บ่}} (same as บ่, "no, not"). * สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you well?'' Other question words * {{Wikt-lang|tts|จังใด}} (changdai) {{IPA|/tɕàŋ.dàj/}} or {{Wikt-lang|tts|หยัง}} (yang) /ɲǎŋ/ เฮ็ดจั่งใด (het changdai) {{IPA|/hèt tɕàŋ.dàj/}} ''What are you doing?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ใผ}} (phai) {{IPA|/pʰǎj/}} ใผขายไข่ไก่ (phai khai khai kai) {{IPA|/pʰǎj kʰǎːj kʰāj káj/}} ''Who sells chicken eggs?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ใส}} (sai) {{IPA|/sǎj/}} ''Where?'' ห้องน้ำอยู่ใส (hong nam yu sai) /hɔ̀ŋ nȁːm júː sǎj/ ''Where is the toilet?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|อันใด}} (andai) {{IPA|/ʔàn.dàj/}} ''Which?'' เจ้าได้กินอันใด (chao dai kin andai) {{IPA|/tɕâw dâj kìn ʔàn.dàj/}} ''Which one did you eat?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|จัก}} (chak) {{IPA|/tɕǎk/}} ''How many?'' อายุจักปี (ayu chak pi) {{IPA|/ʔàː.ɲùʔ tɕǎk pìː/}} ''How old are you?'' * {{Wikt-lang|tts|ท่อใด}} (thodai) {{IPA|/tʰɔ̄ː.dàj/}} ''How much?'' ควายตัวบทท่อใด (khwai tua bot thodai) {{IPA|/kʰwáj tùa bǒt tʰɔ̄ː.dàj/}} ''How much is that buffalo over there?'' * แม่นบ่ (maen bo) {{IPA|/mɛ̄n bɔ́ː/}} ''Right?, Is it?'' เต่าไวแม่นบ่ (Tao vai maen bo) {{IPA|/táw wâj mɛ̄n bɔ́ː/}} ''Turtles are fast, right?'' * แล้วบ่ (laew bo) {{IPA|/lɛ̂ːw bɔ́ː/}} ''Yet?, Already?'' เขากลับบ้านแล้วบ่ (khao kap laew bo) {{IPA|/kʰǎw kǎp bâːn lɛ̏ːw bɔ́ː/}} ''Did he go home already?'' * หรือบ่ (rue bo) {{IPA|/lɯ̌ː bɔ́ː/}} ''Or not?'' เจ้าหิวข้าวหรือบ่ (chao hio khao rue bo) {{IPA|/tɕâw hǐw kʰàw lɯ̌ː bɔ́ː}}/ ''Are you hungry or not?'' Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification. * Question: สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you well?'' * Response: สบายดี (sabai di) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bàːj dìː/}} ''I am well'' or บ่สบาย (bo sabai) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sȁʔ.bàːj/}} ''I am not well''. Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question. * Question: บ่สบายบ่ (bo sabai bo) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sáʔ.bàːj bɔ́ː/}} ''Are you not well?'' * Response: สบาย (sabai) {{IPA|/sȁʔ.bāːj/}} ''I am not well'' or บ่สบาย (bo sabai) {{IPA|/bɔ́ː sáʔ.bàːj/}} ''I am well.'' ==Vocabulary== Isan shares a large corpus of cognate, native vocabulary with other Tai languages of Thailand and Laos. They also share many common words and neologisms that were derived from Sanskrit, Pali, Mon and Khmer and other indigenous inhabitants to [[Indochina]]. However, there are traits that distinguish Isan both from Thai and its Lao parent language. Isan is clearly differentiated from Thai by its Lao intonation and vocabulary. However, Isan differs from Lao in that the former has more English and Chinese loanwords, via Thai, not to mention large amounts of Thai influence. The Lao adopted French and Vietnamese loanwords as a legacy of French Indochina. Other differences between Isan and Lao include terminology that reflects the social and political separation since 1893 as well as differences in neologisms created after this. These differences, and a few very small deviations for certain common words, do not, however, diminish nor erase the Lao character of the language. {| class="wikitable" |+Shared vocabulary of Khmer origin ! colspan="5" | Common vocabulary ! colspan="5" | [[Rachasap]] |- ! Isan ! Thai ! Lao ! Khmer ! English ! Isan ! Thai ! Lao ! Khmer ! English |- | กระแทะ<br />''krathae''<br />{{IPA|[kā.tʰɛ̀ʔ]}} | กระแทะ<br />''krathae''<br />{{IPA|[krā.tʰɛ́ʔ]}} | ກະແທະ<br />''kathè''<br />{{IPA|[kā.tʰɛ̄ʔ]}} | រទេះ<br />''rôthéh''<br />{{IPA|/rɔteh/}} | 'oxcart' | บรรทม<br />''banthom''<br />{{IPA|[bàn.tʰôm]}} | บรรทม<br />''banthom''<br />{{IPA|[bān.tʰōm]}} | ບັນທົມ<br />''banthôm''<br />{{IPA|[bàn.tʰóm]}} | បន្ទំ<br />''banthum''<br />{{IPA|/bɑn tum/}} | 'to sleep' |- | เดิน<br />''doen''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̀ːn]}} | เดิน<br />''doen''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̄ːn]}} | ເດີນ<br />''deun''<br />{{IPA|[dɤ̀ːn]}} | ដើរ<br />''daeu''<br />{{IPA|/daə/}} | 'to walk' | ตรัส<br />''trat''<br />{{IPA|[tǎt]}} | ตรัส<br />''trat''<br />{{IPA|[tràt]}} | ຕັດ<br />''tat''<br />{{IPA|[tát]}} | ត្រាស់<br />''trah''<br />{{IPA|/trah/}} | 'to speak' |- | พนม<br />''phanom''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nôm]}} | พนม<br />''phanom''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nōm]}} | ພະນົມ/ພນົມ<br />''phanôm''<br />{{IPA|[pʰā.nóm]}} | ភ្នំ<br />''phnum''/''phnom''<br />{{IPA|/pʰnum/}} | 'mountain' | ขนอง<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]}} | ขนอง<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]}} | ຂະໜອງ/ຂນອງ<br />''khanong''<br />{{IPA|[kʰā.nɔ̆ːŋ]}} | ខ្នង<br />''khnâng''<br />{{IPA|/knɑːŋ/}} | 'back', 'dorsal ridge' |- | ถนน<br />''thanon''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ถนน<br />''thanon''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ຖະໜົນ/ຖໜົນ<br />''thanôn''<br />{{IPA|[tʰā.nǒn]}} | ថ្នល់<br />''tnâl''<br />{{IPA|/tnɑl/}} | 'road' | ศอ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | ศอ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | ສໍ<br />''so''<br />{{IPA|[sɔ̆ː]}} | សូ[រង]<br />''sŭ[rang]''<br />{{IPA|/suː [rɑːng]/}} | 'neck' |} {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+Shared Thai and Isan vocabulary distinct from Lao ||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai'''||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"ice" ||<big>น้ำแข็ง</big> {{IPA|[nȁm.kʰɛ̌ŋ]}} ||<big>ນ້ຳກ້ອນ</big> {{IPA|[nâm.kɔ̂ːn]}}{{ref|5|5}} ||<big>น้ำแข็ง</big> {{IPA|[nám.kʰɛ̌ŋ]}} ||"plain" (adj.) ||<big>เปล่า</big> {{IPA|[páw]}} ||<big>ລ້າ</big> {{IPA|[lâː]}} ||<big>เปล่า</big> {{IPA|[plàːw]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"necktie" ||<big>เนกไท</big> {{IPA|[nè(ː)k tʰáj]}} ||<big>ກາຣະວັດ</big> {{IPA|[kàː.lā.wát]}}{{ref|6|6}} ||<big>เนกไท</big> {{IPA|[né(ː)k tʰáj]}} ||"province" ||<big>จังหวัด</big> {{IPA|[tɕàŋ.wȁt]}} ||<big>ແຂວງ</big> {{IPA|[kʰwɛ̌ːŋ]}}{{ref|7|7}} ||<big>จังหวัด</big> {{IPA|[tɕāŋ.wàt]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"wine" ||<big>ไวน์</big> {{IPA|[wâːj]}} ||<big>ແວງ</big> {{IPA|[wɛ́ːŋ]}}{{ref|8|8}} ||<big>ไวน์</big> {{IPA|[wāːj]}} ||"pho" ||<big>ก๋วยเตี๋ยว</big> {{IPA|[kǔaj.tǐaw]}} ||<big>ເຝີ</big> {{IPA|[fɤ̌ː]}}{{ref|9|9}} ||<big>ก๋วยเตี๋ยว</big> {{IPA|[kǔaj.tǐaw]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"January" ||<big>มกราคม</big> {{IPA|[mòk.kā.lâː.kʰôm]}} ||<big>ມັງກອນ</big> {{IPA|[máŋ.kɔ̀ːn]}} ||<big>มกราคม</big> {{IPA|[mók.kā.rāː.kʰōm]}} ||"paper" ||<big>กระดาษ</big> {{IPA|[kā.dàːt]}} ||<big>ເຈ້ຍ</big> {{IPA|[tɕîa]}} ||<big>กระดาษ</big> {{IPA|[krā.dàːt]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"window" ||<big>หน้าต่าง</big> {{IPA|[nàː.táːŋ]}} ||<big>ປ່ອງຢ້ຽມ</big> {{IPA|[pɔ̄ŋ.jîam]}} ||<big>หน้าต่าง</big> {{IPA|[nâː.tàːŋ]}} ||"book" ||<big>หนังสือ</big> {{IPA|[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]}} ||<big>ປຶ້ມ</big> {{IPA|[pɯ̂m]}} ||<big>หนังสือ</big> {{IPA|[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"motorcycle" ||<big>มอเตอร์ไซค์</big> {{IPA|[mɔ̂ː.tɤ̄ː.sâj]}} ||<big>ຣົຖຈັກ</big> {{IPA|[lōt.tɕák]}} ||<big>มอเตอร์ไซค์</big> {{IPA|[mɔ̄ː.tɤ̄ː.sāj]}}{{ref|10|10}} ||"butter" ||<big>เนย</big> {{IPA|[nɤ̂ːj]}} ||<big>ເບີຣ໌</big> {{IPA|[bɤ̀ː]}}{{ref|11|11}} ||<big>เนย</big> {{IPA|[nɤ̄ːj]}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} {{smalldiv|1= *{{note|5|5}} Formerly <big>น้ำก้อน</big>, but this is now archaic/obsolete. *{{note|6|6}} From French ''cravate'', /kʁa vat/ *{{note|7|7}} Thai and Isan use <big>แขวง</big> to talk about provinces of Laos. *{{note|8|8}} From French ''vin'', /vɛ̃/ as opposed to Thai and Isan <big>ไวน์</big> from English ''wine''. *{{note|9|9}} From Vietnamese <big>phở</big> /fə̃ː/. *{{note|10|10}} From English "motorcycle". *{{note|11|11}} From French ''beurre'', /bøʁ/}} A small handful of lexical items are unique to Isan and not commonly found in standard Lao, but may exist in other Lao dialects. Some of these words exist alongside more typically Lao or Thai usages. {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+Generally distinct vocabulary |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" ||'''English'''||'''Isan'''||'''Lao'''||'''Thai'''||'''Isan Variant''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"to work" ||<big>เฮ็ดงาน</big> {{IPA|[hèt ŋâːn]}}, ''het ngan'' ||<big>ເຮັດວຽກ</big> {{IPA|[hēt wîak]}}, ''het wiak'' ||<big>ทำงาน</big> {{IPA|[tʰām ŋāːn]}}, ''tham ngan'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"papaya" ||<big>บักหุ่ง</big> {{IPA|[bǎk hūŋ]}}, ''bak hung'' ||<big>ໝາກຫຸ່ງ</big> {{IPA|[mȁːk hūŋ]}}, ''mak hung'' ||<big>มะละกอ</big> {{IPA|[máʔ.láʔ.kɔ̄ː]}}, ''malako'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"fried beef" ||<big>ทอดซี้น</big> {{IPA|[tʰɔ̂ːt sîːn]}}, ''thot sin'' ||<big>ຂົ້ວຊີ້ນ</big> {{IPA|[kʰȕa sîːn]}}, ''khua sin'' ||<big>เนื้อทอด</big> {{IPA|[nɯ́a tʰɔ̂ːt]}}, ''nuea thot'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"hundred" ||<big>ร้อย</big> {{IPA|[lɔ̂ːj]}}, ''roi'' ||<big>ຮ້ອຍ</big> {{IPA|[hɔ̂ːj]}}, ''hoi'' ||<big>ร้อย</big> {{IPA|[rɔ́ːj]}}, ''roi'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" ||"barbecued pork" ||<big>หมูปิ้ง</big> {{IPA|[mǔː pîŋ]}}, ''mu ping'' ||<big>ປີ້ງໝູ</big> {{IPA|[pîːŋ mǔː]}}, ''ping mu'' ||<big>หมูย่าง</big> {{IPA|[mǔː jâːŋ]}}, ''mu yang'' ||- |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'ice cream' || <big>ไอติม</big> {{IPA|[ʔàj.tìm]}}, ''aitim'' || <big>ກາແລ້ມ</big> {{IPA|[kàː.lɛ̂ːm]}}, ''kalèm'' || <big>ไอศกรีม</big> {{IPA|[ʔāj.sā.krīːm]}}, ''aisakrim'' || <big>ไอศกรีม</big> {{IPA|[ʔàj.sā.kìːm]}}, ''aisakrim'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'to be well' || <big>ซำบาย</big> {{IPA|[sâm.bàːj]}}, ''sambai'' || <big>ສະບາຍ</big>/Archaic <big>ສະບາຽ</big> {{IPA|[sā.bàːj]}}, ''sabai'' || <big>สบาย</big> {{IPA|[sā.bāːj]}}, ''sabai'' || <big>สบาย</big> {{IPA|[sā.bàːj]}}, ''sabai'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'fruit' || <big>บัก</big> {{IPA|[bǎk]}}, ''bak'' || <big>ໝາກ</big>/<big>ຫມາກ</big>, {{IPA|[mȁːk]}}, ''mak'' || <big>ผล</big> {{IPA|[pʰŏn]}}, ''phon'' || <big>หมาก</big> {{IPA|[màːk]}}, ''mak'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'lunch' || <big>ข้าวสวย</big> {{IPA|[kʰà(ː)w sŭaj]}}, ''khao suai'' || <big>ອາຫານທ່ຽງ</big> {{IPA|[ʔàː.hăːn tʰīaŋ]}}, ''ahane thiang'' || <big>อาหารกลางวัน</big> {{IPA|[ʔāː.hăːn klāːŋ.wān]}}, ''ahan klangwan'' || <big>ข้าวเที่ยง</big> {{IPA|[kʰà(ː)w tʰīaŋ]}}, ''khao thiang'' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" || 'traditional animist ceremony' || <big>บายศรี</big> {{IPA|[bàːj sǐː]}}, ''bai si'' || <big>ບາສີ</big> {{IPA|[bàː sĭː]}}, ''ba si'' || <big>บวงสรวง</big> {{IPA|[būaŋ sǔaŋ]}}, ''buang suang'' || <big>บายศรีสู่ขวัญ</big> {{IPA|[bàːj sǐː sūː kʰwǎn]}}, ''bai si su khwan'' |} ==Dialects== {{Further|Lao language#Dialects}} [[File:Phasa_Lao_thin_Isan.jpg|thumb|right|Geographic distribution of Lao dialects within Northeastern Thailand]] Although Isan is treated separately from the Lao language of Laos due to its use of the Thai script, political sensitivity and the influence of the Thai language, dialectal [[isoglosses]] crisscross the Mekong River, mirroring the downstream migration of the Lao people as well as the settlement of Isan from the east to west, as people were forced to the right bank. Isan can be broken up into at least fourteen varieties, based on small differentiations in tonal quality and distribution as well as small lexical items, but these can be grouped into the same five dialectal regions of Laos. As a result of the movements, Isan varieties are often more similar to the Lao varieties spoken on the opposite banks of the Mekong than to other Isan people up- or downstream although Western Lao, formed from the merger of peoples from different Lao regions, does not occur in Laos and is only found in Isan.<ref name="DraperJ2004"/><ref name="dialectal">เรืองเดช ปันเขื่อนขัติย์. ภาษาถิ่นตระกูลไทย. กทม. สถาบันวิจัยภาษาและวัฒนธรรมเพื่อการพัฒนาชนบทมหาวิทยาลัยมหิดล. 2531.</ref> Isan may have had historical leveling processes. The settlement of the region's interior areas led to dialect mixing and the development of transitional areas. The Vientiane dialect also likely had a major role in bringing Isan varieties closer. The provinces of Loei, Nong Khai and Bueang Kan border areas of Laos where Vientiane Lao is spoken, and together with Nong Bua Lamphu and much of Udon Thani, were long settled by Lao speakers of these dialects from the time of [[Lan Xang]] as well as the [[Kingdom of Vientiane]]. The destruction of [[Vientiane]] and the forced movement of almost the entire population of the city and surrounding region after the [[Lao rebellion (1826–1828)|Lao rebellion]] greatly increased the population of Isan, with these Lao people settled across the region.<ref>Compton, C. J. (2009) ''Contemporary Lao Studies: Research on Development, Language and Culture, and Traditional Medicine''. Compton, C. J., Hartmann, J. F. Sysamouth, V. (eds.). (pp. 160-188). San Francisco, CA: Center for Lao Cultural Studies.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |-----bgcolor="#eeeeee" |+ Lao Dialects ||'''Dialect'''||'''Lao Provinces'''||'''Thai Provinces''' |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Vientiane Lao | [[Vientiane]], [[Vientiane Prefecture]], [[Bolikhamsai Province|Bolikhamxay]] and southern [[Xaisomboun Province|Xaisômboun]] | [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]], [[Nong Bua Lamphu Province|Nong Bua Lamphu]], [[Chaiyaphum Province|Chaiyaphum]], [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], portions of [[Yasothorn Province|Yasothon]], [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]], [[Loei Province|Loei]] and [[Khon Kaen Province|Khon Kaen]] (Khon Chaen) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Northern Lao<br>Louang Phrabang Lao | [[Luang Prabang Province|Louang Phrabang]], [[Sainyabuli Province|Xaignbouli]], [[Oudomxay Province|Oudômxay]], [[Phongsaly Province|Phôngsali]], [[Bokeo Province|Bokèo]] and [[Luang Namtha Province|Louang Namtha]], portions of [[Houaphanh Province|Houaphan]] | [[Loei Province|Loei]], portions of [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], [[Khon Kaen]](Khon Chaen), also [[Phitsanulok Province|Phitsanulok]], [[Phetchabun Province|Phetchabun]] and [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]] (outside Isan) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Northeastern Lao<br>Phuan (Phouan) Lao | [[Xiangkhouang Province|Xiangkhouang]], portions of [[Houaphanh Province|Houaphan]] and [[Xaisomboun Province|Xaisômboun]] | Scattered in isolated villages of [[Chaiyaphum Province|Chaiyaphum]], [[Sakon Nakhon Province|Sakon Nakhon]], [[Udon Thani Province|Udon Thani]], [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]], [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]] and [[Loei Province|Loei]]{{efn|Northeastern Lao is sometimes considered a separate language, as it is traditionally spoken by Phuan tribal members, a closely related but distinct [[Tai peoples|Tai]] group. Also spoken in a few small and scattered Tai Phuan villages in [[Sukhothai Province|Sukhothai]], [[Uttaradit Province|Uttaradit]], and [[Phrae Province|Phrae]].}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |Central Lao ({{lang|tts|ลาวกลาง}}, {{lang|lo|ລາວກາງ}}) | [[Khammouane Province|Khammouan]] and portions of [[Bolikhamsai Province|Bolikhamxay]] and [[Savannakhet Province|Savannakhét]] | [[Mukdahan Province|Mukdahan]], [[Sakon Nakhon Province|Sakon Nakhon]], [[Nakhon Phanom Province|Nakhon Phanom]], [[Mukdahan Province|Mukdahan]]; portions of [[Nong Khai Province|Nong Khai]] and [[Bueng Kan Province|Bueng Kan]] |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Southern Lao |[[Champasak Province|Champasak]], [[Salavan Province|Saravan]], [[Sekong Province|Xékong]], [[Attapeu Province|Attapeu]], portions of [[Savannakhet Province|Savannakhét]] | [[Ubon Ratchathani Province|Ubon Ratchathani]] (Ubon Ratsathani), [[Amnat Charoen Province|Amnat Charoen]], portions of [[Si Sa Ket Province|Si Sa Ket]], [[Surin Province|Surin]], [[Nakhon Ratchasima Province|Nakhon Ratchasima]] (Nakhon Ratsasima), and [[Yasothorn Province|Yasothon]]{{efn|Southern Lao gives way to [[Northern Khmer dialect|Northern Khmer]] in Sisaket, Surin, and Buriram, and to [[Khorat Thai]] and, to some extent, Northern Khmer in Nakhon Ratchasima.}} |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" | Western Lao | * Not found in Laos | [[Kalasin Province|Kalasin]], [[Roi Et Province|Roi Et]] (Hoi Et), [[Maha Sarakham Province|Maha Sarakham]], portions of [[Khon Kaen Province|Khon Kaen]] (Khon Chaen), [[Chaiyaphum]] (Saiyaphum) and [[Nakhon Ratchasima]] (Nakhon Ratsasima) |----- bgcolor="#ffffff" |} ==Writing systems== ===Tai Noi script=== {{Further|Tai Noi script}} [[File:Tai_Noi_consonants.png|thumb|left|The consonants of the old Tai Noi alphabet. Letter shapes have been preserved, with few changes, in the modern Lao alphabet.]] The original writing system used for Isan was the ''Akson Thai Noi'' ({{langx|tts|อักษรไทน้อย}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̆ːn tʰâj nɔ̏ːj/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ອັກສອນໄທນ້ອຽ}} BGN/PCGN ''Akson Tai Noy''), 'Little Tai alphabet' or ''To Lao'' ({{langx|tts|โตลาว}} {{IPA|/tòː láːw/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ໂຕລາວ}}), which in contemporary Isan and Lao would be ''Tua Lao'' ({{langx|tts|ตัวลาว}} {{IPA|/tùa lâːw/}} and {{langx|lo|ຕົວລາວ}}, respectively, or 'Lao letters.' In Laos, the script is referred to in academic settings as the ''Akson Lao Deum'' ({{langx|lo|ອັກສອນລາວເດີມ}} {{IPA|/ʔák sɔ̆ːn láːw d̀ɤ̀ːm/}}, cf. {{langx|tts|อักษรลาวเดิม}} RTGS ''Akson Lao Doem'') or 'Original Lao script.' The contemporary Lao script is a direct descendant and has preserved the basic letter shapes. The similarity between the modern Thai alphabet and the old and new Lao alphabets is because both scripts derived from a common ancestral Tai script of what is now northern Thailand which was an adaptation of the [[Khmer script]], rounded by the influence of the [[Mon script]], all of which are descendants of the [[Pallava script]] of southern India.<ref name="ronn"/> ===Thai alphabet=== {{Further|Thai alphabet}} [[File:Morlamvcd.jpg|thumb|right|Screenshot of a karaoke VCD from [[mor lam|molam]] singer, [[Jintara Poonlarp|Chintara Phunlap]]. In the Lao script, the lyrics seen would appear as '{{lang|lo|ໜີໄປບວດໃຫ້ມັນແລ້ວສາບໍ້}}'.]] The ban on the ''Tai Noi'' script in the 1930s led to the adoption of writing in Thai with the [[Thai script]]. Very quickly, the Isan people adopted an ''ad hoc'' system of using the Thai script to record the spoken Isan language, using etymological spelling for cognate words but spelling Lao words not found in Thai, and with no known Khmer or Indic etymology, similarly to as they would be in the Lao script. This system remains in informal use today, often seen in letters, text messages, social media posts, lyrics to songs in the Isan language, transcription of Isan dialogue and personal notes. ===Tai Tham=== {{Further|Tai Tham alphabet}} [[File:Sign of Wat Sri Ubon Rattanaram, Ubon Ratchathani.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An example of the [[Tai Tham alphabet]] formerly used in Laos and Isan for religious literature]] The ''[[Tai Tham script|Tai Tham]]'' script ({{langx|tts|อักษรไทธรรม}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːn tʰâj tʰâm/}} RTGS ''akson Thai Tham'', cf. {{langx|lo|ອັກສອນໄທທັມ}}) were also historically known simply as ''tua tham'' ({{langx|tts|ตัวธรรม}} {{IPA|/tùa tʰâm/}}, cf. {{langx|lo|ຕົວທຳ/ຕົວທັມ}} BGN/PCGN ''toua tham'') or '[[dharma]] letters'. The script is the same as used to write [[Northern Thai language|Tai Lanna]] (Kham Mueang), [[Tai Lue language|Tai Lue]], [[Khün language|Tai Khoen]] and shares similarities with the [[Burmese alphabet]], all of which are ultimately derived from the [[Old Mon script]]. ''Tai Tham'' was introduced during the reign of [[Setthathirath]] who although a prince of Lan Xang, was first crowned king of Lan Na. The dynastic union allowed easy movement of monks from Lan Xang that came to copy the temple libraries to bring back home.<ref name="McDaniel">McDaniel, J. (2005). [http://www.laomanuscripts.net/downloads/literaryheritageoflaos29_mcdaniel_en.pdf Notes on the lao influence on northern thai buddhist literature]. ''The literary heritage of Laos: Preservation, dissemination, and research perspectives.'' Vientiane, Laos: Lao National Archives.</ref> As the name suggests, its use in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written in ''Tai Noi'' instead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at ''Wat Tham [[Suwannakhuha District|Suwannakhuha]]'' in [[Nong Bua Lamphu Province|Nong Bua Lamphu]], dated to 1564, and another from ''Wat Mahaphon'' in [[Maha Sarakham Province|Maha Sarakham]] from the same period.<ref name="Dharma">ธวัช ปุณโณทก (Punnothek, T.) อักษรโบราณอีสาน: อักขรวิทยาอักษรตัวธรรมและไทยน้อย. กรุงเทพฯ: สยามเพรส แมเนจเม้นท์, ๒๕๔๐, ๕๔</ref> Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalization also ended its use as the primary written language in [[Northern Thailand]].<ref name="McDaniel"/> ===Khom script=== {{further|Khom Thai script}} [[File:Bhuddha Sutra in Thai-Khmer Font.JPG|thumb|right|A sutra in the Khom script. This Khmer script was used to write Buddhist, Brahmanic and ritual texts.]] The Khom script ({{langx|tts|อักษรขอม}} {{IPA|/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːn kʰɔ̆ːm/}} ''akson Khom'', cf. Lao ອັກສອນຂອມ, ''Aksone Khom'') was not generally used to write the ancient Lao language of Isan, but was often used to write Pali texts, or Brahmanic rituals often introduced via the Khmer culture. ''[[Khom]]'' is the ancient Tai word for the [[Khmer people]], who once populated and ruled much of the area before Tai migration and the assimilation of the local people to Tai languages. It was generally not used to write the Lao language ''per se'', but was often found in temple inscriptions, used in texts that preserve Brahmanic mantras and ceremonies, local mantras adopted for use in Tai animistic religion and other things usually concerned with Buddhism, Brahmanism or black magic, such as [[yantra]]s and ''[[yantra tattooing|sakyan]]'' tattoos. ==See also== *[[Comparison of Lao and Isan]] *[[Comparison of Lao and Thai]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{Incubator|code=tts}} * [http://siamsmile.webs.com/isaan/isaan.html Basic Isaan phrases] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316073018/http://siamsmile.webs.com/isaan/isaan.html |date=2010-03-16 }} (Some basic Isaan phrases with sound files). * [[Duncan McCargo|McCargo, Duncan]], and Krisadawan Hongladarom. "Contesting Isan‐ness: discourses of politics and identity in Northeast Thailand." [http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/thaipol/mccargo-and-krisadawan-2004.pdf ''Asian Ethnicity'' 5.2 (2004): 219-234.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313223328/http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/thaipol/mccargo-and-krisadawan-2004.pdf |date=2014-03-13 }} * [https://esan108.com/ Esan108] (in Thai) {{Languages of Thailand}} {{Tai-Kadai languages}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Isan Language}} [[Category:Stress-timed languages]] [[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]] [[Category:Isan language| ]] [[Category:Isan| ]] [[Category:Languages of Thailand]] edvucu0rc5dbjsnf2o3wqi9c8j4h3q4 Module:Jin Chinese language 828 77904 687853 2019-03-30T17:43:00Z EmausBot 2058 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Jin Chinese]] 687853 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Jin Chinese]] 37z2fhir6keqizozxfcrpu4e30pahut 687854 687853 2026-07-13T12:31:33Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Jin_Chinese_language]] 687853 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Jin Chinese]] 37z2fhir6keqizozxfcrpu4e30pahut Module:Malaysian language 828 77905 687855 2022-06-12T02:09:33Z Paine Ellsworth 4319 follow up to page move - add [[WP:RCAT|rcat template]]s 687855 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Malaysian Malay]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from move}} {{R from alternative name}} {{R unprintworthy}} }} i3vm9f30wfxna257fn4qjp0u6w2r32u 687856 687855 2026-07-13T12:31:33Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Malaysian_language]] 687855 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Malaysian Malay]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from move}} {{R from alternative name}} {{R unprintworthy}} }} i3vm9f30wfxna257fn4qjp0u6w2r32u Module:Tai Lue language 828 77906 687857 2026-05-21T11:21:42Z ISometimesEatBananas 64604 /* Writing systems */ 687857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Southwestern Tai language}} {{Redirect|Lue language|Bantu Lue of Cameroon|Oroko language}} {{Redirect|Lu language|Cai–Long language of Guizhou|Luren language}} {{for|the romanization scheme of Hokkien used in Taiwan|Tai-lo}} {{Infobox language | name = Tai Lue | nativename = {{script|Talu|ᦅᧄᦺᦑᦟᦹᧉ}}, {{script|Lana|ᨣᩤᩴᨴᩱ᩠ᨿᩃᩨᩢ}}<br/>''kam tai lue'' | pronunciation = {{IPA|khb|kâm.tâj.lɯ̀|}} | script = [[Tai Tham alphabet]], [[Thai alphabet]], [[New Tai Lue alphabet]] | states = [[China]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Vietnam]] | region = [[Yunnan]], [[China]] | ethnicity = [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lue]] | speakers = 550,000 | date = 2000–2013 | ref = e18 | familycolor = Kradai | fam2 = [[Tai languages|Tai]] | fam3 = [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern]] (Thai) | fam4 = Chiang Saen | iso3 = khb | minority = {{flag|China}}<br/>{{flag|Laos}}<br/>{{flag|Thailand}}<br/>{{flag|Myanmar}}<br/>{{flag|Vietnam}} | glotto = luuu1242 | glottorefname = Lu | notice = Indic | notice2 = IPA | map = Tai Lue.jpg }} {{Contains special characters | special = uncommon [[Unicode]] characters | fix = Help:Multilingual support | image = Replacement character.svg | link = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character | alt = <?> | compact = yes }} '''Tai Lue''' ([[New Tai Lue alphabet|New Tai Lü]]: <span lang="khb" dir="ltr">{{script|Talu|ᦅᧄᦺᦑᦟᦹᧉ}}</span>, [[Tai Tham script|Tai Tham]]: {{script|Lana|ᨣᩤᩴᨴᩱ᩠ᨿᩃᩨᩢ}}, ''kam tai lue'', {{IPA|khb|kâm.tâj.lɯ̀|}}){{Efn|{{zh|c=傣仂语|p=Dǎilèyǔ}}; {{langx|my|လူးရှမ်း|luu Shan}}; {{langx|lo|ພາສາໄຕລື້}}; {{langx|th|ภาษาไทลื้อ|translit=phasa thai lue}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː.tʰāj.lɯ́ː|pron}}; {{langx|vi|tiếng Lự}} or {{lang|vi|tiếng Lữ}}; also spelled '''Tai Lɯ''', '''Tai Lü''', '''Thai Lue''', '''Tai Le'''}}, or '''Xishuangbanna Dai''', is a [[Tai languages|Tai language]] of the [[Tai Lue people|Lu people]], spoken by about 700,000 people in [[Southeast Asia]]. This includes 280,000 people in China ([[Yunnan]]), 200,000 in Burma, 134,000 in Laos, 83,000 in [[Thailand]] and 4,960 in [[Vietnam]].<ref name="ethnologue">{{Cite web |title=Lü |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=khb |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref> The language is similar to other [[Tai languages]] and is closely related to Kham Mueang or Tai Yuan, which is also known as [[Northern Thai language]]. In Yunnan, it is spoken in all of [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture]], as well as [[Jiangcheng Hani and Yi Autonomous County]] in [[Pu'er City]]. In Vietnam, Tai Lue speakers are officially recognised as the [[Tai Lue people|Lự]] ethnic minority, although in China they are classified as part of the [[Dai people]], along with speakers of the other [[Tai languages]] apart from [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]]. == Phonology == Tai Lue has 21 syllable-initial consonants, nine syllable-finals and six tones (three different tones in checked syllables, six in open syllables). === Consonants === ==== Initials ==== {|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !plain ![[Labialization|labial]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|m}}<br />ᦖ,ᦙ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />ᦐ,ᦓ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<br />ᦄ ,ᦇ | | |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]] !<small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" |{{IPAblink|p}}<br />ᦔ,ᦗ | style="background-color: #cfc" |{{IPAblink|t}}<br />ᦎ,ᦑ | | style="background-color: #fcc" |{{IPAblink|k}}<br />ᦂ,ᦅ | style="background-color: #fcc" |{{IPAblink|kʷ}}<br />ᦦ,ᦨ | style="background-color: #ccc" |{{IPAblink|ʔ}}<br />ᦀ ,ᦁ |- ! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|pʰ}}<br />ᦕ,ᦘ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|tʰ}}<br />ᦏ,ᦒ | | | | |- ! <small>[[voiced consonant|voiced]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" |{{IPAblink|b}}<br />ᦢ,ᦥ | style="background-color: #cfc" |{{IPAblink|d}}<br />ᦡ,ᦤ | | | | |- ! colspan=2| [[Affricate]] | | style="background-color: #fcf" | {{IPAblink|t͡s}}<br />ᦈ,ᦋ | | | | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]] ! <small>[[voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|f}}<br />ᦚ,ᦝ | style="background-color: #ffc" | {{IPAblink|s}}<br />ᦉ,ᦌ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|x}}<br />ᦃ,ᦆ | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|xʷ}}<br />ᦧ,ᦩ | style="background-color: #ccc" | {{IPAblink|h}}<br />ᦠ,ᦣ |- ! <small>[[voiced consonant|voiced]]</small> | rowspan="2" style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|v}} ~ {{IPAblink|w}}<br />ᦛ,ᦞ | | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]] | style="background-color: #cff" |{{IPAblink|l}}<br />ᦜ,ᦟ | style="background-color: #cff" |{{IPAblink|j}}<br />ᦊ,ᦍ | | | |} The initials {{IPA|t͡s}}- and {{IPA|s}}- are [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] before [[front vowel]]s (which in the language are {{IPAlink|i||/}}, {{IPAlink|e||/}}, and {{IPAlink|ɛ||/}}) and become {{IPA|t͡ɕ-}} and {{IPA|ɕ-}}, respectively. For example, {{IPA|/t͡síŋ/}} "hard" and {{IPA|/si᷄p/}} "ten" are pronounced as {{IPA|[t͡ɕiŋ˥]}} and {{IPA|[ɕip˧˥]}} respectively. (Some textbooks denote {{IPA|t͡s}} as {{IPA|c}}). ==== Finals ==== {|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center ! colspan=1| ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan=1| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|m}}<br />ᧄ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />ᧃ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<br />ᧂ | |- ! colspan=1| [[Plosive]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|p̚}}<br />ᧇ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|t̚}}<br />ᧆ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|k̚}}<br />ᧅ | style="background-color: #ccc" | {{IPAblink|ʔ}}<br />ᦰ |- ! colspan=1| [[Approximant]] | style="background-color: #cff" | {{IPAblink|w}}<br />ᧁ | | | | |} === Vowels === Each vowel quality occurs in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming distinct words in Tai Lue. [[File:Thai vowel chart (monophthongs).svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Vowel chart showing monophthongs used by many [[Tai languages]], including Tai Lue]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !rowspan="2" | &nbsp; !colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]] !colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central-Back]] !colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]] |- class=small ! short || long ||short || long ||short || long |- ![[Close vowel|Close]] |[{{IPA link|i|iʔ}}]<br />◌ᦲᦰ |[{{IPA link|i|i(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦲ |[{{IPA link|ɯ|ɯʔ}}]<br />◌ᦹᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɯ|ɯ(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦹ |[{{IPA link|u|u(ʔ)}}]<br />◌ᦳ |[{{IPA link|u|uː}}]<br />◌ᦴ |- ![[Mid vowel|Mid]] |[{{IPA link|e|eʔ}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|e|e(ː)}}]<br />ᦵ◌ |[{{IPA link|ɤ|ɤʔ}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦲᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɤ|ɤ(ː)}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦲ |[{{IPA link|o|oʔ}}]<br />ᦷ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|o|o(ː)}}]<br />ᦷ◌ |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] |[{{IPA link|ɛ|ɛʔ}}]<br />ᦶ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɛ|ɛ(ː)}}]<br />ᦶ◌ |[{{IPA link|a|aʔ}}]<br />◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|a|aː}}]<br />◌ᦱ |[{{IPA link|ɔ|ɔʔ}}]<br />◌ᦸᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɔ|ɔ(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦸ |} Generally, vowels in [[open syllables]] (without codas) occur as long whereas ones in [[closed syllables]] are short (except {{IPA|/aː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}). ====Diphthongs==== Additionally, Tai Lue uses several diphthongs: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- !New Tai Lue !IPA |- |ᦺ◌ |{{IPA|[aj]}} |- |◌ᦻ |{{IPA|[aːj]}} |- |◌ᦼ |{{IPA|[uj]}} |- |◌ᦽ |{{IPA|[oj]}} |- |◌ᦾ |{{IPA|[ɔj]}} |- |◌ᦿ |{{IPA|[ɯj]}} |- |ᦵ◌ᧀ |{{IPA|[ɤj]}} |- |} === Tones === ==== Contrastive tones in unchecked syllables ==== The table below presents six phonemic tones in unchecked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in [[Sonorant|sonorant sounds]] such as {{IPA|[m], [n], [ŋ], [w]}}, and {{IPA|[j]}} and open syllables. There are six tones for unchecked syllables, although only three are allowed in checked syllables (those ending with -p, -t or -k). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Description !! Contour !! Transcription !! Number !! Example !! Old Tai Lue !! [[New Tai Lue script]] !! Meaning |- | high || 55 || {{IPA|á}} || 1 || {{IPA|/káː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠᩣ}}}}|| ᦂᦱ || crow |- | low rising || 13 || {{IPA|a᷅}} || 3 || {{IPA|/ka᷅ː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠᩢᩣ}}}}|| ᦂᦱᧉ || rice shoots |- | high rising || 35 || {{IPA|a᷄}} || 5 || {{IPA|/ka᷄ː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠ᩵ᩣ}}}} || ᦂᦱᧈ || to go |- | falling || 51 || {{IPA|â}} || 2 || {{IPA|/kâː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣᩤ}}}} || ᦅᦱ || to be stuck |- | low || 11 || {{IPA|à}} || 4 || {{IPA|/kàː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣᩢᩤ}}}}|| ᦅᦱᧉ || to do business |- | mid || 33 || a (not marked) || 6 || {{IPA|/kaː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣ᩵ᩤ}}}} || ᦅᦱᧈ || price |} ==== Contrastive tones in checked syllables ==== The table below presents two phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} and [[Obstruent|obstruent sounds]] which are {{IPA|[p], [t]}}, and {{IPA|[k]}}. {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" !Tone !! Contour !! Number !! Example !! New Tai Lue !! Phonemic !! Meaning |- | high || 55 || 7 || {{script|Lana|ᩉᩖᩢᨠ}} || ᦜᧅ ||{{IPA|/lák/}}||''post'' |- | high-risinɡ || 35 || 9 || {{script|Lana|ᩉᩖᩣ᩠ᨠ}} || ᦜᦱᧅᧈ ||{{IPA|/la᷄ːk/}}||''differ from others'' |- | mid || 33 || 8 || {{script|Lana|ᩃᩢ᩠ᨠ}} || ᦟᧅ ||{{IPA|/lāk/}}||''steal'' |} == Grammar == === Pronouns === <ref name="Tai Lü Dictionary">[https://www.webonary.org/dailu/ Tai Lü Dictionary] – Webonary</ref> {|class="wikitable" |- !colspan=2| !Singular Familiar !Singular !Deferential !Plural Familiar !Plural !Deferential |- !rowspan=2| 1st person ! exclusive |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦕᦴᧉᦃᦱᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨹᩪᩢᨡᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|pʰuu3xaa3}} |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦃᦱᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaa3}} |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦃᦱᧉᦓᦾᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩢᩣᨶᩢᩭ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaa3nɔj6}} |rowspan=2| – | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦴ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩪ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tuu1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦴᦃᦾᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩪᨡᩢᩭ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tuu1xɔj3}} |- ! inclusive | {{script|Talu|ᦣᧁ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩁᩮᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|haw4}} | – |- !colspan=2| 2nd person | {{script|Talu|ᦈᧁᧉᦙᧃ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨧᩮᩢᩢᩣᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|caw3man4}} | {{script|Talu|ᦆᦲᧂ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xiŋ4}} | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦈᧁᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨧᩮᩢᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1caw3}} | {{script|Talu|ᦉᦴ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩈᩪ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|suu1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦉᦴᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩈᩪᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|suu1taan5}} | – |- !colspan=2| 3rd person | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1taan5}} | {{script|Talu|ᦙᧃ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|man4}} | – | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1taan5}} | {{script|Talu|ᦃᧁ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩮᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaw1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦃᧁᦈᧁᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩮᩢᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaw1caw3}} |} === Syntax === Word order is usually [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO); modifiers (e.g. adjectives) follow nouns. === Interrogatives === <ref name="Tai Lü Dictionary"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Word !! Meaning |- | ᦉᧂ (saŋ1) || What |- | ᦌᦹ (sɯɯ4) || Why |- | ᦂᦲᧈ (kii1) || How many |- | ᦺᦕ (pʰaj1) || Who |- | ᦺᦐ (naj1) || Where |} ==Vocabulary== As in Thai and Lao, Tai Lue has borrowed many [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] words and [[affixes]]. Among the Tai languages in general, Tai Lue has limited intelligibility with [[Shan language|Shan]] and [[Tai Nüa language|Tai Nua]] and shares much vocabulary with, the other [[Southwestern Tai languages]]. Tai Lue has 95% [[lexical similarity]] with [[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]] (Lanna), 86% with Central Thai, 93% with Shan, and 95% with [[Khün language|Khun]].<ref name=e18/> Below, some Thai Lue words are given with standard Central Thai equivalents for comparison. Thai words are shown on the left and Tai Lue words, written in [[Tai Tham script]], are shown on the right. ===Different words=== Many words differ from Thai greatly: *ยี่สิบ → ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ ({{IPA|/jîː sìp/ → /sâːw/}}, twenty; cf. Lao: /sáːw/, Northern Thai: /sāw/) *พูด → ᩋᩪᩢ ({{IPA|/pʰûːt/ → /ʔu᷅ː/}}, to speak; cf. Northern Thai: /ʔu᷇ː/) *พี่ชาย → ᩋᩢᩣ᩠ᨿ ({{IPA|/pʰîː t͡ɕʰaːj/ → /ʔa᷅ːj/}}, older brother; cf. Lao: /ʔâːj/, Northern Thai: /ʔa᷇ːj/) ===Similar words=== Some words differ in tone only: *หนึ่ง → ᨶ᩠ᨦᩧ᩵ ({{IPA|/nɯŋ/}}, one) *หก → ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ ({{IPA|/hók/}}, six) *เจ็ด → ᨧᩮ᩠ᨯ ({{IPA|/t͡ɕét/}}, seven) *สิบ → ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ ({{IPA|/síp/}}, ten) *กิน → ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ ({{IPA|/kín/}}, to eat) Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร ({{IPA|/r/}}) in Thai is ฮ ({{IPA|/h/}}) in Tai Lue, as is also the case in Lao and Tai Yuan: *ร้อน → ᩁᩢᩬᩁ ({{IPA|/rɔ́n/ → /hɔ̀n/}}, hot; cf. Lao: /hɔ̂n/, Northern Thai: /hɔ́ːn/) *รัก → ᩁᩢ᩠ᨠ ({{IPA|/rák/ → /hak/}}, to love; cf. Lao: /hāk/, Northern Thai: /ha᷇k/) *รู้ → ᩁᩪᩢ ({{IPA|/rúː/ → /hùː/}}, to know; cf. Lao: /hûː/, Northern Thai: /húː/) [[Aspirated consonant]]s in the low-class consonant group(อักษรต่ำ {{IPA|/ʔàk sɔ̌n tàm/}}) become unaspirated: *เชียงราย → ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᩁᩣ᩠ᨿ ({{IPA|/t͡ɕʰiaŋ raːj/ → /t͡ɕêŋ hâːj/}}, [[Chiang Rai|Chiang Rai city]] and [[Chiang Rai Province|province]]) *คิด → ᨣᩧ᩠ᨯ ({{IPA|/kʰít/ → /kɯt/}}, to think; cf. Northern Thai: /kɯ́t/) *พ่อ → ᨻᩳ᩵ ({{IPA|/pʰɔ̂/ → /pɔ/}}, father; cf. Northern Thai: /pɔ̂ː/) *ทาง → ᨴᩤ᩠ᨦ ({{IPA|/tʰaːŋ/ → /tâːŋ/}}, way; cf. Northern Thai: /tāːŋ/) (Note that the vowels also differ greatly between Tai Lue and Thai in many words, even though they are etymologically related and share the same root.) Though many aspirated consonants often become unaspirated, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร ({{IPA|/r/}}) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated: *ประเทศ → ᨷᩕᨴᩮ᩠ᩆ ({{IPA|/praʔtʰêːt/ → /pʰaʔtêːt/}}, country; cf. Northern Thai /pʰa.têːt/) Other differences: *ให้ → ᩉᩨᩢ ({{IPA|/hâj/ → /hɯ᷅/}}, to give, let) === Numbers === {| class="wikitable" | 0 | ᧐ | ᦉᦳᧃ | | {{IPA|sun}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 1 | ᧚ | ᦓᦹᧂᧈ | {{Script|Lana|ᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ}} | {{IPA|nɯŋ}}<sup>6</sup> |- | 2 | ᧒ | ᦉᦸᧂ | ᩈᩬᨦ | {{IPA|sɔŋ}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 3 | ᧓ | ᦉᦱᧄ | ᩈᩣ᩠ᨾ | {{IPA|sam}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 4 | ᧔ | ᦉᦲᧈ | ᩈᩦ᩵ | {{IPA|siː}}<sup>5</sup> |- | 5 | ᧕ | ᦠᦱᧉ | ᩉᩢᩣ | {{IPA|haː}}<sup>3</sup> |- | 6 | ᧖ | ᦷᦠᧅ | ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ | {{IPA|hok}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 7 | ᧗ | ᦵᦈᧆ | ᨧᩮ᩠ᨯ | {{IPA|t͡ɕet}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 8 | ᧘ | ᦶᦔᧆᧈ | ᨸᩯ᩠ᨯ | {{IPA|pɛt}}<sup>9</sup> |- | 9 | ᧙ | ᦂᧁᧉ | ᨠᩮᩢᩢᩣ | {{IPA|kaw}}<sup>3</sup> |- | 10 | ᧚᧐ | ᦉᦲᧇ | ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ | {{IPA|sip}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 20 | ᧒᧐ | ᦌᦱᧁ | ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ | {{IPA|saːw}}<sup>2</sup> |- | 100 | ᧚᧐᧐ | ᦣᦾᧉ | ᩁᩢᩭ | {{IPA|hɔi}}<sup>4</sup> |- | 1,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐ | ᦗᧃ | ᨻᩢ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|pan}}<sup>2</sup> |- | 10,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦖᦹᧃᧈ | ᩉ᩠ᨾᩨ᩵ᩁ | {{IPA|mɯn}}<sup>5</sup> |- | 100,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦶᦉᧃ | ᩈᩯ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|sɛn}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 1,000,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦟᦱᧃᧉ | ᩃᩢᩣ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|lan}}<sup>4</sup> |} == Writing systems == Tai Lue is written in three different scripts. One is the [[Fak Kham script]], a variety of the Thai script of [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]]. The second is the [[Tai Tham script|Tham script]], which was reformed in the 1950s, but is still in use and has recently regained government support. The new script is a simplified version of the old script. === Fak Kham === Fak Kham is an ancient script, also used in [[Kengtung]], [[Northern Thailand]] and Northern Laos centuries ago.{{citation needed|date=May 2026}} === Tham === The [[Tai Tham script|Tham script]] is called [[:zh:老傣文|老傣文]] ''lao dai wen'' (Old Dai script) in Chinese. It is readable by most people in Burma, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam.{{citation needed|date=April 2026}} === New Tai Lue === [[File:China Post logo with (New) Tai Lü script in Mohan, Yunnan.jpg|thumb|China Post logo with the New Tai Lue script in Mohan, Yunnan]] [[File:傣文教科书 3191.jpg|thumb|Books printed in New Tai Lue alphabet]] [[New Tai Lue script|New Tai Lue]] is a modernization of the Lanna alphabet (also known as the [[Tai Tham script]]), which is similar to the [[Thai alphabet]], and consists of 42 initial consonant signs (21 high-tone class, 21 low-tone class), seven final consonant signs, 16 vowel signs, two tone letters and one vowel shortening letter (or syllable-final glottal stop). Vowels signs can be placed before or after the syllable initial consonant. Similar to the Thai alphabet, the pronunciation of the tone of a syllable depends on the class the initial consonant belongs to, syllable structure and [[vowel length]], and the tone mark. ==Related varieties== The Bajia people ([[:zh:八甲人|八甲人]]), who number 1,106 individuals in Mengkang Village ({{lang|zh|勐康村}}), Meng'a Town ({{lang|zh-hans|勐阿镇}}), [[Menghai County]], Yunnan, speak a language closely related to Tai Lue.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}} There are 225 Bajia people living in Jingbo Township 景播乡, [[Menghai County]] (You 2013:270).<ref name="You2013">{{Cite book |last=You |first=Weiqiong 尤伟琼 |title=Yúnnán mínzú shìbié yánjiū |date=2013 |publisher=Minzu chubanshe |isbn=978-7-105-12703-0 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:云南民族识别研究 |trans-title=Classifying Ethnic Groups of Yunnan}}</ref> The Bajia are also known as the Chinese Dai [[:zh:傣那|汉傣]]. == See also == * [[Tai Nüa language]] <!-- * [[Tai Pong language]] --> * [[Tai Dam language]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Xishuangbanna Daizu Zizhizhou |title=Dǎi Hàn cídiǎn |date=2002 |publisher=Yunnan minzu chubanshe |location=Kunming shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:傣汉词典 |trans-title=Dai–Chinese Dictionary}} – This is a dictionary of Tai Lue in unreformed spelling. * {{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Cuirong 喻翠荣 |title=Dǎilè Hàn cídiǎn |last2=Luo |first2=Meizhen 罗美珍 |date=2004 |publisher=Minzu chubanshe |isbn=7-105-05834-X |location=Beijing shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:傣仂汉词典 |trans-title=Tai Lue–Chinese Dictionary}} * {{Cite book |last=Hanna |first=William J. |title=Dai Lue-English Dictionary |date=2012 |publisher=Silkworm Books |isbn=978-616-215-031-9 |location=Chiang Mai |language=en}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Incubator|code=khb}} * [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tai/TaiLue/index.htm SeaSite: Tai Lue, under construction] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tailue.htm Omniglot - Tai Lue script] * [http://www.webonary.org/dailu Tai Lue dictionary online] * [https://theses.hal.science/tel-03828164# Li, Juan. 2022. Grammaire descriptive du tai lü (A Descriptive Grammar of Tai Lue). Paris: Sorbonne Université (PhD Dissertation).] {{navboxes| |list= {{Languages of Burma}} {{Languages of China}} {{Languages of Laos}} {{Languages of Thailand}} {{Languages of Vietnam}} {{Tai-Kadai languages}}}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tai Lu Language}} [[Category:Tai Lue language| ]] [[Category:Languages of Yunnan]] [[Category:Languages of Myanmar]] [[Category:Languages of Laos]] [[Category:Languages of Thailand]] [[Category:Languages of Vietnam]] 2utbhxlak8o7gwk3feoc8xmtcwf3p50 687858 687857 2026-07-13T12:31:34Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Tai_Lue_language]] 687857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Southwestern Tai language}} {{Redirect|Lue language|Bantu Lue of Cameroon|Oroko language}} {{Redirect|Lu language|Cai–Long language of Guizhou|Luren language}} {{for|the romanization scheme of Hokkien used in Taiwan|Tai-lo}} {{Infobox language | name = Tai Lue | nativename = {{script|Talu|ᦅᧄᦺᦑᦟᦹᧉ}}, {{script|Lana|ᨣᩤᩴᨴᩱ᩠ᨿᩃᩨᩢ}}<br/>''kam tai lue'' | pronunciation = {{IPA|khb|kâm.tâj.lɯ̀|}} | script = [[Tai Tham alphabet]], [[Thai alphabet]], [[New Tai Lue alphabet]] | states = [[China]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Vietnam]] | region = [[Yunnan]], [[China]] | ethnicity = [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lue]] | speakers = 550,000 | date = 2000–2013 | ref = e18 | familycolor = Kradai | fam2 = [[Tai languages|Tai]] | fam3 = [[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern]] (Thai) | fam4 = Chiang Saen | iso3 = khb | minority = {{flag|China}}<br/>{{flag|Laos}}<br/>{{flag|Thailand}}<br/>{{flag|Myanmar}}<br/>{{flag|Vietnam}} | glotto = luuu1242 | glottorefname = Lu | notice = Indic | notice2 = IPA | map = Tai Lue.jpg }} {{Contains special characters | special = uncommon [[Unicode]] characters | fix = Help:Multilingual support | image = Replacement character.svg | link = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character | alt = <?> | compact = yes }} '''Tai Lue''' ([[New Tai Lue alphabet|New Tai Lü]]: <span lang="khb" dir="ltr">{{script|Talu|ᦅᧄᦺᦑᦟᦹᧉ}}</span>, [[Tai Tham script|Tai Tham]]: {{script|Lana|ᨣᩤᩴᨴᩱ᩠ᨿᩃᩨᩢ}}, ''kam tai lue'', {{IPA|khb|kâm.tâj.lɯ̀|}}){{Efn|{{zh|c=傣仂语|p=Dǎilèyǔ}}; {{langx|my|လူးရှမ်း|luu Shan}}; {{langx|lo|ພາສາໄຕລື້}}; {{langx|th|ภาษาไทลื้อ|translit=phasa thai lue}}, {{IPA|th|pʰāː.sǎː.tʰāj.lɯ́ː|pron}}; {{langx|vi|tiếng Lự}} or {{lang|vi|tiếng Lữ}}; also spelled '''Tai Lɯ''', '''Tai Lü''', '''Thai Lue''', '''Tai Le'''}}, or '''Xishuangbanna Dai''', is a [[Tai languages|Tai language]] of the [[Tai Lue people|Lu people]], spoken by about 700,000 people in [[Southeast Asia]]. This includes 280,000 people in China ([[Yunnan]]), 200,000 in Burma, 134,000 in Laos, 83,000 in [[Thailand]] and 4,960 in [[Vietnam]].<ref name="ethnologue">{{Cite web |title=Lü |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=khb |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref> The language is similar to other [[Tai languages]] and is closely related to Kham Mueang or Tai Yuan, which is also known as [[Northern Thai language]]. In Yunnan, it is spoken in all of [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture]], as well as [[Jiangcheng Hani and Yi Autonomous County]] in [[Pu'er City]]. In Vietnam, Tai Lue speakers are officially recognised as the [[Tai Lue people|Lự]] ethnic minority, although in China they are classified as part of the [[Dai people]], along with speakers of the other [[Tai languages]] apart from [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]]. == Phonology == Tai Lue has 21 syllable-initial consonants, nine syllable-finals and six tones (three different tones in checked syllables, six in open syllables). === Consonants === ==== Initials ==== {|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !plain ![[Labialization|labial]] |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|m}}<br />ᦖ,ᦙ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />ᦐ,ᦓ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<br />ᦄ ,ᦇ | | |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]] !<small>[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" |{{IPAblink|p}}<br />ᦔ,ᦗ | style="background-color: #cfc" |{{IPAblink|t}}<br />ᦎ,ᦑ | | style="background-color: #fcc" |{{IPAblink|k}}<br />ᦂ,ᦅ | style="background-color: #fcc" |{{IPAblink|kʷ}}<br />ᦦ,ᦨ | style="background-color: #ccc" |{{IPAblink|ʔ}}<br />ᦀ ,ᦁ |- ! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|pʰ}}<br />ᦕ,ᦘ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|tʰ}}<br />ᦏ,ᦒ | | | | |- ! <small>[[voiced consonant|voiced]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" |{{IPAblink|b}}<br />ᦢ,ᦥ | style="background-color: #cfc" |{{IPAblink|d}}<br />ᦡ,ᦤ | | | | |- ! colspan=2| [[Affricate]] | | style="background-color: #fcf" | {{IPAblink|t͡s}}<br />ᦈ,ᦋ | | | | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]] ! <small>[[voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small> | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|f}}<br />ᦚ,ᦝ | style="background-color: #ffc" | {{IPAblink|s}}<br />ᦉ,ᦌ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|x}}<br />ᦃ,ᦆ | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|xʷ}}<br />ᦧ,ᦩ | style="background-color: #ccc" | {{IPAblink|h}}<br />ᦠ,ᦣ |- ! <small>[[voiced consonant|voiced]]</small> | rowspan="2" style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|v}} ~ {{IPAblink|w}}<br />ᦛ,ᦞ | | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]] | style="background-color: #cff" |{{IPAblink|l}}<br />ᦜ,ᦟ | style="background-color: #cff" |{{IPAblink|j}}<br />ᦊ,ᦍ | | | |} The initials {{IPA|t͡s}}- and {{IPA|s}}- are [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] before [[front vowel]]s (which in the language are {{IPAlink|i||/}}, {{IPAlink|e||/}}, and {{IPAlink|ɛ||/}}) and become {{IPA|t͡ɕ-}} and {{IPA|ɕ-}}, respectively. For example, {{IPA|/t͡síŋ/}} "hard" and {{IPA|/si᷄p/}} "ten" are pronounced as {{IPA|[t͡ɕiŋ˥]}} and {{IPA|[ɕip˧˥]}} respectively. (Some textbooks denote {{IPA|t͡s}} as {{IPA|c}}). ==== Finals ==== {|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center ! colspan=1| ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan=1| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|m}}<br />ᧄ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />ᧃ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<br />ᧂ | |- ! colspan=1| [[Plosive]] | style="background-color: #ccf" | {{IPAblink|p̚}}<br />ᧇ | style="background-color: #cfc" | {{IPAblink|t̚}}<br />ᧆ | | style="background-color: #fcc" | {{IPAblink|k̚}}<br />ᧅ | style="background-color: #ccc" | {{IPAblink|ʔ}}<br />ᦰ |- ! colspan=1| [[Approximant]] | style="background-color: #cff" | {{IPAblink|w}}<br />ᧁ | | | | |} === Vowels === Each vowel quality occurs in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming distinct words in Tai Lue. [[File:Thai vowel chart (monophthongs).svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Vowel chart showing monophthongs used by many [[Tai languages]], including Tai Lue]] {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !rowspan="2" | &nbsp; !colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]] !colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central-Back]] !colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]] |- class=small ! short || long ||short || long ||short || long |- ![[Close vowel|Close]] |[{{IPA link|i|iʔ}}]<br />◌ᦲᦰ |[{{IPA link|i|i(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦲ |[{{IPA link|ɯ|ɯʔ}}]<br />◌ᦹᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɯ|ɯ(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦹ |[{{IPA link|u|u(ʔ)}}]<br />◌ᦳ |[{{IPA link|u|uː}}]<br />◌ᦴ |- ![[Mid vowel|Mid]] |[{{IPA link|e|eʔ}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|e|e(ː)}}]<br />ᦵ◌ |[{{IPA link|ɤ|ɤʔ}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦲᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɤ|ɤ(ː)}}]<br />ᦵ◌ᦲ |[{{IPA link|o|oʔ}}]<br />ᦷ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|o|o(ː)}}]<br />ᦷ◌ |- ![[Open vowel|Open]] |[{{IPA link|ɛ|ɛʔ}}]<br />ᦶ◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɛ|ɛ(ː)}}]<br />ᦶ◌ |[{{IPA link|a|aʔ}}]<br />◌ᦰ |[{{IPA link|a|aː}}]<br />◌ᦱ |[{{IPA link|ɔ|ɔʔ}}]<br />◌ᦸᦰ |[{{IPA link|ɔ|ɔ(ː)}}]<br />◌ᦸ |} Generally, vowels in [[open syllables]] (without codas) occur as long whereas ones in [[closed syllables]] are short (except {{IPA|/aː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}). ====Diphthongs==== Additionally, Tai Lue uses several diphthongs: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- !New Tai Lue !IPA |- |ᦺ◌ |{{IPA|[aj]}} |- |◌ᦻ |{{IPA|[aːj]}} |- |◌ᦼ |{{IPA|[uj]}} |- |◌ᦽ |{{IPA|[oj]}} |- |◌ᦾ |{{IPA|[ɔj]}} |- |◌ᦿ |{{IPA|[ɯj]}} |- |ᦵ◌ᧀ |{{IPA|[ɤj]}} |- |} === Tones === ==== Contrastive tones in unchecked syllables ==== The table below presents six phonemic tones in unchecked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in [[Sonorant|sonorant sounds]] such as {{IPA|[m], [n], [ŋ], [w]}}, and {{IPA|[j]}} and open syllables. There are six tones for unchecked syllables, although only three are allowed in checked syllables (those ending with -p, -t or -k). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Description !! Contour !! Transcription !! Number !! Example !! Old Tai Lue !! [[New Tai Lue script]] !! Meaning |- | high || 55 || {{IPA|á}} || 1 || {{IPA|/káː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠᩣ}}}}|| ᦂᦱ || crow |- | low rising || 13 || {{IPA|a᷅}} || 3 || {{IPA|/ka᷅ː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠᩢᩣ}}}}|| ᦂᦱᧉ || rice shoots |- | high rising || 35 || {{IPA|a᷄}} || 5 || {{IPA|/ka᷄ː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨠ᩵ᩣ}}}} || ᦂᦱᧈ || to go |- | falling || 51 || {{IPA|â}} || 2 || {{IPA|/kâː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣᩤ}}}} || ᦅᦱ || to be stuck |- | low || 11 || {{IPA|à}} || 4 || {{IPA|/kàː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣᩢᩤ}}}}|| ᦅᦱᧉ || to do business |- | mid || 33 || a (not marked) || 6 || {{IPA|/kaː/}} || {{lang|khb|{{script|Lana|ᨣ᩵ᩤ}}}} || ᦅᦱᧈ || price |} ==== Contrastive tones in checked syllables ==== The table below presents two phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} and [[Obstruent|obstruent sounds]] which are {{IPA|[p], [t]}}, and {{IPA|[k]}}. {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" !Tone !! Contour !! Number !! Example !! New Tai Lue !! Phonemic !! Meaning |- | high || 55 || 7 || {{script|Lana|ᩉᩖᩢᨠ}} || ᦜᧅ ||{{IPA|/lák/}}||''post'' |- | high-risinɡ || 35 || 9 || {{script|Lana|ᩉᩖᩣ᩠ᨠ}} || ᦜᦱᧅᧈ ||{{IPA|/la᷄ːk/}}||''differ from others'' |- | mid || 33 || 8 || {{script|Lana|ᩃᩢ᩠ᨠ}} || ᦟᧅ ||{{IPA|/lāk/}}||''steal'' |} == Grammar == === Pronouns === <ref name="Tai Lü Dictionary">[https://www.webonary.org/dailu/ Tai Lü Dictionary] – Webonary</ref> {|class="wikitable" |- !colspan=2| !Singular Familiar !Singular !Deferential !Plural Familiar !Plural !Deferential |- !rowspan=2| 1st person ! exclusive |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦕᦴᧉᦃᦱᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨹᩪᩢᨡᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|pʰuu3xaa3}} |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦃᦱᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaa3}} |rowspan=2| {{script|Talu|ᦃᦱᧉᦓᦾᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩢᩣᨶᩢᩭ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaa3nɔj6}} |rowspan=2| – | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦴ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩪ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tuu1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦴᦃᦾᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩪᨡᩢᩭ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tuu1xɔj3}} |- ! inclusive | {{script|Talu|ᦣᧁ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩁᩮᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|haw4}} | – |- !colspan=2| 2nd person | {{script|Talu|ᦈᧁᧉᦙᧃ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨧᩮᩢᩢᩣᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|caw3man4}} | {{script|Talu|ᦆᦲᧂ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xiŋ4}} | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦈᧁᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨧᩮᩢᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1caw3}} | {{script|Talu|ᦉᦴ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩈᩪ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|suu1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦉᦴᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᩈᩪᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|suu1taan5}} | – |- !colspan=2| 3rd person | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1taan5}} | {{script|Talu|ᦙᧃ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|man4}} | – | {{script|Talu|ᦎᦳᧃᦑᦱᧃᧈ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨲᩫ᩠ᨶᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|tun1taan5}} | {{script|Talu|ᦃᧁ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩮᩢᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaw1}} | {{script|Talu|ᦃᧁᦈᧁᧉ}}<br>{{script|Lana|ᨡᩮᩢᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ}}<br>{{transliteration|khb|xaw1caw3}} |} === Syntax === Word order is usually [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO); modifiers (e.g. adjectives) follow nouns. === Interrogatives === <ref name="Tai Lü Dictionary"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Word !! Meaning |- | ᦉᧂ (saŋ1) || What |- | ᦌᦹ (sɯɯ4) || Why |- | ᦂᦲᧈ (kii1) || How many |- | ᦺᦕ (pʰaj1) || Who |- | ᦺᦐ (naj1) || Where |} ==Vocabulary== As in Thai and Lao, Tai Lue has borrowed many [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] words and [[affixes]]. Among the Tai languages in general, Tai Lue has limited intelligibility with [[Shan language|Shan]] and [[Tai Nüa language|Tai Nua]] and shares much vocabulary with, the other [[Southwestern Tai languages]]. Tai Lue has 95% [[lexical similarity]] with [[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]] (Lanna), 86% with Central Thai, 93% with Shan, and 95% with [[Khün language|Khun]].<ref name=e18/> Below, some Thai Lue words are given with standard Central Thai equivalents for comparison. Thai words are shown on the left and Tai Lue words, written in [[Tai Tham script]], are shown on the right. ===Different words=== Many words differ from Thai greatly: *ยี่สิบ → ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ ({{IPA|/jîː sìp/ → /sâːw/}}, twenty; cf. Lao: /sáːw/, Northern Thai: /sāw/) *พูด → ᩋᩪᩢ ({{IPA|/pʰûːt/ → /ʔu᷅ː/}}, to speak; cf. Northern Thai: /ʔu᷇ː/) *พี่ชาย → ᩋᩢᩣ᩠ᨿ ({{IPA|/pʰîː t͡ɕʰaːj/ → /ʔa᷅ːj/}}, older brother; cf. Lao: /ʔâːj/, Northern Thai: /ʔa᷇ːj/) ===Similar words=== Some words differ in tone only: *หนึ่ง → ᨶ᩠ᨦᩧ᩵ ({{IPA|/nɯŋ/}}, one) *หก → ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ ({{IPA|/hók/}}, six) *เจ็ด → ᨧᩮ᩠ᨯ ({{IPA|/t͡ɕét/}}, seven) *สิบ → ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ ({{IPA|/síp/}}, ten) *กิน → ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ ({{IPA|/kín/}}, to eat) Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร ({{IPA|/r/}}) in Thai is ฮ ({{IPA|/h/}}) in Tai Lue, as is also the case in Lao and Tai Yuan: *ร้อน → ᩁᩢᩬᩁ ({{IPA|/rɔ́n/ → /hɔ̀n/}}, hot; cf. Lao: /hɔ̂n/, Northern Thai: /hɔ́ːn/) *รัก → ᩁᩢ᩠ᨠ ({{IPA|/rák/ → /hak/}}, to love; cf. Lao: /hāk/, Northern Thai: /ha᷇k/) *รู้ → ᩁᩪᩢ ({{IPA|/rúː/ → /hùː/}}, to know; cf. Lao: /hûː/, Northern Thai: /húː/) [[Aspirated consonant]]s in the low-class consonant group(อักษรต่ำ {{IPA|/ʔàk sɔ̌n tàm/}}) become unaspirated: *เชียงราย → ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᩁᩣ᩠ᨿ ({{IPA|/t͡ɕʰiaŋ raːj/ → /t͡ɕêŋ hâːj/}}, [[Chiang Rai|Chiang Rai city]] and [[Chiang Rai Province|province]]) *คิด → ᨣᩧ᩠ᨯ ({{IPA|/kʰít/ → /kɯt/}}, to think; cf. Northern Thai: /kɯ́t/) *พ่อ → ᨻᩳ᩵ ({{IPA|/pʰɔ̂/ → /pɔ/}}, father; cf. Northern Thai: /pɔ̂ː/) *ทาง → ᨴᩤ᩠ᨦ ({{IPA|/tʰaːŋ/ → /tâːŋ/}}, way; cf. Northern Thai: /tāːŋ/) (Note that the vowels also differ greatly between Tai Lue and Thai in many words, even though they are etymologically related and share the same root.) Though many aspirated consonants often become unaspirated, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร ({{IPA|/r/}}) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated: *ประเทศ → ᨷᩕᨴᩮ᩠ᩆ ({{IPA|/praʔtʰêːt/ → /pʰaʔtêːt/}}, country; cf. Northern Thai /pʰa.têːt/) Other differences: *ให้ → ᩉᩨᩢ ({{IPA|/hâj/ → /hɯ᷅/}}, to give, let) === Numbers === {| class="wikitable" | 0 | ᧐ | ᦉᦳᧃ | | {{IPA|sun}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 1 | ᧚ | ᦓᦹᧂᧈ | {{Script|Lana|ᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ}} | {{IPA|nɯŋ}}<sup>6</sup> |- | 2 | ᧒ | ᦉᦸᧂ | ᩈᩬᨦ | {{IPA|sɔŋ}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 3 | ᧓ | ᦉᦱᧄ | ᩈᩣ᩠ᨾ | {{IPA|sam}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 4 | ᧔ | ᦉᦲᧈ | ᩈᩦ᩵ | {{IPA|siː}}<sup>5</sup> |- | 5 | ᧕ | ᦠᦱᧉ | ᩉᩢᩣ | {{IPA|haː}}<sup>3</sup> |- | 6 | ᧖ | ᦷᦠᧅ | ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ | {{IPA|hok}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 7 | ᧗ | ᦵᦈᧆ | ᨧᩮ᩠ᨯ | {{IPA|t͡ɕet}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 8 | ᧘ | ᦶᦔᧆᧈ | ᨸᩯ᩠ᨯ | {{IPA|pɛt}}<sup>9</sup> |- | 9 | ᧙ | ᦂᧁᧉ | ᨠᩮᩢᩢᩣ | {{IPA|kaw}}<sup>3</sup> |- | 10 | ᧚᧐ | ᦉᦲᧇ | ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ | {{IPA|sip}}<sup>7</sup> |- | 20 | ᧒᧐ | ᦌᦱᧁ | ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ | {{IPA|saːw}}<sup>2</sup> |- | 100 | ᧚᧐᧐ | ᦣᦾᧉ | ᩁᩢᩭ | {{IPA|hɔi}}<sup>4</sup> |- | 1,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐ | ᦗᧃ | ᨻᩢ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|pan}}<sup>2</sup> |- | 10,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦖᦹᧃᧈ | ᩉ᩠ᨾᩨ᩵ᩁ | {{IPA|mɯn}}<sup>5</sup> |- | 100,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦶᦉᧃ | ᩈᩯ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|sɛn}}<sup>1</sup> |- | 1,000,000 | ᧚᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐᧐ | ᦟᦱᧃᧉ | ᩃᩢᩣ᩠ᨶ | {{IPA|lan}}<sup>4</sup> |} == Writing systems == Tai Lue is written in three different scripts. One is the [[Fak Kham script]], a variety of the Thai script of [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]]. The second is the [[Tai Tham script|Tham script]], which was reformed in the 1950s, but is still in use and has recently regained government support. The new script is a simplified version of the old script. === Fak Kham === Fak Kham is an ancient script, also used in [[Kengtung]], [[Northern Thailand]] and Northern Laos centuries ago.{{citation needed|date=May 2026}} === Tham === The [[Tai Tham script|Tham script]] is called [[:zh:老傣文|老傣文]] ''lao dai wen'' (Old Dai script) in Chinese. It is readable by most people in Burma, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam.{{citation needed|date=April 2026}} === New Tai Lue === [[File:China Post logo with (New) Tai Lü script in Mohan, Yunnan.jpg|thumb|China Post logo with the New Tai Lue script in Mohan, Yunnan]] [[File:傣文教科书 3191.jpg|thumb|Books printed in New Tai Lue alphabet]] [[New Tai Lue script|New Tai Lue]] is a modernization of the Lanna alphabet (also known as the [[Tai Tham script]]), which is similar to the [[Thai alphabet]], and consists of 42 initial consonant signs (21 high-tone class, 21 low-tone class), seven final consonant signs, 16 vowel signs, two tone letters and one vowel shortening letter (or syllable-final glottal stop). Vowels signs can be placed before or after the syllable initial consonant. Similar to the Thai alphabet, the pronunciation of the tone of a syllable depends on the class the initial consonant belongs to, syllable structure and [[vowel length]], and the tone mark. ==Related varieties== The Bajia people ([[:zh:八甲人|八甲人]]), who number 1,106 individuals in Mengkang Village ({{lang|zh|勐康村}}), Meng'a Town ({{lang|zh-hans|勐阿镇}}), [[Menghai County]], Yunnan, speak a language closely related to Tai Lue.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}} There are 225 Bajia people living in Jingbo Township 景播乡, [[Menghai County]] (You 2013:270).<ref name="You2013">{{Cite book |last=You |first=Weiqiong 尤伟琼 |title=Yúnnán mínzú shìbié yánjiū |date=2013 |publisher=Minzu chubanshe |isbn=978-7-105-12703-0 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:云南民族识别研究 |trans-title=Classifying Ethnic Groups of Yunnan}}</ref> The Bajia are also known as the Chinese Dai [[:zh:傣那|汉傣]]. == See also == * [[Tai Nüa language]] <!-- * [[Tai Pong language]] --> * [[Tai Dam language]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Xishuangbanna Daizu Zizhizhou |title=Dǎi Hàn cídiǎn |date=2002 |publisher=Yunnan minzu chubanshe |location=Kunming shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:傣汉词典 |trans-title=Dai–Chinese Dictionary}} – This is a dictionary of Tai Lue in unreformed spelling. * {{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Cuirong 喻翠荣 |title=Dǎilè Hàn cídiǎn |last2=Luo |first2=Meizhen 罗美珍 |date=2004 |publisher=Minzu chubanshe |isbn=7-105-05834-X |location=Beijing shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:傣仂汉词典 |trans-title=Tai Lue–Chinese Dictionary}} * {{Cite book |last=Hanna |first=William J. |title=Dai Lue-English Dictionary |date=2012 |publisher=Silkworm Books |isbn=978-616-215-031-9 |location=Chiang Mai |language=en}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Incubator|code=khb}} * [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tai/TaiLue/index.htm SeaSite: Tai Lue, under construction] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tailue.htm Omniglot - Tai Lue script] * [http://www.webonary.org/dailu Tai Lue dictionary online] * [https://theses.hal.science/tel-03828164# Li, Juan. 2022. Grammaire descriptive du tai lü (A Descriptive Grammar of Tai Lue). Paris: Sorbonne Université (PhD Dissertation).] {{navboxes| |list= {{Languages of Burma}} {{Languages of China}} {{Languages of Laos}} {{Languages of Thailand}} {{Languages of Vietnam}} {{Tai-Kadai languages}}}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tai Lu Language}} [[Category:Tai Lue language| ]] [[Category:Languages of Yunnan]] [[Category:Languages of Myanmar]] [[Category:Languages of Laos]] [[Category:Languages of Thailand]] [[Category:Languages of Vietnam]] 2utbhxlak8o7gwk3feoc8xmtcwf3p50 Module:Colognian language 828 77907 687859 2024-09-22T10:38:03Z Onel5969 48948 Disambiguating links to [[Colognian]] (link changed to [[Colognian dialect]]) using [[User:Qwertyytrewqqwerty/DisamAssist|DisamAssist]]. 687859 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Colognian dialect|Colognian]] {{R from move}} gvp4k47g2nu0nvlxdgwdp4plwditphn 687860 687859 2026-07-13T12:31:34Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Colognian_language]] 687859 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Colognian dialect|Colognian]] {{R from move}} gvp4k47g2nu0nvlxdgwdp4plwditphn Module:IPA/data/doc 828 77908 687861 2024-08-29T21:41:48Z Warudo 28465 Added the page to [[:Category:Module documentation pages]] 687861 wikitext text/x-wiki {{High-use}} This data module stores labels, language codes, and their associated IPA keys used by [[Module:IPA]] and [[Module:IPA/category documentation]]. ==Schema for languages== ;(code) :[[ISO 639]] code. ;name :Name of the language. Filled in by [[Module:Lang]] if missing. ;text :Replaces the language name in canned labels without affecting the link. ;link :Name of the article about the language. Filled in by <code>name</code> + "&nbsp;language" (or just <code>name</code> if it ends in "&nbsp;languages") if missing, or by [[Module:Lang]] if <code>name</code> is also missing. ;key :Page name of the key. ;dialects :;(code) ::IETF subtag. Must be in all caps unless it is a private tag starting with <code>x-</code>. :;name, text, link, key ::Override the above. :;isVariant ::<code>true</code> if the subtag is an IANA variant. This makes the subtag lowercase. :;aliasOf ::Key for another entry in the same table of dialects. {{#invoke:IPA/overview|main}} <includeonly>{{sandbox other|| <!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> [[Category:IPA-related modules| ]] }}</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Module documentation pages]] </noinclude> 8je52qviqex6tq8h9y0cabcuw569mh5 687862 687861 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:IPA/data/doc]] 687861 wikitext text/x-wiki {{High-use}} This data module stores labels, language codes, and their associated IPA keys used by [[Module:IPA]] and [[Module:IPA/category documentation]]. ==Schema for languages== ;(code) :[[ISO 639]] code. ;name :Name of the language. Filled in by [[Module:Lang]] if missing. ;text :Replaces the language name in canned labels without affecting the link. ;link :Name of the article about the language. Filled in by <code>name</code> + "&nbsp;language" (or just <code>name</code> if it ends in "&nbsp;languages") if missing, or by [[Module:Lang]] if <code>name</code> is also missing. ;key :Page name of the key. ;dialects :;(code) ::IETF subtag. Must be in all caps unless it is a private tag starting with <code>x-</code>. :;name, text, link, key ::Override the above. :;isVariant ::<code>true</code> if the subtag is an IANA variant. This makes the subtag lowercase. :;aliasOf ::Key for another entry in the same table of dialects. {{#invoke:IPA/overview|main}} <includeonly>{{sandbox other|| <!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> [[Category:IPA-related modules| ]] }}</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Module documentation pages]] </noinclude> 8je52qviqex6tq8h9y0cabcuw569mh5 Module:Tai Lü language 828 77909 687863 2018-05-20T06:53:26Z Stevey7788 7 Stevey7788 moved page [[Tai Lü language]] to [[Tai Lue language]] over redirect: much more commonly used name 687863 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Tai Lue language]] {{R from move}} ssvc5lg8s5sv6jkgbx0unebpd1um6xh 687864 687863 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Tai_Lü_language]] 687863 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Tai Lue language]] {{R from move}} ssvc5lg8s5sv6jkgbx0unebpd1um6xh Module:IPA/overview 828 77910 687865 2023-10-02T09:24:06Z Nardog 14651 simpler 687865 Scribunto text/plain require('strict') local p = {} local lects = mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data/export') local function addNote(cell, note) cell:wikitext(string.format(' <small>(%s)</small>', note)) end function p.main() local t = mw.html.create('table'):addClass('wikitable sortable mw-collapsible') :tag('caption'):addClass('nowrap'):wikitext('Data overview'):done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):attr('colspan', 4):wikitext('Language'):done() :tag('th'):attr('colspan', 4):wikitext('Dialect'):done() :done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Name'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Link'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Name'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Link'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :done() local langRow, langCells, dialectCount for i, lect in ipairs(lects) do local row local cells = {} if lect.parent then dialectCount = dialectCount + 1 if dialectCount == 1 then row = langRow else row = t:tag('tr') for _, cell in ipairs(langCells) do cell:attr('rowspan', dialectCount) end end else row = t:tag('tr') langRow = row langCells = cells dialectCount = 0 end for _ = 1, 4 do table.insert(cells, row:tag('td')) end if not lect.parent and not (lects[i + 1] and lects[i + 1].parent) then for _ = 1, 4 do row:tag('td'):css('background', '#ececec') end end cells[1]:wikitext('<code>' .. lect.code:gsub('^[^-]+%-', '') .. '</code>') if lect.aliases then local aliases = {} for _, alias in ipairs(lect.aliases) do table.insert(aliases, alias) end addNote(cells[1], string.format( 'also <code>%s</code>', table.concat(aliases, '</code>, <code>') )) end do local notes = {} if lect.name then if lect.name == lect.extName then table.insert(notes, 'redundant') elseif lect.extName then table.insert(notes, string.format('overrides "%s"', lect.extName)) end end if lect.text then table.insert(notes, string.format('label: "%s"', lect.text)) end cells[2]:wikitext(lect.name or lect.extName) if #notes > 0 then addNote(cells[2], table.concat(notes, '; ')) end end do local note local intLink = lect.link or lect.generatedLink if intLink then if intLink == lect.extLink then note = 'redundant' elseif lect.extLink then note = string.format('overrides [[%s]]', lect.extLink) local intTitle = mw.title.new(intLink) intTitle = intTitle.redirectTarget or intTitle local extTitle = mw.title.new(lect.extLink) extTitle = extTitle.redirectTarget or extTitle if intTitle ~= extTitle then note = note .. ', a different article' end end end local s = intLink or lect.extLink s = lect.generatedLink and '([[' .. s .. ']])' or '[[' .. s .. ']]' cells[3]:wikitext(s) if note then addNote(cells[3], note) end end cells[4]:wikitext( lect.key and '[[' .. lect.key .. ']]' or '([[' .. (lect.parent and lect.parent.key or 'Help:IPA') .. ']])' ) end return tostring(t) end function p.keys() local t = mw.html.create('table'):addClass('wikitable sortable mw-collapsible') :tag('caption'):addClass('nowrap'):wikitext('Languages with dedicated keys'):done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Language'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :done() local byKey, keys = {}, {} for _, lect in ipairs(lects) do local key = lect.key or lect.parent and lect.parent.key if key then local asciiKey = mw.ustring.gsub(mw.ustring.toNFD(key), '[^ -~]', '') if not byKey[asciiKey] then byKey[asciiKey] = { name = key } table.insert(keys, asciiKey) end table.insert(byKey[asciiKey], { code = lect.code, name = lect.name or lect.extName, link = lect.link or lect.generatedLink or lect.extLink }) end end table.sort(keys) for _, asciiKey in ipairs(keys) do local row = t:tag('tr') local keyLects = byKey[asciiKey] local keyCell = row:tag('td'):wikitext('[[' .. keyLects.name .. ']]') local lang if #keyLects > 1 then keyCell:attr('rowspan', #keyLects) table.sort(keyLects, function (a, b) return a.name < b.name end) local keyName = mw.ustring.gsub(keyLects.name, '^[^/]*/', '') for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect.name == keyName then lang = lect break end end if not lang then for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect.name:find(' languages$') then lang = lect break end end end if not lang then for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if not lect.code:find('-') then lang = lect break end end end end lang = lang or keyLects[1] local prev = { name = lang.name, count = 1, cell = row:tag('td'):wikitext( string.format('[[%s|%s]]', lang.link, lang.name) ) } row:tag('td'):wikitext('<code>' .. lang.code .. '</code>') for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect ~= lang then local subRow = t:tag('tr') if prev.name == lect.name then prev.count = prev.count + 1 prev.cell:attr('rowspan', prev.count) else prev = { name = lect.name, count = 1, cell = subRow:tag('td'):wikitext( string.format('[[%s|%s]]', lect.link, lect.name) ) } end subRow:tag('td'):wikitext('<code>' .. lect.code .. '</code>') end end end return tostring(t) end return p j5xlpx91tpgy470jsn1bufpuwgx6z60 687866 687865 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:IPA/overview]] 687865 Scribunto text/plain require('strict') local p = {} local lects = mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data/export') local function addNote(cell, note) cell:wikitext(string.format(' <small>(%s)</small>', note)) end function p.main() local t = mw.html.create('table'):addClass('wikitable sortable mw-collapsible') :tag('caption'):addClass('nowrap'):wikitext('Data overview'):done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):attr('colspan', 4):wikitext('Language'):done() :tag('th'):attr('colspan', 4):wikitext('Dialect'):done() :done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Name'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Link'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Name'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Link'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :done() local langRow, langCells, dialectCount for i, lect in ipairs(lects) do local row local cells = {} if lect.parent then dialectCount = dialectCount + 1 if dialectCount == 1 then row = langRow else row = t:tag('tr') for _, cell in ipairs(langCells) do cell:attr('rowspan', dialectCount) end end else row = t:tag('tr') langRow = row langCells = cells dialectCount = 0 end for _ = 1, 4 do table.insert(cells, row:tag('td')) end if not lect.parent and not (lects[i + 1] and lects[i + 1].parent) then for _ = 1, 4 do row:tag('td'):css('background', '#ececec') end end cells[1]:wikitext('<code>' .. lect.code:gsub('^[^-]+%-', '') .. '</code>') if lect.aliases then local aliases = {} for _, alias in ipairs(lect.aliases) do table.insert(aliases, alias) end addNote(cells[1], string.format( 'also <code>%s</code>', table.concat(aliases, '</code>, <code>') )) end do local notes = {} if lect.name then if lect.name == lect.extName then table.insert(notes, 'redundant') elseif lect.extName then table.insert(notes, string.format('overrides "%s"', lect.extName)) end end if lect.text then table.insert(notes, string.format('label: "%s"', lect.text)) end cells[2]:wikitext(lect.name or lect.extName) if #notes > 0 then addNote(cells[2], table.concat(notes, '; ')) end end do local note local intLink = lect.link or lect.generatedLink if intLink then if intLink == lect.extLink then note = 'redundant' elseif lect.extLink then note = string.format('overrides [[%s]]', lect.extLink) local intTitle = mw.title.new(intLink) intTitle = intTitle.redirectTarget or intTitle local extTitle = mw.title.new(lect.extLink) extTitle = extTitle.redirectTarget or extTitle if intTitle ~= extTitle then note = note .. ', a different article' end end end local s = intLink or lect.extLink s = lect.generatedLink and '([[' .. s .. ']])' or '[[' .. s .. ']]' cells[3]:wikitext(s) if note then addNote(cells[3], note) end end cells[4]:wikitext( lect.key and '[[' .. lect.key .. ']]' or '([[' .. (lect.parent and lect.parent.key or 'Help:IPA') .. ']])' ) end return tostring(t) end function p.keys() local t = mw.html.create('table'):addClass('wikitable sortable mw-collapsible') :tag('caption'):addClass('nowrap'):wikitext('Languages with dedicated keys'):done() :tag('tr') :tag('th'):wikitext('Key'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Language'):done() :tag('th'):wikitext('Code'):done() :done() local byKey, keys = {}, {} for _, lect in ipairs(lects) do local key = lect.key or lect.parent and lect.parent.key if key then local asciiKey = mw.ustring.gsub(mw.ustring.toNFD(key), '[^ -~]', '') if not byKey[asciiKey] then byKey[asciiKey] = { name = key } table.insert(keys, asciiKey) end table.insert(byKey[asciiKey], { code = lect.code, name = lect.name or lect.extName, link = lect.link or lect.generatedLink or lect.extLink }) end end table.sort(keys) for _, asciiKey in ipairs(keys) do local row = t:tag('tr') local keyLects = byKey[asciiKey] local keyCell = row:tag('td'):wikitext('[[' .. keyLects.name .. ']]') local lang if #keyLects > 1 then keyCell:attr('rowspan', #keyLects) table.sort(keyLects, function (a, b) return a.name < b.name end) local keyName = mw.ustring.gsub(keyLects.name, '^[^/]*/', '') for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect.name == keyName then lang = lect break end end if not lang then for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect.name:find(' languages$') then lang = lect break end end end if not lang then for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if not lect.code:find('-') then lang = lect break end end end end lang = lang or keyLects[1] local prev = { name = lang.name, count = 1, cell = row:tag('td'):wikitext( string.format('[[%s|%s]]', lang.link, lang.name) ) } row:tag('td'):wikitext('<code>' .. lang.code .. '</code>') for _, lect in ipairs(keyLects) do if lect ~= lang then local subRow = t:tag('tr') if prev.name == lect.name then prev.count = prev.count + 1 prev.cell:attr('rowspan', prev.count) else prev = { name = lect.name, count = 1, cell = subRow:tag('td'):wikitext( string.format('[[%s|%s]]', lect.link, lect.name) ) } end subRow:tag('td'):wikitext('<code>' .. lect.code .. '</code>') end end end return tostring(t) end return p j5xlpx91tpgy470jsn1bufpuwgx6z60 Module:Kölsch language 828 77911 687867 2024-09-22T10:37:08Z Onel5969 48948 Disambiguating links to [[Colognian]] (link changed to [[Colognian dialect]]) using [[User:Qwertyytrewqqwerty/DisamAssist|DisamAssist]]. 687867 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Colognian dialect|Colognian]] 5j68f41xf9svncsvybxj1v8gs1ifl6s 687868 687867 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Kölsch_language]] 687867 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Colognian dialect|Colognian]] 5j68f41xf9svncsvybxj1v8gs1ifl6s Module:Hejazi Arabic language 828 77912 687869 2013-09-14T10:35:57Z Lfdder 31411 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Hejazi Arabic]] 687869 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Hejazi Arabic]] 6he82w9ctupxt8ihujl43zb8rsqig9i 687870 687869 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Hejazi_Arabic_language]] 687869 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Hejazi Arabic]] 6he82w9ctupxt8ihujl43zb8rsqig9i Module:Hijazi Arabic language 828 77913 687871 2012-04-16T09:25:15Z Kwamikagami 624 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Hejazi Arabic]] 687871 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Hejazi Arabic]] 6he82w9ctupxt8ihujl43zb8rsqig9i 687872 687871 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Hijazi_Arabic_language]] 687871 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Hejazi Arabic]] 6he82w9ctupxt8ihujl43zb8rsqig9i Module:Lebanese Arabic language 828 77914 687873 2007-12-29T19:02:01Z Robin Hood 1212 64605 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Lebanese Arabic]] 687873 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Lebanese Arabic]] 59siu0mw7r4ywm5emyq6np0i3kctqyf 687874 687873 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Lebanese_Arabic_language]] 687873 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Lebanese Arabic]] 59siu0mw7r4ywm5emyq6np0i3kctqyf Module:Levantine Arabic language 828 77915 687875 2025-01-01T20:12:43Z Gorobay 20774 R from unnecessary disambiguation 687875 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Levantine Arabic]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} fjis0oshi0z40ho8ft4clr20caxbycv 687876 687875 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Levantine_Arabic_language]] 687875 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Levantine Arabic]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} fjis0oshi0z40ho8ft4clr20caxbycv Module:Huasteca Nahuatl language 828 77916 687877 2012-10-07T06:44:39Z Kwamikagami 624 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Huasteca Nahuatl]] 687877 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Huasteca Nahuatl]] cqaepkbk65xn4gawtil0ryvstyye7x7 687878 687877 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Huasteca_Nahuatl_language]] 687877 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Huasteca Nahuatl]] cqaepkbk65xn4gawtil0ryvstyye7x7 Module:Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl language 828 77917 687879 2012-03-25T23:40:21Z Kwamikagami 624 Kwamikagami moved page [[Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl]] to [[Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl language]] over redirect 687879 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Huasteca Nahuatl]] cqaepkbk65xn4gawtil0ryvstyye7x7 687880 687879 2026-07-13T12:31:35Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Eastern_Huasteca_Nahuatl_language]] 687879 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Huasteca Nahuatl]] cqaepkbk65xn4gawtil0ryvstyye7x7 Module:Mandarin Chinese language 828 77918 687881 2023-03-30T06:25:17Z Sahaib 12290 Modifying [[WP:RCAT|redirect categories]] using [[User:Wugapodes/Capricorn|Capricorn ♑]] 687881 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mandarin Chinese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from long name}} {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} 5r6pkrbt9x4eghb2jfch7y1jzij6n77 687882 687881 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Mandarin_Chinese_language]] 687881 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mandarin Chinese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from long name}} {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} 5r6pkrbt9x4eghb2jfch7y1jzij6n77 Module:Arpitan language 828 77919 687883 2021-01-30T23:11:06Z EmausBot 2058 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Franco-Provençal]] 687883 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Franco-Provençal]] sq2iga94m79w52gguy12jzn372oif0p 687884 687883 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Arpitan_language]] 687883 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Franco-Provençal]] sq2iga94m79w52gguy12jzn372oif0p Module:Caribbean Hindustani language 828 77920 687885 2010-11-13T09:30:52Z 121.223.104.175 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Caribbean Hindustani]] 687885 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Caribbean Hindustani]] sem62jjh7m7nvr5ll829mp5yjqk60y0 687886 687885 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Caribbean_Hindustani_language]] 687885 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Caribbean Hindustani]] sem62jjh7m7nvr5ll829mp5yjqk60y0 Module:Cantonese language 828 77921 687887 2023-06-12T21:23:29Z Ost316 44712 Modifying [[WP:RCAT|redirect categories]] using [[User:Wugapodes/Capricorn|Capricorn ♑]] 687887 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cantonese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} [[Category:Unprintworthy redirects]] r2hu10179hhoij3131v0ts17g7g9z6f 687888 687887 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Cantonese_language]] 687887 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cantonese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} [[Category:Unprintworthy redirects]] r2hu10179hhoij3131v0ts17g7g9z6f Module:Yue Chinese language 828 77922 687889 2022-08-06T00:45:01Z Queen of Hearts 18938 Added {{[[:Template:R from unnecessary disambiguation|R from unnecessary disambiguation]]}} tag to redirect 687889 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Yue Chinese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} e63dn5vo1yvt4boj1q98mmoy0821dw6 687890 687889 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Yue_Chinese_language]] 687889 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Yue Chinese]] {{Redirect category shell| {{R from unnecessary disambiguation}} }} e63dn5vo1yvt4boj1q98mmoy0821dw6 Module:Algherese language 828 77923 687891 2023-09-13T16:44:03Z Nardog 14651 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Algherese dialect]] 687891 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Algherese dialect]] jbgrz4ochd27pa3fnbct8w7j9buxw7i 687892 687891 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Algherese_language]] 687891 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Algherese dialect]] jbgrz4ochd27pa3fnbct8w7j9buxw7i Module:Mauritian Creole language 828 77924 687893 2014-02-27T06:32:42Z AvicBot 2815 Robot: Fixing double redirect to [[Mauritian Creole]] 687893 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mauritian Creole]] h570qrqubavjs5jqv5shxji4vzscky6 687894 687893 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Mauritian_Creole_language]] 687893 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mauritian Creole]] h570qrqubavjs5jqv5shxji4vzscky6 Module:Morisyen language 828 77925 687895 2014-02-27T06:36:23Z AvicBot 2815 Robot: Fixing double redirect to [[Mauritian Creole]] 687895 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mauritian Creole]]{{R from alternative name}} cn4d7p5hpu82av9b4rc6xn90b2kud13 687896 687895 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Morisyen_language]] 687895 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mauritian Creole]]{{R from alternative name}} cn4d7p5hpu82av9b4rc6xn90b2kud13 Module:Central Kurdish language 828 77926 687897 2025-02-28T18:55:13Z EmausBot 2058 Bot: Fixing double redirect from [[Sorani]] to [[Central Kurdish]] 687897 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Central Kurdish]]{{R from alternative name}} crdr8xq8lb8usojfc85pmae0lqz8b8t 687898 687897 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Central_Kurdish_language]] 687897 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Central Kurdish]]{{R from alternative name}} crdr8xq8lb8usojfc85pmae0lqz8b8t Module:Sorani Kurdish language 828 77927 687899 2025-02-28T19:08:46Z EmausBot 2058 Bot: Fixing double redirect from [[Sorani]] to [[Central Kurdish]] 687899 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Central Kurdish]] 91io1i6obl25encla484x0p2hahvcty 687900 687899 2026-07-13T12:31:36Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Sorani_Kurdish_language]] 687899 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Central Kurdish]] 91io1i6obl25encla484x0p2hahvcty Module:Finland Swedish language 828 77928 687901 2023-09-13T15:43:15Z Nardog 14651 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Finland Swedish]] 687901 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Finland Swedish]] i4d4c2oz55ltwnhaivk6j0g528m4mzl 687902 687901 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Finland_Swedish_language]] 687901 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Finland Swedish]] i4d4c2oz55ltwnhaivk6j0g528m4mzl Module:Northern Kurdish language 828 77929 687903 2019-03-12T20:59:32Z Xqbot 972 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Kurmanji]] 687903 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kurmanji]] i3qoctlr2w1ukkajf178b7krqf6uxjt 687904 687903 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Northern_Kurdish_language]] 687903 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kurmanji]] i3qoctlr2w1ukkajf178b7krqf6uxjt Module:Kurmanji Kurdish language 828 77930 687905 2019-03-12T21:00:27Z Xqbot 972 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[Kurmanji]] 687905 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kurmanji]] i3qoctlr2w1ukkajf178b7krqf6uxjt 687906 687905 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Kurmanji_Kurdish_language]] 687905 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kurmanji]] i3qoctlr2w1ukkajf178b7krqf6uxjt Module:European Portuguese language 828 77931 687907 2022-01-23T08:26:01Z IvanScrooge98 9581 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[European Portuguese]] 687907 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[European Portuguese]] br50x8oy9x0yoi6jf21dx2chy29woze 687908 687907 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:European_Portuguese_language]] 687907 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[European Portuguese]] br50x8oy9x0yoi6jf21dx2chy29woze Module:Northeastern Thai language 828 77932 687909 2012-09-24T21:28:48Z AvicBot 2815 Robot: Fixing double redirect to [[Isan language]] 687909 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Isan language]] 6ana2jcenbmwno58i35x1ynk29lz7m3 687910 687909 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Northeastern_Thai_language]] 687909 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Isan language]] 6ana2jcenbmwno58i35x1ynk29lz7m3 Module:Latin American Spanish language 828 77933 687911 2023-09-19T07:27:24Z Nardog 14651 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[Spanish language in the Americas]] 687911 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Spanish language in the Americas]] 0s1jt7f20trzieuc61ude2twg2n3zsd 687912 687911 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Latin_American_Spanish_language]] 687911 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Spanish language in the Americas]] 0s1jt7f20trzieuc61ude2twg2n3zsd Module:Standard Malay language 828 77934 687913 2022-06-12T02:31:40Z Paine Ellsworth 4319 follow up to page move - retarget and add [[WP:RCAT|rcat template]]s 687913 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Malaysian Malay]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from alternative name}} {{R printworthy}} }} kmm5vsjnuge6sdwjbnex18konp1h89y 687914 687913 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Standard_Malay_language]] 687913 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Malaysian Malay]] {{Rcat shell| {{R from alternative name}} {{R printworthy}} }} kmm5vsjnuge6sdwjbnex18konp1h89y Module:IPA/data/export 828 77935 687915 2023-09-23T22:12:07Z Nardog 14651 rm diaCode 687915 Scribunto text/plain require('strict') local rawData = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().subpageText == 'sandbox' and mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data/sandbox') or mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data') local data = {} local function getNameAndLink(code) local res = require('Module:Lang')._name_from_tag({ code, link = 'yes' }) local name = res:match('([^%[|%]]+)%]%]$') local link = res:match('^%[%[([^|%]]+)') return name, link end local function augmentData(lect) if lect.name and not lect.link then lect.generatedLink = lect.name:find(' languages$') and lect.name or lect.name .. ' language' end lect.extName, lect.extLink = getNameAndLink(lect.code) end for code, lang in pairs(rawData.langs) do local langData = { code = code, name = lang.name, text = lang.text, link = lang.link, key = lang.key } augmentData(langData) table.insert(data, langData) if lang.dialects then local aliases = {} for diaCode, dialect in pairs(lang.dialects) do if dialect.aliasOf then aliases[dialect.aliasOf] = aliases[dialect.aliasOf] or {} table.insert(aliases[dialect.aliasOf], diaCode) end end for _, t in pairs(aliases) do table.sort(t) end for diaCode, dialect in pairs(lang.dialects) do if not dialect.aliasOf then local diaAliases = aliases[diaCode] if dialect.isVariant then diaCode = diaCode:lower() end local diaData = { code = code .. '-' .. diaCode, aliases = diaAliases, name = dialect.name, text = dialect.text, link = dialect.link, key = dialect.key, parent = langData } augmentData(diaData) table.insert(data, diaData) end end end end table.sort(data, function (a, b) return a.code < b.code end) return data p3eohabrnwisqjwmnt1lzhfs6ul3zww 687916 687915 2026-07-13T12:31:37Z King ChristLike 13051 1 revision imported from [[:en:Module:IPA/data/export]] 687915 Scribunto text/plain require('strict') local rawData = mw.title.getCurrentTitle().subpageText == 'sandbox' and mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data/sandbox') or mw.loadData('Module:IPA/data') local data = {} local function getNameAndLink(code) local res = require('Module:Lang')._name_from_tag({ code, link = 'yes' }) local name = res:match('([^%[|%]]+)%]%]$') local link = res:match('^%[%[([^|%]]+)') return name, link end local function augmentData(lect) if lect.name and not lect.link then lect.generatedLink = lect.name:find(' languages$') and lect.name or lect.name .. ' language' end lect.extName, lect.extLink = getNameAndLink(lect.code) end for code, lang in pairs(rawData.langs) do local langData = { code = code, name = lang.name, text = lang.text, link = lang.link, key = lang.key } augmentData(langData) table.insert(data, langData) if lang.dialects then local aliases = {} for diaCode, dialect in pairs(lang.dialects) do if dialect.aliasOf then aliases[dialect.aliasOf] = aliases[dialect.aliasOf] or {} table.insert(aliases[dialect.aliasOf], diaCode) end end for _, t in pairs(aliases) do table.sort(t) end for diaCode, dialect in pairs(lang.dialects) do if not dialect.aliasOf then local diaAliases = aliases[diaCode] if dialect.isVariant then diaCode = diaCode:lower() end local diaData = { code = code .. '-' .. diaCode, aliases = diaAliases, name = dialect.name, text = dialect.text, link = dialect.link, key = dialect.key, parent = langData } augmentData(diaData) table.insert(data, diaData) end end end end table.sort(data, function (a, b) return a.code < b.code end) return data p3eohabrnwisqjwmnt1lzhfs6ul3zww Ashot nke Atọ Bagratuni 0 77936 687968 2026-07-13T18:54:38Z Chikwas 56003 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1318104048|Ashot III Bagratuni]]" 687968 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles>{{Reflist}} [[Faịlụ:Bagratuni_Armenia_1000-en.svg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|230x230px|Alaeze Feudal nke Armenia, 1000 AD]] Ashot onye nke atọ Bagratuni, onye amara dị ka Ashot Onye ejighi anya ya ahụ Ụzọ (na mba Armenian: Աշոտ Կուրացյալ) (ihe dị ka afọ narị isii na iri iteghete– narị asaa, iri isii na abụọ), bụ onye ude ya na ede n'obodo Armenia ma bụrụkwa onye si na ezinụlọ Bagratuni; Ọ chịrị mba Armenia dika onye isi (nke a na-akpọ *ishkhan*) site afọ narị asaa, iri atọ na abụọ nwe ruo narị asaa, iri atọ na abụọ. Ọ bụ nwa nwanne Smbat nke isii Bagratuni Ọ nwekwara ihu ọma na ebe caliphate Umayyad mgbe omeriri otu n'ime ndị eze busarụ Damaskọs agha wee wakpoo Armenia. Nrigoroya na ọchịchị gosiri ikike ndị Bagratid. Ọbụ ndị otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya ndị Mamikonian tufuru ya. Ọchịchị ọhụrụ nke ndị Armenia dị elu nke bụ na ha nwere ike ịkpọkụnọ ndị agha pụkụ ịrị iteghete, ndị nwoke ,dị njikere ije lụ agha. Ọ nwere ụmụ nwoke abụọ, Smbat nke asatọ Bagratuni na [[Vasak Bagratuni]]. Prọfesọ Cyril Toumanoff tụnyere alo na "Adarnase onye isi" na Juansher - onye a na-enweghị ihe e ji agba aka ebe n'ebe ọzọ - bụ njehie dị enweghị nsogbu maka Ashot nke atọ onye isi nke Armenia, si otú a mee ka Adarnase nke izizi nke Tao-Klarjeti bụrụ nwa nwa Ashot, ọ bụghịkwa nwa nwanne ya nwanyị, site n'aka nwa ya nwoke Vasak onye nwere ike ọbụrụ na ọlụrụ nwa eze Georgia Guaram ma biri dị ka onye na-agba ọsọ n'ụlọ ikpe ya mgbe ọ nupụrụ isi nke ndị isi Armenia megide ọchịchị Arab na narị asaa, iri asaa na abụọ. A maghị Vasak na ihe ndekọ ndị Georgia ebe a na-edekwa mmalite nke ndị Bagratid nke Georgia n'ụzọ dị elu n'ihi na usoro ndị eze ahụ kwuru na ha mere ya maka ndị agbụrụ David.[1] == Ihe odide == {{Reflist}} * {{Cite book|author=Grousset|first=René|title=Histoire de l’Arménie des origines à 1071|location=Paris|publisher=Payot|year=1973|language=French}} * {{Cite book|author=Laurent|first=Joseph L.|title=L'Arménie entre Byzance et l'Islam: depuis la conquête arabe jusqu'en 886|year=1919|language=French|publisher=De Boccard|location=Paris|url=http://cefael.efa.gr/detail.php?site_id=1&actionID=page&serie_id=BefarA&volume_number=117&issue_number=0}} * {{Cite book|author=Toumanoff|first=Cyril|authorlink=Cyril Toumanoff|url=https://archive.org/details/toumanoff-cyril-1967.-studies-in-christian-caucasian-history.-georgetown-university-press/page/n175/mode/2up?q=Adarnase|year=1963|title=Studies in Christian Caucasian History|publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]]}} 2haxuuvlgex7v0pygz7au3em61t5mo6 Nicky Chapman, Baroness Chapman 0 77937 687982 2026-07-13T20:12:53Z Vivian Amalachukwu 17172 Translated this article from English 687982 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Onye Peer Britain na onye na-akwado ndị mmadụ (1961–2009)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]] | name = The Baroness Chapman | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|XX}} | image = | caption = Chapman in 2008 | office1 = Member of the [[House of Lords]] | status1 = [[Lord Temporal]] | term_label1 = [[Life peer]]age | term_start1 = 24 Juun 2004 | term_end1 = 3 Septemba 2009 | birth_date = {{Birth date|1961|08|03|df=yes}} | birth_place = | death_date = {{death date and age|2009|09|03|1961|08|03|df=y}} | death_place = | spouse = | party = | relations = | children = | alma_mater = | occupation = | profession = | signature = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Nicola Jane Chapman, Baroness Chapman''' (3 Ọgọst 1961 &ndash; 3 Septemba 2009<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/Death-of-peoples-peer-Baroness.5619550.jp |title=Death of 'people's peer' Baroness Nicky Chapman at 48, Yorkshire Post |publisher=www.yorkshirepost.co.uk |accessdate=2009-09-04 }}</ref>) bụ onye peer Britain na onye na-akwado ikike nkwarụ. A mụrụ Chapman na [[Leeds]], ọ nwere nkwarụ sitere n'ọmụmụ, [[Osteogenesis imperfecta]] (ọrịa ọkpụkpụ gbawara agbawa). A tụrụ anya na ọ ga-adị ndụ naanị awa ole na ole ka a mụsịrị ya, mana o biri ndụ ruo afọ iri anọ, nke mere ka o chee na ọkpụkpụ ya gbajiri agbaji rụrụ ihe dị ka 600. O ruru {{convert|2|ft|9|in|cm}} n'ogo, wee jiri [[oche nkwagharị eletrik]].<ref name=ODNB>Philip Carter, 'Chapman, Nicola Jane [Nicky], Baroness Chapman (1961–2009)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, January 2013 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/101540 accessed 22 February 2013]</ref> A kuziri ya akwụkwọ n'ụlọ, ọ wee gaa na [[Ụlọ Akwụkwọ John Jamieson]] dị na Leeds, ụlọ akwụkwọ maka ụmụaka nwere nkwarụ anụ ahụ. O mechara kwaga na ngalaba mmụta dị mkpa [[Park Lane College of Higher Education]] wee mụọ mgbakọ na mwepụ na njikwa na [[Trinity and All Saints College]] na [[Horsforth]]. Ọ bụ onye nkuzi afọ ofufo maka [[Apex Trust]], wee rụọ ọrụ na [[Leeds City Council]] wee bụrụ onye nkuzi na agụmakwụkwọ ndị okenye, tupu nkwarụ ya manye ya ịkwụsị ọrụ. Ọ gara n'ihu dịka onye ọrụ afọ ofufo na-akwado ndị nwere nkwarụ, na-eme mkpọsa maka [[ibi ndụ onwe onye]] na ịbanye ụlọ ọha.<ref name=ODNB/> Ọ bụ onyeisi oche nke Leeds Centre for Integrated Living na Leeds United Disabled Organisation (Ludo).<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2009/sep/08/lady-chapman-obituary Obituary], The Guardian, 8 September 2009</ref> A họpụtara ya na [[Ụlọ Ndị Nna Ukwu]] na 24 Juun 2004 dị ka '''Baroness Chapman''', ''nke [[Leeds]] n'ime [[West Yorkshire|County of West Yorkshire]]''<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=57341 |date=30 June 2004 |page=8139}}</ref> ma bụrụkwa onye mbụ nwere nkwarụ sitere n'ọmụmụ nọdụrụ n'Ụlọ Ndị Nwe.<ref name=ODNB/><ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/national/obituaries/a-selfless-heart-that-stood-up-for-the-disabled-20090909-fhim.html A selfless heart that stood up for the disabled], Sydney Morning Herald, 10 September 2009</ref> E nyere ya ọkwa dịka atụmatụ [[Ụlọ Ndị Oche Ndị Nna]] si dị, nke a na-akpọ "[[Ndị Ọgbọ Ndị Mmadụ]]" si dị. Òtù Habinteg Housing Association, otu nzukọ nke na-enye nkwado bara uru maka ndị nwere nkwarụ, nke ọ bụ onyeisi oche ya họpụtara ya maka ndị otu ya. O kwuru okwu mbụ ya n'arụmụka gbasara [[Iwu Ikike Uche 2005|Iwu Ikike Uche]], na-akatọ ndokwa ndị ga-enye onye a họpụtara ohere ime mkpebi ahụike n'aha onye ọrịa nwere nkwarụ, na-ekwu na "Ọ bụrụ na a na-eme iwu ahụ afọ 43 gara aga, agaghị m anọ ebe a."<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200405/ldhansrd/vo050110/text/50110-12.htm Lords Hansard: Baroness Chapman's maiden speech, on the Mental Capacity Bill 2005], Lords Hansard, 10 January 2005</ref> O mechara kwuo okwu megide atụmatụ inyere ndị nwere ọrịa na-egbu egbu aka [[ọnwụ onwe ha | igbu onwe ha]]. O tinyekwara aka mee ka e tinye iwu nke 36 nke [[Iwu ịkpa ókè maka nkwarụ 1995]] n'ọrụ, na-enye ndị ọkwọ ụgbọala tagzi ọrụ ibuga ndị njem n'oche nkwagharị. Ọ hụrụ [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United Football Club]] n'anya, ọ na-agakarị ikiri egwuregwu ha na [[Elland Road]] ma bụrụkwa onyeisi oche nke Leeds United Disabled Supporters Organisation. N'afọ 2010, Leeds United gbanwere aha ụlọ oriri na ọṅụṅụ ahụ ka ọ bụrụ "The Nicky Chapman Suite". Ọ nwụrụ site na [[pneumonia]], na [[Leeds General Infirmary]]. ==Nlọta== N'afọ 2010, Leeds United gbanwere aha ụlọ oriri na ọṅụṅụ ahụ ka ọ bụrụ "The Nicky Chapman Suite". Chapman hụrụ [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United Football Club]] n'anya, na-agakarị egwuregwu na [[Elland Road]] ma bụrụkwa onyeisi oche nke Leeds United Disabled Supporters Organisation. Aha Chapman bụ otu n'ime ndị e sere n'elu ihe oyiyi ''[[Ribbons (sculpture)|Ribbons]]'', unveiled in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c14821gz1e6o|title=Leeds: Ribbons sculpture celebrates city's inspiring women|date=October 12, 2024|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> ==Ntụaka== {{reflist|40em}} ==Njikọ mpụga== * [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200304/minutes/040908/ldminute.htm Announcement of her introduction at the House of Lords] House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 8 September 2004 * [https://www.theyworkforyou.com/peer/baroness_chapman Baroness Chapman's page on TheyWorkForYou] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chapman, Nicole Chapman, Baroness}} cjnfatgsusuxf4n5igwkboyi15ew1qt Leonora Dori 0 77938 687983 2026-07-13T20:16:13Z Chikwas 56003 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1335786752|Leonora Dori]]" 687983 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles> [[Faịlụ:Léonora_Galigaï_par_Daniel_Dumonstier.jpg|thumb|284x284px|Leonora Dori Galigai]] '''Leonora Dori Galigai''' (19 Mee 1568 - 8 Julaị 1617) bụ onye isi obodo France nke sitere n' ntọala onye ọkọcha mma nke onye isi ala France Marie de 'Medici, nne Eze Louis nke Iri na Atọ. Galigaï ọbụConcino Concini bụ nwunye ya. onye mechara bụrụ marquis na marshal d'Ancre, n'oge ọchịchị Marie dị ka eze nwanyị na onye na-achị France. == Ndụ mbụ na France == Galigaï, nwa nwanyị onye kapịnta bụ Dori, toro na Florence na Palazzo Pitti dị ka nwa agbọghọ Marie de 'Medici kpotara na ekere ozi, onye gbara mbọ zọpụta onwe ya na nkuchi ya n'aka ndị ''Galigai'', ezinụlọ Florentine ejighi ego. N'afọ 1600, nwa agbọghọ a soro onye na elekota anya gaa France onye lụrụ Eze Henry nke Anọ nke France, onye akpọrọ Galigaï Dame d'atour (nwanyi na-echere) nye Eze Nwanyị Marie, ozugbo ọ lụrụ onye isi Florentine Concini. Galigaï nwere ọya n'ụwa obi na nkụchi na-eme ka arụ kpọnwụọ, nke bụ ogbụgba ama ọya a na akpọ epilepsy, nke eze nwanyị na ndị na-ejere ya ozi kwenyere na ọ sitere na mmụọ ọjọọ , mana nke na-eguzogide ị chụpụ mmụọ ọjọọ. Ọ bụ onye Portuguese a mụrụ, onye Italian-Jewish court physician nke Marie na Louis XIII gwọrọ ya: Filothe Eliau Montalto ( ọ nwụrụ na 1616). N'oge ndị mmadụ kwenyere na amoosu na ịgba ama, eze nwanyị ahụ were Galigaï n'ọrụ iji chụpụ ndị mmụọ ọjọọ na anwansi ọcha iji gbochie anwansi ojii na mbụmọnụ Ọ nwere nnukwu ego site na ọrụ ndị a, yana aka azụ maka inye ndị mmadụ ohere ịhụ eze nwanyị. Galigaï nwetara nnukwu akụ na ụba, nke o tinyere na ụlọ akụ na ịrụ ụlọ dị iche iche na France na Italy. N'afọ 1610 ka e gburu Eze Henry nke Anọ, di Marie de 'Medici, nwunye ya wee bụrụ Eze Nwanyị Nne nke Louis nke Iri na Atọ na Regent nke France. Mgbe ndị iro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya gburu Concini na 1617, e kpụrụ nwunye ya Galigaï, tụọ ya kpochie ya na Blois e boro ya ebubo na ọ na-eme anwansi ojii, amọosu na "[[Judaism|Ịkpọ ndị Juu]]". A mara Galigaï ikpe maka ịdọ aka ná ntị. E bere ya isi ma me sịa kpọọ ozu ya ọkụ n'osisi na Place de Grève na Paris. N'otu oge ahụ, na 1616 na 1617, e bipụtara abụ na trakị dị iche iche na Paris, Rouen, na London (ntụgharị Bekee), gbasara di na nwunye ahụ, ọrụ ha na ọdịnihu ha. <ref>{{Cite web|title=au:Concini, Concino. - Search Results|url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au:Concini,+Concino.&qt=hot_author|accessdate=2023-11-14|work=www.worldcat.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Galigaï - Search Results|url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Galiga%C3%AF&dblist=638&fq=ln:eng&qt=facet_ln:|accessdate=2023-11-14|work=www.worldcat.org}}</ref> Ndụ Galigaï bụ isiokwu nke ọdachi Alfred de Vigny nke 1831 La Maréchale d'Ancre na opera Italian nke 1839 La Marescialla d'Ancré, nke nwere akwụkwọ Giovanni Prati, dabere na ọrụ de Vigny, na egwu Alessandro Nini.{{Reflist}} ekyxwtldwnztzpyvvtqh2lorr056w14 687984 687983 2026-07-13T20:19:43Z Quinlan83 12227 Fix 687984 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles> [[Faịlụ:Léonora_Galigaï_par_Daniel_Dumonstier.jpg|thumb|284x284px|Leonora Dori Galigai]] '''Leonora Dori Galigai''' (19 Mee 1568 - 8 Julaị 1617) bụ onye isi obodo France nke sitere n' ntọala onye ọkọcha mma nke onye isi ala France Marie de 'Medici, nne Eze Louis nke Iri na Atọ. Galigaï ọbụConcino Concini bụ nwunye ya. onye mechara bụrụ marquis na marshal d'Ancre, n'oge ọchịchị Marie dị ka eze nwanyị na onye na-achị France. == Ndụ mbụ na France == Galigaï, nwa nwanyị onye kapịnta bụ Dori, toro na Florence na Palazzo Pitti dị ka nwa agbọghọ Marie de 'Medici kpotara na ekere ozi, onye gbara mbọ zọpụta onwe ya na nkuchi ya n'aka ndị ''Galigai'', ezinụlọ Florentine ejighi ego. N'afọ 1600, nwa agbọghọ a soro onye na elekota anya gaa France onye lụrụ Eze Henry nke Anọ nke France, onye akpọrọ Galigaï Dame d'atour (nwanyi na-echere) nye Eze Nwanyị Marie, ozugbo ọ lụrụ onye isi Florentine Concini. Galigaï nwere ọya n'ụwa obi na nkụchi na-eme ka arụ kpọnwụọ, nke bụ ogbụgba ama ọya a na akpọ epilepsy, nke eze nwanyị na ndị na-ejere ya ozi kwenyere na ọ sitere na mmụọ ọjọọ , mana nke na-eguzogide ị chụpụ mmụọ ọjọọ. Ọ bụ onye Portuguese a mụrụ, onye Italian-Jewish court physician nke Marie na Louis XIII gwọrọ ya: Filothe Eliau Montalto ( ọ nwụrụ na 1616). N'oge ndị mmadụ kwenyere na amoosu na ịgba ama, eze nwanyị ahụ were Galigaï n'ọrụ iji chụpụ ndị mmụọ ọjọọ na anwansi ọcha iji gbochie anwansi ojii na mbụmọnụ Ọ nwere nnukwu ego site na ọrụ ndị a, yana aka azụ maka inye ndị mmadụ ohere ịhụ eze nwanyị. Galigaï nwetara nnukwu akụ na ụba, nke o tinyere na ụlọ akụ na ịrụ ụlọ dị iche iche na France na Italy. N'afọ 1610 ka e gburu Eze Henry nke Anọ, di Marie de 'Medici, nwunye ya wee bụrụ Eze Nwanyị Nne nke Louis nke Iri na Atọ na Regent nke France. Mgbe ndị iro ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ya gburu Concini na 1617, e kpụrụ nwunye ya Galigaï, tụọ ya kpochie ya na Blois e boro ya ebubo na ọ na-eme anwansi ojii, amọosu na "[[Judaism|Ịkpọ ndị Juu]]". A mara Galigaï ikpe maka ịdọ aka ná ntị. E bere ya isi ma me sịa kpọọ ozu ya ọkụ n'osisi na Place de Grève na Paris. N'otu oge ahụ, na 1616 na 1617, e bipụtara abụ na trakị dị iche iche na Paris, Rouen, na London (ntụgharị Bekee), gbasara di na nwunye ahụ, ọrụ ha na ọdịnihu ha. <ref>{{Cite web|title=au:Concini, Concino. - Search Results|url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au:Concini,+Concino.&qt=hot_author|accessdate=2023-11-14|work=www.worldcat.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Galigaï - Search Results|url=https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Galiga%C3%AF&dblist=638&fq=ln:eng&qt=facet_ln:|accessdate=2023-11-14|work=www.worldcat.org}}</ref> Ndụ Galigaï bụ isiokwu nke ọdachi Alfred de Vigny nke 1831 La Maréchale d'Ancre na opera Italian nke 1839 La Marescialla d'Ancré, nke nwere akwụkwọ Giovanni Prati, dabere na ọrụ de Vigny, na egwu Alessandro Nini.{{Reflist}} rojdouk4u53doexrtwdiqszpuhp0j2x Ihe Na-esi ísì ụtọ 0 77939 688013 2026-07-14T04:31:54Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1358462274|Spice]]" 688013 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>  [[Faịlụ:Spices1.jpg|thumb|Ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ n'ahịa dị n'etiti Agadir, [[Morocco]]]] [[Faịlụ:Indianspicesherbs.jpg|thumb|Ìgwè Ahịhịa na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nke India n'ime efere]] [[Faịlụ:Spices_of_Saúde_flea_market,_São_Paulo,_Brazil.jpg|thumb|Ahịa na-esi ísì ụtọ nke Saúde, São Paulo, [[Brazil]]]] N'ihe gbasara nri, '''ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ''' bụ mkpụrụ, mkpụrụ osisi, mgbọrọgwụ, ogbugbo, ma ọ bụ ihe [[osisi]] ndị ọzọ a na-ejikarị eme ihe maka ụtọ ma ọ bụ [[Àgwà|agba]] nri. A na-amata ose site na [[Ahịhịhịa|ahịhịa]], nke bụ akwụkwọ, okooko osisi, ma ọ bụ ogwe osisi e ji eme ihe maka ụtọ ma ọ bụ dị ka ihe ịchọ mma . Ngwa na ahịhịa bụ ihe na-eme ka ihe dị ụtọ sie ike. Mgbe ụfọdụ, a na-eji ngwa nri eme ihe n'ọgwụ, emume okpukpe, ihe ịchọ mma, ma ọ bụ mmepụta ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. A na-ekewa ha n'ime ngwa nri, mkpụrụ ose, na ụdị ahịhịa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-03-08|title=Spice and herb {{!}} Types, Uses, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/spice-food|accessdate=2024-04-09|work=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dịka ọmụmaatụ, a na-ejikarị vanilla eme ihe dị ka ihe e ji eme ihe na mmepụta ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3|chapter=Vanilla|title=Medicinal Plants of South Asia|year=2020|author=Ahmad|first=Hafsa|pages=657–669|isbn=978-0-08-102659-5}}</ref> A naghị ewere ihe ndị na-eme ka ihe dị ụtọ sitere na osisi dị ka [[Ńnú odẹne|shuga]] dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. A pụrụ iji ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ mee ihe n'ụdị dị iche iche, gụnyere ọhụrụ, ihe zuru oke, kpọrọ nkụ, ihe a gweri egweri, ma ọ bụ ihe e si n'ime tincture wepụta. Usoro ndị a nwere ike ime tupu ere ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ, n'oge nkwadebe nri n'ime kichin, ma ọ bụ ọbụna n'elu tebụl mgbe a na-enye nri, dị ka ịgweri ose dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. A naghị enweta ụfọdụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ọhụrụ ma ọ bụ zuru oke, a na-azụtakwa ha n'ụdị ala. Enwere ike iji obere mkpụrụ, dị ka fennel na mustard, mee ihe ma n'ụdị ha niile ma ọ bụ dị ka ntụ ntụ. Ngwa nri kpọrọ nkụ nwere ndụ kachasị ogologo, yabụ enwere ike ịzụta ya ma chekwaa ya n'ọtụtụ buru ibu, nke na-eme ka ọ dị ọnụ ala karịa otu nri. Ngwa nri ọhụrụ, dị ka ginger, na-adịkarị ụtọ karịa nke kpọrọ nkụ, mana ngwa nri ọhụrụ na-adị oke ọnụ ma na-adị mkpụmkpụ karịa. Akwụkwọ nyocha nke afọ 2019 chọpụtara na ihe akaebe ahụike egosighi na ọtụtụ uru ahụike dị na ya, mana e kwuru na polyphenols dị na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nwere ike ịba uru.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author=Vázquez-Fresno|first=Rosa|title=Herbs and Spices - Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies – A Systematic Review|journal=Genes and Nutrition|volume=14|issue=18|doi=10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8|pmid=31143299|date=22 May 2019}}</ref> [[Ndia|India]] na-enye aka na 75% nke mmepụta ose zuru ụwa ọnụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spices Board|url=https://www.indianspices.com/|accessdate=2024-07-20|work=www.indianspices.com}}</ref> Nke a na-egosipụta omenala site na nri ya. N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, azụmaahịa ose na-etolite na mpaghara India niile yana na East Asia na Middle East . Ọchịchọ Europe maka ose so n'ihe ndị metụtara akụ na ụba na omenala nke gbara ume ka a nyochaa ihe n'oge mbụ nke oge a. == Nkọwa == Ọ bụ ezie na nkọwapụta ose siri ike, nkọwa dị iche iche na-ekpuchi ọtụtụ akụkụ a na-ahụkarị. Otu n'ime akụkụ ndị a bụ isi iyi ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ: ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') na-akọwa isi iyi ya dị ka akwụkwọ nri, ebe Redgrove (1933) na-akọwakarị akụkụ nke osisi ahụ, ọkachasị mgbọrọgwụ, rhizome, [[Ìfulū|okooko osisi]], mkpụrụ osisi, mkpụrụ na ogbugbo mgbe ha kpọrọ nkụ, n'adịghị ka akụkụ ahịhịa nke mejupụtara [[Ahịhịhịa|ahịhịa]]. ''Oxford Companion to Food'' na-ama aka na echiche ahụ na ose sitere na osisi bụ iwu siri ike, na-atụ aka na a na-amata ambergris dị ka ose n'agbanyeghị na anụmanụ sitere na ya.[5] Akụkụ ọzọ bụ isi iyi ala: ''OED'' na-akọwapụta na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ sitere na mpaghara okpomọkụ, ebe ''The Oxford Companion to Food'' na-enye ihe atụ nke [[Cara way|mkpụrụ caraway]] dị ka ihe na-egosi na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nwere ike ịpụta site na mpaghara okpomọkụ. Echiche na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ sitere na okpomọkụ bụ akụkọ ihe mere eme: a ghọtara "ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ" na mbụ dị ka ụdị ngwaahịa sitere na Ọwụwa Anyanwụ. Ka ndị Europe zutere Amerịka, na-amalite mgbanwe Columbian, ihe ọ pụtara gbasaa iji jide ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ọhụrụ, ihe ọ pụtara mesịkwara gbanwee ọzọ iji zoo aka na ojiji nri. Mmepe akụkọ ihe mere eme a emeela ka ụfọdụ ihe ndị sitere na nri Europe dị ka galik na horseradish ghara ịbụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ n'agbanyeghị na ha na-ekerịta ọtụtụ ihe.[5] == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles> === Akụkọ ihe mere eme mbụ === Nnyocha ihe ochie banyere ojiji ngwa ngwa ose siri ike, ebe ọ bụ na e ji obere ihe ose mee ihe, na-ahapụkwa ihe fọdụrụnụ ole na ole echekwara.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Moore|first=Katherine M|title=Routledge International Handbook of Food Studies|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013|isbn=978-0-415-78264-7|editor=Albala|location=Oxford & New York|chapter=The archaeology of food}}</ref> Azụmahịa ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ malitere n'ofe kọntinent India<ref name="Sidebotham2019">{{Cite book|author=Steven E. Sidebotham|title=Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ|date=May 7, 2019|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30338-6|accessdate=April 13, 2019}}</ref> na Middle East ka ọ na-erule afọ 2000 Tupu Oge Anyị, site na iji sinamọn na ose ojii, nakwa na East Asia site na iji ahịhịa na ose. Ndị Ijipt jiri ahịhịa mee nri na mummification. Ọchịchọ ha maka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na ahịhịa ndị ọzọ nyeere aka kwalite azụmaahịa ụwa. E jiri cloves mee ihe na Mesopotemia n'afọ 1700 Tupu Oge Anyị. Ihe ndekọ mbụ e dere banyere ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ sitere na omenala ndị Ijipt oge ochie, ndị China, na ndị India. Ebers Papyrus nke Ijipt oge ochie nke malitere na 1550 Tupu Oge Anyị na-akọwa ihe dị ka narị asatọ nke ọgwụ ahịhịa dị iche iche na ọtụtụ usoro ọgwụgwọ.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Food and Culture|author=Woodward|first=Penny|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=2003|editor=Katz|pages=187–195|chapter=Herbs and Spices}}</ref> Site na 1000 Tupu oge anyị eruo, e nwere ike ịchọta usoro ọgwụgwọ dabere na ahịhịa na [[China]], [[Korea]], na [[Ndia|India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Sonal Dubey|title=Indian Spices and their medicinal value|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320247387|journal=Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research|date=2017|volume=51|issue=3s2|pages=s330–s332|accessdate=27 July 2025|doi=10.5530/ijper.51.3s.41}}</ref> Ojiji mbụ jikọtara ya na anwansi, ọgwụ, okpukperechi, ọdịnala, na nchekwa.<ref name="ABCp14">{{Cite book|author=Murdock|first=Linda|title=A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals|publisher=Bellwether Books|year=2001|isbn=978-0-9704285-0-9}}</ref> Ndị ahịa Indonesịa na-agagharị na Chaịna, India, Middle East, na ụsọ oké osimiri ọwụwa anyanwụ Afrịka. Ndị ahịa Arab na-eme ka ụzọ ndị dị n'Etiti Ọwụwa Anyanwụ na India dị mfe. Nke a mere ka obodo ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri Ijipt bụ́ Alexandria bụrụ ebe azụmaahịa isi maka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. Ihe kacha mkpa a chọpụtara tupu azụmaahịa ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nke Yurop bụ ifufe mmiri ozuzo (40 OA). Ịkwọ ụgbọ mmiri site n'aka ndị na-akọ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nke Ọwụwa Anyanwụ gaa n'aka ndị na-azụ ahịa na Western Europe ji nwayọọ nwayọọ dochie ụzọ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nke ndị njem Arab nke Middle East na-emebu.<ref name="ABCp14">{{Cite book|author=Murdock|first=Linda|title=A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals|publisher=Bellwether Books|year=2001|isbn=978-0-9704285-0-9}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFMurdock2001">Murdock, Linda (2001). ''A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals''. Bellwether Books. p.&nbsp;14. [[ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0-9704285-0-9|<bdi>978-0-9704285-0-9</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ pụtara ìhè nke ukwuu n'ụwa ochie nke na a kpọtụrụ aha ha n'Agba Ochie . Na Jenesis, ụmụnne ya rere Josef ka ọ bụrụ ohu nye ndị na-ere ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. Na Ọpụpụ, a kọwara manna dị ka nke yiri coriander n'ọdịdị. Na [[Abụ Solomọn|Abụ nke Solomọn]], nwoke na-akọ akụkọ ahụ tụnyere onye ọ hụrụ n'anya na ọtụtụ saffron, sinamọn, na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ndị ọzọ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: Song of Songs 4:14 - New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Song+of+Solomon+4:14&version=NIV|accessdate=2025-03-22|work=Bible Gateway|language=en}}</ref> Ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme kwenyere na a malitere ịkụ nutmeg, nke sitere na agwaetiti Banda dị na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia, na Yuropu na narị afọ nke isii Tupu Oge Anyị.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Burkill|first=I.H.|title=A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives|location=Kuala Lumpur|year=1966}}</ref> Ndị Rom nwere cloves na narị afọ nke mbụ OA, dịka Pliny the Elder si dee banyere ha.<ref name="Duke 2002 p. 7">{{Cite book|author=Duke|first=J.A.|title=CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices|publisher=CRC Press|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4200-4048-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|accessdate=May 9, 2017}}</ref> === Oge Ụwa Na-emepechabeghị Anya === [[Faịlụ:Le_livre_des_merveilles_de_Marco_Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|"Mullus" na-ewe ose. Ihe osise sitere na mbipụta French nke The Travels of Marco Polo.]] Ngwa nri so n'ime ngwaahịa ndị a kacha achọ ma dị oke ọnụ ahịa na Yuropu n'oge etiti, nke a na-ahụkarị bụ ose ojii, sinamọn (na cassia ọzọ dị ọnụ ala), cumin, nutmeg, ginger, na klọvụ . N'ihi isi ozizi nke ihe ọchị nke ọgwụ oge ochie, ngwa nri na ahịhịa dị mkpa iji dozie "ihe ọchị" na nri,<ref>{{Cite book|author=Linda Civitello|title=Cuisine and culture: a history of food and people|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2007|isbn=0-471-74172-8}}</ref> kwa ụbọchị maka ahụike dị mma n'oge ọrịa na-efe efe na-aga n'ihu. Na mgbakwunye na ịbụ ndị na-eji ọgwụ oge ochie na-achọ, ndị isi Europe chọkwara ngwa nri n'oge etiti, na-ekwere na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ sitere na ya na njikọ ya na "paradise".<ref>{{Cite book|author=Schivelbusch, Wolfgang|title=Tastes of paradise : a social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants|date=1992|publisher=Pantheon Books|isbn=0-394-57984-4|oclc=24702170}}</ref> Ihe atụ nke ọchịchọ ndị ọgaranya Europe maka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ sitere n'aka Eze Aragon, onye tinyere nnukwu ego n'ịbubata ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na [[Spain|Spen]] na narị afọ nke 12. Ọ na-achọ kpọmkwem ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ iji tinye na mmanya ma ọ bụghị naanị ya n'etiti ndị eze Europe n'oge ahụ nwere ọchịchọ dị otú ahụ maka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Freedman|first=Paul|date=June 5, 2015|title=Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=167|pages=47–53|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065|pmid=25450779}}</ref> A na-esi n'ugbo dị n'Eshia na Afrịka ebubata ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ niile, nke mere ka ha dị oke ọnụ. Site na narị afọ nke 8 ruo narị afọ nke 15, Republic of Venice nwere naanị azụmaahịa ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na Middle East, na-eji ọnọdụ a achị mba ndị gbara ya gburugburu na mba ndị dị n'akụkụ mmiri nke Itali na steeti obodo. Azụmahịa ahụ mere ka mpaghara ahụ baa ọgaranya. A na-eme atụmatụ na ihe dị ka tọn 1,000 nke ose na tọn 1,000 nke ọtụtụ ihe ndị ọzọ a na-esi ísì ụtọ na Western Europe kwa afọ n'oge Ọgwụgwụ Oge Ochie. Uru nke ngwaahịa ndị a bụ nhata nke ọka kwa afọ maka nde mmadụ 1.5.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Adamson, Melitta Weiss|title=Food in Medieval Times|url=https://archive.org/details/foodmedievaltime00adam_218|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|year=2004|isbn=978-0-313-32147-4|accessdate=2026-04-01}}</ref> Nke kachasị pụrụ iche bụ saffron, nke e ji mee ihe dịka agba odo odo na-acha ọbara ọbara na-acha odo odo ma e jiri ya mee ihe maka ụtọ ya. Ihe ndị na-esi ísì ụtọ ndị a na-adịghị ahụkebe na nri Europe gụnyere mkpụrụ osisi paradaịs, nke bụ ihe ikwu nke cardamom nke nọchirikarị ose n'oge nri ndịda French nke oge ochie, yana ose ogologo, mace, spikenard, galangal, na [[Piper cubeba|cubeb]]. === Oge mmalite nke oge a === Ndị njem si [[Spain|Spen]] na [[Portugal]] nwere mmasị ịchọ ụzọ ọhụrụ iji zụọ ahịa ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na ngwaahịa ndị ọzọ bara uru sitere na Eshia. Njikwa ụzọ azụmaahịa na mpaghara ndị na-emepụta ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ bụ isi ihe mere onye ọkwọ ụgbọ mmiri [[Portugal|Portuguese]] bụ Vasco da Gama ji ụgbọ mmiri gaa [[Ndia|India]] na 1499.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Gantzer|first=Hugh|year=2014|title=SpiceStory|publisher=Spices Board of India|isbn=9789383098385}}</ref> Mgbe da Gama chọpụtara ahịa ose na India, o nwere ike inweta ose na ọnụ ahịa dị ala karịa nke Venice chọrọ.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Freedman|first=Paul|date=June 5, 2015|title=Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=167|pages=47–53|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065|pmid=25450779}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFFreedman2015">Freedman, Paul (June 5, 2015). "Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages". ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. Potent Substances: On the Boundaries of Food and Medicine. '''167''': <span class="nowrap">47–</span>53. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065|10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]]&nbsp;[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25450779 25450779].</cite></ref> N'otu oge ahụ, Christopher Columbus si New World lọta. Ọ kọọrọ ndị na-etinye ego ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ọhụrụ dị ebe ahụ.[a] Isi ihe ọzọ na-akpata asọmpi n'ahịa ose n'oge narị afọ nke 15 na nke 16 bụ ndị Ragusan si mba Dubrovnik nke dị na ndịda Croatia. Ọganihu agha nke Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) nyere ndị Portugal ohere ịchịkwa ụzọ mmiri na-aga India. Na 1506, o weghaara agwaetiti Socotra n'ọnụ [[Red Sea|Oké Osimiri Uhie]], na 1507, Ormuz na Ọwara Oké Osimiri Persia . Kemgbe ọ ghọrọ osote onye Indies, o weghaara Goa na India na 1510, na Malacca na Ala Malay na 1511. Ndị Portugal nwere ike ịzụ ahịa ozugbo na Siam, [[China]], na Agwaetiti Maluku. Site na nchọpụta nke Ụwa Ọhụrụ, e nwetara ngwa nri ọhụrụ, gụnyere allspice, ose chili, vanilla, na chocolate . Mmepe a mere ka azụmaahịa ngwa nri, nke ndị Amerịka dịka ndị na-abịa n'oge na-adịghị anya na ngwa nri ọhụrụ ha, baa uru ruo narị afọ nke 19.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mariners Weather Log Vol. 52, No. 3, December 2008|url=https://www.vos.noaa.gov/MWL/dec_08/great_exchange.shtml|accessdate=2024-10-07|work=www.vos.noaa.gov}}</ref> == ọrụ == [[Faịlụ:Common_Indian_spices.jpg|alt=Chili powder, mustard seeds, turmeric powder, cumin seeds|thumb|Turmeric ntụ, mkpụrụ mustard, chilli ntụ, mkpụrụ cumin]] A na-ejikarị ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nri ma ọ bụ iji mepụta ụdị dị iche iche.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|author=Dennett|first=Carrie|date=January 26, 2017|title=How a full spice cabinet can keep you healthy|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/spices-and-herbs-do-more-than-add-flavor-to-food--they-are-nutritional-powerhouses/2017/01/25/79dbedb4-e24c-11e6-a453-19ec4b3d09ba_story.html|work=[[The Washington Post]]|accessdate=August 12, 2022}}</ref> A na-ejikwa ha eme ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ maka ihe ịchọ mma na ihe nsure ọkụ na-esi ísì ụtọ. N'oge dị iche iche, e ji ọtụtụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ eme ihe n'ọgwụ ahịhịa . N'ikpeazụ, ebe ọ bụ na ha nwere ike ịdị oke ọnụ, dị ụkọ na ihe ndị pụrụ iche, oriri ha a na-ahụkarị abụrụla ihe nnọchianya nke akụnụba na ọkwa mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya. === Nkwupụta ndị na-echekwa ihe === <templatestyles src="Template:Quote_box/styles.css" />  A na-ekwukarị na e ji ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ eme ihe dị ka ihe nchekwa nri ma ọ bụ iji kpuchie uto anụ mebiri emebi, karịsịa n'oge Europe nke oge etiti.<ref name="ThomasDaoust2012">{{Cite journal|author=Thomas|first=Frédéric|title=Can we understand modern humans without considering pathogens?: Human evolution and parasites|journal=Evolutionary Applications|date=June 2012|volume=5|issue=4|pages=368–379|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00231.x|pmid=25568057}}</ref> Nke a bụ ụgha.<ref name="freedman" /> N'eziokwu, ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ adịghị arụ ọrụ dị ka ihe nchekwa ma e jiri ya tụnyere nnu, ise siga, ịcha mkpụrụ, ma ọ bụ ịkpọ nkụ, ha adịghịkwa arụ ọrụ nke ọma n'ikpuchi uto anụ mebiri emebi.<ref name="freedman" /> Ọzọkwa, ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ dị oke ọnụ mgbe niile: na Oxford nke narị afọ nke 15, otu ezi zuru oke na-efu ihe dị ka otu paụnd nke ose kachasị ọnụ ala, ose.<ref name="freedman" /> Enweghịkwa ihe akaebe na e ji ya eme ihe dị otú ahụ site n'akwụkwọ nri nke oge a: "Akwụkwọ nri ochie na-eme ka o doo anya na e jighị ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ mee ihe nchekwa. Ha na-atụ arokarị itinye ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na njedebe nke usoro nri, ebe ha enweghị ike inwe mmetụta nchekwa ọ bụla." N'ezie, Cristoforo di Messisbugo tụrụ aro na narị afọ nke 16 na ose nwere ike ime ka mmebi ngwa ngwa.<ref name="krondl" /> Ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nwere ihe ndị na-egbu nje n'ime vitro,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shelef|first=L.A.|title=Antimicrobial Effects of Spices|journal=Journal of Food Safety|volume=6|issue=1|year=1984|pages=29–44|doi=10.1111/j.1745-4565.1984.tb00477.x}}</ref> ose—ihe a na-ahụkarị n'ọtụtụ—adịghị arụ ọrụ nke ọma, n'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, nnu dị ọnụ ala karịa ya dịkwa irè karịa.{{Clear}} == Nchịkọta na ụdị == [[Faịlụ:Indian_spices_with_labels_(garam_masala_components)_(49684333301).jpg|thumb|Efere Ahịhịa na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nke India]] === Ahịhịa na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ === <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles> === Ihe ndabere nke osisi === <templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css" />  === Ngwakọta ihe ndị a na-ahụkarị === <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 28em;"> * [[Advieh]] ([[Iran|Ira]]) * [[Baharat]] ([[Arab world|ụwa Arab]], na [[Middle East]] n'ozuzu ya) * [[Berbere]] ([[Ethiopia]] na [[Eritrea]]) * [[Yaji (spice blend)|Yaji (ngwakọta ose)]] ([[Nigeria]]) * [[Bumbu (seasoning)|Bumbu]] ([[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesia]]) * [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[United States|Amerịka]]) * [[Chaat masala|Chaat Masala]] ([[Indian subcontinent|mpaghara India]]) * [[Chili powder|Ntụ ntụ]] [[Chili pepper|ose]] na [[Crushed red pepper|ose uhie a gwepịara egwepịa]] ([[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]], [[Chipotle]], [[Jalapeño]], [[New Mexico chile|New Mexico]], [[Tabasco pepper|Tabasco]], na [[List of Capsicum cultivars|ụdị ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ]]) * [[Curry powder|Ntụ ntụ curry]] * [[Five-spice powder|Ntụ ntụ ose ise]] ([[China]]) * [[Garam masala]] (mpaghara India) * [[Harissa]] ([[North Africa]]) * [[Hawaij]] ([[Yemen]]) * [[Jamaican jerk spice|Ngwakọta ose]] ([[Jamaica|Jamaika]]) * [[Khmeli suneli|Khmeli Suneli]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) * [[Masala (spice)|Masala]] (aha nkịtị maka ngwakọta ọ bụla ejiri mee ihe na mpaghara India) * [[Mixed spice|Ngwakọta ose]] ([[United Kingdom]]) * [[Panch phoron]] (mpaghara India) * [[Pumpkin pie spice|Ngwa nri achịcha ugu]] ([[United States]]) * [[Quatre épices]] ([[France]]) * [[Ras el hanout]] ([[North Africa]]) * [[Sharena sol]] (nke pụtara "nnu agba", [[Bulgaria]]) * [[Shichimi|Shichimi togarashi]] ([[Japan]]) * [[Speculaas]] ([[Belgium]] na [[Netherlands]]) * Thuna Paha ([[Sri Lanka]]) * [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Croatia]]) na aha nkịtị maka akara a ma ama na [[Central and Eastern Europe|Central na Eastern Europe]] * [[Za'atar]] (Middle East) </div> == Njikwa == [[Faịlụ:Spice-shelf.jpg|thumb|Ebe a na-edebe ihe ndị na-esi ísì ụtọ maka kichin ụlọ na Canada ma ọ bụ na United States]] [[Faịlụ:Peugeot_pepper_mill.jpg|áká_èkpè|thumb|Ihe igwe ihe ose]] Ngwa e ji asụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ bụ ngwa e ji asụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ. Ngwa ndị na-anaghị arụ ọrụ nke ọma ugbu a na-adịkarị: enwere ike iji obere ihe e ji asụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ma ọ bụ obere ihe e ji asụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ; igwe e ji asụ kọfị bara uru maka nnukwu ego. Ngwa e ji asụ ihe dị ka ose ojii nwere ike ịchekwa ya n'ime igwe e ji asụ ihe ma ọ bụ igwe e ji asụ ihe. A na-enweta ụtọ ose site na ngwakọta (mmanụ ndị na-adịghị agbanwe agbanwe) nke na-eme ka oxidize ma ọ bụ gbapụ mgbe ikuku batara. Ịgweri ose na-eme ka elu ya dịkwuo elu nke ukwuu, ya mere ọ na-eme ka ọnụego oxidation na evaporation dịkwuo elu. Ya mere, a na-eme ka ụtọ ahụ dịkwuo elu site n'ịchekwa ose dum ma na-egweri ya mgbe ọ dị mkpa. Ndụ nchekwa nke ose kpọrọ nkụ dị ihe dị ka afọ abụọ; nke ose a gweri ihe dị ka ọnwa isii. "Ndụ ụtọ" nke ose a gweri ihe nwere ike ịdị mkpụmkpụ karịa. A na-echekwa ose a gweri ihe ka mma ichekwa ya n'ebe ìhè na-adịghị. Ụfọdụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ dị na ose na-agbaze na mmiri; ọtụtụ na-agbaze na mmanụ ma ọ bụ abụba. Dịka iwu n'ozuzu, ụtọ sitere na ose na-ewe oge iji tinye n'ime nri ahụ, yabụ a na-etinye ose n'oge nkwadebe. Nke a dị iche na [[Ahịhịhịa|ahịhịa]] ndị a na-etinyekarị n'oge nkwadebe. === Mmetụta Salmonella === Nnyocha nke Ụlọ Ọrụ Nri na Ọgwụ nke na-ebuga ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ gaa mba Amerịka n'afọ ego 2007-2009 gosiri na ihe dị ka 7% nke mbupu ndị ahụ bụ nje bacteria ''Salmonella'' merụrụ ahụ, ụfọdụ n'ime ha anaghị anabata ọgwụ nje.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Van Dorena|first=Jane M.|title=Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella in imported shipments of spice offered for entry to the United States, FY2007–FY2009|journal=Food Microbiology|date=June 2013|volume=34|issue=2|pages=239–251|doi=10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.002|pmid=23541190|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258953|accessdate=June 16, 2019}}</ref> Ebe ọ bụ na a na-esi ọtụtụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ tupu e nye ha nri, nje Salmonella anaghị enwe mmetụta ọ bụla, mana a na-erikarị ụfọdụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ, karịsịa ose, ma na-adị na tebụl maka ojiji dị mma. Mbupu sitere na Mexico na India, bụ́ isi na-emepụta ihe, bụ ndị a na-emekarị ka ha merụọ ahụ.<ref name="NYT82713">{{Cite news|title=Salmonella in Spices Prompts Changes in Farming|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/world/asia/farmers-change-over-spices-link-to-food-ills.html|accessdate=August 28, 2013|work=The New York Times|date=August 27, 2013|author=Gardiner Harris}}</ref> A na-ekwu na radieshon nri na-ebelata ihe egwu a.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Effects of gamma-irradiation on the free radical and antioxidant contents in nine aromatic herbs and spices.|year=2003|pmid=12568551|author=Calucci|first=L.|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=51|issue=4|pages=927–34|doi=10.1021/jf020739n}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 28, 2017|title=Myths about Food Irradiation|url=https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation|accessdate=July 30, 2022|work=Center for Consumer Research|language=en|archivedate=July 30, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730162900/https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation}}</ref>{{Clear}} == Mmepụta == [[Faịlụ:Spices_in_an_Indian_market.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na ahịhịa n'otu ụlọ ahịa dị na Goa, India]] {| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:left" |+Mba Ndị Na-emepụta Ihe Na-esi ísì ụtọ (na metric ton) <br /> !Ọnọdụ !Mba !2010 !2011 |- |1 |India |1,474,900 |1,525,000 |- |2 |Bangladesh |128,517 |139,775 |- |3 |Turkey |107,000 |113,783 |- |4 |China |90,000 |95,890 |- |5 |Pakistan |53,647 |53,620 |- |6 |Iran |18,028 |21,307 |- |7 |Nepal |20,360 |20,905 |- |8 |Colombia |16,998 |19,378 |- |9 |Etiopia |27,122 |17,905 |- |10 |Sri Lanka |8,293 |8,438 |- bgcolor="#cccccc" | - |''[[World|Ụwa]]'' |1,995,523 |2,063,472 |- | colspan="4" |Ebe e si nweta ya: UN Food & Agriculture Organization<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx|publisher=[[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]|title=Production of Spice by countries|year=2011|accessdate=December 20, 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx|archivedate=July 13, 2011}}</ref> |} {{Clear}} == Nhazi == Òtù Mba Nile Maka Nhazi Ihe Na- eme Ka A Na-ahụ Maka Ngwakọta na Ngwakọta Ihe Na-esi ísì ụtọ, tinyere ihe mgbakwunye nri ndị metụtara ya, dịka akụkụ nke usoro nhazi mba ụwa maka ọkọlọtọ 67.220.<ref>{{Cite web|work=[[International Organization for Standardization]]|title=67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives|year=2009|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on|accessdate=April 23, 2009|archivedate=June 6, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151414/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on}}</ref> == Ihe ngosi == <gallery mode="packed"> Faịlụ:Gato_negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop (Buenos Aires, Argentina) Faịlụ:Spice_shop,_Mashad,_Iran.jpg|A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran Faịlụ:Night_Spice_market_in_Casablanca.JPG|Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco Faịlụ:Taliparamba_Market.jpg|A spice shop in Taliparamba, India Faịlụ:Taliparamba_grocery.jpg|Spices sold in Taliparamba, India Faịlụ:Spice_seller,_Kashgar_market.jpg|Spice seller at a market in Kashgar, China Faịlụ:Spice_Market,_Marakech_(2242330035).jpg|Spice market, Marrakesh, Morocco Faịlụ:Spices,_Pakistan_Bahawalpur.jpg|Spice shop in Bahawalpur, Pakistan. </gallery> == Hụkwa ==   * Ngwakọta ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ (ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ), usoro esi ewepụta mmanụ dị mkpa site na ngwa nri niile * Ite ose na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ e ji esi nri tupu e sie ya == Ihe edeturu == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist|group=note}}<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Ebe e si nweta ya == * {{Cite book|author=Davidson|first=Alan|title=[[The Oxford Companion to Food]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2014|isbn=9780191756276|edition=3rd}} == Ịgụ ihe ọzọ == === Akwụkwọ === * {{Cite book|author=Czarra|first=Fred|year=2009|title=Spices: A Global History|url=https://archive.org/details/spicesglobalhist0000czar|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-426-7|accessdate=2026-04-01}} * {{Cite book|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|authorlink=Andrew Dalby|year=2000|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}} * {{Cite book|author=Freedman|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Freedman|year=2008|title=Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-21131-3}} * {{Cite book|author=Keay|first=John|authorlink=John Keay|year=2006|title=The Spice Route: A History|publisher=John Murray|isbn=978-0-7195-6199-3}} * {{Cite book|author=Miller|first=James Innes|year=1969|title=The spice trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon P.|isbn=978-0-19-814264-5}} * {{Cite book|author=Morton|first=Timothy|title=The Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-02666-6}} * {{Cite book|author=Seidemann|first=Johannes|year=2005|title=World Spice Plants: Economic Usage, Botany, Taxonomy|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-22279-8}} * {{Cite book|author=Turner|first=Jack|authorlink=Jack Turner (writer)|year=2004|title=Spice: The History of a Temptation|publisher=Knopf|isbn=978-0-375-40721-5|url=https://archive.org/details/spicehistoryofte00turn_0|accessdate=2026-04-01}} == Njikọ mpụga == *   *   *   {{Herbs & spices}}{{Cuisine}}{{Non-timber forest products}}{{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] rthtcxj9mp19c4ffmpfbz4nw5ex8pkm Charles the Child 0 77940 688014 2026-07-14T04:46:03Z Goodymeraj 16207 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1321760707|Charles the Child]]" 688014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox royalty | name = Charles | title = King of Aquitaine | image = | image_size = | birth_date = 847/848 | birth_place = | death_date = 866 | death_place = Buzançais | burial_date = | spouse = Wife | issue = | father = [[Charles the Bald]] | mother = [[Ermentrude of Orléans]] | embed = }} <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%" |Charles |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" |''Eze nke Aquitaine'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |A mụrụ | class="infobox-data" |847/848 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Nwụrụ | class="infobox-data" |866<span class="deathplace">Buzançais</span><br /> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Nwunye Ya | class="infobox-data" |Nwunye |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Nna ya | class="infobox-data" |[[Charles the Bald|Charles Onye isi nkwọcha]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Nne ya | class="infobox-data" |[[Ermentrude of Orléans|Ermentrude nke Orléans]] |} Charles the child maọbụ the Young (847/848 - 29 Septemba 866) bụ Eze nke Aquitaine site na Ọktoba 855 ruo ọnwụ ya na 866. Onye a mụrụ na Frankfurt am Main, Charles the Child bụ nwa nwoke nke abụọ nke [[:en:Charles_the_Bald|Charles the Bald]] na nwanne nwoke nke [[:en:Louis_the_Stammerer|Louis the Stammerer]]. Nna ya họpụtara Charles nke obere, onye chịburu n'oge gara aga dị ka Eze nke Aquitaine n'onwe ya site na 838, dị ka sop na nkewa nke Aquitaine. Ndị Aquitaine enupụrụbuola Charles the Bald isi, na-arịọ [[:en:Louis_the_German|Louis the German]] ka o zipụ otu n'ime ụmụ ya ndị nwoke ka ọ chịa ha. Louis zigara nwa ya nwoke nke abụọ, [[:en:Louis_the_Younger|Louis the Younger]], na-akpali Charles the Bald ịtọhapụ onye ya na ya na-azọ ka ọ gawa Aquitaine, Pipin nke Abụọ. Pippin mechara gaa n'ihu ịchịkọta ndị a ma ama iji kwado onwe ya na Charles the Bald megide Louis the Younger, onye a chụpụrụ. Otú ọ dị, ka ọ na-erule n'ọnwa Ọktoba, Pippin tụfuru iwu ewu ya n'etiti ndị Aquitaine ka na-enupụ isi, na-akpali Charles the Bald ịhọpụta Charles the Child dị ka Eze. E tere Charles the Child mmanụ n'ụzọ kwesịrị ekwesị na Limoges. N'ime otu afọ, ndị Aquitaine ejirila Pippin nke Abụọ dochie ya. Otu ndị a wepụkwara Pippin n'ọchịchị ma weghachite Charles the Child. E jidere Pippin na 864 ma tụọ ya mkpọrọ na Senlis, ebe ọ nọzi pụọ n'anya n'akụkọ ihe mere eme. N'adịghị ka ala eze nta nke Aquitaine chịburu, ([[:en:Louis_the_Pious|Louis the Pious]], [[:en:Pepin_I_of_Aquitaine|Pippin I]], [[:en:Pepin_II_of_Aquitaine|Pippin II]]), Charles the Child enweghị ezigbo ikike ọbụla. Tupu 840, eze nweere onwe ya nọbu na-achị alaeze ahụ n'onwe ya; Otú ọ dị, Charles the Bald, mgbe ọ batachara n'ọkwa dịka Eze nke Western Francia, gbalịrị ịnọgide na-enwe ike na Aquitaine. N'ihi ya, Charles the Child, na nwanne ya nwoke Louis the Stammerer, achịghị n'onwe ha, enweghị chancery, enweghị ike ịnye ngwáọrụ ọbụla; ha enwenwughịzi ike inye ihe ùgwù ọbụla, inye maọbụ ihiwe ụlọ okpukpe, maọbụ wepụ ihe onwunwe eze. E tinyere ikike niile nke mpaghara ahụ na Charles the Bald, onye ọ bụ na mgbe ọ na-anọghị ya, ndị a ma ama nke ahụ nwetara ike. Ka o sina dị, ka Charles na-etolite, ọ malitere igosi obere ikike o nwere ike. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, na 862 ọ họọrọ ma lụọ nwunye megide ọchịchọ nna ya. A maghị aha nwunye ya, ọ bụ ezie na o doro anya na ọ bụ nwanyị di ya nwụrụ nke bụ otu Count aha ya bụ Humbert. Charles the Bald gosighachịrị ike ya n'elu nwa na nwoke na 863, na-amanye Charles nke obere ịchụpụ nwunye ya ma rubere nna ya isi. Otu afọ mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị, otu onye so n'òtù ịchụ nta nke ya ji mma agha tie ya n'isi na mberede n'ọgụ egwuregwu, nke mere ka [[:en:Ado_of_Vienne|Ado nke Vienne]] kwuo na "Charles bụ onye e mere ihere (''dehonestatus'') site n'ịta ya bụ ahụhụ". Ihe a mere ka o nwee isi mgbaka ruo mgbe ọ nwụrụ na 866. Ọ nwụrụ n'amụtaghị nwa naBuzançais a ma lie ya na Bourges . == Ihe edeturu == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Ebe e si nweta ihe Ndị E Dere == * Callahan, Daniel F. "Eleanor nke Aquitaine, usoro omenala ikpunye Okpueze nke ndị Duke nke Aquitaina na Okpukpe nke Saint Martial nke Limoges" (pp. 29-36). The World of Eleanor of Aquitaine: Literature and Society in Southern France between the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries, edd. Marcus Bull na Catherine Léglu. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2005. * {{Cite book|author=Goldberg|first=Eric J.|chapter='A Man of Notable Good Looks Disfigured by a Cruel Wound': The Forest Misadventure of Charles the Young of Aquitaine (864) in History and Legend|title=Historiography and Identity III: Carolingian Approaches|series=Cultural Encounters in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages|editor=Rutger Kramer|publisher=Brepols|year=2021|pages=355–386|doi=10.1484/M.CELAMA-EB.5.120170|isbn=978-2-503-58655-7}} * [[:en:Guy_Halsall|Halsall, Guy]]. ''Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450–900''. London: Routledge, 2003. * McKitterick, Rosamond ''Alaeze Frank n'okpuru ndị Carolingian''. {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[Carolingian|Carolingian dynasty]]|c.|848|29 September|866|name=Charles III of Aquitaine}} {{s-bef|before=[[Charles the Bald]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[King of Aquitaine]]|years=855–866 <br/> in contest with [[Pepin II of Aquitaine|Pepin II]] <br/> 855–864}} {{s-aft|after=[[Louis the Stammerer]]}} {{s-end}}{{Carolingians footer}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Child, Charles The}} [[Otú:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Otú:Articles with short description]] g9fsqbjiumd5djzwmp9s97zzdjydtcj Lime 0 77941 688015 2026-07-14T04:48:47Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1342292590|Lime (fruit)]]" 688015 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>  [[Faịlụ:Lime_Blossom.jpg|thumb|Mkpụrụ osisi na okooko osisi nke Persian lime (''Citrus × latifolia'') ]] [[Faịlụ:Citrus_hystrix_dsc07772.jpg|thumb|Mkpụrụ osisi lime Makrut]] '''Lime''' bụ mkpụrụ nke ọtụtụ ụdị citrus, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ngwakọta n'ime ụdị ''Citrus'' (ezinụlọ Rutaceae). Lime na-adịkarị obere, mkpụrụ osisi gbara gburugburu ruo oval, nwere anụ ahụ na akpụkpọ ahụ akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ, ha na-atọkwa ụtọ nke ukwuu n'ihi nnukwu ọdịnaya citric acid ha. A na-akọ ha nke ọma n'ógbè okpomọkụ na nke dị n'okpuru okpomọkụ maka ebumnuche nri, ọgwụgwọ, na ịchọ mma. A na-eji okwu ahụ bụ "lime" eme ihe maka ọtụtụ mkpụrụ osisi citrus, gụnyere Key lime (''Citrus × aurantiifolia''), Persian lime (''Citrus × latifolia''), Makrut lime (''Citrus hystrix''), finger lime (''Citrus australasica''), blood lime (hybrid), na desert lime na ndị ọzọ. Lime bụ isi iyi vitamin C bara ụba ma ejiri ya mee ka ụtọ nri na ihe ọṅụṅụ pụta ìhè. Na 2023, mmepụta lime zuru ụwa ọnụ (ejikọtara ya na lemon ) bụ tọn nde 23.6, nke India na Mexico na-edu. == Nkọwa == Lime na-adịkarị sentimita 3–6 (1–2.5) n'obosara ma nwee obere akpụkpọ ahụ dị gịrịgịrị ruo na nke dị oke arọ nke na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ mgbe ọ na-achabeghị, ọ pụkwara ịgbanwe odo mgbe ọ tozuru okè. Mkpụrụ osisi ahụ na-atọ ụtọ ma na-esi ísì ụtọ nke ukwuu. A na-egbute ọtụtụ ụdị azụmaahịa akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ, mgbe ụtọ na acidity ha siri ike. Osisi Lime bụ obere osisi na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ ma ọ bụ obere osisi nwere akwụkwọ na-egbuke egbuke na okooko osisi ọcha na-esi ísì ụtọ. Mkpụrụ osisi dị iche iche: Lime ndị dị mkpa na-abụkarị mkpụrụ, ebe Lime ndị Peshia fọrọ nke nta ka ọ ghara inwe mkpụrụ. == Nchịkọta na ụdị == Lime anaghị etolite otu ụdị ihe ọkụkụ, ebe ọ bụ na ọtụtụ ụdị azụmaahịa bụ ngwakọta sitere na citron (''C. medica''), mandarin (''C. reticulata''), pomelo (''C. maxima''), na mgbe ụfọdụ micrantha. * Mkpụrụ osisi dị mkpa (''Citrus'' × ''aurantiifolia'') — Mkpụrụ osisi dị obere, nke a na-akọpụta n'oge gara aga site na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1186/s12863-014-0152-1|pmid=25544367|volume=15|title=Next generation haplotyping to decipher nuclear genomic interspecific admixture in Citrus species: analysis of chromosome 2|journal=BMC Genetics|year=2014|author=Curk|first=Franck}}</ref> * Lime Persian (''Citrus'' × ''latifolia'') — Ngwakọta Key lime na lemon buru ibu, nke fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ enweghị mkpụrụ (''C. × limon''), nke bụ lime kachasị emepụta.<ref name="usda">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/1679187/fresh-market-limes-special-article.pdf|title=Fresh-Market Limes|publisher=USDA Economic Research Service|date=26 September 2014|author=Plattner, Kristy|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412180430/http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/1679187/fresh-market-limes-special-article.pdf|archivedate=12 April 2015}}</ref> * Makrut lime (''C. hystrix'') — Mkpụrụ osisi na-esi ísì ụtọ, nke a na-ejikarị eme nri ndị dị na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia.<ref name="usda" /> * Lime desert nke Australia (''C. glauca'') na lime mkpịsị aka (''C. australasica'') — Ụdị ndị Australia a ma ama nwere ọtụtụ nri dị iche iche.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.homecitrusgrowers.co.uk/australiannativecitrus/bloodlime.html|title=Australian Blood Lime|work=homecitrusgrowers.co.uk|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831002215/http://www.homecitrusgrowers.co.uk/australiannativecitrus/bloodlime.html|archivedate=31 August 2012}}</ref> * Ngwakọta ndị ọzọ gụnyere lime ọbara, lime Rangpur, lime Spanish (''Melicoccus bijugatus'' ; ọ bụghị ezigbo citrus), na lime dị ụtọ (''Citrus limetta''). * Lim ndị na-abụghị citrus gụnyere ''Zanthoxylum fagara'' na ''Adelia ricinella'' . Aha Bekee ya bụ́ "osisi lime" metụtakwara ụdị ''Tilia'', nke na-enweghị njikọ na mkpụrụ osisi citrus. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == Lime sitere na mpaghara ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia na ndịda Eshia nke ebe okpomọkụ, a na-agbasakwa ya site na njem na azụmaahịa mmadụ. Lime Makrut so na mkpụrụ osisi citrus mbụ e webatara n'èzí ebe obibi ha. Lime ruru Micronesia na Polynesia site na mgbasa Austronesia (ihe dị ka 3000–1500 TOA), ma mesịa ruo Middle East na Mediterenian site na azụmaahịa ose ihe dị ka 1200 TOA.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Blench|first=R.M.|title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo Pacific region|journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association|date=2005|volume=24|pages=31–50|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255579031}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus|journal=Nature|volume=554|issue=7692|pages=311–316|date=February 2018|pmid=29414943|doi=10.1038/nature25447}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/lime|title=Lime|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|date=2016|accessdate=16 July 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810093643/https://www.britannica.com/plant/lime|archivedate=10 August 2016}}</ref> N'ime narị afọ nke 19, ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Britain riri citrus, gụnyere lime, iji gbochie scurvy, nke mere ka e nwee aha a na-akpọ "limey". Omume a bụ ihe nzuzo ndị agha na-eche nche nke ọma. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;" |+Mmepụta lime (na lemon) 2023, ọtụtụ nde tọn<br /><br /> | India |3.8 |- | Mexico |3.2 |- | China |2.4 |- | Turkey |2.3 |- | Argentina |2.0 |- | Brazil |1.7 |- |'''Ụwa''' |'''23.6''' |- | colspan="2" |Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="faostat">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Production of limes (combined with lemons) in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=30 September 2025}}</ref> |} == Mmepụta == N' afo 2023, mmepụta lime zuru ụwa ọnụ (nke ejikọtara ya na lemon) bụ tọn nde 23.6, nke India na Mexico na-edu (tebụl). == Ojiji == === Nri === A na-eji limes akpọrọ ihe maka asịd dị na ihe ọṅụṅụ ha na isi ísì ha. A na-eji ihe ọṅụṅụ limes eme ihe na limes, cocktails (dịka ọmụmaatụ, margarita, gimlet, daiquiri), ceviche, na guacamole . A na-eji limes kpọrọ nkụ (''limoo'' ma ọ bụ limes ojii) eme ihe na nri ndị Peshia, nri ndị Iraq, na ngwakọta ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ nri ndị Eastern Arabia. Isi ụtọ limes bụ isi ihe na-egosi achịcha limes dị mkpa . A na-eji limes desert na marmalade ndị Australia. === Ihe na-abụghị nri === A na-eji ihe ndị e si na laịm wepụta na mmanụ dị mkpa eme ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ, ihe nhicha, na [[Aromotherapy|ihe na-eme ka a na-esi ísì ụtọ]]. == Nri na phytochemicals == Mmiri lime a na-anaghị eji eme ihe bụ 88%, carbohydrates 10%, nwere ihe na-erughị 1% abụba na protein, ma na-enye 35% nke uru kwa ụbọchị nke vitamin C kwa 100 g nri.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Limes, raw|publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture|date=1 April 2019|accessdate=30 September 2025|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/168155/nutrients}}</ref> Mmiri lime nwere ihe dị ka gram 47 kwa lita nke citric acid, ihe dị ka okpukpu abụọ nke ihe ọṅụṅụ grapefruit na ugboro ise nke ihe ọṅụṅụ oroma.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Quantitative Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit Juice Products|journal=Journal of Endourology|volume=22|issue=3|year=2008|pmid=18290732|pages=567–70|doi=10.1089/end.2007.0304}}</ref> Mkpụrụ osisi na mkpuru osisi lime nwere ọtụtụ ihe ndị dị ndụ, gụnyere polyphenols na terpenes.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|year=2012|volume=92|issue=15|pages=2960–67|title=Evaluation of ''Citrus aurantifolia'' peel and leaves extracts for their chemical composition, antioxidant and anti-cholinesterase activities|pmid=22589172|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224966396_Evaluation_of_Citrus_aurantifolia_peel_and_leaves_extracts_for_their_chemical_composition_antioxidant_and_anti-cholinesterase_activities|doi=10.1002/jsfa.5708}}</ref> == Nsogbu == Mmetụ aka na mkpụcha lime ma ọ bụ ihe ọṅụṅụ ya, wee soro ya na ìhè ultraviolet, nwere ike ibute phytophotodermatitis ("margarita photodermatitis"). Furanocoumarins, gụnyere bergapten, limettin, psoralen, na xanthotoxin, bụ ihe ndị bụ isi na-akpata nsogbu fototoxicity. Mkpụcha lime nwere oke ihe dị elu karịa pulp, na-eme ka ọ na-egbu egbu karịa fototoxicity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kung|first=A. C.|title=Phytophotodermatitis: Bulla formation and hyperpigmentation during spring break|journal=Military Medicine|date=2009|volume=174|issue=6|pages=657–661|pmid=19585784|url=https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article-pdf/174/6/657/21615087/milmed-d-01-7208.pdf|doi=10.7205/MILMED-D-01-7208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=L. Kanerva|title=Handbook of Occupational Dermatology.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrclHh9Ep7AC&pg=PA318|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-64046-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=The Electronic Textbook of Dermatology|url=http://telemedicine.org/botanica/bot1.htm|title=Botanical Dermatology|author=McGovern|first=Thomas W.|date=2000|volume=37|issue=5|doi=10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00385.x|pmid=9620476|accessdate=29 November 2018}}</ref> == Hụkwa == * Ebe a na-edebe nri * Mmepụta lime na Mexico * Ndepụta mkpụrụ osisi citrus * Ndepụta nke ụdị mkpụrụ osisi == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] nrf0jm72og1lun88mge85jbf6uc7a15 Ńkàtá ojiarụ:Nuance007 3 77942 688025 2026-07-14T06:00:24Z DolphybBot 61063 Nabata onye ohuru na Igbo Wikipedia! (bot) 688025 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nnọọ|username=Nuance007|bot=[[Ojiarụ:DolphybBot|DolphybBot]] ([[Ńkàtá ojiarụ:DolphybBot|ṅkátá]]) 06:00, 14 Julaị 2026 (UTC)}} mjygtelni8lbpgv3p66hspkv4cwtfus Ebe a na-anọ amụ ihe 0 77943 688029 2026-07-14T07:14:39Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360188827|Kiosk]]" 688029 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles>  [[Faịlụ:Quiosco_modernista_Gran_Canaria.jpg|thumb|217x217px|Late Art Nouveau kiosk (1923) na Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] [[Faịlụ:Agilkia_Trajankiosk_01.JPG|thumb|170x170px|Kiosk nke Trajan site na narị afọ nke 1 BC na agwaetiti Agilika, Egypt]] [[Faịlụ:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img36_German_Fountain.jpg|thumb|255x255px|Isi Mmiri German na Hippodrome nke Istanbul]] [[Faịlụ:Vista_frontal_quiosco_de_fortin.jpg|thumb|Kiosk nke Fortín, Mexico]] N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, '''kiosk''' (from Peshia کوشک ( {{Lang|fa-Latn|kušk}} ) bụ obere ụlọ ntu ubi mepere emepe n'akụkụ ụfọdụ ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ niile a na-ahụkarị na Peshia, mpaghara India, na n'Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman site na narị afọ nke 13 gaa n'ihu. Taa, ọtụtụ ihe atụ nke ụdị kiosk a ka dị na na gburugburu Obí Topkapı na Istanbul, a pụkwara ịhụ ha na mba Balkan. A na-eji okwu a eme ihe n'obodo ndị na-asụ Bekee maka obere ụlọ ntu na-enye ngwaahịa na ọrụ. Na Ọstrelia, ha na-enyekarị ọrụ nri. A na-akpọ ọdụ kọmputa nke na-enye ozi n'otu ebe kiosks mmekọrịta. == Okwu mmalite == Ihe ndekọ nke etymological na-egosi na okwu ndị Persian etiti ''kōšk'' 'obí eze, portico' dị ka mmalite, site na Turkish ''köşk'' 'pavilion' na French ''kiosque'' ma ọ bụ Italian ''chiosco''.<ref>{{Cite book|author=MacKenzie|first=D. N.|authorlink=David Neil MacKenzie|title=A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London|isbn=0-19-713559-5}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme na mmalite == Kiosk bụ obere ụlọ ezumike ma ọ bụ Pavilion mepere emepe nke a na-ejikarị ogidi ndị nwere mgbidi ekpuchi ma ọ bụ nke mepere emepe kpuchie elu ụlọ ya. Dịka ụdị ụlọ, Sasanid bu ụzọ webata ya, nke ọzọ ejiri ya mee obere ụlọ dị n'akụkụ ụlọ alakụba ukwu nke Seljuks, nke nwere ọnụ ụlọ dị n'ime ya nwere akụkụ gbagọrọ agbagọ. Echiche ụlọ a ji nwayọọ nwayọọ ghọọ obere ụlọ dị ebube nke ndị Ottoman na-eji, ihe atụ kachasị ama bụ Tiled Kiosk ("Çinili Köşk" n'asụsụ Turkish) na Baghdad Kiosk ("Bağdat Köşkü" n'asụsụ Turkish). Mehmed nke Abụọ ("Onye Mmeri") wuru nke mbụ na 1473 na Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, ma nwee ụlọ elu abụọ nwere dome n'elu ya ma nwee akụkụ mepere emepe na-ele anya n'ubi eze. E wuru Baghdad Koshk na Topkapı Palace na 1638–39, site n'aka Sultan Murad nke Anọ. Ụlọ ahụ nwekwara dome n'elu, ma na enye ohere ịhụ ubi na ogige ntụrụndụ nke obi ahu ozugbo, tinyere omaricha owuwu obodo Istanbul. Sultan Ahmed nke Atọ (1703–1730) wukwara ime ụlọ iko nke Sofa Kiosk dị n'Obi Topkapı nke gụnyere ụfọdụ atụmatụ owuwu sitere n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ, dịka ihe e ji ọlaedo mee nke Duplessis père mepụtara, nke Eze Louis nke Iri na Ise nke France nyere onye nnọchi anya Alaeze ukwu Ottoman dịka onyinye [[Faịlụ:Kiosco_Morisco_Mexico.jpg|thumb|Ụlọ Ahịa Morisco na [[Mézíkọ|Mexico]]]] Ndị Bekee nwetara ozi mbụ gbasara ụlọ 'Kiosk' nke ndị Turkey site n'aka Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762)—nwunye onye nnọchi anya mba Britain na Istanbul—onye kwuru maka "chiosk" n'akwụkwọ ozi o degaara Anne Thistlethwayte na 1 Eprel 1717, ma kọwaa ya dị ka ụlọ "''e wuru n'elu steepụ itoolu ma ọ bụ iri, nke nwere mgbidi e ji osisi a kpara akpa ma tee ya agba ọlaedo gbaa ya gburugburu"''. Ndị eze Europe nakweere ụdị ụlọ a. Stanisław Leszczyński, eze Poland na nna nwunye eze Louis nke iri na ise, wuru kiosks maka onwe ya dabere na ihe ncheta ya banyere ndị a dọọrọ n'agha na Turkey. E ji kiosks ndị a mee ụlọ ntu ubi na-enye kọfị na ihe ọṅụṅụ mana e mechara gbanwee ha ka ha bụrụ ebe a na-anọ egwu egwu na ebe a na-anọ egwu ndị njem nleta na-achọ ọtụtụ ubi, ogige ntụrụndụ na okporo ụzọ ndị dị elu na Europe mma. Ụlọ nchekwa osisi bu ụdị ụzọ ogologo jikọtara Pavilion na ụlọ ebe a na-edebe ịnyịnya, ha nwere ụzọ e jiri okooko osisi chọọ nma, nke e ji iko kpuchie ma jikọta ya na osisi oroma, griin haus, aviary, pheasantry na ụlọ ọkụ. Mmetụta nke ụdị ndị Alakụba na ndị Alakụba-India pụtara ìhè n'ụlọ ndị a, ọkachasị n'ime pheasantry ebe akụkụ ya dị elu bụ mgbanwe nke kiosks ndị a hụrụ n'elu ụlọ nke Allahabad Palace, dịka Thomas Daniell si gosi. Ụlọ nche egwuregwu nke oge a gụnyere ọtụtụ ihe owuwu nke Islam, ọ bụ ezie na ụdị nka ọgbara ọhụrụ agbanweela site na ụdị nka oge ochie nke e ji mee ihe n'oge gara aga. == Obere ụlọ ahịa na kọfị == [[Faịlụ:Feature._Rush_Hour_BAnQ_P48S1P09119.jpg|thumb|Ebe a na-edebe akụkọ na Rosemont, Montreal, 1943]] [[Faịlụ:Aioi_Station_in_Hyogo_J09_11.jpg|thumb|Ụlọ ahịa na-ere ahịa nke oge a n'ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè dị na Hyogo, [[Japan]]]] [[Faịlụ:Beat_up_kebab_kiosk_in_Metsäkylä_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|Obere kebab na-eje ozi na Metsäkylä, Ylöjärvi, [[Finland]]]] N'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ Ụwa na mba ndị na-asụ Bekee, kiosk bụkwa ụlọ ntu nwere windo mepere emepe n'otu akụkụ. Ụfọdụ ndị na-ere ahịa na-arụ ọrụ site na kiosk (lee kiosk ahịa), na-ere obere ihe oriri dị ọnụ ala dịka akwụkwọ akụkọ, magazin, ọkụ ọkụ, maapụ okporo ámá, sịga, ihe e ji azụ azụ dị ndụ na nke kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ na ihe ọṅụṅụ na-atọ ụtọ. Na Ọstrelia, a na-ejikarị okwu a eme ihe maka obere ụlọ ndị a na-erekarị nri na ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-eburu n'ọrụ, n'ụsọ osimiri, n'ebe a na-azụ ahịa ma ọ bụ n'ogige ntụrụndụ. Kemgbe narị afọ nke 21, ọtụtụ n'ime ha ka emelitere ma na-enye nri mara mma na kọfị e ji barista mee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmhc.nsw.gov.au/About-Us/What-Were-Up-To/Major-projects/Town-Beach-Marine-Rescue-and-Kiosk|work=Port Macquarie-Hastings Council|title=Town Beach Marine Rescue and Kiosk|date=9 July 2019|accessdate=15 August 2019|archivedate=15 August 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815010412/https://www.pmhc.nsw.gov.au/About-Us/What-Were-Up-To/Major-projects/Town-Beach-Marine-Rescue-and-Kiosk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beachhouseavalon.com.au/|work=Beach house|title=kiosk/cafe & bar/event space|accessdate=15 August 2019|archivedate=23 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023135726/https://www.beachhouseavalon.com.au/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|publisher=InDaily|url=https://citymag.indaily.com.au/habits/plate-and-cup/loch-quay-rymill-park/|title=A new take on Adelaide's old kiosk-by-the-lake: Loch & Quay is open for summer|date=6 December 2018|first=Josh|author=Fanning|accessdate=15 August 2019}}</ref> Ụlọ ọrụ ozi (ma ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ ozi) na-enye ozi n'efu n'ụdị map, akwụkwọ mpịakọta, na akwụkwọ ndị ọzọ, na/ma ọ bụ ndụmọdụ nke onye na-arụ ọrụ nyere. == Ebe a na-anọ akụ na ụba == Kiosk eletrọniki (ma ọ bụ kiosk kọmputa ma ọ bụ kiosk mmekọrịta) nwere ọdụ kọmputa nke na-ejikarị ngwanrọ kiosk ahaziri iche emebere iji rụọ ọrụ ma na-egbochi ndị ọrụ ịnweta ọrụ sistemụ. N'ezie, ''ụdị kiosk'' na-akọwa ụdị ọrụ ngwanrọ dị otu a. Kiosk kọmputa nwere ike ịchekwa data n'ógbè, ma ọ bụ weghachite ya na netwọk kọmputa . Ụfọdụ kiosk kọmputa na-enye ọrụ ọha na eze n'efu, ozi, ebe ndị ọzọ na-eje ozi maka ebumnuche azụmahịa (lee kiosk ahịa). Ihuenyo aka, bọọlụ egwu, ahụigodo kọmputa, na bọtịnụ push bụ ngwaọrụ ntinye aka nkịtị maka kiosk kọmputa mmekọrịta. A na-eji kiosk ihuenyo mmetụ aka azụmaahịa dị ka ngwa ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, na-ebelata ahịrị, na-ewepụ akwụkwọ, na-eme ka arụmọrụ na ọrụ ka mma. Ojiji ha enweghị oke site na friji ruo ọdụ ụgbọelu, klọb ahụike, ụlọ ihe nkiri na ọbá akwụkwọ. [[Faịlụ:Kiosk_self_service_payment.jpg|thumb|Ịkwụ ụgwọ ọrụ onwe onye maka obibi akwụkwọ dị ka ọrụ ọbá akwụkwọ]] [[Faịlụ:Kiosk_in_Athens,_Greece.jpg|thumb|Ebe a na-ere ahịa n'[[Atens]], [[Greece|Gris]]]] == Ihe ngosi == <gallery mode="packed"> Faịlụ:Sauerlandstammtisch-Infoterminal1-Asio.JPG|An Internet kiosk in Hemer, [[Jémanị|Germany]] Faịlụ:Kuopio_R-kioski.jpg|One of the R-Kioski chain stores in Kuopio, [[Finland]] Faịlụ:Quiosco_habana_en_las_playas_de_Barcelona.JPG|Prefabricated kiosks set for different uses on the beaches of Barcelona, Spain Faịlụ:Quiosco_habana_bar-barcelona.jpg|A kiosk with terrace in a park in Barcelona, Spain Faịlụ:Royal_Military_College_of_Canada_information_kiosk.JPG|Royal Military College of Canada information kiosk Faịlụ:13-08-11-hongkong-50mm-43.jpg|Newsstand in Hong Kong Faịlụ:Newsstand_in_New_York_City,_2007.jpg|Newsstand in New York City, 2007 Faịlụ:Kiosk_in_tel_aviv.jpg|A renovated kiosk in Tel Aviv, [[Israel]] Faịlụ:Kiosk_park_Veselka_Mariupol.jpg|New kiosk in Mariupol, [[Yukrain|Ukraine]] Faịlụ:Ti_bòlèt.jpg|Ti bòlèt in Haiti Faịlụ:Photography_by_Victor_Albert_Grigas_(1919-2017)_Ankara_Barikan_otel_3-70_March_1970_00340_(32757536187).jpg|Ankara circa 1969 </gallery> == Hụkwa == <templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css" />  == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == *   *   {{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] eeib6bx15em3jiqupyrawinqycicqr9 Kiosk 0 77944 688030 2026-07-14T07:15:45Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360188827|Kiosk]]" 688030 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Module:Message box/ambox.css"></templatestyles>  [[Faịlụ:Quiosco_modernista_Gran_Canaria.jpg|thumb|217x217px|Late Art Nouveau kiosk (1923) na Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] [[Faịlụ:Agilkia_Trajankiosk_01.JPG|thumb|170x170px|Kiosk nke Trajan site na narị afọ nke 1 BC na agwaetiti Agilika, Egypt]] [[Faịlụ:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img36_German_Fountain.jpg|thumb|255x255px|Isi Mmiri German na Hippodrome nke Istanbul]] [[Faịlụ:Vista_frontal_quiosco_de_fortin.jpg|thumb|Kiosk nke Fortín, Mexico]] N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, '''kiosk''' (from Peshia کوشک ( {{Lang|fa-Latn|kušk}} ) bụ obere ụlọ ntu ubi mepere emepe n'akụkụ ụfọdụ ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ niile a na-ahụkarị na Peshia, mpaghara India, na n'Alaeze Ukwu Ottoman site na narị afọ nke 13 gaa n'ihu. Taa, ọtụtụ ihe atụ nke ụdị kiosk a ka dị na na gburugburu Obí Topkapı na Istanbul, a pụkwara ịhụ ha na mba Balkan. A na-eji okwu a eme ihe n'obodo ndị na-asụ Bekee maka obere ụlọ ntu na-enye ngwaahịa na ọrụ. Na Ọstrelia, ha na-enyekarị ọrụ nri. A na-akpọ ọdụ kọmputa nke na-enye ozi n'otu ebe kiosks mmekọrịta. == Okwu mmalite == Ihe ndekọ nke etymological na-egosi na okwu ndị Persian etiti ''kōšk'' 'obí eze, portico' dị ka mmalite, site na Turkish ''köşk'' 'pavilion' na French ''kiosque'' ma ọ bụ Italian ''chiosco''.<ref>{{Cite book|author=MacKenzie|first=D. N.|authorlink=David Neil MacKenzie|title=A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London|isbn=0-19-713559-5}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme na mmalite == Kiosk bụ obere ụlọ ezumike ma ọ bụ Pavilion mepere emepe nke a na-ejikarị ogidi ndị nwere mgbidi ekpuchi ma ọ bụ nke mepere emepe kpuchie elu ụlọ ya. Dịka ụdị ụlọ, Sasanid bu ụzọ webata ya, nke ọzọ ejiri ya mee obere ụlọ dị n'akụkụ ụlọ alakụba ukwu nke Seljuks, nke nwere ọnụ ụlọ dị n'ime ya nwere akụkụ gbagọrọ agbagọ. Echiche ụlọ a ji nwayọọ nwayọọ ghọọ obere ụlọ dị ebube nke ndị Ottoman na-eji, ihe atụ kachasị ama bụ Tiled Kiosk ("Çinili Köşk" n'asụsụ Turkish) na Baghdad Kiosk ("Bağdat Köşkü" n'asụsụ Turkish). Mehmed nke Abụọ ("Onye Mmeri") wuru nke mbụ na 1473 na Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, ma nwee ụlọ elu abụọ nwere dome n'elu ya ma nwee akụkụ mepere emepe na-ele anya n'ubi eze. E wuru Baghdad Koshk na Topkapı Palace na 1638–39, site n'aka Sultan Murad nke Anọ. Ụlọ ahụ nwekwara dome n'elu, ma na enye ohere ịhụ ubi na ogige ntụrụndụ nke obi ahu ozugbo, tinyere omaricha owuwu obodo Istanbul. Sultan Ahmed nke Atọ (1703–1730) wukwara ime ụlọ iko nke Sofa Kiosk dị n'Obi Topkapı nke gụnyere ụfọdụ atụmatụ owuwu sitere n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ, dịka ihe e ji ọlaedo mee nke Duplessis père mepụtara, nke Eze Louis nke Iri na Ise nke France nyere onye nnọchi anya Alaeze ukwu Ottoman dịka onyinye [[Faịlụ:Kiosco_Morisco_Mexico.jpg|thumb|Ụlọ Ahịa Morisco na [[Mézíkọ|Mexico]]]] Ndị Bekee nwetara ozi mbụ gbasara ụlọ 'Kiosk' nke ndị Turkey site n'aka Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762)—nwunye onye nnọchi anya mba Britain na Istanbul—onye kwuru maka "chiosk" n'akwụkwọ ozi o degaara Anne Thistlethwayte na 1 Eprel 1717, ma kọwaa ya dị ka ụlọ "''e wuru n'elu steepụ itoolu ma ọ bụ iri, nke nwere mgbidi e ji osisi a kpara akpa ma tee ya agba ọlaedo gbaa ya gburugburu"''. Ndị eze Europe nakweere ụdị ụlọ a. Stanisław Leszczyński, eze Poland na nna nwunye eze Louis nke iri na ise, wuru kiosks maka onwe ya dabere na ihe ncheta ya banyere ndị a dọọrọ n'agha na Turkey. E ji kiosks ndị a mee ụlọ ntu ubi na-enye kọfị na ihe ọṅụṅụ mana e mechara gbanwee ha ka ha bụrụ ebe a na-anọ egwu egwu na ebe a na-anọ egwu ndị njem nleta na-achọ ọtụtụ ubi, ogige ntụrụndụ na okporo ụzọ ndị dị elu na Europe mma. Ụlọ nchekwa osisi bu ụdị ụzọ ogologo jikọtara Pavilion na ụlọ ebe a na-edebe ịnyịnya, ha nwere ụzọ e jiri okooko osisi chọọ nma, nke e ji iko kpuchie ma jikọta ya na osisi oroma, griin haus, aviary, pheasantry na ụlọ ọkụ. Mmetụta nke ụdị ndị Alakụba na ndị Alakụba-India pụtara ìhè n'ụlọ ndị a, ọkachasị n'ime pheasantry ebe akụkụ ya dị elu bụ mgbanwe nke kiosks ndị a hụrụ n'elu ụlọ nke Allahabad Palace, dịka Thomas Daniell si gosi. Ụlọ nche egwuregwu nke oge a gụnyere ọtụtụ ihe owuwu nke Islam, ọ bụ ezie na ụdị nka ọgbara ọhụrụ agbanweela site na ụdị nka oge ochie nke e ji mee ihe n'oge gara aga. == Obere ụlọ ahịa na kọfị == [[Faịlụ:Feature._Rush_Hour_BAnQ_P48S1P09119.jpg|thumb|Ebe a na-edebe akụkọ na Rosemont, Montreal, 1943]] [[Faịlụ:Aioi_Station_in_Hyogo_J09_11.jpg|thumb|Ụlọ ahịa na-ere ahịa nke oge a n'ọdụ ụgbọ okporo ígwè dị na Hyogo, [[Japan]]]] [[Faịlụ:Beat_up_kebab_kiosk_in_Metsäkylä_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|Obere kebab na-eje ozi na Metsäkylä, Ylöjärvi, [[Finland]]]] N'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ Ụwa na mba ndị na-asụ Bekee, kiosk bụkwa ụlọ ntu nwere windo mepere emepe n'otu akụkụ. Ụfọdụ ndị na-ere ahịa na-arụ ọrụ site na kiosk (lee kiosk ahịa), na-ere obere ihe oriri dị ọnụ ala dịka akwụkwọ akụkọ, magazin, ọkụ ọkụ, maapụ okporo ámá, sịga, ihe e ji azụ azụ dị ndụ na nke kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ na ihe ọṅụṅụ na-atọ ụtọ. Na Ọstrelia, a na-ejikarị okwu a eme ihe maka obere ụlọ ndị a na-erekarị nri na ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-eburu n'ọrụ, n'ụsọ osimiri, n'ebe a na-azụ ahịa ma ọ bụ n'ogige ntụrụndụ. Kemgbe narị afọ nke 21, ọtụtụ n'ime ha ka emelitere ma na-enye nri mara mma na kọfị e ji barista mee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmhc.nsw.gov.au/About-Us/What-Were-Up-To/Major-projects/Town-Beach-Marine-Rescue-and-Kiosk|work=Port Macquarie-Hastings Council|title=Town Beach Marine Rescue and Kiosk|date=9 July 2019|accessdate=15 August 2019|archivedate=15 August 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815010412/https://www.pmhc.nsw.gov.au/About-Us/What-Were-Up-To/Major-projects/Town-Beach-Marine-Rescue-and-Kiosk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beachhouseavalon.com.au/|work=Beach house|title=kiosk/cafe & bar/event space|accessdate=15 August 2019|archivedate=23 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023135726/https://www.beachhouseavalon.com.au/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|publisher=InDaily|url=https://citymag.indaily.com.au/habits/plate-and-cup/loch-quay-rymill-park/|title=A new take on Adelaide's old kiosk-by-the-lake: Loch & Quay is open for summer|date=6 December 2018|first=Josh|author=Fanning|accessdate=15 August 2019}}</ref> Ụlọ ọrụ ozi (ma ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ ozi) na-enye ozi n'efu n'ụdị map, akwụkwọ mpịakọta, na akwụkwọ ndị ọzọ, na/ma ọ bụ ndụmọdụ nke onye na-arụ ọrụ nyere. == Ebe a na-anọ akụ na ụba == Kiosk eletrọniki (ma ọ bụ kiosk kọmputa ma ọ bụ kiosk mmekọrịta) nwere ọdụ kọmputa nke na-ejikarị ngwanrọ kiosk ahaziri iche emebere iji rụọ ọrụ ma na-egbochi ndị ọrụ ịnweta ọrụ sistemụ. N'ezie, ''ụdị kiosk'' na-akọwa ụdị ọrụ ngwanrọ dị otu a. Kiosk kọmputa nwere ike ịchekwa data n'ógbè, ma ọ bụ weghachite ya na netwọk kọmputa . Ụfọdụ kiosk kọmputa na-enye ọrụ ọha na eze n'efu, ozi, ebe ndị ọzọ na-eje ozi maka ebumnuche azụmahịa (lee kiosk ahịa). Ihuenyo aka, bọọlụ egwu, ahụigodo kọmputa, na bọtịnụ push bụ ngwaọrụ ntinye aka nkịtị maka kiosk kọmputa mmekọrịta. A na-eji kiosk ihuenyo mmetụ aka azụmaahịa dị ka ngwa ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, na-ebelata ahịrị, na-ewepụ akwụkwọ, na-eme ka arụmọrụ na ọrụ ka mma. Ojiji ha enweghị oke site na friji ruo ọdụ ụgbọelu, klọb ahụike, ụlọ ihe nkiri na ọbá akwụkwọ. [[Faịlụ:Kiosk_self_service_payment.jpg|thumb|Ịkwụ ụgwọ ọrụ onwe onye maka obibi akwụkwọ dị ka ọrụ ọbá akwụkwọ]] [[Faịlụ:Kiosk_in_Athens,_Greece.jpg|thumb|Ebe a na-ere ahịa n'[[Atens]], [[Greece|Gris]]]] == Ihe ngosi == <gallery mode="packed"> Faịlụ:Sauerlandstammtisch-Infoterminal1-Asio.JPG|An Internet kiosk in Hemer, [[Jémanị|Germany]] Faịlụ:Kuopio_R-kioski.jpg|One of the R-Kioski chain stores in Kuopio, [[Finland]] Faịlụ:Quiosco_habana_en_las_playas_de_Barcelona.JPG|Prefabricated kiosks set for different uses on the beaches of Barcelona, Spain Faịlụ:Quiosco_habana_bar-barcelona.jpg|A kiosk with terrace in a park in Barcelona, Spain Faịlụ:Royal_Military_College_of_Canada_information_kiosk.JPG|Royal Military College of Canada information kiosk Faịlụ:13-08-11-hongkong-50mm-43.jpg|Newsstand in Hong Kong Faịlụ:Newsstand_in_New_York_City,_2007.jpg|Newsstand in New York City, 2007 Faịlụ:Kiosk_in_tel_aviv.jpg|A renovated kiosk in Tel Aviv, [[Israel]] Faịlụ:Kiosk_park_Veselka_Mariupol.jpg|New kiosk in Mariupol, [[Yukrain|Ukraine]] Faịlụ:Ti_bòlèt.jpg|Ti bòlèt in Haiti Faịlụ:Photography_by_Victor_Albert_Grigas_(1919-2017)_Ankara_Barikan_otel_3-70_March_1970_00340_(32757536187).jpg|Ankara circa 1969 </gallery> == Hụkwa == <templatestyles src="Div col/styles.css" />  == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == *   *   {{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 0fzf9bff6jy78hu3izreo46wk62hik6 Peanut oil 0 77945 688031 2026-07-14T07:26:37Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1350908592|Peanut oil]]" 688031 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:4_gallons_of_peanut_oil.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Mmanụ ahụekere]] '''Mmanụ ahụekere''', nke a makwaara dị ka '''mmanụ groundnut''' ma ọ bụ '''mmanụ arachis''', bụ mmanụ sitere n'osisi nke a na eweta n'ahuahụekere. Mmanụ ahụ na-enwekarị ụtọ dị nro ma ọ bụ nke na-anọpụ iche<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://peanut-institute.com/peanut-products/peanut-oil/|title=Peanut Oil - Uses, Health Benefits & Nutrition}}</ref> mana, ọ bụrụ na e ji ahụekere a ṅara n'ọkụ mee ya, ọ na-enwe ụtọ ahụekere na isi siri ike karị.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02073.x|title=Changes in Volatile Compounds of Peanut Oil during the Roasting Process for Production of Aromatic Roasted Peanut Oil|year=2011|author=Liu|first=Xiaojun|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=76|issue=3|pages=C404–12|pmid=21535807}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/manufacturing-sources_peanutoil.php|title=USA-Grown Peanut Sources - Peanut Oil|publisher=National Peanut Board|accessdate=15 January 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611161827/http://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/manufacturing-sources_peanutoil.php|archivedate=11 June 2008}}</ref> A na-ejikarị ya eme ihe na nri ndị America, China, India, Africa na Southeast Asia, ma maka nri nkịtị na maka mmanụ a ṅara n'ọkụ, maka ụtọ agbakwunyere. Mmanụ ahụekere nwere oke anwụrụ ọkụ ma e jiri ya tụnyere ọtụtụ mmanụ nri ndị ọzọ,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Does Smoke Point Mean?|url=https://latourangelle.com/pages/what-does-smoke-point-mean#:~:text=Peanut%20Oil:%20450%C2%B0,%20good,moderate-heat%20cooking%20like%20saut%C3%A9ing|accessdate=2025-01-19|work=La Tourangelle|language=en}}</ref> ya mere a na-ejikarị ya eme nri e siri esi. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; 13em; text-align:center;" |+Mmanụ ahụekere mmepụta 2021, na ọtụtụ nde tọn<small><br /></small> | China |1.84 |- | India |0.78 |- | Naịjirịa |0.36 |- | Pakistan |0.26 |- | Myanmar |0.19 |- | Sudan |0.14 |- | United States |0.13 |- |'''Ụwa''' |'''4.75''' |} N'ihi ụkọ mmanụ ndị ọzọ n'agha, ojiji mmanụ ahụekere dị mfe mụbara na United States n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ. == Mmepụta == Na 2021, mmepụta mmanụ aki oyibo n'ụwa niile (a kọrọ na ọ bụ mmanụ aki oyibo) ruru tọn nde 4.75, nke China na-edu, nke nwere pasent 39 nke mkpokọta (tebụl). India bụ isi na-emepụta ihe nke abụọ. == Ojiji == A na-eji mmanụ ahụekere a na-anaghị akọwacha nke ọma eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ maka nri ndị yiri mmanụ sesame. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere a mịrị amị eme ihe maka ighe ọtụtụ nri dị ka fries French ma nwee ebe anwụrụ ọkụ nke 450 °F/232 °C. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere na-adịghị asachapụ esi nri n'ihi ụtọ ya sitere n'okike na uru ọ bara n'ihe gbasara nri na ahụike. A na-ejikwa ya emepụta ngwaahịa nlekọta akpụkpọ anụ n'ihi na ọ na-enyere akpụkpọ ahụ aka ịnọgide na-adị mmiri ma dị nro. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere a na-anaghị akọwacha nke ọma eme ihe ndọzi salad na marinade maka ụtọ ya bara ụba ma na-atọ ụtọ. === Biodiesel === Na ihe ngosi Paris nke afọ 1900, ụlọ ọrụ Otto, dịka gọọmentị France si rịọ, gosiri na a pụrụ iji mmanụ ahụekere mee ihe dị ka isi iyi mmanụ maka injin dizel ; nke a bụ otu n'ime ihe ngosi mbụ nke teknụzụ biodiesel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html|title=Peanut Biodiesel|date=2010|publisher=Boiled Peanut World|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> Enwere ike ịchacha mmanụ ahụekere ma tinye ya n'ime tankị mmeghachi omume yana methanol na sodium hydroxide iji mepụta methyl ester - mmanụ Biodiesel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html|title=Peanut Biodiesel|date=2010|publisher=Boiled Peanut World|accessdate=3 August 2011}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html "Peanut Biodiesel"]. Boiled Peanut World. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite></ref> === Ojiji ndị ọzọ === Dịka ọ dị na mmanụ akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ, enwere ike iji mmanụ ahụekere mee ncha site na usoro saponification. Mmanụ ahụekere dị mma maka iji ya dị ka mmanụ ịhịa aka n'ahụ. == Ihe ndị mejupụtara ya == Mmanụ a bụ abụba pasent 93, nke mejupụtara ya bụ oleic acid, abụba monounsaturated (pasent 57 nke mkpokọta), linoleic acid, abụba polyunsaturated (pasent 20), na palmitic acid, abụba juputere na Hydrogen (pasent 16).<ref name="USDApeanut">{{Cite web|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/1750348/nutrients|title=Peanut oil per 100 grams|publisher=FoodData Central, [[Agricultural Research Service]], [[United States Department of Agriculture]]|date=28 April 2021|accessdate=11 July 2024|archivedate=3 April 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1750348/nutrients}}</ref> == Ihe oriri na-edozi ahụ == N'ọnụọgụ ntụaka nke 100 g (3.5), mmanụ ahụekere bụ isi iyi bara ụba nke vitamin E, na-enye 101% nke Uru Kwa Ụbọchị (tebụl). Enweghị protein ma ọ bụ carbohydrate dị n'ime ya, enweghịkwa obere ihe ndị ọzọ dị mkpa n'ọtụtụ dị ukwuu (tebụl).<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> <templatestyles src="Template:Table alignment/styles.css" />  == Nsogbu ahụike == === Mmetụta na-egbu egbu === Ọ bụrụ na a naghi elebara njikwa ogo anya nke ọma, ahụekere nwere ebu nke na-emepụta aflatoxin nwere nnukwu ihe na-egbu egbu nwere ike imerụ mmanụ sitere na ha.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/12/29/Aflatoxin-suspected-in-cooking-oil/UPI-23501325165198/|title=Aflatoxin suspected in cooking oil|date=29 December 2011|work=United Press International}}</ref> === Ihe Na-adịghị anabata Ihe === Ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nwere ike iri mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nke ọma, mana ha kwesịrị izere mmanụ organic site na ịpịpụta ya na mbụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Peanut Oil|url=https://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/fact-sheet/peanut-oil/|accessdate=2025-01-18|work=Anaphylaxis UK|language=en}}</ref> Mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nke ọma na-ewepụ ihe nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ ma egosila na ọ dị mma maka "ọtụtụ ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ".<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00158-1|title=Allergenicity of refined vegetable oils|year=2000|author=Crevel|first=R.W.R|journal=[[Food and Chemical Toxicology]]|volume=38|issue=4|pages=385–93|pmid=10722892}}</ref> Agbanyeghị, mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ oyi nwere ike ọ gaghị ewepụ ihe nfụkasị ahụ n'ihi ya, ọ nwere ike ịdị oke ize ndụ nye ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.314.7087.1084|title=Randomised, double blind, crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic to peanuts|year=1997|author=Hourihane|first=J. O'B|journal=BMJ|volume=314|issue=7087|pages=1084–8|pmid=9133891}}</ref> Ebe ọ bụ na a naghị aghọtacha otú e si ahazi ngwaahịa ọ bụla nke ọma, ọtụtụ mmadụ kwenyere na "izere ya dị mma".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faiusa.org/page.aspx?pid=362|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040310/http://www.faiusa.org/page.aspx?pid=362|archivedate=5 June 2011|title=Peanut Allergy|publisher=[[Food Allergy Initiative]]|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-13/deaths-show-schools-need-power-of-the-epipen-margaret-carlson.html|work=Bloomberg|first=Margaret|author=Carlson|title=Deaths Show Schools Need Power of the EpiPen: Margaret Carlson|date=13 January 2012}}</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Commons category|Peanut oil}} * [http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-483-PEANUT%20OIL.aspx?activeIngredientId=483&activeIngredientName=PEANUT%20OIL Mmanụ ahụekere] na WebMD {{Fatsandoils}}{{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] lmjgpe9y2g8nz8313qr58mp7r42trcs 688032 688031 2026-07-14T07:27:33Z Quinlan83 12227 Fix 688032 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faịlụ:4_gallons_of_peanut_oil.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Mmanụ ahụekere]] '''Mmanụ ahụekere''', nke a makwaara dị ka '''mmanụ groundnut''' ma ọ bụ '''mmanụ arachis''', bụ mmanụ sitere n'osisi nke a na eweta n'ahuahụekere. Mmanụ ahụ na-enwekarị ụtọ dị nro ma ọ bụ nke na-anọpụ iche<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://peanut-institute.com/peanut-products/peanut-oil/|title=Peanut Oil - Uses, Health Benefits & Nutrition}}</ref> mana, ọ bụrụ na e ji ahụekere a ṅara n'ọkụ mee ya, ọ na-enwe ụtọ ahụekere na isi siri ike karị.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02073.x|title=Changes in Volatile Compounds of Peanut Oil during the Roasting Process for Production of Aromatic Roasted Peanut Oil|year=2011|author=Liu|first=Xiaojun|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=76|issue=3|pages=C404–12|pmid=21535807}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/manufacturing-sources_peanutoil.php|title=USA-Grown Peanut Sources - Peanut Oil|publisher=National Peanut Board|accessdate=15 January 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611161827/http://www.nationalpeanutboard.org/manufacturing-sources_peanutoil.php|archivedate=11 June 2008}}</ref> A na-ejikarị ya eme ihe na nri ndị America, China, India, Africa na Southeast Asia, ma maka nri nkịtị na maka mmanụ a ṅara n'ọkụ, maka ụtọ agbakwunyere. Mmanụ ahụekere nwere oke anwụrụ ọkụ ma e jiri ya tụnyere ọtụtụ mmanụ nri ndị ọzọ,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Does Smoke Point Mean?|url=https://latourangelle.com/pages/what-does-smoke-point-mean#:~:text=Peanut%20Oil:%20450%C2%B0,%20good,moderate-heat%20cooking%20like%20saut%C3%A9ing|accessdate=2025-01-19|work=La Tourangelle|language=en}}</ref> ya mere a na-ejikarị ya eme nri e siri esi. == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; 13em; text-align:center;" |+Mmanụ ahụekere mmepụta 2021, na ọtụtụ nde tọn<small><br /></small> | China |1.84 |- | India |0.78 |- | Naịjirịa |0.36 |- | Pakistan |0.26 |- | Myanmar |0.19 |- | Sudan |0.14 |- | United States |0.13 |- |'''Ụwa''' |'''4.75''' |} N'ihi ụkọ mmanụ ndị ọzọ n'agha, ojiji mmanụ ahụekere dị mfe mụbara na United States n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ. == Mmepụta == Na 2021, mmepụta mmanụ aki oyibo n'ụwa niile (a kọrọ na ọ bụ mmanụ aki oyibo) ruru tọn nde 4.75, nke China na-edu, nke nwere pasent 39 nke mkpokọta (tebụl). India bụ isi na-emepụta ihe nke abụọ. == Ojiji == A na-eji mmanụ ahụekere a na-anaghị akọwacha nke ọma eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ maka nri ndị yiri mmanụ sesame. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere a mịrị amị eme ihe maka ighe ọtụtụ nri dị ka fries French ma nwee ebe anwụrụ ọkụ nke 450 °F/232 °C. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere na-adịghị asachapụ esi nri n'ihi ụtọ ya sitere n'okike na uru ọ bara n'ihe gbasara nri na ahụike. A na-ejikwa ya emepụta ngwaahịa nlekọta akpụkpọ anụ n'ihi na ọ na-enyere akpụkpọ ahụ aka ịnọgide na-adị mmiri ma dị nro. A na-ejikarị mmanụ ahụekere a na-anaghị akọwacha nke ọma eme ihe ndọzi salad na marinade maka ụtọ ya bara ụba ma na-atọ ụtọ. === Biodiesel === Na ihe ngosi Paris nke afọ 1900, ụlọ ọrụ Otto, dịka gọọmentị France si rịọ, gosiri na a pụrụ iji mmanụ ahụekere mee ihe dị ka isi iyi mmanụ maka injin dizel ; nke a bụ otu n'ime ihe ngosi mbụ nke teknụzụ biodiesel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html|title=Peanut Biodiesel|date=2010|publisher=Boiled Peanut World|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> Enwere ike ịchacha mmanụ ahụekere ma tinye ya n'ime tankị mmeghachi omume yana methanol na sodium hydroxide iji mepụta methyl ester - mmanụ Biodiesel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html|title=Peanut Biodiesel|date=2010|publisher=Boiled Peanut World|accessdate=3 August 2011}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html "Peanut Biodiesel"]. Boiled Peanut World. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite></ref> === Ojiji ndị ọzọ === Dịka ọ dị na mmanụ akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ, enwere ike iji mmanụ ahụekere mee ncha site na usoro saponification. Mmanụ ahụekere dị mma maka iji ya dị ka mmanụ ịhịa aka n'ahụ. == Ihe ndị mejupụtara ya == Mmanụ a bụ abụba pasent 93, nke mejupụtara ya bụ oleic acid, abụba monounsaturated (pasent 57 nke mkpokọta), linoleic acid, abụba polyunsaturated (pasent 20), na palmitic acid, abụba juputere na Hydrogen (pasent 16).<ref name="USDApeanut">{{Cite web|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/1750348/nutrients|title=Peanut oil per 100 grams|publisher=FoodData Central, [[Agricultural Research Service]], [[United States Department of Agriculture]]|date=28 April 2021|accessdate=11 July 2024|archivedate=3 April 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1750348/nutrients}}</ref> == Ihe oriri na-edozi ahụ == N'ọnụọgụ ntụaka nke 100 g (3.5), mmanụ ahụekere bụ isi iyi bara ụba nke vitamin E, na-enye 101% nke Uru Kwa Ụbọchị (tebụl). Enweghị protein ma ọ bụ carbohydrate dị n'ime ya, enweghịkwa obere ihe ndị ọzọ dị mkpa n'ọtụtụ dị ukwuu (tebụl).<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> <templatestyles src="Template:Table alignment/styles.css" />  == Nsogbu ahụike == === Mmetụta na-egbu egbu === Ọ bụrụ na a naghi elebara njikwa ogo anya nke ọma, ahụekere nwere ebu nke na-emepụta aflatoxin nwere nnukwu ihe na-egbu egbu nwere ike imerụ mmanụ sitere na ha.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/12/29/Aflatoxin-suspected-in-cooking-oil/UPI-23501325165198/|title=Aflatoxin suspected in cooking oil|date=29 December 2011|work=United Press International}}</ref> === Ihe Na-adịghị anabata Ihe === Ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nwere ike iri mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nke ọma, mana ha kwesịrị izere mmanụ organic site na ịpịpụta ya na mbụ.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Peanut Oil|url=https://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/fact-sheet/peanut-oil/|accessdate=2025-01-18|work=Anaphylaxis UK|language=en}}</ref> Mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nke ọma na-ewepụ ihe nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ ma egosila na ọ dị mma maka "ọtụtụ ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ".<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00158-1|title=Allergenicity of refined vegetable oils|year=2000|author=Crevel|first=R.W.R|journal=[[Food and Chemical Toxicology]]|volume=38|issue=4|pages=385–93|pmid=10722892}}</ref> Agbanyeghị, mmanụ ahụ nfụkasị ahụ oyi nwere ike ọ gaghị ewepụ ihe nfụkasị ahụ n'ihi ya, ọ nwere ike ịdị oke ize ndụ nye ndị nwere ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ nfụkasị ahụ.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.314.7087.1084|title=Randomised, double blind, crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic to peanuts|year=1997|author=Hourihane|first=J. O'B|journal=BMJ|volume=314|issue=7087|pages=1084–8|pmid=9133891}}</ref> Ebe ọ bụ na a naghị aghọtacha otú e si ahazi ngwaahịa ọ bụla nke ọma, ọtụtụ mmadụ kwenyere na "izere ya dị mma".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.faiusa.org/page.aspx?pid=362|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040310/http://www.faiusa.org/page.aspx?pid=362|archivedate=5 June 2011|title=Peanut Allergy|publisher=[[Food Allergy Initiative]]|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-13/deaths-show-schools-need-power-of-the-epipen-margaret-carlson.html|work=Bloomberg|first=Margaret|author=Carlson|title=Deaths Show Schools Need Power of the EpiPen: Margaret Carlson|date=13 January 2012}}</ref> == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Commons category|Peanut oil}} * [http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-483-PEANUT%20OIL.aspx?activeIngredientId=483&activeIngredientName=PEANUT%20OIL Mmanụ ahụekere] na WebMD {{Fatsandoils}}{{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] eyh78c3ry2qextafx6tq4sf011ayqwe Ginger 0 77946 688033 2026-07-14T07:28:43Z Confidence24 24524 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360678454|Ginger]]" 688033 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jinja''' (''Zingiber officinale'') bụ osisi na-amịpụta okooko osisi, nke a na-eji rhizome ya, ya bụ mgbọrọgwụ '''jinja''', eme ngwa nri ma na-ejikwa ya eme ọgwụ ọdịnala n'ọtụtụ ebe.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}</ref> Ọ bụ ahịhịa na-adị ndụ ruo ọtụtụ afọ (herbaceous perennial) nke na-amịpụta pseudostems kwa afọ—ya bụ, ogwe osisi ụgha nke e si n'okpuru akwụkwọ a tụgharịrị ọnụ kpụọ—nke nwere ike iru ihe dị ka otu mita n'ịdị elu. Osisi ahụ na-amịpụta akwụkwọ dị ogologo ma dị warara. Okooko ya nwere petal ndị na-acha odo odo dị mfe, nke akụkụ ya nwere agba odo-acha anụnụ anụnụ (purple), ma na-apụta ozugbo site na rhizome n'elu ome dị iche iche.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plant resources of South-East Asia: no.13: Spices|publisher=Backhuys Publishers|year=1999|location=Leiden (Netherlands)|pages=238–244|chapter=Zingiber officinale Roscoe}}</ref> Jinja dị n'ezinụlọ Zingiberaceae, nke gụnyekwara turmeric (''Curcuma longa''),<ref>{{Cite web|title=''Curcuma longa'' L.|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:796451-1|publisher=Plants of the World Online, Kew Science, Kew Gardens, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England|accessdate=26 March 2018|year=2018}}</ref> cardamom (''Elettaria cardamomum''), na galangal. Jinja malitere na Maritime Southeast Asia ma o yikarịrị ka ndị Austronesia buru ụzọ zụọ ya. E ji ha buru ya gaa Indo-Pacific n'oge mgbasa Austronesia (ihe dị ka 5,000 BP), ruo Hawaii. Ginger bụ otu n'ime ihe ndị mbụ e si Eshia na-ebupụ, na-abata na Europe site na azụmaahịa ihe ndị na-esi ísì ụtọ, ndị Gris na ndị Rom oge ochie jikwa ya.<ref name="Kew">{{Cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1|title=''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe|date=2017|work=Kew Science, Plants of the World Online|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|accessdate=25 November 2017}}</ref> A na-akpọkarị dicots ndị yiri ya n'ụdị ''Asarum'' ginger ọhịa n'ihi uto ha yiri nke ahụ. A na-eji ginger eme ihe n'ọgwụ ọdịnala na Chaịna, India na Japan ruo ọtụtụ narị afọ, nakwa dị ka ihe mgbakwunye nri ọgbara ọhụrụ. Ginger nwere ike inye uru karịa placebo maka ọgbụgbọ na ịgbọ agbọ n'oge ime,<ref name="preg">{{Cite journal|title=Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review|journal=JAMA|volume=316|issue=13|pages=1392–1401|date=October 2016|pmid=27701665|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.14337|url=https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/6b0f7e5c-6bc8-4f8e-9419-bf43b3eea727}}</ref> mana enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe na ọ na-enyere aka na ọgbụgbọ n'oge [[Ọgwụ Ọgwụ|chemotherapy]].<ref name="chemo">{{Cite journal|title=Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Oncol Nurs Forum|volume=40|issue=2|pages=163–70|date=March 2013|pmid=23448741|doi=10.1188/13.ONF.163-170|url=}}</ref> O doghị anya ma ginger ọ dị irè maka ịgwọ ọrịa ọ bụla.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}</ref> Na 2023, mmepụta ginger n'ụwa niile bụ 4.9 nde tọn, nke India na-edu, nke nwere 45% nke mkpokọta. == Okwu mmalite == Mmalite Bekee nke okwu "ginger" sitere na etiti narị afọ nke 14, site na {{Lang|ang|gingifer}} Bekee Ochie, nke sitere na mkpụrụ osisi Latin Medieval {{Lang|la|gingiber}}, {{Lang|la|gingiber}} sitere na Greek {{Lang|grc|ζιγγίβερις}} zingiberis sitere na Prakrit (Middle Indic) siṅgabera, na siṅgabera sitere na Sanskrit śṛṅgavera. A na-eche na okwu Sanskrit sitere na okwu Dravidian ochie nke mekwara [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Das|first=Abhaya Prasad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4gAQAAIAAJ&q=Tamil+inchi+ver+ginger|title=Perspectives of Plant Biodiversity: Proceedings of National Seminar on Plant Biodiversity – Systematics, Conservation and Ethnobotany, Department of Botany, North Bengal University, November 9-11, 2000|date=2002|publisher=Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh|isbn=978-81-211-0298-8|language=en}}</ref> na okwu Malayalam iñci-vēr (site na vēr, "mgbọrọgwụ");<ref name=":4" /><ref name="W1" /> nkọwa ọzọ bụ na okwu Sanskrit sitere na srngam, nke pụtara "mpi", na vera, nke pụtara "ahụ" (na-akọwa ọdịdị nke mgbọrọgwụ ya), mana nke ahụ nwere ike ịbụ usoro mmụta ọdịnala. O yikarịrị ka e si na Bekee etiti gụgharịa ya site na {{Lang|fro|gingibre}} French ochie ({{Lang|fr|gingembre}} nke oge a nke French).<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&q=ginger+from+tamil+word+inji&pg=PA578|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|author=Caldwell|first=Robert|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8|edition=3rd|location=New Delhi}}</ref> == Mmalite na nkesa == [[Faịlụ:Flower_of_Ginger1.jpg|thumb|Okooko osisi Ginger]] Jinja malitere n'akụkụ mmiri dị n'ebe ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia. Ọ bụ ezigbo ihe ọkụkụ, ọ dịghịkwa adị n'ime ọhịa ya.<ref name="Ravindran2016">{{Cite book|title=Ginger: The Genus Zingiber|author=Ravindran|first=P.N.|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|location=Boca Raton}}</ref><ref name="singh">{{Cite book|title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement|author=Singh|first=Ram J.|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-7386-7|series=Medicinal Plants|location=Boca Raton}}</ref> Ihe akaebe kacha ochie nke ezi ihe kpatara ya bụ n'etiti ndị Austronesian ebe ọ nọ n'etiti ọtụtụ ụdị ginger a na-akọ ma na-eri eri kemgbe oge ochie. Ha kụrụ ginger ndị ọzọ dịka turmeric (''Curcuma longa''), turmeric ọcha (''Curcuma zedoaria''), na ginger ilu (''Zingiber zerumbet''). A na-eji rhizomes na akwụkwọ ya ekpomeekpo nri ma ọ bụ rie ya ozugbo. A na-ejikwa akwụkwọ ndị ahụ akpa ákwà. E wezụga ojiji ndị a, ginger nwere ihe dị mkpa n'etiti ndị Austronesian, a na-eji ya eme ihe n'ememe maka ọgwụgwọ na ịrịọ nchebe site na mmụọ. A na-ejikwa ya eme ihe n'ihi ngọzi nke ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian.<ref name="Viestad">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvQhVrQ7bzkC|title=Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Ocean Spice Route|author=Viestad|first=Andreas|publisher=Chronicle Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8118-4965-4|location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="Ross2008Lexicon">{{Cite book|chapterurl=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/106908|title=The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society|author=Ross|first=Malcolm|publisher=Pacific Linguistics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-85883-589-4|editor=Ross|location=Canberra|pages=389–426|chapter=Other cultivated plants}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196|journal=[[Ocean. Linguist.]]|volume=52|issue=2|pages=493–523|doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016|issn=0029-8115}}</ref><ref name="Ujang2015">{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Ginger Species and Their Traditional Uses in Modern Applications|url=https://docplayer.net/48110504-Ginger-species-and-their-traditional-uses-in-modern-applications-section-2-p-o-box-7035-40700-shah-alam-selangor-malaysia-2.html|journal=Journal of Industrial Technology|volume=23|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.21908/jit.2015.4}}</ref><ref name="Dalby2002">{{Cite book|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}</ref><ref name="KikusawaReid">{{Cite book|chapterurl=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/33035/A67.2007.pdf|title=Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley|author=Kikusawa|first=Ritsuko|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Co.|year=2007|isbn=978-90-272-9294-0|editor=Siegel|pages=339–352|chapter=Proto who used turmeric, and how?|accessdate=23 January 2019}}</ref> A na-ebu ginger n'ụgbọ mmiri ha n'oge njem ha dị ka osisi ụgbọ mmiri n'oge mgbasa Austronesian, malite na ihe dị ka 5,000 BP. Ha webatara ya na Agwaetiti Pasifik tupu oge eruo, ogologo oge tupu ha na mmepeanya ndị ọzọ akpakọrịta. Mgbanwe nke okwu [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] ''*{{Lang|mis|laqia}}'' A na-ahụ ya n'asụsụ Austronesian ruo [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Blust1985">{{Cite journal|title=The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective|journal=Asian Perspectives|author=Blust|first=Robert|volume=26|issue=1|year=1984}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196|journal=[[Ocean. Linguist.]]|volume=52|issue=2|pages=493–523|doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016|issn=0029-8115}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFRobertTrussel2013">Robert B, Trussel S (2013). </cite></ref> O yikarịrị ka ha webatara ya na India yana osisi nri ndị ọzọ dị na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia na teknụzụ ịkwọ ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian, n'oge ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian zutere ndị na-asụ asụsụ Dravidian nke Sri Lanka na Ndịda India na ihe dị ka 3,500 BP.<ref name="Viestad">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvQhVrQ7bzkC|title=Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Ocean Spice Route|author=Viestad|first=Andreas|publisher=Chronicle Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8118-4965-4|location=San Francisco}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFViestad2007">Viestad A (2007). </cite></ref><ref name="Dalby2002">{{Cite book|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFDalby2002">Dalby A (2002). </cite></ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{Cite book|title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|author=Mahdi|first=Waruno|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-51870-3|editor=Blench|series=One World Archaeology|location=London|pages=144–179|chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean}}</ref> Ndị njem Austronesian burukwa ya gaa [[Madagascar]] na [[Comoros]] na Narị afọ nke mbụ nke oge a.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2011|title=The first migrants to Madagascar and their introduction of plants: linguistic and ethnological evidence|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|volume=46|issue=2|pages=169–189|doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.580142|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00706173/file/Beaujard.azania2.pdf}}</ref> Site n'India, ndị ahịa na-ebuga ya na Middle East na Mediterenian n'ihe dị ka Narị afọ nke mbụ nke oge a. A na-akọkarị ya na ndịda India na Greater Sunda Islands n'oge azụmaahịa ose, tinyere ose, klọvụ, na ọtụtụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ndị ọzọ.<ref name="singh">{{Cite book|title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement|author=Singh|first=Ram J.|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-7386-7|series=Medicinal Plants|location=Boca Raton}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFSingh2011">Singh RJ (2011). </cite></ref><ref name="Doran">{{Cite book|title=South East Asia in the World-Economy|author=Doran|first=Charles F.|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31237-0|location=Cambridge}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == Ndekọ mbụ e dere gbasara ginger sitere na ''Analects'', nke Ndị Na-eso Ụzọ Confucius dere<ref name="Rainey2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID4gMCaLr0MC&pg=PA10|title=Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials|author=Lee Dian Rainey|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4443-2360-3}}</ref> na Chaịna n'oge Agha Steeti (475–221 TOA).<ref name="pickersgill">{{Cite book|editor=Prance|author=Pickersgill|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Pickersgill|date=2005|title=The Cultural History of Plants|publisher=Routledge|pages=163–164|isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref> N'ime ya, a sịrị na [[Konfúkius|Confucius]] na-eri ginger mgbe ọ bụla a na-eri ya.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Na 406, mọnk Faxian dere na a na-akọ ginger n'ime ite ma na-ebu ya n'ụgbọ mmiri ndị Chaịna iji gbochie ọrịa scurvy.<ref name="pickersgill" /> N'oge ọchịchị Song (960–1279), a na-ebubata ginger na Chaịna site na mba ndịda.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Ndị Arab webatara ose ginger na Mediterenian, ndị edemede dịka Dioscorides (40-90) na Pliny the Elder (24-79) kọwara ya.<ref name="pickersgill">{{Cite book|editor=Prance|author=Pickersgill|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Pickersgill|date=2005|title=The Cultural History of Plants|publisher=Routledge|pages=163–164|isbn=0-415-92746-3}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFPickersgill2005">[[Barbara Pickersgill|Pickersgill B]] (2005). </cite></ref> Na 150, Ptolemy kwuru na a na-emepụta ginger na Ceylon (Sri Lanka).<ref name="pickersgill" /> A na-ebubata ginger—ya na galangal —n'Alaeze Ukwu Rom dị ka akụkụ nke ọgwụ ahịhịa dị oke ọnụ nke naanị ndị ọgaranya nwere ike ịzụta, dịka ọmụmaatụ maka akụrụ. Aëtius nke Amida kọwara ma ginger na galangal dị ka ihe ndị dị na ọgwụ ahịhịa ya dị mgbagwoju anya.<ref name="dalby2000">{{Cite book|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|date=2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-22789-1}}</ref> A na-ebubata ginger a na-esighị esi na nke echekwara na Europe n'ọtụtụ buru ibu n'oge Middle Ages mgbe ụtọ ndị Europe gbanwere nke ọma na ihe oriri ya; n'oge a, a kọwara ginger na ọgwụ gọọmentị nke ọtụtụ mba.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref> Na narị afọ nke 14 England, otu paụnd nke ginger na-efu dị ka atụrụ.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Ihe akaebe ihe ochie nke ginger n'ebe ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Yuropu sitere na mbibi nke ụgbọ mmiri Denmark-Norwegian, ''Gribshunden''. Ụgbọ mmiri ahụ dara n'ụsọ oké osimiri ndịda nke Sweden n'oge ọkọchị nke afọ 1495 mgbe ọ na-ebuga Eze Hans n'elu ugwu ya na Kansụl Sweden. N'ime ihe okomoko ndị e ji ụgbọ mmiri ahụ mee bụ ginger, cloves, saffron, na ose.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Larsson|first=Mikael|date=2023-01-26|title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010|issn=1932-6203|pmid=36701280}}</ref> E si Eshia ree osisi ginger n'agwaetiti Karịbian n'oge dị ka narị afọ nke 16, tinyere ose ojii, klọvụ, na sinamọn, n'ihi agbamume nke Eze Ukwu Spen, ọ bụ ezie na naanị ginger ka toro. O mechara wepụ shuga ka ọ bụrụ ihe ọkụkụ mbupu na Hispaniola na Puerto Rico na ngwụcha narị afọ ahụ, ruo mgbe ewebatara ọrụ ohu site n'Afrịka mere ka shuga dịkwuo ọnụ ala iji mepụta na narị afọ nke 17.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Aram|first=Bethany|date=2015|title=Caribbean ginger and Atlantic trade, 1570–1648|journal=Journal of Global History|volume=10|issue=3|pages=410–430|doi=10.1017/S1740022815000200}}</ref> == Ubi ugbo == Jinja na-emepụta otu okooko osisi ọcha na pink nke na-ama ifuru na-acha odo odo. N'ihi ịma mma ya na mgbanwe nke osisi ahụ na ihu igwe ọkụ, a na-ejikarị ya eme ihe maka ubi gburugburu ụlọ ndị dị n'okpuru okpomọkụ. Ọ bụ osisi dị ka ahịhịa na-adịgide adịgide nke nwere akwụkwọ ndụ kwa afọ, ihe dị ka mita (ụkwụ 3 ruo 4). Dịka omenala si dị, a na-achịkọta rhizome ahụ mgbe osisi ahụ kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ; a na-agba ya ọkụ ozugbo, ma ọ bụ saa ya ma kpụchaa ya, iji gbuo ya ma gbochie ya itolite. Bantu na-eji perisperm na-esi ísì ụtọ nke Zingiberaceae eme ihe dị ka anụ ụtọ, yana dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na sialogogue.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa|author=Watt|first=John Mitchell|publisher=E & S Livingstone|year=1962}}</ref> == Mmepụta == <templatestyles src="Template:Table alignment/styles.css" />  {| class="wikitable floatright col2right" |+Mmepụta ginger Raw 2023, tọn<br />2023, tonnes | India |2,201,000 |- | Naịjirịa |781,641 |- | China |672,914 |- | Nepal |309,533 |- | Indonesia |198,873 |- | Thailand |174,103 |- |'''Ụwa''' |'''4,877,179''' |- | colspan="2" |Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="faostat">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=30 May 2025}}</ref> |} N'afọ 2023, mmepụta nke ginger a na-esighi esi n'ụwa niile ruru 4.9 nde tọn, nke India na-edu na pasentị iri anọ na ise nke mkpokọta ahụ, na [[Naijiria|Naịjirịa]] na Chaịna dịka ndị na-emepụta ihe nke abụọ.<ref name="faostat">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=30 May 2025}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC "Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)"]. </cite></ref> === Mmepụta na India === Ọ bụ ezie na a na-akọ ya n'ọtụtụ ebe n'ụwa niile, ginger bụ "otu n'ime ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ mbụ e dekọrọ edekọtara iji kọọ ma na-ebupụ site na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ India".[1] India nwere ọkwa nke asaa na mbupụ ginger n'ụwa niile, mana ọ bụ "onye na-emepụta ginger kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa".[2] Mpaghara ndị dị na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ na ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ India kacha mma maka mmepụta ginger n'ihi ihu igwe ha na-ekpo ọkụ na iru mmiri, mmiri ozuzo nkezi na oghere ala.[3] Ginger nwere ike itolite n'ụdị ala na mpaghara dị iche iche; agbanyeghị, ọ na-eto nke ọma ma ọ bụrụ na a kụọ ya n'ebe na-ekpo ọkụ ma nwee iru mmiri, n'ebe dị elu ruru mita 300 ruo 900 (ma ọ bụ ụkwụ 1,000 ruo 3,000), nakwa n'ala na-adịghị ejigide mmiri nke ukwuu ma nwee omimi opekata mpe sentimita 30. Oge mmiri ozuzo pere mpe tupu e too ya na oge mmiri ozuzo kesara nke ọma n'oge a na-eto ya dịkwa mkpa ka ginger wee too nke ọma n'ala.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Aryal|first=Suman|date=2013-02-10|title=Rainfall And Water Requirement of Rice During Growing Period|journal=Journal of Agriculture and Environment|volume=13|pages=1–4|doi=10.3126/aej.v13i0.7576|issn=2091-1009}}</ref> A na-akọkarị ginger n'India site n'ịkọ ugbo n'ụlọ, ebe ezinụlọ na ndị obodo na-arụkọ ọrụ nke ọma.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=ITAA Annual Conference Proceedings|author=Sneed|first=Christoper|date=2017|title=Do They Matter? The Impact of Atmospherics on Farmers' Market Consumers' Purchase Intention and Word-of-Mouth|doi=10.31274/itaa_proceedings-180814-389|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2328&context=itaa_proceedings}}</ref> == Ịkpa Ginger == [[Faịlụ:Gingerfield.jpg|thumb|Ubi Ginger]] Ogo nke mkpọrọgwụ ginger dị oke mkpa n'ọrụ ịkọ ginger. Ka mkpọrọgwụ ahụ buru ibu, ka ginger ga-esi too ngwa ngwa, nke pụtara na a ga-enwe ike ịkpọga ya n'ahịa ngwa ngwa. Tupu a kụọ rhizome mkpụrụ, a chọrọ ka ndị ọrụ ugbo gwọọ mkpụrụ ahụ iji gbochie ụmụ ahụhụ, ire ere rhizome na ọrịa ndị ọzọ sitere na mkpụrụ.<ref name=":1" /> Ụzọ dị iche iche ndị ọrụ ugbo India si agwọ mkpụrụ gụnyere itinye mkpụrụ ahụ n'ime mmiri nsị ehi, ise anwụrụ mkpụrụ tupu echekwa ha, na ịsacha mmiri ọkụ.<ref name=":1" /> Ozugbo e mechachara mkpụrụ ndị ahụ nke ọma, onye ọrụ ugbo ga-egwu ala ubi ebe a ga-akụ ha nke ọma ma ọ bụ kọọ ala ahụ nke ọma iji gbawaa ala ahụ. Mgbe e gwuchara ala ahụ nke ọma (ma ọ dịkarịa ala ugboro 3-5), a na-eme ọwa mmiri 60–80 feet (18–24 m) iche iji mee ka ihe ubi ahụ gbaa mmiri.<ref name=":1" /> Nzọụkwụ ọzọ bụ ịkụ mkpụrụ rhizome. Na India, a na-akụ mkpụrụ ginger a gbara mmiri n'ime ọnwa dị n'etiti Maachị na Juun ebe ọnwa ndị ahụ na-egosi mmalite nke mmiri ozuzo, ma ọ bụ oge mmiri ozuzo. Ozugbo a kụrụ ihe, ndị ọrụ ugbo na-aga n'ihu na-akụ mkpụrụ ahụ iji chekwaa mmiri ma lelee uto ahịhịa, yana ịlele mmiri mmiri n'elu iji chekwaa ala.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Carpenter|first=Philip|date=1975|title=An Evaluation of Several Mulch Materials on Landscape Plant Growth, Weed Control, Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture: Interim Report|journal=Purdue University E-Pubs|doi=10.5703/1288284313900}}</ref> A na-etinye mulch (dịka ọmụmaatụ akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ) n'elu akwa osisi ozugbo a kụrụ ya, ọzọ ụbọchị 45 na 90 ka ọ na-eto.<ref name=":1" /> Mgbe a kụrụ mulch, a na-akpọ climbing, nke bụ ịkpalite na ịgbawa ala iji lelee uto ahịhịa, mebie ike nke ala site na mmiri ozuzo, ma chekwaa mmiri ala.<ref name=":1" /> Ndị ọrụ ugbo ga-ahụ na ihe ubi ginger ha na-enweta mmiri mmiri ọzọ ma ọ bụrụ na mmiri ozuzo dị ala na mpaghara ha. Na India, ndị ọrụ ugbo ga-agba mmiri ginger ha kwa izu abụọ ma ọ dịkarịa ala n'etiti Septemba na Nọvemba (mgbe mmiri ozuzo gwụchara) iji hụ na mkpụrụ kachasị elu na ngwaahịa dị elu.<ref name=":1" /> Oge ikpeazụ maka ịkọ mkpụrụ osisi ginger bụ oge owuwe ihe ubi. Mgbe a kụrụ mkpụrụ osisi rhizome maka ngwaahịa dịka akwụkwọ nri, soda, na swiit, a ga-ewe ihe ubi n'etiti ọnwa anọ na ise nke ịkụ ihe, ebe mgbe a kụrụ mkpụrụ osisi rhizome maka ngwaahịa dịka ginger kpọrọ nkụ ma ọ bụ mmanụ ginger, a ga-ewe ihe ubi ọnwa asatọ ruo iri mgbe a kụchara ya. Jinja kpọrọ nkụ bụ otu n'ime ụdị ginger kachasị ewu ewu n'ahịa. A na-egbute rhizomes ginger maka ginger kpọrọ nkụ mgbe ha tozuru oke (ọnwa 8-10).<ref name=":2" /> Mgbe a mikpusịrị ha na mmiri, a na-eji aka kpụchaa akpụkpọ ahụ mpụta ya n'ihi na ọ dị oke nro nke na igwe anaghị arụ ọrụ.<ref name=":2" /> A na-agweri rhizomes kpọrọ nkụ niile n'ebe a na-eri nri. Jinja ọhụrụ anaghị achọ nhazi ọzọ mgbe a gbuchara ya, a na-aghọkwa ya obere oge.<ref name=":3" /> == Njem na mbupụ nke ginger == A na-eziga ginger n'ọtụtụ ebe dị iche iche ka e buru ya gaa ebe ikpeazụ ọ na-aga ma n'ime obodo ma n'ụwa niile. Njem ahụ na-amalite mgbe ndị ọrụ ugbo rere akụkụ nke ihe ha mepụtara nye ndị ahịa obodo na-anakọta ihe ubi kpọmkwem n'ọnụ ụzọ ugbo. Ozugbo a chịkọtara ihe ubi ahụ, a na-ebuga ya n'ahịa mgbakọ kacha nso ebe a na-ebuga ya na ebe a na-ere ahịa mpaghara ma ọ bụ nke mpaghara.<ref name=":3" /> Ndị ọrụ ugbo nwere nnukwu mkpụrụ ga-ebuga ihe ha mepụtara ozugbo na ahịa mpaghara ma ọ bụ nke mpaghara. Ozugbo ihe ubi ahụ "rutere ahịa mpaghara", a na-ehicha ha, na-enye ha ọkwa, ma na-etinye ha n'ime akpa ihe dị ka 60kg".<ref name=":3" /> A na-ebuga ha n'ahịa ndị dị n'ọdụ dịka New Delhi, Kochi, na Bombay.<ref name=":3" /> Steeti ebe a na-ebupụ ginger na-agbaso ụzọ ahịa nke ahịa akwụkwọ nri na India, usoro ndị a yikwara nke a na-ebuga n'ime obodo. Agbanyeghị, kama iru ahịa njedebe mgbe e mechara ebe a na-ebuga ihe ubi mpaghara, ihe ubi ahụ ga-erute ahịa mbupụ wee jiri ụgbọala, ụgbọelu ma ọ bụ ụgbọ mmiri ziga ya ruo ebe ikpeazụ mba ụwa na-aga, ebe ọ ga-erute n'ahịa ahịa mpaghara ma mechaa ruo onye ahịa ozugbo azụrụ ya. A na-ere ginger kpọrọ nkụ nke ukwuu n'etiti mba Eshia site na usoro nkesa pụrụ iche nke gụnyere netwọk nke obere ụlọ ahịa. A na-ere ginger ọhụrụ na nke echekwara ozugbo na ụlọ ahịa ndị dị n'ahịa, na mba ụfọdụ, a na-ahụ ginger ọhụrụ naanị n'ụlọ ahịa obere pụrụ iche maka obodo ụfọdụ.<ref name=":3" /> India na-ebuga ginger na ihe oriri akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ na Pakistan na Bangladesh dị nso, yana "Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Morocco, United States, Yemen Republic, United Kingdom, na Netherlands".<ref name=":3" /> Ọ bụ ezie na India bụ mba kachasị emepụta ginger n'ụwa, ọ naghị arụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ebupụ ihe ma na-akpata naanị ihe dị ka 1.17% nke mbupụ ginger niile. Ịkọ ginger na India bụ azụmahịa dị oke ọnụ ma dị ize ndụ, ebe ndị ọrụ ugbo anaghị enweta nnukwu ego site na mbupụ na "ihe karịrị 65% nke mkpokọta ọnụ ahịa e nwetara bụ maka ọrụ na ihe ọkụkụ".<ref name=":3" /> Onye nwe ugbo nwere ike irite uru ebe ọ bụ na enweghị mfu na mmepụta ma ọ bụ mbelata ọnụahịa, nke a na-apụghị izere ngwa ngwa.<ref name=":3" /> Mmepụta ginger kpọrọ nkụ na-egosi na ọ nwere uru na ọnụ ahịa dị elu, yana ginger a kụrụ n'usoro ịkọ ihe kama ịbụ ihe ọkụkụ dị ọcha.<ref name=":3" /> == Ojiji == === Nri === [[Faịlụ:Ingwer_2_(fcm).jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ginger rhizome ọhụrụ]] [[Faịlụ:Fresh_ginger.jpg|thumb|Ginger a sachara ọhụrụ]] A na-ejikarị ginger eme ihe n'ụwa niile, ma ọ bụ maka nri ma ọ bụ dịka ọgwụ ndị mmadụ. A pụrụ iji ginger mee ọtụtụ ihe oriri dịka akwụkwọ nri, swiiti, soda, pickles, na ihe ọṅụṅụ na-aba n'anya. Jinja bụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ n'ime kichin.<ref name="Kew">{{Cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1|title=''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe|date=2017|work=Kew Science, Plants of the World Online|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|accessdate=25 November 2017}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1 "''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe"]. </cite></ref> Rizme ginger na-eto eto na-atọ ụtọ ma na-atọ ụtọ nke ukwuu, ha na-atọkwa ụtọ nke ukwuu. A na-etinyekarị ha na mmanya vinega ma ọ bụ sherry dị ka ihe oriri ma ọ bụ sie ha dị ka ihe e ji eme ọtụtụ nri. A pụrụ itinye ha na mmiri ọkụ iji mee tii ahịhịa ginger, nke a pụrụ itinye mmanụ aṅụ na ya. A pụrụ ime ginger ka ọ bụrụ swiit ma ọ bụ mmanya ginger. ==== Eshia ==== Mkpụrụ osisi ginger ndị toro eto na-enwe eriri afọ ma fọrọ nke nta ka ọ kpọọ nkụ. A na-ejikarị ihe ọṅụṅụ sitere na mgbọrọgwụ ginger eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na nri ndị India, ọ bụkwa ihe a na-ejikarị eme nri ndị China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, na ọtụtụ nri ndị South Asia maka nri na-esi ísì ụtọ dị ka nri mmiri, anụ, na nri ndị anaghị eri anụ. [[Faịlụ:Ginger_in_China_01.jpg|thumb|Ụdị abụọ nke ginger na China]] N'ihe oriri ndị India, ginger bụ ihe dị mkpa, ọkachasị n'ime gravies ndị buru ibu, yana n'ọtụtụ nri ndị ọzọ, ma ndị anaghị eri anụ ma ndị e ji anụ mee. Jinja nwere ọrụ na ọgwụ Ayurvedic ọdịnala. Ọ bụ ihe e ji eme ihe ọṅụṅụ ọdịnala ndị India, ma oyi ma ọkụ, gụnyere masala chai a ṅara n'ọkụ. Jinja ọhụrụ bụ otu n'ime ihe ndị bụ isi e ji eme ka curries pulse na lentil na ihe oriri akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ. A na-akụ ginger ọhụrụ yana klọọkụ galik a kpụchara akpụcha ma ọ bụ gwerie ya iji mee ginger galik masala. A na-eji ginger ọhụrụ, yana nke kpọrọ nkụ, eme tii na kọfị, karịsịa n'oge oyi. Na ndịda India, "sambharam" bụ ihe ọṅụṅụ yogọt oge okpomọkụ nke e ji ginger mee dị ka ihe dị mkpa, yana ose akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ, nnu na akwụkwọ curry. A na-eji ntụ ntụ ginger eme ihe na nkwadebe nri nke a na-eme karịsịa maka ụmụ nwanyị dị ime ma ọ bụ ndị na-enye nwa ara, nke kachasị ewu ewu bụ katlu, nke bụ ngwakọta nke resin chịngọm, ghee, mkpụrụ, na shuga. A na-erikwa ginger n'ụdị candied na pickled. Na Japan, a na-apịcha ginger iji mee beni shōga na gari ma ọ bụ gwere ma jiri ya mee ihe na tofu ma ọ bụ noodles. A na-eme ya ka ọ bụrụ swiit a na-akpọ shoga no sato zuke. N'ime kimchi ọdịnala nke Korea, a na-agweri ginger nke ọma ma ọ bụ tee ya mmiri ka ọ ghara ịdị ka eriri afọ ma tinye ya na ihe ndị e ji mee ya tupu e mee ka ọ gbaa ọkụ. [[Faịlụ:Steamed_salted_fish_diced_chicken_rice_02.jpg|thumb|Nri ndị China nwere akụkụ ginger. Ọ na-egosi ọnụọgụ ginger a na-eri nri ọ bụla.]] Na Myanmar, a na-akpọ ginger ''gyin''. A na-ejikarị ya eme ihe n'isi nri, ọ bụkwa ihe dị mkpa n'ọgwụ ọdịnala. A na-eri ya dị ka nri salad a na-akpọ ''gyin-thot'', nke nwere ginger a gbuturu agbutu nke echekwara na mmanụ, ya na ọtụtụ mkpụrụ na mkpụrụ. Na Thailand ebe a na-akpọ ya ขิง ''khing'', a na-eji ya eme ihe na-eme ka galik ginger dị nro n'isi nri. Na Indonesia, a na-eji ginger na shuga nkwụ eme ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-akpọ ''wedang jahe''. Ndị Indonesia na-ejikwa mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu, nke a na-akpọ ''jahe'', dị ka ihe a na-ahụkarị na nri obodo. Na [[Malaysia]], a na-akpọ ginger ''halia'' ma na-eji ya eme ọtụtụ nri, ọkachasị ofe. A na-akpọ ya ''luya'' na Philippines, ginger bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị na nri obodo ma a na-eme ya dị ka tii a na-akpọ ''salabat''.<ref name="hardon">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HzoNfy-__EC&q=ginger+philippines+sore+throat|title=Applied health research manual: anthropology of health and health care|publisher=Het Spinhuis|year=2001|isbn=978-90-5589-191-7|edition=3rd|location=Amsterdam}}</ref><ref name="co">{{Cite book|title=Common medicinal plants of the Cordillera region (Northern Luzon, Philippines)|publisher=Community Health Education, Services and Training in the Cordillera Region (CHESTCORE)|year=1984|isbn=978-971-8640-00-5}}</ref> Na Vietnam, a pụrụ itinye akwụkwọ ọhụrụ, nke a gbuturu agbutu nke ọma, na ofe oporo na yam ( ''canh khoai mỡ'' ) dị ka ihe ịchọ mma na ose iji tinye ụtọ ginger dị nro karịa mgbọrọgwụ a gbuturu agbutu. Na Chaịna, a na-ejikọkarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu ma ọ bụ nke zuru oke na nri dị ụtọ dịka azụ, a na-ejikọkarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu na anụ, mgbe a na-esi ya. Mgbe ụfọdụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu bụ ihe mejupụtara igbe swiiti ndị Chaịna, a pụkwara iji ginger kwadebe tii ahịhịa. Enwere ike iji mmiri ginger a na-anaghị agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta mmiri ara ehi ma mee ihe ụtọ, mmiri ara ehi ginger. ==== Ebe Ugwu America ==== Na Karịbian, ginger bụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ a ma ama maka isi nri na ime ihe ọṅụṅụ dị ka sorrel, ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-eme n'oge ekeresimesi. Ndị Jamaica na-eme biya ginger ma dị ka ihe ọṅụṅụ carbonated ma dịkwa ọhụrụ n'ụlọ ha. A na-emekarị tii jinja ọhụrụ, e nwekwara achịcha jinja a ma ama na mpaghara Jamaica. ==== Mba ndị dị n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ ==== [[Faịlụ:Gingerbread_landscape.jpg|thumb|Nwoke Gingerbread na nwunye ya na ụlọ Gingerbreadeụlọ achịcha ginger]] N'ihe oriri ndị ọdịda anyanwụ, a na-ejikarị ginger eme ihe n'ọtụtụ nri dị ụtọ dịka ginger ale, gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin, na speculaas. A na-emepụta mmanya mmanya a na-akpọ Canton na Jarnac, France. Mmanya ginger bụ mmanya a na-esi ísì ụtọ ginger emepụtara na United Kingdom, nke a na-erekarị na karama iko akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ. A na-ejikwa ginger eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ a na-etinye na kọfị na tii ọkụ. N'agwaetiti Corfu, Gris, a na-eme ihe ọṅụṅụ ọdịnala a na-akpọ τσιτσιμπύρα ( ''tsitsibira'' ), ụdị biya ginger . Ndị Corfu na agwaetiti ndị ọzọ nke Ionian nakweere ihe ọṅụṅụ sitere n'aka ndị Britain, n'oge United States of the Ionian Islands. A pụrụ iji ginger ọhụrụ dochie ginger a gwere egweri na nha isii ruo otu, ọ bụ ezie na ụtọ ginger ọhụrụ na nke kpọrọ nkụ dịtụ iche. A na-ejikarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger kpọrọ nkụ eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ maka ntụziaka dị ka achịcha ginger, kuki, achịcha crackers na achịcha, ginger ale, na biya ginger. Ginger a mịrị amị ma ọ bụ nke a mịrị amị, nke a maara na UK dị ka "'''ginger stem'''", bụ mgbọrọgwụ esi nri na shuga ruo mgbe ọ dị nro, ọ bụkwa ụdị ihe eji eme achịcha. A pụrụ ịkpụcha ginger ọhụrụ tupu e rie ya. Maka nchekwa ogologo oge, enwere ike itinye ginger ahụ n'ime akpa plastik ma tinye ya na friji ma ọ bụ kpọnwụọ. ==== Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Ụwa ==== A na-eji ginger eme nri ndị Iran. Achịcha ginger bụ ụdị kuki a na-esikarị esi n'obodo Gorgan n'oge ezumike nke Nowruz (Ụbọchị Afọ Ọhụrụ).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.isna.ir/news/golestan-17943/%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C-%DA%AF%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1/|title=National registration of Gorgan gingerbread as an intangible cultural heritage in the national monuments of the country (translated from Farsi)|publisher=Iranian Students News Agency}}</ref> === Ihe ndị yiri ya === A na-eji ndị ọzọ so n'ezinụlọ Zingiberaceae eme ihe n'otu ụzọ ahụ. Ha gụnyere ''myoga'' (''Zingiber mioga''), ụdị galangal dị iche iche, mgbọrọgwụ mkpịsị aka (''Boesenbergia rotunda''), na ginger ilu ( ''Zingiber zerumbet''). A makwaara ''Asarum canadense'' dị ka ụdị dicotyledonous nke dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ North America, nke a makwaara dịka "ginger ọhịa ", mgbọrọgwụ ya nwekwara ihe ndị yiri ya na-esi ísì ụtọ, mana ọ nweghị njikọ na ezi ginger. Osisi ahụ nwere aristolochic acid, ihe na -akpata kansa.<ref name="2001FDA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|title=Aristolochic Acid: FDA Warns Consumers to Discontinue Use of Botanical Products that Contain Aristolochic Acid|date=11 April 2001|publisher=US [[FDA]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603091617/https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|archivedate=3 June 2017}}</ref> Ngalaba Nri na Ọgwụ nke United States na-adọ aka ná ntị na iri ngwaahịa nwere aristolochic acid na-ejikọta ya na "mmebi akụrụ na-adịgide adịgide, mgbe ụfọdụ na-ebute ọdịda akụrụ nke chọrọ dialysis akụrụ ma ọ bụ transplant akụrụ. Na mgbakwunye, ụfọdụ ndị ọrịa enwetala ụdị kansa ụfọdụ, nke na-emekarị na urinary tract."<ref name="2001FDA" /> == Nri == <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>  Ginger a na-esighị esi bụ mmiri 79%, carbohydrates 18%, protein 2%, na abụba 1% (tebụl). N'ime ọnụọgụ ntụaka nke 100 g (3.5) oz), ginger a na-esighi esi na-enye 333 kilojoules (80 kilocalories) nke ike nri na obere potassium (14% nke uru kwa ụbọchị, DV), magnesium (10% DV) na manganese (10% DV), mana ọ dị obere na ọdịnaya micronutrient (tebụl). == Ọdịdị na nchekwa == Ọ bụrụ na a rie ya n'ọtụtụ dị mma, ginger anaghị enwe mmetụta ọjọọ ọ bụla, mana nnukwu ọnụọgụ nwere ike ibute ihe ọjọọ, dịka nsogbu afọ, na mmekọrịta na-adịghị mma na ọgwụ ndị dọkịta nyere.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="Spinella2001">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin|title=The Psychopharmacology of Herbal Medications: Plant Drugs That Alter Mind, Brain, and Behavior|publisher=MIT Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-262-69265-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin/page/272 272]}}</ref> Ọ dị na ndepụta FDA "a maara dị ka ihe nchekwa",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030915162222/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?FR=182.20|archivedate=15 September 2003|title=Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 182, Sec. 182.20: Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates): Substances Generally Recognized As Safe|date=1 September 2014|publisher=US [[FDA]]|accessdate=21 December 2014}}</ref> mana ọ na- ejikọ ya na ụfọdụ ọgwụ, gụnyere ọgwụ mgbochi ọbara warfarin<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2007|title=Risk of warfarin-related bleeding events and supratherapeutic international normalized ratios associated with complementary and alternative medicine: a longitudinal analysis|journal=[[Pharmacotherapy (journal)|Pharmacotherapy]]|volume=27|issue=9|pages=1237–47|doi=10.1592/phco.27.9.1237|pmid=17723077}}</ref> na ọgwụ obi nifedipine.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger "Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance"]. </cite></ref> === Chemistry === Isi na ụtọ pụrụ iche nke ginger sitere na mmanụ ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe nke mejupụtara 1–3% nke ibu nke ginger ọhụrụ, nke gụnyere sesquiterpenes, dị ka beta-bisabolene na zingiberene, zingerone, shogaols, na gingerols nwere [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) dị ka ihe mejupụtara ya.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="an">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|journal=[[Food Chem.]]|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871}}</ref> Ihe dị ka kemịkalụ 400 dị na ginger a na-esighi esi.<ref name="drugs" /> A na-emepụta Zingerone site na gingerols mgbe a na-akpọ nkụ, ọ na-enwe obere ntụpọ na isi ụtọ dị ụtọ.<ref name="an">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|journal=[[Food Chem.]]|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFAnZhaoWangWu2016">An K, Zhao D, Wang Z, Wu J, Xu Y, Xiao G (2016). </cite></ref> Shogaols na-esi ísì karịa, a na-emepụtakwa ha site na gingerols n'oge a na-ekpo ọkụ, na-echekwa ha ma ọ bụ site na acidity.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="an" /> Ọtụtụ monoterpenes, amino acids, eriri nri, protein, phytosterols, vitamin, na mineral nri bụ ihe ndị ọzọ mejupụtara ya.<ref name="drugs" /> Ginger ọhụrụ nwekwara enzyme zingibain nke bụ cysteine protease ma nwee ihe ndị yiri ya na rennet.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Huang|first=X. W.|date=2011-05-01|title=Purification, characterization, and milk coagulating properties of ginger proteases|journal=Journal of Dairy Science|language=en|volume=94|issue=5|pages=2259–2269|doi=10.3168/jds.2010-4024|pmid=21524515|issn=0022-0302}}</ref> == Nnyocha == Ihe akaebe na iji ginger eme ihe na-ejikọta ya na mbelata agbọ onunu n'oge ime dị ala<ref name="preg">{{Cite journal|title=Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review|journal=JAMA|volume=316|issue=13|pages=1392–1401|date=October 2016|pmid=27701665|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.14337|url=https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/6b0f7e5c-6bc8-4f8e-9419-bf43b3eea727}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFMcParlinO'DonnellRobsonBeyer2016">McParlin C, O'Donnell A, Robson SC, Beyer F, Moloney E, Bryant A, et&nbsp;al. (October 2016). </cite></ref> Enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe ginger na-enyere aka belata agbọ onunu na ịgbọ agbọ nke ọgwụgwọ ọgwụgwọ na-akpata.<ref name="chemo">{{Cite journal|title=Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Oncol Nurs Forum|volume=40|issue=2|pages=163–70|date=March 2013|pmid=23448741|doi=10.1188/13.ONF.163-170|url=}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFLeeOh2013">Lee J, Oh H (March 2013). </cite></ref> Enweghị ihe akaebe doro anya na iji ginger agwọ ọgbụgbọ n'oge ime dị mma.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="Giacosa">{{Cite journal|year=2015|title=Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract?|url=https://www.europeanreview.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/1291-1296.pdf|journal=European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences|volume=19|issue=7|pages=1291–6|issn=1128-3602|pmid=25912592}}</ref><ref name="ernst-meta">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials|journal=[[Br. J. Anaesth.]]|volume=84|issue=3|pages=367–371|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442|pmid=10793599}}</ref> Ginger anaghị arụ ọrụ maka ịgwọ dysmenorrhea.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|journal=[[The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.]]|volume=2016|issue=3|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|pmid=27000311}}</ref> E nwere ihe akaebe na ọ nwere mmetụta mgbochi mbufụt, mana enweghị ihe akaebe zuru oke maka na ọ na-emetụta ihe mgbu na osteoarthritis.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2011|title=The use of ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') for the treatment of pain: A systematic review of clinical trials|journal=Pain Medicine|volume=12|issue=12|pages=1808–18|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01261.x|pmid=22054010}}</ref> Enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe na ginger na-emetụta mkpokọta platelet na coagulation ọbara.<ref name="Marx McKavanagh McCarthy Bird p=e0141119">{{Cite journal|author=Marx|first=Wolfgang|title=The Effect of Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') on Platelet Aggregation: A Systematic Literature Review|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=10|date=21 October 2015|issn=1932-6203|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141119|pmid=26488162}}</ref> Nnyocha e mere n'afọ 2018 gosiri na ginger nwere ike ibelata ibu ahụ n'ime ndị buru ibu ma mee ka cholesterol HDL dịkwuo elu.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Maharlouei|first=N|year=2019|title=The effects of ginger intake on weight loss and metabolic profiles among overweight and obese subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|volume=59|issue=11|pages=1753–1766|doi=10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|pmid=29393665}}</ref> == Mmetụta ọjọọ == Ọ bụ ezie na a maara ya dị ka ihe dị mma, ginger nwere ike ibute obi mgbawa na mmetụta ndị ọzọ, ọkachasị ma ọ bụrụ na e jiri ya mee ntụ ntụ.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger "Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance"]. </cite></ref> Ọ nwere ike imetụta ndị nwere nkume gallstone n'ụzọ dị njọ, ma nwee ike igbochi mmetụta nke ọgwụ mgbochi mkpali, dị ka warfarin ma ọ bụ aspirin, na ọgwụ ndị ọzọ edepụtara.<ref name="nccih" /><ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref> == Ihe ngosi == <gallery> Faịlụ:Ginger_Plant_vs.jpg|Ginger plant with flower Faịlụ:Opening_ginger_flower.jpg|Ginger flower about to bloom Faịlụ:Ginger_flower_stamen.jpg|Ginger flower stamen Faịlụ:Ginger_crop.jpg|Ginger crop, Myanmar Faịlụ:Ginger_on_Dark_Board.jpg|Chopped ginger Faịlụ:Gari_ginger.jpg|alt=Gari, a type of pickled ginger|<nowiki><i id="mwA74">Gari</i></nowiki>, a type of pickled ginger Faịlụ:German_Ginger_wine_with_stem_ginger_decoration_4.jpg|German ginger-flavored wine (grape-based) with stem ginger decoration </gallery> == Hụkwa == * Osisi na anụmanụ e ji aka ha rụọ n'ụlọ nke Austronesia == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>  * Zingiber officinale Ndepụta nke Chemicals (Dr. Duke's) (echekwara na 14 Nọvemba 2004) {{Ginger Plant}}{{Herbs & spices}}{{Medicinal herbs & fungi}}{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q35625}}{{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] 19h01p3wrbdn67z8uud7p37xlkflbhe 688034 688033 2026-07-14T07:29:46Z Quinlan83 12227 Fix 688034 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jinja''' (''Zingiber officinale'') bụ osisi na-amịpụta okooko osisi, nke a na-eji rhizome ya, ya bụ mgbọrọgwụ '''jinja''', eme ngwa nri ma na-ejikwa ya eme ọgwụ ọdịnala n'ọtụtụ ebe.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}</ref> Ọ bụ ahịhịa na-adị ndụ ruo ọtụtụ afọ (herbaceous perennial) nke na-amịpụta pseudostems kwa afọ—ya bụ, ogwe osisi ụgha nke e si n'okpuru akwụkwọ a tụgharịrị ọnụ kpụọ—nke nwere ike iru ihe dị ka otu mita n'ịdị elu. Osisi ahụ na-amịpụta akwụkwọ dị ogologo ma dị warara. Okooko ya nwere petal ndị na-acha odo odo dị mfe, nke akụkụ ya nwere agba odo-acha anụnụ anụnụ (purple), ma na-apụta ozugbo site na rhizome n'elu ome dị iche iche.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plant resources of South-East Asia: no.13: Spices|publisher=Backhuys Publishers|year=1999|location=Leiden (Netherlands)|pages=238–244|chapter=Zingiber officinale Roscoe}}</ref> Jinja dị n'ezinụlọ Zingiberaceae, nke gụnyekwara turmeric (''Curcuma longa''),<ref>{{Cite web|title=''Curcuma longa'' L.|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:796451-1|publisher=Plants of the World Online, Kew Science, Kew Gardens, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England|accessdate=26 March 2018|year=2018}}</ref> cardamom (''Elettaria cardamomum''), na galangal. Jinja malitere na Maritime Southeast Asia ma o yikarịrị ka ndị Austronesia buru ụzọ zụọ ya. E ji ha buru ya gaa Indo-Pacific n'oge mgbasa Austronesia (ihe dị ka 5,000 BP), ruo Hawaii. Ginger bụ otu n'ime ihe ndị mbụ e si Eshia na-ebupụ, na-abata na Europe site na azụmaahịa ihe ndị na-esi ísì ụtọ, ndị Gris na ndị Rom oge ochie jikwa ya.<ref name="Kew">{{Cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1|title=''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe|date=2017|work=Kew Science, Plants of the World Online|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|accessdate=25 November 2017}}</ref> A na-akpọkarị dicots ndị yiri ya n'ụdị ''Asarum'' ginger ọhịa n'ihi uto ha yiri nke ahụ. A na-eji ginger eme ihe n'ọgwụ ọdịnala na Chaịna, India na Japan ruo ọtụtụ narị afọ, nakwa dị ka ihe mgbakwunye nri ọgbara ọhụrụ. Ginger nwere ike inye uru karịa placebo maka ọgbụgbọ na ịgbọ agbọ n'oge ime,<ref name="preg">{{Cite journal|title=Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review|journal=JAMA|volume=316|issue=13|pages=1392–1401|date=October 2016|pmid=27701665|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.14337|url=https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/6b0f7e5c-6bc8-4f8e-9419-bf43b3eea727}}</ref> mana enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe na ọ na-enyere aka na ọgbụgbọ n'oge [[Ọgwụ Ọgwụ|chemotherapy]].<ref name="chemo">{{Cite journal|title=Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Oncol Nurs Forum|volume=40|issue=2|pages=163–70|date=March 2013|pmid=23448741|doi=10.1188/13.ONF.163-170|url=}}</ref> O doghị anya ma ginger ọ dị irè maka ịgwọ ọrịa ọ bụla.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}</ref> Na 2023, mmepụta ginger n'ụwa niile bụ 4.9 nde tọn, nke India na-edu, nke nwere 45% nke mkpokọta. == Okwu mmalite == Mmalite Bekee nke okwu "ginger" sitere na etiti narị afọ nke 14, site na {{Lang|ang|gingifer}} Bekee Ochie, nke sitere na mkpụrụ osisi Latin Medieval {{Lang|la|gingiber}}, {{Lang|la|gingiber}} sitere na Greek {{Lang|grc|ζιγγίβερις}} zingiberis sitere na Prakrit (Middle Indic) siṅgabera, na siṅgabera sitere na Sanskrit śṛṅgavera. A na-eche na okwu Sanskrit sitere na okwu Dravidian ochie nke mekwara [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Das|first=Abhaya Prasad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4gAQAAIAAJ&q=Tamil+inchi+ver+ginger|title=Perspectives of Plant Biodiversity: Proceedings of National Seminar on Plant Biodiversity – Systematics, Conservation and Ethnobotany, Department of Botany, North Bengal University, November 9-11, 2000|date=2002|publisher=Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh|isbn=978-81-211-0298-8|language=en}}</ref> na okwu Malayalam iñci-vēr (site na vēr, "mgbọrọgwụ");<ref name=":4" /><ref name="W1" /> nkọwa ọzọ bụ na okwu Sanskrit sitere na srngam, nke pụtara "mpi", na vera, nke pụtara "ahụ" (na-akọwa ọdịdị nke mgbọrọgwụ ya), mana nke ahụ nwere ike ịbụ usoro mmụta ọdịnala. O yikarịrị ka e si na Bekee etiti gụgharịa ya site na {{Lang|fro|gingibre}} French ochie ({{Lang|fr|gingembre}} nke oge a nke French).<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&q=ginger+from+tamil+word+inji&pg=PA578|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|author=Caldwell|first=Robert|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8|edition=3rd|location=New Delhi}}</ref> == Mmalite na nkesa == [[Faịlụ:Flower_of_Ginger1.jpg|thumb|Okooko osisi Ginger]] Jinja malitere n'akụkụ mmiri dị n'ebe ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia. Ọ bụ ezigbo ihe ọkụkụ, ọ dịghịkwa adị n'ime ọhịa ya.<ref name="Ravindran2016">{{Cite book|title=Ginger: The Genus Zingiber|author=Ravindran|first=P.N.|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|location=Boca Raton}}</ref><ref name="singh">{{Cite book|title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement|author=Singh|first=Ram J.|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-7386-7|series=Medicinal Plants|location=Boca Raton}}</ref> Ihe akaebe kacha ochie nke ezi ihe kpatara ya bụ n'etiti ndị Austronesian ebe ọ nọ n'etiti ọtụtụ ụdị ginger a na-akọ ma na-eri eri kemgbe oge ochie. Ha kụrụ ginger ndị ọzọ dịka turmeric (''Curcuma longa''), turmeric ọcha (''Curcuma zedoaria''), na ginger ilu (''Zingiber zerumbet''). A na-eji rhizomes na akwụkwọ ya ekpomeekpo nri ma ọ bụ rie ya ozugbo. A na-ejikwa akwụkwọ ndị ahụ akpa ákwà. E wezụga ojiji ndị a, ginger nwere ihe dị mkpa n'etiti ndị Austronesian, a na-eji ya eme ihe n'ememe maka ọgwụgwọ na ịrịọ nchebe site na mmụọ. A na-ejikwa ya eme ihe n'ihi ngọzi nke ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian.<ref name="Viestad">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvQhVrQ7bzkC|title=Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Ocean Spice Route|author=Viestad|first=Andreas|publisher=Chronicle Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8118-4965-4|location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="Ross2008Lexicon">{{Cite book|chapterurl=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/106908|title=The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society|author=Ross|first=Malcolm|publisher=Pacific Linguistics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-85883-589-4|editor=Ross|location=Canberra|pages=389–426|chapter=Other cultivated plants}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196|journal=[[Ocean. Linguist.]]|volume=52|issue=2|pages=493–523|doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016|issn=0029-8115}}</ref><ref name="Ujang2015">{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Ginger Species and Their Traditional Uses in Modern Applications|url=https://docplayer.net/48110504-Ginger-species-and-their-traditional-uses-in-modern-applications-section-2-p-o-box-7035-40700-shah-alam-selangor-malaysia-2.html|journal=Journal of Industrial Technology|volume=23|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.21908/jit.2015.4}}</ref><ref name="Dalby2002">{{Cite book|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}</ref><ref name="KikusawaReid">{{Cite book|chapterurl=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/33035/A67.2007.pdf|title=Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley|author=Kikusawa|first=Ritsuko|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Co.|year=2007|isbn=978-90-272-9294-0|editor=Siegel|pages=339–352|chapter=Proto who used turmeric, and how?|accessdate=23 January 2019}}</ref> A na-ebu ginger n'ụgbọ mmiri ha n'oge njem ha dị ka osisi ụgbọ mmiri n'oge mgbasa Austronesian, malite na ihe dị ka 5,000 BP. Ha webatara ya na Agwaetiti Pasifik tupu oge eruo, ogologo oge tupu ha na mmepeanya ndị ọzọ akpakọrịta. Mgbanwe nke okwu [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] ''*{{Lang|mis|laqia}}'' A na-ahụ ya n'asụsụ Austronesian ruo [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Blust1985">{{Cite journal|title=The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective|journal=Asian Perspectives|author=Blust|first=Robert|volume=26|issue=1|year=1984}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196|journal=[[Ocean. Linguist.]]|volume=52|issue=2|pages=493–523|doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016|issn=0029-8115}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFRobertTrussel2013">Robert B, Trussel S (2013). </cite></ref> O yikarịrị ka ha webatara ya na India yana osisi nri ndị ọzọ dị na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia na teknụzụ ịkwọ ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian, n'oge ndị ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri Austronesian zutere ndị na-asụ asụsụ Dravidian nke Sri Lanka na Ndịda India na ihe dị ka 3,500 BP.<ref name="Viestad">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvQhVrQ7bzkC|title=Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Ocean Spice Route|author=Viestad|first=Andreas|publisher=Chronicle Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8118-4965-4|location=San Francisco}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFViestad2007">Viestad A (2007). </cite></ref><ref name="Dalby2002">{{Cite book|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFDalby2002">Dalby A (2002). </cite></ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{Cite book|title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|author=Mahdi|first=Waruno|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-51870-3|editor=Blench|series=One World Archaeology|location=London|pages=144–179|chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean}}</ref> Ndị njem Austronesian burukwa ya gaa [[Madagascar]] na [[Comoros]] na Narị afọ nke mbụ nke oge a.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2011|title=The first migrants to Madagascar and their introduction of plants: linguistic and ethnological evidence|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|volume=46|issue=2|pages=169–189|doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.580142|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00706173/file/Beaujard.azania2.pdf}}</ref> Site n'India, ndị ahịa na-ebuga ya na Middle East na Mediterenian n'ihe dị ka Narị afọ nke mbụ nke oge a. A na-akọkarị ya na ndịda India na Greater Sunda Islands n'oge azụmaahịa ose, tinyere ose, klọvụ, na ọtụtụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ ndị ọzọ.<ref name="singh">{{Cite book|title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement|author=Singh|first=Ram J.|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-7386-7|series=Medicinal Plants|location=Boca Raton}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFSingh2011">Singh RJ (2011). </cite></ref><ref name="Doran">{{Cite book|title=South East Asia in the World-Economy|author=Doran|first=Charles F.|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31237-0|location=Cambridge}}</ref> == Akụkọ ihe mere eme == Ndekọ mbụ e dere gbasara ginger sitere na ''Analects'', nke Ndị Na-eso Ụzọ Confucius dere<ref name="Rainey2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID4gMCaLr0MC&pg=PA10|title=Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials|author=Lee Dian Rainey|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4443-2360-3}}</ref> na Chaịna n'oge Agha Steeti (475–221 TOA).<ref name="pickersgill">{{Cite book|editor=Prance|author=Pickersgill|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Pickersgill|date=2005|title=The Cultural History of Plants|publisher=Routledge|pages=163–164|isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref> N'ime ya, a sịrị na [[Konfúkius|Confucius]] na-eri ginger mgbe ọ bụla a na-eri ya.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Na 406, mọnk Faxian dere na a na-akọ ginger n'ime ite ma na-ebu ya n'ụgbọ mmiri ndị Chaịna iji gbochie ọrịa scurvy.<ref name="pickersgill" /> N'oge ọchịchị Song (960–1279), a na-ebubata ginger na Chaịna site na mba ndịda.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Ndị Arab webatara ose ginger na Mediterenian, ndị edemede dịka Dioscorides (40-90) na Pliny the Elder (24-79) kọwara ya.<ref name="pickersgill">{{Cite book|editor=Prance|author=Pickersgill|first=Barbara|authorlink=Barbara Pickersgill|date=2005|title=The Cultural History of Plants|publisher=Routledge|pages=163–164|isbn=0-415-92746-3}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFPickersgill2005">[[Barbara Pickersgill|Pickersgill B]] (2005). </cite></ref> Na 150, Ptolemy kwuru na a na-emepụta ginger na Ceylon (Sri Lanka).<ref name="pickersgill" /> A na-ebubata ginger—ya na galangal —n'Alaeze Ukwu Rom dị ka akụkụ nke ọgwụ ahịhịa dị oke ọnụ nke naanị ndị ọgaranya nwere ike ịzụta, dịka ọmụmaatụ maka akụrụ. Aëtius nke Amida kọwara ma ginger na galangal dị ka ihe ndị dị na ọgwụ ahịhịa ya dị mgbagwoju anya.<ref name="dalby2000">{{Cite book|author=Dalby|first=Andrew|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|date=2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-22789-1}}</ref> A na-ebubata ginger a na-esighị esi na nke echekwara na Europe n'ọtụtụ buru ibu n'oge Middle Ages mgbe ụtọ ndị Europe gbanwere nke ọma na ihe oriri ya; n'oge a, a kọwara ginger na ọgwụ gọọmentị nke ọtụtụ mba.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref> Na narị afọ nke 14 England, otu paụnd nke ginger na-efu dị ka atụrụ.<ref name="pickersgill" /> Ihe akaebe ihe ochie nke ginger n'ebe ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Yuropu sitere na mbibi nke ụgbọ mmiri Denmark-Norwegian, ''Gribshunden''. Ụgbọ mmiri ahụ dara n'ụsọ oké osimiri ndịda nke Sweden n'oge ọkọchị nke afọ 1495 mgbe ọ na-ebuga Eze Hans n'elu ugwu ya na Kansụl Sweden. N'ime ihe okomoko ndị e ji ụgbọ mmiri ahụ mee bụ ginger, cloves, saffron, na ose.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Larsson|first=Mikael|date=2023-01-26|title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010|issn=1932-6203|pmid=36701280}}</ref> E si Eshia ree osisi ginger n'agwaetiti Karịbian n'oge dị ka narị afọ nke 16, tinyere ose ojii, klọvụ, na sinamọn, n'ihi agbamume nke Eze Ukwu Spen, ọ bụ ezie na naanị ginger ka toro. O mechara wepụ shuga ka ọ bụrụ ihe ọkụkụ mbupu na Hispaniola na Puerto Rico na ngwụcha narị afọ ahụ, ruo mgbe ewebatara ọrụ ohu site n'Afrịka mere ka shuga dịkwuo ọnụ ala iji mepụta na narị afọ nke 17.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Aram|first=Bethany|date=2015|title=Caribbean ginger and Atlantic trade, 1570–1648|journal=Journal of Global History|volume=10|issue=3|pages=410–430|doi=10.1017/S1740022815000200}}</ref> == Ubi ugbo == Jinja na-emepụta otu okooko osisi ọcha na pink nke na-ama ifuru na-acha odo odo. N'ihi ịma mma ya na mgbanwe nke osisi ahụ na ihu igwe ọkụ, a na-ejikarị ya eme ihe maka ubi gburugburu ụlọ ndị dị n'okpuru okpomọkụ. Ọ bụ osisi dị ka ahịhịa na-adịgide adịgide nke nwere akwụkwọ ndụ kwa afọ, ihe dị ka mita (ụkwụ 3 ruo 4). Dịka omenala si dị, a na-achịkọta rhizome ahụ mgbe osisi ahụ kpọnwụrụ akpọnwụ; a na-agba ya ọkụ ozugbo, ma ọ bụ saa ya ma kpụchaa ya, iji gbuo ya ma gbochie ya itolite. Bantu na-eji perisperm na-esi ísì ụtọ nke Zingiberaceae eme ihe dị ka anụ ụtọ, yana dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na sialogogue.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa|author=Watt|first=John Mitchell|publisher=E & S Livingstone|year=1962}}</ref> == Mmepụta == <templatestyles src="Template:Table alignment/styles.css" />  {| class="wikitable floatright col2right" |+Mmepụta ginger Raw 2023, tọn<br />2023, tonnes | India |2,201,000 |- | Naịjirịa |781,641 |- | China |672,914 |- | Nepal |309,533 |- | Indonesia |198,873 |- | Thailand |174,103 |- |'''Ụwa''' |'''4,877,179''' |- | colspan="2" |Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name="faostat">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=30 May 2025}}</ref> |} N'afọ 2023, mmepụta nke ginger a na-esighi esi n'ụwa niile ruru 4.9 nde tọn, nke India na-edu na pasentị iri anọ na ise nke mkpokọta ahụ, na [[Naijiria|Naịjirịa]] na Chaịna dịka ndị na-emepụta ihe nke abụọ.<ref name="faostat">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=30 May 2025}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC "Ginger production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)"]. </cite></ref> === Mmepụta na India === Ọ bụ ezie na a na-akọ ya n'ọtụtụ ebe n'ụwa niile, ginger bụ "otu n'ime ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ mbụ e dekọrọ edekọtara iji kọọ ma na-ebupụ site na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ India".[1] India nwere ọkwa nke asaa na mbupụ ginger n'ụwa niile, mana ọ bụ "onye na-emepụta ginger kachasị ukwuu n'ụwa".[2] Mpaghara ndị dị na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ na ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ India kacha mma maka mmepụta ginger n'ihi ihu igwe ha na-ekpo ọkụ na iru mmiri, mmiri ozuzo nkezi na oghere ala.[3] Ginger nwere ike itolite n'ụdị ala na mpaghara dị iche iche; agbanyeghị, ọ na-eto nke ọma ma ọ bụrụ na a kụọ ya n'ebe na-ekpo ọkụ ma nwee iru mmiri, n'ebe dị elu ruru mita 300 ruo 900 (ma ọ bụ ụkwụ 1,000 ruo 3,000), nakwa n'ala na-adịghị ejigide mmiri nke ukwuu ma nwee omimi opekata mpe sentimita 30. Oge mmiri ozuzo pere mpe tupu e too ya na oge mmiri ozuzo kesara nke ọma n'oge a na-eto ya dịkwa mkpa ka ginger wee too nke ọma n'ala.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Aryal|first=Suman|date=2013-02-10|title=Rainfall And Water Requirement of Rice During Growing Period|journal=Journal of Agriculture and Environment|volume=13|pages=1–4|doi=10.3126/aej.v13i0.7576|issn=2091-1009}}</ref> A na-akọkarị ginger n'India site n'ịkọ ugbo n'ụlọ, ebe ezinụlọ na ndị obodo na-arụkọ ọrụ nke ọma.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=ITAA Annual Conference Proceedings|author=Sneed|first=Christoper|date=2017|title=Do They Matter? The Impact of Atmospherics on Farmers' Market Consumers' Purchase Intention and Word-of-Mouth|doi=10.31274/itaa_proceedings-180814-389|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2328&context=itaa_proceedings}}</ref> == Ịkpa Ginger == [[Faịlụ:Gingerfield.jpg|thumb|Ubi Ginger]] Ogo nke mkpọrọgwụ ginger dị oke mkpa n'ọrụ ịkọ ginger. Ka mkpọrọgwụ ahụ buru ibu, ka ginger ga-esi too ngwa ngwa, nke pụtara na a ga-enwe ike ịkpọga ya n'ahịa ngwa ngwa. Tupu a kụọ rhizome mkpụrụ, a chọrọ ka ndị ọrụ ugbo gwọọ mkpụrụ ahụ iji gbochie ụmụ ahụhụ, ire ere rhizome na ọrịa ndị ọzọ sitere na mkpụrụ.<ref name=":1" /> Ụzọ dị iche iche ndị ọrụ ugbo India si agwọ mkpụrụ gụnyere itinye mkpụrụ ahụ n'ime mmiri nsị ehi, ise anwụrụ mkpụrụ tupu echekwa ha, na ịsacha mmiri ọkụ.<ref name=":1" /> Ozugbo e mechachara mkpụrụ ndị ahụ nke ọma, onye ọrụ ugbo ga-egwu ala ubi ebe a ga-akụ ha nke ọma ma ọ bụ kọọ ala ahụ nke ọma iji gbawaa ala ahụ. Mgbe e gwuchara ala ahụ nke ọma (ma ọ dịkarịa ala ugboro 3-5), a na-eme ọwa mmiri 60–80 feet (18–24 m) iche iji mee ka ihe ubi ahụ gbaa mmiri.<ref name=":1" /> Nzọụkwụ ọzọ bụ ịkụ mkpụrụ rhizome. Na India, a na-akụ mkpụrụ ginger a gbara mmiri n'ime ọnwa dị n'etiti Maachị na Juun ebe ọnwa ndị ahụ na-egosi mmalite nke mmiri ozuzo, ma ọ bụ oge mmiri ozuzo. Ozugbo a kụrụ ihe, ndị ọrụ ugbo na-aga n'ihu na-akụ mkpụrụ ahụ iji chekwaa mmiri ma lelee uto ahịhịa, yana ịlele mmiri mmiri n'elu iji chekwaa ala.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Carpenter|first=Philip|date=1975|title=An Evaluation of Several Mulch Materials on Landscape Plant Growth, Weed Control, Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture: Interim Report|journal=Purdue University E-Pubs|doi=10.5703/1288284313900}}</ref> A na-etinye mulch (dịka ọmụmaatụ akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ) n'elu akwa osisi ozugbo a kụrụ ya, ọzọ ụbọchị 45 na 90 ka ọ na-eto.<ref name=":1" /> Mgbe a kụrụ mulch, a na-akpọ climbing, nke bụ ịkpalite na ịgbawa ala iji lelee uto ahịhịa, mebie ike nke ala site na mmiri ozuzo, ma chekwaa mmiri ala.<ref name=":1" /> Ndị ọrụ ugbo ga-ahụ na ihe ubi ginger ha na-enweta mmiri mmiri ọzọ ma ọ bụrụ na mmiri ozuzo dị ala na mpaghara ha. Na India, ndị ọrụ ugbo ga-agba mmiri ginger ha kwa izu abụọ ma ọ dịkarịa ala n'etiti Septemba na Nọvemba (mgbe mmiri ozuzo gwụchara) iji hụ na mkpụrụ kachasị elu na ngwaahịa dị elu.<ref name=":1" /> Oge ikpeazụ maka ịkọ mkpụrụ osisi ginger bụ oge owuwe ihe ubi. Mgbe a kụrụ mkpụrụ osisi rhizome maka ngwaahịa dịka akwụkwọ nri, soda, na swiit, a ga-ewe ihe ubi n'etiti ọnwa anọ na ise nke ịkụ ihe, ebe mgbe a kụrụ mkpụrụ osisi rhizome maka ngwaahịa dịka ginger kpọrọ nkụ ma ọ bụ mmanụ ginger, a ga-ewe ihe ubi ọnwa asatọ ruo iri mgbe a kụchara ya. Jinja kpọrọ nkụ bụ otu n'ime ụdị ginger kachasị ewu ewu n'ahịa. A na-egbute rhizomes ginger maka ginger kpọrọ nkụ mgbe ha tozuru oke (ọnwa 8-10).<ref name=":2" /> Mgbe a mikpusịrị ha na mmiri, a na-eji aka kpụchaa akpụkpọ ahụ mpụta ya n'ihi na ọ dị oke nro nke na igwe anaghị arụ ọrụ.<ref name=":2" /> A na-agweri rhizomes kpọrọ nkụ niile n'ebe a na-eri nri. Jinja ọhụrụ anaghị achọ nhazi ọzọ mgbe a gbuchara ya, a na-aghọkwa ya obere oge.<ref name=":3" /> == Njem na mbupụ nke ginger == A na-eziga ginger n'ọtụtụ ebe dị iche iche ka e buru ya gaa ebe ikpeazụ ọ na-aga ma n'ime obodo ma n'ụwa niile. Njem ahụ na-amalite mgbe ndị ọrụ ugbo rere akụkụ nke ihe ha mepụtara nye ndị ahịa obodo na-anakọta ihe ubi kpọmkwem n'ọnụ ụzọ ugbo. Ozugbo a chịkọtara ihe ubi ahụ, a na-ebuga ya n'ahịa mgbakọ kacha nso ebe a na-ebuga ya na ebe a na-ere ahịa mpaghara ma ọ bụ nke mpaghara.<ref name=":3" /> Ndị ọrụ ugbo nwere nnukwu mkpụrụ ga-ebuga ihe ha mepụtara ozugbo na ahịa mpaghara ma ọ bụ nke mpaghara. Ozugbo ihe ubi ahụ "rutere ahịa mpaghara", a na-ehicha ha, na-enye ha ọkwa, ma na-etinye ha n'ime akpa ihe dị ka 60kg".<ref name=":3" /> A na-ebuga ha n'ahịa ndị dị n'ọdụ dịka New Delhi, Kochi, na Bombay.<ref name=":3" /> Steeti ebe a na-ebupụ ginger na-agbaso ụzọ ahịa nke ahịa akwụkwọ nri na India, usoro ndị a yikwara nke a na-ebuga n'ime obodo. Agbanyeghị, kama iru ahịa njedebe mgbe e mechara ebe a na-ebuga ihe ubi mpaghara, ihe ubi ahụ ga-erute ahịa mbupụ wee jiri ụgbọala, ụgbọelu ma ọ bụ ụgbọ mmiri ziga ya ruo ebe ikpeazụ mba ụwa na-aga, ebe ọ ga-erute n'ahịa ahịa mpaghara ma mechaa ruo onye ahịa ozugbo azụrụ ya. A na-ere ginger kpọrọ nkụ nke ukwuu n'etiti mba Eshia site na usoro nkesa pụrụ iche nke gụnyere netwọk nke obere ụlọ ahịa. A na-ere ginger ọhụrụ na nke echekwara ozugbo na ụlọ ahịa ndị dị n'ahịa, na mba ụfọdụ, a na-ahụ ginger ọhụrụ naanị n'ụlọ ahịa obere pụrụ iche maka obodo ụfọdụ.<ref name=":3" /> India na-ebuga ginger na ihe oriri akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ na Pakistan na Bangladesh dị nso, yana "Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Morocco, United States, Yemen Republic, United Kingdom, na Netherlands".<ref name=":3" /> Ọ bụ ezie na India bụ mba kachasị emepụta ginger n'ụwa, ọ naghị arụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-ebupụ ihe ma na-akpata naanị ihe dị ka 1.17% nke mbupụ ginger niile. Ịkọ ginger na India bụ azụmahịa dị oke ọnụ ma dị ize ndụ, ebe ndị ọrụ ugbo anaghị enweta nnukwu ego site na mbupụ na "ihe karịrị 65% nke mkpokọta ọnụ ahịa e nwetara bụ maka ọrụ na ihe ọkụkụ".<ref name=":3" /> Onye nwe ugbo nwere ike irite uru ebe ọ bụ na enweghị mfu na mmepụta ma ọ bụ mbelata ọnụahịa, nke a na-apụghị izere ngwa ngwa.<ref name=":3" /> Mmepụta ginger kpọrọ nkụ na-egosi na ọ nwere uru na ọnụ ahịa dị elu, yana ginger a kụrụ n'usoro ịkọ ihe kama ịbụ ihe ọkụkụ dị ọcha.<ref name=":3" /> == Ojiji == === Nri === [[Faịlụ:Ingwer_2_(fcm).jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|Ginger rhizome ọhụrụ]] [[Faịlụ:Fresh_ginger.jpg|thumb|Ginger a sachara ọhụrụ]] A na-ejikarị ginger eme ihe n'ụwa niile, ma ọ bụ maka nri ma ọ bụ dịka ọgwụ ndị mmadụ. A pụrụ iji ginger mee ọtụtụ ihe oriri dịka akwụkwọ nri, swiiti, soda, pickles, na ihe ọṅụṅụ na-aba n'anya. Jinja bụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ n'ime kichin.<ref name="Kew">{{Cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1|title=''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe|date=2017|work=Kew Science, Plants of the World Online|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|accessdate=25 November 2017}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1 "''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe"]. </cite></ref> Rizme ginger na-eto eto na-atọ ụtọ ma na-atọ ụtọ nke ukwuu, ha na-atọkwa ụtọ nke ukwuu. A na-etinyekarị ha na mmanya vinega ma ọ bụ sherry dị ka ihe oriri ma ọ bụ sie ha dị ka ihe e ji eme ọtụtụ nri. A pụrụ itinye ha na mmiri ọkụ iji mee tii ahịhịa ginger, nke a pụrụ itinye mmanụ aṅụ na ya. A pụrụ ime ginger ka ọ bụrụ swiit ma ọ bụ mmanya ginger. ==== Eshia ==== Mkpụrụ osisi ginger ndị toro eto na-enwe eriri afọ ma fọrọ nke nta ka ọ kpọọ nkụ. A na-ejikarị ihe ọṅụṅụ sitere na mgbọrọgwụ ginger eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ na nri ndị India, ọ bụkwa ihe a na-ejikarị eme nri ndị China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, na ọtụtụ nri ndị South Asia maka nri na-esi ísì ụtọ dị ka nri mmiri, anụ, na nri ndị anaghị eri anụ. [[Faịlụ:Ginger_in_China_01.jpg|thumb|Ụdị abụọ nke ginger na China]] N'ihe oriri ndị India, ginger bụ ihe dị mkpa, ọkachasị n'ime gravies ndị buru ibu, yana n'ọtụtụ nri ndị ọzọ, ma ndị anaghị eri anụ ma ndị e ji anụ mee. Jinja nwere ọrụ na ọgwụ Ayurvedic ọdịnala. Ọ bụ ihe e ji eme ihe ọṅụṅụ ọdịnala ndị India, ma oyi ma ọkụ, gụnyere masala chai a ṅara n'ọkụ. Jinja ọhụrụ bụ otu n'ime ihe ndị bụ isi e ji eme ka curries pulse na lentil na ihe oriri akwụkwọ nri ndị ọzọ. A na-akụ ginger ọhụrụ yana klọọkụ galik a kpụchara akpụcha ma ọ bụ gwerie ya iji mee ginger galik masala. A na-eji ginger ọhụrụ, yana nke kpọrọ nkụ, eme tii na kọfị, karịsịa n'oge oyi. Na ndịda India, "sambharam" bụ ihe ọṅụṅụ yogọt oge okpomọkụ nke e ji ginger mee dị ka ihe dị mkpa, yana ose akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ, nnu na akwụkwọ curry. A na-eji ntụ ntụ ginger eme ihe na nkwadebe nri nke a na-eme karịsịa maka ụmụ nwanyị dị ime ma ọ bụ ndị na-enye nwa ara, nke kachasị ewu ewu bụ katlu, nke bụ ngwakọta nke resin chịngọm, ghee, mkpụrụ, na shuga. A na-erikwa ginger n'ụdị candied na pickled. Na Japan, a na-apịcha ginger iji mee beni shōga na gari ma ọ bụ gwere ma jiri ya mee ihe na tofu ma ọ bụ noodles. A na-eme ya ka ọ bụrụ swiit a na-akpọ shoga no sato zuke. N'ime kimchi ọdịnala nke Korea, a na-agweri ginger nke ọma ma ọ bụ tee ya mmiri ka ọ ghara ịdị ka eriri afọ ma tinye ya na ihe ndị e ji mee ya tupu e mee ka ọ gbaa ọkụ. [[Faịlụ:Steamed_salted_fish_diced_chicken_rice_02.jpg|thumb|Nri ndị China nwere akụkụ ginger. Ọ na-egosi ọnụọgụ ginger a na-eri nri ọ bụla.]] Na Myanmar, a na-akpọ ginger ''gyin''. A na-ejikarị ya eme ihe n'isi nri, ọ bụkwa ihe dị mkpa n'ọgwụ ọdịnala. A na-eri ya dị ka nri salad a na-akpọ ''gyin-thot'', nke nwere ginger a gbuturu agbutu nke echekwara na mmanụ, ya na ọtụtụ mkpụrụ na mkpụrụ. Na Thailand ebe a na-akpọ ya ขิง ''khing'', a na-eji ya eme ihe na-eme ka galik ginger dị nro n'isi nri. Na Indonesia, a na-eji ginger na shuga nkwụ eme ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-akpọ ''wedang jahe''. Ndị Indonesia na-ejikwa mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu, nke a na-akpọ ''jahe'', dị ka ihe a na-ahụkarị na nri obodo. Na [[Malaysia]], a na-akpọ ginger ''halia'' ma na-eji ya eme ọtụtụ nri, ọkachasị ofe. A na-akpọ ya ''luya'' na Philippines, ginger bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị na nri obodo ma a na-eme ya dị ka tii a na-akpọ ''salabat''.<ref name="hardon">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HzoNfy-__EC&q=ginger+philippines+sore+throat|title=Applied health research manual: anthropology of health and health care|publisher=Het Spinhuis|year=2001|isbn=978-90-5589-191-7|edition=3rd|location=Amsterdam}}</ref><ref name="co">{{Cite book|title=Common medicinal plants of the Cordillera region (Northern Luzon, Philippines)|publisher=Community Health Education, Services and Training in the Cordillera Region (CHESTCORE)|year=1984|isbn=978-971-8640-00-5}}</ref> Na Vietnam, a pụrụ itinye akwụkwọ ọhụrụ, nke a gbuturu agbutu nke ọma, na ofe oporo na yam ( ''canh khoai mỡ'' ) dị ka ihe ịchọ mma na ose iji tinye ụtọ ginger dị nro karịa mgbọrọgwụ a gbuturu agbutu. Na Chaịna, a na-ejikọkarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu ma ọ bụ nke zuru oke na nri dị ụtọ dịka azụ, a na-ejikọkarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu na anụ, mgbe a na-esi ya. Mgbe ụfọdụ ginger a gbuturu agbutu bụ ihe mejupụtara igbe swiiti ndị Chaịna, a pụkwara iji ginger kwadebe tii ahịhịa. Enwere ike iji mmiri ginger a na-anaghị agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta agwakọta mmiri ara ehi ma mee ihe ụtọ, mmiri ara ehi ginger. ==== Ebe Ugwu America ==== Na Karịbian, ginger bụ ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ a ma ama maka isi nri na ime ihe ọṅụṅụ dị ka sorrel, ihe ọṅụṅụ a na-eme n'oge ekeresimesi. Ndị Jamaica na-eme biya ginger ma dị ka ihe ọṅụṅụ carbonated ma dịkwa ọhụrụ n'ụlọ ha. A na-emekarị tii jinja ọhụrụ, e nwekwara achịcha jinja a ma ama na mpaghara Jamaica. ==== Mba ndị dị n'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ ==== [[Faịlụ:Gingerbread_landscape.jpg|thumb|Nwoke Gingerbread na nwunye ya na ụlọ Gingerbreadeụlọ achịcha ginger]] N'ihe oriri ndị ọdịda anyanwụ, a na-ejikarị ginger eme ihe n'ọtụtụ nri dị ụtọ dịka ginger ale, gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin, na speculaas. A na-emepụta mmanya mmanya a na-akpọ Canton na Jarnac, France. Mmanya ginger bụ mmanya a na-esi ísì ụtọ ginger emepụtara na United Kingdom, nke a na-erekarị na karama iko akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ. A na-ejikwa ginger eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ a na-etinye na kọfị na tii ọkụ. N'agwaetiti Corfu, Gris, a na-eme ihe ọṅụṅụ ọdịnala a na-akpọ τσιτσιμπύρα ( ''tsitsibira'' ), ụdị biya ginger . Ndị Corfu na agwaetiti ndị ọzọ nke Ionian nakweere ihe ọṅụṅụ sitere n'aka ndị Britain, n'oge United States of the Ionian Islands. A pụrụ iji ginger ọhụrụ dochie ginger a gwere egweri na nha isii ruo otu, ọ bụ ezie na ụtọ ginger ọhụrụ na nke kpọrọ nkụ dịtụ iche. A na-ejikarị mgbọrọgwụ ginger kpọrọ nkụ eme ihe dị ka ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ maka ntụziaka dị ka achịcha ginger, kuki, achịcha crackers na achịcha, ginger ale, na biya ginger. Ginger a mịrị amị ma ọ bụ nke a mịrị amị, nke a maara na UK dị ka "'''ginger stem'''", bụ mgbọrọgwụ esi nri na shuga ruo mgbe ọ dị nro, ọ bụkwa ụdị ihe eji eme achịcha. A pụrụ ịkpụcha ginger ọhụrụ tupu e rie ya. Maka nchekwa ogologo oge, enwere ike itinye ginger ahụ n'ime akpa plastik ma tinye ya na friji ma ọ bụ kpọnwụọ. ==== Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Ụwa ==== A na-eji ginger eme nri ndị Iran. Achịcha ginger bụ ụdị kuki a na-esikarị esi n'obodo Gorgan n'oge ezumike nke Nowruz (Ụbọchị Afọ Ọhụrụ).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.isna.ir/news/golestan-17943/%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C-%DA%AF%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1/|title=National registration of Gorgan gingerbread as an intangible cultural heritage in the national monuments of the country (translated from Farsi)|publisher=Iranian Students News Agency}}</ref> === Ihe ndị yiri ya === A na-eji ndị ọzọ so n'ezinụlọ Zingiberaceae eme ihe n'otu ụzọ ahụ. Ha gụnyere ''myoga'' (''Zingiber mioga''), ụdị galangal dị iche iche, mgbọrọgwụ mkpịsị aka (''Boesenbergia rotunda''), na ginger ilu ( ''Zingiber zerumbet''). A makwaara ''Asarum canadense'' dị ka ụdị dicotyledonous nke dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ North America, nke a makwaara dịka "ginger ọhịa ", mgbọrọgwụ ya nwekwara ihe ndị yiri ya na-esi ísì ụtọ, mana ọ nweghị njikọ na ezi ginger. Osisi ahụ nwere aristolochic acid, ihe na -akpata kansa.<ref name="2001FDA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|title=Aristolochic Acid: FDA Warns Consumers to Discontinue Use of Botanical Products that Contain Aristolochic Acid|date=11 April 2001|publisher=US [[FDA]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603091617/https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|archivedate=3 June 2017}}</ref> Ngalaba Nri na Ọgwụ nke United States na-adọ aka ná ntị na iri ngwaahịa nwere aristolochic acid na-ejikọta ya na "mmebi akụrụ na-adịgide adịgide, mgbe ụfọdụ na-ebute ọdịda akụrụ nke chọrọ dialysis akụrụ ma ọ bụ transplant akụrụ. Na mgbakwunye, ụfọdụ ndị ọrịa enwetala ụdị kansa ụfọdụ, nke na-emekarị na urinary tract."<ref name="2001FDA" /> == Nri == <templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles>  Ginger a na-esighị esi bụ mmiri 79%, carbohydrates 18%, protein 2%, na abụba 1% (tebụl). N'ime ọnụọgụ ntụaka nke 100 g (3.5) oz), ginger a na-esighi esi na-enye 333 kilojoules (80 kilocalories) nke ike nri na obere potassium (14% nke uru kwa ụbọchị, DV), magnesium (10% DV) na manganese (10% DV), mana ọ dị obere na ọdịnaya micronutrient (tebụl). == Ọdịdị na nchekwa == Ọ bụrụ na a rie ya n'ọtụtụ dị mma, ginger anaghị enwe mmetụta ọjọọ ọ bụla, mana nnukwu ọnụọgụ nwere ike ibute ihe ọjọọ, dịka nsogbu afọ, na mmekọrịta na-adịghị mma na ọgwụ ndị dọkịta nyere.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="Spinella2001">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin|title=The Psychopharmacology of Herbal Medications: Plant Drugs That Alter Mind, Brain, and Behavior|publisher=MIT Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-262-69265-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin/page/272 272]}}</ref> Ọ dị na ndepụta FDA "a maara dị ka ihe nchekwa",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030915162222/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?FR=182.20|archivedate=15 September 2003|title=Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 182, Sec. 182.20: Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates): Substances Generally Recognized As Safe|date=1 September 2014|publisher=US [[FDA]]|accessdate=21 December 2014}}</ref> mana ọ na- ejikọ ya na ụfọdụ ọgwụ, gụnyere ọgwụ mgbochi ọbara warfarin<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2007|title=Risk of warfarin-related bleeding events and supratherapeutic international normalized ratios associated with complementary and alternative medicine: a longitudinal analysis|journal=[[Pharmacotherapy (journal)|Pharmacotherapy]]|volume=27|issue=9|pages=1237–47|doi=10.1592/phco.27.9.1237|pmid=17723077}}</ref> na ọgwụ obi nifedipine.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger "Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance"]. </cite></ref> === Chemistry === Isi na ụtọ pụrụ iche nke ginger sitere na mmanụ ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe nke mejupụtara 1–3% nke ibu nke ginger ọhụrụ, nke gụnyere sesquiterpenes, dị ka beta-bisabolene na zingiberene, zingerone, shogaols, na gingerols nwere [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) dị ka ihe mejupụtara ya.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="an">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|journal=[[Food Chem.]]|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871}}</ref> Ihe dị ka kemịkalụ 400 dị na ginger a na-esighi esi.<ref name="drugs" /> A na-emepụta Zingerone site na gingerols mgbe a na-akpọ nkụ, ọ na-enwe obere ntụpọ na isi ụtọ dị ụtọ.<ref name="an">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|journal=[[Food Chem.]]|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFAnZhaoWangWu2016">An K, Zhao D, Wang Z, Wu J, Xu Y, Xiao G (2016). </cite></ref> Shogaols na-esi ísì karịa, a na-emepụtakwa ha site na gingerols n'oge a na-ekpo ọkụ, na-echekwa ha ma ọ bụ site na acidity.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="an" /> Ọtụtụ monoterpenes, amino acids, eriri nri, protein, phytosterols, vitamin, na mineral nri bụ ihe ndị ọzọ mejupụtara ya.<ref name="drugs" /> Ginger ọhụrụ nwekwara enzyme zingibain nke bụ cysteine protease ma nwee ihe ndị yiri ya na rennet.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Huang|first=X. W.|date=2011-05-01|title=Purification, characterization, and milk coagulating properties of ginger proteases|journal=Journal of Dairy Science|language=en|volume=94|issue=5|pages=2259–2269|doi=10.3168/jds.2010-4024|pmid=21524515|issn=0022-0302}}</ref> == Nnyocha == Ihe akaebe na iji ginger eme ihe na-ejikọta ya na mbelata agbọ onunu n'oge ime dị ala<ref name="preg">{{Cite journal|title=Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review|journal=JAMA|volume=316|issue=13|pages=1392–1401|date=October 2016|pmid=27701665|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.14337|url=https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/6b0f7e5c-6bc8-4f8e-9419-bf43b3eea727}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFMcParlinO'DonnellRobsonBeyer2016">McParlin C, O'Donnell A, Robson SC, Beyer F, Moloney E, Bryant A, et&nbsp;al. (October 2016). </cite></ref> Enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe ginger na-enyere aka belata agbọ onunu na ịgbọ agbọ nke ọgwụgwọ ọgwụgwọ na-akpata.<ref name="chemo">{{Cite journal|title=Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Oncol Nurs Forum|volume=40|issue=2|pages=163–70|date=March 2013|pmid=23448741|doi=10.1188/13.ONF.163-170|url=}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFLeeOh2013">Lee J, Oh H (March 2013). </cite></ref> Enweghị ihe akaebe doro anya na iji ginger agwọ ọgbụgbọ n'oge ime dị mma.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref><ref name="Giacosa">{{Cite journal|year=2015|title=Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract?|url=https://www.europeanreview.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/1291-1296.pdf|journal=European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences|volume=19|issue=7|pages=1291–6|issn=1128-3602|pmid=25912592}}</ref><ref name="ernst-meta">{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials|journal=[[Br. J. Anaesth.]]|volume=84|issue=3|pages=367–371|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442|pmid=10793599}}</ref> Ginger anaghị arụ ọrụ maka ịgwọ dysmenorrhea.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|journal=[[The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.]]|volume=2016|issue=3|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|pmid=27000311}}</ref> E nwere ihe akaebe na ọ nwere mmetụta mgbochi mbufụt, mana enweghị ihe akaebe zuru oke maka na ọ na-emetụta ihe mgbu na osteoarthritis.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2011|title=The use of ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') for the treatment of pain: A systematic review of clinical trials|journal=Pain Medicine|volume=12|issue=12|pages=1808–18|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01261.x|pmid=22054010}}</ref> Enweghị ezigbo ihe akaebe na ginger na-emetụta mkpokọta platelet na coagulation ọbara.<ref name="Marx McKavanagh McCarthy Bird p=e0141119">{{Cite journal|author=Marx|first=Wolfgang|title=The Effect of Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') on Platelet Aggregation: A Systematic Literature Review|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=10|date=21 October 2015|issn=1932-6203|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141119|pmid=26488162}}</ref> Nnyocha e mere n'afọ 2018 gosiri na ginger nwere ike ibelata ibu ahụ n'ime ndị buru ibu ma mee ka cholesterol HDL dịkwuo elu.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Maharlouei|first=N|year=2019|title=The effects of ginger intake on weight loss and metabolic profiles among overweight and obese subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|volume=59|issue=11|pages=1753–1766|doi=10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|pmid=29393665}}</ref> == Mmetụta ọjọọ == Ọ bụ ezie na a maara ya dị ka ihe dị mma, ginger nwere ike ibute obi mgbawa na mmetụta ndị ọzọ, ọkachasị ma ọ bụrụ na e jiri ya mee ntụ ntụ.<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger "Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance"]. </cite></ref> Ọ nwere ike imetụta ndị nwere nkume gallstone n'ụzọ dị njọ, ma nwee ike igbochi mmetụta nke ọgwụ mgbochi mkpali, dị ka warfarin ma ọ bụ aspirin, na ọgwụ ndị ọzọ edepụtara.<ref name="nccih" /><ref name="drugs">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html|publisher=Drugs.com|date=26 September 2022|accessdate=4 September 2023}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html "Ginger"]. </cite></ref> == Ihe ngosi == <gallery> Faịlụ:Ginger_Plant_vs.jpg|Ginger plant with flower Faịlụ:Opening_ginger_flower.jpg|Ginger flower about to bloom Faịlụ:Ginger_flower_stamen.jpg|Ginger flower stamen Faịlụ:Ginger_crop.jpg|Ginger crop, Myanmar Faịlụ:Ginger_on_Dark_Board.jpg|Chopped ginger Faịlụ:Gari_ginger.jpg|alt=Gari, a type of pickled ginger|<nowiki><i id="mwA74">Gari</i></nowiki>, a type of pickled ginger Faịlụ:German_Ginger_wine_with_stem_ginger_decoration_4.jpg|German ginger-flavored wine (grape-based) with stem ginger decoration </gallery> == Hụkwa == * Osisi na anụmanụ e ji aka ha rụọ n'ụlọ nke Austronesia == Edensibịa == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == <templatestyles src="Module:Side box/styles.css"></templatestyles><templatestyles src="Sister project/styles.css"></templatestyles>  * Zingiber officinale Ndepụta nke Chemicals (Dr. Duke's) (echekwara na 14 Nọvemba 2004) {{Ginger Plant}}{{Herbs & spices}}{{Medicinal herbs & fungi}}{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q35625}}{{Authority control}} [[Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations]] dk20z8abqys3wtomh8p1kmw1tv8aox0 Amadeus nke Itoolu, Duke nke Savoy 0 77947 688045 2026-07-14T09:45:19Z Chikwas 56003 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1362003715|Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy]]" 688045 wikitext text/x-wiki    Amadeus nke iteghete (Febụwarị nke mbụ na afọ 1435 -ụbọchị iri atọ n'ọnwa Machị n'afọ 1472), happy ka ejiri mara ya bụ Duke nke Savoy site na afọ 1465 ruo n'afọ 1472. E jiri nsọpụrụ ya mara ya, orụ obi ọma ya, na enweghị nsogbu ya, Chọọchị Katọliki na-akwanyere ya ugwu na oriri liturgical na ụbọchị iri atọ n'ọnwa Machị. Popu Innocent nke Iri na otu doro ya nsọ n'afọ 1677. Ebe amụrụ Amadeus bụ na Thonon-les-Bains, nwa nwoke Louis, Duke nke Savoy, na Anne nke Lusignan, [1] nwa nwanyị Janus nke Cyprus, Eze nke Cyprus. N'afọ 1452, nne ya haziri alụmdi na nwunye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na Yolande nke Valois (1434-1478), nwanne nwanyị nke Louis nke Iri na Otu nke France na nwa nwanyị nke Charles nke asaa. N'ihi ọrịa akwụkwụ ya na ezumike nká ya, E nyere ya steeti ahụ ahụ n'aka.<ref name="bunson">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-pwoTFp31kC&q=blessed+amadeus+ix+of+savoy&pg=PA75|title=Bunson, Matthew and Bunson, Stephen. "Amadeus IX of Savoy", ''Our Sunday Visitor's Encyclopedia of Saints'', OSV Publishing, 2003|isbn=9781931709750|author=Bunson|first=Matthew|year=2003}}</ref> Obodo France na Ala ukwuu dị Nsọ Rom gbara asọmpi iji nweta ikike nke ụzọ ugwu Alpine dị mkpa nke Savoy na ụzọ azụmahịa.<ref name="savoy">{{Cite web|url=http://www.savoydelegation-usa.org/history.asp?id=387|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206075352/http://www.savoydelegation-usa.org/history.asp?id=387|title="The Early Dukes of Savoy", American Delegation of Savoy Orders|archivedate=February 6, 2012}}</ref> Nwanne ya nwanyị, Charlotte nke Savoy, bụ kwa nwunye nke abụọ nke Louis nke iri na otu. Mmetụta ndị France bara ụba nke ukwuu ruo na Savoy na mee ka mbaa lụọ agha dị n'etiti France na ndị eze ukwu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13492a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Savoy|work=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> E wuru Castle nke Moncaller na Piedmont, E wuru Ịtali n'oge 1100 ewuru ka ugwu, iji nye iwu ka ụzọ ndịda si Turin. N'etiti narị afọ nke iri na ise, Yolande gbanwere bụrụ zie Obi Eze nke Renaissance. Amadeus bụ onye nche chere ndị isi nchụ aja Franciscan. O nyekwara ụlọ ụka ndị ọzọ yana ụlọ obibi maka nlekọta nke ndị ụbịam na ndị enweghị ka ọra ha.<ref name="savoy">{{Cite web|url=http://www.savoydelegation-usa.org/history.asp?id=387|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206075352/http://www.savoydelegation-usa.org/history.asp?id=387|title="The Early Dukes of Savoy", American Delegation of Savoy Orders|archivedate=February 6, 2012}}</ref> Ọ jere njem ala nsọ na Saint-Claude n'oge 1471. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13341a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Saint-Claude|work=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Ọ nwụrụ n'afọ na eso ya.<ref name="savoy" /> Amadeus bụ onye na-edekwa ihe odide, na anakọtakwa ihe karịrị iri isii na- ọba akwụkwọ ducal nke nna nna ya Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy bidoro.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hand|first=Joni M|title=Women, Manuscripts and Identity in Northern Europe 1350–1550|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-53653-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azMrDwAAQBAJ&q=Amadeus+IX%2C+Duke+of+Savoy&pg=PA25}}</ref> Amadeus IX na Yolande nke Valois mụrụ ụmụ iri: 3t8cwvvn6e3xq7n814hfwsoytmcxmjl Petrus Gonsalvus 0 77948 688053 2026-07-14T11:30:03Z Edozie Ojekwe 24584 Ekere na itugharị ihụakwụkwọ nke a "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1337354743|Petrus Gonsalvus]]" 688053 wikitext text/x-wiki    '''Petrus Gonsalvus''' ( Spanish: Pedro González; ihe dị ka 1537, Tenerife – ihe dị ka 1618, Capodimonte) bụ nwa amadi nọ n'obí Henry nke Abụọ nke Eze France . Ulisse Aldrovandi kpọrọ ya "nwoke nke ọhịa", ọ bụ onye a ma ama maka ntutu isi ya pụrụ iche, nke dọtara uche n'oge ndụ ya niile (na karịa, karịsịa dịka ọtụtụ n'ime ụmụ ya ketara ọnọdụ ya). Mmasị a sitere ma n'aka ndị dọkịta, ebe a na-ewere ya dị ka ikpe mbụ e dekọrọ nke ọma ma nwee nkwenye doro anya banyere ọrịa na-eme ka ntutu too nke ukwuu n'ahụhypertrichosis (ọ dịkarịa ala na Europe) - yana ọha mmadụ n'ozuzu ya (gụnyere ndị nọ n'ọkwá dị elu, ebe ọ nọrọ ọtụtụ oge), ya na ya na-enweta aha njirimara dị ka "nwoke ọhịa nke Tenerife" (Spanish: salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife) na "Canarian werewolf" (hombre lobo canario). E dekọrọ akụkọ ndụ ya nke ọma n'oge ọ bi n'ụlọ ikpe eze dị iche iche na France na Ịtali. == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ Gonsalvus na Mee 9, 1537, n'àgwàetiti Tenerife, obere oge ka Alonso Fernández de Lugo merichara àgwàetiti ahụ. N'ịbụ onye sitere n'agbụrụ Guanche, e mechara nye ya nsọpụrụ {{Lang|es|[[Don (honorific)|Don]]}} nsọpụrụ n'oge e mesịrị nke ndụ ya n'ihi na e kwenyere na nne na nna ya sitere n'ezinụlọ ndị mencey (ndị eze ọdịnala) nke Tenerife.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|author=Zapperi|first=Roberto|title=El salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife: La singular historia de Pedro González y sus hijos|publisher=Zech|year=2006|isbn=9788493310875|location=Santa Úrsula|language=es}}</ref> Gonsalvus bịara mbụ n'ụlọ ikpe nke Henry nke Abụọ, Eze France na 1547 mgbe ọ dị ihe dị ka afọ iri, e zigakwara ya ebe ahụ dị ka onyinye sitere n'ụlọikpe nke Margaret nke Parma, onye na-achị Netherlands n'aha eze .<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|author=Zapperi|first=Roberto|title=El salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife: La singular historia de Pedro González y sus hijos|publisher=Zech|year=2006|isbn=9788493310875|location=Santa Úrsula|language=es}}<cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFZapperi2006">Zapperi, Roberto (2006). ''El salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife: La singular historia de Pedro González y sus hijos'' (in Spanish). Santa Úrsula: Zech. [[ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9788493310875|<bdi>9788493310875</bdi>]].</cite> [[Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)]]</ref> Ọ lụrụ nwunye mgbe ọ nọ ebe ahụ; aha nwunye ya ka na-amaghị, ma a kwenyere na a na-akpọ ya Catherine Raffelin. A na-ekwenyekwa na o nwere ike ịbụ na ọ bụ nwanyị na-ejere [[Catherine de' Medici]] ozi n'ụlọ ikpe eze . Ka e mesịrị, e bufere ya n'ụlọ ikpe Alexander Farnese, Duke nke Parma. N'ime ụmụ ya isii, naanị abụọ - Françoise na Enrico - enweghị ọrịa hypertrichosis. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="Article previously said seven, but there was no source and most sources (even if simply parroting each other) only name six children. (May 2025)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> Ndị nwere hypertrichosis—dịka Antonietta Gonsalvus - bụkwa ndị dọtara mmasị ndị mmadụ, gụnyere ịbụ ndị e sere n'osise. Ezinaụlọ ya ghọrọ isiokwu ọmụmụ ahụike nke Ulisse Aldrovandi na ndị ọkà mmụta ndị ọzọ. N'agbanyeghị na Gonsalvus na ụmụ ya ndị nwere ọtụtụ ntutu biri ma na-eme omume dịka ndị a ma ama, ndị ha na ha dịrị n'otu oge ahụ eleghị ha anya dịka mmadụ zuru oke. Dị ka e mere nna ha, a na-enyekwa ha ndị ọchịchị na ndị a ma ama ndị ọzọ dị ka onyinye, ka ha bụrụ ụdị anụ ụlọ a na-edebe n'ụlọ ikpe eze. N'ikpeazụ, Gonsalvus na nwunye ya biri na Ịtali.  E E depụtara aha ya n'ime ndị bịara emume baptizim nke nwa nwa ya n'afọ 1617. Ọ nwụrụ na Ọktoba 15, 1618, na Capodimonte. Ọ dị afọ iri asatọ na otu. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]<span class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" mwt20="" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="Article previously said that his attendance of his grandson's christening was his last record, but this is obviously contradicted by the oft-cited death date and place (January 2023)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;<nowiki>","href":"./Template:Citation_needed"},"params":{"reason":{"wt":"Article previously said that his attendance of his grandson's christening was his last record, but this is obviously contradicted by the oft-cited death date and place"},"date":{"wt":"January 2023"}},"i":0}}]}" data-ve-no-generated-contents="true" id="mwPA" typeof="mw:Transclusion"> </nowiki></span> == Ụlọ Nchekwa Nkà na Ihe Ịtụnanya, Ambras Castle == N'ime Nchịkọta Ụlọ Nchekwa Nkà na Ihe Ịtụnanya nke Ambras Castle dị na Innsbruck, Austria, e nwere osise Pedro González (Petrus Gonsalvus) yana osise ndị ọzọ nwere ụdị ntutu na-eto nke ukwuu n'ahụ (hirsutism) n'ogo dị njọ, nke a na-akpọkwa Ambras syndrome ma ọ bụ [[hypertrichosis]]" id="mwQw" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Generalized congenital hypertrichosis">nke a kpọrọ Ambras syndrome ma ọ bụ hypertrichosis n'afọ 1933, n'ihi ihe osise ya dị na nchịkọta a.<ref name="erche">{{Cite journal|journal=Weltkunst|language=German|url=http://www.kunstkammer.com/pdf/Weltkunst082008.pdf|author=Erche B|title=Der schlimmste Boesewicht der Walachei|date=August 2008|accessdate=June 30, 2009}}</ref><gallery> Faịlụ:Joris_Hoefnagel_-_Animalia_Rationalia_et_Insecta_(Ignis)-_Plate_I.jpg|Petrus Gonsalvus and his wife Catherine by Joris Hoefnagel Faịlụ:Joris_Hoefnagel_-_Animalia_Rationalia_et_Insecta_(Ignis)-_Plate_II.jpg|Children of Petrus Gonsalvus by Joris Hoefnagel Faịlụ:Innsbruck_2_264.jpg|Madelene Gonsalvas portrait, 1580, Ambras collection Faịlụ:16th-century_unknown_painters_-_The_Son_of_the_"Hairy_Man_from_Munich"_-_WGA23791.jpg|Henry Gonsalvas, Ambras Collection Faịlụ:Tognina.jpg|Portrait of Antonietta Gonzales by Lavinia Fontana, 1595. Faịlụ:Agostino_Carracci_-_Hairy_Harry,_Mad_Peter_and_Tiny_Amon_-_WGA4398.jpg|Agostino Carracci. Hairy Harry, Mad Peter and Tiny Amon. 1598. Capodimonte </gallery> == Ihe Nketa == [[File:Gonsalvus_Doubloon.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|140x140px|1975 Devil Doubloon (Mardi Gras token) nke Petrus Gonsalvus, nke a na-akpọ "nwoke anụ ọhịa wolf".]] A kwenyere na alụmdi na nwunye dị n'etiti Petrus Gonsalvus na Lady Catherine nwere ike ịbụ otu n'ime ihe kpaliri akụkọ ifo Beauty and the Beast. == Ihe odide == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == *   * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031223030415/http://www.angelfire.com/ks/tepelus/wolfman.html Petrus Gonsalvus] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] a7915l1ecj6riifuma7apieafrvorj0 688054 688053 2026-07-14T11:34:11Z Edozie Ojekwe 24584 Fixed Reference error 688054 wikitext text/x-wiki    '''Petrus Gonsalvus''' ( Spanish: Pedro González; ihe dị ka 1537, Tenerife – ihe dị ka 1618, Capodimonte) bụ nwa amadi nọ n'obí Henry nke Abụọ nke Eze France . Ulisse Aldrovandi kpọrọ ya "nwoke nke ọhịa", ọ bụ onye a ma ama maka ntutu isi ya pụrụ iche, nke dọtara uche n'oge ndụ ya niile (na karịa, karịsịa dịka ọtụtụ n'ime ụmụ ya ketara ọnọdụ ya). Mmasị a sitere ma n'aka ndị dọkịta, ebe a na-ewere ya dị ka ikpe mbụ e dekọrọ nke ọma ma nwee nkwenye doro anya banyere ọrịa na-eme ka ntutu too nke ukwuu n'ahụhypertrichosis (ọ dịkarịa ala na Europe) - yana ọha mmadụ n'ozuzu ya (gụnyere ndị nọ n'ọkwá dị elu, ebe ọ nọrọ ọtụtụ oge), ya na ya na-enweta aha njirimara dị ka "nwoke ọhịa nke Tenerife" (Spanish: salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife) na "Canarian werewolf" (hombre lobo canario). E dekọrọ akụkọ ndụ ya nke ọma n'oge ọ bi n'ụlọ ikpe eze dị iche iche na France na Ịtali. == Akụkọ ndụ == A mụrụ Gonsalvus na Mee 9, 1537, n'àgwàetiti Tenerife, obere oge ka Alonso Fernández de Lugo merichara àgwàetiti ahụ. N'ịbụ onye sitere n'agbụrụ Guanche, e mechara nye ya nsọpụrụ {{Lang|es|[[Don (honorific)|Don]]}} nsọpụrụ n'oge e mesịrị nke ndụ ya n'ihi na e kwenyere na nne na nna ya sitere n'ezinụlọ ndị mencey (ndị eze ọdịnala) nke Tenerife.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|author=Zapperi|first=Roberto|title=El salvaje gentilhombre de Tenerife: La singular historia de Pedro González y sus hijos|publisher=Zech|year=2006|isbn=9788493310875|location=Santa Úrsula|language=es}}</ref> Gonsalvus bịara mbụ n'ụlọ ikpe nke Henry nke Abụọ, Eze France na 1547 mgbe ọ dị ihe dị ka afọ iri, e zigakwara ya ebe ahụ dị ka onyinye sitere n'ụlọikpe nke Margaret nke Parma, onye na-achị Netherlands n'aha eze .<ref name=":0" /> Ọ lụrụ nwunye mgbe ọ nọ ebe ahụ; aha nwunye ya ka na-amaghị, ma a kwenyere na a na-akpọ ya Catherine Raffelin. A na-ekwenyekwa na o nwere ike ịbụ na ọ bụ nwanyị na-ejere [[Catherine de' Medici]] ozi n'ụlọ ikpe eze . Ka e mesịrị, e bufere ya n'ụlọ ikpe Alexander Farnese, Duke nke Parma. N'ime ụmụ ya isii, naanị abụọ - Françoise na Enrico - enweghị ọrịa hypertrichosis. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="Article previously said seven, but there was no source and most sources (even if simply parroting each other) only name six children. (May 2025)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;</sup> Ndị nwere hypertrichosis—dịka Antonietta Gonsalvus - bụkwa ndị dọtara mmasị ndị mmadụ, gụnyere ịbụ ndị e sere n'osise. Ezinaụlọ ya ghọrọ isiokwu ọmụmụ ahụike nke Ulisse Aldrovandi na ndị ọkà mmụta ndị ọzọ. N'agbanyeghị na Gonsalvus na ụmụ ya ndị nwere ọtụtụ ntutu biri ma na-eme omume dịka ndị a ma ama, ndị ha na ha dịrị n'otu oge ahụ eleghị ha anya dịka mmadụ zuru oke. Dị ka e mere nna ha, a na-enyekwa ha ndị ọchịchị na ndị a ma ama ndị ọzọ dị ka onyinye, ka ha bụrụ ụdị anụ ụlọ a na-edebe n'ụlọ ikpe eze. N'ikpeazụ, Gonsalvus na nwunye ya biri na Ịtali.  E E depụtara aha ya n'ime ndị bịara emume baptizim nke nwa nwa ya n'afọ 1617. Ọ nwụrụ na Ọktoba 15, 1618, na Capodimonte. Ọ dị afọ iri asatọ na otu. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]<span class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" mwt20="" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B;''[[wikipedia:Tinye edensibịa|<span title="Article previously said that his attendance of his grandson's christening was his last record, but this is obviously contradicted by the oft-cited death date and place (January 2023)">citation needed</span>]]''&#x5D;<nowiki>","href":"./Template:Citation_needed"},"params":{"reason":{"wt":"Article previously said that his attendance of his grandson's christening was his last record, but this is obviously contradicted by the oft-cited death date and place"},"date":{"wt":"January 2023"}},"i":0}}]}" data-ve-no-generated-contents="true" id="mwPA" typeof="mw:Transclusion"> </nowiki></span> == Ụlọ Nchekwa Nkà na Ihe Ịtụnanya, Ambras Castle == N'ime Nchịkọta Ụlọ Nchekwa Nkà na Ihe Ịtụnanya nke Ambras Castle dị na Innsbruck, Austria, e nwere osise Pedro González (Petrus Gonsalvus) yana osise ndị ọzọ nwere ụdị ntutu na-eto nke ukwuu n'ahụ (hirsutism) n'ogo dị njọ, nke a na-akpọkwa Ambras syndrome ma ọ bụ [[hypertrichosis]]" id="mwQw" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Generalized congenital hypertrichosis">nke a kpọrọ Ambras syndrome ma ọ bụ hypertrichosis n'afọ 1933, n'ihi ihe osise ya dị na nchịkọta a.<ref name="erche">{{Cite journal|journal=Weltkunst|language=German|url=http://www.kunstkammer.com/pdf/Weltkunst082008.pdf|author=Erche B|title=Der schlimmste Boesewicht der Walachei|date=August 2008|accessdate=June 30, 2009}}</ref><gallery> Faịlụ:Joris_Hoefnagel_-_Animalia_Rationalia_et_Insecta_(Ignis)-_Plate_I.jpg|Petrus Gonsalvus and his wife Catherine by Joris Hoefnagel Faịlụ:Joris_Hoefnagel_-_Animalia_Rationalia_et_Insecta_(Ignis)-_Plate_II.jpg|Children of Petrus Gonsalvus by Joris Hoefnagel Faịlụ:Innsbruck_2_264.jpg|Madelene Gonsalvas portrait, 1580, Ambras collection Faịlụ:16th-century_unknown_painters_-_The_Son_of_the_"Hairy_Man_from_Munich"_-_WGA23791.jpg|Henry Gonsalvas, Ambras Collection Faịlụ:Tognina.jpg|Portrait of Antonietta Gonzales by Lavinia Fontana, 1595. Faịlụ:Agostino_Carracci_-_Hairy_Harry,_Mad_Peter_and_Tiny_Amon_-_WGA4398.jpg|Agostino Carracci. Hairy Harry, Mad Peter and Tiny Amon. 1598. Capodimonte </gallery> == Ihe Nketa == [[File:Gonsalvus_Doubloon.jpg|áká_ịkẹngạ|thumb|140x140px|1975 Devil Doubloon (Mardi Gras token) nke Petrus Gonsalvus, nke a na-akpọ "nwoke anụ ọhịa wolf".]] A kwenyere na alụmdi na nwunye dị n'etiti Petrus Gonsalvus na Lady Catherine nwere ike ịbụ otu n'ime ihe kpaliri akụkọ ifo Beauty and the Beast. == Ihe odide == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} == Njikọ mpụga == *   * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031223030415/http://www.angelfire.com/ks/tepelus/wolfman.html Petrus Gonsalvus] [[Otú:Articles with hCards]] qql3w1nsp638nhefqw7dbcqeuxqrvtb