Tanzeggit

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    <title>Tanzeggit</title>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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'''Tanzeggit''' d tigezmi tameqrant ger igzumen n [[tusnakt]] d win i izerwen [[tawella|tiwellatin]] neɣ Udmawen deg [[Tallunt|tallunin]] s myal [[tasekta]], deg tsekta Tis kraḍ (3) nezmar ad nemmeslay ɣef [[tenzeggit tuklidt]]. Ass-a ur nezmir ad d nesbin tilisa yellan ger tenzeggit akk d [[Asebrurez|wesebrurez]] neɣ d [[aljiber|uljiber]], acku ur nezmir ad nemmeslay ɣef [[Tanzeggit taljibirt|tenzeggit taljibirt]] ma yella ur d-neddim ara kra din kra da.

Tanzeggit diɣen d tafurk n tusnakt i izerrwen talɣiwin, tallunin, imeccaqen, tiɣmar d wassaɣen gar tneqqiḍin d yiḥricen n talɣiwin. Tesɛa azal deg usket n wakal d lebni, maca tuɣal daɣen d taɣult tamatut n tusnakt i yezmer ad tzerrew tallunin ur nezmir ara ad nwali s wallen, neɣ tallunin i yesɛan ugar n kraḍ n tsektiwin.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-16 11-19-35.png|centré|553x553px]]

== 1. Amezruy n tenzeggit ==
Awal agraɣlan géométrie yekka-d seg yigrigiyen i d-yemmalen asket n wakal. Isketen d yisiḍen inzeggane ttwasqedcen deg Maṣer, Mezupuṭamya d tɣermiwin nniḍen uqbel tanzeggit n Yigrigiyen. Ur ilaq ara ad nerṛ tanzeggit meṛṛa d asnulfu n yiwen ugdud kan.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tallit
!Amhaz agenjdan
|-
|Taglest
|Asket n wakal, lebni, asiḍen n teɣzi, n wanrar d ubleɣ.
|-
|Tasut tis 3 uqbel
tallit-nneɣ
|Aklid deg Iskandariya yesdukkel tizrawin deg &quot;Iferdisen&quot;.
|-
|Tallit talemmast
|Tigawt n yimusnawen deg tmura n Tineslemt, Lehend d Cinwa: asektiɣmer(trigonométrie), asali d
tsenallunt.
|-
|Tasut tis 17
|Descartes d Fermat qqnen talɣiwin ɣer imsidag d tegdiwin.
|-
|Tasut tis 19
|Lobachevsky d Bolyai snernan tanzeggit taknudemt; Gauss d Riemann snernan tazrawt n
tiknit d tallunin.
|-
|1872 d mbeɛd
|Klein yeskan azal n yibeddilen d yigrawen; Hilbert yessegzi lsas s yinagrawen n yigejdan.
|-
|Tasut tis 20–21
|Tanzeggit taljibṛant, taneẓlayt, tukrist, asiḍen s uselkim d uẓeṭṭa n twuriwin gar tfurka.
|}
&quot;'''Iferdisen'''&quot; n Aklid yesseqdac isbaduten d yigejdan iwakken ad yebnu isekkuden. Abrid-a yesɛa tazrirt tameqqrant deg tusnakt. Maca tanzeggit tamirant ur teqqim ara deg yigejdan n Aklid: tazrawt n umṣadaɣ tewwi-d timusniwin ɣef tallunin nniḍen. Tanzeggit tamirant tettawi ula d tallunin yellan deg tfizikt, isefka, tigniwin d yisiḍen. Amezruy-is d anerni n yisental d terrayin, mačči d asemselsi n yiwet n tanzeggit s tayeḍ kan.

== 2. Isbaduten, igejdan d usfukel ==
Asbadu yessegza tamiḍrant s wawalen yettwasnen. Agejdi d tafyirt i neqqbel deg yiwen unagraw war asfukel deg unagraw-nni. Asekkud(tiẓri) d ayen ara d-nsuffeɣ seg yigejdan d yisekkuden yettwasfuklen yakan.

Deg umedya n Aklid, yezmer ad yettwabnu yiɣil n teɣda gar snat n tneqqiḍin, ad yettwasɣezef yiɣil, ad tettwabnu twinest s wammas d waqqar yettwabedren. Yella daɣen agejdi ɣef tɣmar timaɣudin d wayen yeqqnen ɣer umṣadaɣ.

=== Amedya n useɣẓen ===
Deg uɣawas n Aklid, i teneqqiṭ '''P''' i ur nelli ara ɣef taɣda '''d''', tella yiwet kan n teɣda iɛeddan seg '''P''' ur nettmagar ara '''d'''. Talɣa-a n yigejdi n umṣadaɣ tettwassen s yisem n '''Playfair'''; d talɣa tagdazalt i yigejdi wis semmus n Aklid deg lsas n tanzeggit tamagnut.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-18 09-56-11.png|centré]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 2. Tiɣmert d wassaɣ n umṣadaɣ. Tigniwin ttɛawanent deg tɣuri n yisekkuden; isfukal ilaq ad d-begnen ayɣer iiṣeḥḥa wassaɣ.&lt;/small&gt;

Deg tugna, tineqqiḍin ttbanent sɛant tehri, izirigen sɛan tuzert, imeccaqen zemren ur ttwaḥerzen ara s tiseddi. Deg tusnakt, taneqqiṭ ur tesɛi ara tehri. Ihi ma tugna teskan-d belli sin n yimeccaqen d igdazalen, ayen-a ur d-yettawi ara asfukel.

== 3. Taneqqiṭ, taɣda d tallunt ==
Taneqqiṭ d amḍiq war tehri; taɣda tettwasɣezef deg sin yinumak war tilisa; iɣil n teɣda yesɛa sin n yixfawen; tazinaɣda tesɛa yiwen n yixef, tettwasɣezef deg yiwen unamek. Aɣawas d tajumma ilweɣ i deg yezmer ad yili wudlif s sin n yimsidag.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-19 12-18-47.png|centré|611x611px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 3. Tisektiwin 0, 1, 2 d 3. Aɣawas n tugna d amur ifuken kan; aɣawas n tusnakt ur yesɛi ara tilisa.&lt;/small&gt;

Tasekta n tallunt tettawi amḍan n yimsidag ilelliyen i ilaqen iwakken ad nesbadu amḍiq. Deg taɣda, yiwen x ikfa; deg uɣawas, nesra (x,y); deg tallunt s kraḍ n tsektiwin, nesra (x,y,z). Tasekta ur tɛelliq ara ɣef wamek ara d-nsuneɣ talɣa: amaḍal s tajumma kan yesɛa snat n tsektiwin, ɣas ma yettwaseknen deg tallunt s kraḍ.

ℝⁿ = {(x₁, x₂, …, xₙ) : xᵢ d imḍanen ilawen}

Tallunin s n &gt; 3 ttwasqedcent deg tusnakt d yisefka. Ma yal amedya n yisefka yesɛa 10 n yimuttiyen ilelliyen, yezmer ad yettwagenses s tneqqiṭ deg ℝ¹⁰. Ayen-a ur d-yemmal ara belli nezmer ad t-nwali s wallen; imsidag d yilugan fkan-d allalen n tazrawt.

=== Tajumma d wanrar ===
Tajumma d talɣa n snat n tsektiwin; anrar d asket-is. S yiwet n tɣawsa, takurt tesɛa daxel-is d ubleɣ, ma amaḍal d tajumma n rrif-is. Asbadu n wayen nzerrew yesɛa azal uqbel yal asiḍen.

== 4. Ikerdisen d usekkud n Pythagore ==
Akerdis yesɛa kraḍ n yidis, kraḍ n tqacucin d kraḍ n tiɣmar. Deg uɣawas n Aklid, timernit n tɣmar-is d 180°. Akerdis agdudisan yesɛa kraḍ n yidis igdazalen; akerdis akendis yesɛa ma drus sin n yidis igdazalen; akerdis amaɣud yesɛa yiwet n tiɣmert n 90°.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-20 11-55-53.png|centré|667x667px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 4. Tama taẓelmaḍt: anrar n umkuẓ ɣef yidis 5 d 25 = 9 + 16. Tama tayeffust: kuẓ n yikerdisen s yidis a d b, d umkuẓ alemmas s yidis c.&lt;/small&gt;

'''a² + b² = c², ma c d alubdis n ukerdis amaɣud''' 

Asfukel n tugna tayeffust: anrar n umkuẓ ameqqran d (a+b)². Kuẓ n yikerdisen sɛan anrar 4 × ab/2 = 2ab. Ayen i d-yeqqimen d c²; ihi c² = (a+b)² − 2ab = a²+b². Ayen-a d aseɣẓen s wanrar, mačči d asket n teɣzi ɣef tugna. Asekkud-a yesɛa daɣen talɣa tamsuɣalt: ma a²+b²=c² deg ukerdis, tiɣmert i d-yezzin i c d 90°. Deg tanzeggit taknudemt neɣ ɣef umaḍal, tanfalit-a ur tettwasemres ara akka war abeddel.

== 5. Tales(Thales) d tarwast ==
Sin n yikerdisen imarwasen sɛan tiɣmar igdazalen d yidis akniwen s yiwen wassaɣ. Ma tasɣent tessenɣas neɣ tessemɣer akk imeccaqen s yiwen umuskir k &gt; 0, tḥerrez tiɣmar d talɣa. D tarwast.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-21 10-35-44.png|centré|676x676px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 5. DE d BC msadaɣen, ihi ikerdisen ADE d ABC d imarwasen. Deg tugna tayeffust, amuskir n teɣzi d 2; win n&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;wanrar d 4.&lt;/small&gt;

'''AD/AB = AE/AC = DE/BC'''

Deg umedya, A d yiwet n tqacuct n sin yikerdisen; D yella ɣef [AB], E ɣef [AC], yerna DE ∥ BC. Ihi assaɣ n ''Thales'' yessegza ayɣer akk ibḍan-a d igdazalen. Ma nessen kra n teɣziwin, nezmer ad nsiḍen teɣziwin ur nessin ara s useqdec n wassaɣen-a.

'''Teɣzi: × k; anrar: × k²; ableɣ: × k³'''

Ma nsemɣer asrem s umuskir 3, tehri d teɣzi-nni ad nernunt kraḍ n tikal; anrar ad yili 9 n tikal. Ma nsemɣer agasas s 3, ableɣ ad yili 27 n tikal. Ihi amḍan n tsektiwin yesɛa azal deg wamek i yettbeddil usket.

Tagdukta d abeddel iḥerzen imeccaqen; d amedya uslig n tarwast s k = 1. Ur ilaq ara ad nsemmi snat n talɣiwin d igdazalen s wesket ma ttemcabint kan deg talɣa.

== 6. Igeddisen, tiwinas d yiḍebsiyen ==
Ageddis d talɣa n uɣawas iḥerzen yiwen rrif yettwabnan s yiɣallen. I ugeddis afraray, war amager n yidis gar-asen, timernit n tiɣmar n daxel d (n−2) × 180°, anda '''n''' d amḍan n yidis. Abḍu n ugeddis affensu s yiwet n tqacuct yessegza tanfalit-a: ad d-naf n−2 n yikerdisen.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-22 10-56-58.png|centré|595x595px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 6. Tawinest d rrif; aḍebsi yesɛa daxel. Ageddis s semmus n yidisan yettwabḍa ɣef kraḍ n yikerdisen.&lt;/small&gt;

Tawinest s wammas '''O''' d waqqar '''r''' tesdukkel tineqqiḍin '''P''' i yesɛan '''d(O,P)=r'''. Aḍebsi yeɣleq yesdukkel tineqqiḍin i yesɛan d(O,P) ≤ r. Akdu d 2r. Taslayt i twinest deg P tebdd ɣef waqqar OP.

'''Azzikit n twinest: P = 2πr; anrar n uḍebsi: A = πr²'''

Ma '''r''' yettwaskat s yimitren, '''P''' ad yili s yimitren, '''A''' s yimitren imkuẓen. Pi d amḍan agraɣlan π ≈ 3.14159. Ur ilaq ara ad nsexleḍ amḍan n yisekkilen n tamawaẓt d wazal amatu n π.

== 7. Asektiɣmer d radyan ==
Asektiɣmer (trigonométrie) izerrew assaɣ gar tɣmar d teɣziwin. Deg ukerdis amaɣud, '''sin''' '''θ''' d assaɣ n yidis i d-yezzin i θ ɣer ulubdis; '''cos θ''' d assaɣ n yidis n tama-s ɣer ulubdis; '''tan θ''' '''= sin θ / cos θ mi cos θ ≠ 0.'''
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-23 12-24-09.png|centré|612x612px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 7. Tawinest s waqqar 1 tefk amur ilaw cos θ d amur yebdden sin θ. Udlifen n sin d cos sseknen abeddel-nsen d&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;wallus-nsen.&lt;/small&gt;

'''sin² θ + cos² θ = 1; 180° = π rad'''

Radyan d asket n tɣmert s wassaɣ '''θ = s/r''', anda '''s''' d teɣzi n uḥric n twinest. Ma '''θ = 1''' rad, '''s''' '''= r'''. Tuzzya tummidt d 2π rad, neɣ 360°. Aseqdec n radyan yeshel tigawt n usiḍen aneẓlay d tarrayt n yizellumen.

'''c² = a² + b² − 2ab cos γ'''

Asaḍuf n cosine yessegza assaɣ gar kraḍ n yidis n ukerdis d tɣmert γ i d-yezzin i c. Ma '''γ =''' '''90°''', '''cos γ = 0''', ad d-naf asekkud n Pythagore. Assaɣen-a ttɛawanen deg usket n tiddi n wayen ur nezmir ara ad naweḍ srid d usiḍen n yiberdan.

== 8. Teɣzi, anrar d ubleɣ ==
Teɣzi tettwaskat s tiget n teɣzi, anrar s tiget n teɣzi ɣer sin, ableɣ s tiget n teɣzi ɣer kraḍ. Azzikit d teɣzi n rrif. Tajumma tella d talɣa; anrar d azal n wesket-is. Deg tallunt, ilaq ad nessemgired anrar n rrif d ubleɣ n daxel.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-24 11-26-46.png|centré|716x716px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 8. Tiddi h tebdd ɣef uzadur b. Awlellu d takurt sɛan isketen n ubleɣ; amaḍal d rrif n takurt.&lt;/small&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Talɣa
!Asket
|-
|Asrem s yidis a d b
|A = ab; P = 2(a+b)
|-
|Akerdis s uzadur b d tiddi h
|A = bh/2
|-
|Agasas s yidis a
|V = a³; anrar n rrif = 6a²
|-
|Awlellu s waqqar r d tiddi h
|V = πr²h
|-
|Akaswar s waqqar r d tiddi h
|V = πr²h/3
|-
|Takurt / amaḍal s waqqar r
|V = 4πr³/3; anrar n umaḍal = 4πr²
|}
I talɣiwin ur nesɛi ara tanfalit tafessast, nezmer ad nebḍu talɣa ɣef yiḥricen, ad nessemres aɣred neɣ asiḍen n temawaẓt. Ma yella kra n uḥric i neḥseb snat n tikal, ilaq ad t-nekkes yiwet n tikkelt iwakken ur t-nettḥasab ara snat n tikal.

== 9. Asali s tesɣunt d ukumpas ==
Deg tanzeggit tamensayt, tesɣunt war yizamulen n wesket tettawi-d taɣda iɛeddan seg snat n tneqqiḍin. Akumpas yettawi-d tawinest s wammas d waqqar. Asali d asartu n tigawin s yilugan, mačči d asefru n talɣa s tseddi n tugna kan.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-25 11-13-00.png|centré|645x645px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 9. Sin n yisugnen n twinest sɛan yiwen waqqar, i yugar AB/2. Amager-nsen d P d Q. Taɣda PQ tebdd ɣef AB&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;deg tlemmast M&lt;/small&gt;

I usali n tabeddayt i yiɣil [AB] deg tlemmast-is, nbennu tawinest s wammas A d tayeḍ s wammas B, s yiwen waqqar i yugar AB/2. Ad mlilent deg P d Q. Acku PA=PB d QA=QB, P d Q bɛaden s yiwen umeccaq seg A d B; taɣda-nsen d tabeddayt n tlemmast n [AB].

Nezmer ad nebnu akerdis agdudisan, talemmast n yiɣil neɣ abḍu n tiɣmert ɣef sin. Maca mačči yal asali yezmer ad yettwaxdem s sin n wallalen-a: amedya, abḍu n yal tiɣmert ɣef kraḍ n yiḥricen igdazalen ur yezmir ara s wudem amatu. Abḍu n kra n tiɣmar usligen yezmer. 

Tanzeggit tagellamt tessemres tigriyin iwakken ad d-tessekna talɣiwin n kraḍ n tsektiwin deg uɣawas. D lsas i tesneḍrit n lebni d kra n terrayin n usunneɣ aṭekniki.

== 10. Imsidag d yimawayen ==
Tanzeggit tusliṭ teqqen talɣa ɣer tegda. S yimsidag n Descartes, taneqqiṭ '''A''' tettwasbadu s '''(x,y)'''; taɣda s '''ax+by+c=0''', anda '''a''' d '''b''' ur llin ara i sin d '''0'''. Tarrayt-a tettawi talɣiwin ɣer yisiḍen(leḥsab) n uljibṛ.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-26 11-34-29.png|centré|608x608px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 10. Imeccaqen Δx = 4 d Δy = 3 fkan d = 5. Amaway u+v yettwabna s unadi n v seg yixef n u; amḍiq n tazwara&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;n umaway ur ibeddel ara talɣa-s.&lt;/small&gt;

'''d(A,B) = √[(x₂−x₁)² + (y₂−y₁)²]'''

Talemmast n [AB] tesɛa imsidag ((x₁+x₂)/2, (y₁+y₂)/2). Deg umedya A(1,1), B(5,4), talemmast d (3,2.5). Tanfalit n umeccaq tekka-d seg Pythagore; tanfalit n tlemmast tekka-d seg wassaɣ n yimawayen.

'''u · v = u₁v₁ + u₂v₂ = ‖u‖ ‖v‖ cos θ'''

Amaway yesɛa teɣzi d tanila. Afaris afesnan n sin yimawayen yezmer ad yessegza tiɣmert gar-asent. Ma u·v = 0 d sin yimawayen ur nelli ara d 0, imawayen-a bedden gar-asen. Tanzeggit tamawayt teshel anerni n yisiḍen-a ar tallunin s waṭas n tsektiwin.

== 11. Ibeddilen d tujjuṛt ==
Tagdukta d abeddel iḥerzen imeccaqen. Tasikelt, tuzzya d tujjuṛt s ugellus d imedyaten deg uɣawas n Aklid. Abeddel yezmer ad yerr talɣa deg umḍiq nniḍen, maca teɣzi, tiɣmar d wanrar ad qqimen d yiwen.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-27 11-43-08.png|centré|661x661px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 11. Talɣa tazegzawt d tin n tazwara. Tasikelt d tuzzya ḥerzent aniri; tujjuṛt s ugellus tbeddel aniri.&lt;/small&gt;

'''Tasikelt: x′ = x + a; y′ = y + b'''

'''Tuzzya: x′ = x cos θ − y sin θ; y′ = x sin θ + y cos θ'''

Tujjuṛt s ugellus y tettawi (x,y) ɣer (−x,y). Tasikelt s umaway v tettawi P ɣer P+v. Taludegt s wammas O d umuskir k tettawi OP ɣer kOP; tessenɣas neɣ tessemɣer imeccaqen s |k|. Ma |k| ≠ 1, mačči d tagdukta.

Timhelt n uḍfar n yibeddilen tesɛa azal: tuzzya deffir tasikelt ur tefk ara dima ayen i d-tefk tasikelt deffir tuzzya. Ibeddilen i yeṭṭafen talɣa meṛṛa ur tettbeddil ara sdukklen agraw n tujjuṛt-is. D allal i tazrawt n yizeṭṭa, lebni d talɣiwin n ugama.

== 12. Igezzumen n ukaswar ==
Igezzumen n ukaswar (coniques) d tiwinas, tiglayin, tikenzirarin d yiknudem. Zemren ad d-ilin s umager n uɣawas d ukaswar asinan; tili n ugzam tettawi talɣa yemgaraden. Deg taenzeggit tusliṭ, d imedyaten n tegdiwin s tfesna 2.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-28 12-03-59.png|centré|636x636px]]
&lt;small&gt;Taglayt tesɛa sin n yidiken. Takenzirart tesɛa adik d teɣda tanilayt. Aknudem yesɛa sin n yifurkan. Ilugan n tigniwin llan deg yizwal-nsent.&lt;/small&gt;

Taglayt tesdukkel tineqqiḍin i yesɛan timernit n yimeccaqen seg sin n yidiken d yiwen wazal. Takenzirart tesdukkel tineqqiḍin i bɛaden s yiwen umeccaq seg udik d teɣda tanilayt. Aknudem yesɛa tameẓla tamagdazt n yimeccaqen seg sin n yidiken d yiwen wazal.

'''Ax² + Bxy + Cy² + Dx + Ey + F = 0'''

I tegda n tfesna 2 war talɣiwin yettwasenɣasen, B²−4AC &lt; 0 yettawi talɣa n teglayt; = 0 talɣa n tkenzirart; &gt; 0 talɣa n uknudem, s tawtilin n tili n talɣa tilawt. Kra n tegdiwin zemrent ad fkent taɣda, snat teɣdiwin, taneqqiṭ neɣ tagrumma tilemt. Ihi ur ilaq ara ad nsemmu talɣa s yiwen umḍan kan.

Talɣiwin-a sɛant aseqdec deg tsenallunt, imeskaren n tafat d usali n kra n yimeslaḍen.

== 13. Tanzeggit talawsant d tseggart ==
Tanzeggit talawsant tḥerrez imeẓla n umsadaɣ d wassaɣen n tneqqiḍin ɣef yiwet n teɣda. Abeddel alawsan yesɛa talɣa x′=Ax+b, anda A d isirew imutti. Yezmer ad yessenɣes yiwen yidis ugar n wayeḍ, ihi tiɣmar d teɣziwin ur ilaq ara ad qqiment d yiwen.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-29 12-34-08.png|centré|526x526px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 13. Tama taẓelmaḍt: amkuẓ yuɣal d talɣa s yidis imsadaɣen. Tama tayeffust: tigri n snat teɣdiwin timsadaɣin tettban tettawi-ten ɣer yiwet n tneqqiṭ.&lt;/small&gt;

Tanzeggit taseggart tzerrew ayen i yeqqimen d yiwen s tigri. Deg uɣawas aseggar, snat teɣdiwin yemgaraden mlilent dima deg yiwet n tneqqiṭ. I taɣdiwin timsadaɣin n uɣawas alawsan, amager-a yettwagenses s tneqqiṭ deg war taggara. 

'''[x : y : z] = [λx : λy : λz], ma λ ≠ 0'''

Deg yimsidag imsariyen, '''z ≠ 0''' yezmer ad yettwarr ɣer z = 1 s ubḍu. Tineqqiḍin s '''z = 0''' d taɣda n war taggara. Snat teɣdiwin timsadaɣin sɛant taneqqiṭ n tanila i ten-yesdukklen. «War taggara» dagi d amur n unagraw n yimsidag, mačči d amḍiq i nettawi s useɣzef n ugdil.

Assaɣ n umager d talɣa n teɣda ttwaḥerzen s tigri, maca umsadaɣ neɣ talemmast ur ilaq ara ad qqimen. Tanzeggit-a tettawi-d allalen i tigniwin n ukamera d tmuɣli n lebni.

== 14. Tanzeggit ur nelli ara n Aklid ==
Tanzeggit taknudemt d tanzeggit n umaḍal sseknayent belli agejdi n umṣsadaɣ ur yelli ara d ayen iwatan i yal tallunt. Deg uɣawas aknudeman, seg P i ur nelli ara ɣef d, llant aṭas n teɣdiwin i ur nettmagar ara d. Ɣef umaḍal, iberdan i yettaken adeg n teɣdiwin d tiwinas timeqqranin.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-30 11-45-25.png|centré|640x640px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 14. Akerdis ɣef umaḍal: seg Ugafa ɣer sin n tneqqiḍin deg usebges i yemgaraden s 90°, timernit d 270°. Deg uḍebsi n Poincaré, yidis n ukerdis d iḥricen n twinas i yebdden ɣef rrif.&lt;/small&gt;

Deg tanzeggit n umaḍal s waqqar '''R''', akerdis s yidis n twinas timeqqranin, deg yiwen umur iwatan, yesɛa timernit n tɣmar tugar '''π'''. Anrar-is d '''R²(α+β+γ−π)''', anda tiɣmar ttwasqedcent s radyan. Deg uɣawas aknudeman s tiknit −1, anrar n ukerdis d '''π−(α+β+γ)'''.

Deg umedya n Poincaré, rrif n uḍebsi ur yelli ara deg tallunt taknudemt: tineqqiḍin ttwaliɣent qqrebent ɣer rrif, maca ameccaq aknudeman yezmer ad yettnerni war tilisa. Ur ilaq ara ad nsket imeccaqen n tallunt-a s tesɣunt ɣef tugna amagnut.

== 15. Tanzeggit taneẓlayt d tiknit ==
Tanzeggit taneẓlayt tessemres izellumen d yiɣraden iwakken ad tzerrew udmawen d tijummiwin. I udem ilweɣ s yiwen uɣewwaṛ t, r(t) = (x(t),y(t)), taslayt teqqen ɣer r′(t). Tiknit tettawi-d asket n ubeddel n tanila mi nettnerni deg teɣzi n ubrid.

'''κ = |x′y″ − y′x″| / (x′² + y′²)^(3/2), ma r′(t) ≠ 0'''
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-31 11-51-15.png|centré|536x536px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 15. Amedya n tiknit n Gauss: tajumma n umaḍal s K &gt; 0, aɣawas s K = 0, d talɣa n ukersi n userdun s K &lt; 0.&lt;/small&gt;

Tawinest s waqqar R tesɛa tiknit 1/R. Taɣda tesɛa tiknit 0. Ɣef tajumma deg tallunt s kraḍ n tsektiwin, llant snat n tikniyin tigejdanin k₁ d k₂; tiknit n Gauss d K = k₁k₂. K tezmer ad tili tugar 0, d 0 neɣ ddaw 0. 

Tiknit n Gauss d taɣara n daxel: yezmer ad tettwasekza seg yisketen deg tajumma, war asket n wamek i tettwabna deg tallunt n berra. D ayen i d-yeskan usekkud n Gauss yettwasnen s Theorema Egregium. Ihi tajumma tettban teɛwej seg berra ur ilaq ara adtesɛu K ≠ 0. Awlellu, amedya, yesɛa K = 0.

== 16. Tanzeggit n Riemann d yiberdan ==
Tanḍa d tallunt i yettemcabin, deg yal amḍiq ameẓẓyan, ɣer ℝⁿ, maca talɣa-is meṛṛa tezmer ad temgarad. Amaḍal d akruri zemren ad ttwabḍun s yikarṭiyen adiganen s sin n yimsidag. Ur ilaq ara yiwen ukarṭi ad yeṭṭef akk tallunt.

Tanzeggit n Riemann ternu asbadu n wesket i yal taneqqiṭ s isirew gᵢⱼ(x) iḍemnen belli teɣzi n yal amaway ur nelli ara d 0 tugar 0. Teɣzi n uḥric ameẓẓyan tettwaru s talɣa-a:

'''ds² = Σᵢⱼ gᵢⱼ(x) dxᵢ dxⱼ'''
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-01 12-24-52.png|centré|700x700px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 16. Awlellu yezmer ad yeldi ɣer uɣawas war abeddel n yimeccaqen adiganen. Taɣda deg tugna tayeffust tettawi abrid yezzin ɣef uwlellu.&lt;/small&gt;

Abrid agejdis (géodésique, asegzi dagi) d abrid iḥerzen tanila s wamek i t-id-tesbadu tallunt. Deg tallunt n Riemann, iberdan-a sɛan taɣara n ubrid ameẓẓyan s teɣzi deg yiḥricen meẓẓiyen iwulmen. Ur ilaq ara yal abrid agejdis ad yili d ameẓẓyan akk gar sin n yixfawen s wudem amatu.

Deg tfizikt n Einstein, tallunt d wakud ttwazerwen s tanzeggit n Lorentz: asket-is ur yesɛi ara yiwen unagraw n yizamulen am Riemann. Ihi «tajumma yeɛwejjen» d asegzi i d-iqerben kan, ur d-yessegzi ara iman-is akk tiẓri n wassaɣ n tallunt d wakud (relativité).

== 17. Tasnidegt d talɣa meṛṛa ==
Tasnidegt tzerrew timitar i ur nettbeddil ara s ubeddel amaɣlal i yesɛan amutti amaɣlal. Zemrent ad ttwazerwent tuqqna, ixjaḍ d wamek i tettwasdukkel tallunt. Teɣzi d tɣmar ur ilaq ara ad ttwaḥerzent. Ihi tasnidegt teqqen ɣer tanzeggit, maca ur telli ara d yiwet n taɣult s sin n yismawen.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-02 11-11-35.png|centré|636x636px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 17. Amaḍal d ukruri mgaraden deg umḍan n yixjaḍ. amaḍal ur yesɛi ara axjiḍ, a akruri yesɛa yiwen uxjiḍ iɛeddan deg tlemmast-is, Tigniwin-a sseknayent tijummiwin n rrif kan, mačči d talɣiwin yeččuren d axel.&lt;/small&gt;

'''χ = N₀ − N₁ + N₂; i tajumma iɣelqen tusɣilt: χ = 2 − 2g'''

I tajumma yettwabḍan ɣef talɣiwin, N₀ d amḍan n tqacucin, N₁ n yidis d N₂ n wudmawen. χ d taskant n Euler. Ɣef rrif n ugasas, 8−12+6 = 2. Ɣef akruri, χ = 0. Deg tnfalit tis snat, g d amḍan n yixjaḍ s unamek n wanaw(genre), tajumma ilaq ad tili teqqen, teɣleq, tusɣilt d war rrif.

Tazrawt n talɣa meṛṛa tezmer ad d-tefk tilisa i tiknit. Asekkud n Gauss-Bonnet yeqqen aɣred n tiknit n Gauss ɣer χ n tajumma. D amedya ameqqran n tuqqna gar usket adigan d talɣa n tallunt meṛṛa.

== 18. Tanzeggit taljibṛant ==
Tanzeggit taljibṛant tzerrew tegrummiwin n tifrat n tegdiwin n yigetfulen. Ma P(x,y)=0, tineqqiḍin i yettḥeqqiqen tagda-a zemrent ad d-fkent azlig. Tarrayt-a tesdukkel aljibṛ d talɣiwin; tazrawt tamatut tezmer ad tili ɣef yimḍanen ilawen, isemlalen neɣ taɣulin nniḍen.
[[Tugna:Taneqqit tasuft.png|centré|688x688px]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 18. Tama taẓelmaḍt: azlig y² = x³ − x + 1 war taneqqiṭ tusligt deg uɣawas ilaw. Tama tayeffust: y² = x³ yesɛa taneqqiṭ tasuft deg (0,0).&lt;/small&gt;

I uzlig P=0, taneqqiṭ tasuft tḥeqqiq P = 0 d akk izellumen imezwura ∂P/∂x = ∂P/∂y = 0. Deg y²−x³=0, ayen-a yettili deg (0,0). Deg y²−x³+x−1=0, ulac taneqqiṭ i yeṭṭfen akk tawtilin-a. Amedya yessekza ayɣer aljibṛ yezmer ad yessegzi tikniyin d yimeẓla n talɣa.

Deg tanzeggit taljibṛant, imḍanen isemlalen zemren ad fken talɣa tummidt n tifrat: ayen yettban d sin n yifurkan deg tugna tilawt yezmer ad yesɛu tuqqniwin nniḍen deg tallunt tasemlalt. Ur ilaq ara tugna tilawt ad tettwaḥsab d tamusni tummidt n talɣa. Tanzeggit taljibṛant tesɛa iseqdacen deg tiẓri n yimḍanen, ladɣa deg tazrawt n tifrat n tegdiwin s yimḍanen ummiden neɣ imeɣẓanen, izligen ilipsiyen d teɣri n tegdiwin. Iwakken ad tili tɣuri n lsas, ilaq aljibṛ imzireg d kra n tiẓri n tegrummiwin.

==Imuren imeqranen n tenzeggit ==

* [[Tanzeggit tuklidit]] 

* [[Tanzeggit artuklidit]] 

* [[Tanzeggit tummit]]

* [[Tanzeggit tigriwt]]

* [[Tanzeggit taljibirt]]

* [[Tanzeggit tanebrurzant]] 

* [[Aljiber imzireg]]

== Amezruy n tenzeggit ==


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  <page>
    <title>Washington</title>
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        <username>Mastiman Anumidi</username>
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      <text bytes="15091" sha1="82nt5t6l955a5xrbe0sms5a8jk7ce2d" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox city}}
'''Washington, D.C''' d tamanaɣt n [[Iwunak Yedduklen|Yiwunak Yedduklen]]. Isem-ines ameqqran d '''Washington, District of Columbia'''. 
Deg Washington yella [[Axxam Amellal]], izdeɣ deg-s aselway n Yiwunak Yedduklen.

Tamdint i qqaren-as Washington ansi aselway amezwaru n Yiwunal Yedduklen, [[George Washington]].

Ɣas akken New York d tamdint tameqqrant n tdamsa d tnezzut, Washington tettwassen ladɣa s wazal-is asertan, aserdasan d udiplumasi.

Deg-s i ttwaɣtasen waṭas n tsertiyin i yeɛnan Marikan, yerna kra n tɣawsiwin i d-yettawin abeddel deg umaḍal.

Tamdint-a d yiwet seg temdinin i d-yettwasbedden s uɣawas usrid, i wakken ad tili d ul n udabu n tagduda tamaynut i d-yennulfan seld ṭṭrad n timunent n Marikan.

Maca Washington ur telli ara d tamdint n tsertit kan. D tamdint yesɛan amezruy n yigduden inaṣliyen, n umennuɣ ɣef yizerfan n umdan, n tẓuri d tusna.

== 1. Tarakalt d ugama ==
[[Tugna:WashMonument WhiteHouse.jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Wasgington D.C]]
&lt;br&gt;

Washington tezga deg usamar n Marikan, gar Maryland d Virginia, ɣef yiri n wasif Potomac.

Amkan-a yettwafren acku yezga gar temnaḍin n ugafa d tid n unẓul n Marikan, deg tallit ideg llan imennuɣen ɣef wanda ara tili temdint tagejdant n uwanek afidirali.

Deg trakalt n Washington llan sin yisaffen igejdanen: Potomac d Anacostia. Isaffen-a sɛan azal deg tudert n yigduden inaṣliyen, deg tnezzut, deg usiweḍ d usnerni n temdint.

Tamdint tesɛa agaman n temnaḍt yettwasemman s unezwu n amennuḍan anaddaw ubzig(climat subtropical humide). Anebdu yezmer ad yili d aḥemmu s waṭas n tizegzewt d waḍu, ma deg tegrest, llan wussan isemmaḍen, tikwal ula d adfel.

Tamdint tettwassen daɣen s yisekla-is, igran izegzawen d tefsut ideg d-ttfeǧǧiǧent tjeǧǧigin n &quot;''cherry blossoms''&quot;.

== 3. Igduden inasliyen uqbel tallit n Yirupiyen ==
Uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen, temnaḍt n Washington tella d akal n yigduden inaṣliyen n Marikan.

Gar yigduden-a llan '''Nacotchtank''', i yezdɣen deg temnaḍin n wasif Anacostia, akked yigduden nniḍen yeqqnen ɣer tutlayin n twacult '''Algonquian'''.

Igduden-a ttidiren s tfellaḥt, aṣeyyed n yiselman, ugmar d tnezzut. Isaffen sɛan azal ameqqran deg tudert-nsen, acku d iberdan n usiweḍ, d iɣbula n waman d tmurt n uselḥu n tnezzut.

Asiweḍ n Yirupiyen deg lqern wis 17 yewwi-d ibeddilen imeqqranen: lehlakat timaynutin, imennuɣen, aɣelluy n yimezdaɣ inaṣliyen d ubeddel n udabu ɣef wakal.

Amezruy n Washington ur yebdi ara deg 1790. Yella yakan ugdud d yidlis deg temnaḍt-a s waṭas n yiseggasen uqbel asbeddi n temdint tafederalit.

== 4. Asnulfu n Washington (1790–1800) ==
[[Tugna:L'Enfant plan.jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Aɣawas n Washington D.C sɣur &quot;l'Enfant&quot;.]]


Seld timunent n Marikan deg 1776, awanek amaynut yella yeḥwaǧ tamdint tagejdant ara yezdin meṛṛa iwunak.

Deg tallit-a, aṭas n yimasayen n ugafa d unẓul mgaraden ɣef umkan ara yettwafren.

Deg 16 Yulyu 1790, ''Congress'' yefka-d azaraf i usbeddi n temnaḍt tafederalit tafrart, d tin ara yesɛun tawuri n temdint tagejdant n Marikan.

Asefran-a yella d tifrat tasertant gar yimasayen n ugafa d wid n unẓul, i yemgaraden deg tsertit tadamsant d uklan.

Amezwaru n Marikan, '''George Washington''', yefren amkan n temdint tamaynut ɣef yiri n Potomac.

Deg 1791, yefka tawuri n usɣawas n temdint i umsenfar afransis '''''Pierre Charles L'Enfant'''''.

=== Aɣawas n L'Enfant ===
L'Enfant yebɣa ad yesnulfu tamdint i yettbanen d azamul n tagduda.

Yessumer-d iberdan iwesɛanen, izenqan yettemlilin, urtiyen izegzawen d yimukan imeqqranen i yixxamen n udabu.

Aɣawas-is yessemlal gar:

* Izenqan yetteddun s talɣa tusridt.
* Ibardayen iwesɛanen i yettemlilin s talɣa tanamurt.
* Imukan imeqqranen n tsertit d udabu.
* Idigan n ugdud d wurtiyen n tẓuri.

Deg 1792, Andrew Ellicott yessegzem yerna yesseɣti kra n yiḥricen n uɣawas-a.

Washington tebda ad tettwabna s uɣawas ara tt-yerren d tamdint yemgaraden ɣef temdinin n tnezzut i yellan yakan deg Marikan.

== 5. Washington deg lqern wis 19 ==
[[Tugna:Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. - c. 1902.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Washington D.C deg lqern 19.]]


Deg 1800, adabu afederal amarikani yeǧǧa Philadelphia, yerra Washington d amḍiq agejdan n tsertit n Marikan.

Deg tazwara, tamdint tella d tameẓẓyant. Ixxamen n udabu mazal-iten deg lebni, izenqan ur ttwasbeddlen ara meṛṛa, yerna aṭas n yimḍiqen llan d igran d ugama.

Deg 1814, deg ṭṭrad gar Marikan d Teglizit, iserdasen n Teglizit kecmen ɣer Washington, sserɣen kra n yixxamen n udabu, gar-asen Capitol d White House.

Seld aneḍru-a, tamdint tettwabna tikkelt nniḍen.

=== Washington d taluft n waklan ===
D yiwet seg tɣawsiwin i ilaq ad d-nemmeslay deg umezruy n Washington.

Deg lqern wis 19, taluft iccuden ɣer waklan tella d aḥric seg tmetti n temdint. Llan yiklan yettwasemɣaren i ixeddmen deg yixxamen, deg yigran d waṭas n umahil n lebni.

Deg 16 Yebrir 1862,  yettwaseḥbes unagraw n taklit deg District of Columbia, s uzref i yezmel umenzu Abraham Lincoln, uqbel alɣu n usufeɣ n waklan seg taklit i d-yessufeɣ deg 1 Yennayer 1863.

Tamdint teqqim d amḍiq ameqqran n umennuɣ ɣef tilelli d yizerfan n yimezdaɣ iberkanen.

== 6. Ṭṭrad agensan n Marikan (1861–1865) ==
[[Tugna:US Civil War railway gun and crew.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Yiwen seg wallalen n ṭṭṛad agensan amarikani n 1865.]]


Deg 1861, mi yebda ṭṭrad agensan n Marikan, Washington tuɣal d amḍiq aserdasi ameqqran.

Tamdint tezga qrib ɣer temnaḍin n ṭṭrad. Iserdasen n ugafa bnan tɣessa taserdasit i umesten n temdint, Iserdasen n Ugafa bnan igudar, sbedden tiɣessiwin n usiweḍ n yiferdisen iserdasen, yerna sɣawsen imukan n uḥraz n temdint.

Washington tesɛa daɣen tawuri tameqqrant deg uselḥu n yimeḥbas, yimejjayen d yimejruḥen n ṭṭrad.

Deg 14 Yebrir 1865, Abraham Lincoln yettwanɣa deg Ford's Theatre. Yemmut ass i d-yeḍfaren, deg 15 Yebrir.

Tamettant-is tesseḥzen aṭas n yimdanen deg Marikan, yerna Washington tuɣal d amkan n tkatut(n usmekti) tameqqrant n tallit-a.

== 7. Washington deg lqern wis 20 ==
[[Tugna:1961 Washington DC, color slide showing an aerial view of Lincoln Memorial and Reflecting Pool.jpg|centré|vignette|665x665px|Washington D.C deg 1961.]]


Deg lqern wis 20, Washington tettnerni s waṭas.

Tamdint tettbeddil seg yiwen n umḍiq n udabu ɣer tamdint tameqqrant n yimezdaɣ, uselmed, tẓuri d tdiplumasit.

Deg 1902, aɣawas McMillan yewwi-d ibeddilen imeqqranen deg usɣawas n temdint. Yebɣa ad d-yerr azal n uɣawas amezwaru n L'Enfant, ladɣa s lebni n urtiyen izegzawen d tmeẓra tameqqrant gar Capitol d yimukan n tmekti.

Deg sin ṭṭradat imaḍlanen, tawuri n udabu afederal tettnerni s waṭas. Aṭas n yimezdaɣ i d-yusan ɣer Washington i wakken ad xedmen deg tesdawiyin, tadbelt, tiɣessiwin tiserdasin d tɣawsiwin n uselḥu.

=== Washington d umennuɣ ɣef yizerfan n umdan ===
[[Tugna:March on Washington edit.jpg|centré|vignette|673x673px|Tikli ɣef izerfan n yiberkanen deg Washington D.C]]


Deg 28 Ɣuct 1963, aṭas n yimdanen mlalen-d deg Washington deg ''&quot;March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom&quot;'', i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n umennuɣ ɣef yizerfan n yimezdaɣ iberkanen.

Deg uneḍru-a, ''Martin Luther King Jr.'' yefka-d tinawt-is yettwassnen ''I Have a Dream(Sɛiɣ Targit)''.

Taneḍruyt-a tuɣal d yiwet seg tneḍruyin tigejdanin n umezruy n yizerfan inmettiyen deg Marikan.

Washington tella d tamdint n tsertit, maca daɣen d tamdint anda i d-ttemlilin yimdanen i wakken ad sutren abeddel, tilelli, taɛdalt d yizerfan.

== 8. Tadbelt d tsertit n Washington ==
Washington, D.C. mačči d awanak am wiyaḍ n Marikan. D distrikta tafederalit i d-yettwasbedden s wudem ameẓlay i wakken ad tili d tamdint tagejdant n Marikan.

Tamsalt-a tesɛa anamek: Washington ur teṭṭafar ara Maryland neɣ Virginia, maca tesɛa anagraw n tdabert ɣef wudem i d-yettwasbedden deg tsertit tafederalit.

Deg 1973, Home Rule Act yefka i yimezdaɣ n Washington tazmert ad fernen amḍebber n temdint n temdint d tseqqamut tadigant.

Maca Congress afederal mazal yesɛa kra n tezmert ɣef tɣawsiwin n distrikta.

Tamsalt-a tettawi-d amennuɣ asertan: imezdaɣ n Washington sɛan yiwen n umeslay deg tsertit tamarikanit, maca ur sɛin ara sin yimsenqaden deg Senate, yerna ur sɛin ara amḍebber s uzref n usuffeɣ n ṣṣut deg House of Representatives.

=== Ixxamen n udabu igejdanen ===
[[Tugna:WhiteHouseSouthFacade.JPG|gauche|vignette|250x250px|Axxam Amellal.]]
'''White House — Axxam Amellal'''

D amkan n tnezduɣt d umahil n umenzu n Marikan. Yekcem deg umezruy n temdint seg 1800.


[[Tugna:US Capitol east side.JPG|gauche|vignette|Capitol/Imni afidirali n Marikan.]]
'''Axxam n Congress/Imni afidirali n Maikan''', ideg ttemlilin ''House of Representatives'' d Senate. Deg-s i ttwasbedden isuḍaf izerfanen ifederalen.


[[Tugna:US Supreme Court.JPG|gauche|vignette|250x250px|Taɣdemt tunnigt n Marikan.]]
'''U.S. Supreme Court Rulings/ Taɣdemt Tunnigt n Marikan'''

D taɣdemt tafellayt n Marikan, i yesɛan tawuri tagejdant deg usegzi n Ddestur d yizerfan.


== 9. Tadamsa n Washington ==
Tadamsa n Washington temgarad ɣef tin n New York.

Deg New York, tadamsa tettban-d deg tnezzut, Wall Street d taggazt n idrimen. Deg Washington, anagaraw n udabu afederal d yiwen seg yiferdisen igejdanen n tdamsa.

Aṭas n yimezdaɣ xeddmen deg:

* Tadbelt tafederalit d tidbelt tadigant.
* Tiɣessiwin n tɣellist d teserdast.
* Tidukliwin tigraɣlanin d tseqqamin n tdiplumasit.
* Tasdawit d unadi ussnan.
* Asuddes n tneḍruyin, asiweḍ d yimeẓla n tmerrit.

Washington d amkan n waṭas n tsquma tigraɣlanin, gar-asent World Bank d International Monetary Fund (IMF), ayen i tt-yerran d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n tdamsa tamaḍlant.

== 10. Idles, tutlayin d tmetti ==
[[Tugna:Statue of Abraham Lincoln, Lincoln Memorial (2024)-L1005507.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Asebdad. n Abraham Lincoln deg Washington DC.]]


Washington tesɛa tadelsa temgaraden ɣef tid n temdinin nniḍen.

Deg-s llan yimezdaɣ seg waṭas n tmura, d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimezdaɣ iberkanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy-is.

Deg lqern wis 20, Washington tella d amkan n uẓawan n jazz, n tẓuri d tsekla. Amnuyar ameqqran n jazz Duke Ellington yulal deg Washington deg 1899.

Tamdint tesɛa daɣen yiwen n uɣanib n uẓawan i d-yennulfan deg-s, i yettwassnen s yisem n go-go, yeqqnen ɣer aẓawan funk, yettwassnen s unya n ṭṭebul d useqdec n yifecka n uẓawan s umata.

Deg tudert n yal ass, tella tnezzut n yimukan n učči, isensayen idelsanen, timkerḍiwin, izenqan n temdint d waṭas n yimukan anda i d-ttemlilin yimezdaɣ.

== 11. Imḍiqen d yizumal yettwassnen n Washington ==
'''Amedruz n Washington'''
[[Tugna:Washington Monument Dusk Jan 2006.jpg|gauche|vignette|213x213px|Amedruz n Washington]]
D azamul ɣezzifen s talɣa n obilisk, i yettwabnan i tmekti n George Washington. Tattayt-is tezga ɣer 169 m.

Amedruz n Washington (Washington Monument) d yiwen seg yizumal imeqqranen n temdint n Washington, D.C., tamdint tagejdant n Yiwunak Yedduklen n Marikan. Yezga deg National Mall, yerna yettwabna i tmekti n George Washington, aselway amezwaru n Marikan. Yesɛa talɣa n ubilisk (obélisque), yettwabna s udɣaɣ amellal, ma d tattayt-is tewwḍ ɣer azal n 169 n yimitren.

Lebni-is yebda deg 1848, maca yeḥbes aṭas n yiseggasen s sebba n lexṣaṣ n yidrimen d ṭṭrad agensan n Marikan. Yemmed deg 1884, yettweldi i ugdud deg 1888. Deg tallit-nni, yella d lebni ɣezzifen akk deg umaḍal. Ass-a, Amedruz n Washington d azamul n timunent d tdukli n Marikan, yerna d yiwen seg yimukan yettwaṛzanen aṭas deg temdint.


'''Tasmikt n Lincoln'''
[[Tugna:Lincoln Memorial east side.JPG|gauche|vignette|Tasmikt n Lincoln.]]
D axxam n tmekti n Abraham Lincoln. Yettwabna s uɣanib yeqqnen ɣer lebni n Yigrigiyen iqburen, s teɣmart d usebdad n Lincoln deg ul-is.

'''Tasmikt n Lincoln''' d asebdad n tmekti yezgan deg Washington, D.C., i yettwabnan i wakken ad yeḥrez amekti n '''Abraham Lincoln''', aselway wis 16 n Marikan. Yezga deg tama n umalu n National Mall, yerna yettwassen s lebni-is ameqqran yesɛan tigejda d tɣessa taklasikit.

Deg daxel n Tesmikt n Lincoln yella usebdad ameqqran n Lincoln i yettɣiman, yerna ɣef iɣmaren-is llan tira i d-yemmalen kra seg wawalen-is yettwassnen. Asebdad-a yeldi deg 1922, yuɣal d yiwen seg yizumal igejdanen n Marikan, acku yeqqen ɣer timunent, tilelli d yizerfan n umdan. D amkan i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy, ladɣa deg umennuɣ ɣef yizerfan n yimdanen.


'''Jefferson Memorial'''
[[Tugna:Jefferson Memorial Washington April 2017 002.jpg|gauche|vignette|Tasmikt n Jefferson.]]
D amkan n tmekti n Thomas Jefferson, yiwen seg yimezwar n timunent n Marikan. Lebni-is yettban-d yesɛa aɣanib aklasiki i yettemcabin ɣer Pantheon n Ruma taqburt.


'''Smithsonian National Museum of naturel History'''
[[Tugna:Eremotherium skeleton at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.jpg|gauche|vignette|Asalay n Smithsonian.]]
Asalay Aɣelnaw n Umezruy n Ugama d yiwen seg yisalayen imeqqranen n Washington, D.C. Deg-s ttwasenkanen yiɣersiwen, iɣessan n dinuzuren, idɣaɣen d yiferdisen nniḍen n ugama, i d-yeskanayen amezruy n wakal d umhaz n tudert.

=== Smithsonian — tuddsa tameqqrant n tusna ===
Deg 1846, yettwasebded Smithsonian Institution, i d-yuɣalen d yiwet seg tuddsiwin timeqqranin n unadi d uselmed deg umaḍal.

Tuddsa-a tesɛa timkerḍiwin d yimukan n uselmed ɣef umezruy, tussna, tiknulujit, taẓuri d tadelsa
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin: 1em;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|+ '''Imezdaɣ n Washington D.C'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{|
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Aseggas
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Imezdaɣ
|-----
| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 8 144
|-----
| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 15 471
|-----
| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 23 336
|-----
| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 30 261
|-----
| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 33 745
|-----
| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 51 687
|-----
| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 75 080
|-----
| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 131 700
|-----
| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 177 624
|-----
| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 230 392
|-----
| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 278 718
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{|
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Aseggas
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Imezdaɣ
|-----
| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 331 069
|-----
| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 437 571
|-----
| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 486 869
|-----
| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 663 091
|-----
| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 802 178
|-----
| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 763 956
|-----
| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 756 510
|-----
| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 638 333
|-----
| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 606 900
|-----
| 2000 || align=&quot;right&quot; | 572 059
|-----
| 2005  || align=&quot;right&quot; | 582 049
|-----
|2010  || align=&quot;right&quot; | 601 723
|----- 
|}
|-----
|}
&lt;/br&gt;

[[Category:Timdinin]][[Category:Tarakalt]][[Category:Iwunak Yeddukklen]]</text>
      <sha1>82nt5t6l955a5xrbe0sms5a8jk7ce2d</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nvidia</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117847</id>
      <parentid>117834</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-11-02T13:53:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117847</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17977" sha1="ingxuntol8zev1nwosdwzxsbx4hfurl" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = Nvidia
| official_name = Nvidia Corp.
| image = [[File:NVIDIA Headquarters.jpg|thumb|Tasɣimt n NVIDIA]]
| type = Titiknulujit
| founded = 5 yebrir, 1993
| founder = Jensen Huang
Chris Malachowsky
Curtis Priem
| headquarters = Santa Klara, Kalifurnya, Marikan
| country = Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan
| industry = GPU
| products = Tikarḍiwin n GPU(GeForce  • RTX / Quadro)
CUDA
CPUs (Grace)
DPUs (BlueField)
SoCs (Tegra  • Drive)
DGX
| website = https://www.nvidia.com/
| wikidata_revenue = yes
| wikidata_operating_income = yes
| wikidata_net_income = yes
| logo = [[File:NVIDIA logo.svg|thumb|Alugu n NVIDIA]]
}}

'''Nvidia''' d tarmiṣt tamirikanit n titiknulujit, tettnadi, tessalay yerna tessuffuɣ-d tiɣeṛɣaṛ n yisekkaren udlifen (GPU), inagrawen n usiḍen arurad, iseɣẓanen d wallalen n tigzi taragmawant.

Tettwasbedd deg 5 yebrir 1993 deg [[Kalifurnya]], deg [[Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt|Marikan]]. Deg tazwara, iswi-is yella deg usnerni n wudlifen s kraḍ n tsekkiwin (3D), ladɣa i wuraren n yiselkimen. Maca, seg useggas n 2006, tebda tarmiṣt ad tesnerni tiknulujit i yessawaḍen GPU ad yexdem asiḍen ur cudden ara kan ɣer tugniwin.

Ass-a, NVIDIA ur teqqim ara d tarmiṣt n tikarḍiwin tudlifin kan. Tuɣal d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin deg usali n inagrawen n [[Tigzi Taragmawant|tigzi taragmawant]], aselmed n tmudmiwin n tutlayt, tusna, arrubutik, timacinin tifulmanin d yisekkaren imeqqranen.

Deg 2026, afaris-is ur yettwasres ara kan deg yiselkimen n yimdanen, maca daɣen deg yimmasen n yisefka, i deg xeddmen yiwalen n GPU s umata akken ad siḍnen isefka iṭṭuqqten s zreb.

== 3. Amezruy n NVIDIA ==

=== 3.1. Tallit n tlalit: 1993–1997 ===
Deg yebrir 1993, kraḍ n yijenyuṛen, Jensen Huang, Chris Malachowsky d Curtis Priem, sbeddan NVIDIA. Ɣur-sen, tikti tagejdant tella d asnerni n tiknulujit n tugniwin i yiselkimen.

Deg tallit-nni, uranen n yiselkimen bdant ad sɛun azal ameqran. Maca isekkaren n wakud-nni ur zmiren ara ad siḍnen s lemɣawla akk isefka ilaqen i usken n wudlifen 3D.

Deg 1995, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d NV1, yiwen seg yifarisen-is imezwura. Ur yewwi ara lebɣi n tnezzut acku tasegda-s temgarad ɣef kra n yilugan i yettwasqedcen deg tallit-nni.

Deg 1997, tarmiṣt tessufeɣ-d RIVA 128, asekkar udlif i yesɛan amhaz meqqren deg usefrak n tugniwin 3D. Afaris-a yefka-as i NVIDIA tagnit ad tebnu azadur n tnezzut-is.

=== 3.2. GeForce d tlalit n GPU: 1999 ===
Deg 1999, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d GeForce 256, i tessekna am uGPU amezwaru.

GPU d agzul n Graphics Processing Unit, d asekkar yettwaselɣen i usiḍen n tugniwin d wudlifen. GeForce 256 yesdukkel deg yiwen n uceṛṛun kra n yimahilen udlifen i yellan uqbel xeddmen-ten yiferdisen yemgaraden.

Ilaq ad nefhem dakken NVIDIA d nettat i d-yessumren GPU s wudem-a n tnezzut deg 1999, maca isekkaren n tugniwin llan yakan uqbel-as.

S GeForce 256, NVIDIA tebda ad tettwasnen ugar deg tnezzut n uraren d yiselkimen n yimeẓla.

=== 3.3. Tallit n CUDA: 2006 ===
Deg 2006, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d CUDA (Compute Unified Device Architecture).

D yiwet seg tneqqiḍin tigejdanin deg umezruy-is.

Uqbel CUDA, GPU yettwasqedc s waṭas i tugniwin. S CUDA, imsihelen zemren ad arun ahilen i yessawaḍen GPU ad yexdem isḍanen n tusna, tusnakt, tusnengama d tasleṭ n yisefka.

S waya, GPU yuɣal d allal n usiḍen arurad, ur yeqqim ara kan d allal n uraren.

=== 3.4. NVIDIA d tigzi taragmawant: 2012 ===
Deg 2012, tamudemt AlexNet, i d-yessuffɣen Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever d Geoffrey Hinton, tewwi-d agmuḍ yelhan deg timsizzelt ImageNet.

Imnadiyen-a sqedcen GPU n NVIDIA i uselmed n uzeṭṭa n yiṛununen.

Agmuḍ-a yessekna dakken almad alqay (deep learning) yezmer ad yili d tarrayt tafessast ugar deg waṭas n tɣawsiwin n ussugen d tasleṭ n tugniwin.

Seg tallit-a, aseqdec n GPU deg tigzi taragmawant ibeddel amek xeddmen imnadiyen d yimsihelen.

=== 3.5. Tallit n RTX: 2018 ===
Deg 2018, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d tasegda RTX, i yessawaḍen ad yettwaxdem uskan n yizirigen n tafat (ray tracing) deg wakud ilaw.

Tatiknulujit-a tezmer ad tesɛeddi aselɣu n tafat, tilisa n tili d yimeclalen n tugniwin akken ad d-banent s wudem iqerrben ugar ɣer tilawt.

RTX tessnerna daɣen aseqdec n tigzi taragmawant i usnerni n tbadut d tɣara n tugniwin.

=== 3.6. Seg 2022 ar 2026: tallit n inagrawen imeqqranen n AI ===
Deg yiseggasen-a, NVIDIA teffeɣ seg wudem n tarmiṣt i yeznuzun GPU ɣer tarmiṣt i yessalayn anagraw ummid: isekkaren, takatut, azeṭṭa, iseɣẓanen, allalen n usihel d yimmasen n yisefka.

Tiɣeṛɣaṛ Hopper, Blackwell d Rubin ttwasnernant iwakken ad siḍnent timudmiwin timeqqranin n tigzi taragmawant.

Deg 2026, NVIDIA tebda asnerni n tɣessa Vera Rubin, i yesdukklen GPU Rubin, CPU Vera d yiferdisen n uzeṭṭa, akken ad yili usiḍen s waṭas n yisekkaren i d-yettmeslayen gar-asen.

Amezruy-a yeskan-d abeddel agejdan: seg usken n tugniwin 3D, ɣer tɣessa n tigzi taragmawant n umaḍal.

== 4. D acu i d GPU? Amek i iteddu? ==
GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) d asekkar udlif, yettwaselɣen iwakken ad yexdem aṭas n usiḍen s yiwet n tikelt, s tarrayt n umahil amsadaɣ (parallel processing).

Tifrat-a temgarad ɣef CPU (Central Processing Unit), i yellan d asekkar agejdan n uselkim.

=== 4.1. Amgired gar CPU d GPU ===
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-29 14-53-10.png|centré|575x575px]]                                                      


&lt;small&gt;'''Unuɣ n usegzi, ur d-yettmeslay ara ɣef umḍan n yiferdisen n CPU neɣ GPU n tidet.'''&lt;/small&gt;

CPU yelha i yimahilen yemgaraden, i usendeh n unagraw, i usefrek n yisefka d tigawin i yesran ad myezwarent.

GPU, s tama-nniḍen, yelha ladɣa i yimahilen i nezmer ad nebḍu ɣef waṭas n yiferdisen ad ten-nsiḍen s wudem amsadaɣ.

Amedya: ad neḥseb timernit n sin yisurta, yal yiwen deg-sen yesɛa 1 000 000 n yimḍanen.

&lt;math&gt;
C_i = A_i + B_i, \qquad 0 \leq i &lt; 1\,000\,000
&lt;/math&gt;

Imi yal timernit ur teḥwaǧ ara agmuḍ n tin nniḍen, GPU yezmer ad yebḍu amahil-a ɣef waṭas n yiḥricen. D tamiḍrant-a i d azadur n usiḍen amsadaɣ.

=== 4.2. Iferdisen igejdanen n GPU ===
GPU amiran yesɛa aṭas n yiferdisen, gar-asen:

- '''CUDA Cores''': iferdisen n usiḍen i yimahilen n tusnakt d usiḍen amatu.

- '''Tensor Cores''': iferdisen yettwaselɣen i yimahilen n yisiraw (matrices), i yesɛan azal meqqren deg almad alqay.

- '''RT Cores''': iferdisen n uskan n yizirigen n tafat deg tugniwin 3D.

- '''VRAM''': takatut n GPU, i deg ttwaḥrazen yisefka i yettwasiḍnen.

- '''Takatut L2''': takatut taruradt i yellan qrib ɣer yigrawen n usiḍen.

- '''NVLink''': tarrayt n tuqqna taruradt gar GPU d GPU, neɣ gar yiferdisen n unagraw, ilmend n tasegda.

Amedya, RTX 5090 yesɛa 32 GB n tkatut GDDR7, ma d isekkaren n yimmasen n yisefka zemren ad sɛun takatut HBM s wazal d tɣara yemgaraden.

== 5. CUDA: azadur n tzemmert n NVIDIA ==
CUDA d yiwen n unagraw n usihel d tɣessa n usiḍen amsadaɣ i d-tesnulfa NVIDIA. Tessawaḍ i umsihel ad yesseqdec GPU i yimahilen ur nelli ara d tugniwin kan. Deg CUDA, imahilen ttwasuddsen s wudem-a:
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-30 13-33-01.png|centré|670x670px]]


&lt;small&gt;Yal akala afessas(thread) yezmer ad yesɛu amḍiq-is, ad iɣer isefka, ad yexdem asiḍen, syin ad yerr agmuḍ.&lt;/small&gt;

D acu kan, ur ilaq ara ad neḥseb dakken GPU dima yif CPU deg yal amahil. Ma yella amahil yesɛa aṭas n tigawin i yemyuqqnen, neɣ yesra abrid amezwaru uqbel win wis sin, CPU yezmer ad yili yif-it.

=== 5.1. Aseqdec n CUDA deg usihel ===
CUDA yettwasqedc deg waṭas n tutlayin d yisnasen. Gar-asen C++, Python, PyTorch d TensorFlow.

Amedya amezwaru d agzul n wamek i yezmer umsihel ad yesseqdec GPU i tmernit n yisurta:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
__global__ void add(const float *a,
                    const float *b,
                    float *c, int n) {
    int i = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;
    if (i &lt; n) {
        c[i] = a[i] + b[i];
    }
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Deg uhil-a, yal akala afessas(thread) yettawi yiwen n umḍiq '''i''', syin yesiḍin '''a[i] + b[i]'''. S waya, aṭas n yiḥricen zemren ad xedmen deg wakud-nni kan. Amedya-a yeskan kan iɣes(''kernel)''; akken ad yeddu, yesra asenker-is d usefrek n tkatut.

=== 5.2. Ayɣer CUDA yesɛa azal meqqren? ===
Azal n CUDA ur yelli ara kan deg tzemmert n GPU.

NVIDIA tebna-d fell-as aṭas n temkarḍiwin n usihel (software libraries), gar-asent cuDNN, cuBLAS, NCCL d TensorRT.

Asihel n waṭas n yisnasen n tigzi taragmawant teqqen ɣer tɣessa-a. Aya yessawaḍ-d i NVIDIA azal nniḍen deg tnezzut, acku amsihel ur yessutur ara GPU kan: yesra daɣen iseɣẓanen, allalen n usenqed d temkarḍiwin i yettwasenqden.

== 6. Tiɣeṛɣaṛ n NVIDIA: seg Tesla ɣer Vera Rubin ==
NVIDIA tessnerna aṭas n tisegda n GPU deg umezruy-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tallit
!Tasegda
!Azal-is agejdan
|-
|2006
|Tesla
|Asnerni n usiḍen amsadaɣ
|-
|2010
|Fermi
|Asnerni n usiḍen ussnan
|-
|2012
|Kepler
|Tazmert akked tɣellist n useqdec asrurad
|-
|2014
|Maxwell
|Aseqdec yelhan n usrurad
|-
|2016
|Pascal
|Asnerni n tigzi taragmawant d GPU
|-
|2017
|Volta
|Asekcem n Tensor Cores
|-
|2018
|Turing
|RTX d ray tracing
|-
|2020
|Ampere
|A100 d RTX 30
|-
|2022
|Hopper
|H100 d usiḍen n tmudmiwin timeqqranin
|-
|2024
|Blackwell
|B200, GB200 d RTX 50
|-
|2026
|Rubin / Vera Rubin
|Inagrawen imeqqranen n AI
|}

=== 6.1. Hopper d H100 ===
H100 d asekkar i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA iwakken ad yexdem almad alqayan d usiḍen n tmudmiwin timeqqranin.

Yesɛa Tensor Cores n tziri tis kuẓ, takatut HBM d tigawin n usiḍen i yettwaselɣen i tigzi taragmawant.

H100 yesɛa azal deg umezruy n tmudmiwin n tutlayt timeqqranin (LLM), acku aṭas n yimmasen n yisefka sqedcen-t deg yiseggasen imezwura n tnerni n tigzi taragmawant turriwt.

=== 6.2. Blackwell ===
[[Tugna:Jensen Huang - RTX Blackwell - Nvidia Keynote - CES 2025 Las Vegas (2).jpg|gauche|vignette|Jensen Huang - RTX Blackwell - Nvidia Keynote - CES 2025 Las Vegas]]


Blackwell d tasegda i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA deg 2024, i d-tefka azadur i yisekkaren B200, GB200 d yifarisen nniḍen.

Yiwen seg usnifel-is agejdan d asdukkel n sin yiḥricen n GPU deg yiwen n uceṛṛun ameqran, s tuqqna taruradt gar-asen.

Blackwell tesnerna daɣen aseqdec n yimḍanen s tiseddi taẓẓayant (low precision), iwakken ad yettwasiḍen ulmad n tmudmiwin d useqdec-nsent s tazzla d taɛkwamt n tazzla tameẓẓyant ugar.

Deg 2025 d 2026, NVIDIA tessnerna talɣa Blackwell Ultra, i yettwaselɣen ladɣa i usnerni n tzemmert n usiḍen n tigzi taragmawant.

=== 6.3. Vera Rubin ===
Vera Rubin d tasegda i d-yernan ɣef Blackwell. Ur d yiwen n GPU kan, maca d anagraw yesdukklen aṭas n yiferdisen:

- GPU Rubin: i usiḍen n tigzi taragmawant.

- CPU Vera: i usendeh d usefrek n yisefka.

- NVLink: i tuqqna taruradt gar GPU.

- ConnectX d BlueField: i usefrek n uzeṭṭa d yisefka.

- InfiniBand d Ethernet: i tuqqna gar yimmasen n yisekkaren d yimmasen n yisefka.

Anagraw Vera Rubin NVL72 yesdukkel 72 n GPU Rubin d 36 n CPU Vera deg yiwen n unagraw n yiṛak imeqqranen (rack-scale system).

Deg 2026, NVIDIA teqqar-d dakken tasegda-a tettwasnerna ladɣa i tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant i yesseqdecen aseɣẓen d yimeggan ifulmanen.

== 7. Iseɣẓanen d yifarisen n NVIDIA ==
NVIDIA tesɛa aṭas n yifarisen yemgaraden ilmend n taɣult n useqdec.

=== GeForce d RTX ===
D tikarḍiwin tudlifin i wuraren n yiselkimen, asnulfuy anaẓuran, tugniwin 3D d yisnasen n tigzi taragmawant n uselkim udmawan. Tawsit RTX 50 tesɛa tikarḍiwin am RTX 5090, RTX 5080 d RTX 5070.

=== DGX d HGX ===
D inagrawen n usiḍen arurad i yimmasen n yisefka, i uselmed n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant d usiḍen ussnan.

=== Jetson ===
D tiɣeṛɣaṛ timeẓyanin n usiḍen i warrubutik, tikufal d tigzi taragmawant i yettxeddimen deg yibenk s timmad-nsen, war ma ḥwaǧen dima tuqqna ɣer uxeddim n yisefka agwemmaḍ.

=== DRIVE d Hyperion ===
D tasegda n tigzi taragmawant i tkerṛusin tikufalin. Ttwasqedcent i usenqed n tugniwin n tkamiṛatin, tiferni n yiberdan, asenqed n tagnatin d tigawin n usendeh n tkerṛust.

=== Omniverse ===
D tasegda n usnulfu d userwes n yimeḍqan d tɣawsiwin 3D. Tettwaseqdec deg tasemlilit n yimmasen n yisefka, iferdisen n yisuddas, arrubutik d yisnasen n twennaḍt taragmawant.

Tasegda-a n yifarisen tessawaḍ i NVIDIA ad teqqen usnulfuy n yiseɣẓanen ɣer tɣessa n yisekkaren-is, seg uselkim udmawan armi d inagrawen n yimmasen n yisefka. 

== 8. NVIDIA d tigzi taragmawant ==
Tigzi taragmawant d taɣult i deg teṭṭef NVIDIA amḍiq ameqran deg tnezzut tamirant.

Aṭas n tmudmiwin n tutlayt timeqqranin, am tid i ttwasqedcen deg yisnasen n ChatGPT, Claude d tmudmawin nniḍen, sran ɣer usiḍen meqqren, ladɣa deg tallit n uselmed.

=== 8.1. Almad n tmudmiwin (training) ===
Deg tallit n uselmed, azeṭṭa n yiṛununen (neural network) yettawi isefka, yesiḍin igmuḍen, syin yettbeddil imsektayen-is iwakken ad yesseɣti tuccḍiwin-is.

Aṭas n tigawin-a cudden ɣer yisiraw (matrices) d yimawayen (vectors).

Amedya, ma yella ɣur-neɣ sin yisiraw:

&lt;math&gt;A \in \mathbb{R}^{m \times k}, \qquad B \in \mathbb{R}^{k \times n}&lt;/math&gt;

Afaris-nsen d:

&lt;math&gt;

C = AB, \qquad C_{ij} = \sum_{r=1}^{k} A_{ir} B_{rj}

&lt;/math&gt;

GPU yesɛa tazmert ad yebḍu aṭas n yimahilen n usiḍen-a ɣef yigrawen yemgaraden, ladɣa mi ara yettwaseqdec Tensor Cores.

S waya, NVIDIA tesnerna tiknulujit i yessawaḍen aselmed n tmudmiwin ɣef yisefka iṭṭuqqten.

=== 8.2. Aseqdec n tmudmiwin (inference) ===
Mi ara tefru tallit n uselmed, tamudemt tezmer ad tettwaseqdec i tririt ɣef yisteqsiyen, asnulfu n tugniwin, tasuqilt neɣ tasleṭ n yisefka.

Akala-a yettwasemma ''inference''.

Deg wakud n useqdec, GPU yettawi imsektayen n tmudemt d yisefka imaynuten, yesiḍin igmuḍen, syin yettarra-d tiririt.

Ilaq ad nẓer dakken GPU n uselmed d GPU n useqdec ur sran ara dima ɣer yiwet n tɣessa. Aselmed yesra aṭas n usiḍen d useḥraz n igmuḍen agensan, ma d useqdec yesra dima tazzla tameqqrant akked tkatut i iwulmen.

=== 8.3. NVIDIA d tmudmiwin n tutlayt ===
NVIDIA ur teznuzi ara kan GPU. Tessnerna daɣen iseɣẓanen i yessawaḍen:

- NeMo: aselmed, asezger d usenqed n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant.

- TensorRT-LLM: asnerni n tazzla d tzemmert n useqdec n tmudmiwin n tutlayt.

- NIM: aseddu n tmudmiwin n AI ɣer yisnasen d yimmasen n yisefka.

- Nemotron: tawacult n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant i d-tessnerna NVIDIA.

Azal n waya d akken taṛmist tebna yiwen n unagraw yettak i umsihel allalen seg uselmed n tmudemt armi d useqdec-is deg usnas.

Gar yimendiden-is, TSMC d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin i yessalayn ceṛṛunat n NVIDIA. Taṛmist tettawi daɣen takatut seg SK Hynix, Micron d Samsung.

Tarrayt-a tessefk i NVIDIA ad tesseɣzef leqdic-is deg unadi d usnulfu, maca tessaɣ-itt ɣer yimendiden-is deg ufares. Ma yella anṭag ɣef yiwen seg yiberdan n ufares, aɣbel yezmer ad yaweḍ ɣer tnezzut n NVIDIA.

== 9. Taɣulin n useqdec ==

=== 9.1. Tussna d unadi ===
GPU n NVIDIA ttwasqedcen deg waṭas n taɣulin tussnanin. Deg tfizikt, zemren ad siḍnen amussu n tanga, azal n tesareɣt neɣ tasedmirt n yiferdisen ɣef wayeḍ.

Deg tasnudert, ttwasqedcen deg tesleṭ n tɣessa n yipṛutinen, deg tesleṭ n yisefka n tusnatudert iṭṭuqqten, akked unadi ɣef ddwa imaynuten.

=== 9.2. Tadawsa ===
NVIDIA tessnerna allalen i tfizikt n tudert d unadi ɣef ddwa. GPU zemren ad fken tallelt i:

- Tasleṭ n tugniwin n rradyulujit.

- Asugen n tɣessa n yipṛutinen.

- Anadi ɣef ddwa imaynuten.

- Asnerni n tmudmiwin i yettakken tallelt i yimnadiyen n tdawsa.

Deg 21 tuber 2026, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d isallen ɣef yineblagen-is deg taɣulin n tusnatudert d tdawsa, ladɣa deg unadi ɣef yipṛutinen d ddwa. 

=== 9.3. Arrubutik ===
NVIDIA tesnerna tasegda Isaac i usebni n yirrubuten ifulmanen.

Isaac yesdukkel aserwes, almad, asenqed n yiḥricen d tigzi taragmawant.

Amedya, arubut yezmer ad yesseqdec takamiṛat iwakken ad yẓer taɣawsa, ad yefren abrid i d-yessefk, syin ad yexdem tigawt s yigmamenn-is.

Tamiḍrant-a tettwasnerna daɣen s tmudmiwin n physical AI, i yesɛan iswi ad fehmen amek iteddu umaḍal aɣaran, mačči kan isefka n uḍris d tugna. 

=== 9.4. Takerṛust takufalt ===
Deg taɣult n tkerṛusin, NVIDIA tesnerna inagrawen DRIVE.

Inagrawen-a zemren ad siḍnen isefka i d-ttawin tkamiṛatin d yibenk n useddar (sensors), akken ad d-ssuknen abrid, inudda n tkerṛusin nniḍen, imdanen, d wayen yezmer ad yili d amihi.

D acu kan, tazmert n unagraw ad yessiḍen isefka ur d-temmal ara s timmad-is dakken takerṛust tezmer ad teddu war amdan deg yal tegnit. Taɣellist d usenqed usrid mazal d tiɣawsiwin tigejdanin.

=== 9.5. Asnulfuy anaẓuran d wuraren ===
Deg uraren n yiselkimen, GeForce RTX tessawaḍ ad tessnerni tɣara n tugniwin, tafat, tilisa d umussu.

Deg 2026, DLSS 5 d yiwen seg yisnifal imaynuten i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA, yesdukklen tugniwin n yurar akked tigzi taragmawant iwakken ad d-yefk agmuḍ iqerrben ugar ɣer tugniwin n tilawt. 

== 10. Amek i d-tettwafares iceṛṛunen n NVIDIA? ==
NVIDIA d taṛmist n tisegda n yisekkaren, maca ur tesɛi ara akk tizdayin n ufares i d-yettawin i iceṛṛunen-is.

Tettwasemma taṛmist n usali neɣ &quot;fabless&quot;, d anamek-is dakken tettak azal ameqran i usnulfu, asali d usenqed n tiknulujit, ma d afares aɣaran n iceṛṛunen tettak-it i yineblagen-is.

Gar yineblagen-is, TSMC d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin i yessuffuɣen iceṛṛunen n NVIDIA. Taṛmist tettawi daɣen takatut seg SK Hynix, Micron d Samsung.

Tarrayt-a tessefk i NVIDIA ad tesseɣzef leqdic-is deg unadi d usnulfu, maca tessaɣ-itt ɣer yimendiden-is deg ufares. Ma yella anṭag ɣef yiwen seg yiberdan n ufares, aɣbel yezmer ad yaweḍ ɣer tnezzut n NVIDIA.
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    <title>Tiberyus</title>
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      <text bytes="12850" sha1="713n3lqqzlknt8keeei4qa1g0ec4j7d" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q1407|image=[[File:(Venice) Tiberius Portrait of the 'Imperium Maius' type in Museo Archeologico Nazionale.jpg|thumb|(Venice) Tarudemt n Tiberyus s wanaw n 'Imperium Maius' deg usalay n &quot;Archeologico Nazionale&quot;]]|caption=Amenkad Tiberyus.|date of birth=16 Wambeṛ 42|nationality=Tarumanit|date of death=16 Meɣres 37}}

'''Tiberyus''' (s tlaṭinit: Tiberius Caesar Augustus), i d-ilulen ass n 16 Wamber 42 send talalit n Ɛisa (S.T.Ɛ.), i yemmut ass n 16 Meɣres 37 seld talalit n Ɛisa (S.L.Ɛ.), yella d amenkad wis sin n Tmenkda tarumanit. Yeḥkem seg 18 Ɣuct 14 ar 16 Meɣres 37 S.L.Ɛ., deffir n [[Uɣustus]], amenkad amezwaru n Ruma.

Tiberyus yettwaḥsab gar yimenkaden i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy arumani. Ɣas akken ur yesɛi ara tamanegt n Uɣustus, yella d amseddas n ṭṭrad iǧehden, d anedbal i yessnen amek ara yettwaḥrez wayla n Tmenkda, d win i yesnernan tarrayin n useḥkem i d-yegǧa Uɣustus.

Tallit-is tettwasen s waṭas n tneqqiḍin i yemgaraden: talwit deg waṭas n tmura n Tmenkda, asnerni n wayla n ddula, uguren gar umenkad d Senat, tixidas tisertanin gar yimdanen i iqerrben ɣer umenkad, asnerni n tazmert n yiɛessasen n Pretorya, akked uselḥu n tedbelt seg ugafa n tegzirt n Capri deg yiseggasen-is ineggura.

Tiberyus yella daɣen d amenkad n tallit i deg yedder [[Ɛisa|Ɛisa n Nazaret]](ma neḥsab dakken s tidet [[Ɛisa]] yella s wudem amazray, mačči kan s wudem asɣanen). Ɣef waya, isem-is yettwabder deg yidlisen n tsertit, n umezruy d yidles amasiḥi.

== Aḥric amezwaru — Tudert-is send adabu ==

=== 1. Ruma deg tallit n tlalit n Tiberyus ===
Iwakken ad nefhem tudert n Tiberyus, ilaq ad nẓer tegnit tasertant n Ruma deg useggas 42 S.T.Ɛ.

Deg tallit-nni, Ruma mazal-itt s yisem d tagduda (Res publica Romana), maca tazmert tasertant tebda tettnejmaɛ deg yifassen n kra n yimdanen iǧehden.

Ṭṭrad agensan gar [[Julius Caesar]] d yiɛdawen-is, syin gar [[Uɣustus|Octavianus]] d Mark Untunyus, yessexreb anagraw aqbur n [[Tagduda Taṛumanit|tagduda tarumanit]].

Octavianus, win ara yuɣalen d Uɣustus, yessnerna tazmert-is armi yuɣal d amdan i yesɛan tazmert tameqqrant deg Ruma.

Tiberyus, i d-ilulen deg tegnit-a, ad yedder akk ibeddilen imeqqranen i d-yewwin asnulfu n [[Tamnekda Tarumanit|Tmenkda tarumanit]].

=== 2. Tallit n temẓi ===
Tiberyus ilul ass n 16 Wamber 42 S.T.Ɛ., deg Ruma. Baba-s, Tiberiyus Claudius Nero, yella d amdan n tawacult Claudii, yiwet seg twaculin timeqqranin n Ruma.

Yemma-s, Livia Drusilla, tella d tameṭṭut i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg tsertit tarumanit.

Deg yiseggasen imezwura n tudert-is, tawacult-is tella deg tegnit taɛekkamt, acku baba-s yella deg tama n yiɛdawen n Octavianus.

Tawacult teḥwaǧ ad tarewel seg Ruma, uqbel ad d-tuɣal mi terkad tegnit tasertant.

==== 2.1. Livia d Uɣust ====
Deg 39 S.T.Ɛ., Livia tefraq d urgaz-is amezwaru, syin tuɣ Octavianus deg 38 S.T.Ɛ.

S wakka, Tiberyus yuɣal d mmi-s n tmeṭṭut n Octavianus, syin d mmi-s s tedbelt(s usmemmi) n [[Uɣustus]].

Aya yeldi-as abrid ɣer tsertit tameqqrant n Ruma. Maca ur yelli ara d amezwaru i yebɣa Uɣustus ad t-yeḍfer deg useḥkem.

=== 3. Taɣuri d uselmed n Tiberyus ===
Tiberyus yekker deg twennaḍt n yimdanen i yesɛan azal deg Ruma.

Yelmed:

- Tlaṭinit d tegrigit.

- Amezruy n Ruma d win n Yigrigiyen.

- Tamsislit d tarrayin n umeslay deg ugraw.

- Tasertit d yilugan n tagduda.

- Tarrayin n useḥkem n yiserdasen.

- Tifelsafit d yidles agrigi.

Tiberyus yella d amdan i yettwaḥesben d win i yettxemmimen aṭas, ur yettmeslay ara s waṭas, maca yettɛassa s leḥder ayen i d-yettḍerrun.

Tiberyus yebda tudert-is tasertant deg tlemmast n yIbeddilen n Uɣustus.

=== 4. Tiberyus d amseddas n ṭṭrad ===
Send ad yuɣal d amenkad, Tiberyus yella d yiwen seg yimseddasen n ṭṭrad iǧehden n Ruma.

Yettwasekcem deg waṭas n yimennuɣen iserdasen deg tmura yemgaraden.

==== 4.1. Ṭṭrad deg Hispania ====
Deg yiseggasen 20 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yebda ad yettekki deg yimennuɣen iserdasen n Uɣustus.

Yettwasekcem deg kra n yimennuɣen deg Hispania, anda Ruma tella tettḥarab iwakken ad tesnerni tazmert-is ɣef waṭas n tmura.

==== 4.2. Aɣelluy n tgelda n Parthia deg tsertit tarumanit ====
Deg 20 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yella d yiwen seg yimdanen i yesɛan tawuri deg uselḥu n tmeslayt tasertant gar Ruma d Parthia.

Ayen i d-yellan ur yelli ara d ṭṭrad ameqran, maca d anerni tasertant i Ruma.

Ayen i d-yettwafken i Ruma yella d tiririt n yizamulen iserdasen i tesseṛṛeḥ deg ṭṭradat yezrin.

Aya yella d asmekti n tamanegt n Ruma, acku izamulen iserdasen sɛan azal ameqqran deg tmetti tarumanit.

==== 4.3. Ṭṭrad deg Alpes ====
Deg 15 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus d gma-s Drusus msefhamen iwakken ad snernin tazmert n Ruma deg tmura n Alpes.

Ɣelben kra n yigrawen n yimdanen i yellan deg temnaḍt.

Aya yessnerna tazmert n Ruma deg ugafa n ṭṭelyan, yerna yesseǧhed iberdan n tnezzut d usiweḍ n yiserdasen.

==== 4.4. Ṭṭrad deg Pannonia ====
Tiberyus yesɛa tawuri tameqqrant deg uselḥu n ṭṭrad deg Pannonia, temnaḍt i d-yezgan deg tama n Danube.

Deg 12–9 S.T.Ɛ., yesɛa tawuri deg yimennuɣen i d-yewwin asnerni n tazmert tarumanit deg temnaḍt.

Deg 6–9 S.L.Ɛ., yesseḥbes yiwen n umennuɣ ameqqran n yimdanen n Illyricum i yellan mgal Ruma.

Amennuɣ-a yettwassen deg umezruy s yisem Bellum Batonianum.

Yella d yiwen seg yimennuɣen iɛekkmen i tmenkda deg tallit n [[Uɣustus]].

==== 4.5.Ǧermaniya ====
Tiberyus yella daɣen deg yimennuɣen n Ruma deg Ǧermaniya.

Deffir tawaɣit n ṭṭrad n Teutoburg deg 9 S.L.Ɛ., anda Ruma tesṛuḥ kraḍ n yeḥricen seg tredsa-s, Tiberyus yesseǧhed taɣellist n tilisa n Ruma.

Ur yelli ara d win i d-yewwin aɣelluy n Ǧermaniya meṛṛa, maca yessaweḍ ad yesseḥrez kra n temnaḍin d yiserdasen n Ruma.

==== 4.6. Azal-is deg ṭṭrad ====
Tiberyus yettwassen s kra n tulmisin:

1. Aheggi n ṭṭrad uqbel amennuɣ.

2. Aḥraz n yiserdasen d usiweḍ n wuččî(lmakla).

3. Aseḥbes n yimennuɣen ur nesɛi ara lfayda.

4. Aseqdec n tsertit d umeslay send ṭṭrad.

5. Aḥraz n tilisa deg umkan n usnerni war tilas.

Tarrayt-is temgarad ɣef tin n kra n yimseddasen i yettnadin kan ɣef tamanegt deg ṭṭrad.

Tiberyus yettḥadar aṭas asṛuḥ n yiserdasen.

Aḥric wis sin — Tawacult d ubrid ɣer useḥkem

=== 6. Tiberyus d Vipsania Agrippina ===
Tiberyus yuɣ Vipsania Agrippina deg 19 S.T.Ɛ. Vipsania tella d yell-is n ''Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa'', yiwen seg yimdukal d yimeɛiwnen imeqqranen n [[Uɣustus]]. Tiberyus d Vipsania sɛan yiwen n mmi-tsen, Drusus Julius Caesar.

Tizdit-nsen tettwasegza deg waṭas n yiɣbula d tin i deg tella tayri. Maca Uɣustus yebɣa ad yesseǧhed assaɣen gar twaculin timeqqranin.

Ɣef waya, Tiberyus yuḥwaǧ ad yebru d Vipsania deg 12 neɣ 11 S.T.Ɛ.

=== 7. Tizdit d Julia ===
Uɣustus yuɣ Julia, yell-is, i Tiberyus. Tizdit-a tella d tin n tsertit ugar n tin n tayri. Assaɣ gar Tiberyus d Julia ur yelli ara d win iǧehden.

Deg 2 S.T.Ɛ., Julia tettwaḥkem ɣef unejli s sebba n tardayt n tuzzuft beṛṛa n zzwaǧ d yisumar nniḍen. Aya yessexreb ugar assaɣen n Tiberyus d tawacult n Uɣustus.

=== 8. Tiberyus deg Rodos ===
Deg 6 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yeǧǧa Ruma, iruḥ ɣer tegzirt n Rodos. Iɣbula iqburen ur msefhamen ara meṛṛa ɣef sebba n uɛzal-is.

Kra n yimezrayen ttwalin d akken:

- Yella yettḥulfu s leḥqer deg tawacult n Uɣustus.

- Yebɣa ad yebɛed ɣef Julia.

- Ur yebɣi ara ad yili deg tsertit n useḍfer n Uɣustus.

- Yella yettnadi ɣef tudert i yesɛan ugar n talwit.

Deg Rodos, Tiberyus yeqqim azal n 8 n yiseggasen.

Yettwasen d amdan i iḥemmlen idles agrigi, tifelsafit d tɣuri.

=== 9. Aseḍfer n Uɣustus ===
Uɣustus yella yebɣa ad t-yeḍfer yiwen seg yimeẓẓyanen n twacult-is. Maca aṭas n yimdanen i yellan d imezwura deg ubrid n useḍfer mmuten send-as.

Gar-asen:

- Marcellus, mmi-s n weltma-s n Uɣustus.

- Gaius Caesar, mmi-s n Julia.

- Lucius Caesar, gma-s n Gaius.

Deg useggas wis 4 S.L.Ɛ., Uɣustus yeṭṭef Tiberyus d mmi-s s yilugan n tadbelt tarumanit(s usmemmi).

Deg wass-nni, Tiberyus yesseḍfer Germanicus, mmi-s n gma-s Drusus, s tarrayt n usettem s yilugan.

Tiberyus yuɣal d amdan i yellan deg ubrid agejdan ɣer udabu.

Deg 13 S.L.Ɛ., tazmert-is tasertant tettwasnerna armi yuɣal yesɛa kra n tezmert i yesɛa Uɣustus deg tmura n Tmenkda.

== Aḥric wis kraḍ — Tiberyus d amenkad ==

=== 10. Tamettant n Uɣustus ===
Uɣustus yemmut ass n 19 Ɣuct 14 S.L.Ɛ., deg Nola, deg ṭṭelyan.

Tiberyus, i yesɛan azal n 55 n yiseggasen, yella d win i yellan deg ubrid ɣer udabu. Maca abeddel n tazmert ur yelli ara d win i d-yellan s yiwet n tikkelt.

Senat arumani yesɛa mazal tawuri deg tsertit n Ruma.

Tiberyus yesken-d leḥder deg uqbal n tazmert n umenkad.

Kra n yiɣbula qqaren d akken yella yebɣa ad yesseḥrez tugna n tagduda, ma d wiyaḍ ttwalin d akken yella yettɛemmid ad yessexdem leḥder iwakken ad yesɛu ugar n tazmert.

Deg 18 Ɣuct 14 S.L.Ɛ., Senat yeqbel tazmert-is, Tiberyus yuɣal d amenkad wis sin n Tmenkda tarumanit.

=== 11. Anagraw n udabu ===
Tiberyus ur yebni ara anagraw amaynut seg yilem. Yekcem deg unagraw i d-yesnulfa Uɣustus, i yettwasnen s yisem n Principatus.

Deg unagraw-a, amenkad yesɛa tazmert tameqqrant, maca kra n yizamulen d yilugan n tagduda mazal-iten.

==== 11.1. Tazmert n umenkad ====
Tiberyus yesɛa:

'''''Imperium proconsulare''''': tazmert tameqqrant ɣef yiserdasen d kra n tmura n Tmenkda.

'''''Tribunicia potestas''''': tazmert tasertant i t-yeǧǧan ad yesseḥbes kra n leqrarat, ad yesseḥrez kra n yilugan, ad yesseqdec izerfan n tribuns n ugdud.

'''''Auctoritas''''': azal d tazmert i yesɛa umdan deg tmetti d tsertit, ur nettwasbadu ara kan s yilugan.

==== 11.2. Tiberyus d Senat ====
Tiberyus yebɣa, deg tazwara, ad yesseǧhed tawuri n Senat. Yessekcem kra n leqrarat ɣer Senat, yerna yettɛemmid ad yesseḥrez izerfan n yiɛeggalen-is. Maca assaɣen gar-asen beddlen s wakud. Kra n yiɛeggalen n Senat ttwalin Tiberyus d amdan i yettḥellilen aṭas.

Tiberyus, s tama-s, yebda yettḥadar aṭas ɣef kra n yimdanen n Senat. Aya yessnerna uguren n tsertit deg Ruma.

== 12. Tadbelt n Tmenkda ==
Tiberyus yesseḍfer tarrayt n Uɣustus deg tadbelt.

Yebɣa ad yesseḥrez anagraw yellan deg umkan n usnulfu n waṭas n yibeddilen.

=== 12.1. Timura n Tmenkda ===
Tamenkda tarumanit tella tesɛa timura deg:

- Tefriqt n ugafa.

- Iberia.

- Gallia.

- Germania n wadda.

- Balkans.

- Yunan.

- Anatolia.

- Surya.

- Miṣr.

Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez tilisa n tmura-a. Ur yelli ara yettnadi ad yesseǧhed tamenkda s ṭṭrad deg yal tama.

=== 12.2. Imeḍbren n tmura ===
Tiberyus yessexdem aṭas n yimeḍbrenn idiganen i yeqqimen deg twuri-nsen i waṭas n yiseggasen. Aya yezmer ad yesseǧhed tadbelt, acku imeḍbren ssnen timura i ḥekkmen.

Maca yezmer daɣen ad d-yawi uguren mi ara yeqqim yiwen n umeḍber deg yiwet n temnaḍt i waṭas n wakud.

=== 12.3. Aḥraz n yilugan ===
Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez anagraw n yilugan n Ruma. Maca deg tallit-is, ilugan i yerzan maiestas, neɣ tuccḍa mgal tazmert d wazal n ddula, ttwaseqdecen s wudem i d-yewwin aṭas n tneqqiḍin.

Kra n yimdanen ttwaḥekmen s sebba n wawalen neɣ n yisumar i yettwaḥesben d senɣes n wazal n umenkad. Aya yessexreb talwit tasertant deg Ruma.

== Aḥric wis kuẓ — Tadamsa d wayla n Tmenkda ==

=== 13. Tasertit n yidrimen ===
Tiberyus yettwassen s tarrayt-is n leḥder deg useqdec n yidrimen n ddula.

Ur yelli ara yettxeṣṣir aṭas n yidrimen ɣef yibniyat imeqqranen neɣ ɣef yisebdaden n tamanegt. Yebɣa ad yesseḥrez wyla n tmenkda.

=== 13.1. Akufi n tmenkda ===
Iɣbula iqburen qqaren d akken Tiberyus yeǧǧa akufi ameqqran n yidrimen mi yemmut.

Suetonius yebder azal n 2,7 n milliard n sesterces, maca amḍan-a ilaq ad yettwaḥsab d ayen i d-yettwabedren deg uɣbalu aqbur, mačči d amḍan i nettwassen s lǧehd s usekyed amḍan. Aya yeskan-d belli tasertit-is tella tettḥadar aṭas axessar.

=== 13.2. Tiberyus d tiwsiwin ===
Ur yelli ara d amenkad i yesnernan tiwsitin s waṭas deg yal tamnaḍt. Yettwaḥsab d win i yebɣan ad yesseḥrez tiwsitin yellan, ad yesseḥbes aɛekkem ɣef yimezdaɣ n tmura.

Yettwabder deg kra n yiɣbula s yisem n umdan i yebɣan ad yesseḥrez tadamsa n tmura i yettwaḥekmen.

=== 13.3. Ugur n yidrimen deg 33 S.L.Ɛ. ===
Deg 33 S.L.Ɛ., Ruma tekcem deg yiwet n tegnit taɛekkamt n yidrimen d usellef. Tella tuffɣa n yidrimen seg tnezzut, akked uɛekkem deg usellef. Tiberyus yessekcem azal n 100 n milyun n sesterces deg unagraw n usellef iwakken ad yesseḥbes ugur. Aya yettwaḥsab d yiwen seg yimeḍqan imeqqranen n tsertit tadamsant n tallit-is.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Stuxnet</title>
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      <text bytes="11514" sha1="lnfpyhx8yzdlqcsb7tre2kphl8g8iuy" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Cyber Serpent Infiltrates the Control Plant.png|droite|448x448px]]
'''Stuxnet''' d avirus aselkiman n wanaw n ijirmeḍ aselkiman(neɣ aḥermeččal aselkiman), i yettwafkan i yiman-is ad yernu ad yeẓẓu iman-is deg yiselkimen nniḍen. Maca, Stuxnet ur yettwabna ara kan iwakken ad yessexser ifuyla, ad yekker isefka neɣ ad yaɣ isallen. Yettwasnulfa iwakken ad ibeddel tikli n yiseɣẓanen i iseddun timacinin n usnerni n uṛanyum, alamma yessawaḍ ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg wallalen n tilawt.

Yettwaf deg 2010, maca anadi ussnan yesken-d belli kra n yileqman-is llan seg yiseggasen i d-yezwaren. Iswi-ines agejdan, akken i d-skanen yinadiyen, d asḍaɛef n usefrek n uranyum deg yigrawen yisgammasen i yettwasqedcen i usnerni n uṛanyum n Natanz, deg Iran.

Stuxnet d yiwen gar yimedyaten imezwura i yettwassnen n unṭag aselkiman i d-yettawin axessar afizikan. Aya yessebgan-d belli anṭag s yiseɣẓanen yezmer ad yuɣal seg umaḍal umḍin ɣer umaḍal n tmaccinin timguranin.

== 2. Ayɣer Stuxnet d amaynut deg umezruy n tesenselkimt? ==
Deg waṭas n yinṭagen iselkimanen, iswi d tukerḍa n isefka, tukksa n yisefka, tukerḍa n tneflit neɣ asḥebbes n yisnasen. Ma d Stuxnet, yettwabna i kra nniḍen.

Yessexdem iselkimen am wakken d abrid ara t-yawin ɣer yisefraken n tmaccinin. Mi ara yaweḍ ɣer unagraw i yebɣa, ad ibeddel kra n tinaḍin n useddu, ad yessexdem isallen nniḍen iwakken imahalen ur ttafaren ara ayen yeḍerrun s tidet.

Ihi, ur yettnadi ara kan ad yessexser aselkim, maca ad yessexdem aselkim iwakken ad yessexser tamacint.

D aya i yeǧǧan Stuxnet ad yili d amedya agejdan deg umezruy n tɣellist n yinagrawen n usbuɣer n yuṛanyum akked ṭṭrad umḍin. 

== 3. Amezruy n Stuxnet d tegnit tasertant deg Iran ==

=== 3.1. Iswi agejdan: Natanz ===
[[Tugna:NASA FIRMS 2025-06-19 Natanz (close-up).png|centré|vignette|Adeg n ulemmas aɣisan n Natanz deg Iran.]]


Timacinin n usnerni n uranyum deg ulemmas aɣisan n Natanz. D anaw-a n tmaccinin iɣef yella ussumer n unṭag n Stuxnet.Deg yiseggasen n 2000, Iran yebna akked usegmi n yiɣawasen-is i usnerni n uranyum. Uranyum yettusexdam deg ufares n tẓwert taɣisant, maca yezmer daɣen ad yettusemres deg ufares n yimrigen iɣisanen ma yewweḍ ɣer usnerni afellay ilaqen.

Tignit-a teǧǧa ad ilin ccwal d umgired asertan gar Iran, Marikan, Israyil akked kra n tmura n Urupa.

Ma d Iran, yeqqar-d belli iswi n uɣawas-is d asnas n tẓwert taɣisant. Maca Marikan d Israyil ttwalin deg-s amihi iɣef ilaq ad ttwaseqdacen wallalen n usenqes n tnezmart n Iran.

Deg tegnit-a i d-yebda usenfar uffir i d-yettwasnen deffir s yisem Olympic Games. Imagraden n 2012 i d-yeffɣen deg yiɣmisen n Marikan, s usekcem n yisallen sɣur yimḍebren iqburen d wid yellan deg udabu, qqaren-d belli asenfar-a yebda deg tallit n George W. Bush, yerna ikemmel deg tallit n Barack Obama. 

=== 3.2. Amseḍfer n tedyanin tigejdanin ===
'''2007'''

Ileqman imezwura

Yella yiwen n uleqqem aqbur n Stuxnet i yettwaf deffir deg tesleḍt n yifuyla n yiseggasen-nni. Anadi yesken-d amek i yettwasɣiwes unṭag ɣef yinagrawen n Natanz

'''2009'''

Asnerni n unṭag

Tban-d snat n tarrayin n uxessar: yiwet teqqen ɣer ṣṣda n tmacinin, tayeḍ ɣer urured n tuzzya-nsent

'''2010'''

Tifin n Stuxnet

Deg 17 Yunyu, VirusBlokAda, tarmiṣt n tɣellist taselkimant deg Belarus, tesken-d yiwen n useɣẓan araɣelsan ur yettwassnen ara. Syin akin, imazzagen zerwen Stuxnet s telqey

'''2012'''

Asufeɣ n yisallen isertanen

Imagraden n yiseɣmisen n Marikan qqaren-d belli Stuxnet d afares n temlilit tuffirt gar Marikan d Israyil

'''2013'''

Tasleḍt tussnant lqayen

Ralph Langner yessufeɣ-d tazrawt ''To Kill a Centrifuge'', anda i d-yessufeɣ aglam ussnan n snat n tarrayin n uxessar.

== 4. Tasegda taselkimant n Stuxnet ==

=== 4.1. Amgired gar uvirus d ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam ===
Deg umawal n tesenselkimt n Samiya n At Velɛid, ad naf:

* Anfafad asenselkam: aseɣẓan araɣelsan yettwasnen s yisem n uvirus aselkiman.
* Ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam: aseɣẓan araɣelsan yezmer ad yennerni, ad yebḍu iman-is, ad yeẓẓu ɣer yinagrawen nniḍen.
* Aseɣẓan araɣelsan: aseɣẓan i yettuseqdacen i tigawin i d-yettawin amihi neɣ axessar.

S unamek ussnan ugar umqit, Stuxnet d ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam, acku yezmer ad yernu ad yeẓẓu iman-is gar yiselkimen war ma yeḥwaǧ amdan ad t-yesker yal tikelt.

Maca mačči d ijiṛmeḍ kan. Deg-s yella daɣen uḥric uffir i yettwasnulfuyen iwakken ad ibeddel ihilen n yisenqaden imguranen, syin ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg tmaccinin.

=== 4.2. Kraḍ n yeswiren n unṭag ===
[[Tugna:Tanezwit n Stuxnet Krad n Yiswiren.png|centré|783x783px]]
Deg uswir amezwaru, Stuxnet yessexdem iselkimen i tnezwit. Deg uswir wis sin, yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad ibeddel asenqed n tmaccinin. Deg uswir wis kraḍ, ad d-tban isemda n ubeddel-nni deg yimussu n tmaccinin.

D assaɣ-a gar tasenselkimt d tilawt i yerran Stuxnet d amedya uzzig.

== 5. Amek i yessaweḍ Stuxnet ad yekcem ɣer yinagrawen? ==

=== 5.1. Tiɣersiwin tisenselkamin ===
Stuxnet yessexdem tiɣersiwin ur nelli tettwassnent yakan sɣur wid yettɛassan taɣellist n Windows. Tiɣersiwin-a ttwasnent deg taɣult n tɣellist s yisem Zero-day.

Deg unamek-nsent, d tuccḍiwin neɣ d lixṣas n tɣellist deg useɣẓan, i zemren ad ttwaseqdacen send ma d-yili uleqqem i ten-isseɣtayen.

Tasleḍt n Symantec tessebgen-d belli Stuxnet yessexdem '''kuẓ n tiɣersiwin''' n wanaw-a, akked tarrayin nniḍen n tnezwit.

=== 5.2. Tawuri n USB ===
Aṭas n yinagrawen imguranen ur qqinen ara ɣer Internet, ladɣa ma llan d wid ixataren iɣef tebna tɣellist n tmurt.

Iwakken ad t-nessegzi s umedya, ad nerr lḥal belli yiwen n uselkim yella deg tesɣimt n Natanz, maca ur yesɛi ara aseɣwen ɣer Internet.

D acu kan, ma yella afaylu neɣ allal USB yettwasekcem ɣer uselkim-nni, yezmer ad d-yawi yid-s aseɣẓan araɣelsan.

Stuxnet yesɛa tazmert n tnezwit s wallalen USB, maca ar tura ur nettwassen ara s tidet akk iberdan i yessexdem deg ukecum-is amezwaru ɣer Natanz.

Aya yesken-d belli afraq n unagraw ɣef Internet ur yettak ara taɣellist tamagdazt.

=== 5.3. Asenqed n Siemens ===
Stuxnet yettnadi s wudem uzzig ɣef yiselkimen iseddun iseqdacen n Siemens, ladɣa STEP 7 akked WinCC.

Tawuri n yiseɣẓanen-a d asenqed d uḍfar n kra n yinagrawen imuganen ladɣa deg uḥric aɣisan. Deg-sen, awurman ahilan yesɛa ahil i yuddsen s tegrawt n tinaḍin i d-yemmalen amek ara texdem tmaccint, melmi ara tebdu, melmi ara teḥbes, d wamek ara tbeddel arured-is.

Maca Stuxnet ur yettwabna ara iwakken ad yessexser yal tamacint. Yessenqad ma yella unagraw iɣer yekcem yesɛa tulmisin tuzzigin iɣef yettwabna unṭag. Ma yufa-tent, ad iɛreḍ ad ibeddel kra n tinaḍin n usenqed n yisgammasen.

== 6. Amek i yexdem Stuxnet deg tmaccinin n usnerni n uranyum? ==

=== 6.1. D acu i d tamacint n usnerni n uranyum? ===
Deg Natanz, ttwasemrasent tmaccinin i itezzi uḥric-nsent agensan s urured ameqqran aṭas.

Tamacint n wanaw-a tesɛa aḥric agensan i itezzin, Deg usgammas, yettusekcam ugaz n UF₆ i yesɛan sin n lesnaf n uranyum: U-235 d U-238. Mi ara tezzwi tmaccint s urured ameqqran aṭas, ayen yesɛan U-238 yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad yeqreb ɣer berra, ma d wayen yesɛan U-235 yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad yeqqim qrib ɣer tlemmast. S waya, yezmer ad yili ufran gar-asen ilmend n umgired n teẓeyt-nsen.

Iswi n ufran-a d asnerni n wazal n uranyum-235 deg uranyum yettwafernen.

Imacinen-a xeddment deg yigrawen i d-yettwasuddsen, yerna ilaq ad ilin isefraken-nsent d wid umqiten, iwakken ad sneqden s tiseddi arured n tuzzya n yisgammasen, acku abeddel ameẓyan deg urured, ṣṣda neɣ tignit n umahil yezmer ad d-yeglu s uxessar.

=== 6.2. Tarrayt tamezwarut: abeddel n ṣṣda ===
Tasleḍt n Ralph Langner tessebgen-d belli yiwen n uleqqem aqbur n Stuxnet yella yettnadi ad yessexdem asenqed n ṣṣda deg yigrawen n tmaccinin.

Deg tarrayt-a, Stuxnet yessebeddel kra n waddaden n yisefraken, iwakken ṣṣda ad teffeɣ seg tɣellist n wassaɣ n umussu amagnu.

Akken ad nefhem: tamacint tezmer ad tẓer belli ṣṣda tesɛa azal amagnu, maca deg tilawt azal-nni yezmer ad ibeddel s wudem ara yessnernin amihi ɣef yiferdisen-ines.

=== 6.3. Tarrayt tis snat: abeddel n urured n tuzzya ===
Tarrayt-nniḍen d abeddel n urured n tmaccinin.

Tamacint tettwasɣiwes ad tezzi deg yiwen n wazal n urured, aca Stuxnet yezmer ad ibeddel ihilen n yisenqaden imguranen i iseddun isgammasen. S waya, arured n tuzzya-nsen yezmer ad yali neɣ ad yader, ad yemgired ɣef wazal-is amagnu.

Aya yezmer ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg yiferdisen isnɣanen, acku timacinin-a xeddment s umqit(tiseddi) ameqqran.

Ralph Langner yesbadu-d snat n tarrayin-a deg tezrawt-is n 2013, yerna yesken-d belli ur llint ara kifkif deg tuddsa neɣ deg uɣawas n unṭag.

== 7. Amek i yeffer Stuxnet tigawin-is? ==
Yiwen n yiferdisen i yellan d amaynut deg Stuxnet d tazmert n usuffeɣ n yisallen ur nelli d tidet.

Deg unagraw amguran amagnu, isefraken sseknayen i yimahalen isallen ɣef tikli n tmaccinin. Ma tella tuccḍa deg ṣṣda, deg urured neɣ deg temhelt n usenqed, amhal yezmer ad tt-iwali, sakkin ad yesseḥbes tamacint.

Maca deg Stuxnet, tella tarrayt n weffer n yibeddilen, anda isallen i d-yettwaɛawaden zemren ad sseknin belli anagraw ixeddem akken iwata, ɣas ma yella yessexdam kra n tnaḍin ara d-yawin axessar.

[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-02 14-55-46.png]]Aya yessebgan-d amek i yezmer unṭag aselkiman ad yessexdem kra n wuguren deg usenqed, mačči kan deg uneẓwi n yifuyla.

== 8. Inalkamen n Stuxnet deg Natanz ==
Inalkamen n Stuxnet ur zemmirent ara ad ttwasbeddent s yiwen n umḍan aneggaru.

Deg taggara n 2009 akked tazwara n 2010, azal n 1 000 n tmaccinin n ssenf IR-1 ttwasbeddlent neɣ ttwasnsent seg umahil deg Natanz.

Kra n yinadiyen ttwalin belli Stuxnet yezmer ad yili d yiwet n tmentilt tagejdant n uxessar-nni. Maca ur d-yettwasebgen ara s wudem aneggaru belli yal yiwet seg tmaccinin-a texser s sebba n Stuxnet.

Yella daɣen umgired gar yinadiyen.

Ralph Langner yesken-d belli aɣawas n unṭag yella d uzzig yerna yesɛa tazmert n uxessar afizikan. Ivanka Barzashka, deg tezrawt-is n 2013, tefka tamuɣli-nniḍen: ilmend n yisefka yettwassnen, azal n uxessar amatu yellan s sebba n Stuxnet ur yettwasebgen ara akken iwata.

Deg wayen i nezmer ad d-nini s tidet, Stuxnet yessaweḍ ad yessebgen amek yezmer unṭag aselkiman ad yexdem axessar afizikan, maca ur yessaweḍ ara ad yesseḥbes s lebda aɣawas n Iran n usnerni n uranyum.

== 9. Wi i d-yesnulfan Stuxnet? ==
Anadi ɣef wid i d-yesnulfan Stuxnet, Aya yeqqen ɣer tarrayt iɣef yettwasuddes unṭag n Stuxnet, seg tnezwit-is gar yiselkimen armi d ubeddel n yihilen n yisenqaden imguranen d uxessar n yisgammasen, anda yessefk ad nefru gar wayen yettwabegnen s tesleḍt taselkimant d wayen i d-yettwasnen seg yisallen isertanen.

Tisleḍin tisenselkamin zemrent ad d-sseknen amek i yexdem useɣẓan, d acu i yebɣa ad yeg, akked kra n tazmert-is. Maca ayagi ur yessebgan ara srid isem n tmurt neɣ n ugraw i t-id-yesnulfan.

Deg 2012, Washington Post akked New York Times ssuffɣen-d isallen sɣur yimḍebren n Marikan i qqaren belli Stuxnet d afares n temlilit tuffirt gar Marikan d Israyil, deg uɣawas Olympic Games.

Isallen-a ttuneḥsaben d iɣbula ixataren deg umezruy n Stuxnet, maca yessefk ad nẓer belli aṭas seg-sen kkan-d sɣur yimdanen ur d-yettwabdir ara yisem-nsen.</text>
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      <text bytes="15556" sha1="9kj1ry37d46tr7n154rz00y0jmshykt" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Cyber Serpent Infiltrates the Control Plant.png|droite|448x448px]]
'''Stuxnet''' d avirus aselkiman n wanaw n ijirmeḍ aselkiman(neɣ aḥermeččal aselkiman), i yettwafkan i yiman-is ad yernu ad yeẓẓu iman-is deg yiselkimen nniḍen. Maca, Stuxnet ur yettwabna ara kan iwakken ad yessexser ifuyla, ad yekker isefka neɣ ad yaɣ isallen. Yettwasnulfa iwakken ad ibeddel tikli n yiseɣẓanen i iseddun timacinin n usnerni n uṛanyum, alamma yessawaḍ ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg wallalen n tilawt.

Yettwaf deg 2010, maca anadi ussnan yesken-d belli kra n yileqman-is llan seg yiseggasen i d-yezwaren. Iswi-ines agejdan, akken i d-skanen yinadiyen, d asḍaɛef n usefrek n uranyum deg yigrawen yisgammasen i yettwasqedcen i usnerni n uṛanyum n Natanz, deg Iran.

Stuxnet d yiwen gar yimedyaten imezwura i yettwassnen n unṭag aselkiman i d-yettawin axessar afizikan. Aya yessebgan-d belli anṭag s yiseɣẓanen yezmer ad yuɣal seg umaḍal umḍin ɣer umaḍal n tmaccinin timguranin.

== 2. Ayɣer Stuxnet d amaynut deg umezruy n tesenselkimt? ==
Deg waṭas n yinṭagen iselkimanen, iswi d tukerḍa n isefka, tukksa n yisefka, tukerḍa n tneflit neɣ asḥebbes n yisnasen. Ma d Stuxnet, yettwabna i kra nniḍen.

Yessexdem iselkimen am wakken d abrid ara t-yawin ɣer yisefraken n tmaccinin. Mi ara yaweḍ ɣer unagraw i yebɣa, ad ibeddel kra n tinaḍin n useddu, ad yessexdem isallen nniḍen iwakken imahalen ur ttafaren ara ayen yeḍerrun s tidet.

Ihi, ur yettnadi ara kan ad yessexser aselkim, maca ad yessexdem aselkim iwakken ad yessexser tamacint.

D aya i yeǧǧan Stuxnet ad yili d amedya agejdan deg umezruy n tɣellist n yinagrawen n usbuɣer n yuṛanyum akked ṭṭrad umḍin. 

== 3. Amezruy n Stuxnet d tegnit tasertant deg Iran ==

=== 3.1. Iswi agejdan: Natanz ===
[[Tugna:NASA FIRMS 2025-06-19 Natanz (close-up).png|centré|vignette|Adeg n ulemmas aɣisan n Natanz deg Iran.]]


Timacinin n usnerni n uranyum deg ulemmas aɣisan n Natanz. D anaw-a n tmaccinin iɣef yella ussumer n unṭag n Stuxnet.Deg yiseggasen n 2000, Iran yebna akked usegmi n yiɣawasen-is i usnerni n uranyum. Uranyum yettusexdam deg ufares n tẓwert taɣisant, maca yezmer daɣen ad yettusemres deg ufares n yimrigen iɣisanen ma yewweḍ ɣer usnerni afellay ilaqen.

Tignit-a teǧǧa ad ilin ccwal d umgired asertan gar Iran, Marikan, Israyil akked kra n tmura n Urupa.

Ma d Iran, yeqqar-d belli iswi n uɣawas-is d asnas n tẓwert taɣisant. Maca Marikan d Israyil ttwalin deg-s amihi iɣef ilaq ad ttwaseqdacen wallalen n usenqes n tnezmart n Iran.

Deg tegnit-a i d-yebda usenfar uffir i d-yettwasnen deffir s yisem Olympic Games. Imagraden n 2012 i d-yeffɣen deg yiɣmisen n Marikan, s usekcem n yisallen sɣur yimḍebren iqburen d wid yellan deg udabu, qqaren-d belli asenfar-a yebda deg tallit n George W. Bush, yerna ikemmel deg tallit n Barack Obama. 

=== 3.2. Amseḍfer n tedyanin tigejdanin ===
'''2007'''

Ileqman imezwura

Yella yiwen n uleqqem aqbur n Stuxnet i yettwaf deffir deg tesleḍt n yifuyla n yiseggasen-nni. Anadi yesken-d amek i yettwasɣiwes unṭag ɣef yinagrawen n Natanz

'''2009'''

Asnerni n unṭag

Tban-d snat n tarrayin n uxessar: yiwet teqqen ɣer ṣṣda n tmacinin, tayeḍ ɣer urured n tuzzya-nsent

'''2010'''

Tifin n Stuxnet

Deg 17 Yunyu, VirusBlokAda, tarmiṣt n tɣellist taselkimant deg Belarus, tesken-d yiwen n useɣẓan araɣelsan ur yettwassnen ara. Syin akin, imazzagen zerwen Stuxnet s telqey

'''2012'''

Asufeɣ n yisallen isertanen

Imagraden n yiseɣmisen n Marikan qqaren-d belli Stuxnet d afares n temlilit tuffirt gar Marikan d Israyil

'''2013'''

Tasleḍt tussnant lqayen

Ralph Langner yessufeɣ-d tazrawt ''To Kill a Centrifuge'', anda i d-yessufeɣ aglam ussnan n snat n tarrayin n uxessar.

== 4. Tasegda taselkimant n Stuxnet ==

=== 4.1. Amgired gar uvirus d ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam ===
Deg umawal n tesenselkimt n Samiya n At Velɛid, ad naf:

* Anfafad asenselkam: aseɣẓan araɣelsan yettwasnen s yisem n uvirus aselkiman.
* Ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam: aseɣẓan araɣelsan yezmer ad yennerni, ad yebḍu iman-is, ad yeẓẓu ɣer yinagrawen nniḍen.
* Aseɣẓan araɣelsan: aseɣẓan i yettuseqdacen i tigawin i d-yettawin amihi neɣ axessar.

S unamek ussnan ugar umqit, Stuxnet d ijiṛmeḍ asenselkam, acku yezmer ad yernu ad yeẓẓu iman-is gar yiselkimen war ma yeḥwaǧ amdan ad t-yesker yal tikelt.

Maca mačči d ijiṛmeḍ kan. Deg-s yella daɣen uḥric uffir i yettwasnulfuyen iwakken ad ibeddel ihilen n yisenqaden imguranen, syin ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg tmaccinin.

=== 4.2. Kraḍ n yeswiren n unṭag ===
[[Tugna:Tanezwit n Stuxnet Krad n Yiswiren.png|centré|783x783px]]
Deg uswir amezwaru, Stuxnet yessexdem iselkimen i tnezwit. Deg uswir wis sin, yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad ibeddel asenqed n tmaccinin. Deg uswir wis kraḍ, ad d-tban isemda n ubeddel-nni deg yimussu n tmaccinin.

D assaɣ-a gar tasenselkimt d tilawt i yerran Stuxnet d amedya uzzig.

== 5. Amek i yessaweḍ Stuxnet ad yekcem ɣer yinagrawen? ==

=== 5.1. Tiɣersiwin tisenselkamin ===
Stuxnet yessexdem tiɣersiwin ur nelli tettwassnent yakan sɣur wid yettɛassan taɣellist n Windows. Tiɣersiwin-a ttwasnent deg taɣult n tɣellist s yisem Zero-day.

Deg unamek-nsent, d tuccḍiwin neɣ d lixṣas n tɣellist deg useɣẓan, i zemren ad ttwaseqdacen send ma d-yili uleqqem i ten-isseɣtayen.

Tasleḍt n Symantec tessebgen-d belli Stuxnet yessexdem '''kuẓ n tiɣersiwin''' n wanaw-a, akked tarrayin nniḍen n tnezwit.

=== 5.2. Tawuri n USB ===
Aṭas n yinagrawen imguranen ur qqinen ara ɣer Internet, ladɣa ma llan d wid ixataren iɣef tebna tɣellist n tmurt.

Iwakken ad t-nessegzi s umedya, ad nerr lḥal belli yiwen n uselkim yella deg tesɣimt n Natanz, maca ur yesɛi ara aseɣwen ɣer Internet.

D acu kan, ma yella afaylu neɣ allal USB yettwasekcem ɣer uselkim-nni, yezmer ad d-yawi yid-s aseɣẓan araɣelsan.

Stuxnet yesɛa tazmert n tnezwit s wallalen USB, maca ar tura ur nettwassen ara s tidet akk iberdan i yessexdem deg ukecum-is amezwaru ɣer Natanz.

Aya yesken-d belli afraq n unagraw ɣef Internet ur yettak ara taɣellist tamagdazt.

=== 5.3. Asenqed n Siemens ===
Stuxnet yettnadi s wudem uzzig ɣef yiselkimen iseddun iseqdacen n Siemens, ladɣa STEP 7 akked WinCC.

Tawuri n yiseɣẓanen-a d asenqed d uḍfar n kra n yinagrawen imuganen ladɣa deg uḥric aɣisan. Deg-sen, awurman ahilan yesɛa ahil i yuddsen s tegrawt n tinaḍin i d-yemmalen amek ara texdem tmaccint, melmi ara tebdu, melmi ara teḥbes, d wamek ara tbeddel arured-is.

Maca Stuxnet ur yettwabna ara iwakken ad yessexser yal tamacint. Yessenqad ma yella unagraw iɣer yekcem yesɛa tulmisin tuzzigin iɣef yettwabna unṭag. Ma yufa-tent, ad iɛreḍ ad ibeddel kra n tinaḍin n usenqed n yisgammasen.

== 6. Amek i yexdem Stuxnet deg tmaccinin n usnerni n uranyum? ==

=== 6.1. D acu i d tamacint n usnerni n uranyum? ===
Deg Natanz, ttwasemrasent tmaccinin i itezzi uḥric-nsent agensan s urured ameqqran aṭas.

Tamacint n wanaw-a tesɛa aḥric agensan i itezzin, Deg usgammas, yettusekcam ugaz n UF₆ i yesɛan sin n lesnaf n uranyum: U-235 d U-238. Mi ara tezzwi tmaccint s urured ameqqran aṭas, ayen yesɛan U-238 yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad yeqreb ɣer berra, ma d wayen yesɛan U-235 yettɛeṛṛiḍ ad yeqqim qrib ɣer tlemmast. S waya, yezmer ad yili ufran gar-asen ilmend n umgired n teẓeyt-nsen.

Iswi n ufran-a d asnerni n wazal n uranyum-235 deg uranyum yettwafernen.

Imacinen-a xeddment deg yigrawen i d-yettwasuddsen, yerna ilaq ad ilin isefraken-nsent d wid umqiten, iwakken ad sneqden s tiseddi arured n tuzzya n yisgammasen, acku abeddel ameẓyan deg urured, ṣṣda neɣ tignit n umahil yezmer ad d-yeglu s uxessar.

=== 6.2. Tarrayt tamezwarut: abeddel n ṣṣda ===
Tasleḍt n Ralph Langner tessebgen-d belli yiwen n uleqqem aqbur n Stuxnet yella yettnadi ad yessexdem asenqed n ṣṣda deg yigrawen n tmaccinin.

Deg tarrayt-a, Stuxnet yessebeddel kra n waddaden n yisefraken, iwakken ṣṣda ad teffeɣ seg tɣellist n wassaɣ n umussu amagnu.

Akken ad nefhem: tamacint tezmer ad tẓer belli ṣṣda tesɛa azal amagnu, maca deg tilawt azal-nni yezmer ad ibeddel s wudem ara yessnernin amihi ɣef yiferdisen-ines.

=== 6.3. Tarrayt tis snat: abeddel n urured n tuzzya ===
Tarrayt-nniḍen d abeddel n urured n tmaccinin.

Tamacint tettwasɣiwes ad tezzi deg yiwen n wazal n urured, aca Stuxnet yezmer ad ibeddel ihilen n yisenqaden imguranen i iseddun isgammasen. S waya, arured n tuzzya-nsen yezmer ad yali neɣ ad yader, ad yemgired ɣef wazal-is amagnu.

Aya yezmer ad d-yeglu s uxessar deg yiferdisen isnɣanen, acku timacinin-a xeddment s umqit(tiseddi) ameqqran.

Ralph Langner yesbadu-d snat n tarrayin-a deg tezrawt-is n 2013, yerna yesken-d belli ur llint ara kifkif deg tuddsa neɣ deg uɣawas n unṭag.

== 7. Amek i yeffer Stuxnet tigawin-is? ==
Yiwen n yiferdisen i yellan d amaynut deg Stuxnet d tazmert n usuffeɣ n yisallen ur nelli d tidet.

Deg unagraw amguran amagnu, isefraken sseknayen i yimahalen isallen ɣef tikli n tmaccinin. Ma tella tuccḍa deg ṣṣda, deg urured neɣ deg temhelt n usenqed, amhal yezmer ad tt-iwali, sakkin ad yesseḥbes tamacint.

Maca deg Stuxnet, tella tarrayt n weffer n yibeddilen, anda isallen i d-yettwaɛawaden zemren ad sseknin belli anagraw ixeddem akken iwata, ɣas ma yella yessexdam kra n tnaḍin ara d-yawin axessar.

[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-02 14-55-46.png]]Aya yessebgan-d amek i yezmer unṭag aselkiman ad yessexdem kra n wuguren deg usenqed, mačči kan deg uneẓwi n yifuyla.

== 8. Inalkamen n Stuxnet deg Natanz ==
Inalkamen n Stuxnet ur zemmirent ara ad ttwasbeddent s yiwen n umḍan aneggaru.

Deg taggara n 2009 akked tazwara n 2010, azal n 1 000 n tmaccinin n ssenf IR-1 ttwasbeddlent neɣ ttwasnsent seg umahil deg Natanz.

Kra n yinadiyen ttwalin belli Stuxnet yezmer ad yili d yiwet n tmentilt tagejdant n uxessar-nni. Maca ur d-yettwasebgen ara s wudem aneggaru belli yal yiwet seg tmaccinin-a texser s sebba n Stuxnet.

Yella daɣen umgired gar yinadiyen.

Ralph Langner yesken-d belli aɣawas n unṭag yella d uzzig yerna yesɛa tazmert n uxessar afizikan. Ivanka Barzashka, deg tezrawt-is n 2013, tefka tamuɣli-nniḍen: ilmend n yisefka yettwassnen, azal n uxessar amatu yellan s sebba n Stuxnet ur yettwasebgen ara akken iwata.

Deg wayen i nezmer ad d-nini s tidet, Stuxnet yessaweḍ ad yessebgen amek yezmer unṭag aselkiman ad yexdem axessar afizikan, maca ur yessaweḍ ara ad yesseḥbes s lebda aɣawas n Iran n usnerni n uranyum.

== 9. Wi i d-yesnulfan Stuxnet? ==
Anadi ɣef wid i d-yesnulfan Stuxnet, Aya yeqqen ɣer tarrayt iɣef yettwasuddes unṭag n Stuxnet, seg tnezwit-is gar yiselkimen armi d ubeddel n yihilen n yisenqaden imguranen d uxessar n yisgammasen, anda yessefk ad nefru gar wayen yettwabegnen s tesleḍt taselkimant d wayen i d-yettwasnen seg yisallen isertanen.

Tisleḍin tisenselkamin zemrent ad d-sseknen amek i yexdem useɣẓan, d acu i yebɣa ad yeg, akked kra n tazmert-is. Maca ayagi ur yessebgan ara srid isem n tmurt neɣ n ugraw i t-id-yesnulfan.

Deg 2012, Washington Post akked New York Times ssuffɣen-d isallen sɣur yimḍebren n Marikan i qqaren belli Stuxnet d afares n temlilit tuffirt gar Marikan d Israyil, deg uɣawas Olympic Games.

Isallen-a ttuneḥsaben d iɣbula ixataren deg umezruy n Stuxnet, maca yessefk ad nẓer belli aṭas seg-sen kkan-d sɣur yimdanen ur d-yettwabdir ara yisem-nsen.

== 10. Tiɣersiwin i yessexdem Stuxnet deg unekcum-is ɣer yinagrawen ==

=== 1. Tiɣersi n yinegzumen n Windows — CVE‑2010‑2568 ===
Tiɣersi tamezwarut i yessexdem Stuxnet d tiɣersi n '''yinegzumen n Windows'''. Deg-s, Stuxnet yettserkab ifuyla n yinegzumen araɣelsanen deg yiwen n USB. Mi ara yeqqen useqdac USB ɣer uselkim, syin ad yeldi USB-nni deg Windows Explorer iwakken ad iwali ifuyla d yinegzumen i yellan deg-s, yezmer Stuxnet ad yesselkem iman-is s useqdec n tɣersi n yinegzumen n Windows.

Tarrayt-a tefka i Stuxnet abrid afessas akken ad yekcem ɣer uselkim amezwaru, ladɣa deg yinagrawen ur neqqin ara ɣer Internet, maca i seqdacen USB i usiweḍ n yifuyla gar wallalen. S useqdec n tɣersi-a, Stuxnet yessaweḍ ad yekcem ɣer yiselkimen s USB, ula d wid ur neqqin ara ɣer Internet. Mi ara yekcem ɣer yiwen uselkim, yezmer ad yebdu tanezwit-is ɣer yiselkimen-nniḍen. Tiɣersi-a tesɛa azal ameqqran deg unṭag-is, acku tesɛa tawuri tagejdant deg unekcum amezwaru ɣer unagraw..

=== 2. Tiɣersi n Print Spooler — CVE‑2010‑2729 ===
Tiɣersi tis snat d tiɣersi n '''Print Spooler''', d ameẓlu n Windows i yettɛawanen i usiggez d usenqed n tsagazt. Stuxnet yessexdem ugur-a iwakken ad yernu seg yiwen uselkim ɣer wayeḍ deg uzeṭṭa, ma yella llan yinagrawen yebnan ɣef tsagazt neɣ ɣef umeẓlu n usiggez.

Mi ara yaweḍ Stuxnet ɣer yiwen uselkim, yettnadi deg uzeṭṭa ɣef yiselkimen nniḍen i yellan d wid yettwaqnen ɣer umeẓlu-a. S useqdec n tɣersi n Print Spooler, yezmer ad yazer ifuyla-s araɣelsanen ɣer yiselyimen-nniḍen, syin akin ad yesselkem iman-is deg-sen. S waya, tanezwit ur teqqim ara kan deg yiwen uselkim, maca tettuɣal ɣer tnezwit tagensant deg uzeṭṭa agejdan n taṛmist neɣ n tedbelt.

Tiɣersi-a tesɛa azal ameqqran deg tnezwit n Stuxnet, acku teǧǧa-t ad yettanezwi seg uselkim iɣer yekcem ɣer yiselkimen-nniḍen deg uzeṭṭa, s useqdec n umeẓlu n Print Spooler.

=== 3. Tiɣersi n Win32k d keyboard layout — CVE‑2010‑2743 ===
Tiɣersi tis kraḍt teqqen ɣer uḥric n '''Win32k''' deg Windows, ladɣa deg wamek i yessalay unagraw ifuyla n '''keyboard layout'''. Stuxnet ur yessexdam ara tiɣersi-a i tnezwit srid gar yiselkimen, maca yessexdam-itt iwakken ad '''yali s tizmert''' deg uselkim iɣer yekcem.

Mi ara yekcem Stuxnet ɣer uselkim s USB neɣ s uzeṭṭa, yezmer ad yili s yizerfan ur mmeqqren ara. Maca iwakken ad yessebbed iman-is akken iwata, ad yesserked iferdisen-is, ad yeffer iman-is, u iwakken ad yeddu deg unagraw war uguren, yeḥwaǧ ad yawi ɣer uswir n tizmert ugar. Tiɣersi-agi i as-yettaken abrid-a.

S useqdec n tɣersi n Win32k, Stuxnet yezmer ad yessali izerfan-is seg uswir n useqdac amagnu ɣer uswir i yesɛan tizmert meqqren. S waya ad yezmer ad ixdem deg uḥricen ixataren n unagraw, ad yersen iferdisen-is, ad ibeddel kra n yiferdisen n Windows, S waya, Stuxnet yezmer ad yesselkem kra n yimahilen-is s yizerfan imeqqranen, ad yessebbed iferdisen-is deg unagraw, yerna ad ikemmel tigawin-is war uguren i d-ttawin yizerfan n useqdac amagnu.

=== 4. Tiɣersi n Task Scheduler — CVE‑2010‑3338 ===
Tiɣersi tis ukkuẓt d tiɣersi n '''Task Scheduler''', d ameẓlu n Windows i yettwasqedcen i uselkem awurman n yimuhal deg wakud neɣ ilmend n kra n tegnatin. Stuxnet yessexdem tiɣersi-a iwakken ad yawi daɣen '''tizmert tameqqrant''', yerna ad yeǧǧ iman-is ad yekkemmel aselekm-is s yizerfan n SYSTEM.

Tiɣersi-a teǧǧa-d Stuxnet ad yesselkem kra n yimuhal-is s yizerfan ufrinen, war ma tella tɣellist n Windows tezmer ad t-yestebɛed. Aya yemmal-d belli Stuxnet yezmer ad yawi izerfan imeqqranen deg Windows, ad yessebbed iferdisen-is deg unagraw, yerna ad yesselkem ihilen-is war ma t-ḥebsen tilisa n yizerfan n useqdac amagnu.

Ilaq daɣen ad d-nini belli tiɣersi-a, am tɣersi n Win32k, mačči d allal amezwaru n unezwi gar yiselkimen, maca d allal i Stuxnet iwakken ad yesseǧhed amkan-is deg uselkim, ad yawi s uswir n tizmert i as-yeḥwaǧen iwakken ad yexdem ayen yebɣa.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Huratyus</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-11-03T10:02:38Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="3380" sha1="cyj2aoip3yaqblhw4yto9cuqlwixegp" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q6197|image=[[File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]|caption=Huratyus|date of birth=8 Duǧember 65 send talalit n Ɛisa|date of death=27 Wamber 8 send talalit n Ɛisa|nationality=Tarumanit}}

'''Huratyus''', s yisem-is ummid '''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''', d yiwen seg yimedyazen irumanen imeqqranen n tallit taɣustit. Ilul ass n 8 Duǧember 65 send talalit n Ɛisa, di Venusia, di ṭṭelyan, yemmut ass n 27 Wamber 8 send talalit n Ɛisa, di Ruma.

Yettwassen ladɣa s yedlisen-is '''Sermones (Satires)''', '''Epodi''', '''Carmina (Odes)''', '''Epistulae''' akked '''Ars Poetica'''. Deg yisefra-s, Huratyus yesseqdec isental n tudert, tayri, timdukal, tafelsafit, tasertit, agama, talwit n wul d wakud i yettɛeddin.

Yedder deg yiwet n tallit i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n Ruma: taggara n Tagduda Trumanit, ṭṭrad n daxel, asali n [[Uɣustus|Octavianus]] ɣer leḥkem, d tazwara n tmenkda n [[Uɣustus]].

Maca Huratyus yemgarad ɣef [[Virgil]] d [[Ovid]]. Ur yesseqdec ara timucuha timeqqranin kan iwakken ad yessefhem umezruy n Ruma. Yella yettmeslay s waṭas ɣef tudert n yal ass, ɣef wayen i yezmer umdan ad yeg iwakken ad yidir s talwit, d wamek ara yesseqdec akud-is s wudem yelhan.

Yiwet seg tektiwin-is yettwassnen d ''carpe diem'', i yezmer ad yettwasuqqel s teqbaylit: «Awi-d ayen yelhan seg wass-a», neɣ, s unamek alqayan, «Seqdec ass-a, ur tettuɣal ara kan ɣer usirem n uzekka».

== 2. Talalit d twacult-is ==

=== 2.1. Venusia, tamdint n Huratyus ===
[[Tugna:Venosa.jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tamdint n Venusia deg ṭṭelyan.]]


Huratyus ilul di Venusia, tamdint tarumanit i yellan deg unẓul n [[ṭṭelyan]], deg temnaḍt i d-yettuɣalen ass-a d Basilicata.

Venusia tella d tamdint i d-yessbedden Yirumanen deg useggas 291 send Ɛisa, deg tallit n usnerni n tezmert n Tagduda Trumanit deg ṭṭelyan.

Deg tallit n Huratyus, tamdint-a tella deg temnaḍt n tfellaḥt, anda i zedɣen yifellaḥen, imdanen n tenzut d yiserdasen.

Tudert deg temnaḍt-a tella temgarad ɣef tin n Ruma. Deg Ruma, yella leḥkem, tazmert d tedbelt, ma deg Venusia, tudert tella tettɛeddi s waṭas deg yigran d tuddar.

=== 2.2. Baba-s n Huratyus ===
Baba-s n Huratyus yella d amdan i d-yettwaslellin seg waddad n wakli. Deg yiɣbula iqburen, yettwabder belli yella d wakli i yettwaserḥen, i yuɣalen yesɛa tilelli.

Yella ixeddem deg taɣult n tedbelt n yidrimen, ladɣa deg uleqqaḍ n tewsitin n tnezzut d yisuter n yidrimen.

Ɣas akken ur yelli ara d amdan n twacult tameqqrant, baba-s yesɛa idrimen iwakken ad yesseɣri mmi-s.

Deg yisefra-s, Huratyus yessefk-d s waṭas n tikkal azal n baba-s. Yettmeslay fell-as s leqder, imi baba-s yebɣa ad yili mmi-s d amdan i yesɛan tamusni d wazalen.

Deg ''Satires 1.6'', Huratyus yessefhem belli baba-s ur t-yeǧǧa ara ad yili kan d amdan i yessnen tira, maca yesselm-ed-as daɣen amek ara yefrez gar wayen yelhan d wayen n diri.

=== 2.3. Tazrirt n baba-s ===
Huratyus yella d amdan i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant seg uselmed n baba-s.

Deg yisefra-s, yettmeslay ɣef wayen i as-yenna baba-s, d wamek i t-yesselm-ed ad yili d amdan i yesɛan leqder, aḥraz n yiman-is d tmuɣli ɣer tmetti.

D aya i d-yettbanen deg yisefra-s n deffir, anda i yesseqdec kra n yimedyaten seg tudert n yal ass iwakken ad yessefhem tiktiwin tifelsafiyin.</text>
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      <comment>Créé en traduisant la section d'ouverture de la page « [[:fr:Special:Redirect/revision/239756283|Championnat d'Algérie de football de deuxième division]] »</comment>
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      <comment>Yettwarna s tsuqilt n usebter &quot; [[:fr:Special:Redirect/revision/240947759|Jeunesse Sportive Azazga]]&quot;</comment>
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