Ɛisa

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    <title>Ɛisa</title>
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      <comment>Timerniwt n yisem n Ɛisa s tramit n utaram, s tsuryant n usamar (Madnḥāyā) d tmandit akked ususru-nsen s yiɣbula (Maclean, Payne Smith, Drower/Macuch, Nöldeke).</comment>
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'''Ɛisa''', neɣ '''Yessu''' ([[Tutlayt taɛebrit|taɛebrit]] d [[Taramit|tramit]] n utaram: ישוע; ''yecuɛ'' neɣ ישו; ''yecu'') neɣ '''Ɛisa n Nazarit''' neɣ '''Ɛisa Amasiḥ''', d amdan amenzu n [[wajjed n tamasiḥit]]. Ilul ger 8 d sin iseggʷasen send tazwara n tafada tameɣradant , yemmut ger 30 d 33 iseggʷasen umbeɛd. Isem-is daɣen 'Jesus Christ' neɣ s wudem aḥerfi 'Christ'. S [[tyunanit]] taqburt isem-is Ιησούς Χριστός (''Iesous Christos''). S [[Tasuryant|tsuryant]] n usamar (Madnḥāyā), isem-is &lt;span lang=&quot;syr&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ܝܼܫܘܿܥ&lt;/span&gt; neɣ &lt;span lang=&quot;syr&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ܐܝܼܫܘܿܥ&lt;/span&gt; (yettwanṭaq ''Īšōʿ'' neɣ ''Īšō'').&lt;ref&gt;Arthur John Maclean: ''Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1901, sb. 10, 121; Jessie Payne Smith: ''A Compendious Syriac Dictionary.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1903, sb. 197.&lt;/ref&gt; Deg tentaliyin niḍen n [[Taramit|tramit]] n usamar am [[Tamandit|tmandit]], isem-a yettwaru s usekkil ''ʿayn'' di tazwara (&lt;span lang=&quot;mid&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ࡏࡔࡅ&lt;/span&gt;), maca s umata yettwanṭaq kan s ''ī'' neɣ ''ē'' ɣezzifen (''Īšu'' neɣ ''Ēšu'').&lt;ref&gt;E. S. Drower, R. Macuch: ''A Mandaic Dictionary.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1963, sb. 358; Theodor Nöldeke: ''Mandäische Grammatik.'' Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, Halle 1875, sb. 50, 58.&lt;/ref&gt;


Aẓaṛ n wawal Ɛisa yusa-d si [[Taɛebrit|tutlayt taɛebrit]] : ישו ‎/ ישוע neɣ - ''yecu'' / ''yecuɛ'', anamek ines d &quot;Yehweh (Rebbi) isellek&quot;. Ma d Aẓaṛ n wawal L&quot;masiḥ&quot; d wawal n taɛebrit משיח - ''macyaḥ'', neɣ win ɣef d-ters tanebaṭ n '''''[[Rebbi]].''''' 

Imasiḥiyen ḥesben-t d afessi akk d mmi-s n Rebbi. Wid yellan d 'Ikatulikiyen', d 'urtuduksiyen', akk d 'ipṛutistaniyen' ttadren-t-id am wergaz n tidet, u daɣen d Rebbi s tidet. Ɣur yinselmen Ɛisa d aneggaru deg nnbi beɛd [[Muḥemmed]]. Ma d udayen, ur t-ḥsiben ara d rrasul, wala d Afessi neɣ mmis n Rebbi.

== Tamselyut, Iseddagen &amp; Izdayen Iberraniyen ==
* Wikipedia s tefransist d teglizit

[[Taggayt:Amezruy]][[Category:Ajjed]]

==Izdayen==
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'''Ɛisa''', neɣ '''Yessu''' ([[Tutlayt taɛebrit|taɛebrit]] d [[Taramit|tramit]] n utaram: ישוע; ''yecuɛ'' neɣ ישו; ''yecu'') neɣ '''Ɛisa n Nazarit''' neɣ '''Ɛisa Amasiḥ''', d amdan amenzu n wajjed n [[tamasiḥit]]. Ilul ger 8 d sin iseggʷasen send tazwara n tafada tameɣradant , yemmut ger 30 d 33 iseggʷasen umbeɛd. Isem-is daɣen 'Jesus Christ' neɣ s wudem aḥerfi 'Christ'. S [[Tayunanit|tyunanit]] taqburt isem-is Ιησούς Χριστός (''Iesous Christos''). S [[Tasuryant|tsuryant]] n usamar (Madnḥāyā), isem-is &lt;span lang=&quot;syr&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ܝܼܫܘܿܥ&lt;/span&gt; neɣ &lt;span lang=&quot;syr&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ܐܝܼܫܘܿܥ&lt;/span&gt; (yettwanṭaq ''Īšōʿ'' neɣ ''Īšō'').&lt;ref&gt;Arthur John Maclean: ''Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1901, sb. 10, 121; Jessie Payne Smith: ''A Compendious Syriac Dictionary.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1903, sb. 197.&lt;/ref&gt; Deg tentaliyin niḍen n [[Taramit|tramit]] n usamar am [[Tamandit|tmandit]], isem-a yettwaru s usekkil ''ʿayn'' di tazwara (&lt;span lang=&quot;mid&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;&gt;ࡏࡔࡅ&lt;/span&gt;), maca s umata yettwanṭaq kan s ''ī'' neɣ ''ē'' ɣezzifen (''Īšu'' neɣ ''Ēšu'').&lt;ref&gt;E. S. Drower, R. Macuch: ''A Mandaic Dictionary.'' Clarendon Press, Oxford 1963, sb. 358; Theodor Nöldeke: ''Mandäische Grammatik.'' Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, Halle 1875, sb. 50, 58.&lt;/ref&gt;


Aẓaṛ n wawal Ɛisa yusa-d si [[Taɛebrit|tutlayt taɛebrit]]: ישוע‎/ישו neɣ ''yecuɛ/yecu'', anamek ines d «''Yehweh (Rebbi) isellek''». Ma d Aẓaṛ n wawal L«Masiḥ» d wawal n taɛebrit משיח ''macyaḥ'', neɣ win ɣef d-ters tanebaṭ n '''''[[Rebbi]].'''''

Imasiḥiyen ḥesben-t d afessi akk d mmi-s n Rebbi. Wid yellan d 'Ikatulikiyen', d 'urtuduksiyen', akk d 'ipṛutistaniyen' ttadren-t-id am wergaz n tidet, u daɣen d Rebbi s tidet. Ɣur yinselmen Ɛisa d aneggaru deg nnbi beɛd [[Muḥemmed]]. Ma d udayen, ur t-ḥsiben ara d rrasul, wala d Afessi neɣ mmis n Rebbi.

== Tamselyut, Iseddagen &amp; Izdayen Iberraniyen ==
* Wikipedia s tefransist d teglizit

[[Taggayt:Amezruy]][[Category:Ajjed]]

==Izdayen==
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  <page>
    <title>Israyel</title>
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      <text bytes="4947" sha1="qti48vnvwth1dch2ymtsqmqq9rz5k1x" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
'''Israyel''' ([[taɛebrit|s taɛebrit]] יִשְרָאֵל‎ ''Yisraʾel''; s [[taɛrabt]]: إسرائيل‎ ''Isrāʾīl'') isem ines unṣib '''Awanek n Israyel''' (s [[taɛebrit]]: מְדִינַת יִשְרָאֵל‎ ''Medinat Yisraʾēl''; s [[taɛrabt]]: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل‎ ''Dawlat Isrāʾīl''), tamurt tezgad g [[Asya n umalu|umalu n umenẓaw Asya]] d rrif asammer n [[ilel agrakal]], tesɛa tilas d [[Lubnan]] s ugafa, [[Surya]] s ugafa asammer, s usammer [[Urdun]], s unzul asammer [[Maser]], yezgad gar-as d tamurt n l’[[Urdun]] [[ilel amettan]], Awanek n Israyel d yiwen awanek uday kan i yellan g ddunit, ulac wayed am netta, tajumma ines mectuḥet maca llan g-yes tigwti n [[udayen]] d tadersi n w[[aɛraben]] [[inselmen]], [[ineṣriyen]], [[idruzen]] d [[isamariyen]]. Llant daɣen [[Ɣezza|tasfift n Ɣezza]] d [[tama turdunit|tama tanẓulit]] neɣ [[tama turdunit]].

Awanek atrar n Israyel mɣind iẓuran-is s takti n [[Tamurt n Israyel]] (''Erets Yisraʾel'') i g-yellan g’allaɣ n [[udayen]] g azal n 3000 iseggasen deqqal [[amgaru amedlan amenzu]], [[tametti n iɣlanen]] teǧǧad l'eḥkem n [[Agmuḍ alemmas|wegmuḍ alemmas]] d [[Falesṭin|Falaṣṭin]] ger ifasen n [[ibritaniyen]] bac ad xleq axxam aɣelnaw i-[[udayen]], g useggas n [[1947]], [[iɣlanen i dduklen]] bḍan tamurt n Falesṭin ɣef sin iwanaken, yiwen awanek uday, wayed aɛrab, g [[14 magu]] [[1948]] teḍra taseɣrut n uzarug n awanek n Israyel s umtawa n [[iɣlanen i dduklen]], deqqal-is krend iɛraben s umgaru mgal udayen axater ugin ad qeblen azarug n awanek n Israyel, rnan imgura nniden maca Israyliyen rebḥen g yal imenɣiyen, rnan sbaɛden tilas isen tefkan iɣlanen idduklen uqbel, g’imir nni udayen d iɛraben kecmen g yiwen azenzab n imenɣiyen ur yetfak
Tezmel Israyel imtawayen n telwit akk d timura n [[Maser]] d [[Urdun]] 
Awanek n Israyel yewweḍ ɣef kra imanzyen am [[tugdut timgensest]], [[angaraw awamni]], afran amegradi, Aneglaf amenzu d netta i gellan ixxef n unabad akk d l [[Kneset]].
Tadamasa taɣelnawt n Israyel tella [[umuɣ n timura s ufares aɣelnaw (issem)|tis 44]] g ddunit, [[taneflit talsant]], [[tilelli n tifeffegt]]. [[Urcalim]] d tamdint tamaneɣt d tamdint i meqqren deg Israyel, din i yella asutel n unabad maca ammas n [[tadamsa]] d [[tiẓraf]] yella g tamdint n [[Tel Aviv]].

== Isem ==

Issem n '''Israyil''' ybined i tikkelt tamenzut g [[aẓru n Merenptah]] g useggas 1200 uqbel talalit n [[Ɛisa]], issem agi yella d win n [[Tagelda n Israyel]] tamzikit.
Issem n Israyil d yessem i s-yefka [[illu]] i [[Yeɛqub]] ass mi yennuɣ ar tama n lmalayek n [[Illu]] anamek ines « win innuɣen ar tama n Illu »
Yeɛqub d babas n 12 n tiqbilin i yeffɣen s [[Maser]] imir semmanten arraw n Israyel neɣ « Israyliten »
G [[taseɣrut n’uzarug n awanek n Israyel]] id ixelqen g’useggas n [[1948]] yettef issem n Israyel yeǧǧa issmawen niḍen am Ṣehyun, Tudayt (Judea).

== Amezruy ==
=== Iẓuran imezwura ===
[[Tamurt n Israyl]] (awal-agi itwassen s tɛebrit s ''Erets Yisraʾel'') yella kra i sɛan azal ameqqran ɣur udayen; g [[Turat]] yura belli [[Illu]] yefkad amiru i udayen bac asen-yefk tamurt n Israyel faken a tili tamurt-nsen neg axxam-nsen

[[Tugna:Masada Roman Ruins by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Masada]]]]

=== Taṣiyunit ===
[[Tugna:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Theodor Herzl|Teodor Herzel]] Bbas n awanek uday]]
=== Azarug ===

[[Tugna:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.png|thumb|150px|Beṭṭu n 1947]]
Deg lqern 19, akk d [[Theodor Herzl]] yexleq [[taṣionit]] (Ṣionism): udayen bɣan a d-uɣalen ɣer tmurt taneṣlit-nsen. Assmi kksen yingliziyen [[Falesṭin]] seg ifassen n [[Tturk]], udayen zemren ad ruḥen ɣer Falesṭin, uɣen-d akal seg weɛraben, bnan u zedɣen.

Di [[1948]], [[Langliz]] teffeɣ-d seg falesṭin, [[tuddsa n iɣlanen i dduklen]] [[U.Ɣ.D]] (l'ONU) tegzem akal-agi di sin : 

* [[Tamurt n Falesṭin]] ideg zedɣen 99% aɛraven.
* Tamurt n Israyel ideg zedɣen 55% udayen.

Udayen qeblen, aɛraben ugin beṭṭu-yagi, 7 timura n weɛraben ttnaɣen akk d tmurt tamaynut n wudayen: Israyel terbeḥ imenɣ (lgirra), terbeḥ akal s wazal n 28% kter n wayen i-ten-id-ifkan [[tuddsa n iɣlanen i dduklen]] (l'ONU). Kra n weɛraben i yellan deg Israyel rewlen, meɛna kra qqimen: tutlayt-nsen [[tutlayt tunṣibt]]. Akk udayen i yellan deg tamurt n Falesṭin rewlen ɣer Israyel.

G [[1967]], tskker [[Maṣer]] abrid n lebḥer n [[Tiran]], ihi Israyel tebda lgirra amgal Maṣer, timura n weɛraben nniḍen bɣan ad ɛawnen Maṣer meɛna akk xesren, Israyel terbeḥ daɣen kter akal.

G [[1973]], aɛraben xeddmen lgirra tikkelt nniḍen akk d Israyel, meɛna xesren daɣen: lgirra d wakal. Israyel tuɣal-d tameqqrant zdat Israyel n [[1948]].

== Tasertit ==
[[Tugna:Knesset.jpg|thumb|left|250px|L'[[Kneset]] amni n Israyel]]

[[Taggayt:Timura n Asya]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Nvidia</title>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="19340" sha1="0dep5ag66fosj81a1egbffn5gzfv7gk" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = Nvidia
| official_name = Nvidia Corp.
| image = [[File:NVIDIA Headquarters.jpg|thumb|Tasɣimt n NVIDIA]]
| type = Titiknulujit
| founded = 5 yebrir, 1993
| founder = Jensen Huang
Chris Malachowsky
Curtis Priem
| headquarters = Santa Klara, Kalifurnya, Marikan
| country = Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan
| industry = GPU
| products = Tikarḍiwin n GPU(GeForce  • RTX / Quadro)
CUDA
CPUs (Grace)
DPUs (BlueField)
SoCs (Tegra  • Drive)
DGX
| website = https://www.nvidia.com/
| wikidata_revenue = yes
| wikidata_operating_income = yes
| wikidata_net_income = yes
| logo = [[File:NVIDIA logo.svg|thumb|Alugu n NVIDIA]]
}}

'''Nvidia''' d tarmiṣt tamirikanit n titiknulujit, tettnadi, tessalay yerna tessuffuɣ-d tiɣeṛɣaṛ n yisekkaren udlifen (GPU), inagrawen n usiḍen arurad, iseɣẓanen d wallalen n tigzi taragmawant.

Tettwasbedd deg 5 yebrir 1993 deg [[Kalifurnya]], deg [[Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt|Marikan]]. Deg tazwara, iswi-is yella deg usnerni n wudlifen s kraḍ n tsekkiwin (3D), ladɣa i wuraren n yiselkimen. Maca, seg useggas n 2006, tebda tarmiṣt ad tesnerni tiknulujit i yessawaḍen GPU ad yexdem asiḍen ur cudden ara kan ɣer tugniwin.

Ass-a, NVIDIA ur teqqim ara d tarmiṣt n tikarḍiwin tudlifin kan. Tuɣal d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin deg usali n inagrawen n [[Tigzi Taragmawant|tigzi taragmawant]], aselmed n tmudmiwin n tutlayt, tusna, arrubutik, timacinin tifulmanin d yisekkaren imeqqranen.

Deg 2026, afaris-is ur yettwasres ara kan deg yiselkimen n yimdanen, maca daɣen deg yimmasen n yisefka, i deg xeddmen yiwalen n GPU s umata akken ad siḍnen isefka iṭṭuqqten s zreb.

== 3. Amezruy n NVIDIA ==

=== 3.1. Tallit n tlalit: 1993–1997 ===
Deg yebrir 1993, kraḍ n yijenyuṛen, Jensen Huang, Chris Malachowsky d Curtis Priem, sbeddan NVIDIA. Ɣur-sen, tikti tagejdant tella d asnerni n tiknulujit n tugniwin i yiselkimen.

Deg tallit-nni, uranen n yiselkimen bdant ad sɛun azal ameqran. Maca isekkaren n wakud-nni ur zmiren ara ad siḍnen s lemɣawla akk isefka ilaqen i usken n wudlifen 3D.

Deg 1995, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d NV1, yiwen seg yifarisen-is imezwura. Ur yewwi ara lebɣi n tnezzut acku tasegda-s temgarad ɣef kra n yilugan i yettwasqedcen deg tallit-nni.

Deg 1997, tarmiṣt tessufeɣ-d RIVA 128, asekkar udlif i yesɛan amhaz meqqren deg usefrak n tugniwin 3D. Afaris-a yefka-as i NVIDIA tagnit ad tebnu azadur n tnezzut-is.

=== 3.2. GeForce d tlalit n GPU: 1999 ===
Deg 1999, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d GeForce 256, i tessekna am uGPU amezwaru.

GPU d agzul n Graphics Processing Unit, d asekkar yettwaselɣen i usiḍen n tugniwin d wudlifen. GeForce 256 yesdukkel deg yiwen n uceṛṛun kra n yimahilen udlifen i yellan uqbel xeddmen-ten yiferdisen yemgaraden.

Ilaq ad nefhem dakken NVIDIA d nettat i d-yessumren GPU s wudem-a n tnezzut deg 1999, maca isekkaren n tugniwin llan yakan uqbel-as.

S GeForce 256, NVIDIA tebda ad tettwasnen ugar deg tnezzut n uraren d yiselkimen n yimeẓla.

=== 3.3. Tallit n CUDA: 2006 ===
Deg 2006, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d CUDA (Compute Unified Device Architecture).

D yiwet seg tneqqiḍin tigejdanin deg umezruy-is.

Uqbel CUDA, GPU yettwasqedc s waṭas i tugniwin. S CUDA, imsihelen zemren ad arun ahilen i yessawaḍen GPU ad yexdem isḍanen n tusna, tusnakt, tusnengama d tasleṭ n yisefka.

S waya, GPU yuɣal d allal n usiḍen arurad, ur yeqqim ara kan d allal n uraren.

=== 3.4. NVIDIA d tigzi taragmawant: 2012 ===
Deg 2012, tamudemt AlexNet, i d-yessuffɣen Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever d Geoffrey Hinton, tewwi-d agmuḍ yelhan deg timsizzelt ImageNet.

Imnadiyen-a sqedcen GPU n NVIDIA i uselmed n uzeṭṭa n yiṛununen.

Agmuḍ-a yessekna dakken almad alqay (deep learning) yezmer ad yili d tarrayt tafessast ugar deg waṭas n tɣawsiwin n ussugen d tasleṭ n tugniwin.

Seg tallit-a, aseqdec n GPU deg tigzi taragmawant ibeddel amek xeddmen imnadiyen d yimsihelen.

=== 3.5. Tallit n RTX: 2018 ===
Deg 2018, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d tasegda RTX, i yessawaḍen ad yettwaxdem uskan n yizirigen n tafat (ray tracing) deg wakud ilaw.

Tatiknulujit-a tezmer ad tesɛeddi aselɣu n tafat, tilisa n tili d yimeclalen n tugniwin akken ad d-banent s wudem iqerrben ugar ɣer tilawt.

RTX tessnerna daɣen aseqdec n tigzi taragmawant i usnerni n tbadut d tɣara n tugniwin.

=== 3.6. Seg 2022 ar 2026: tallit n inagrawen imeqqranen n AI ===
Deg yiseggasen-a, NVIDIA teffeɣ seg wudem n tarmiṣt i yeznuzun GPU ɣer tarmiṣt i yessalayn anagraw ummid: isekkaren, takatut, azeṭṭa, iseɣẓanen, allalen n usihel d yimmasen n yisefka.

Tiɣeṛɣaṛ Hopper, Blackwell d Rubin ttwasnernant iwakken ad siḍnent timudmiwin timeqqranin n tigzi taragmawant.

Deg 2026, NVIDIA tebda asnerni n tɣessa Vera Rubin, i yesdukklen GPU Rubin, CPU Vera d yiferdisen n uzeṭṭa, akken ad yili usiḍen s waṭas n yisekkaren i d-yettmeslayen gar-asen.

Amezruy-a yeskan-d abeddel agejdan: seg usken n tugniwin 3D, ɣer tɣessa n tigzi taragmawant n umaḍal.

== 4. D acu i d GPU? Amek i iteddu? ==
GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) d asekkar udlif, yettwaselɣen iwakken ad yexdem aṭas n usiḍen s yiwet n tikelt, s tarrayt n umahil amsadaɣ (parallel processing).

Tifrat-a temgarad ɣef CPU (Central Processing Unit), i yellan d asekkar agejdan n uselkim.

=== 4.1. Amgired gar CPU d GPU ===
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-29 14-53-10.png|centré|575x575px]]                                                      


&lt;small&gt;'''Unuɣ n usegzi, ur d-yettmeslay ara ɣef umḍan n yiferdisen n CPU neɣ GPU n tidet.'''&lt;/small&gt;

CPU yelha i yimahilen yemgaraden, i usendeh n unagraw, i usefrek n yisefka d tigawin i yesran ad myezwarent.

GPU, s tama-nniḍen, yelha ladɣa i yimahilen i nezmer ad nebḍu ɣef waṭas n yiferdisen ad ten-nsiḍen s wudem amsadaɣ.

Amedya: ad neḥseb timernit n sin yisurta, yal yiwen deg-sen yesɛa 1 000 000 n yimḍanen.

&lt;math&gt;
C_i = A_i + B_i, \qquad 0 \leq i &lt; 1\,000\,000
&lt;/math&gt;

Imi yal timernit ur teḥwaǧ ara agmuḍ n tin nniḍen, GPU yezmer ad yebḍu amahil-a ɣef waṭas n yiḥricen. D tamiḍrant-a i d azadur n usiḍen amsadaɣ.

=== 4.2. Iferdisen igejdanen n GPU ===
GPU amiran yesɛa aṭas n yiferdisen, gar-asen:

- '''CUDA Cores''': iferdisen n usiḍen i yimahilen n tusnakt d usiḍen amatu.

- '''Tensor Cores''': iferdisen yettwaselɣen i yimahilen n yisiraw (matrices), i yesɛan azal meqqren deg almad alqay.

- '''RT Cores''': iferdisen n uskan n yizirigen n tafat deg tugniwin 3D.

- '''VRAM''': takatut n GPU, i deg ttwaḥrazen yisefka i yettwasiḍnen.

- '''Takatut L2''': takatut taruradt i yellan qrib ɣer yigrawen n usiḍen.

- '''NVLink''': tarrayt n tuqqna taruradt gar GPU d GPU, neɣ gar yiferdisen n unagraw, ilmend n tasegda.

Amedya, RTX 5090 yesɛa 32 GB n tkatut GDDR7, ma d isekkaren n yimmasen n yisefka zemren ad sɛun takatut HBM s wazal d tɣara yemgaraden.

== 5. CUDA: azadur n tzemmert n NVIDIA ==
CUDA d yiwen n unagraw n usihel d tɣessa n usiḍen amsadaɣ i d-tesnulfa NVIDIA. Tessawaḍ i umsihel ad yesseqdec GPU i yimahilen ur nelli ara d tugniwin kan. Deg CUDA, imahilen ttwasuddsen s wudem-a:
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-30 13-33-01.png|centré|670x670px]]


&lt;small&gt;Yal akala afessas(thread) yezmer ad yesɛu amḍiq-is, ad iɣer isefka, ad yexdem asiḍen, syin ad yerr agmuḍ.&lt;/small&gt;

D acu kan, ur ilaq ara ad neḥseb dakken GPU dima yif CPU deg yal amahil. Ma yella amahil yesɛa aṭas n tigawin i yemyuqqnen, neɣ yesra abrid amezwaru uqbel win wis sin, CPU yezmer ad yili yif-it.

=== 5.1. Aseqdec n CUDA deg usihel ===
CUDA yettwasqedc deg waṭas n tutlayin d yisnasen. Gar-asen C++, Python, PyTorch d TensorFlow.

Amedya amezwaru d agzul n wamek i yezmer umsihel ad yesseqdec GPU i tmernit n yisurta:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
__global__ void add(const float *a,
                    const float *b,
                    float *c, int n) {
    int i = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;
    if (i &lt; n) {
        c[i] = a[i] + b[i];
    }
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Deg uhil-a, yal akala afessas(thread) yettawi yiwen n umḍiq '''i''', syin yesiḍin '''a[i] + b[i]'''. S waya, aṭas n yiḥricen zemren ad xedmen deg wakud-nni kan. Amedya-a yeskan kan iɣes(''kernel)''; akken ad yeddu, yesra asenker-is d usefrek n tkatut.

=== 5.2. Ayɣer CUDA yesɛa azal meqqren? ===
Azal n CUDA ur yelli ara kan deg tzemmert n GPU.

NVIDIA tebna-d fell-as aṭas n temkarḍiwin n usihel (software libraries), gar-asent cuDNN, cuBLAS, NCCL d TensorRT.

Asihel n waṭas n yisnasen n tigzi taragmawant teqqen ɣer tɣessa-a. Aya yessawaḍ-d i NVIDIA azal nniḍen deg tnezzut, acku amsihel ur yessutur ara GPU kan: yesra daɣen iseɣẓanen, allalen n usenqed d temkarḍiwin i yettwasenqden.

== 6. Tiɣeṛɣaṛ n NVIDIA: seg Tesla ɣer Vera Rubin ==
NVIDIA tessnerna aṭas n tisegda n GPU deg umezruy-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tallit
!Tasegda
!Azal-is agejdan
|-
|2006
|Tesla
|Asnerni n usiḍen amsadaɣ
|-
|2010
|Fermi
|Asnerni n usiḍen ussnan
|-
|2012
|Kepler
|Tazmert akked tɣellist n useqdec asrurad
|-
|2014
|Maxwell
|Aseqdec yelhan n usrurad
|-
|2016
|Pascal
|Asnerni n tigzi taragmawant d GPU
|-
|2017
|Volta
|Asekcem n Tensor Cores
|-
|2018
|Turing
|RTX d ray tracing
|-
|2020
|Ampere
|A100 d RTX 30
|-
|2022
|Hopper
|H100 d usiḍen n tmudmiwin timeqqranin
|-
|2024
|Blackwell
|B200, GB200 d RTX 50
|-
|2026
|Rubin / Vera Rubin
|Inagrawen imeqqranen n AI
|}

=== 6.1. Hopper d H100 ===
H100 d asekkar i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA iwakken ad yexdem almad alqayan d usiḍen n tmudmiwin timeqqranin.

Yesɛa Tensor Cores n tziri tis kuẓ, takatut HBM d tigawin n usiḍen i yettwaselɣen i tigzi taragmawant.

H100 yesɛa azal deg umezruy n tmudmiwin n tutlayt timeqqranin (LLM), acku aṭas n yimmasen n yisefka sqedcen-t deg yiseggasen imezwura n tnerni n tigzi taragmawant turriwt.

=== 6.2. Blackwell ===
[[Tugna:Jensen Huang - RTX Blackwell - Nvidia Keynote - CES 2025 Las Vegas (2).jpg|gauche|vignette|Jensen Huang - RTX Blackwell - Nvidia Keynote - CES 2025 Las Vegas]]


Blackwell d tasegda i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA deg 2024, i d-tefka azadur i yisekkaren B200, GB200 d yifarisen nniḍen.

Yiwen seg usnifel-is agejdan d asdukkel n sin yiḥricen n GPU deg yiwen n uceṛṛun ameqran, s tuqqna taruradt gar-asen.

Blackwell tesnerna daɣen aseqdec n yimḍanen s tiseddi taẓẓayant (low precision), iwakken ad yettwasiḍen ulmad n tmudmiwin d useqdec-nsent s tazzla d taɛkwamt n tazzla tameẓẓyant ugar.

Deg 2025 d 2026, NVIDIA tessnerna talɣa Blackwell Ultra, i yettwaselɣen ladɣa i usnerni n tzemmert n usiḍen n tigzi taragmawant.

=== 6.3. Vera Rubin ===
Vera Rubin d tasegda i d-yernan ɣef Blackwell. Ur d yiwen n GPU kan, maca d anagraw yesdukklen aṭas n yiferdisen:

- GPU Rubin: i usiḍen n tigzi taragmawant.

- CPU Vera: i usendeh d usefrek n yisefka.

- NVLink: i tuqqna taruradt gar GPU.

- ConnectX d BlueField: i usefrek n uzeṭṭa d yisefka.

- InfiniBand d Ethernet: i tuqqna gar yimmasen n yisekkaren d yimmasen n yisefka.

Anagraw Vera Rubin NVL72 yesdukkel 72 n GPU Rubin d 36 n CPU Vera deg yiwen n unagraw n yiṛak imeqqranen (rack-scale system).

Deg 2026, NVIDIA teqqar-d dakken tasegda-a tettwasnerna ladɣa i tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant i yesseqdecen aseɣẓen d yimeggan ifulmanen.

== 7. Iseɣẓanen d yifarisen n NVIDIA ==
NVIDIA tesɛa aṭas n yifarisen yemgaraden ilmend n taɣult n useqdec.

=== GeForce d RTX ===
D tikarḍiwin tudlifin i wuraren n yiselkimen, asnulfuy anaẓuran, tugniwin 3D d yisnasen n tigzi taragmawant n uselkim udmawan. Tawsit RTX 50 tesɛa tikarḍiwin am RTX 5090, RTX 5080 d RTX 5070.

=== DGX d HGX ===
D inagrawen n usiḍen arurad i yimmasen n yisefka, i uselmed n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant d usiḍen ussnan.

=== Jetson ===
D tiɣeṛɣaṛ timeẓyanin n usiḍen i warrubutik, tikufal d tigzi taragmawant i yettxeddimen deg yibenk s timmad-nsen, war ma ḥwaǧen dima tuqqna ɣer uxeddim n yisefka agwemmaḍ.

=== DRIVE d Hyperion ===
D tasegda n tigzi taragmawant i tkerṛusin tikufalin. Ttwasqedcent i usenqed n tugniwin n tkamiṛatin, tiferni n yiberdan, asenqed n tagnatin d tigawin n usendeh n tkerṛust.

=== Omniverse ===
D tasegda n usnulfu d userwes n yimeḍqan d tɣawsiwin 3D. Tettwaseqdec deg tasemlilit n yimmasen n yisefka, iferdisen n yisuddas, arrubutik d yisnasen n twennaḍt taragmawant.

Tasegda-a n yifarisen tessawaḍ i NVIDIA ad teqqen usnulfuy n yiseɣẓanen ɣer tɣessa n yisekkaren-is, seg uselkim udmawan armi d inagrawen n yimmasen n yisefka. 

== 8. NVIDIA d tigzi taragmawant ==
Tigzi taragmawant d taɣult i deg teṭṭef NVIDIA amḍiq ameqran deg tnezzut tamirant.

Aṭas n tmudmiwin n tutlayt timeqqranin, am tid i ttwasqedcen deg yisnasen n ChatGPT, Claude d tmudmawin nniḍen, sran ɣer usiḍen meqqren, ladɣa deg tallit n uselmed.

=== 8.1. Almad n tmudmiwin (training) ===
Deg tallit n uselmed, azeṭṭa n yiṛununen (neural network) yettawi isefka, yesiḍin igmuḍen, syin yettbeddil imsektayen-is iwakken ad yesseɣti tuccḍiwin-is.

Aṭas n tigawin-a cudden ɣer yisiraw (matrices) d yimawayen (vectors).

Amedya, ma yella ɣur-neɣ sin yisiraw:

&lt;math&gt;A \in \mathbb{R}^{m \times k}, \qquad B \in \mathbb{R}^{k \times n}&lt;/math&gt;

Afaris-nsen d:

&lt;math&gt;

C = AB, \qquad C_{ij} = \sum_{r=1}^{k} A_{ir} B_{rj}

&lt;/math&gt;

GPU yesɛa tazmert ad yebḍu aṭas n yimahilen n usiḍen-a ɣef yigrawen yemgaraden, ladɣa mi ara yettwaseqdec Tensor Cores.

S waya, NVIDIA tesnerna tiknulujit i yessawaḍen aselmed n tmudmiwin ɣef yisefka iṭṭuqqten.

=== 8.2. Aseqdec n tmudmiwin (inference) ===
Mi ara tefru tallit n uselmed, tamudemt tezmer ad tettwaseqdec i tririt ɣef yisteqsiyen, asnulfu n tugniwin, tasuqilt neɣ tasleṭ n yisefka.

Akala-a yettwasemma ''inference''.

Deg wakud n useqdec, GPU yettawi imsektayen n tmudemt d yisefka imaynuten, yesiḍin igmuḍen, syin yettarra-d tiririt.

Ilaq ad nẓer dakken GPU n uselmed d GPU n useqdec ur sran ara dima ɣer yiwet n tɣessa. Aselmed yesra aṭas n usiḍen d useḥraz n igmuḍen agensan, ma d useqdec yesra dima tazzla tameqqrant akked tkatut i iwulmen.

=== 8.3. NVIDIA d tmudmiwin n tutlayt ===
NVIDIA ur teznuzi ara kan GPU. Tessnerna daɣen iseɣẓanen i yessawaḍen:

- NeMo: aselmed, asezger d usenqed n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant.

- TensorRT-LLM: asnerni n tazzla d tzemmert n useqdec n tmudmiwin n tutlayt.

- NIM: aseddu n tmudmiwin n AI ɣer yisnasen d yimmasen n yisefka.

- Nemotron: tawacult n tmudmiwin n tigzi taragmawant i d-tessnerna NVIDIA.

Azal n waya d akken taṛmist tebna yiwen n unagraw yettak i umsihel allalen seg uselmed n tmudemt armi d useqdec-is deg usnas.

Gar yimendiden-is, TSMC d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin i yessalayn ceṛṛunat n NVIDIA. Taṛmist tettawi daɣen takatut seg SK Hynix, Micron d Samsung.

Tarrayt-a tessefk i NVIDIA ad tesseɣzef leqdic-is deg unadi d usnulfu, maca tessaɣ-itt ɣer yimendiden-is deg ufares. Ma yella anṭag ɣef yiwen seg yiberdan n ufares, aɣbel yezmer ad yaweḍ ɣer tnezzut n NVIDIA.

== 9. Taɣulin n useqdec ==

=== 9.1. Tussna d unadi ===
GPU n NVIDIA ttwasqedcen deg waṭas n taɣulin tussnanin. Deg tfizikt, zemren ad siḍnen amussu n tanga, azal n tesareɣt neɣ tasedmirt n yiferdisen ɣef wayeḍ.

Deg tasnudert, ttwasqedcen deg tesleṭ n tɣessa n yipṛutinen, deg tesleṭ n yisefka n tusnatudert iṭṭuqqten, akked unadi ɣef ddwa imaynuten.

=== 9.2. Tadawsa ===
NVIDIA tessnerna allalen i tfizikt n tudert d unadi ɣef ddwa. GPU zemren ad fken tallelt i:

- Tasleṭ n tugniwin n rradyulujit.

- Asugen n tɣessa n yipṛutinen.

- Anadi ɣef ddwa imaynuten.

- Asnerni n tmudmiwin i yettakken tallelt i yimnadiyen n tdawsa.

Deg 21 tuber 2026, NVIDIA tessufeɣ-d isallen ɣef yineblagen-is deg taɣulin n tusnatudert d tdawsa, ladɣa deg unadi ɣef yipṛutinen d ddwa. 

=== 9.3. Arrubutik ===
NVIDIA tesnerna tasegda Isaac i usebni n yirrubuten ifulmanen.

Isaac yesdukkel aserwes, almad, asenqed n yiḥricen d tigzi taragmawant.

Amedya, arubut yezmer ad yesseqdec takamiṛat iwakken ad yẓer taɣawsa, ad yefren abrid i d-yessefk, syin ad yexdem tigawt s yigmamenn-is.

Tamiḍrant-a tettwasnerna daɣen s tmudmiwin n physical AI, i yesɛan iswi ad fehmen amek iteddu umaḍal aɣaran, mačči kan isefka n uḍris d tugna. 

=== 9.4. Takerṛust takufalt ===
Deg taɣult n tkerṛusin, NVIDIA tesnerna inagrawen DRIVE.

Inagrawen-a zemren ad siḍnen isefka i d-ttawin tkamiṛatin d yibenk n useddar (sensors), akken ad d-ssuknen abrid, inudda n tkerṛusin nniḍen, imdanen, d wayen yezmer ad yili d amihi.

D acu kan, tazmert n unagraw ad yessiḍen isefka ur d-temmal ara s timmad-is dakken takerṛust tezmer ad teddu war amdan deg yal tegnit. Taɣellist d usenqed usrid mazal d tiɣawsiwin tigejdanin.

=== 9.5. Asnulfuy anaẓuran d wuraren ===
Deg uraren n yiselkimen, GeForce RTX tessawaḍ ad tessnerni tɣara n tugniwin, tafat, tilisa d umussu.

Deg 2026, DLSS 5 d yiwen seg yisnifal imaynuten i d-tessufeɣ NVIDIA, yesdukklen tugniwin n yurar akked tigzi taragmawant iwakken ad d-yefk agmuḍ iqerrben ugar ɣer tugniwin n tilawt. 

== 10. Amek i d-tettwafares iceṛṛunen n NVIDIA? ==
NVIDIA d taṛmist n tisegda n yisekkaren, maca ur tesɛi ara akk tizdayin n ufares i d-yettawin i iceṛṛunen-is.

Tettwasemma taṛmist n usali neɣ &quot;fabless&quot;, d anamek-is dakken tettak azal ameqran i usnulfu, asali d usenqed n tiknulujit, ma d afares aɣaran n iceṛṛunen tettak-it i yineblagen-is.

Gar yineblagen-is, TSMC d yiwet seg tiṛmisin tigejdanin i yessuffuɣen iceṛṛunen n NVIDIA. Taṛmist tettawi daɣen takatut seg SK Hynix, Micron d Samsung.

Tarrayt-a tessefk i NVIDIA ad tesseɣzef leqdic-is deg unadi d usnulfu, maca tessaɣ-itt ɣer yimendiden-is deg ufares. Ma yella anṭag ɣef yiwen seg yiberdan n ufares, aɣbel yezmer ad yaweḍ ɣer tnezzut n NVIDIA.
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-02 14-26-09.png|centré|675x675px]]

== 11. Tadamsa d tnezzut n NVIDIA ==
NVIDIA d yiwet seg tiṛmisin i yesɛan amaduf ameqran deg taɣult n tsenselkimt.

Deg 2026, taṛmist teffeɣ-d s igmuḍen idamsanen imeqqranen, ladɣa seg tnezzut n yisekkaren n tigzi taragmawant.

=== 11.1. Imadufen d tigenfit ===
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-11-03 14-32-31.png|centré|658x658px]]
Deg useggas adamsan 2026, i ifukken deg 25 yennayer 2026, NVIDIA tewwi-d:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Aferdis
!Azal
|-
|Amaduf amatu
|215,9 milyar $
|-
|Asnerni n umaduf
| +65%
|-
|Tigenfit n taggara
|120,1 milyar $
|-
|Amaduf n usiḍen d uzeṭṭa
|193,5 milyar $
|-
|Amaduf n tugniwin
|22,5 milyar $
|}
Deg uḥric wis sin n useggas adamsan 2027, i ifukken deg 26 yulyu 2026, NVIDIA tewwi-d 96,2 milyar n ddulaṛ n umaduf, gar-asen 89 milyar seg yimmasen n yisefka. D isallen i d-tessufeɣ deg 26 ɣuct 2026.

Aya yeskan-d dakken amaduf n NVIDIA yuɣal yettawi-d seg tigzi taragmawant d usiḍen arurad ugar n wayen i d-yettawi seg tikarḍiwin n wuraren.

=== 11.2. Taɣuri n tnezzut ===
NVIDIA tettnezzuy s waṭas n yiberdan. Tettzenzi GPU i tiṛmisin n yimmasen n yisefka, i wid ixeddmen arrubutik, i yimsihelen d wid yessuddusen inagrawen n usiḍen. Tettzenzi daɣen tisegda, allalen n tuqqna d iseɣẓanen. D anagraw i yettak i NVIDIA tazmert ad tesselḥu aseqdec n yisekkaren-is deg waṭas n tɣulin.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tiberyus</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25634</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-11-03T18:58:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="17748" sha1="leeh7ou8l6e0o5w3jl59ett9qg3u2yj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q1407|image=[[File:(Venice) Tiberius Portrait of the 'Imperium Maius' type in Museo Archeologico Nazionale.jpg|thumb|(Venice) Tarudemt n Tiberyus s wanaw n 'Imperium Maius' deg usalay n &quot;Archeologico Nazionale&quot;]]|caption=Amenkad Tiberyus.|date of birth=16 Wambeṛ 42|nationality=Tarumanit|date of death=16 Meɣres 37}}

'''Tiberyus''' (s tlaṭinit: Tiberius Caesar Augustus), i d-ilulen ass n 16 Wamber 42 send talalit n Ɛisa (S.T.Ɛ.), i yemmut ass n 16 Meɣres 37 seld talalit n Ɛisa (S.L.Ɛ.), yella d amenkad wis sin n Tmenkda tarumanit. Yeḥkem seg 18 Ɣuct 14 ar 16 Meɣres 37 S.L.Ɛ., deffir n [[Uɣustus]], amenkad amezwaru n Ruma.

Tiberyus yettwaḥsab gar yimenkaden i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy arumani. Ɣas akken ur yesɛi ara tamanegt n Uɣustus, yella d amseddas n ṭṭrad iǧehden, d anedbal i yessnen amek ara yettwaḥrez wayla n Tmenkda, d win i yesnernan tarrayin n useḥkem i d-yegǧa Uɣustus.

Tallit-is tettwasen s waṭas n tneqqiḍin i yemgaraden: talwit deg waṭas n tmura n Tmenkda, asnerni n wayla n ddula, uguren gar umenkad d Senat, tixidas tisertanin gar yimdanen i iqerrben ɣer umenkad, asnerni n tazmert n yiɛessasen n Pretorya, akked uselḥu n tedbelt seg ugafa n tegzirt n Capri deg yiseggasen-is ineggura.

Tiberyus yella daɣen d amenkad n tallit i deg yedder [[Ɛisa|Ɛisa n Nazaret]](ma neḥsab dakken s tidet [[Ɛisa]] yella s wudem amazray, mačči kan s wudem asɣanen). Ɣef waya, isem-is yettwabder deg yidlisen n tsertit, n umezruy d yidles amasiḥi.

== Aḥric amezwaru — Tudert-is send adabu ==

=== 1. Ruma deg tallit n tlalit n Tiberyus ===
Iwakken ad nefhem tudert n Tiberyus, ilaq ad nẓer tegnit tasertant n Ruma deg useggas 42 S.T.Ɛ.

Deg tallit-nni, Ruma mazal-itt s yisem d tagduda (Res publica Romana), maca tazmert tasertant tebda tettnejmaɛ deg yifassen n kra n yimdanen iǧehden.

Ṭṭrad agensan gar [[Julius Caesar]] d yiɛdawen-is, syin gar [[Uɣustus|Octavianus]] d Mark Untunyus, yessexreb anagraw aqbur n [[Tagduda Taṛumanit|tagduda tarumanit]].

Octavianus, win ara yuɣalen d Uɣustus, yessnerna tazmert-is armi yuɣal d amdan i yesɛan tazmert tameqqrant deg Ruma.

Tiberyus, i d-ilulen deg tegnit-a, ad yedder akk ibeddilen imeqqranen i d-yewwin asnulfu n [[Tamnekda Tarumanit|Tmenkda tarumanit]].

=== 2. Tallit n temẓi ===
Tiberyus ilul ass n 16 Wamber 42 S.T.Ɛ., deg Ruma. Baba-s, Tiberiyus Claudius Nero, yella d amdan n tawacult Claudii, yiwet seg twaculin timeqqranin n Ruma.

Yemma-s, Livia Drusilla, tella d tameṭṭut i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg tsertit tarumanit.

Deg yiseggasen imezwura n tudert-is, tawacult-is tella deg tegnit taɛekkamt, acku baba-s yella deg tama n yiɛdawen n Octavianus.

Tawacult teḥwaǧ ad tarewel seg Ruma, uqbel ad d-tuɣal mi terkad tegnit tasertant.

==== 2.1. Livia d Uɣust ====
Deg 39 S.T.Ɛ., Livia tefraq d urgaz-is amezwaru, syin tuɣ Octavianus deg 38 S.T.Ɛ.

S wakka, Tiberyus yuɣal d mmi-s n tmeṭṭut n Octavianus, syin d mmi-s s tedbelt(s usmemmi) n [[Uɣustus]].

Aya yeldi-as abrid ɣer tsertit tameqqrant n Ruma. Maca ur yelli ara d amezwaru i yebɣa Uɣustus ad t-yeḍfer deg useḥkem.

=== 3. Taɣuri d uselmed n Tiberyus ===
Tiberyus yekker deg twennaḍt n yimdanen i yesɛan azal deg Ruma.

Yelmed:

- Tlaṭinit d tegrigit.

- Amezruy n Ruma d win n Yigrigiyen.

- Tamsislit d tarrayin n umeslay deg ugraw.

- Tasertit d yilugan n tagduda.

- Tarrayin n useḥkem n yiserdasen.

- Tifelsafit d yidles agrigi.

Tiberyus yella d amdan i yettwaḥesben d win i yettxemmimen aṭas, ur yettmeslay ara s waṭas, maca yettɛassa s leḥder ayen i d-yettḍerrun.

Tiberyus yebda tudert-is tasertant deg tlemmast n yIbeddilen n Uɣustus.

=== 4. Tiberyus d amseddas n ṭṭrad ===
Send ad yuɣal d amenkad, Tiberyus yella d yiwen seg yimseddasen n ṭṭrad iǧehden n Ruma.

Yettwasekcem deg waṭas n yimennuɣen iserdasen deg tmura yemgaraden.

==== 4.1. Ṭṭrad deg Hispania ====
Deg yiseggasen 20 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yebda ad yettekki deg yimennuɣen iserdasen n Uɣustus.

Yettwasekcem deg kra n yimennuɣen deg Hispania, anda Ruma tella tettḥarab iwakken ad tesnerni tazmert-is ɣef waṭas n tmura.

==== 4.2. Aɣelluy n tgelda n Parthia deg tsertit tarumanit ====
Deg 20 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yella d yiwen seg yimdanen i yesɛan tawuri deg uselḥu n tmeslayt tasertant gar Ruma d Parthia.

Ayen i d-yellan ur yelli ara d ṭṭrad ameqran, maca d anerni tasertant i Ruma.

Ayen i d-yettwafken i Ruma yella d tiririt n yizamulen iserdasen i tesseṛṛeḥ deg ṭṭradat yezrin.

Aya yella d asmekti n tamanegt n Ruma, acku izamulen iserdasen sɛan azal ameqqran deg tmetti tarumanit.

==== 4.3. Ṭṭrad deg Alpes ====
Deg 15 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus d gma-s Drusus msefhamen iwakken ad snernin tazmert n Ruma deg tmura n Alpes.

Ɣelben kra n yigrawen n yimdanen i yellan deg temnaḍt.

Aya yessnerna tazmert n Ruma deg ugafa n ṭṭelyan, yerna yesseǧhed iberdan n tnezzut d usiweḍ n yiserdasen.

==== 4.4. Ṭṭrad deg Pannonia ====
Tiberyus yesɛa tawuri tameqqrant deg uselḥu n ṭṭrad deg Pannonia, temnaḍt i d-yezgan deg tama n Danube.

Deg 12–9 S.T.Ɛ., yesɛa tawuri deg yimennuɣen i d-yewwin asnerni n tazmert tarumanit deg temnaḍt.

Deg 6–9 S.L.Ɛ., yesseḥbes yiwen n umennuɣ ameqqran n yimdanen n Illyricum i yellan mgal Ruma.

Amennuɣ-a yettwassen deg umezruy s yisem Bellum Batonianum.

Yella d yiwen seg yimennuɣen iɛekkmen i tmenkda deg tallit n [[Uɣustus]].

==== 4.5.Ǧermaniya ====
Tiberyus yella daɣen deg yimennuɣen n Ruma deg Ǧermaniya.

Deffir tawaɣit n ṭṭrad n Teutoburg deg 9 S.L.Ɛ., anda Ruma tesṛuḥ kraḍ n yeḥricen seg tredsa-s, Tiberyus yesseǧhed taɣellist n tilisa n Ruma.

Ur yelli ara d win i d-yewwin aɣelluy n Ǧermaniya meṛṛa, maca yessaweḍ ad yesseḥrez kra n temnaḍin d yiserdasen n Ruma.

==== 4.6. Azal-is deg ṭṭrad ====
Tiberyus yettwassen s kra n tulmisin:

1. Aheggi n ṭṭrad uqbel amennuɣ.

2. Aḥraz n yiserdasen d usiweḍ n wuččî(lmakla).

3. Aseḥbes n yimennuɣen ur nesɛi ara lfayda.

4. Aseqdec n tsertit d umeslay send ṭṭrad.

5. Aḥraz n tilisa deg umkan n usnerni war tilas.

Tarrayt-is temgarad ɣef tin n kra n yimseddasen i yettnadin kan ɣef tamanegt deg ṭṭrad.

Tiberyus yettḥadar aṭas asṛuḥ n yiserdasen.

Aḥric wis sin — Tawacult d ubrid ɣer useḥkem

=== 6. Tiberyus d Vipsania Agrippina ===
Tiberyus yuɣ Vipsania Agrippina deg 19 S.T.Ɛ. Vipsania tella d yell-is n ''Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa'', yiwen seg yimdukal d yimeɛiwnen imeqqranen n [[Uɣustus]]. Tiberyus d Vipsania sɛan yiwen n mmi-tsen, Drusus Julius Caesar.

Tizdit-nsen tettwasegza deg waṭas n yiɣbula d tin i deg tella tayri. Maca Uɣustus yebɣa ad yesseǧhed assaɣen gar twaculin timeqqranin.

Ɣef waya, Tiberyus yuḥwaǧ ad yebru d Vipsania deg 12 neɣ 11 S.T.Ɛ.

=== 7. Tizdit d Julia ===
Uɣustus yuɣ Julia, yell-is, i Tiberyus. Tizdit-a tella d tin n tsertit ugar n tin n tayri. Assaɣ gar Tiberyus d Julia ur yelli ara d win iǧehden.

Deg 2 S.T.Ɛ., Julia tettwaḥkem ɣef unejli s sebba n tardayt n tuzzuft beṛṛa n zzwaǧ d yisumar nniḍen. Aya yessexreb ugar assaɣen n Tiberyus d tawacult n Uɣustus.

=== 8. Tiberyus deg Rodos ===
Deg 6 S.T.Ɛ., Tiberyus yeǧǧa Ruma, iruḥ ɣer tegzirt n Rodos. Iɣbula iqburen ur msefhamen ara meṛṛa ɣef sebba n uɛzal-is.

Kra n yimezrayen ttwalin d akken:

- Yella yettḥulfu s leḥqer deg tawacult n Uɣustus.

- Yebɣa ad yebɛed ɣef Julia.

- Ur yebɣi ara ad yili deg tsertit n useḍfer n Uɣustus.

- Yella yettnadi ɣef tudert i yesɛan ugar n talwit.

Deg Rodos, Tiberyus yeqqim azal n 8 n yiseggasen.

Yettwasen d amdan i iḥemmlen idles agrigi, tifelsafit d tɣuri.

=== 9. Aseḍfer n Uɣustus ===
Uɣustus yella yebɣa ad t-yeḍfer yiwen seg yimeẓẓyanen n twacult-is. Maca aṭas n yimdanen i yellan d imezwura deg ubrid n useḍfer mmuten send-as.

Gar-asen:

- Marcellus, mmi-s n weltma-s n Uɣustus.

- Gaius Caesar, mmi-s n Julia.

- Lucius Caesar, gma-s n Gaius.

Deg useggas wis 4 S.L.Ɛ., Uɣustus yeṭṭef Tiberyus d mmi-s s yilugan n tadbelt tarumanit(s usmemmi).

Deg wass-nni, Tiberyus yesseḍfer Germanicus, mmi-s n gma-s Drusus, s tarrayt n usettem s yilugan.

Tiberyus yuɣal d amdan i yellan deg ubrid agejdan ɣer udabu.

Deg 13 S.L.Ɛ., tazmert-is tasertant tettwasnerna armi yuɣal yesɛa kra n tezmert i yesɛa Uɣustus deg tmura n Tmenkda.

== Aḥric wis kraḍ — Tiberyus d amenkad ==

=== 10. Tamettant n Uɣustus ===
Uɣustus yemmut ass n 19 Ɣuct 14 S.L.Ɛ., deg Nola, deg ṭṭelyan.

Tiberyus, i yesɛan azal n 55 n yiseggasen, yella d win i yellan deg ubrid ɣer udabu. Maca abeddel n tazmert ur yelli ara d win i d-yellan s yiwet n tikkelt.

Senat arumani yesɛa mazal tawuri deg tsertit n Ruma.

Tiberyus yesken-d leḥder deg uqbal n tazmert n umenkad.

Kra n yiɣbula qqaren d akken yella yebɣa ad yesseḥrez tugna n tagduda, ma d wiyaḍ ttwalin d akken yella yettɛemmid ad yessexdem leḥder iwakken ad yesɛu ugar n tazmert.

Deg 18 Ɣuct 14 S.L.Ɛ., Senat yeqbel tazmert-is, Tiberyus yuɣal d amenkad wis sin n Tmenkda tarumanit.

=== 11. Anagraw n udabu ===
Tiberyus ur yebni ara anagraw amaynut seg yilem. Yekcem deg unagraw i d-yesnulfa Uɣustus, i yettwasnen s yisem n Principatus.

Deg unagraw-a, amenkad yesɛa tazmert tameqqrant, maca kra n yizamulen d yilugan n tagduda mazal-iten.

==== 11.1. Tazmert n umenkad ====
Tiberyus yesɛa:

'''''Imperium proconsulare''''': tazmert tameqqrant ɣef yiserdasen d kra n tmura n Tmenkda.

'''''Tribunicia potestas''''': tazmert tasertant i t-yeǧǧan ad yesseḥbes kra n leqrarat, ad yesseḥrez kra n yilugan, ad yesseqdec izerfan n tribuns n ugdud.

'''''Auctoritas''''': azal d tazmert i yesɛa umdan deg tmetti d tsertit, ur nettwasbadu ara kan s yilugan.

==== 11.2. Tiberyus d Senat ====
Tiberyus yebɣa, deg tazwara, ad yesseǧhed tawuri n Senat. Yessekcem kra n leqrarat ɣer Senat, yerna yettɛemmid ad yesseḥrez izerfan n yiɛeggalen-is. Maca assaɣen gar-asen beddlen s wakud. Kra n yiɛeggalen n Senat ttwalin Tiberyus d amdan i yettḥellilen aṭas.

Tiberyus, s tama-s, yebda yettḥadar aṭas ɣef kra n yimdanen n Senat. Aya yessnerna uguren n tsertit deg Ruma.

=== 12. Tadbelt n Tmenkda ===
Tiberyus yesseḍfer tarrayt n Uɣustus deg tadbelt.

Yebɣa ad yesseḥrez anagraw yellan deg umkan n usnulfu n waṭas n yibeddilen.

==== 12.1. Timura n Tmenkda ====
Tamenkda tarumanit tella tesɛa timura deg:

- Tefriqt n ugafa.

- Iberia.

- Gallia.

- Germania n wadda.

- Balkans.

- Yunan.

- Anatolia.

- Surya.

- Miṣr.

Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez tilisa n tmura-a. Ur yelli ara yettnadi ad yesseǧhed tamenkda s ṭṭrad deg yal tama.

==== 12.2. Imeḍbren n tmura ====
Tiberyus yessexdem aṭas n yimeḍbrenn idiganen i yeqqimen deg twuri-nsen i waṭas n yiseggasen. Aya yezmer ad yesseǧhed tadbelt, acku imeḍbren ssnen timura i ḥekkmen.

Maca yezmer daɣen ad d-yawi uguren mi ara yeqqim yiwen n umeḍber deg yiwet n temnaḍt i waṭas n wakud.

==== 12.3. Aḥraz n yilugan ====
Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez anagraw n yilugan n Ruma. Maca deg tallit-is, ilugan i yerzan maiestas, neɣ tuccḍa mgal tazmert d wazal n ddula, ttwaseqdecen s wudem i d-yewwin aṭas n tneqqiḍin.

Kra n yimdanen ttwaḥekmen s sebba n wawalen neɣ n yisumar i yettwaḥesben d senɣes n wazal n umenkad. Aya yessexreb talwit tasertant deg Ruma.

== Aḥric wis kuẓ — Tadamsa d wayla n Tmenkda ==

=== 13. Tasertit n yidrimen ===
Tiberyus yettwassen s tarrayt-is n leḥder deg useqdec n yidrimen n ddula.

Ur yelli ara yettxeṣṣir aṭas n yidrimen ɣef yibniyat imeqqranen neɣ ɣef yisebdaden n tamanegt. Yebɣa ad yesseḥrez wyla n tmenkda.

==== 13.1. Akufi n tmenkda ====
Iɣbula iqburen qqaren d akken Tiberyus yeǧǧa akufi ameqqran n yidrimen mi yemmut.

Suetonius yebder azal n 2,7 n milliard n sesterces, maca amḍan-a ilaq ad yettwaḥsab d ayen i d-yettwabedren deg uɣbalu aqbur, mačči d amḍan i nettwassen s lǧehd s usekyed amḍan. Aya yeskan-d belli tasertit-is tella tettḥadar aṭas axessar.

==== 13.2. Tiberyus d tiwsiwin ====
Ur yelli ara d amenkad i yesnernan tiwsitin s waṭas deg yal tamnaḍt. Yettwaḥsab d win i yebɣan ad yesseḥrez tiwsitin yellan, ad yesseḥbes aɛekkem ɣef yimezdaɣ n tmura.

Yettwabder deg kra n yiɣbula s yisem n umdan i yebɣan ad yesseḥrez tadamsa n tmura i yettwaḥekmen.

==== 13.3. Ugur n yidrimen deg 33 S.L.Ɛ. ====
Deg 33 S.L.Ɛ., Ruma tekcem deg yiwet n tegnit taɛekkamt n yidrimen d usellef. Tella tuffɣa n yidrimen seg tnezzut, akked uɛekkem deg usellef. Tiberyus yessekcem azal n 100 n milyun n sesterces deg unagraw n usellef iwakken ad yesseḥbes ugur. Aya yettwaḥsab d yiwen seg yimeḍqan imeqqranen n tsertit tadamsant n tallit-is.

= Aḥric wis semmus — Ṭṭrad d tlisa n Tmenkda =

=== 14. Tasertit n tlisa ===
Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez tilisa n Tmenkda ugar n usnerni-nsent. Deg tallit-is, Ruma tella d tamenkda tameqqrant i yesɛan aṭas n tmura. Maca aḥraz n tilisa-a yella yettawi aṭas n yidrimen d yiserdasen. Tiberyus yettḥadar aṭas asnerni n ṭṭradat ur nesɛi ara lfayda.

=== 15. Germanicus d Germania ===
''Germanicus'', mmi-s n gma-s n Tiberyus, yella d amseddas n ṭṭrad i yesɛan tamanegt deg Ruma. Deg 14–16 S.L.Ɛ., Germanicus yessekcem iserdasen ɣer Germania. Yebɣa ad yerr tazmert n Ruma deffir tawaɣit n Teutoburg.

Germanicus yewwi-d kra n tirniwin, maca ur yessaweḍ ara ad yesseḥkem Germania meṛṛa. Tiberyus yesseḥbes aṭas n yimenɣiyen, yerna yesseḥrez tilisa ɣef Yill n Rhine.

Aya yessebgen-d amgired gar-asen deg tarrayt n ṭṭrad. Germanicus yebɣa ad yesseǧhed tamanegt n Ruma s ṭṭrad, ma d Tiberyus yebɣa ad yesseḥrez ayen i yellan.

=== 16. Tamettant n Germanicus ===
Germanicus yemmut deg 19 S.L.Ɛ., deg Antiochia, deg Surya. Tamettant-is teǧǧa aṭas n yimdanen deg Ruma deg lḥif.

Kra n yimdanen ttwalin belli Germanicus yettwasemmem, maca ur yelli ara usekyed aḥeqqani i d-yessbegginen belli Tiberyus yesseḍfer asenqed n tmettant-is.

Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, ameḥkam arumani, yettwatbaɛ s waṭas n tirdayin. Tamettant n Germanicus tesnerna ccek gar tawacult n Germanicus d Tiberyus.

= Aḥric wis sḍis — Sejanus d yiɛessasen n Pretorya =
[[Tugna:Relief of Soldiers of the Praetorian Guard 04 (51220287572).jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tasreɣta ɣef Iɛessasen umenkad.]]

=== 17. Aɛessas n Pretorya ===
Iɛessasen n Pretorya (''Iɛessasen n umenkad'') llan d agraw n yiserdasen i yettɛassan amenkad d tazmert-is. Deg tallit n Tiberyus, agraw-a yesnerna azal-is deg tsertit.

=== 18. Sejanus ===
Lucius Aelius Sejanus yella d amseddas n yiɛessasen n Pretorya. Deg tallit n Tiberyus, Sejanus yuɣal d amdan i yesɛan tazmert tameqqrant. Yessaweḍ ad yesseǧhed tazmert n yiɛessasen, yerna yesseǧmeɛ-iten deg yiwen n umkan deg Ruma. Aya yesseǧhed tawuri n Pretorya deg tsertit tarumanit.

==== 18.1. Tamettant n Drusus ====
Drusus Julius Caesar, mmi-s n Tiberyus, yemmut deg 23 S.L.Ɛ. Iɣbula iqburen, ladɣa Tacitus, qqaren d akken Sejanus d Livilla llan deg uheggi n tmettant-is s ssem. Maca isallen-a ur ttwasekyaden ara s yilugan n umezruy atrar. Tamettant n Drusus teldi abrid i Sejanus iwakken ad yesnerni tazmert-is.

==== 18.2. Aɛzal n Tiberyus ====
Deg 26–27 S.L.Ɛ., Tiberyus yebda yettɛizil iman-is deg tegzirt n Capri. Sejanus yuɣal yettḥekkim deg waṭas n yimennuɣen n Ruma s yisem n umenkad. Aya yesseǧhed tazmert-is.

=== 19. Aɣelluy n Sejanus ===
Deg 31 S.L.Ɛ., Tiberyus yesseḥbes tazmert n Sejanus. Senat yeḥkem fell-as, Sejanus yettwanɣa. Deffir tmettant-is, aṭas n yimdanen i yellan deg tama-s ttwaḥekmen. Aya yewwi-d tallit n leḥder d ccek deg Ruma.

Tiberyus yuɣal yettḥadar ɣef waṭas yimdanen i t-iqerrben.

= Aḥric wis sa — Capri d yiseggasen ineggura =
[[Tugna:Capri island - Campania - Italy - July 12th 2013 - 21.jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tigzirt n Capri deg ṭṭelyan.]]

=== 20. Tiberyus deg Capri ===
Deg 26–27 S.L.Ɛ., Tiberyus yebda yettidir aṭas n wakud deg tegzirt n Capri, deg yilel n Tirranit. Capri tella d adeg i yesɛan talwit, d tugniwin n yilel, d yidurar. Tiberyus yebna neɣ yesseqdec kra n yixxamen imeqqranen deg tegzirt-a.

Gar-asen, ''Villa Jovis'', yiwen seg yibniyen i yettwassnen deg umezruy n Capri.

=== 20.1. Ayɣer iruḥ ɣer Capri? ===
Iɣbula iqburen ur msefhamen ara ɣef sebba n uɛzal-is. Kra n yimezrayen ttwalin d akken:

* Yebɣa ad yebɛed ɣef ccwal n Senat.
* Yebɣa ad yidir deg talwit.
* Yella yettḥadar aṭas ɣef kra n yiɛdawen-is.
* Yebɣa ad yesseḥkem s tarrayt i t-yeǧǧan ad yili beṛṛa n Ruma.

=== 20.2. Aseḥkem seg lebɛid ===
Ɣas akken yella deg Capri, Tiberyus mazal-it d amenkad. Yettazen tibṛatin d leqrarat ɣer Senat d yimeḥkamen.

Aya yeskan-d belli tazmert n umenkad ur teqqin ara kan ɣer Ruma d usqamu-is. Maca aɛzal-is yesseǧhed daɣen tazmert n yimdanen i yettḥekkmen s yisem-is.

== 21. Tirdayin ɣef tudert-is deg Capri ==
Suetonius d Cassius Dio uran aṭas n yisallen ɣef tudert n Tiberyus deg Capri. Bḍan-d kra n teḥkayt i yerzan aɛekkem, lḥif d yisumar n yimeɣriyen. Maca imezrayen n wass-a ttḥadaren aṭas isallen-a.

Aṭas seg teḥkayt-a zemrent ad ilint d asnerni n tirdayin tisartinin neɣ d tirawt n yiɛdawen n Tiberyus.

Ɣef waya, ilaq ad nefrez gar:

'''Ayen i nettwassen s yiɣbula yemgaraden:''' Tiberyus yella deg Capri, yesseḥkem seg lebɛid, yerna tella tazmert tameqqrant n yimeɛiwnen-is.

'''Ayen i yellan d tirdayin:''' kra n teḥkayt ɣef tudert-is tudmawant, i ur nezmir ara ad tent-nessekyed s lǧehd.</text>
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    <title>Huratyus</title>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="6159" sha1="9d2j8gna1kmvbvu0h095mv9d055rqw7" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q6197|image=[[File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]|caption=Huratyus|date of birth=8 Duǧember 65 send talalit n Ɛisa|date of death=27 Wamber 8 send talalit n Ɛisa|nationality=Tarumanit}}

'''Huratyus''', s yisem-is ummid '''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''', d yiwen seg yimedyazen irumanen imeqqranen n tallit taɣustit. Ilul ass n 8 Duǧember 65 send talalit n Ɛisa, di Venusia, di ṭṭelyan, yemmut ass n 27 Wamber 8 send talalit n Ɛisa, di Ruma.

Yettwassen ladɣa s yedlisen-is '''Sermones (Satires)''', '''Epodi''', '''Carmina (Odes)''', '''Epistulae''' akked '''Ars Poetica'''. Deg yisefra-s, Huratyus yesseqdec isental n tudert, tayri, timdukal, tafelsafit, tasertit, agama, talwit n wul d wakud i yettɛeddin.

Yedder deg yiwet n tallit i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n Ruma: taggara n Tagduda Trumanit, ṭṭrad n daxel, asali n [[Uɣustus|Octavianus]] ɣer leḥkem, d tazwara n tmenkda n [[Uɣustus]].

Maca Huratyus yemgarad ɣef [[Virgil]] d [[Ovid]]. Ur yesseqdec ara timucuha timeqqranin kan iwakken ad yessefhem umezruy n Ruma. Yella yettmeslay s waṭas ɣef tudert n yal ass, ɣef wayen i yezmer umdan ad yeg iwakken ad yidir s talwit, d wamek ara yesseqdec akud-is s wudem yelhan.

Yiwet seg tektiwin-is yettwassnen d ''carpe diem'', i yezmer ad yettwasuqqel s teqbaylit: «Awi-d ayen yelhan seg wass-a», neɣ, s unamek alqayan, «Seqdec ass-a, ur tettuɣal ara kan ɣer usirem n uzekka».

== 2. Talalit d twacult-is ==

=== 2.1. Venusia, tamdint n Huratyus ===
[[Tugna:Venosa.jpg|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tamdint n Venusia deg ṭṭelyan.]]


Huratyus ilul di Venusia, tamdint tarumanit i yellan deg unẓul n [[ṭṭelyan]], deg temnaḍt i d-yettuɣalen ass-a d Basilicata.

Venusia tella d tamdint i d-yessbedden Yirumanen deg useggas 291 send Ɛisa, deg tallit n usnerni n tezmert n Tagduda Trumanit deg ṭṭelyan.

Deg tallit n Huratyus, tamdint-a tella deg temnaḍt n tfellaḥt, anda i zedɣen yifellaḥen, imdanen n tenzut d yiserdasen.

Tudert deg temnaḍt-a tella temgarad ɣef tin n Ruma. Deg Ruma, yella leḥkem, tazmert d tedbelt, ma deg Venusia, tudert tella tettɛeddi s waṭas deg yigran d tuddar.

=== 2.2. Baba-s n Huratyus ===
Baba-s n Huratyus yella d amdan i d-yettwaslellin seg waddad n wakli. Deg yiɣbula iqburen, yettwabder belli yella d wakli i yettwaserḥen, i yuɣalen yesɛa tilelli.

Yella ixeddem deg taɣult n tedbelt n yidrimen, ladɣa deg uleqqaḍ n tewsitin n tnezzut d yisuter n yidrimen.

Ɣas akken ur yelli ara d amdan n twacult tameqqrant, baba-s yesɛa idrimen iwakken ad yesseɣri mmi-s.

Deg yisefra-s, Huratyus yessefk-d s waṭas n tikkal azal n baba-s. Yettmeslay fell-as s leqder, imi baba-s yebɣa ad yili mmi-s d amdan i yesɛan tamusni d wazalen.

Deg ''Satires 1.6'', Huratyus yessefhem belli baba-s ur t-yeǧǧa ara ad yili kan d amdan i yessnen tira, maca yesselm-ed-as daɣen amek ara yefrez gar wayen yelhan d wayen n diri.

=== 2.3. Tazrirt n baba-s ===
Huratyus yella d amdan i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant seg uselmed n baba-s.

Deg yisefra-s, yettmeslay ɣef wayen i as-yenna baba-s, d wamek i t-yesselm-ed ad yili d amdan i yesɛan leqder, aḥraz n yiman-is d tmuɣli ɣer tmetti.

D aya i d-yettbanen deg yisefra-s n deffir, anda i yesseqdec kra n yimedyaten seg tudert n yal ass iwakken ad yessefhem tiktiwin tifelsafiyin.

== 3. Aselmed n Huratyus ==

=== 3.1. Azraw di Ruma ===
Mi yella d ameẓẓyan, baba-s yewwi-t ɣer Ruma iwakken ad yelmed deg yiɣerbazen yelhan. Deg Ruma, Huratyus yelmed talaṭinit, tasnukyest , asefru d tsekla tagrigit. Yella daɣen yessen imyura iqburen, ladɣa Homer, Archilochus d kra n yimesfrayen n Yunan.

Deg tallit-nni, aselmed n tutlayt tagrigit yella d aḥric ameqqran n uselmed n yimdanen i yebɣan ad ilin deg tedbelt neɣ deg tsekla.

=== 3.2. Azraw deg Athenes ===
Huratyus iruḥ daɣen ɣer Athenes, tamdint tagrigit i yellan d yiwen seg yidigan imeqqranen n tfelsafit. Deg Athenes, yelmed tafelsafit, tasekla d tseknawt n wawal. Deg tallit-nni, Athenes tella mazal d amkan n uselmed n tfelsafit n [[Flaṭun|Plato]], [[Aristot|Aristote]], [[Epikur|Epicurus]] d yifelsafiyen-nniḍen.

Huratyus yella yettwajbed ɣer tfelsafit n Epicurus, maca ur yelli ara d amdan i yesseqdec yiwet n tfelsafit kan deg yisefra-s.

Yesseqdec kra n tiktiwin n yifelsafiyen yemgaraden, ladɣa deg usentel n talwit n wul d useqdec n wakud.

== 4. Huratyus deg ṭṭrad n daxel n Ruma ==

=== 4.1. Tamettant n Julius Caesar ===
Deg useggas 44 send Ɛisa, [[Julius Caesar]] yettwanɣa deg Ruma. Tamettant-is teǧǧa Tagduda Trumanit deg tazɣent tasertant tameqqrant. Gar yimdanen i yebɣan ad ḥerzen Tagduda Trumanit, yella Marcus Junius Brutus, yiwen seg wid i yenɣan Caesar.

Huratyus yella deg Athenes deg tallit-a.

=== 4.2. Huratyus d Brutus ===
Brutus yessdukel taserdast iwakken ad yemennuɣ mgal [[Uɣustus|Octavianus]] d Mark Untunyus.

Huratyus yekcem deg tsedrast n Brutus, yettwafk-as waddad n tribunus militum, anamek-is d ameqran aserdasi i yesɛan kra n tzemmar n leḥkem ɣef yiserdasen.

D taɣawsa i yesɛan azal ameqqran, imi Huratyus ur yekki ara deg ṭṭrad am uselway n tsekla, maca am amdan i yesɛan tuɣdaḍt taserdasit.

=== 4.3. Ṭṭrad n Filippi ===
Deg useggas 42 send Ɛisa, taserdast n Brutus d Cassius temmenɣ akked tsedrast n Octavianus d Mark Untunyus deg Filippi, deg temnaḍt n Macedonia. Brutus d Cassius xesren ṭṭrad, syin mmuten.

Huratyus yeslek iman-is, yuɣal ɣer ṭṭalyan. Deg yiwen n yisefra-s, yettmeslay s leḥzen ɣef wayen i yeḍran deg Philippi, am wakken yeǧǧa aglim-is deg umkan n ṭṭrad, i d-yettwasfahmen s waṭas n tikkal d tarrayt n usqerdec ɣef tarewla-s.

Maca ur ilaq ara ad neḥseb tafyirt-a d aḍris amezruyan usrid i d-yettalesen akk ayen i yeḍran.

=== 4.4. Tuɣalin ɣer Ruma ===
Mi yuɣal Huratyus ɣer Ruma, yufa belli kra n wayla n twacult-is yettwakkes. Yella yesɛa tagnit ad yexdem deg tedbelt, deg leqdic n scriba quaestorius, amaru n tedbelt i yellan yettawi isallen n yidrimen d tɣawsiwin n leḥkem.

Leqdic-a yefka-as tazmert ad yidir, d wakud iwakken ad yaru isefra.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Milton Friedman</title>
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      <comment>Amagrad amaynut</comment>
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      <text bytes="2843" sha1="1bflhja9eegtkfnumegia2xxdzb61wn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q47426|image=[[File:Portrait Of Milton Friedman (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portrait Of Milton Friedman (cropped)]]|caption=Milton Friedman.|date of birth=31 Yulyu 1912.|nationality=Tamarikanit.|date of death=16 Wambeṛ 2006}}

'''Milton Friedman''' d yiwen seg yimussnawen n tdamsa i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant ɣef tikti tadamsant deg tasut tis 20. Yettwassen s unadi-ines ɣef yidrimen, asadur, annerni n wazalen, iɣimi war axeddim, akked wamek i tezmer tdamsa ad teddu s tlelli n ulzuz, war ma yessekcam uwanek iman-is deg yal armud.

Friedman yella gar wid i d-yessuffɣen tiktiwin n tdamsa n tallit-nni seg yiberdan i tent-ttwalin s John Maynard Keynes, ɣer tarrayt-nniḍen i d-yettakken azal ameqqran i yidrimen, tamsizzelt deg ulzuz, d tlelli n umdan deg tiferniwin-is tidamsanin.

Tiẓriyin-is ur qqiment ara deg tesdawit. Uɣalent d aḥric n umeslay asartan d udamsan deg Marikan, Britanya, Cili, akked waṭas n tmura-nniḍen.

Maca ur yelli ara d amussnaw iɣef mtafan akk imazzagen. Kra n tiktiwin-is ttwasqeblent deg tussna n tdamsa tatrart, ma d kra nniḍen mazal fell-asent umeslay d uzɣan, ladɣa ayen yeɛnan tamlilt n uwanek, taɣdemt tamettit, tawziɛt n tbuɣar d tsertiyin tidamsanin.

Deg useggas 1976, yewwi-d Arraz n Nobel n tussniwin tidamsanin ɣef leqdic-is deg tesleḍt n usadur, amezruy d teẓri n yidrimen, akked usegzi n wuguren n tsertit n usezdi n tdamsa.

== 1. Tudert-is d umezruy-is ==
Deg temẓi-s, Friedman yesɛa leḥmala tameqqrant i tusnakt. Tazwara n ubrid-is asdawan tella deg tussniwin-a, uqbel ad yettwelleh ɣer tdamsa.

=== 1.2. Aɣerbaz d tesdawit ===
Timliliyin tigejdanin deg ubrid-is:

* 1932: yemmug d anelmad i d-yeffɣen seg tesdawit n Rutgers, s ugerruj n tmusniwin deg tusnakt d tdamsa.
* 1933: yewwi-d agerdas n Master deg tesdawit n Chicago.
* 1933–1934: ikemmel tizrawin-is deg tesdawit n Columbia.
* 1937: yebda assaɣ-is aɣezzfan d NBER, tasudut n unadi adamsan deg Marikan.
* 1938: yuɣ '''''Rose Director''''', i d-yuɣalen d tameṭṭut-is, tamdakkelt-is deg unadi d tira.
* 1946: yewwi-d agerdas n dukṭura deg Columbia, yerna yebda aselmed n tdamsa deg tesdawit n Chicago.
* 1977: yemmed uḥric-is agejdan n uselmed deg Chicago, yernu yebda leqdic deg Hoover Institution ɣer Stanford.
* 16 Nwanbir 2006: yemmut deg San Francisco, deg leɛmer n 94 n yiseggasen.

=== 1.3. Rose Friedman d twuri-ines deg tudert-is ===
''Rose Director Friedman'' ur telli ara kan d tameṭṭut-is. Tella d tamassant n tdamsa, tecerek yid-s deg waṭas n yimahilen.

Yid-s i d-yura Free to Choose deg 1980, akked Two Lucky People deg 1998. Sin-a sdukklen tiktiyin tidamsanin d tifelsafiyin ɣef tlelli n umdan. Rose tettɛawan daɣen deg usegzi n tmiḍranin tidamsanin yuɛren i tegzi, akken ad tent-fehmen ula d yimdanen ur nelli ara d imazzagen deg tdamsa.</text>
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