Jesus Cristo

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    <title>Jesus Cristo</title>
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      <text bytes="58816" sha1="sspjjc7ej43pyc2ufqcwaiza96p4rqr" xml:space="preserve">{{Biografia
| imaje = Spas vsederzhitel sinay (cropped1).jpg
| descrive = La [[Cristo Pantocrator (Sinai)|Cristo Pantocrator]] de la [[Monceria de San Catalina de Monte Sinai]] a [[Monte Sinai]], sentenio 6 ec
| nase = 6 a 4 aec, [[rena de Herod]], Impero Roman
| mori = 30 o 33 ec, [[Ieruxalim]], [[Iudea]], Impero Roman
| profesa = carpentor, predicor iudi
}}

'''Jesus''' (s 6 a 4 aec - 30 o 33 ec),{{efn|{{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|grc|Iēsoús}}, probable de {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[ivri (lingua)|ivri]] o [[arami (lingua)|arami]]}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|und|[[Yeshua|Yēšūaʿ]]}} }} ci on nomi ance '''Jesus Cristo''',{{efn|[[copta (lingua)|copta]]: {{lang|cop|Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ}}; [[itiopica]]: {{lang|gez|መሲህ ኢየሱስ}}; [[coine|elinica]]: {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Χριστός}}; [[ivri (lingua)|ivri]]: {{lang|hbo|ישוע המשיח}}; [[latina (lingua)|latina]]: {{lang|la|Iesus Christus}}; [[slavonica vea eglesal|slavonica]]: {{lang|cu|І҆исоу́съ Хрїсто́съ}}; [[siriaca clasica|siriaca]]: {{lang|syc|ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ}}}}, '''Jesus de Nazaret''' e otra nomes e titulos variosa, ia es un predicor [[iudisme|iudi]] e [[Jesus en cristianisme|xef relijiosa]] de la sentenio prima en la provinse roman [[Iudea]].{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}}  El es la figur sentral de [[cristianisme]], la relijio la plu grande de la mundo. La plu de ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la [[incarne (cristianism)|incarne]] de [[Dio la Fio]] e la [[Maxia]] o [[Cristo]] espetada. La [[Evanjelio]]s, spesial la cuatro Evanjelios canonal de la [[Atesta Nova]], conteni la naras de la vive de Jesus. De la [[Lumina]], rexerca academial ia produi vistas diversa sur la fidablia istorial de la Evanjelios e la grado a cual los refleta la Jesus istorial,{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–173}}{{efn|Ehrman scrive: &quot;La mundo academial comparti jeneral la idea ce la naras de la evanjelios no es intera esata ma remane importante per la verias relijiosa cual los atenta comunica, an si persones estra de lo no conose o crede lo tan vasta.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 |arcivo=1}} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.), The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sanders scrive: &quot;La cristianes la plu temprana no ia scrive un nara de la vive de Jesus, ma plu esata los ia usa, e donce ia conserva, unias individua - pasajes corta sur sua parolas e atas. Plu tarda, autores e editores ia move e ordina esta unias. [...] Cristianes temprana ia revisa alga materias e ia crea otras.&quot;{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}{{Sfn|Bowman Jr.|Komoszewski|2019|p=22–23}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author-first1=Craig A. |author-last1=Evans|url=https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/54.1.1.pdf|title=Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology|journal=Theological Studies |volume=54 |year=1993|pages= 13–14|quote=First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus.}}&lt;/ref&gt; ma cuasi tota eruditas moderna de [[anticia clasica|anticia]] acorda ce Jesus ia esiste istorial.{{efn |name=exist|En un resenia de 2011 sur la state de eruditia moderna, [[Bart D. Ehrman]] ia scrive: &quot;Sin duta el ia esiste, como cuasi cada erudita capas de la antica clasica, cristian o noncristian, acorda.&quot;{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} [[Richard A. Burridge]] declara: &quot;Algas argumenta ce Jesus es mera un produida de la imajina de la Eglesa, e ce Jesus is esiste nunca. Me debe dise ce me conose no erudita criticante e respetable ci dise acel ancora.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Jesus Now and Then |first1=Richard A. |last1=Burridge |first2=Graham |last2=Gould |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert M. Price]] no crede ce Jesus ia esiste, ma el acorda ce esta perspetiva oposa la opinas de la majoria de eruditas. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |first=Robert M. |last=Price |title=Jesus at the Vanishing Point |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus: Five Views |editor-last1=Beilby |editor-last2=Eddy |year=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-7853-6 |editor-first=James K. |pages=55, 61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&amp;pg=PA55 |editor2-first=Paul R. |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&amp;pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[James D. G. Dunn]] nomi la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus &quot;un tese intera mor&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus |encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption |first=Stephen W. |last=Sykes |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04460-8 |pages=35–36}}&lt;/ref&gt; Longo [[Michael Grant]] (un clasiciste): &quot;En anios resente [de 2004], 'no erudita seria ia osa proposa la nonesiste istorial de Jesus', o a la min vera poca ia fa lo, e los no ia susede refuta la indicas multe plu forte e vera abundante per la oposada.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Grant |title=Jesus|publisher=Phoenix |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-14889-2 |page=200}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] declara ce eruditas biblial e istoristes clasica opina ce on ia refuta eficas la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Scrivente en ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', [[Candida Moss]] e [[Joel Baden]] declara ce &quot;on ave un consensa cuasi universal entre eruditas biblial – a la min la eruditas autentica – ce Jesus ia es, en fato, un om real.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |title=So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=5 October 2014 |author-first2=Joel |author-last2=Baden |author-link1=Candida Moss|author-first1=Candida |author-last1=Moss |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Longo la tradision cristian, como la Evanjelios e la [[Atas de la Apostoles]] representa lo, sua jenitores ia [[sircoside de Jesus|sircoside Jesus]] a eda de oto dias e ia [[presenta de Jesus|presenta]] el a la [[Templo de Ieruxalim]] a 40 dias. [[Joan la Batizor]] ia [[batiza de Jesus|batiza]] el cuando el ia es un adulte joven, e, pos [[tenta de Jesus|40 dias e notes]] de juna en la tera savaje, el ia comensa sua servi publica. El ia es un ensenior vagante ci, longo la credes de sua seguores, ia posese autoria divin per interprete la lege iudi. Frecuente Jesus ia debate con otra iudis, la plu comun la [[fariseos]] e [[saduseos]], sur la modo la plu bon per segue Dio. El ia remedia maladas, ia ensenia par parabolas, e ia colie seguores, de ci el ia asinia 12 per es sua apostoles. Longo la naras de la Atesta Nova, la autoriosas ia aresta el en Ieruxalim e la [[Sanhedrin]] ia litiga el.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Los ia dona el a la autoriosas roman, e [[Pontio Pilato]], la prefeto roman de Iudea, ia comanda ce on [[crusi de Jesus|crusi]] el. En la [[teolojia cristian]], Cristo ia [[revive de Jesus|revive de la mores]] a la dia tre pos sua mori, e esta funda de crede ia developa a la [[cristianisme primitiva|Eglesa cristian temprana]], cual ia estende a un [[sperde de cristianisme|promove mundal]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}}

La teolojia cristian inclui la credes ce la [[Spirito Santa]] ia consepi Jesus, ce un virjin nomida [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] ia [[nase virjinal de Jesus|pari]] el, ce el ia fa [[miracles de Jesus|miracles]], ia fundi la [[Eglesa]] cristian, ia mori par crusi como un sacrifia per espia pecas, ia revive de la mores a la dia tre, e ia [[asende de Jesus|asende]] a [[Sielo en cristianisme|Sielo]], de do el va reveni. Cristianes crede comun ce Jesus capasi ce la popla reconsilia con [[Dio en cristianisme|Dio]]. La [[Crede de Nisea]] afirma ce Jesus va [[judi final|judi la viventes e la mores]], o ante o pos lor [[revive universal|revive corpal]], un aveni cual [[escatolojia cristian]] asosia con la [[Ariva Du]] de Jesus. Multe ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la incarne de Dio la Fio, la person du de la tre persones de la [[Trinia]]. A cada anio, tipal a 25 desembre, on selebra la nase de Jesus en Betlehem como [[natal]].{{efn|La plu de cristianes e [[alauistes]] selebra natal. Un parte de la eglesas de [[cristianes este|cristian este]] selebra natal a 25 desembre de [[calendario julian]]. Selebras natal comensa la [[vijila de natal]], tipal a 24 desembre.}} On onora sua [[crusi]] a [[venerdi santa]] e sua revive a soldi de [[pascua]]. La eda de calendario cual la mundo usa la plu vasta, en cual la anio presente es {{CURRENTYEAR}} [[eda comun|ec]], es fundida tradisional sur la data aprosima de la nase de Jesus.

[[Iudisme]] tradisional rejeta la crede ce Jesus ia es la maxia espetada, afirmante ce el no ia reali la predises maxial, ce nun ia [[unje|unje legal]] el, e ce el ia es no divin no reviveda. Par contrasta, [[Jesus en islam|islam regarda Jesus]]{{efn|Frecuente nomida par sua nom curanal, {{transleteri|ar|ISO|[[Isa (nom)|ʿĪsā]]}}}} como la maxia e un [[profetas de islam|profeta]] de [[Dio en Islam|Dio]], ci Dio ia envia a la ivris e ci va reveni a Tera ante la [[Dia de Judi en Islam|Dia de Judi]]. [[Muslim]]es crede ce la virjin [[Maria en Islam|Maria]] ia pari Jesus, ma ce el ia es no Dio no la fio de Dio. La plu de muslimes no crede ce on ia mata o ia crusi el, ma ce Dio ia leva el a Sielo en cuando el ia es ancora vivente. {{efn|Alga muslimes medieval ia crede ce on ia crusi Jesus, como ance la membros de la promove moderna Ahmadiyya}} La credores de [[bahaisme]], [[durzi]] e [[rastafarisme]] venera ance Jesus.

== Nom ==

Un person iudi en la tempo de Jesus ia ave tipal sola un nom, pos cual on ia ajunta a veses un espresa padral en la forma &quot;fio de [nom de padre]&quot;, o la vila de orijina de la person.&lt;!--&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt;--&gt; Donce, en la Atesta Nova, on nomi comun Jesus como &quot;Jesus de [[Nazaret]]&quot;. La visinas de Jesus en Nazaret ia nomi el &quot;la carpentor, la fio de [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] e frate de [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo]] e [[Josef (frate de Jesus)|Joses]] e [[Judas (frate de Jesus)|Judas]] e [[Simon (frate de Jesus)|Simon]]&quot;, &quot;la fio de la carpentor&quot;, o &quot;la fio de [[San Josef|Josef]]&quot;; en la [[Evanjelio de Joan]], la disiplo [[Filipo la Apostol|Filipo]] refere a el como &quot;Jesus, fio de Josef, de Nazaret&quot;.

La nom Jesus es la transleteri (tra la latina ''Iesus'') de la [[elinica antica]] {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, cual es la varia elinica de la nom [[ivri]] Joxua (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ ''Yehoxua'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2424. Ἰησοῦς (Iésous) -- Jesus |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2424.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The Greek name corresponds to the Hebrew &quot;Joshua.&quot;''}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The name Jesus, in Greek, answers to Joshua, or rather, Jehoshuah, in Hebrew, which signifies Jehovah shall save;''}}&lt;/ref&gt; La nom ivri/[[arami (lingua)|arami]] ia es comun entre iudis judean a la tempo de la nase de Jesus,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Barnes' Notes |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was a very common name among the Jews.''}}&lt;/ref&gt; an si a acel periodo popla ia corti ja lo de יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (''Yehoxua'') a יֵשׁוּעַ (''Yexua''); la corti ia aveni ja en libros biblial plu tarda como [[Nehemia]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=H3442 - yēšûaʿ - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001 |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en |quote=''Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon: יֵשׁוּעַ [Jeshua] a contracted form of the proper name יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ used in the later Hebrew ... proper name of other men, mentioned in the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah''}}&lt;/ref&gt; en cual on nomi [[Joxua]] como Yexua.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Nehemiah 8:17 Hebrew Interlinear: ... for the sons of Israel had not done, from the days of '''Jeshua [יֵשׁוּעַ, Yeshua] son of Nun''' ... |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/nehemiah/8-17.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

La nom sinifia &quot;Dio salva&quot; en ivri, leteral &quot;[[Iaue]] salva&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3091. יְהוֹשׁ֫וּעַ (Yehoshua) -- Joshua |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3091.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Both Joshua son of Nun and Jesus of Nazareth bear the name &quot;Yahweh saves&quot;''}}&lt;/ref&gt; de la radis ישׁע (''y-š-ʿ,'' 'salva') e la nom יְשׁוּעָה (''yexuah'', 'salva'). La [[Evanjelio de Mateo]] afirma direta la sinifia etimolojial de la nom de Jesus en la predise de la anjel a Josef sur sua nase: &quot;tu va nomi el Jesus (Ἰησοῦς), car el va salva sua popla de lor pecas&quot;.

Comentores ia dona un sinifia teolojial a la fato ce [[Joxua]], la susedor de [[Moxe]], porta la mesma nom como Jesus en la elinica, ivri, e arami orijinal, car on trasa frecuente un paralel entre la du xefes e la etimolojia de lor nom compartida ('salva'): Joxua gida la iudis a en la Tera Prometeda, en cuando la teolojia cristian dise ce Jesus salva e iudis e noniudis de lor pecas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Matthew Poole's Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/poole/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua had his name from the same word, because he was to be a temporal saviour to save the Jews, the whole body of the Jews, from the Canaanites their enemies. This Jesus was to save his people, all that should believe in his name, whether Jews or Gentiles, from their sins.''}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Vincent's Word Studies |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/vws/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Under Joshua the enemies of Israel were conquered, and the people established in the Promised Land. So Jesus leads his people in the fight with sin and temptation.''}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was not without reason that the successor of Moses was called by this name; for, by subduing the Canaanites, and putting the tribes of Israel in possession of the promised land, he showed himself to be, under God, the Saviour of his people. But this name agrees much better to our Jesus, who both delivers his followers from much more dangerous enemies, and divides unto them a much more glorious inheritance.''}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua who led the Israelites into the Promised Land, and Joshua or Jeshua, who was high priest at the time of the return from the Babylonish Captivity, are types of Jesus Christ in respect both of work and name.''}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Jesus Cristo ===

De la sentenio prima, cristianes nomi comun Jesus como &quot;Jesus Cristo&quot;.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} La parola Cristo no es un nom individual ma ia es orijinal un titulo o posto (&quot;la Cristo&quot;), sinifiante &quot;la [[Maxia]]&quot;.{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Theology of the New Testament |first=Rudolf K. |last=Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-932792-93-5 |page=80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;  La terma deriva de la elinica {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} ({{transleteri|grc|Christos}}),&lt;ref&gt;{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first=Anthony J. |last= Maas}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&amp;pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&amp;pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; un tradui prestada de la parola ivri {{lang|he|[[wikt:מָשִׁיחַ|משיח]]}} ({{transleteri|he|maxiakh}}), transleteri a elefen como ''maxia''.{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–275}} La terma ivri sinifia &quot;[[unjeda]]&quot;, de la verbo מָשַׁח (''maxaḥ''), &quot;frota con olio, unje&quot;. En la [[Septuajinta]], la traduores ia usa la parola elinica χριστός (''christos''), sinifiante &quot;unjeda&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=χριστός Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χριστός&amp;la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=of persons, anointed}}&lt;/ref&gt; de la verbo χρίω (''chrio''), &quot;frota con olio, unje&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=χρίω Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χρίω&amp;la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=Autenrieth: smear with oil, anoint, LSJ: rub, anoint with scented unguents or oil}}&lt;/ref&gt; En iudisme biblial, pretes ia usa olio santa per unje persones e ojetos spesial santa como parte de lor indui relijiosa.

Cristianes temprana ia nomi Jesus como &quot;la Cristo&quot; car los ia crede ce el es la Maxia de ci la ariva es prediseda en la [[Biblia ivri]] (Atesta Vea). En usa posbiblial, la popla ia comensa regarda ''Cristo'' como un nom — un parte de &quot;Jesus Cristo&quot;. La parola ''[[cristian]]'', sinifiante un seguor de Cristo, es en usa de la sentenio prima.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&amp;pg=PA142 142]}}

== Vive e instruis en la Atesta Nova ==

=== Evanjelios canonal ===

[[File:Dublin, Chester Beatty Ms Papyrus 45 BP I ff.13-14 Luke 11.50-12.12; 12.18-37; 12.42-13.1; 13.jpg|alt=Un manoscrito de papiro de cuatro pajes cual es laserada en multe locas.|thumb|Un [[papiro]] elinica de sentenio 3 de [[Evanjelio de Lucas]]]]
La cuatro [[evanjelios canonal]] ([[Evanjelio de Mateo|Mateo]], [[Evanjelio de Marco|Marco]], [[Evanjelio de Lucas|Lucas]], e [[Evanjelio de Joan|Joan]]) es la fontes xef per la vive e mesaje de Jesus.&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt; --&gt; Otra partes de la Atesta Nova inclui ance referes a episodios clavin en sua vive, como la [[Come Ultima]] en 1 Corintianes 11:23-26. [[Atas de la Apostoles]] refere a la servi temprana de Jesus e la previde de lo par [[Joan la Batizor]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Book of the Acts|series=New International Commentary on the New Testament|first=Frederick F. |last=Bruce |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-2505-6 |page=362 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Atas 1:1-11 furni plu detalias sur la [[Asende de Jesus]] ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} En la leteras nondisputada de Paulo, cual el ia scrive plu temprana ca la evanjelios, el sita a alga veses la parolas o instruis de Jesus.

Alga grupos cristian temprana ia ave descrives separada de la vive e instruis de Jesus cual la Atesta Nova no inclui. Estas inclui la [[Evanjelio de Tomas]], la [[Evanjelio de Petro]], la [[Evanjelio de Judas]], la [[Apocrifa de Jacobo]], e multe otra scrivedas apocrifa. La plu de eruditas conclui ce autores ia scrive esta testos plu tarda, e ce los es min fidable istorial ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–840}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker |page=154}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}}

==== Autoria, data, e fidablia ====

La evanjelios canonal es cuatro naras, e la tradision atribui cada a un autor diferente. La eruditas regarda jeneral la autores de la evanjelios como usante nomes falsa. La tradision atribui los a la [[cuatro evanjelistes]], cada asosiada con Jesus o sua seguores prosima:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Marco a [[Joan Marco]], un acompanior de [[San Petro|Petro]];&lt;!-- &lt;ref name=&quot;May Metzger Mark&quot; /&gt; --&gt; [[Mateo (apostol)|Mateo]] a un de la disiplos de Jesus;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Lucas (evanjeliste)|Lucas]] a un acompanior de [[Paulo (apostol)|Paulo]] notada en alga leteras;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} e Joan a un otra de la disiplos de Jesus,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} la &quot;[[disiplo amada]]&quot;.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}}

Seguente la [[primia de Marco]], la evanjelio prima cual on ia scrive ia es la [[Evanjelio de Marco]] (60-75 ec), segueda par la Evanjelio de Mateo (65-85 ec), la Evanjelio de Lucas (65-95 ec), e la Evanjelio de Joan (75-100 ec).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&amp;pg=PA58 |title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John |publisher=Crossway |year=2007 |page=58 |isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 |first=Mark D. |last=Roberts |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&amp;pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; La plu de eruditas acorda ce la autores de Mateo e Lucas ia usa Marco como un fonte per lor evanjelios. Car Mateo e Lucas comparti ance alga contenida no trovada en Marco, multe eruditas dedui ce los ia usa un [[fonte Q|fonte ipotesal Q]] en ajunta a Marco, en cuando un cuantia cresente suporta la [[ipotese de Farrer]] o la Posterioria Matean, en cual Mateo e Lucas ia usa direta lunlotra.&lt;ref name=&quot;:022&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Runesson|first=Anders|title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins|date=2021|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=9780802868923}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TSP20222&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference|publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers|year=2023|isbn=9789042950344|pages=5|editor-first1=Olegs|editor-last1=Andrejevs|editor-first2=Simon J. |editor-last2=Joseph|editor-first3=‎Edmondo|editor-last3=Lupieri|editor-first4=Joseph|editor-last4=Verhayden}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–221}} Lucas e Mateo trata lor fontes plu conservante ca otra istoristes antica como [[Diodoro de Sisilia]], an si la paraleles e varias de la evanjelios sinotica es tipal de biografias istorial antica.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kloppenborg 49–79&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kloppenborg|first=John|title=Variation in the Reproduction of the Double Tradition and an Oral Q?|journal=Ephemerides Theologicae Lovaniensis|volume=83|issue=1|pages=49–79}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Licona 2016 XIII-XIV&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=XIII-XIV}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Un aspeta importante de la studia de la evanjelios es la [[jenero leteratural]] a cual los parteni. La jenero &quot;es un costum clavin cual gida e la composa e la interprete de scrivedas&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Burridge|first1=R. A. |year=2006|chapter=Gospels|editor-first1=J. W. |editor-last1=Rogerson|editor-first2=Judith M. |editor-last2=Lieu|title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=433}}&lt;/ref&gt; Esce la autores de la evanjelios ia intende scrive novelas, mitos, istorias, o biografias ave un efeto sinifiante sur como on debe interprete lor obras. Alga studias ia sujesta ce on debe regarda la evanjelios como un forma de biografia antica.&lt;ref&gt;Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London: Routledge. p. 10.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.&lt;/ref&gt; An si criticistes esiste,&lt;ref&gt;e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162.&lt;/ref&gt; la vista ce la evanjelios es un tipo de biografia antica representa la acorda jeneral entre la eruditas oji.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Consernante la esatia de la naras, la puntos de vista varia entre regarda los como descrives nonerante de la vive de Jesus,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} asta duta lor fidablia istorial a puntos diversa,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} e asta regarda ce los furni multe poca informa istorial sur sua vive ultra la fatos fundal.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–125}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}}

==== Strutur e contenida comparativa ====

On nomi Mateo, Marco e Lucas la Evanjelios Sinotica, de la elinica {{lang|grc|σύν}} ({{transleteri|grc|syn}}, 'en junta')  e {{lang|grc|ὄψις}} ({{transleteri|grc|opsis}}, 'vista'),&lt;ref name=&quot;Haffner-2008&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Scroggie-1995&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{OED|synoptic}}&lt;/ref&gt; car los es simil en contenida, ordina de nara, lingua e strutur de paragrafes, e on pote pone fasil los a lado de lunlotra per un compara sinotica.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haffner-2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=New Testament Theology |first=Paul |last=Haffner |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-902268-0-9 |page=135 |publisher=Gracewing}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Scroggie-1995&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=A Guide to the Gospels |first=W. Graham |last=Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8254-9571-7 |page=128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Britannica URL |title=Synoptic Gospels |url=topic/Synoptic-Gospels}}&lt;/ref&gt; Eruditas acorda tipal ce lo es nonposible trova cualce relata leteratural direta entre la Evanjelios Sinotica e la Evanjelio de Joan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Gospel of John |first1=Francis J. |last1=Moloney |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3] |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}&lt;/ref&gt; Multe avenis — como la batiza de Jesus, sua crusi, e la interatas con sua apostoles — apare en la Evanjelios Sinotica, ma avenis como la [[transfigura de Jesus|transfigura]] e la [[esorsi]] de demones{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} par Jesus no apare en Joan, cual difere ance sur otra temas, como la [[purga de la Templo]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ladd |first=George E. |title=A Theology of the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&amp;pg=PA251 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&amp;pg=PA251 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

La Sinoticas asentua aspetas diferente de Jesus. En Marco, Jesus es la [[Fio de Dio (cristianisme)|Fio de Dio]], de ci sua obras potiosa demostra la presentia de la [[Rena de Dio]].&lt;ref name=&quot;May Metzger Mark&quot; /&gt; La autor portrae el como un faor nonfatigable de miracles e la servor de e Dio e umanas.&lt;ref name=&quot;ThompsonPortraits&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|editor-last1=Thompson|editor-first1=Frank Charles|title=The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible|publisher=Kirk Bride Bible Company &amp; Zondervan Bible Publishers|year=1983|pages= 1563–1564}}&lt;/ref&gt; Esta evanjelio corta rejistra un cuantia relativa peti de la parolas o instruis estendeda de Jesus.&lt;ref name=&quot;May Metzger Mark&quot; /&gt; La Evanjelio de Mateo asentua ce Jesus es la reali de la vole de Dio como revelada en la Atesta Vea e la Senior de la Eglesa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=Matthew|pages=1171–1212}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lo presenta el como la &quot;Fio de David&quot;, un &quot;re&quot;, e la Maxia.&lt;ref name=&quot;ThompsonPortraits&quot; /&gt;{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Lucas presenta Jesus como la salvor divin-umana ci mostra compatia a la povres.&lt;ref name=&quot;May Metzger Luke&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=Luke|pages=1240–1285}}&lt;/ref&gt; La testo depinta el como la ami de pecores e escluidas, ci ia veni per xerca e salva la perdedas.&lt;ref name=&quot;ThompsonPortraits&quot; /&gt; Esta evanjelio inclui parabolas bon conoseda, como la [[Bon Samaritan]] e la [[Fio Perosa]].&lt;ref name=&quot;May Metzger Luke&quot; /&gt;

La [[prologa de la Evanjelio de Joan]] identifia Jesus como un incarne de la Parola divin ([[Logos (cristianism)|Logos]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;MayMetzgerJohn&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=John|pages=1286–1318}}&lt;/ref&gt; Como la Parola, la testo descrive Jesus como eterna presente con Dio, ativa en tota la crea, e la fonte de la natur moral e spirital de umanas.&lt;ref name=&quot;MayMetzgerJohn&quot; /&gt; En esta evanjelio, Joan portrae Jesus como no sola plu grande ca cualce profeta umana pasada, ma plu grande ca cualce profeta ta pote es: el no sola parla la Parola de Dio; el es la Parola de Dio.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} En la Evanjelio de Joan, Jesus revela publica sua rol divin e on depinta el como la [[Pan de Vive]], la [[Lus de la Mundo]], la [[Vite Vera]], e plu.

La autores de la Atesta Nova ia mostra jeneral poca interesa a fundi un cronolojia asoluta de la vive de Jesus o a sincroni la episodios de sua vive con la istoria secular de la eda.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–731}}  Como Joan 21:25 declara, la evanjelios no alega furni un lista completa de la avenis de la vive de Jesus.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |pages=1–3}}&lt;/ref&gt; La autores ia scrive la naras xef como documentos teolojial en la contesto de [[cristianisme temprana]], considerante la linias de tempo como minor.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wiarda75&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology |first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages=75–78 |publisher=B&amp;H}}&lt;/ref&gt; La evanjelios dedica sirca un tri de lor testo a la semana final de la vive de Jesus en [[Ieruxalim]], cual on nomi la [[Pasion (cristianisme)|Pasion]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Turner613&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=David L. |last=Turner |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3 |page=613 |publisher=Baker}}&lt;/ref&gt; Los no furni sufisinte detalias per sasia la esijes de istoristes moderna consernante datas esata, ma on pote estrae de los un imaje jeneral de la istoria de la vive de Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}


== Notas ==
{{notelist}}
{{notelist|30em}}

== Referes ==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

=== Fontes ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |first1=Steven L. |last1=Cox |first2=Kendell H. |last2=Easley |year=2007 |title=Harmony of the Gospels |isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |publisher=B&amp;H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222032/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Dickson |first=John |author-link=John Dickson (author) |title=Jesus: A Short Life |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2008 |language=en|isbn=978-0-8254-7802-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Dillenberger |first=John |author-link=John Dillenberger |title=Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe |language=en|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-976146-3}}
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* {{cite book |title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-983943-8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusapocalyptic00ehrm |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |title=Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them) |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=2009 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/ |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-117393-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=How Jesus Became God |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2014 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmspAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-06-225219-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |year=2011 |title=Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are |isbn=978-0-06-207863-6 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376 |url-access=registration |publisher=HarperCollins}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year=2012 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-208994-6 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803200020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |author-link=Craig A. Evans |year=2003 |title=The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew–Luke |isbn=978-0-7814-3868-1 |language=en|publisher=Victor (Cook Communications Ministries)|url=https://archive.org/details/bibleknowledgeba00crai}}
* {{cite book |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |title=Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence |year=2012a |language=en|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-23413-3 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |title=Matthew (New Cambridge Bible Commentary) |date=2012b |language=en|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01106-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Finegan |first=Jack |title=Handbook of Biblical Chronology |year=1998 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |isbn=978-1-56563-143-4 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine |url-access=limited}}
* {{cite book |first=David N. |last=Freedman |author-link=David Noel Freedman |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year=2000 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803133406/https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Friedmann |first=Yohanan |year=1989 |title=Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background |location=Berkeley |language=en|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05772-2}}
* {{cite book |first1=Robert W. |last1=Funk |first2=Roy W. |last2=Hoover |author3=The Jesus Seminar |author-link3=Jesus Seminar |title=The Five Gospels |language=en|publisher=Scribner |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-02-541949-0}}
* {{cite book |first1=Joel B. |last1=Green |first2=Scot |last2=McKnight |first3=I. Howard |last3=Marshall |author-link1=Joel B. Green |author-link2=Scot McKnight |author-link3=I. Howard Marshall |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |language=en|publisher=InterVarsity |year=1992 |page=442 |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |last=Grudem |first=Wayne |author-link=Wayne Grudem |year=1994 |publisher=Zondervan |language=en|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |isbn=978-0-310-28670-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen L. |last=Harris |language=en|title=Understanding the Bible |publisher=Mayfield |year=1985}}
* {{cite book |last=Houlden |first=J. Leslie |title=Jesus: The Complete Guide |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8264-8011-8 |publisher=Continuum |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=Colin J. |last2=Waddington |first2=W. G. |date=1992 |language=en|url=https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |title=The Jewish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ's Crucifixion |journal=Tyndale Bulletin |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=331–151 |doi=10.53751/001c.30487 |s2cid=189519018 |access-date=21 April 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421091510/https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary |language=en|date=2009b |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6498-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |date=2009 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}
* {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |year=2012 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6292-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=Andreas J. |last1=Köstenberger |first2=L. Scott |last2=Kellum |first3=Charles L. |last3=Quarles |title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament |language=en|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |publisher=B&amp;H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727131059/https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Todd |year=2009 |title=The Crucifixion and the Qur'an: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought |language=en|location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-635-3}}
* {{cite book |title=Transfiguration |first=Dorothy A. |last=Lee |author-link=Dorothy Lee (theologian) |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8264-7595-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |publisher=Continuum |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Introduction |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |editor-last1=Levine |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |language=en|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |year=2006 |editor1-first=Amy-Jill |editor2-first=Dale C. |editor2-link=Dale Allison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410102712/http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-06-174811-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMisunderstoodJewTheChurchAndTheScandalOfTheJewishJesus |publisher=HarperCollins}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |title=The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8308-2719-0 |first=Michael R. |last=Licona |language=en|access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-date=18 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218101307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Paul L. |last=Maier |author-link=Paul L. Maier |title=The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus |encyclopedia=''Chronos'', ''Kairos'', ''Christos'': Nativity and Chronological Studies |editor-last1=Finegan |editor-first2=Jerry |editor-last2=Vardaman |editor-first3=Edwin M. |editor-last3=Yamauchi |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-931464-50-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&amp;pg=PA113 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor-first=Jack |editor1-link=Jack Finegan |editor3-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi |language=en|access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907110057/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&amp;pg=PA113 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke |first1=Ján |last1=Majerník |first2=Joseph |last2=Ponessa |first3=Laurie W. |last3=Manhardt |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-931018-31-9 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |publisher=Emmaus Road |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819025434/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&amp;pg=PA4 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |language=en|pages=4–6 |isbn=978-1-4051-0899-7 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073956/https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&amp;pg=PA4 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |author-link=John P. Meier |title=A Marginal Jew: The Roots of the Problem and the Person |year=1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-300-14018-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meier |first=John P. |title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-last2=McKnight |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |editor1-first=James D. G. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor2-first=Scot |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |year=2010 |chapter=Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Hazrat |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |editor2-last=Baumann |editor2-first=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |language=en|volume=1 |pages=54–56 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=ABC-CLIO |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&amp;pg=PA55 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021175959/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&amp;pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Watson E. |last2=Bullard |first2=Roger A. |year=1998 |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018095243/https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Morris |year=1992 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-85111-338-8 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802002134/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Niswonger |first=Richard L. |title=New Testament History |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-310-31201-7 |language=en|publisher=Zondervan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC}}
* {{cite book |last=Pannenberg |first=Wolfhart |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |title=Jesus: God and Man |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-334-00783-8 |language=en|publisher=S. C. M. Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year=1998 |language=en|isbn=978-0-664-25703-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasfigureinh0000powe |url-access=registration |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Rahner |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Rahner |title=Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi'' |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-86012-006-3 |publisher=Continuum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115653/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Who Is Jesus? An Introduction to Christology |first=Thomas P. |last=Rausch |author-link=Thomas Rausch |language=en|year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5078-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Redford |first=Douglas |title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |publisher=Standard Publishing |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence |first=Jonathan L. |last=Reed |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-56338-394-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |language=en|publisher=Continuum |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504050031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=1991 |title=Christ in Islam and Christianity |location=Albany |language=en|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0559-8}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=2005 |title=Jesus |editor1-last=McAuliffe |editor1-first=Jane Dammen |language=en|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00099}}
* {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=E.&amp;nbsp;P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |language=en|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |isbn=978-0-14-192822-7 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418040039/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |author-link1=Gerd Theissen |last2=Merz |first2=Annette |author-link2=Annette Merz |year=1998 |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8 |language=en|publisher=Fortress Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091805/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria |first1=Gerd |last1=Theissen |first2=Dagmar |last2=Winter |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-664-22537-7 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |author-link=Graham Twelftree |title=Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical &amp; Theological Study |isbn=978-0-8308-1596-8 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 |year=1999 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 95]}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143206/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words |last=Vine |first=William E. |author-link=William Edwy Vine |orig-year=1940 |language=en|year=1985|publisher=Fleming H. Revell |isbn=978-0-916441-31-9|ref={{SfnRef|Vine|1940}} }}
* {{cite book |title=Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels |last=Vermes |first=Geza |author-link1=Geza Vermes |year=1981 |publisher=First Fortress |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8006-1443-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament |first1=John F. |last1=Walvoord |author-link1=John Walvoord |first2=Roy B. |last2=Zuck |year=1983 |language=en|isbn=978-0-88207-812-0 |publisher=David C. Cook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth |first=Ben |last=Witherington |author-link=Ben Witherington III |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9 |publisher=InterVarsity |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

[[Categoria:Jesus Cristo]]
[[Categoria:Cristianisme]]</text>
      <sha1>sspjjc7ej43pyc2ufqcwaiza96p4rqr</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Teorias de Etica</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>5837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43198</id>
      <parentid>38913</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-26T13:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Helleniki</username>
        <id>17372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Teorias teolojial */</comment>
      <origin>43198</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17068" sha1="nfgmdws0igjxnqpjybudybybzfb0uu3" xml:space="preserve">'''Etica''' es la studia filosofial de bonia e malia. Lo es comun usada intercambiable con la parola ''moralia''. Lo difere de otra aspetas de filosofia en sua interesa en cual ''ta debe es'' en loca de en cual ''es''. Esta resulta en ce lo deveni multe plu lisca ca metafisica o epistemolojia.

==Teorias teolojial==
On ave tre categorias jeneral de filosofias de etica. La prima es la [[moralia teolojial]]. Como la nom indica, estas es filosofias de etica cual comensa con la idea ce lo cual es bon o mal es derivada de [[Dio]] (o alga otra potia plu alta).

La teoria teolojial la plu simple es la teoria de [[comanda divin]]. Esta teoria dise ce Dio la revela sua vole en la forma de comandas cual es furnida a nos tra tradision, scrives santa, la leges de la eglesa. Nos nesesa no plu per fa bon ca seguente acel comandas. La plu de la padres de la eglesa ia teni tal un crede, e la plu de persones relijiosa oji crede lo ance. Sua vantaje major es sua simplia e solidia.

Un teoria plu complicada es nomida [[lege natural]]. Esta deriva de san [[San Tomas de Aquino|Tomas Aquinas]], e es un parte de la filosofia catolica tradisional. San Tomas ia crede ce Dio no ta dona a nos un colie de regulas tra scrivedas santa e la eglesa, sola per causa ce los ta es contradiseda par nosa esperias e razona. Natur, como la crea de Dio, es en acorda tota con sua comandas moral. Persones ci crede en lege natural ta indica ce on ave persones de otra cultures, no esposada a nosa tradisiones de moralia, ci razona an tal sua via a la mesma concluis regardante cual es bon e mal.

La problem con lege natural ia deveni clar: Siensa produi, a veses, teorias cual contradise multe con scrivedas santa, e la eglesa produi a veses avenis (geras de relijio e la arde de ereses veni a mente) cual contradise multe con nosa tipo de moralia de sensa comun.

Cual causa ce la moralia de comanda divin e lo de lege natural es tan difisil es ce, en cuando sosia deveni plu pluraliste, nos ariva a plu e plu contata con un varia plu e plu grande de tradisiones relijiosa, cada con sua propre scrives e rituos santa, e no tota de los acordante a tota veses. La majoria de persones relijiosa ave bon cores e esita crede ce Dio ta condena nasiones intera per no ia ave la fortuna de oia la mesaje coreta! Esta senti es spesial tristinte cuando persones gania esperias con la popla multe bon con relijios diferente o an tota no relijio. Tra cuando nos resta jenerosa e umil, on ave no un problem, vera.

Ma alga persones trova se retirante a cual alga considera un posto defendente nomida [[asolutisme]]. Asolutisme es la teoria de comanda divin, ma sin la spirito jenerosa e umil. En otra parolas, on debe segue mea via o on ta sufri la seguente. Nos ia ave multe esemplos de asolutisme en istoria, e nos ave multe esemplos ancora oji.

==Relativisme moral==
tota oposada a la teorias teolojial es la formas variosa de [[relativisme moral]]. '''Relativisme moral''' dise ce prinsipes moral universal no esiste. Moralia es un caso de costumes, opinas, abituas, o emosias. On ave un estende de opinas asi: relativisme es a veses videda como un tipo de [[seticisme]] moral, cual ta dise ce nos no pote sabe vera cual es bon o mal. Otras vide lo como un [[nihilisme]] moral, cual dise ce no tal cosa como bonia e malia esiste, e ce esta parolas es no plu ca eticetas malgidante per otra cosas plu simple.

Un tipo de relativisme es nomida [[costumalisme]]. Esta dise ce lo cual nos nomi moralia es vera no plu ca un caso de nosa normas cultural o sosial. Cual nosa tradision dise es bon o mal (per cualce razona) es bon e mal. Comun, con esta veni la idea ce cultures e sosias debe no interfere con lunlotra (como en la espresa &quot;cuando en Roma, condui se como la romanes&quot;), ma lo no es nesesada.

Un otra tipo es nomida [[prescrivisme]], cual vide moralia plu como potia en un sosia. Cual nos nomi bon e mal es esensal prescrives per cual nos vole ce otras fa, cual nos enforsa con la potias su nosa comanda. Donce, nos dise ce fura es &quot;mal&quot; afin nos ave un justi per pone la persones ci fura nosa cosas en la prison!

Lo es nonevitable ce nos ta descovre otra sosias ci crede ce lo cual los desira es sua &quot;direto&quot;, sin regarda a cual nos desira. O nos descovre situas do on ave du sucultures o grupos sosial de ci sua credes moral no acorda. Un de la difisilias de costumalisme es defininte cual composa un sosia o cultur e cual regulas de interata entre lunlotra los posese.

Un &quot;solve&quot; es per redui la cultur o sosia a un cultur o sosia de un - pd, la individua. Esta es nomida [[sujetalisme]]. Asi, cada person ave sua propre moralia. Lo pote es un caso de credes individua o un caso de abitua, ma cada person crea sua propre elejes. Esta ta solve la problem de natur de un sosia o cultur, ma lo mali la problem de regulas de interata an plu!

Un otra tipo de relativisme vade an plu: [[emosialisme]] dise ce cual nos nomi bon o mal es no plu ca eticetas per alga respondes emosial ce nos senti regardante alga atas. Si tua idea de come canetas causa ce tu vomita, tu ta nomi lo mal. Si la idea causa ce tu saliva, tu ta nomi lo bon. Si seso con adolesentes fa ce tu deveni felis, tu ta nomi lo bon. Si seso con adolesentes fa ce tu deveni coler, tu ta nomi lo mal.

Entre studiantes, on pote trova jovenes ci trae sua credes relijiosa familial con se a la universia. Los tende gusta la teoria de comanda divin, con alga asolutistes como spise. Ma cuando los maturi, la plu ia deveni relativistes. La familia colpa comun la profesores per esta cambia en sua fies, ma lo es vera plu un caso de esposa a la minisosia pluraliste de la universia.

La studiantes joven vide ce on ave multe persones ci no acorda con un detalia o un otra de sua prinsipes moral de enfantia, ma pare como persones amin, o a min los no ia es matada par lampos de sielo. Alora, car esta studiantes es persones de bonvole, los comensa asentua tolera per la varia de moralias los vide, e relativisme pare como la forma la plu bon per esta tolera. Per esemplo, si tu ia es elevada per crede ce [[omosesalia]] es mal, ma tu trova multe persones ci crede ce lo es bon (e alga ci crede ce lo es la forma de sesalia la plu bon), tu pote developa un tende de &quot;vive e lasa vive&quot;, &quot;per cada sua propre&quot;, e &quot;dansas diferente per persones diferente&quot;.

Ma no tota casos es tan nonosiva como preferes sesal. On ave ance persones de ci sua prinsipe moral dise ce los debe sacrifia gales a la dios, o ce los debe converti a noncredores, o ce los debe arde uicanes a la posto, e ce los debe destrui la noncredores... Cual nos debe fa alora con nosa tolera jentil? Permete ce continua car &quot;per cada sua propre&quot;? Cual ta aveni si nos ia es tan tolerante cuando [[Adolph Hitler]] ia comanda la mata de miliones? O si la visinas de [[Jeffrey Daumer]] ia conclui ce, si el vole mata e come sua amadas, en cual modo es esta nosa conserna?

Un relativiste sofisticada ta responde, an tal, par indica ce esta idea de tolera no ave un rol en un teoria de moralia relativiste - ce tolera mesma es un valua moral a cual on adere o no adere. Donce, si la moralia de Hitler es un caso de estingui persones inosente, lo es nosa moralia per preveni el de continua! No problemes de lojica asi. 

Como on pote vide, relativisme prende un risca. Relativisme pote deveni '''nihilisme''' en la mesma modo ce comanda divin pote deveni asolutisme. Ma relativisme es la teoria de moralia segueda par la majoria de siensistes, incluinte la plu de psicolojistes.

==Moralia realiste==
La categoria tre de teoria moral es [[moralia realiste]]. Moralia realiste dise ce bonia e malia esiste en alga modo en esta mundo (o en nosa mentes), autonom de cosas como costumes sosial, credes, o opinas. A la otra lado, realisme moral no proposa alga cosa tan simple como un lista de comandas direta presentada par Dio. Moralia realiste es la media entre la teorias teolojial e relativisme moral, e es la plu comun modo de la filosofistes.

Ma, como es tipal con la media du cualce problem, lo no es un rol fasil adotada. La demanda grande a cual realistes moral debe responde es &quot;como nos pote sabe bon e mal? como nos pote reconose lo cual es bon o mal?&quot; Car esta demanda es tan difisil, on ave alga formas diferente de realisme moral.

===Moralia razonaliste===
La grupo prima de teorias per esamina es la teorias de [[moralia razonaliste]]'. Como la nom indica, esta teorias vide moralia como veni de nosa capasia per pensa. Como epistemolojia razonaliste, la forma la plu fundal de un veria moral razonaliste es lo cual es autoevidente. Esta es la teoria de [[intuisme]], cual es mostrada la plu bon par la filosofiste brites moderna, [[G. E. Moore]].

E, como en epistemolojia razonaliste, con pote dedui de intuis con lojica formal. En otra parolas, nos pote pensa nosa via a prinsipes moral. Kant ia promove tal modo en cual es conoseda como [[formalisme]]. El ia usa razona sur sua intuis e ariva a un etica cual dise &quot;nunca trata persones como modos per ateni goles; sempre trata los como goles se mesma&quot;.

Un forma popular de moralia razonaliste es nomida [[contratisme]]. Lo es asosiada con alga filosofiste influente, como [[John Locke]] e [[Jean-Jacque Rousseau]]. Rousseu ia crea la titulo e la idea fundal: el ia sujesta ce, a un ves, umania ia es en un state de [[anarcia savaje]]. Cada person ia senti libre per fa cualce cosa los ia senti nesesada per ateni lo cual los desira. Ma, la fato ce tota otras ia senti la mesma ta sinifia ce nun es vera libre en cualce modo. La tempo los no ia spende ateni lo cual los desira, ta es spendeda protejente se mesma de lunlotra!

Donce, Rousseau ia dise, nosa asedente ia asembla, senta, e pensa - a min metafora. Plu leteral, alga modos de trata esta anarcia ta evolui tra miles de anios. Ma la prinsipe es la mesma: cada de nos acorda per sede alga de nosa libria per prende cualce nos desira, afin nos pote tota reseta cual nos nesesa. Lo es nomida &quot;[[la contrata sosial]]&quot;.

Esta idea ia es multe influente en sua eda, spesial sur la [[revolui american]]. La &quot;padres&quot; de nosa nasion ia descrive la prosedes de nosa governa e la diretos e obligas de la sitadanes en un contrata conoseda como la constitui. Nos nomi esta sistem [[democratia]], natural, ma la constitui limita nosa libria democrata - la libria de la majoria - per proteje la minoria. E car on sabe nunca cuando sua turna ta ariva per es la minoria, esta ia opera bon (o no mal - nos ia continua nosa atenta per boni la sistem, pe par permete persones otra ca omes blanca vea per partisipa en la democratia. la obra continua!).

===Moralia naturaliste===
La grupo de teorias seguente, como tu pote espeta, es fundida sur ideas de un natur plu empirical. Asi, moralia es alga cosa cual tu esperia en alga modo. Esta teorias es nomida [[naturalisme moral]]. La plu simple sujesta ce nos persepi bon e mal direta, con un &quot;sensa ses&quot;, un [[sensa moral]]. Esta es la idea introduida par la dux de [[Shaftesbury]]. Nos dise comun a lunlotra &quot;esta no pare bon&quot; e &quot;esce tu no pote vide ce esta es mal?&quot;

[[Egoisme]] dise ce bonia e malia pote es persepida como la esiste de sentis spesial nomida felisia. La terma egoisme es nonfortunosa asi, car nos tende pensa de lo como un caso de la egoisme de avaria e hedonisme, cual es plu coreta poneda su la formas sujetal o emosialiste de relativisme. La epicuristes es bon esemplos de egoisme moral: Cosas como amia, onora, e an altruisme dona a nos alga emosias positiva par cual nos pote reconose ce los es bon. Otra cosas causa ce nos senti culpable o vergoniante - los es mal.

Analoja a contratalisme en la vista razonante, on ave [[utilitarisme]] en la vista natural. Inventada par [[Jeremy Bentham]] e developada par [[John Mill]] e sua fio [[John Stuart Mill]], utilitarisme es la plu bon conoseda per la frase &quot;la felisia la plu grande per la cuantia la plu grande&quot;. Como egoisme, felisia es videda como la modo en cual nos persepi bon e mal. A esta ves, la gol no es sola nosa propre felisia, ma la felisia de otras ance.

Par intui, lo pare multe acordable. Ma lo es vera difisil. Como on pote sabe si otras es felis? Nos no es sempre serta si nos mesma es felis! Cual causa otras per senti felis pote no es la mesma como cual causa nos per senti felis. Como pote nos soma la tipos variosa de felisia? Es caa person egal en la formula, o es la felisia de alga persones plu importante ca la de otras? E la minoria: esce lo es oce ce los no es felis, tra cuando la majoria es felis? Bentham ia pensa ce nos pote developa un &quot;[[calculo edoniste]]&quot; per solve esta cosas. Otras nonacorda forte.

(Un nareta par [[Ursula le Guin]] nomida &quot;Los ci vade a via de Omelas&quot;, en cual la felisia de tota sitadanes de Omelas es garantiada si los prisoni sola un enfante per sua vive intera. Libri la enfante, e tota pote deveni min ca felis o an triste; permete ce la sistem continua, e la enfante va continua sufri. Alga persones en la nareta eleje per vade a via, sacrifia sua felisia per no es un parte de esta sistem. Cual es la modo de responde a la situa la plu moral?)

De nova, nosa &quot;padres de la nasion&quot; ia es influeda par utilitarisme en ajunta a la contrata sosial, e la [[Declara de Autonomia de SUA]] es plenida con consetas utilitariste (e consetas contrataliste). [[Thomas Jefferson]], spesial, ia es multe interesada par esta casos. Ma nos continua demanda, como el ia pote reteni sua [[sclavos]]?

Un de la cosas tu ia pote nota cuando tu ia leje la paragrafes presedente es ce esta teorias razonaliste e naturaliste no es multe escluinte: En fato, on pote combina tota de los sin estende los tro multe de sua formas orijinal. Como la SUA ave la Declara de Autonomia e sua constitui, e como siensa es un misca de razonalisme e empiricalisme, nos pote sua tota de esta teorias su la idea de realisme moral a un ves!

===Etica de virtua===
Nos ave un plu ramos de realisme moral per discute. Esta es nomida la [[moralia de virtua]]. En loca de vide a bonia e malia como alga cosa nonpersonal cual nos nesesa reconose par razona o un senti moral, la teoria de virtua vide bonia e malia como cualias de la person mesma. Un person virtuosa es on ci crea atas bon, e no atas bon cual soma a un person virtuosa. Esta es ance comun nomida [[perfetisme]].

Lo es trovada en alga locas interesante: [[Aristotele]] ia proposa un etica de virtua en sua ''[[Etica Nicomacean]]'' famosa; [[Buda]] ia contorni un etica de virtua en sua sutras; [[Plato]] ia ave un etica de virtua, e ance la stoicas; e [[Frederic Nietzsche]] ia promove un etica de virtua en ''[[Tal parla Zoroastra]]'', la libro cual ia introdui la idea de &quot;Ubermensch&quot; (la person superior*) a la mundo. La idea es simple: Segue alga praticas e tu ta deveni un person virtuosa; alora, fa cual tu vole, e la resultas ta es bon.

La etica de virtua es multe atraente, ma lo ave un peril en lo. Ci deside cual composa un person virtuosa? La nazis ia leje Nietzsche e ia deside ce los mesma es la [[rasa mestral]] e no pote fa mal. Nietzsche no intende esta e el no ta pote reconose sua Ubermensch en la camisas negra e sua piafa de botas, e plu, Nietzsche ia es mor ante los. An la Budistes jentil ia debe fasa la problem: Si un mestre ci ia es sertida como luminada ta deside ce lo ta es un bon idea per ave seso con sua studiantes, o prende tota sua mone, esce sua &quot;lumina&quot; fa ce estas es bon? Per responde ce, en esta caso nos ia era sur sua lumina es tro fasil un via estra la dilema.

Un otra varia de la etica de virtua, nomida [[etica situal]], ia es developada plu resente par un teolojiste, [[Joseph Fletcher]]. No comfortosa con la teolojia de &quot;segue esta regulas o arde en enferno per eternia&quot; de alga cristianes, el ia dise ce [[Jesus]] ia ave un idea multe diferente de moralia (un idea multe simil a lo de Buda). Si tu cultiva un disposa de amia, tu va comensa natural per fa plu bon e min mal. En fato, cualce cosa fada con ama es par defini, en sua sistem, un ata bon.

Tu pote indica ce alga persones fa alga cosas mal en la nom de ama, ma nos pote vide estas como era. Ma on pote debate esta par nomi lo la crede falsa de &quot;[[no un om scotes vera]]&quot;: Si alga cosa bon deriva de ama, lo es bon; si alga cosa mal deriva de ama, lo no ia es ama.

Un otra aspeta de esta teoria es ce moralia es sempre situal. El intende ce moralia es sempre un caso de un person real en un situa rea, e nos no pote judi la atas de la person de estra la situa. Situas moral ipotesal, el dise, es nunca real. On ave sempre plu detalias per considera! (Un esemplo eselente de esta idea pote es videda en la filma ''[[Sophie's choice]]'' pd &quot;la eleje de Sophie&quot;, en cual un madre debe eleje cual de sua du enfantes pote es matada par la soldato nazi.) Esta ia sona multe tro multe como relativisme moral a cristianes conservaliste, e alora oji, multe persones malcomprende Fletcher e suposa ce el ia es alga forma de nihiliste repulsante. Los era.

: * La usa de &quot;superman&quot; como la forma engles per &quot;Ubermensch&quot; ia resulta ance en un malcomprende de la intendes de Nietzsche.

[[Categoria:Filosofia]]
[[Categoria:Psicolojia]]
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    <title>Viktor Skumin</title>
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      <text bytes="4659" sha1="11ew72gm1b0ia557af16mluel1pvbbc" xml:space="preserve">{{Biografia| 
| nom          = Viktor Skumin 
| imaje        = Vikskumin2026.jpg 
| grandia      = 180px 
| descrive     = Viktor Skumin en la anio 2026
| pais         = [[Oblast de Penza]] ([[Rusia]]) 
| profesa      = Psiciatriste 
| nase         = 30 agosto 1948 
| mori         =  
}} 

'''Viktor Andreevitx Skumin''' (en [[Rusce (lingua)|rusce]]: Ви́ктор Андре́евич Ску́мин, IPA: [ˈvʲiktər ɐnˈdrʲejɪvʲɪtɕ ˈskumʲɪn]); (naseda 30 agosto 1948) es un siensiste, psiciatriste, [[Filosofia|filosofiste]] e scrivor rusce e soviet. Skumin scrive sur psiciatria e psicolojia, stilo de vive sana, [[yoga]], e filosofia. El es autor de serie de libros ilustrada e articles sur [[Agni Yoga]], [[Roerichisme]], [[Cosmisme rusce]], [[Transhumanisme]], e [[Eda Nova]]. El ia scrive libros de naras e leteras per alga cantas.

== Biografia ==
=== Anios prima ===
Viktor Skumin ia nase en 30 agosto 1948 en la [[Oblast de Penza]] ([[Rusia]]). Sua padre, Andrew Skumin, ia es un ofisior de [[MGB de la URSS]], un colonelo de justisia, e un veteran de la [[Gera Mundal Du]]. Pos la nase de Victor, la familia ia move a la site de Kazan. La familia ia move multe veses entre sites diversa car Andrew Skumin ia es nominada a un posto nova. Entre esta sites ia es [[Penza]], [[Txeliabinsk]], e [[Petrozavodsk]]. Per esta causa, el ia studia en instituidas diferente.

=== Carera ===
Pos gradua de la Universia Nasional Medical en 1973, el ia deveni un psicoterapiste en la Instituto de Surjeria Cardiovascular. En 1978, el ia descrive un maladia nova, la [[Sindrom de Skumin]]. El ia introdui un metodo de [[psicoterapia]] e auto-boni sur fundi de autosujestion otimiste per reabili psicolojial de persones pos surjeria de la [[cor]] (1979).
De 1980 a 1990, el ia es un profesor de [[psicoterapia]]. El ia descovre un grupo spesifada de sintomes mental liada a [[maladia]]s fisical longa-term. El ia developa ance un idea nova sur como sania mental afeta maladias fisical cronica.

Pos, de 1990 a 1994, Skumin ia instrui psicolojia e pedagojia (la studia de instrui) a la Academia de Cultur de Stat. En 1994, el ia aida comensa e ia deveni la presidente prima de la Organiza Mundal de Cultur de Sania en Moscva. En 1995, el ia deveni la editor prima de la jornal A Sania via Cultur. El es ance famosa per crea la terma &quot;Cultur de Sania&quot; en 1968.
En 1994, el foi elejido como presidente-fundador de la Organiza Mundial de Cultura de Salud.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://kult-zdor.ru/?page_id=5 |title=World Organisation of Culture of Health |publisher=kult-zdor.ru |accessdate=7 Novembre 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215063155/https://kult-zdor.ru/?page_id=5 |archive-date=15 December 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bibliografia ==
*{{cite web |url=https://hollis.harvard.edu/primo-explore/search?query=creator,exact,Skumin,%20V%20A,AND&amp;tab=everything&amp;search_scope=everything&amp;sortby=rank&amp;vid=HVD2&amp;lang=en_US&amp;mode=advanced&amp;offset=0 |publisher=hollis.harvard.edu |title=Skumin V A |accessdate=2 Novembre 2025}}
* {{cite web |url=https://biblmdkz.ru/index.html |title=The Library of Culture of Health: Victor Skumin |publisher=biblmdkz.ru |accessdate=7 Novembre 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/20250503063754/https://biblmdkz.ru/index.html |archive-date=3 May 2025 |url-status=live}}

== Referes ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Vide ance ==
* [[Sindrom de Skumin]]

== Lia esterna ==
* {{cite web |url=https://pantheon.world/profile/person/Victor_Skumin/ |title=Psychologist Victor Skumin |language=en |publisher=Pantheon.world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420195130/https://pantheon.world/profile/person/Victor_Skumin |archive-date=20 April 2024 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |url=https://grokipedia.com/page/Victor_Skumin#philosophical-and-health-concepts |title=Victor Skumin |publisher=Grokipedia.com |url-status=live |lang=en |accessdate=8 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web//20251215103547/https://grokipedia.com/page/Victor_Skumin#philosophical-and-health-concepts |archive-date=15 January 2025 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite web |url=https://kids.kiddle.co/Victor_Skumin |title=Victor Skumin facts for kids |date=2025-11-01 |work=Kiddle encyclopedia |lang=en |accessdate=7 Novembre 2025}}
* {{Cite web |url=https://ninos.kiddle.co/Victor_Skumin |title=Victor Skumin para niños |date=2025-10-17 |work=Enciclopedia para niños |language=es |accessdate=7 Novembre 2025}}
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Victor_Skumin Wikimedia Commons] – fotos 

[[Categoria:Biografia]] 
[[Categoria:Filosofistes]]
[[Categoria:Medica]]
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    <title>Republica de Mordovia</title>
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      <text bytes="736" sha1="c5rdo873kmymw0obup1v1hur30h4der" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Flag of Mordovia.svg|250px|right|thumb|La flag de la republica]]
La '''Republica de Mordovia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].

La republica ia es creada en la anio 1930. Lo borda la oblastes de [[Oblast de Nijni Novgorod|Nijni Novgorod]], [[Oblast de Ulianovsc|Ulianovsc]], [[Oblast de Penza|Penza]], [[Oblast de Riazan|Riazan]] e la Republica de [[Txuvaxia]].

La Republica de Mordovia ave un area de 26 128 km². La popla es 758 895 persones, e la densia de popla es 29,05 persones/km².

La sentro de la rejion es la site [[Saransc]].

== Divide fada par la governa ==
'''Organiza de dirije:'''
* 22 distritas (raiones)
* 1 cite con importa de la rejion

{{Divides political de Rusia}}

[[Categoria:Republicas de Rusia|Mordovia]]</text>
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    <title>Caratxai-Txercesia</title>
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      <comment>Paje creada con &quot;[[File:Flag of Karachay-Cherkessia.svg|250px|right|thumb|La flag de la republica]] La '''Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].  La republica ia es creada en la anio 1930. Lo borda la crais de Crasnodar e Stavropol, la Republica de Cabardino-Balcaria e con li pais Sacartvelo.  La Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia ave un area de 14 277 km². La popla es 468 599 persones, e la densia de popla es 32,82 persones/km².  La sentro de la rejion es la site T...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="684" sha1="bnfsrvlw4hcwx06bqyg33dfjshx1thc" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Flag of Karachay-Cherkessia.svg|250px|right|thumb|La flag de la republica]]
La '''Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].

La republica ia es creada en la anio 1930. Lo borda la crais de Crasnodar e Stavropol, la Republica de Cabardino-Balcaria e con li pais Sacartvelo.

La Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia ave un area de 14 277 km². La popla es 468 599 persones, e la densia de popla es 32,82 persones/km².

La sentro de la rejion es la site [[Txercessc]].

== Divide fada par la governa ==
'''Organiza de dirije:'''
* 10 distritas (raiones)
* 2 cites con importa de la rejion

{{Divides political de Rusia}}

[[Categoria:Republicas de Rusia|Mordovia]]</text>
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        <id>2866</id>
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La '''Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].

La republica ia es creada en la anio 1922 como la oblast autonom. Lo borda la crais de Crasnodar e Stavropol, la Republica de Cabardino-Balcaria e con li pais Sacartvelo.

La Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia ave un area de 14 277 km². La popla es 468 599 persones, e la densia de popla es 32,82 persones/km².

La sentro de la rejion es la site [[Txercessc]].

== Divide fada par la governa ==
'''Organiza de dirije:'''
* 10 distritas (raiones)
* 2 cites con importa de la rejion

{{Divides political de Rusia}}

[[Categoria:Republicas de Rusia|Mordovia]]</text>
      <sha1>5wm3hcowwjn5g5b5a01b8cgdabv33ay</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>43204</id>
      <parentid>43203</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T09:57:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flamme-Bleue</username>
        <id>2866</id>
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      <text bytes="715" sha1="ivjh7uumk1z8gmkmiggvrkpz50rc648" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Flag of Karachay-Cherkessia.svg|250px|right|thumb|La flag de la republica]]
La '''Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].

La republica ia es creada en la anio 1922 como la oblast autonom. Lo borda la crais de Crasnodar e Stavropol, la Republica de [[Cabardino-Balcaria]] e con li pais [[Sacartvelo]].

La Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia ave un area de 14 277 km². La popla es 468 599 persones, e la densia de popla es 32,82 persones/km².

La sentro de la rejion es la site [[Txercessc]].

== Divide fada par la governa ==
'''Organiza de dirije:'''
* 10 distritas (raiones)
* 2 cites con importa de la rejion

{{Divides political de Rusia}}

[[Categoria:Republicas de Rusia|Mordovia]]</text>
      <sha1>ivjh7uumk1z8gmkmiggvrkpz50rc648</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>43204</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-27T09:58:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flamme-Bleue</username>
        <id>2866</id>
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La '''Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia''' es un rejion en [[Rusia]].

La republica ia es creada en la anio 1922 como la oblast autonom. Lo borda la crais de Crasnodar e Stavropol, la Republica de [[Cabardino-Balcaria]] e con li pais [[Sacartvelo]].

La Republica de Caratxai-Txercesia ave un area de 14 277 km². La popla es 468 599 persones, e la densia de popla es 32,82 persones/km².

La sentro de la rejion es la site [[Txercessc]].

== Divide fada par la governa ==
'''Organiza de dirije:'''
* 10 distritas (raiones)
* 2 cites con importa de la rejion

{{Divides political de Rusia}}

[[Categoria:Republicas de Rusia]]</text>
      <sha1>l3bqv8t4996qgvaalsl3hprnjmju4l0</sha1>
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