Miley Cyrus

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    <title>Miley Cyrus</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-10T17:09:04Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Themeramisin</username>
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      <text bytes="18399" sha1="nqbtplmetel2b59jjo2t7v451dhb7pc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Artist Mużikali
|kulur = solo_singer
|isem = Miley Cyrus
|stampa = Miley Cyrus Primavera19 -226 (48986293772) (cropped).jpg
|stampa_daqs = 220px
|stampa_desk =
|landscape = 
|isem_sħiħ = Destiny Hope Cyrus
|magħruf =
|twelid = {{dte|1992|11|23|df=yes}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Nashville (Tennessee)|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], [[Stati Uniti]]
|oriġini = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[Stati Uniti]]
|ġeneru = [[Teen pop]], [[dance-pop]], [[bubblegum pop]], [[pop rock]]
|okkupazzjoni = [[Kantanta]], [[attur|attriċi]], [[liriċista]], [[kitarrist]]a
|strumenti = [[Vokali]], [[kitarra]]
|snin_attivita = 2003–preżent
|tikketti = [[Walt Disney Records|Walt Disney]] (2006-2008)&lt;br /&gt;[[Hollywood Records|Hollywood]] (2006- )
|atti_assoċjati = [[Billy Ray Cyrus]], [[Trace Cyrus]], [[Emily Osment]], [[Mitchel Musso]], [[Ashley Tisdale]], [[Jonas Brothers]]
|URL = [http://www.mileycyrus.com/ www.mileycyrus.com]
}}
'''Miley Ray Cyrus'''&lt;ref name=&quot;name change&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b134281_Miley_Turns_Her_Back_on_Destiny.html|titlu=Miley Turns Her Back On Destiny|pubblikatur=E! Online|data=2008-05-21|data-aċċess=2008-05-12|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; (twieldet bħala '''Destiny Hope Cyrus''' fit-13 ta' Novembru 1992)&lt;ref name=&quot;mileybio&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|titlu=Miley Cyrus biography|url=http://music.aol.com/artist/miley-cyrus/823418/biography|pubblikatur=AOL|data-aċċess=2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521162515/http://music.aol.com/artist/miley-cyrus/823418/biography|arkivju-data=2008-05-21|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;, magħrufa aktar bl-isem tal-arti '''Miley Cyrus''', hija [[attur]], u [[kantant]]a, u [[liriċist]]a [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]]. Cyrus hi magħrufha aktar fl-irwol prinċipali bħala [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/&quot;Hannah Montana&quot;]] fis-serje televiżiva ''[[Hannah Montana]]'' fuq [[Disney Channel]].

Cyrus kisbet il-popolarità speċjalment wara li s-serje ''Hannah Montana'' ddebutta f'Marzu tal-2006. Wara dan is-suċċess, f'Ottubru tal-istess sena, ħarġet CD bi tmien kanzunetti tagħha li kantat matul is-serje. F'Diċembru 2007, skont [[Forbes]], hi kienet is-sbatax il-persuna l-aktar sinjura ta' taħt il-25 sena, bi qligħ annwali ta' [[dollaru Amerikan|US$]]3.5 miljun.&lt;ref name=&quot;Forbes Magazine 07&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url =http://www.forbes.com/2007/12/01/celebrity-hollywood-media-cz_lg_1204kidstars_slide_18.html |titlu =Forbes Magazine Top 20 Under 25 | data-aċċess = 2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Minn Diċembru 2007, hi qed taħdem f'film bħala parti minn ''Hannah Montana'', bl-isem ta' ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]]'' li se joħroġ fl-1 ta' Mejju 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar|isem=Pamela|kunjom=McClintock|titlu=Disney unveils 2009 schedule|pubblikatur=Variety|data=2008-02-20|url= http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117981211.html?categoryid=13&amp;cs=1|data-aċċess=2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Il-karriera bħala solista bdiet permezz tal-album debuttanti, ''[[Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus|Meet Miley Cyrus]]'' fit-23 ta' Ġunju 2007. It-tieni album tagħha, ''[[Breakout]]'' ħareġ fit-18 ta' Ġunju 2008, li kien l-ewwel album ta' Miley li ma kellux il-konċessjoni ta' Hannah Montana.

== Il-ħajja tal-bidu ==

Cyrus twieldet f'[[Nashville (Tennesse)|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]],&lt;ref name=&quot;ecourtdocs&quot;&gt;Dokumenti mill-Qorti Superjuri ta' Los Angeles fuq il-bidla tal-isem. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820170057/http://images.eonline.com/static/news/pdf/miley_cyrus_name_change_2.pdf PDF (paġna 4)].&lt;/ref&gt; it-tifla ta' Leticia &quot;Tish&quot; (née Finley) u l-kantant tal-[[mużika country|country]] [[Ray Cyrus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt; Hi għandha żewġt aħwa subien, Trace, kitarrista u korista mal-grupp Amerikan [[Metro Station]], u Braison, kif ukoll żewġt aħwa bniet, Noah, li hi wkoll attriċi, u Brandi, kitarrista ta' Hannah Montana. L-isem veru ta' Miley hu Destiny Hope (tradott bil-Malti għal ''destin u speranza''), minħabba li l-ġenituri tagħha kienu jaħsbu li meta tikber għad tagħmel affarijiet kbar.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt; Cyrus kisbet il-laqam &quot;Miley&quot; minħabba li meta kienet żgħira kienet kontinwament titbissem, u mill-kelma bil-lingwa Ingliża ''Smiley'' (li tfisser titbissem) ħareġ dan il-laqam.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt;

== Karriera bħala attriċi ==
[[Stampa:Miley Wants To Play Too!.jpg|200px|thumb|Miley waqt kunċert]]
Cyrus bdiet tinteressa ruħha fir-reċtar fl-età ta' disa' snin meta l-familja kienet residenti għal ftit f'[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], fil-[[Kanada]]. L-ewwel rwol bħala attriċi kien fis-serje televiż ''[[Doc (serje televiżiv)|Doc]]'' ta' missierha, fejn hi ħadmet il-parti ta' tifla żgħira bl-isem ta' Kylie.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060520/news_1c20hannah.html|titlu=Miley Cyrus braced for Disney stardom|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|isem=David|kunjom=Hiltbrand|data=2006-05-20|pubblikatur=signonsandiego.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=mileybio/&gt; Fl-2003, hi ħadmet fil-film ta' [[Tim Burton]] ''[[Big Fish]]'', u wara kienet ukoll parti mill-vidjo mużikali ta' [[Rhonda Vincent]] mis-silta &quot;If Heartaches Have Wings&quot;.

=== Karriera ma' Disney ===

Cyrus kellha tnax-il sena meta għamlet l-awdizzjoni għal Disney għall-irwol prinċipali ta' [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana]] u kif ukoll għall-irwol tal-aqwa ħbieb tal-istess serje,&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.ultimatedisney.com/hannahmontana-livin.html|titlu=&quot;'Hannah Montana' Livin' the Rock Star Life! DVD Review&quot;|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|data=2006-10-20|pubblikatur=Disney DVD Reviews|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; imma l-eżekuttiv ta' Disney Channel iġġudikawaha li hi wisq żgħira. Madanakollu, Cyrus kienet persistenti fix-xewqa tagħha li tkun parti ta' ''[[Hannah Montana]]'', u għalhekk Disney għajtulha lura għal aktar awdizzjonijiet. Skond l-Viċi-President Eżekuttiv ta' Disney [[Gary Marsh]], Cyrus kienet magħżulha minħabba l-enerġija u l-vivaċità li kienet toffri u kienet tidher bħala persuna li &quot;tħobb kull minuta tal-ħajja&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;hollywoodrecords&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |kunjom=Oldenburg |isem=Ann |pubblikatur=USA Today |data=2006-03-23 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-23-miley-cyrus_x.htm |titlu=Lifelong work pays off, says Miley Cyrus, 13. |data-aċċess=2008-08-05 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi qattgħet diversi snin biex taqtal-aċċent tan-Nofsinhar, imma fl-aħħar Disney riedu li terġa' tqajmu. Cyrus, attwalment, għandha l-irwol prinċipali ta' [[Miley Stewart]] f'''Hannah Montana''. Hi wkoll tesebixxi fil-karattru ta' Hannah Montana għall-albums u l-kunċerti tagħha.

Cyrus, fl-2007, għamlet gamew żgħir fil-film għat-televiżjoni ''[[High School Musical 2]]'', fejn żifnet qabel it-tmiem. Cyrus kienet ukoll ospitu bħala Yatta fis-serje ''[[The Emperor's New School]]'' ta' Disney Channel.

Fl-1 ta' Mejju 2009 mistenni li joħroġ il-film ta' Hannah Montana, ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]] '', fejn se jkun prodott minn missier Cyrus (kemm fis-serje u anki fil-ħajja reali), [[Billy Ray Cyrus]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.buddytv.com/articles/hannah-montana/hannah-montana-film-in-develop-8116.aspx?show=hannah-montana.aspx 'Hannah Montana' Film In Development] (Ingliż)&lt;/ref&gt; 

Cyrus kienet mistiedna biex tippreżenta l-kanzunetta &quot;That's How You Know&quot; mill-film ''[[Enchanted]]'' fil-[[Premji Oscar 2008]]. Fid-[[9 ta' April]] [[2008]], Miley Cyrus dehret fis-serata ta' ġbir ta' fondi ta' ''[[American Idol]]'' f'''[[Idol Gives Back]]'', u hi stqarret lill-udjenza li kienet il-ħolma tagħha li xi darba tidher fuq ''American Idol''. F'[[Ġunju]] [[2008]], kien ġie mħabbar li Miley se tospita u tkanta fit-[[Teen Choice Awards]].&lt;ref name=test&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.teenchoiceawards.com/|titlu=Official Teen Choice Awards|pubblikatur=teenchoiceawards.com|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711152356/http://www.teenchoiceawards.com/|arkivju-data=2011-07-11|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Karriera mużikali ==

=== Albums ===

[[Walt Disney Records]] ħarġu l-ewwel album ta' ''[[Hannah Montana (album)|Hannah Montana]]'', fl-24 ta' Ottubru 2006. Dan kien jinkludi tmienja mill-kanzunetti li Cyrus kantat bħala Hannah Montana. Cyrus iffirmat ftehim rekord ta' erba' albums ma' [[Hollywood Records]] għall-albums tagħha. L-album wara kien reġa' ħareġ darbtejn. Cyrus fetħet għal [[The Cheetah Girls (grupp)|The Cheetah Girls]] fl-2006, fejn esebixxiet f'20 data mid-39 serata li kellhom ippreparti.&lt;ref name=&quot;post&quot;&gt;{{ċita aħbar|awtur = Craig Rosen|titlu = Disney's Cheetah Girls keep girl power alive|pubblikatur = Washington Post| data = 2006-09-25 |url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/25/AR2006092500033.html|data-aċċess = 2008-08-06 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Stampa:Miley Cyrus Concert.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Miley Cyrus waqt kunċert]]
Fis-26 ta' Ġunju 2007, eżattament tmien xhur wara l-publikazzjoni tal-ewwel album, Cyrus ħarġet album doppju, ''[[Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus]]''. L-ewwel disk serba bħala t-tieni album ta' ''Hanna Montana'', waqt li t-tieni disk kien l-album debuttanti ta' Cyrus bħala solista. Hi kitbet tmien kanzunetti minn għaxra, li kienu mniżżlin taħt l-isem tat-twelid Destiny Hope Cyrus.

Sena wara, Cyrus ħarġet it-tieni album taħt isimha. ''[[Breakout]]'' hu l-ewwel album ta' Miley Cyrus mingħajr ebda konnessjoni ma' Hannah Montana, fejn dan l-album kien jinvolvi s-silta &quot;[[7 Things]]&quot; li għenitha titla' fil-quċċatta tal-klassifiki.

=== Kunċerti ===

Cyrus kantat kemm bħala hi nnifisha u kemm ukoll bħala l-karattru ta' [[Hannah Montana]] fil-''[[Best of Both Worlds Tour]]'' fl-Amerika ta' Fuq li beda mit-18 ta' Ottubru 2007 f'[[Saint Louis (Missouri)|St. Louis, Missouri]]; dan kien estiż sal-31 ta' Jannar 2008 minħabba d-domanda kbira li kien hemm, fejn spiċċa biex saru 69 data, 14 aktar min-numru previst. Il-[[Jonas Brothers]] kienu l-att tal-ftuħ għal ħafna mill-kunċerti.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.pr-inside.com/the-hannah-montana-miley-cyrus-r345470.htm|titlu=The Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus ``Best of Both Worlds Tour'' Confirms 14 New Dates to Sold-Out Nationwide Tour|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|sena=2007|awtur=Walt Disney Records u Hollywood Records|pubblikatur=Business Wire 2007|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612082118/http://www.pr-inside.com/the-hannah-montana-miley-cyrus-r345470.htm|arkivju-data=2012-06-12|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-biljetti ta' kull kunċert kienu jiġu mibjugħa f'rekord ta' ħin wara li jkunu ħarġu għall-bejgħ, fejn iddiżappunta numru kbir ta' ammiraturi.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|kunjom=Westbrook|isem=Bruce|titlu=How much would you pay for Hannah Montana tickets?|pubblikatur=Houston Chronicle|data=2007-08-17|url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ent/5142413.html|kwotazzjoni=... every show in every city, no matter how small, has sold out in minutes.|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dawn il-kunċerti li saru ġew irrikordjati u ħarġu fiċ-ċinema, fejn il-film ġabar [[dollaru Amerikan|$]]8,651,758 fil-ġurnata tal-ftuħ u kompla sakemm wasal sa $31,117,834 sa tmiem il-ġimgħa, fejn b'hekk sar l-aktar film bi qligħ mal-ewwel tmiem il-ġimgħa li ħareġ f'inqas minn 1000 ċinema. Fis-26 ta' Lulju 2008, kien maħruġ minn [[Disney Channel]].&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/weekends/fewesttheatersatno1.htm | titlu=Movies With the Fewest Theaters to Debut at #1 at the Box Office |pubblikatur=boxofficemojo.com | data-aċċess=2008-08-06 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; Minkejja li l-film baqa' sejjer biss għal ġimgħa, Disney estendew il-wiri tal-film indefinitivament minħabba domanda mill-ammiraturi.&lt;ref name=&quot;extend&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|awtur=Scott Bowles |data=2008-02-03 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2008-02-03-boxoffice_N.htm |titlu=''Hannah Montana'' concert film earns extended theater stay |pubblikatur=USA Today|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kontroversji u skandli ==

Fl-24 ta' Settembru 2007, kien hemm għajdut jiċċirkonda li Cyrus kienet tqila.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.transworldnews.com/NewsStory.aspx?storyid=23558&amp;ret=news.aspx&amp;cat=Entertainment|titlu=Miley Cyrus Pregnancy Rumors Circulating|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|data=2007-09-24|pubblikatur=transworldnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-kawża ta' dan l-għajdut kienet stampa fuq paġna ta' [[J-14 Magazine]] li kienet qed tiċċirkonda fuq l-internet, fejn kien hemm ukoll li Miley kienet stqarret l-għajdut fuq it-tqala waqt intervista ma' J-14.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://gaysocialites.com/2007/09/is_hanna_montana_star_miley_cy.html|titlu=Is Hanna Montana star Miley Cyrus really pregnant?|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|awtur=Charles Winters|data=2007-09-23|pubblikatur=gaysocialites.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; J-14 stqarrew li din l-istorja kienet &quot;kompletament fabbrikata&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20957841/|titlu=Despite rumors, Miley Cyrus Is Not Pregnant|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=MSNBC News|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; L-istorja vera kienet dwar id-drawwiet ta' Miley, li ntqalu min-nies tal-produzzjoni fis-set ta' ''Hannah Montana''.

F'Jannar 2008, deher fuq [[YouTube]], vidjo li juri lil Cyrus, fil-parti ta' Hannah Montana, li tkanta fil-''[[Best Of Both Worlds Tour]]''. Wara ftit minuti fil-vidjo, il-ballerin jgħin lil Cyrus toħroġ minn fuq il-palk fejn għattiha permezz ta' biċċa drapp sewda. Wara ftit sekondi, minn bieb, tidħol tfajla oħra liebsa bħalha li tieħu postha u tispiċċa l-kanzunetta li Miley kienet qed tkanta. Fil-11 ta' Jannar 2008, il-maniġer ta' Miley ikkonferma li l-vidjo ma kienx falz u li effettivament kienet tiġi wżata sostituta fl-aħħar żewġ minuti tal-kanzunetta &quot;[[We Got The Party]]&quot; biex b'hekk Miley tkun tista' tneħħi l-parrokka ta' Hanna Montana u terġa' tilbes b'mod li terġa' takkwista l-personalità ta' Miley.

Fi Frar 2008, Miley għamlet servizz fotografiku għal [[Vanity Fair (rivista)|Vanity Fair]] b'liżar tas-sodda biss jagħtti l-parti ta' fuq tal-ġisem, b'darha jkun viżibbli.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,23608789-5001026,00.html|titlu=Miley Cyrus topless controversy|data=2008-08-28|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=news.com.au|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; L-intenzjoni vera tar-ritratt kien dak li jipproponi serje ta' ritratti ta' nudità artistika, imma l-pubbliku ma tantx laqa' tajjeb il-messaġġ ''artistiku'' u b'hekk, f'Mejju 2008, qam skandlu li spiċċa bl-iskużi min-naħa tal-istilla.&lt;ref name=&quot;NYT VF&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/28/business/media/28hannah.html|titlu=A Topless Photo Threatens a Major Disney Franchise|awtur=Brook Barnes|data=2008-04-28|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=nytimes.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmografija ==
[[Stampa:Mileydog.PNG|200px|thumb|Cyrus mal-kelba tagħha 'Roadie']]
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Sena || Titlu || Rwol
|-
| rowspan=1 | 1999 || ''[[Big Daddy]]'' || Julian McGrath
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2003 || ''[[Doc (serje televiżiva)|Doc]]'' ||  Kylie
|-
|  ''[[Big Fish]]'' || Ruthie (8 snin)
|-
| 2006–preżent || ''[[Hannah Montana]]'' || [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana]]
|-
| 2006 || ''[[The Suite Life of Zack and Cody]]'' ||Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2007 || ''[[The Replacements (serje animata)|The Replacements]]'' ||  Ċelebrità (vuċi)
|-
|  ''[[High School Musical 2]]'' ||Tifla fil-pixxina
|-
|  ''[[The Emperor's New School]]'' || Yata (vuċi)
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2008 || ''[[Hannah Montana &amp; Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert|Best of Both Worlds Concert]]'' || Hannah Montana/Hi stess
|- 
|  ''[[Bolt (film)|Bolt]]'' || Penny (vuċi)
|-
|  ''[[Disney Channel Games]] || Hi stess
|- 
| rowspan=1 | 2009 || ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]]'' ||Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana
|}

== Diskografija ==

=== Albums ===

{| border=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Informazzjoni fuq l-album
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Kanzunetti tal-album
|- 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Hannah Montana (album)|Hannah Montana OST]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala [[Hannah Montana]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 24 ta' Ottubru 2006 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Produttur: [[Walt Disney Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1''' &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]] - ġimgħatejn)&lt;/small&gt;
* Kopji mibjugħa: 4,000,000+
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: '''Doppju Plàtinu
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot;This Is the Life (Hannah Montana)&quot; (2006)
* &quot;The Other Side of Me&quot; (2006)
* &quot;I Got Nerve&quot; (2006)
* &quot;If We Were a Movie&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Pumpin' Up the Party&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Just Like You (Hannah Montana)&quot;(2006)
* &quot;Who Said&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Best of Both Worlds&quot; (2006)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Hannah Montana 2:Meet Miley Cyrus]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala Hannah Montana)&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 26 ta' Ġunju 2007 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Tikketta: [[Hollywood|Hollywood Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1'''
* Kopji mibjugħa: 3,500,000+
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: Plàtinu
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot;Nobody's Perfect&quot;
* &quot;Make Some Noise&quot;
* &quot;Life's What You Make It&quot;
* &quot;We Got the Party&quot;
* &quot;One in a Million&quot;&quot;
* &quot;Bigger Than Us&quot;
* &quot;True Friend&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Breakout]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala Miley Cyrus)&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 22 ta' Lulju 2008 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Tikketta: [[Hollywood|Hollywood Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1''' Billboard 200 Chart
* Kopji mibjugħa: 371,000,000
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot; 7 Things&quot;
|-
|'''''Can't Be Tamed'''''
|
|-
|'''''Bangerz'''''
|
|-
|'''''Miley Cyrus &amp; Her Dead Petz'''''
|
|-
|'''''Younger Now'''''
|
|-
|'''''She Is Coming'''''
|
|-
|'''''Plastic Hearts'''''
|
|-
|'''''Endless Summer Vacation'''''
|
|-
|'''''Something Beautiful'''''
|
|}

== Referenzi ==
{{referenzi}}

== Ħoloq esterni ==
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* {{Sit uffiċjali}}
* {{imdb}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cyrus, Miley}}
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1992]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Atturi Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti-atturi Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti tal-pop Amerikani]]</text>
      <sha1>nqbtplmetel2b59jjo2t7v451dhb7pc</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lady Gaga</title>
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      <text bytes="19961" sha1="fifmm2dhgxj3erssgjr6h2btksylzfn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}
'''Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta''' (twieldet fit-28 ta' Marzu 1986), magħrufa aħjar bħala '''Lady Gaga''', hija [[kantant]]a u [[attur]] [[Stati Uniti tal-Amerika|Amerikana]]. Lady Gaga dehret fix-xena tal-mużika rock ta' [[Lower East Side]] f'New York City u daħlet f'Tisch School of the Arts, waħda fost l-iskejjel taħt l-[[Università ta' New York]]. Wara ffirmat kuntratt ma' Streamline Records, kumpanija li kienet tifforma parti mill-[[Interscope Records]]. Fl-ewwel żminijiet mal-Interscope, ħadmet bħala liriċista għal diversi kantanti stabbiliti u induna biha [[Akon]] li għaraf il-ħila vokali tagħha, u iffirmaha mad-ditta diskografika tiegħu, Kon Live Distribution.

L-ewwel album tagħha, ''[[The Fame]]'', li ħareġ fid-19 ta' Awwissu, 2008, laħaq l-ewwel post fir-Renju Unit, il-Kanada, l-Awstrija, il-Ġermanja u l-Irlanda, u fl-ewwel għaxra f'numru ta' pajjiżi madwar id-dinja; fl-Istati Uniti, laħaq it-tieni post tal-klassifika ''[[Billboard 200]]'' u l-ewwel post tal-klassifika Dance/Electronic Albums tal-istess ''[[Billboard]]''. L-ewwel żewġ kanzunetti tagħha, &quot;[[Just Dance]]&quot; u &quot;[[Poker Face]]&quot;, miktuba u prodotti t-tnejn li huma minn [[RedOne]], għamlu suċċess internazzjonali, fejn spiċċaw fil-quċċata tal-[[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] fl-Amerika u rebħu unuri għall-Aqwa Album Elettroniku/Dance u l-Aqwa Recording Dance. Fil-bidu tal-2009 bdiet l-ewwel tour tagħha, [[The Fame Ball Tour]]. Fir-raba' kwart tas-sena, kienet ħarġet it-tieni album tagħha bl-isem ta' ''[[The Fame Monster]]'', li kien jinkludu l-kanzunetta &quot;[[Bad Romance]]&quot;, waqt li bdiet it-tieni tour tagħha, [[The Monster Ball Tour]].

L-ispirazzjoni għal Lady Gaga huma l-kantanti glam rock [[David Bowie]] u [[Queen]], u kif ukoll il-mużiċisti pop [[Madonna (kantanta)|Madonna]] u [[Michael Jackson]]. Hi stqarret kif il-moda hi wkoll sors ta' ispirazzjoni għall-kitba u l-esebizzjonijiet tagħha. Sa Awwissu 2010, Gaga biegħet iktar minn 13-il miljun album u 51 miljun diska madwar id-dinja.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://newsroom.mtv.com/2010/08/12/lady-gaga-los-angeles/ |titlu=Spotted: Lady Gaga Celebrates Success In Los Angeles |data=2010-08-12 |pubblikatur=MTV News |data-aċċess=2010-08-18 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810092421/http://newsroom.mtv.com/2010/08/12/lady-gaga-los-angeles/ |arkivju-data=2011-08-10 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-magażin ''[[Time (magażin)|Time]]'', f'Mejju tal-2010, poġġiet lil Gaga fil-lista tat-[[Time 100]] tal-aktar persuni influwenti fid-dinja. F'Ġunju tal-2010, Forbes niżżlet lil Gaga bħala r-raba' fil-lista tal-aktar ċelebrità b'saħħithom u influwenti fid-dinja; hi wkoll tinsab fit-tieni post tal-aktar mużiċista b'saħħitha fid-dinja.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |isem1=Dorothy |kunjom1=Pomerantz |isem2=Lacey |kunjom2=Rose |url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/06/22/oprah-winfrey-lady-gaga-twilight-business-entertainment-celeb-100-10-intro.html |titlu=The World's Most Powerful Celebrities |pubblikatur=Forbes |data= |data-aċċess=2010-06-29 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |isem1=Dorothy |kunjom1=Pomerantz |isem2=Lacey |kunjom2=Rose |url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2010/53/celeb-100-10_Lady-Gaga_8UOG.html |titlu=The Celebrity 100: #4 Lady Gaga |pubblikatur=Forbes |data= |data-aċċess=2010-06-29 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bijografija ==

=== 1986–2004: Tfulija u l-adoloxxenza ===
Stefani Germanotta twieldet New York nhar it-28 ta' Marzu, 1986, l-ikbar tifla ta' Joseph Germanotta, imprenditur tal-internet [[Italo-Amerikan|Taljan Amerikan]], u Cynthia Bissett.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBB&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/pages/lady_gaga/index.shtml |titlu=Lady GaGa - Biography |data=2009-04-16 |data-aċċess=2009-04-16 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506063716/http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/pages/lady_gaga/index.shtml |arkivju-data=2015-05-06 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi tgħallmet il-[[pjanu]] meta kellha erba' snin; ta' tlettax ikkomponiet l-ewwel ballata għall-pjanu u ta' erbatax bdiet tkanta f'serati fejn l-udjenza setgħet tesebixxi ruħha quddiema il-mikrofonu. Fl-età ta' ħdax-il sena, Germanotta bdiet tattendi l-Kunvent tal-Qalb ta' Ġesù, skola Kattolika privata f'[[Upper East Side]] ġo Manhattan,&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article5325327.ece?token=null&amp;offset=0&amp;page=1 |titlu=Lady GaGa: the future of pop? |data=2008-12-14 |pubblikatur=The New York Times |data-aċċess=2009-02-06 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827021455/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article5325327.ece?token=null&amp;offset=0&amp;page=1 |arkivju-data=2011-08-27 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; imma sostniet fuq kif hi mhix ġejja minn xi sfond soċjali sinjur, fejn stqarret li l-ġenituri &quot;[huma] t-tnejn ġejjin minn familji ta' klassi baxxa, u għalhekk ħdimna għal kollox — ommi kienet taħdem mit-tmienja sat-tmienja 'l bogħod mid-dar, fit-telekomunikazzjoni, u l-istess kien jagħmel missieri.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;TimesOnlineDec09&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |isem=Lynn |kunjom=Barber |titlu=Shady lady: The truth about pop's Lady Gaga |pubblikatur=The Sunday Times |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article6940885.ece |data=2009-12-06 |data-aċċess=2010-06-14 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306082719/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article6940885.ece |arkivju-data=2020-03-06 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; L-imħabba li kellha għall-palk dehret fiż-żmien li kienet tattendi l-iskola sekondarja, fejn kienet ingħatat l-irwol prinċipali ta' Adelaide f&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' u ta' Philia f'''[[A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum]]''.&lt;ref name='growingupgaga'&gt;{{ċita web |isem=Vanessa |kunjom=Grigoriadis |titlu=Growing Up Gaga |data=2010-03-28 |pubblikatur=New York Media Holdings |url=http://nymag.com/arts/popmusic/features/65127 |paġna=7 |data-aċċess=2010-03-29 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401055337/http://nymag.com/arts/popmusic/features/65127/ |arkivju-data=2010-04-01 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi stess tistqarr fuq kif il-ħajja akkademika tagħha matul dan iż-żmien kienet waħda &quot;ta' dedikazzjoni, ta' studju, u ta' dixxiplina&quot; imma wkoll &quot;b'xi ftit ta' nuqqas ta' sigurtà&quot;. Kif qalet f'intervista, &quot;Kienu jgħadduni biż-żmien minħabba li jew kont inkun wisq provokattiva jew wisq eċċentrika, u għalhekk bdejt nillimita ruħi xi ftit. Ma kontx inħossni nappartjeni għal tal-madwar, u ħassejtni qisni skerz.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem=Jon |kunjom=Bream |titlu=Don't Gag on Gaga |data=2009-03-21 |pubblikatur=The Star Tribune Company |url=http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/music/41533957.html?elr=KArksLckD8EQDUoaEyqyP4O:DW3ckUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUUsZ |data-aċċess=2010-01-23 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428124842/http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/music/41533957.html?elr=KArksLckD8EQDUoaEyqyP4O:DW3ckUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUUsZ |arkivju-data=2015-04-28 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem=Seth |kunjom=Poppell |titlu=Lady Gaga was surprisingly normal |data=2009-12-22 |pubblikatur=In Touch Weekly |url=http://www.intouchweekly.com/2009/12/in_touch_exclusivelady_gaga_wa.php |data-aċċess=2010-01-23 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; Studenta li kienet tattendi magħha l-iskola sekondarja fakkret kif &quot;Hi kellha grupp ta' ħbieb; kienet studenta bil-għaqal. Kienet tħobb ħafna s-subien, però l-kant kien in-numru wieħed.&quot;&lt;ref name='whos-that-lady'&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem1=Maureen |kunjom1=Callahan |isem2=Stewart |kunjom2=Sara |titlu=Who's that lady? |data=2010-01-22 |pubblikatur=New York Post |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/music/who_that_lady_CBlHI927dRlLmIwjVfGrwK |data-aċċess=2010-03-26 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ta' sbatax-il sena, eżattament, nhar it-23 ta' Awwissu, 2003, Germanotta daħlet fit-Tisch School of the Arts tal-[[Università ta' New York]]. Hemmhekk hi studjat il-mużika u tejbet l-abilitajiet tagħha bħala liriċista fejn il-kitbiet tagħha kienu jduru madwar l-arti, ir-reliġjon, il-problemi soċjali u l-politika. Germanotta ħasset kif hi kienet iktar kreattiva minn biċċa minn sħabha tal-klassi. &quot;Ġaladarba titgħallem fuq kif għandek taħseb dwar l-arti, tista' tgħallem lilek innifsek,&quot; stqarret. Mat-tieni semestru tat-tieni sena ta' studju hi ħalliet l-iskola sabiex tiffoka iktar fuq il-karriera mużikali tagħha.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtv 55&quot;&gt;{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1589013/20080609/lady_gaga.jhtml |titlu=Lady GaGa Brings Her Artistic Vision Of Pop Music To New Album |kunjom=Harris |isem=Chris |data=2008-06-09 |data-aċċess=2009-05-07 |pubblikatur=MTV Networks |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224142657/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1589013/20080609/lady_gaga.jhtml |arkivju-data=2010-12-24 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Missierha kien qabel li jħallsilha l-kera għal sena, bil-patt u l-kundizzjoni li terġa' tidħol fit-Tisch jekk ma kienx se jirnexxielha.

=== Il-bidu tal-karriera ===

[[Stampa:Lady Gaga performing at The Bazaar, Atlanta, Oct. 2008.jpg|180px|thumb|Gaga tkanta f'ristorant fl-ewwel snin tal-karriera tagħha]]
Lady Gaga għall-bidu iffirmat kuntratt ma' [[Def Jam Recordings|Def Jam]], meta kellha dsatax-il sena, wara li d-diskografiku [[Antonio Reid|L. A. Reid]] kien semagħha tkanta fil-kuritur mill-uffiċċju tiegħu. Madanakollu, il-kantanta ċaħdet li hi u Reid kienu qatt iltaqgħu u l-kuntratt ġie xolt wara biss tliet xhur. Madwar sena wara ġiet skoperta mid-diskografiku [[Vincent Herbert]] li taha kuntratt mal-[[Interscope Records]] f'Jannar tal-2008. Hi rnexxielha tħalli 'l kulħadd impressjonat għall-widna lejn il-mleodija u għall-abilitajiet bħala [[kantawtur|kantawtriċi]], u bdiet taħdem bħala kantawtriċi, fejn kitbet għall-[[Konvict Muzik]], it-tikketta diskografika ta' [[Akon]], u għal artisti bħal [[Fergie]], [[Pussycat Dolls]], [[Britney Spears]] u [[New Kids on the Block]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;/&gt; Għal Britney Spears kitbet &quot;Quicksand&quot; u &quot;Amnesia&quot;, li suċċessivament ġew inklużi bħala ''[[bonus track]]'' fl-album ''[[Circus (album ta' Britney Spears)|Circus]]''. Fl-ewwel xhur tal-2007, Jimmy Lovine, il-president tal-Interscope Records, indunat bit-talent tagħha u fuq parir ta' Akon, li kien l-ewwel fost dawk li emmnu bit-talenti vokali tagħha, iddeċieda li jagħtiha kuntratt diskografiku.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/features/Lady-GaGa-Totally-GaGa.4891798.jp |titlu=Lady GaGa: Totally Ga-Ga|data-aċċess=2009-02-20|kunjom=Cowing |isem=Emma |data=2009-01-20 |xogħol=The Scotsman |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Allmusic bio&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/lady-gaga-p1055684 |titlu=Lady Gaga Overview |isem=Jason |kunjom=Birchmeier |pubblikatur=Allmusic |data-aċċess=2009-01-13|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Għall-2007 kollu, Lady Gaga ħadmet b'mod kostanti mal-ħabiba tagħha, [[DJ]] u [[ballerina]] [[Lady Starlight]]. Iż-żewġt iħbieb bdew jesebixxu flimkien f'diversi kunċerti u manifestazzjonijiet lokali bħal fil-Mercury Lounge u r-Rockwood Music Hall. L-esebizzjonijiet tagħhom, taħt l-isem ta' &quot;The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rock Show&quot;, kienu jagħtu ġieħ għall-varjetà tas-snin sebgħin. F'Awwissu 2007, it-tnejn li huma ġew mistiedna biex jipparteċipaw f'[[festival mużikali]] [[Lollapalooza]], fejn issorprendu lill-udjenza preżenti b'esebizzjoni deskritta bħala selvaġġa.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.wmagazine.com/celebrities/2007/10/lady_gaga|titlu=Going GaGa for Lady Gaga|pubblikatur=W Magazine|kunjom=D'Souza|isem=Nandini|data-aċċess=2009-04-21|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513084651/http://www.wmagazine.com/celebrities/2007/10/lady_gaga|arkivju-data=2012-05-13|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Grazzi għall-kollaborazzjoni ma' Akon, Gaga bdiet tibni l-materjal proprju tagħha, fejn ħadmet bi sħiħ għall-ewwel album tagħhom, viċin tim ta' produtturi bħal RedOne u Rob Fusari. Wara li għall-bidu bdiet tiċċentra l-mużika tagħha fuq id-[[dance]] [[mużika elettronika|elettronika]] [[avant-garde]], sabet it-triq mużikali tagħha meta bdiet tavviċina aktar għall-[[mużika pop|pop melodiku]] u għall-[[glam rock]] ta' [[David Bowie]] u l-grupp [[Queen]];

{{quote|Minn dejjem kont inħobb il-mużika u d-dinja tal-ispettaklu. Inħobb ħafna l-mużika pop, rock u mmur għal kunċerti iżda wkoll it-teatru. Meta skoprejt il-mużika tal-Queen u ta' David Bowie fhimt li stajt inwaħħad flimkien il-pop u r-rock flimkien mad-dance, għar-repertorji tiegħi.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.tgcom.mediaset.it/spettacolo/articoli/articolo431501.shtml|titlu=Negli Usa tutti pazzi per Lady GaGa|pubblikatur=TGcom|awtur=|data-aċċess=2009-04-21|lingwa=Taljan|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425201437/http://www.tgcom.mediaset.it/spettacolo/articoli/articolo431501.shtml|arkivju-data=2009-04-25|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

=== Id-debutt: ''The Fame'' ===
[[Stampa:Lady Gaga perfoming as a supporting act on the New Kids on The Block tour, 2008.jpg|275px|thumb|Lady Gaga waqt esebizzjoni diretta]]

Nhar it-8 ta' April iddebuttat bil-kanzunetta &quot;[[Just Dance]]&quot;, li laħqet instantanjament it-tieni post fil-klassifika dance tal-Istati Uniti u fl-ewwel post f'seba' pajjiżi — l-[[Awstralja]], l-[[Irlanda]], il-[[Kanada]], l-[[Olanda]], ir-[[Renju Unit]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Just Dance klassifiki&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://acharts.us/song/35829|titlu=Lady Gaga and Colby O'Donis - Just Dance|pubblikatur=aCharts.us|data-aċċess=2009-01-07|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; F'Awwissu tal-2008 ippubblikat l-album debuttanti tagħha, ''[[The Fame]]'', fejn fih għamlet analiżi ta' kull aspett tal-fama u li wieħed isir famuż. L-album jiġbor fih diversi ġeneri mużikali, li jmorru mid-[[dance]] għall-[[elettropop]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Allmusic bio&quot;/&gt; Fil-frattemp, Lady Gaga bdiet taħdem fil-proġett kollettiv imsejjaħ &quot;Haus of Gaga&quot;, fejn ikkollaboraw ma' Gaga fuq il-ħwejjeġ tagħha, ix-xenografija u esperimentazzjoni ta' tipi ġodda ta' ħsejjes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;/&gt; Fil-proġett ipparteċipaw stilisti u produtturi, li taw ħajja għal tim kreattiv fuq mudell tal-&quot;Factory&quot; ta' [[Andy Warhol]].

It-tieni silta mużikali mill-album ''The Fame'', &quot;[[Poker Face]]&quot;, ħarġet fit-23 ta' Settembru, 2008, u sparat fil-quċċata ta' madwar għoxrin pajjiż, ħafna minnhom ikunu swieq mużikali kbar. &quot;Poker Face&quot; saret ukoll it-tieni kanzunetta konsekuttiva ta' gaga li waslet fl-ewwel post fil-[[Billboard Hot 100]] f'April 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;Poker Face klassifiki&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://acharts.us/song/37371|titlu=Lady Gaga - Poker Face|pubblikatur=aCharts.us|data-aċċess=2009-01-03|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suċċessivament, il-Haus of Gaga bdiet iddawwar l-attenzjoni tagħha lejn is-suq Amerikan b'Gaga tipparteċipa fl-ewwel serje ta' kunċerti flimkien mal-kollegi tagħha fl-[[Interscope Records|Interscope]], New Kids on the Block, li kienu għadhom kif reġgħu ngħaqdu. Hi dehret bħala arista mistiedna fil-kanzunetta &quot;Big Girl Now&quot; mill-album ġdid tagħhom, ''[[The Block]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web | url=http://www.amazon.com/Big-Girl-featuring-Lady-Gaga/dp/B001ESU2DM | titlu=Big Girl Now (featuring Lady Gaga)|pubblikatur=Amazon.com|data-aċċess=2009-12-08|lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; L-album ''The Fame'' kompla jimpressjona fil-klassifiki mondjali, fejn laħaq l-ewwel post fil-[[Kanada]] u l-[[Irlanda]], u l-kanzunetti tiegħu ma naqsux li jidhru wkoll fil-quċċatta ta' diversi klassifiki.

Fl-2009 bdew l-ewwel rikonoxximenti tal-ħidmiet tagħhom, bil-kanzunetta &quot;Just Dance&quot; tiġi nominata bħala &quot;L-Aqwa Produzzjoni Dance&quot; fil-51 edizzjoni tal-[[Grammy Award]]s, li suċċessivament ġie mirbuħ minn &quot;[[Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger]]&quot; ta' [[Daft Punk]]. Fit-18 ta' April 2009, flimkien ma' [[Brandon Flowers]] tal-grupp [[The Killers]], esebixxiet flimkien mal-[[Pet Shop Boys]] fuq il-palk tal-[[BRIT Awards]] 2009.

Nhar it-3 ta' Frar 2009 ġiet ippublikata t-tielet kanzunetta tal-album, &quot;[[Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)]]&quot;, li rċiviet ħafna rikonoxximenti fl-[[Awstralja]], fi [[New Zealand]] u [[Franza]], minkejja li ma rnexxilhiex tħalli l-istess marka bħad-diski preċedenti. Xahar wara ħarġet ir-raba' kanzunetta, &quot;[[LoveGame]]&quot; li kisbet suċċess fl-Amerika. Il-vidjo ta' din il-kanzunetta, madanakollu, qajjem ħafna polemiċi f'diversi pajjiżi fejn ġie ċċensurat u saħansitra, l-istazzjon televiżiv Awstraljan [[Network Ten]] irrifjuta li jdoqq dan il-vidjo minħabba kontenut sesswalment espliċitu.&lt;ref name=&quot;radiogaga&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25666920-2902,00.html |titlu=Radio Gaga |kunjom=Hutchinson |isem=Jane |data=2009-06-21 |xogħol=Melbourne Herald Sun |pubblikatur=News.com.au |data-aċċess=2009-06-22 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624021708/http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25666920-2902,00.html |arkivju-data=2009-06-24 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nhar it-12 ta' Marzu 2009 ingħata l-bidu t-tour fl-Amerika ta' Fuq, ''[[The Fame Ball Tour]]'', prodott fuq il-mudell tal-kollettiv ''Haus of Gaga'', b'esebizzjonijiet multimedjali, fejn barra li dan it-tour kien jikkonċentra fuq il-mużika, ta importanza lill-[[moda]] u t-[[teknoloġija]]. Is-sett ta' kunċerti kienu jinvolvu tapep differenti, minn [[Los Angeles]], [[San Diego]], [[San Francisco]] u diversi postijiet oħra. Barraminnhekk, biex tippromwovi s-cd tagħha, esebixxiet f'diversi programmi televiżi kemm dawk Amerikani kif ukoll dawk barranin.

== Diskografija ==

=== Albums ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=text-align:center;
! rowspan=2|Sena
! rowspan=2|Album
! colspan=10|Pożizzjoni fil-klassifiki&lt;ref name=&quot;achartsthefame&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://acharts.us/album/37558 |titlu=Lady GaGa:The Fame on world charts |data-aċċess=2009-03-04 |pubblikatur=acharts.us |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=canadaalbum&gt;{{ċita aħbar |url=http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/Artists/L/Lady_GaGa/2009/01/14/8022056-jam.html |titlu=Lady GaGa's 'Fame' rises to No. 1 |isem=John |kunjom=Williams |data=2009-01-25 |data-aċċess=2009-03-04 |xogħol=Canadian Albums Chart |pubblikatur=Canadian Online Explorer |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! rowspan=2| Bejgħ
|- style=font-size:smaller;
! width=25| USA
! width=25| AUS
! width=25| CAN
! width=25| FRA
! width=25| GER
! width=25| IRE
! width=25| NET
! width=25| NOR
! width=25| NZ
! width=25| UK
|-
| 2008
| align=left| '''''[[The Fame]]'''''
* Pubblikat: 19 ta' Awwissu, 2009
* Tikketta: [[Interscope Records|Interscope]]
* Formati: [[Compact Disc|CD]], [[LP album|2LP]], [[download diġitali|diġitali]]
| 2
| 4
| 1
| 12
| 1
| 1
| 12
| 4
| 2
| 1
| align=left|
* Bejgħ mondajli: 8,000,000+
|-
|2009
| align=left|'''''[[The Fame Monster]]'''''
* Pubblikat: 23 ta' Novembru, 2009
* Formati: CD, LP, diġitali
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| align=left|
|-
|2011
| align=left|'''''Born This Way'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2013
| align=left|'''''Artpop'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2016
| align=left|'''''Joanne'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2020
| align=left|'''''Chromatica'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2024
| align=left|'''''Harlequin'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

== Referenzi ==
{{Referenzi}}

== Ħoloq esterni ==
{{Commonscat}}
* {{sit uffiċjali}}
* {{imdb}}
* [http://www.interscope.com/ladygaga Profil] fuq [[Interscope Records]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaga, Lady}}

[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1986]]
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Nies Italo-Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Atturi Amerikani]]</text>
      <sha1>fifmm2dhgxj3erssgjr6h2btksylzfn</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Michael Jackson</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>14024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>329870</id>
      <parentid>329850</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-10T17:10:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Themeramisin</username>
        <id>27761</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>329870</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9171" sha1="rnt438fxha18jyluisbt92uo3n1jlsh" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}

'''Michael Joe Jackson''' (twieled fl-29 ta' Awissu 1958 - miet fil-25 ta' Ġunju 2009), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Michael Jackson''', kien mużiċista u [[attur]] u [[kantant]] mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].

== Tfulija ==
Michael Joe Jackson&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/michael-jackson-mn0000467203/biography|titlu=Michael Jackson {{!}} Biography {{!}} AllMusic|data=2015-05-07|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-03-31|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507080746/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/michael-jackson-mn0000467203/biography|arkivju-data=2015-05-07|url-status=bot: unknown}}&lt;/ref&gt; twieled f’Gary, Indiana, li jagħmel parti minn [[Chicago]] fl-Istati Uniti tal-[[Amerika]], f’familja ta’ ħaddiema. Il-ġenituri tiegħu, Joe u Katherine, it-tnejn Afro-Amerikani, iżżewġu fl-1949.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita aħbar|kunjom=Barnes|isem=Brooks|data=2009-06-26|titlu=A Star Idolized and Haunted, Michael Jackson Dies at 50|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/26/arts/music/26jackson.html|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kellhom familja kbira ta’ disa’ ulied – tlett ibniet u sitt subien: Rebbie, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, La Toya, Marlon, Michael, Randy u Janet. L-ewwel tmienja twieldu bejn l-1950 u l-1961. Janet ġiet ħames snin wara. Michael trabba bħala Xhud ta’ Ġehovah, setta Kristjana, minn ommu Katherine, mara devota ħafna.

Il-kantant kien jibża’ ħafna minn missieru li kien strett wisq u juża ċ-ċinturin fuq uliedu meta jagħmlu xi ħaġa ħażina, xi ħaġa li kienet meqjusa normali f’dawk iż-żminijiet. “Missieri kien jaqbad miegħi, xi ħaġa li kont nobgħod u li minħabba fiha kont nibki kuljum. Kien hemm żminijiet li meta kien jiġi jarani kont inħossni ma niflaħx u nibda nirremetti,” kien stqarr lil [[Oprah Winfrey]] fl-1993.

Iżda kien ukoll grazzi għal missieru li Michael u ħutu kisbu l-fama. Fil-ħamsinijiet hu kien idoqq l-R&amp;B ma’ ħuh f’band, ''The Falcons'', li ma damitx wisq. Sakemm twieldet oħthom iż-żgħira, it-tliet subien il-kbar – Jackie, Tito u Jermaine – kienu diġà bdew il-grupp tagħhom. Michael u Marlon daħlu fih iktar tard. Missierhom ra opportunità ta’ karriera mużikali fihom li f’tiegħu ma rnexxietx, u ma’ uliedu kien għalliem aħrax u kien iġegħilhom jippruvaw il-kanzunetta b’intensità kbira.

== ''Jackson 5'' ==
Meta Jackson kellu għaxar snin il-''[[Jackson 5]]'' diġà kienu jdoqqu fuq livell professjonali u jduru l-klabbs. Hu beda jkanta magħhom minn mindu kellu sitt snin. Ta’ tmien snin sar il-kantant ewlieni flimkien ma’ ħuh Jermaine. F’wieħed minnhom rahom il-produttur Bobby Taylor li ħeġġeġ lil Motown biex jagħmel kuntratt magħhom. Berry Gordy, il-fundatur ta’ Motown, kien qal li huma kienu l-aħħar stilel li ħadem magħhom. Gordy iktar tard sar il-kunjatu ta’ Jermaine ukoll.

Il-grupp għamel suċċess minnufih b’erba’ kanzunetti li telgħu fl-ewwel post. Permezz tagħhom kisbu ħafna ammiraturi kif ukoll programm fuq it-televixin. Iżda kellhom prezz xi jħallsu għaliex is-suċċess wara sar piż.

F’nofs is-sebgħinijiet il-grupp, minbarra Jermaine, imxew għal mal-Epic Records li rrekordjaw magħhom żewġ albums u d-diska ‘Enjoy Yourself’.

F’dawk iż-żminijiet Michael diġà kien beda jispikka. Il-produtturi tal-Epic Records, Gamble u Huff, jiftakruh jieħu interess fl-irrekordjar tat-teknoloġija u kif jinstema’. Għalihom li fl-1979 ħareġ għal rasu Off the Wall ma’ Quincy Jones bħala produttur, kienet mossa tajba.

== Lejn il-quċċata tal-karriera mużikali ==
B’‘Off the Wall’ ma’ [[Quincy Jones]] biegħ 20 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja, u permezz tiegħu Jackson rebaħ tliet premji importanti. Minkejja s-suċċess il-kantant ħass li xorta seta’ jagħmel ħoss akbar.

Fl-1982 wara li ħareġ id-diska ‘Someone in the Dark’ għall-film ''E.T the Extra-Terrestrial'' li biha kiseb Grammy għall-Aħjar Album għat-Tfal. Fl-istess sena ħareġ ‘Thriller’ u kiseb suċċess ta’ barra minn hawn. Il-kanzunetta damet fl-ewwel post għal 37 ġimgħa u fil-quċċata tas-suċċess, biegħ miljun kopja fil-ġimgħa. Sal-lum id-diska biegħet mal-mitt miljun kopja madwar id-dinja u hija l-aktar waħda li nbiegħet fl-istorja tal-mużika pop. Il-vidjow tagħha, twil erbatax-il minuta, witta t-triq għal vidjows mużikali li ġew warajh inkluż ‘Scream’, li kien ħadem ma’ oħtu Janet fl-1995 li sewa $7 miljun u probabbli hu l-aktar vidjow li sewa flus. Is-suċċess tiegħu tista’ tgħid wassal għall-falliment tiegħu għax l-album ‘History’, li biegħ seba’ miljun kopja, tqies li kien falla.

Fl-1983 iddebutta ż-żifna magħrufa tiegħu ‘Moon Walk’ fil-programm televiżiv ‘Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever’. Sena wara rebaħ tmien Grammy’s u beda l-Victory Tour ma’ ħutu. F’dan iż-żmien għamel ħbieb ma’ Paul McCartney.
Fl-1987 ħareġ l-ewwel album ‘Bad’ li għamel suċċess kbir iżda b’inqas bejgħ minn ‘Thriller’. Fl-2008 l-album laħaq biegħ it-30 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja. It-tour tal-album dam sentejn u ta 123 kunċert quddiem 4.4 miljun ruħ. It-tfal żvantaġġjati kienu jitħallew jidħlu b’xejn u mill-qligħ kien jagħti ħafna donazzjonijiet lill-isptarijiet u orfanatrofji.

Fl-1988 ħareġ l-ewwel awtobijografija tiegħu: ‘Moon Walk’ li ħadet erba’ snin biex titlesta. Il-laqam King of Pop ingħatalu fl-1989 minn ħabibtu l-attriċi Liz Taylor meta kien qed jagħmel ħafna flus mill-bejgħ tal-albums biss.
 
== Kulur tal-ġilda u operazzjonijiet ==
Jingħad li l-ewwel operazzjoni li għamel kien f’imnieħru meta kellu xi għoxrin sena, wara li kissru waqt li kien qed jiżfen. L-operazzjoni ma kinitx ta’ suċċess, għax baqa’ jbati bi problemi tan-nifs. Għalhekk baqgħu jsirulu l-operazzjonijiet fuq imnieħru. 
Wara saret anki bidla f’geddumu, fil-forma tax-xagħar t’għajnejh, f’xufftejh u ħalqu u li hu jgħid li kienu riżultat tal-pubertà, telf ta’ piż, dieta stretta, bidla fl-istil tax-xagħar u dwal fuq il-palk.

Ħafna jsostnu li l-kantant għamel operazzjoni kożmetika biex jiċċara l-ġilda; għalkemm hu jsostni li l-kulur tal-ġilda nbidel minħabba l-marda vitilgo li qabditu fl-1986, li hi marda kronika li biha l-ġilda tiċċara (depigmentation) u li għamlitu sensittiv għax-[[xemx]].

== Mewtu ==
Lisa-Marie Presley li għamlet sentejn miżżewġa ma’ Jackson qalet li hu kien jaf li ħajtu se tintemm bħal ta’ missierha [[Elvis Presley]], li wkoll kien miet b’attakk f’qalbu tort ta’ pilloli preskritti, iżda fl-età ta’ 42 sena.
 
“Ridt ‘insalvah’ minn dak li kien inevitabbli li għadu kif ġara. Anki familtu u min kien iħobbu xtaq ‘isalvah’ imma ħadd ma kien jaf kif… “Kellu forza dinamika li ma kienx ta’ min ma jagħtix kasha. Meta kien jużaha fit-tajjeb kienet toħroġ l-aħjar tagħha, iżda meta kien jużaha ħażin ir-riżultat kien ikun ħażin ħafna… “Għejjejt emozzjonalment u spiritwalment nipprova nsalvah minn imġieba distruttiva… Kont mgħaddsa f’din il-kwistjoni imma jien kelli nieħu ħsieb lil uliedi wkoll. Għalhekk kelli nieħu l-aktar deċiżjoni diffiċli: li nitilqu għal xortih anke jekk kont inħobbu u ppruvajt inwaqqfu.” “Jien fortunata li kont ersaqt daqshekk viċin tiegħu u li qattajt dawk is-snin miegħu. Nispera li issa jitneħħa mit-tbatija, pressjoni u l-inkwiet. Ħaqqu jkun ħieles minn kollox u nispera li qiegħed f’post aħjar”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://variety.com/2018/music/news/joe-jackson-dead-dies-89-1202859242/|titlu=Joe Jackson, Jackson Family Patriarch, Dies at 89|kunjom=Morris|isem=Chris|kunjom2=Morris|isem2=Chris|data=2018-06-27|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Filwaqt li kien qed iħejji għall-kunċert ''This Is It'' fl-2009, Jackson miet nhar il-25 ta’ Ġunju fl-età ta’ ħamsin sena, b’attakk f’qalbu. Jidher li kienu ġew amministrati lilu mediċini qawwija bħall-propofol u l-lorazepam, u hemm min jgħid li nqatel mit-tobba. Iċ-ċerimonja tal-funeral tiegħu ixxandret dirett fuq it-televixin mad-dinja kollha, u b’kollox rawha madwar biljun ruħ.

== Diskografija ==

* ''Got to Be There'' (1972)
* ''Ben'' (1972)
* ''Music &amp; Me'' (1973)
* ''Forever, Michael'' (1975)
* ''Off the Wall'' (1979)
* ''Thriller'' (1982)
* ''Bad'' (1987)
* ''Dangerous'' (1991)
* ''HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I'' (1995)
* ''Invincible'' (2001)

== Filmografija ==

* ''The Wiz'' (1978)
* ''Captain EO'' (1986)
* ''Moonwalker'' (1988)
* ''Michael Jackson's Ghosts'' (1997)
* ''Men in Black II'' (2002)
* ''Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls'' (2004)
* ''Michael Jackson's This Is It'' (2009)
* ''Bad 25'' (2012)
* ''Michael Jackson's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall'' (2016)

== Tours ==

* Bad (1987–1989)
* Dangerous World Tour (1992–1993)
* HIStory World Tour (1996–1997)
* MJ &amp; Friends (1999)

== Referenzi ==
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Michael}}
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1958]]
[[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2009]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Xhieda ta' Ġeħova]]</text>
      <sha1>rnt438fxha18jyluisbt92uo3n1jlsh</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Utent:Trigcly</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>25623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>329881</id>
      <parentid>329859</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T07:46:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trigcly</username>
        <id>17859</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>aġġornament</comment>
      <origin>329881</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58779" sha1="gm2u2tyggx8v1ue1l6blobk2opm6xnp" xml:space="preserve">== '''Artikli ġodda (1982)''' ==

=== &lt;u&gt;'''A'''&lt;/u&gt; ===

* [[Aapravasi Ghat]]
* [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]]
*[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]]
*[[Abu al-Fida]]
*[[Abu Mena]]
*[[Abu Simbel]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]]
*[[Afag Bashirgyzy]]
*[[Aflaj tal-Oman]]
*[[Afrodisja]]
*[[Agadez]]
*[[Agostino Carracci]]
*[[Agostino Matrenza]]
*[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]]
*[[Aigai]]
*[[Aït Benhaddou]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]]
*[[Akshata Murthy]]
*[[Aksum]]
*[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]]
*[[Al Zubarah]]
*[[Al-Maghtas]]
*[[Alatyr]]
*[[Albéric Magnard]]
*[[Alberobello]]
*[[Albi]]
*[[Alcalá de Henares]]
*[[Alcide d'Orbigny]]
*[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]]
*[[Alenush Terian]]
*[[Aleppo]]
*[[Alessandro Scarlatti]]
*[[Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Alexander Pushkin]]
*[[Alexander Wolszczan]]
*[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]]
*[[Alfred Hermann Fried]]
*[[Alfred Nobel]]
*[[Alfredo Casella]]
*[[Alois Dryák]]
*[[Alto Douro]]
*[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]]
*[[Ambohimanga]]
*[[Ambra Sabatini]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]]
* [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]]

* [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]]
*[[Amilcare Ponchielli]]
*[[Anastasia Golovina]]
*[[Anders Jonas Ångström]]
*[[André Citroën]]
*[[André Weil]]
*[[Anfibju]]
*[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]]
*[[Angelina Mango]]
* [[Angkor Wat]]
* [[Angra do Heroísmo]]
* [[Ani]]
* [[Anjar]]
* [[Anna Brigadere]]
* [[Anna Kyriakou]]
*[[Anna Seghers]]
*[[Anna Sychravová]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Anse aux Meadows]]
* [[Antartika]]
* [[Anticosti]]
* [[Antigua Guatemala]]
*[[Antoine de Jussieu]]
*[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]
*[[Antoinette Miggiani]]
*[[Anton Diabelli]]
*[[Anuradhapura]]
*[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]]
*[[Aporofobija]]
*[[Aquileia]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]]
*[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]]
*[[Arequipa]]
*[[Arġentier]]
*[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]]
*[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]]
*[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]]
*[[Arkeoloġija]]
*[[Arkitett]]
*[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]]
*[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]]
*[[Arles]]
*[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]]
*[[Arslantepe]]
*[[Art tal-Inċens]]
*[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]]
*[[Artiġjan]]
*[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]]
*[[As-Salt]]
*[[Asmara]]
* [[Assisi]]
* [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]]
* [[Assur]]
*[[Asuman Baytop]]
*[[Athos]]
*[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]]
*[[Auschwitz]]
*[[Austin Camilleri]]
*[[Ávila]]
*[[Avukat]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;B&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Baalbek]]
* [[Babilonja]]
* [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]]
* [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]]
* [[Baeza]]
* [[Bagan]]
* [[Baħar l-Abjad]]
* [[Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Baħar ta' Wadden]]
*[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]]
*[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]]
*[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]]
*[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]]
*[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]]
*[[Bajjad]]
*[[Baleron]]
*[[Bamberg]]
*[[Ban Chiang]]
*[[Banská Štiavnica]]
*[[Barbier]]
*[[Bardejov]]
*[[Barokk]]
*[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]]
*[[Bath, Somerset]]
*[[Batlejka]]
*[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]]
*[[Battir]]
*[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]]
*[[Baxkortostan]]
*[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]]
*[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]]
*[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]]
*[[Beatriz Carrillo]]
*[[Beemster]]
*[[Béguinage]]
*[[Belintersat-1]]
*[[BelKA]]
*[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]]
*[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]]
*[[Belt Projbita]]
*[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]]
*[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]]
*[[Belt ta' New York]]
*[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]]
*[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]]
*[[Bennej]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]]
*[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]]
*[[Bernard Grech]]
*[[Betlem]]
*[[Betti Alver]]
*[[Burkhan Khaldun]]
*[[Bidwi]]
*[[Bieb il-Belt]]
*[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]]
*[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]]
*[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]]
*[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]]
*[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]]
*[[Bobby Charlton]]
*[[Bolgar]]
*[[Bordeaux]]
*[[Borobudur]]
*[[Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Bosra]]
*[[Bridgetown]]
*[[Brook Taylor]]
*[[Brú na Bóinne]]
*[[Bruno Pizzul]]
*[[Bryggen]]
*[[Bucha]]
*[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]]
*[[Bugeddum Armen]]
*[[Bukhara]]
*[[Burt Bacharach]]
*[[Buskett]]
*[[Butrint]]
*[[Byblos]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ċ/C&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Cáceres (Spanja)]]
* [[Calakmul]]
* [[Camagüey]]
* [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]]
* [[Campeche]]
* [[Canal du Midi]]
* [[Canaletto]]
* [[Caral]]
* [[Carcassonne]]
*[[Carl Bosch]]
*[[Carl David Anderson]]
*[[Carla Fracci]]
*[[Carlo Collodi]]
*[[Caroline Mikkelsen]]
*[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]]
*[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]]
*[[Çatalhöyük]]
*[[Causses u Cévennes]]
*[[Ċensu Apap]]
*[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]]
*[[Český Krumlov]]
*[[Ċetta Chevalier]]
*[[Chaîne des Puys]]
*[[Chan Chan]]
*[[Changdeokgung]]
*[[Chankillo]]
*[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]]
*[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]]
*[[Charles Nicolle]]
*[[Charles Richter]]
*[[Charles Xuereb]]
*[[Charlie Watts]]
*[[Chavín]]
*[[Choeung Ek]]
*[[Chersonesus Tawrika]]
*[[Chichén Itzá]]
*[[Chilehaus]]
*[[Choirokoitia]]
*[[Christiansfeld]]
*[[Christopher Polhem]]
*[[Cidade Velha]]
*[[Cienfuegos]]
*[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]]
*[[Cinque Terre]]
*[[Ċirkewwa]]
*[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]]
*[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]]
*[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]]
*[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]]
*[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]]
*[[Colonia del Sacramento]]
*[[Copan]]
*[[Córdoba, Spanja]]
*[[Coro]]
*[[Crespi d'Adda]]
*[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]]
*[[Cristofano Allori]]
*[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]]
*[[Cuenca (Spanja)]]
*[[Cueva de las Manos]]
*[[Cumalıkızık]]
*[[Curzio Maltese]]
*[[Cusco]]
*[[Cynthia Turner]]
*[[Cyrene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;D&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Daiga Mieriņa]]
* [[Damasku]]
* [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* [[Danxia]]
*[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]]
*[[Dar tal-Kimeri]]
*[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]]
*[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]]
*[[Delos]]
*[[Delphi]]
*[[Delta ta' Saloum]]
*[[Delta ta' Okavango]]
*[[Delta tad-Danubju]]
*[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]]
*[[Dengfeng]]
*[[Dentist]]
*[[Denys Shmyhal]]
*[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]]
*[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]]
*[[Deżert ta' Lut]]
*[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]]
*[[Dholavira]]
*[[Diamantina]]
*[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]]
*[[Diaolou]]
*[[Diga ta' Karakaya]]
*[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]]
*[[Dimitrana Ivanova]]
*[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]]
*[[Diy-Gid-Biy]]
*[[Dizzjunarju]]
*[[Djalett]]
*[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]]
*[[Djémila]]
*[[Djerba]]
*[[DNA]]
*[[Dolċier]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Menga]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Viera]]
*[[Dolomiti]]
*[[Domenico Allegri]]
*[[Domenico Scarlatti]]
*[[Domowina]]
*[[Domus de Janas]]
*[[Domus Rumana]]
*[[Donatello]]
*[[Dougga]]
*[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]]
*[[Dubrovnik]]
*[[Durmitor]]
* [[Dwejra]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;E&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Edgar Preca]]
* [[Edward Sexton]]
* [[Edinburgu]]
* [[Edward de Bono]]
* [[Edwin Hubble]]
* [[Efesu]]
* [[Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Ekonomista]]
*[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]]
*[[El Escorial]]
*[[El Jadida]]
*[[El Tajin]]
*[[El Torcal]]
*[[Eladio Dieste]]
*[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]]
*[[Elisha Graves Otis]]
*[[Elvas]]
*[[Emil Nolde]]
*[[Emma Andrijewska]]
*[[Emma Muscat]]
*[[Ernst Schröder]]
*[[Esperantoloġija]]
*[[Essaouira]]
*[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]]
*[[Ethel Anderson]]
*[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]]
*[[Eugenio Montale]]
*[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]]
*[[Evelyn Bonaci]]
*[[Évora]]
*[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;F&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]]
* [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]]
* [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]]
* [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]]
* [[Fanjingshan]]
* [[Fasil Ghebbi]]
* [[Fatehpur Sikri]]
* [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]]
* [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]]
* [[Fehme Agani]]
*[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]]
*[[Fenno-Skandinavja]]
*[[Fernando Botero]]
*[[Ferrara]]
*[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]]
*[[Festival ta' Sanremo]]
*[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]]
*[[Figolla]]
*[[Firenze]]
*[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]]
*[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]]
*[[Flora Martirosian]]
*[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]]
*[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Foresti Irkanjani]]
*[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]]
*[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]]
*[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]]
*[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]]
*[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]]
*[[Forti l-Aħmar]]
* [[Forti ta' Agra]]
*[[Forti ta' Bahla]]
*[[Forti ta' Galle]]
*[[Forti ta' Ġesù]]
*[[Forti ta' Rohtas]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]]
*[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]]
*[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]]
*[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]]
*[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]]
*[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]]
*[[Foss ta' Messel]]
*[[Fotografu]]
*[[Francesco Guardi]]
*[[François-Alphonse Forel]]
*[[François Couperin]]
*[[François Girardon]]
*[[Francois Mauriac]]
*[[Franco Migliacci]]
*[[Franġisk Zahra]]
*[[Frank Drake]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]]
*[[Franz von Suppé]]
*[[Frawla]]
*[[Fray Bentos]]
*[[Frédéric Bartholdi]]
*[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]]
*[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]]
*[[Frosta tal-Għid]]
* [[Frott]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]]
* [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]]
*[[Fuji]]
*[[Furnar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ġ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ġardinar]]
*[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]]
* [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]]
* [[Ġeoloġija]]
* [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]]
* [[Ġerusalemm]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]]
* [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]]
* [[Ġnien Persjan]]
* [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]]
* [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]]
*[[Ġurnalist]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;G&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Gammelstad]]
* [[Gamzigrad]]
* [[Gati tal-Punent]]
* [[Gebel Barkal]]
* [[Geirangerfjord]]
* [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Georg von Békésy]]
*[[George Gallup]]
*[[Georges Bernanos]]
*[[Georges J.F. Kohler]]
*[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]]
*[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Ghadamès]]
*[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]]
*[[Giacomo Zanella]]
*[[Giampiero Galeazzi]]
*[[Gianni Vella]]
*[[Gigi Riva]]
*[[Giorgia Meloni]]
*[[Giorgio Vasari]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Giotto]]
*[[Giovanni Arduino]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Giovanni Paisiello]]
*[[Giovanni Papini]]
*[[Giulio Natta]]
*[[Gjirokastër]]
*[[Glossarju]]
*[[Göbekli Tepe]]
*[[Goffredo Mameli]]
*[[Goiás]]
*[[Golf ta' California]]
*[[Golf ta' Porto]]
*[[Gonbad-e Qābus]]
*[[Gordion]]
*[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]
*[[Gotiku]]
*[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]]
*[[Grand Pré]]
*[[Grand-Bassam]]
*[[Grand Place, Brussell]]
*[[Graz]]
*[[Grazia Deledda]]
*[[Greenland]]
*[[Gregorio Allegri]]
*[[Gremxula ta' Malta]]
*[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]]
*[[Grotti ta' Longmen]]
*[[Grotti ta' Yungang]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]]
*[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]]
*[[Guimarães]]
*[[Gustave Charpentier]]
* [[Gżejjer Eolji]]
* [[Gżejjer Falkland]]
* [[Gżejjer Galapagos]]
* [[Gżejjer Marquesas]]
* [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]]
* [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]]
* [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]]
* [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]]
* [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]]
* [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]]
* [[Gżira ta' Cocos]]
* [[Gżira ta' Fraser]]
* [[Gżira ta' Gorée]]
* [[Gżira ta' Henderson]]
*[[Gżira ta' Jeju]]
*[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]]
*[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]]
*[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]]
*[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]]
*[[Gżira ta' Pico]]
*[[Gżira ta' Robben]]
*[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]]
*[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]]
*[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]]
*[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;GĦ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Għajn Tuffieħa]]
* [[Għalliem]]
*[[Għar Dalam]]
*[[Għar ta' Altamira]]
*[[Għar ta' Gorham]]
*[[Għar ta' Karain]]
*[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]]
*[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]]
*[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]]
*[[Għar tal-Irħam]]
*[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]]
*[[Għarb]]
*[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]]
*[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ellora]]
*[[Għerien ta' Mogao]]
*[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]]
*[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]]
*[[Għid]]
*[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]]
*[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]]
*[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;H&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Hahoe]]
* [[Haley Bugeja]]
* [[Halloumi]]
* [[Hallstatt]]
* [[Hampi]]
*[[Hans Geiger]]
*[[Hans Memling]]
*[[Hans Spemann]]
*[[Harar]]
*[[Harry Belafonte]]
*[[Hatı Çırpan]]
*[[Hatra]]
*[[Hattusha]]
*[[Hawa Mahal]]
*[[Hebron]]
*[[Hedeby]]
*[[Hegmataneh]]
*[[Hegra]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]]
*[[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
*[[Henri Frederic Amiel]]
*[[Hermannus Contractus]]
*[[Hideki Shirakawa]]
*[[Hideki Yukawa]]
*[[Hildesheim]]
*[[Höga Kusten]]
*[[Hoh Xil]]
*[[Hội An]]
*[[Holašovice]]
*[[Hollókő]]
*[[Hongcun]]
*[[Hospicio Cabañas]]
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]]
*[[Hovgården]]
*[[Howard Carter]]
*[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]]
*[[Huangshan]]
*[[Hubert de Givenchy]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ħ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]]
* [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]]
* [[Ħajja]]
*[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]]
*[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]]
*[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ibn Battuta]]
* [[ICOMOS]]
* [[Idolu ta' Shigir]]
* [[Idrija]]
* [[Idrijski žlikrofi]]
* [[Ilha Grande]]
* [[Il'ja Prigožini]]
* [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]]
*[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]]
*[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]]
*[[Inara Luigas]]
*[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]]
*[[Independence Hall]]
*[[Indiċi]]
*[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]]
*[[Ingredjent]]
*[[Intaljatur]]
*[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]]
* [[Ipproċessar testwali]]
* [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]]
* [[Iremel]]
* [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]]
* [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]]
* [[Irpin]]
* [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]]
*[[Isabella d'Este]]
*[[ISBN]]
*[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]]
*[[Istmu Kuronjan]]
*[[Ivan Turgenev]]
*[[Ivrea]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;J&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Jacinto Benavente]]
* [[Jaipur]]
* [[Jakob Bogdani]]
* [[Jan Novák]]
*[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]]
*[[Jarrod Sammut]]
*[[Jean Antoine Houdon]]
*[[Jean Dieudonné]]
*[[Jean Picard]]
*[[Jebel Faya]]
*[[Jeddah]]
*[[Jodensavanne]]
*[[Joggins]]
*[[Johann Christian Bach]]
*[[Johan Jensen]]
*[[John Edward Critien]]
*[[John Kendrew]]
*[[John Strutt Rayleigh]]
*[[Jongmyo]]
*[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]]
*[[Josef Hoffman]]
*[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]]
*[[Joya de Cerén]]
*[[Jože Plečnik]]
*[[Jules Pascin]]
*[[Julia Malinova]]
*[[Julia Sanina]]
*[[Júlia Sigmond]]
*[[Julio Baghy]]
*[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]]
*[[Jum il-Ġifa]]
*[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Jum l-Ewropa]]
*[[Jum Zamenhof]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;K&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]]
* [[Kairouan]]
* [[Kaja Kallas]]
*[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]]
*[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]]
*[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]]
*[[Kanal ta' Rideau]]
*[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]]
*[[Kandy]]
*[[Kappella]]
*[[Karavanseraj Persjani]]
*[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]]
*[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]
*[[Karl Weierstrass]]
*[[Karlskrona]]
*[[Karlu III]]
*[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]]
*[[Kastell ta' Ankara]]
*[[Kastell ta' Durham]]
*[[Kastell ta' Himeji]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]]
*[[Kastell ta' Lubart]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]]
*[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]]
*[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]]
*[[Kastell ta' Paphos]]
*[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]]
*[[Kastell ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]]
*[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]]
*[[Katarina Vitale]]
* [[Katidral]]
*[[Katidral ta' Aachen]]
*[[Katidral ta' Amiens]]
*[[Katidral ta' Bourges]]
*[[Katidral ta' Burgos]]
*[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]]
*[[Katidral ta' Chartres]]
*[[Katidral ta' Köln]]
*[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]]
*[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]]
*[[Katidral ta' Reims]]
*[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]]
*[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]]
*[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]]
*[[Katidral ta' Speyer]]
*[[Katidral ta' Tournai]]
*[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]]
*[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]]
*[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]]
*[[Kauksi Ülle]]
*[[Kaunas]]
*[[Kavallier ta' Madara]]
* [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]]
* [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]]
* [[KazCosmos]]
*[[Kelma]]
*[[Kerkuane]]
*[[Kernavė]]
*[[Kewkbet is-Safar]]
*[[Khami]]
*[[Khinalug]]
*[[Khiva]]
*[[Khor Rori]]
*[[Khorramabad]]
*[[Khuttal]]
*[[Kibbeh]]
*[[Kiki Kogelnik]]
*[[Kinderdijk]]
*[[Kirurgu]]
*[[Kizhi Pogost]]
*[[Kladruby nad Labem]]
* [[Klima ta' Malta]]
* [[Klondike]]
* [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]]
* [[Knarik Vardanyan]]
* [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]]
*[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]]
*[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]]
*[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]]
*[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]]
*[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]]
*[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]]
*[[Knisja ta' Boyana]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]]
*[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]]
*[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]]
*[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]]
*[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]]
*[[Koh Ker]]
*[[Kok]]
*[[Kolomenskoye]]
*[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]]
*[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]]
*[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]]
*[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]]
* [[Kolossew]]
* [[Konso]]
*[[Konversazzjoni]]
*[[Korfù]]
*[[Kosta Ġurassika]]
*[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]]
*[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]]
*[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]]
*[[Kotlovina]]
*[[Koutammakou]]
*[[Krak des Chevaliers]]
*[[Krakovja]]
*[[Krater ta' Logoisk]]
*[[Krater ta' Vredefort]]
*[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]]
*[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]]
*[[Kreta]]
*[[Krisztina Tóth]]
*[[Krzemionki]]
*[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]]
*[[Kujataa]]
*[[Kulangsu]]
*[[Kuldīga]]
*[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chaco]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]]
*[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]]
*[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]]
*[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]]
*[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]]
*[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]]
*[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]]
*[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]]
*[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]]
*[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]]
*[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]]
*[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]]
*[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]
*[[Kunya-Urgench]]
*[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]]
*[[Kutná Hora]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;L&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[L-Arti]]
* [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]]
* [[Lag ta' Baikal]]
* [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]]
* [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]]
* [[Lag ta' Laach]]
* [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]]
* [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]]
* [[Lag ta' Skadar]]
* [[Lagi ta' Willandra]]
* [[Lake District]]
* [[Lamu]]
*[[Landier]]
*[[Lapponja Żvediża]]
*[[Las Médulas]]
*[[Lascaux]]
*[[Lavaux]]
*[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]]
*[[Lazzaro Pisani]]
*[[Le Corbusier]]
*[[Le Havre]]
*[[Le Locle]]
*[[Leptis Magna]]
*[[Lessikoloġija]]
* [[Lessiku]]
* [[Letoon]]
* [[Lev Davidovich Landau]]
* [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]]
* [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]]
* [[Levuka]]
* [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]]
* [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]]
*[[Lika Kavzharadze]]
*[[Lima]]
*[[Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]]
*[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]]
*[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]]
*[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]]
*[[Linji ta' Nazca]]
*[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]]
*[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]]
*[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]]
*[[Lista ta' peniżoli]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]]
*[[Liz Truss]]
*[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]]
*[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]]
*[[Lorenzo de' Medici]]
*[[Lorenzo Gafà]]
*[[Lorenzo Valla]]
*[[Luang Prabang]]
*[[Lübeck]]
*[[Lucavsala]]
*[[Lucia Piussi]]
*[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]]
*[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Ludovico Carracci]]
*[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]]
*[[Luigi Boccherini]]
*[[Luigi Galvani]]
*[[Luigi Pirandello]]
*[[Lumbini]]
*[[Luna 26]]
*[[Lunenburg]]
*[[Lvant ta' Rennell]]
*[[Lviv]]
*[[Lyon]]
*[[Lyubov Panchenko]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;M&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Maċedonit]]
* [[Machu Picchu]]
* [[Madinat Al-Zahra]]
*[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]]
*[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]]
*[[Maison Carrée]]
* [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]]
*[[Maltin]]
*[[Måneskin]]
*[[Manhush]]
*[[Manto Mavrogenous]]
*[[Mantova]]
*[[Margaret Abela]]
*[[Maria De Filippi]]
*[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]]
*[[Maria Grollmuß]]
*[[Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Mario Draghi]]
*[[Mário Zagallo]]
*[[Marrakesh]]
*[[Marta Kos]]
*[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]]
*[[Mary Chronopoulou]]
*[[Mary Fenech Adami]]
*[[Mary Moser]]
*[[Masada]]
*[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]]
*[[Maurizio Costanzo]]
*[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]]
*[[Maymand]]
*[[Mbanza Kongo]]
*[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Medina ta' Sousse]]
*[[Melka Kunture]]
*[[Mérida (Spanja)]]
*[[Merill]]
*[[Meroe]]
*[[Merv]]
*[[Meteora]]
*[[Michael Refalo]]
*[[Michail Glinka]]
*[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]]
*[[Milan]]
*[[Mileva Filipović]]
*[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]]
*[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]]
*[[Minaret ta' Jam]]
*[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]]
*[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]]
*[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]]
*[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]]
*[[Mira Alečković]]
*[[Mirella Freni]]
*[[Miroslav Řepa]]
*[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]]
*[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]]
*[[Mnajdra]]
*[[Modena]]
*[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]]
*[[Moidam]]
*[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]]
*[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]]
*[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Rila]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]]
*[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]]
*[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]]
*[[Monika Kryemadhi]]
*[[Møns Klint]]
*[[Mont-Saint-Michel]]
*[[Monte Albán]]
*[[Monte San Giorgio]]
*[[Monte Titano]]
*[[Monticello]]
* [[Monument]]
* [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]]
* [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]]
* [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]]
* [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]]
* [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]]
*[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]]
*[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]]
*[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]]
*[[Morelia]]
*[[Moritz Cantor]]
*[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]]
*[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]]
*[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]]
*[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]]
*[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]]
*[[Moskea tat-Tatari]]
*[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]]
*[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]]
*[[Motoori Norinaga]]
*[[Mramorje]]
*[[Mtskheta]]
*[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]
*[[Muħammed]]
*[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]]
*[[Muntanja Pelée]]
*[[Muntanja Qingcheng]]
*[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]]
*[[Muntanja Wutai]]
*[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]]
*[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]]
*[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]]
*[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]]
*[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]]
*[[Muntanji Wudang]]
*[[Muntanji Wuyi]]
*[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]]
*[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]]
*[[Mużew ta' Trojja]]
*[[Myśliwska]]
*[[Mystras]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;N&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Nærøyfjord]]
* [[Nadur]]
* [[Naftalan]]
* [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
* [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]]
* [[Nalanda Mahavihara]]
* [[Namhansanseong]]
* [[Nancy]]
* [[Nan Madol]]
*[[Napli]]
*[[Naryn-Kala]]
*[[Nataliya Kobrynska]]
*[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]]
*[[Nekropoli]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]]
*[[Nemrut Dağı]]
*[[Nessebar]]
*[[New Lanark]]
*[[New Secret (jott)]]
*[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]]
*[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]]
*[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]]
*[[Nicolas Flamel]]
*[[Nicolau Coelho]]
*[[Nida]]
*[[Nika Križnar]]
*[[Nikkō]]
*[[Nino Ramishvili]]
*[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]]
*[[Nisa f’Malta]]
*[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]]
*[[Nizza]]
*[[Norman Morrison]]
*[[Nutar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;O&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]]
* [[Olga Tass]]
*[[Olimpja]]
*[[Olinda]]
*[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']]
*[[Oplontis]]
*[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]]
*[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]]
*[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]]
*[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]]
*[[Orthohantavirus]]
*[[Ortografija Litwana]]
*[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]]
*[[Osun-Osogbo]]
*[[Otto Toeplitz]]
*[[Ouro Preto]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;P&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Pablo Neruda]]
* [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]]
* [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]]
* [[Pál Maléter]]
* [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]]
*[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]]
*[[Palazz Mariinskyi]]
*[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]]
*[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]]
*[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]]
*[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]]
*[[Palazz ta' Golestan]]
*[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]]
*[[Palazz ta' Mafra]]
*[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]]
*[[Palazz ta' Potala]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]]
*[[Palazz ta' Versailles]]
*[[Palazz tal-Khan]]
*[[Palazz tas-Sajf]]
*[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]]
*[[Palazzi Minojċi]]
*[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]]
*[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]]
*[[Palenque]]
*[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]]
*[[Palestina]]
*[[Palianytsia]]
*[[Palmaria]]
*[[Palmyra]]
*[[Pamukkale]]
*[[Panamá Viejo]]
*[[Papa Ljun XIV]]
*[[Papahānaumokuākea]]
*[[Paquimé]]
*[[Paramaribo]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]]
*[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]]
*[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]]
*[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]]
*[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]]
*[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]]
*[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]]
*[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]]
*[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]]
*[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]]
*[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]]
*[[Parmigianino]]
*[[Parrukkier]]
*[[Pasargadae]]
*[[Paseo del Prado]]
*[[Pattadakal]]
*[[Paulo Coelho]]
*[[Pavlo Lee]]
*[[Pécs]]
*[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]]
*[[Peña de los Enamorados]]
*[[Peniżola]]
*[[Peniżola Valdés]]
*[[Pergamon]]
*[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]]
*[[Persepolis]]
*[[Peter Carl Fabergé]]
*[[Péter Magyar]]
*[[Pëtr Kapica]]
*[[Petra]]
*[[Petra Brocková]]
*[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]]
*[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]]
*[[Philipp Otto Runge]]
*[[Philippi]]
*[[Pienza]]
*[[Piero Angela]]
*[[Pierre Fatou]]
*[[Pietro Longhi]]
*[[Pietru l-Kbir]]
*[[Pimachiowin Aki]]
*[[Ping Yao]]
*[[Pippo Baudo]]
*[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]]
*[[Pitons]]
*[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]]
*[[Pjanta]]
*[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]]
*[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]]
*[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]]
*[[Pjazza]]
*[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]]
* [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]]
*[[Plamer]]
*[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Pobiti Kamani]]
*[[Politika]]
*[[Polonnaruwa]]
*[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]]
*[[Pont ta' Forth]]
*[[Pont ta' Malabadi]]
*[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]]
*[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]]
*[[Pont tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]]
*[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]]
*[[Port Royal]]
*[[Port ta' Mariupol]]
*[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]]
*[[Porta Nigra]]
*[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]]
*[[Porto]]
*[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]]
*[[Potosí]]
*[[Pożati]]
*[[Prambanan]]
*[[Professjoni]]
*[[Proklos]]
*[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]]
*[[Provins]]
*[[Pu'er]]
*[[Puebla (belt)]]
*[[Pythagoreion]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Q&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Qabar ta' Askia]]
* [[Qabar ta' Humayun]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]]
* [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]]
* [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]]
* [[Qala (Għawdex)]]
* [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]]
* [[Qalhat]]
* [[Qanat]]
* [[Qaryat al-Faw]]
* [[Qaytarma]]
* [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]]
* [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]]
* [[Quanzhou]]
* [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]]
* [[Quedlinburg]]
* [[Quirigua]]
* [[Quito]]
* [[Quseir Amra]]
* [[Qutb Minar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;R&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Rachid Chouhal]]
* [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]]
* [[Rammelsberg]]
* [[Ramses II]]
* [[Rani-ki-Vav]]
* [[Ras'ken' Ozks]]
* [[Ravenna]]
* [[Ravesa Lleshi]]
* [[Red Bay]]
* [[Regensburg]]
* [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]]
*[[Reichenau]]
*[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]]
*[[Rembrandt]]
*[[Renata Scotto]]
*[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]]
*[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]]
*[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]]
*[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]]
*[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]]
*[[Rettilu]]
*[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]]
*[[Riga]]
*[[Risco Caído]]
*[[Riversleigh]]
*[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]]
*[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]]
*[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]]
*[[Robert Fico]]
*[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]]
*[[Roberto Burle Marx]]
*[[Rodi (belt)]]
* [[Roi Mata]]
* [[Roșia Montană]]
* [[Ronald Searle]]
* [[Røros]]
* [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]]
* [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]]
* [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]]
* [[Royal Exhibition Building]]
* [[Róža Domašcyna]]
*[[Rudolf Diesel]]
*[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;S&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Sabratha]]
* [[Saeva Dupka]]
* [[Safranbolu]]
* [[Saint-Émilion]]
* [[Sajjied]]
*[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]]
*[[Salamanca]]
*[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]]
*[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]]
*[[Salme Kann]]
*[[Saltaire]]
*[[Salvatore Accardo]]
*[[Salzburg]]
*[[Samantha Cristoforetti]]
*[[Samarkanda]]
*[[Samarra]]
*[[Sambor Prei Kuk]]
*[[Sammallahdenmäki]]
*[[Samuel Deguara]]
*[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]
*[[San Gimignano]]
*[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]]
*[[San Miguel de Allende]]
*[[San Pietruburgu]]
*[[Sana'a]]
*[[Sanchi]]
*[[Sandra Milo]]
*[[Sandra Mondaini]]
*[[Sandro Botticelli]]
*[[Sangiran]]
*[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]]
*[[Santiago de Compostela]]
*[[Santiago de Querétaro]]
*[[Santiniketan]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]]
*[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]]
*[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]]
*[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]]
*[[São Cristóvão]]
*[[São Luís]]
*[[Sarazm]]
*[[Sardis]]
* [[Saryarka]]
* [[Sassi ta' Matera]]
*[[Schokland]]
*[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]]
*[[Sebastian Brant]]
*[[Segovia]]
*[[Seka Sablić]]
*[[Sengħa]]
*[[Seokguram]]
*[[Seowon]]
*[[Severo Ochoa]]
*[[Sevil Shhaideh]]
*[[Sewell]]
*[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]]
*[[SGang Gwaay]]
*[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]]
*[[Shahrisabz]]
*[[Shaken Aimanov]]
*[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]]
*[[Sheki]]
*[[Shennongjia]]
*[[Shibam]]
*[[Shirakami-Sanchi]]
*[[Shiretoko]]
*[[Sian Ka'an]]
*[[Šibenik]]
*[[Sibila Petlevski]]
*[[Sidney Webb]]
*[[Siega Verde]]
*[[Siena]]
*[[Sighișoara]]
*[[Sigiriya]]
*[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]]
*[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]]
*[[Sikhote-Alin]]
*[[Simon Kldiashvili]]
*[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]]
*[[Sinéad O'Connor]]
*[[Sintra]]
*[[Siracusa]]
*[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]]
*[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]]
*[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]]
*[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]]
*[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]]
*[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]]
*[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]]
*[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]]
*[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]]
*[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]]
*[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]]
*[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]]
*[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]]
*[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]]
*[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]]
*[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]]
*[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]]
*[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]]
*[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]]
*[[Siti tat-Tusi]]
*[[Skarpan]]
*[[Skellig Michael]]
*[[Skogskyrkogården]]
*[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]]
*[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]]
*[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]]
*[[Skorba]]
*[[Skrivan]]
*[[Slavko Brezoski]]
*[[Socotra]]
*[[Soltaniyeh]]
*[[Songo Mnara]]
*[[Sophia Loren]]
*[[Sophie Germain]]
*[[Sophie Liebknecht]]
*[[Söyembikä]]
*[[Speicherstadt]]
*[[Spinalonga]]
*[[Sputnik 5]]
*[[Stari Ras]]
*[[Statwa]]
*[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]]
*[[Statwa tal-Libertà]]
*[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]]
*[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]]
*[[Stećak]]
*[[Stepan Erzya]]
*[[Stevns Klint]]
*[[Stonehenge]]
*[[Stone Town]]
*[[Strett ta' Hormuz]]
*[[Su Nuraxi]]
*[[Subak]]
*[[Sulaiman-Too]]
*[[Sundarbans]]
*[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]]
*[[Surtsey]]
*[[Susa]]
*[[Svaneti]]
*[[Svetlana Antonovska]]
*[[Sviyazhsk]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;T&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ta' Bakkja]]
* [[Ta' Ħaġrat]]
* [[Ta' Kandja]]
*[[Tabib]]
*[[Tadrart Acacus]]
*[[Taħdit]]
*[[Taishan]]
*[[Taj Mahal]]
*[[Takalik Abaj]]
*[[Takht-e Soleyman]]
*[[Takht-i-Bahi]]
*[[Takkanot Shum]]
*[[Taksim]]
*[[Tallinn]]
*[[Tamgaly]]
*[[Tanġier]]
*[[Taos Pueblo]]
*[[Taputapuātea]]
*[[Tarraco]]
*[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]]
*[[Tassili n'Ajjer]]
*[[Taxila]]
*[[Tchogha Zanbil]]
*[[Te Wahipounamu]]
*[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]]
*[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Teatru Rjal]]
*[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]]
*[[Tebe (Eġittu)]]
*[[Tekniku]]
*[[Telč]]
*[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]]
* [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]]
* [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]]
*[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]]
*[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]]
*[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]]
*[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]]
*[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]]
*[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]]
*[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]]
*[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]]
*[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]]
*[[Teotihuacan]]
*[[Tequila (Belt)]]
* [[Terminoloġija]]
* [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]]
* [[Tétouan]]
*[[Teżawru]]
*[[Theobald Boehm]]
*[[Theodore Géricault]]
*[[Thimlich Ohinga]]
*[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]]
*[[Thomas à Kempis]]
*[[Tian Shan]]
* [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]]
* [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]]
* [[Tikal]]
* [[Timbuktu]]
* [[Timgad]]
* [[Tina Turner]]
* [[Tinetto]]
* [[Tino]]
* [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]]
*[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]]
*[[Tipasa]]
*[[Tiryns]]
*[[Tiwanaku]]
*[[Tiya]]
*[[Tlacotalpan]]
*[[TNMK]]
*[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]]
*[[Toledo]]
*[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]]
*[[Tomiri]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]]
* [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]]
* [[Torri ta' Belém]]
*[[Torri ta' Erkole]]
*[[Torri ta' Londra]]
*[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]]
*[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]]
*[[Toruń]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]]
*[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]]
*[[Třebíč]]
*[[Trinidad, Kuba]]
*[[Trogir]]
*[[Trojja]]
*[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]]
*[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Tsodilo]]
*[[Tubeteika]]
*[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]]
*[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]]
*[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]]
*[[Turan]]
*[[Tutankhamun]]
*[[Twyfelfontein]]
*[[Tyre]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;U&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Úbeda]]
* [[Ugo Foscolo]]
*[[Uluru]]
*[[Um er-Rasas]]
*[[Umm Al-Jimāl]]
*[[UNESCO]]
*[[Università Iżlamika Russa]]
*[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]]
*[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]]
*[[Università ta' Coimbra]]
*[[Unjoni Sovjetika]]
*[[Urbino]]
*[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]]
*[[Uxmal]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;V&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Val d'Orcia]]
*[[Val di Noto]]
*[[Valentyna Radzymovska]]
*[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]]
*[[Vallée de Mai]]
*[[Vasco da Gama]]
*[[Vat Phou]]
*[[Velimir Khlebnikov]]
*[[Venera 7]]
*[[Verona]]
*[[Via Appia]]
*[[Victoria Amelina]]
*[[Vigan]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]]
*[[Villa d'Este]]
*[[Villa Romana del Casale]]
*[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]]
*[[Villa Tugendhat]]
*[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]]
*[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]]
*[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]]
*[[Vilnius]]
*[[Visby]]
*[[Vitaliy Kim]]
*[[Vito Volterra]]
*[[Vittorio De Sica]]
*[[Vjenna]]
*[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]]
*[[Vlkolínec]]
*[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]
*[[Volubilis]]
*[[Võros]]
*[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]]
*[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;W&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Wachau]]
* [[Wadi Al-Hitan]]
*[[Wadi Rum]]
*[[Wales]]
*[[Weimar Klassika]]
*[[Werrej]]
*[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]]
*[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]]
*[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]]
*[[Wied ta' Loire]]
*[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]]
*[[Wied ta' M'zab]]
*[[Wied ta' Qadisha]]
*[[Wied ta' Viñales]]
*[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]]
*[[Wied tat-Tempji]]
*[[Wilhelm Grimm]]
*[[Wilhelm Röntgen]]
*[[Willem de Sitter]]
*[[Willemstad]]
*[[William Boeing]]
*[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]]
*[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]]
*[[Wismar]]
*[[Władysław Horodecki]]
*[[Wolfgang Paul]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;X&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Xanadu]]
* [[Xanthos]]
* [[Xatt it-Tiben]]
*[[Xeff]]
*[[Xidi]]
*[[Xmara Omo]]
*[[Xochicalco]]
*[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]]
*[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]]
*[[Xjenza spazjali]]
*[[Xtatol]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Y&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Yagul]]
* [[Yakushima]]
* [[Yana Zinkevych]]
* [[Yangdong]]
* [[Yarmak]]
* [[Yaroslavl]]
* [[Yazd]]
* [[Yeni-Kale]]
* [[Yin Xu]]
* [[Yllka Mujo]]
* [[Yogyakarta]]
*[[Yuliya Gushchina]]
*[[Yuri Lysianskyi]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ż&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Żapoteki]]
* [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]]
* [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]]
*[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]]
*[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]]
*[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]]
*[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]]
*[[Żooloġija]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Z&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Zabid]]
* [[Zacatecas (belt)]]
* [[Zagori]]
* [[Zamość]]
* [[Žatec]]
* [[Žehra]]
* [[Ziba Ganiyeva]]
* [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]]
*[[Zofia Zamenhof]]
*[[Zollverein]]
*[[Zond 5]]
*[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]]</text>
      <sha1>gm2u2tyggx8v1ue1l6blobk2opm6xnp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>329883</id>
      <parentid>329881</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T08:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trigcly</username>
        <id>17859</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>aġġornament</comment>
      <origin>329883</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58793" sha1="sudi2iw06um2ulyr9n9a4egtof4taz2" xml:space="preserve">== '''Artikli ġodda (1983)''' ==

=== &lt;u&gt;'''A'''&lt;/u&gt; ===

* [[Aapravasi Ghat]]
* [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]]
*[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]]
*[[Abu al-Fida]]
*[[Abu Mena]]
*[[Abu Simbel]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]]
*[[Afag Bashirgyzy]]
*[[Aflaj tal-Oman]]
*[[Afrodisja]]
*[[Agadez]]
*[[Agostino Carracci]]
*[[Agostino Matrenza]]
*[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]]
*[[Aigai]]
*[[Aït Benhaddou]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]]
*[[Akshata Murthy]]
*[[Aksum]]
*[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]]
*[[Al Zubarah]]
*[[Al-Maghtas]]
*[[Alatyr]]
*[[Albéric Magnard]]
*[[Alberobello]]
*[[Albi]]
*[[Alcalá de Henares]]
*[[Alcide d'Orbigny]]
*[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]]
*[[Alenush Terian]]
*[[Aleppo]]
*[[Alessandro Scarlatti]]
*[[Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Alexander Pushkin]]
*[[Alexander Wolszczan]]
*[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]]
*[[Alfred Hermann Fried]]
*[[Alfred Nobel]]
*[[Alfredo Casella]]
*[[Alois Dryák]]
*[[Alto Douro]]
*[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]]
*[[Ambohimanga]]
*[[Ambra Sabatini]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]]
* [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]]

* [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]]
*[[Amilcare Ponchielli]]
*[[Anastasia Golovina]]
*[[Anders Jonas Ångström]]
*[[André Citroën]]
*[[André Weil]]
*[[Anfibju]]
*[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]]
*[[Angelina Mango]]
* [[Angkor Wat]]
* [[Angra do Heroísmo]]
* [[Ani]]
* [[Anjar]]
* [[Anna Brigadere]]
* [[Anna Kyriakou]]
*[[Anna Seghers]]
*[[Anna Sychravová]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Anse aux Meadows]]
* [[Antartika]]
* [[Anticosti]]
* [[Antigua Guatemala]]
*[[Antoine de Jussieu]]
*[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]
*[[Antoinette Miggiani]]
*[[Anton Diabelli]]
*[[Anuradhapura]]
*[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]]
*[[Aporofobija]]
*[[Aquileia]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]]
*[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]]
*[[Arequipa]]
*[[Arġentier]]
*[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]]
*[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]]
*[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]]
*[[Arkeoloġija]]
*[[Arkitett]]
*[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]]
*[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]]
*[[Arles]]
*[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]]
*[[Arslantepe]]
*[[Art tal-Inċens]]
*[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]]
*[[Artiġjan]]
*[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]]
*[[As-Salt]]
*[[Asmara]]
* [[Assisi]]
* [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]]
* [[Assur]]
*[[Asuman Baytop]]
*[[Athos]]
*[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]]
*[[Auschwitz]]
*[[Austin Camilleri]]
*[[Ávila]]
*[[Avukat]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;B&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Baalbek]]
* [[Babilonja]]
* [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]]
* [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]]
* [[Baeza]]
* [[Bagan]]
* [[Baħar l-Abjad]]
* [[Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Baħar ta' Wadden]]
*[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]]
*[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]]
*[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]]
*[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]]
*[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]]
*[[Bajjad]]
*[[Baleron]]
*[[Bamberg]]
*[[Ban Chiang]]
*[[Banská Štiavnica]]
*[[Barbier]]
*[[Bardejov]]
*[[Barokk]]
*[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]]
*[[Bath, Somerset]]
*[[Batlejka]]
*[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]]
*[[Battir]]
*[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]]
*[[Baxkortostan]]
*[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]]
*[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]]
*[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]]
*[[Beatriz Carrillo]]
*[[Beemster]]
*[[Béguinage]]
*[[Belintersat-1]]
*[[BelKA]]
*[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]]
*[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]]
*[[Belt Projbita]]
*[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]]
*[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]]
*[[Belt ta' New York]]
*[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]]
*[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]]
*[[Bennej]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]]
*[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]]
*[[Bernard Grech]]
*[[Betlem]]
*[[Betti Alver]]
*[[Burkhan Khaldun]]
*[[Bidwi]]
*[[Bieb il-Belt]]
*[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]]
*[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]]
*[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]]
*[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]]
*[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]]
*[[Bobby Charlton]]
*[[Bolgar]]
*[[Bordeaux]]
*[[Borobudur]]
*[[Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Bosra]]
*[[Bridgetown]]
*[[Brook Taylor]]
*[[Brú na Bóinne]]
*[[Bruno Pizzul]]
*[[Bryggen]]
*[[Bucha]]
*[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]]
*[[Bugeddum Armen]]
*[[Bukhara]]
*[[Burt Bacharach]]
*[[Buskett]]
*[[Butrint]]
*[[Byblos]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ċ/C&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Cáceres (Spanja)]]
* [[Calakmul]]
* [[Camagüey]]
* [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]]
* [[Campeche]]
* [[Canal du Midi]]
* [[Canaletto]]
* [[Caral]]
* [[Carcassonne]]
*[[Carl Bosch]]
*[[Carl David Anderson]]
*[[Carla Fracci]]
*[[Carlo Collodi]]
*[[Caroline Mikkelsen]]
*[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]]
*[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]]
*[[Çatalhöyük]]
*[[Causses u Cévennes]]
*[[Ċellola]]
*[[Ċensu Apap]]
*[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]]
*[[Český Krumlov]]
*[[Ċetta Chevalier]]
*[[Chaîne des Puys]]
*[[Chan Chan]]
*[[Changdeokgung]]
*[[Chankillo]]
*[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]]
*[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]]
*[[Charles Nicolle]]
*[[Charles Richter]]
*[[Charles Xuereb]]
*[[Charlie Watts]]
*[[Chavín]]
*[[Choeung Ek]]
*[[Chersonesus Tawrika]]
*[[Chichén Itzá]]
*[[Chilehaus]]
*[[Choirokoitia]]
*[[Christiansfeld]]
*[[Christopher Polhem]]
*[[Cidade Velha]]
*[[Cienfuegos]]
*[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]]
*[[Cinque Terre]]
*[[Ċirkewwa]]
*[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]]
*[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]]
*[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]]
*[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]]
*[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]]
*[[Colonia del Sacramento]]
*[[Copan]]
*[[Córdoba, Spanja]]
*[[Coro]]
*[[Crespi d'Adda]]
*[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]]
*[[Cristofano Allori]]
*[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]]
*[[Cuenca (Spanja)]]
*[[Cueva de las Manos]]
*[[Cumalıkızık]]
*[[Curzio Maltese]]
*[[Cusco]]
*[[Cynthia Turner]]
*[[Cyrene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;D&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Daiga Mieriņa]]
* [[Damasku]]
* [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* [[Danxia]]
*[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]]
*[[Dar tal-Kimeri]]
*[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]]
*[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]]
*[[Delos]]
*[[Delphi]]
*[[Delta ta' Saloum]]
*[[Delta ta' Okavango]]
*[[Delta tad-Danubju]]
*[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]]
*[[Dengfeng]]
*[[Dentist]]
*[[Denys Shmyhal]]
*[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]]
*[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]]
*[[Deżert ta' Lut]]
*[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]]
*[[Dholavira]]
*[[Diamantina]]
*[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]]
*[[Diaolou]]
*[[Diga ta' Karakaya]]
*[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]]
*[[Dimitrana Ivanova]]
*[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]]
*[[Diy-Gid-Biy]]
*[[Dizzjunarju]]
*[[Djalett]]
*[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]]
*[[Djémila]]
*[[Djerba]]
*[[DNA]]
*[[Dolċier]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Menga]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Viera]]
*[[Dolomiti]]
*[[Domenico Allegri]]
*[[Domenico Scarlatti]]
*[[Domowina]]
*[[Domus de Janas]]
*[[Domus Rumana]]
*[[Donatello]]
*[[Dougga]]
*[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]]
*[[Dubrovnik]]
*[[Durmitor]]
* [[Dwejra]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;E&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Edgar Preca]]
* [[Edward Sexton]]
* [[Edinburgu]]
* [[Edward de Bono]]
* [[Edwin Hubble]]
* [[Efesu]]
* [[Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Ekonomista]]
*[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]]
*[[El Escorial]]
*[[El Jadida]]
*[[El Tajin]]
*[[El Torcal]]
*[[Eladio Dieste]]
*[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]]
*[[Elisha Graves Otis]]
*[[Elvas]]
*[[Emil Nolde]]
*[[Emma Andrijewska]]
*[[Emma Muscat]]
*[[Ernst Schröder]]
*[[Esperantoloġija]]
*[[Essaouira]]
*[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]]
*[[Ethel Anderson]]
*[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]]
*[[Eugenio Montale]]
*[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]]
*[[Evelyn Bonaci]]
*[[Évora]]
*[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;F&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]]
* [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]]
* [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]]
* [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]]
* [[Fanjingshan]]
* [[Fasil Ghebbi]]
* [[Fatehpur Sikri]]
* [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]]
* [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]]
* [[Fehme Agani]]
*[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]]
*[[Fenno-Skandinavja]]
*[[Fernando Botero]]
*[[Ferrara]]
*[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]]
*[[Festival ta' Sanremo]]
*[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]]
*[[Figolla]]
*[[Firenze]]
*[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]]
*[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]]
*[[Flora Martirosian]]
*[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]]
*[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Foresti Irkanjani]]
*[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]]
*[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]]
*[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]]
*[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]]
*[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]]
*[[Forti l-Aħmar]]
* [[Forti ta' Agra]]
*[[Forti ta' Bahla]]
*[[Forti ta' Galle]]
*[[Forti ta' Ġesù]]
*[[Forti ta' Rohtas]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]]
*[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]]
*[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]]
*[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]]
*[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]]
*[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]]
*[[Foss ta' Messel]]
*[[Fotografu]]
*[[Francesco Guardi]]
*[[François-Alphonse Forel]]
*[[François Couperin]]
*[[François Girardon]]
*[[Francois Mauriac]]
*[[Franco Migliacci]]
*[[Franġisk Zahra]]
*[[Frank Drake]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]]
*[[Franz von Suppé]]
*[[Frawla]]
*[[Fray Bentos]]
*[[Frédéric Bartholdi]]
*[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]]
*[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]]
*[[Frosta tal-Għid]]
* [[Frott]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]]
* [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]]
*[[Fuji]]
*[[Furnar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ġ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ġardinar]]
*[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]]
* [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]]
* [[Ġeoloġija]]
* [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]]
* [[Ġerusalemm]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]]
* [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]]
* [[Ġnien Persjan]]
* [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]]
* [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]]
*[[Ġurnalist]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;G&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Gammelstad]]
* [[Gamzigrad]]
* [[Gati tal-Punent]]
* [[Gebel Barkal]]
* [[Geirangerfjord]]
* [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Georg von Békésy]]
*[[George Gallup]]
*[[Georges Bernanos]]
*[[Georges J.F. Kohler]]
*[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]]
*[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Ghadamès]]
*[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]]
*[[Giacomo Zanella]]
*[[Giampiero Galeazzi]]
*[[Gianni Vella]]
*[[Gigi Riva]]
*[[Giorgia Meloni]]
*[[Giorgio Vasari]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Giotto]]
*[[Giovanni Arduino]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Giovanni Paisiello]]
*[[Giovanni Papini]]
*[[Giulio Natta]]
*[[Gjirokastër]]
*[[Glossarju]]
*[[Göbekli Tepe]]
*[[Goffredo Mameli]]
*[[Goiás]]
*[[Golf ta' California]]
*[[Golf ta' Porto]]
*[[Gonbad-e Qābus]]
*[[Gordion]]
*[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]
*[[Gotiku]]
*[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]]
*[[Grand Pré]]
*[[Grand-Bassam]]
*[[Grand Place, Brussell]]
*[[Graz]]
*[[Grazia Deledda]]
*[[Greenland]]
*[[Gregorio Allegri]]
*[[Gremxula ta' Malta]]
*[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]]
*[[Grotti ta' Longmen]]
*[[Grotti ta' Yungang]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]]
*[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]]
*[[Guimarães]]
*[[Gustave Charpentier]]
* [[Gżejjer Eolji]]
* [[Gżejjer Falkland]]
* [[Gżejjer Galapagos]]
* [[Gżejjer Marquesas]]
* [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]]
* [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]]
* [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]]
* [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]]
* [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]]
* [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]]
* [[Gżira ta' Cocos]]
* [[Gżira ta' Fraser]]
* [[Gżira ta' Gorée]]
* [[Gżira ta' Henderson]]
*[[Gżira ta' Jeju]]
*[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]]
*[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]]
*[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]]
*[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]]
*[[Gżira ta' Pico]]
*[[Gżira ta' Robben]]
*[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]]
*[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]]
*[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]]
*[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;GĦ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Għajn Tuffieħa]]
* [[Għalliem]]
*[[Għar Dalam]]
*[[Għar ta' Altamira]]
*[[Għar ta' Gorham]]
*[[Għar ta' Karain]]
*[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]]
*[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]]
*[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]]
*[[Għar tal-Irħam]]
*[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]]
*[[Għarb]]
*[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]]
*[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ellora]]
*[[Għerien ta' Mogao]]
*[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]]
*[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]]
*[[Għid]]
*[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]]
*[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]]
*[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;H&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Hahoe]]
* [[Haley Bugeja]]
* [[Halloumi]]
* [[Hallstatt]]
* [[Hampi]]
*[[Hans Geiger]]
*[[Hans Memling]]
*[[Hans Spemann]]
*[[Harar]]
*[[Harry Belafonte]]
*[[Hatı Çırpan]]
*[[Hatra]]
*[[Hattusha]]
*[[Hawa Mahal]]
*[[Hebron]]
*[[Hedeby]]
*[[Hegmataneh]]
*[[Hegra]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]]
*[[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
*[[Henri Frederic Amiel]]
*[[Hermannus Contractus]]
*[[Hideki Shirakawa]]
*[[Hideki Yukawa]]
*[[Hildesheim]]
*[[Höga Kusten]]
*[[Hoh Xil]]
*[[Hội An]]
*[[Holašovice]]
*[[Hollókő]]
*[[Hongcun]]
*[[Hospicio Cabañas]]
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]]
*[[Hovgården]]
*[[Howard Carter]]
*[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]]
*[[Huangshan]]
*[[Hubert de Givenchy]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ħ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]]
* [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]]
* [[Ħajja]]
*[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]]
*[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]]
*[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ibn Battuta]]
* [[ICOMOS]]
* [[Idolu ta' Shigir]]
* [[Idrija]]
* [[Idrijski žlikrofi]]
* [[Ilha Grande]]
* [[Il'ja Prigožini]]
* [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]]
*[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]]
*[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]]
*[[Inara Luigas]]
*[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]]
*[[Independence Hall]]
*[[Indiċi]]
*[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]]
*[[Ingredjent]]
*[[Intaljatur]]
*[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]]
* [[Ipproċessar testwali]]
* [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]]
* [[Iremel]]
* [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]]
* [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]]
* [[Irpin]]
* [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]]
*[[Isabella d'Este]]
*[[ISBN]]
*[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]]
*[[Istmu Kuronjan]]
*[[Ivan Turgenev]]
*[[Ivrea]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;J&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Jacinto Benavente]]
* [[Jaipur]]
* [[Jakob Bogdani]]
* [[Jan Novák]]
*[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]]
*[[Jarrod Sammut]]
*[[Jean Antoine Houdon]]
*[[Jean Dieudonné]]
*[[Jean Picard]]
*[[Jebel Faya]]
*[[Jeddah]]
*[[Jodensavanne]]
*[[Joggins]]
*[[Johann Christian Bach]]
*[[Johan Jensen]]
*[[John Edward Critien]]
*[[John Kendrew]]
*[[John Strutt Rayleigh]]
*[[Jongmyo]]
*[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]]
*[[Josef Hoffman]]
*[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]]
*[[Joya de Cerén]]
*[[Jože Plečnik]]
*[[Jules Pascin]]
*[[Julia Malinova]]
*[[Julia Sanina]]
*[[Júlia Sigmond]]
*[[Julio Baghy]]
*[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]]
*[[Jum il-Ġifa]]
*[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Jum l-Ewropa]]
*[[Jum Zamenhof]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;K&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]]
* [[Kairouan]]
* [[Kaja Kallas]]
*[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]]
*[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]]
*[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]]
*[[Kanal ta' Rideau]]
*[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]]
*[[Kandy]]
*[[Kappella]]
*[[Karavanseraj Persjani]]
*[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]]
*[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]
*[[Karl Weierstrass]]
*[[Karlskrona]]
*[[Karlu III]]
*[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]]
*[[Kastell ta' Ankara]]
*[[Kastell ta' Durham]]
*[[Kastell ta' Himeji]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]]
*[[Kastell ta' Lubart]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]]
*[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]]
*[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]]
*[[Kastell ta' Paphos]]
*[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]]
*[[Kastell ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]]
*[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]]
*[[Katarina Vitale]]
* [[Katidral]]
*[[Katidral ta' Aachen]]
*[[Katidral ta' Amiens]]
*[[Katidral ta' Bourges]]
*[[Katidral ta' Burgos]]
*[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]]
*[[Katidral ta' Chartres]]
*[[Katidral ta' Köln]]
*[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]]
*[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]]
*[[Katidral ta' Reims]]
*[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]]
*[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]]
*[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]]
*[[Katidral ta' Speyer]]
*[[Katidral ta' Tournai]]
*[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]]
*[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]]
*[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]]
*[[Kauksi Ülle]]
*[[Kaunas]]
*[[Kavallier ta' Madara]]
* [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]]
* [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]]
* [[KazCosmos]]
*[[Kelma]]
*[[Kerkuane]]
*[[Kernavė]]
*[[Kewkbet is-Safar]]
*[[Khami]]
*[[Khinalug]]
*[[Khiva]]
*[[Khor Rori]]
*[[Khorramabad]]
*[[Khuttal]]
*[[Kibbeh]]
*[[Kiki Kogelnik]]
*[[Kinderdijk]]
*[[Kirurgu]]
*[[Kizhi Pogost]]
*[[Kladruby nad Labem]]
* [[Klima ta' Malta]]
* [[Klondike]]
* [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]]
* [[Knarik Vardanyan]]
* [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]]
*[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]]
*[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]]
*[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]]
*[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]]
*[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]]
*[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]]
*[[Knisja ta' Boyana]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]]
*[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]]
*[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]]
*[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]]
*[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]]
*[[Koh Ker]]
*[[Kok]]
*[[Kolomenskoye]]
*[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]]
*[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]]
*[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]]
*[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]]
* [[Kolossew]]
* [[Konso]]
*[[Konversazzjoni]]
*[[Korfù]]
*[[Kosta Ġurassika]]
*[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]]
*[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]]
*[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]]
*[[Kotlovina]]
*[[Koutammakou]]
*[[Krak des Chevaliers]]
*[[Krakovja]]
*[[Krater ta' Logoisk]]
*[[Krater ta' Vredefort]]
*[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]]
*[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]]
*[[Kreta]]
*[[Krisztina Tóth]]
*[[Krzemionki]]
*[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]]
*[[Kujataa]]
*[[Kulangsu]]
*[[Kuldīga]]
*[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chaco]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]]
*[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]]
*[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]]
*[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]]
*[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]]
*[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]]
*[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]]
*[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]]
*[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]]
*[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]]
*[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]]
*[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]]
*[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]
*[[Kunya-Urgench]]
*[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]]
*[[Kutná Hora]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;L&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[L-Arti]]
* [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]]
* [[Lag ta' Baikal]]
* [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]]
* [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]]
* [[Lag ta' Laach]]
* [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]]
* [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]]
* [[Lag ta' Skadar]]
* [[Lagi ta' Willandra]]
* [[Lake District]]
* [[Lamu]]
*[[Landier]]
*[[Lapponja Żvediża]]
*[[Las Médulas]]
*[[Lascaux]]
*[[Lavaux]]
*[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]]
*[[Lazzaro Pisani]]
*[[Le Corbusier]]
*[[Le Havre]]
*[[Le Locle]]
*[[Leptis Magna]]
*[[Lessikoloġija]]
* [[Lessiku]]
* [[Letoon]]
* [[Lev Davidovich Landau]]
* [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]]
* [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]]
* [[Levuka]]
* [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]]
* [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]]
*[[Lika Kavzharadze]]
*[[Lima]]
*[[Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]]
*[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]]
*[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]]
*[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]]
*[[Linji ta' Nazca]]
*[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]]
*[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]]
*[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]]
*[[Lista ta' peniżoli]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]]
*[[Liz Truss]]
*[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]]
*[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]]
*[[Lorenzo de' Medici]]
*[[Lorenzo Gafà]]
*[[Lorenzo Valla]]
*[[Luang Prabang]]
*[[Lübeck]]
*[[Lucavsala]]
*[[Lucia Piussi]]
*[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]]
*[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Ludovico Carracci]]
*[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]]
*[[Luigi Boccherini]]
*[[Luigi Galvani]]
*[[Luigi Pirandello]]
*[[Lumbini]]
*[[Luna 26]]
*[[Lunenburg]]
*[[Lvant ta' Rennell]]
*[[Lviv]]
*[[Lyon]]
*[[Lyubov Panchenko]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;M&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Maċedonit]]
* [[Machu Picchu]]
* [[Madinat Al-Zahra]]
*[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]]
*[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]]
*[[Maison Carrée]]
* [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]]
*[[Maltin]]
*[[Måneskin]]
*[[Manhush]]
*[[Manto Mavrogenous]]
*[[Mantova]]
*[[Margaret Abela]]
*[[Maria De Filippi]]
*[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]]
*[[Maria Grollmuß]]
*[[Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Mario Draghi]]
*[[Mário Zagallo]]
*[[Marrakesh]]
*[[Marta Kos]]
*[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]]
*[[Mary Chronopoulou]]
*[[Mary Fenech Adami]]
*[[Mary Moser]]
*[[Masada]]
*[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]]
*[[Maurizio Costanzo]]
*[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]]
*[[Maymand]]
*[[Mbanza Kongo]]
*[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Medina ta' Sousse]]
*[[Melka Kunture]]
*[[Mérida (Spanja)]]
*[[Merill]]
*[[Meroe]]
*[[Merv]]
*[[Meteora]]
*[[Michael Refalo]]
*[[Michail Glinka]]
*[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]]
*[[Milan]]
*[[Mileva Filipović]]
*[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]]
*[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]]
*[[Minaret ta' Jam]]
*[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]]
*[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]]
*[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]]
*[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]]
*[[Mira Alečković]]
*[[Mirella Freni]]
*[[Miroslav Řepa]]
*[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]]
*[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]]
*[[Mnajdra]]
*[[Modena]]
*[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]]
*[[Moidam]]
*[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]]
*[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]]
*[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Rila]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]]
*[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]]
*[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]]
*[[Monika Kryemadhi]]
*[[Møns Klint]]
*[[Mont-Saint-Michel]]
*[[Monte Albán]]
*[[Monte San Giorgio]]
*[[Monte Titano]]
*[[Monticello]]
* [[Monument]]
* [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]]
* [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]]
* [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]]
* [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]]
* [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]]
*[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]]
*[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]]
*[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]]
*[[Morelia]]
*[[Moritz Cantor]]
*[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]]
*[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]]
*[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]]
*[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]]
*[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]]
*[[Moskea tat-Tatari]]
*[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]]
*[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]]
*[[Motoori Norinaga]]
*[[Mramorje]]
*[[Mtskheta]]
*[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]
*[[Muħammed]]
*[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]]
*[[Muntanja Pelée]]
*[[Muntanja Qingcheng]]
*[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]]
*[[Muntanja Wutai]]
*[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]]
*[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]]
*[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]]
*[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]]
*[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]]
*[[Muntanji Wudang]]
*[[Muntanji Wuyi]]
*[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]]
*[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]]
*[[Mużew ta' Trojja]]
*[[Myśliwska]]
*[[Mystras]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;N&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Nærøyfjord]]
* [[Nadur]]
* [[Naftalan]]
* [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
* [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]]
* [[Nalanda Mahavihara]]
* [[Namhansanseong]]
* [[Nancy]]
* [[Nan Madol]]
*[[Napli]]
*[[Naryn-Kala]]
*[[Nataliya Kobrynska]]
*[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]]
*[[Nekropoli]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]]
*[[Nemrut Dağı]]
*[[Nessebar]]
*[[New Lanark]]
*[[New Secret (jott)]]
*[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]]
*[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]]
*[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]]
*[[Nicolas Flamel]]
*[[Nicolau Coelho]]
*[[Nida]]
*[[Nika Križnar]]
*[[Nikkō]]
*[[Nino Ramishvili]]
*[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]]
*[[Nisa f’Malta]]
*[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]]
*[[Nizza]]
*[[Norman Morrison]]
*[[Nutar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;O&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]]
* [[Olga Tass]]
*[[Olimpja]]
*[[Olinda]]
*[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']]
*[[Oplontis]]
*[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]]
*[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]]
*[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]]
*[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]]
*[[Orthohantavirus]]
*[[Ortografija Litwana]]
*[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]]
*[[Osun-Osogbo]]
*[[Otto Toeplitz]]
*[[Ouro Preto]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;P&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Pablo Neruda]]
* [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]]
* [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]]
* [[Pál Maléter]]
* [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]]
*[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]]
*[[Palazz Mariinskyi]]
*[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]]
*[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]]
*[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]]
*[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]]
*[[Palazz ta' Golestan]]
*[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]]
*[[Palazz ta' Mafra]]
*[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]]
*[[Palazz ta' Potala]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]]
*[[Palazz ta' Versailles]]
*[[Palazz tal-Khan]]
*[[Palazz tas-Sajf]]
*[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]]
*[[Palazzi Minojċi]]
*[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]]
*[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]]
*[[Palenque]]
*[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]]
*[[Palestina]]
*[[Palianytsia]]
*[[Palmaria]]
*[[Palmyra]]
*[[Pamukkale]]
*[[Panamá Viejo]]
*[[Papa Ljun XIV]]
*[[Papahānaumokuākea]]
*[[Paquimé]]
*[[Paramaribo]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]]
*[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]]
*[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]]
*[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]]
*[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]]
*[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]]
*[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]]
*[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]]
*[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]]
*[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]]
*[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]]
*[[Parmigianino]]
*[[Parrukkier]]
*[[Pasargadae]]
*[[Paseo del Prado]]
*[[Pattadakal]]
*[[Paulo Coelho]]
*[[Pavlo Lee]]
*[[Pécs]]
*[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]]
*[[Peña de los Enamorados]]
*[[Peniżola]]
*[[Peniżola Valdés]]
*[[Pergamon]]
*[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]]
*[[Persepolis]]
*[[Peter Carl Fabergé]]
*[[Péter Magyar]]
*[[Pëtr Kapica]]
*[[Petra]]
*[[Petra Brocková]]
*[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]]
*[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]]
*[[Philipp Otto Runge]]
*[[Philippi]]
*[[Pienza]]
*[[Piero Angela]]
*[[Pierre Fatou]]
*[[Pietro Longhi]]
*[[Pietru l-Kbir]]
*[[Pimachiowin Aki]]
*[[Ping Yao]]
*[[Pippo Baudo]]
*[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]]
*[[Pitons]]
*[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]]
*[[Pjanta]]
*[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]]
*[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]]
*[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]]
*[[Pjazza]]
*[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]]
* [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]]
*[[Plamer]]
*[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Pobiti Kamani]]
*[[Politika]]
*[[Polonnaruwa]]
*[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]]
*[[Pont ta' Forth]]
*[[Pont ta' Malabadi]]
*[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]]
*[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]]
*[[Pont tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]]
*[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]]
*[[Port Royal]]
*[[Port ta' Mariupol]]
*[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]]
*[[Porta Nigra]]
*[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]]
*[[Porto]]
*[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]]
*[[Potosí]]
*[[Pożati]]
*[[Prambanan]]
*[[Professjoni]]
*[[Proklos]]
*[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]]
*[[Provins]]
*[[Pu'er]]
*[[Puebla (belt)]]
*[[Pythagoreion]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Q&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Qabar ta' Askia]]
* [[Qabar ta' Humayun]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]]
* [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]]
* [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]]
* [[Qala (Għawdex)]]
* [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]]
* [[Qalhat]]
* [[Qanat]]
* [[Qaryat al-Faw]]
* [[Qaytarma]]
* [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]]
* [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]]
* [[Quanzhou]]
* [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]]
* [[Quedlinburg]]
* [[Quirigua]]
* [[Quito]]
* [[Quseir Amra]]
* [[Qutb Minar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;R&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Rachid Chouhal]]
* [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]]
* [[Rammelsberg]]
* [[Ramses II]]
* [[Rani-ki-Vav]]
* [[Ras'ken' Ozks]]
* [[Ravenna]]
* [[Ravesa Lleshi]]
* [[Red Bay]]
* [[Regensburg]]
* [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]]
*[[Reichenau]]
*[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]]
*[[Rembrandt]]
*[[Renata Scotto]]
*[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]]
*[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]]
*[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]]
*[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]]
*[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]]
*[[Rettilu]]
*[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]]
*[[Riga]]
*[[Risco Caído]]
*[[Riversleigh]]
*[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]]
*[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]]
*[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]]
*[[Robert Fico]]
*[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]]
*[[Roberto Burle Marx]]
*[[Rodi (belt)]]
* [[Roi Mata]]
* [[Roșia Montană]]
* [[Ronald Searle]]
* [[Røros]]
* [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]]
* [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]]
* [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]]
* [[Royal Exhibition Building]]
* [[Róža Domašcyna]]
*[[Rudolf Diesel]]
*[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;S&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Sabratha]]
* [[Saeva Dupka]]
* [[Safranbolu]]
* [[Saint-Émilion]]
* [[Sajjied]]
*[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]]
*[[Salamanca]]
*[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]]
*[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]]
*[[Salme Kann]]
*[[Saltaire]]
*[[Salvatore Accardo]]
*[[Salzburg]]
*[[Samantha Cristoforetti]]
*[[Samarkanda]]
*[[Samarra]]
*[[Sambor Prei Kuk]]
*[[Sammallahdenmäki]]
*[[Samuel Deguara]]
*[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]
*[[San Gimignano]]
*[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]]
*[[San Miguel de Allende]]
*[[San Pietruburgu]]
*[[Sana'a]]
*[[Sanchi]]
*[[Sandra Milo]]
*[[Sandra Mondaini]]
*[[Sandro Botticelli]]
*[[Sangiran]]
*[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]]
*[[Santiago de Compostela]]
*[[Santiago de Querétaro]]
*[[Santiniketan]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]]
*[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]]
*[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]]
*[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]]
*[[São Cristóvão]]
*[[São Luís]]
*[[Sarazm]]
*[[Sardis]]
* [[Saryarka]]
* [[Sassi ta' Matera]]
*[[Schokland]]
*[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]]
*[[Sebastian Brant]]
*[[Segovia]]
*[[Seka Sablić]]
*[[Sengħa]]
*[[Seokguram]]
*[[Seowon]]
*[[Severo Ochoa]]
*[[Sevil Shhaideh]]
*[[Sewell]]
*[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]]
*[[SGang Gwaay]]
*[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]]
*[[Shahrisabz]]
*[[Shaken Aimanov]]
*[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]]
*[[Sheki]]
*[[Shennongjia]]
*[[Shibam]]
*[[Shirakami-Sanchi]]
*[[Shiretoko]]
*[[Sian Ka'an]]
*[[Šibenik]]
*[[Sibila Petlevski]]
*[[Sidney Webb]]
*[[Siega Verde]]
*[[Siena]]
*[[Sighișoara]]
*[[Sigiriya]]
*[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]]
*[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]]
*[[Sikhote-Alin]]
*[[Simon Kldiashvili]]
*[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]]
*[[Sinéad O'Connor]]
*[[Sintra]]
*[[Siracusa]]
*[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]]
*[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]]
*[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]]
*[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]]
*[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]]
*[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]]
*[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]]
*[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]]
*[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]]
*[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]]
*[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]]
*[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]]
*[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]]
*[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]]
*[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]]
*[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]]
*[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]]
*[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]]
*[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]]
*[[Siti tat-Tusi]]
*[[Skarpan]]
*[[Skellig Michael]]
*[[Skogskyrkogården]]
*[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]]
*[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]]
*[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]]
*[[Skorba]]
*[[Skrivan]]
*[[Slavko Brezoski]]
*[[Socotra]]
*[[Soltaniyeh]]
*[[Songo Mnara]]
*[[Sophia Loren]]
*[[Sophie Germain]]
*[[Sophie Liebknecht]]
*[[Söyembikä]]
*[[Speicherstadt]]
*[[Spinalonga]]
*[[Sputnik 5]]
*[[Stari Ras]]
*[[Statwa]]
*[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]]
*[[Statwa tal-Libertà]]
*[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]]
*[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]]
*[[Stećak]]
*[[Stepan Erzya]]
*[[Stevns Klint]]
*[[Stonehenge]]
*[[Stone Town]]
*[[Strett ta' Hormuz]]
*[[Su Nuraxi]]
*[[Subak]]
*[[Sulaiman-Too]]
*[[Sundarbans]]
*[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]]
*[[Surtsey]]
*[[Susa]]
*[[Svaneti]]
*[[Svetlana Antonovska]]
*[[Sviyazhsk]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;T&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ta' Bakkja]]
* [[Ta' Ħaġrat]]
* [[Ta' Kandja]]
*[[Tabib]]
*[[Tadrart Acacus]]
*[[Taħdit]]
*[[Taishan]]
*[[Taj Mahal]]
*[[Takalik Abaj]]
*[[Takht-e Soleyman]]
*[[Takht-i-Bahi]]
*[[Takkanot Shum]]
*[[Taksim]]
*[[Tallinn]]
*[[Tamgaly]]
*[[Tanġier]]
*[[Taos Pueblo]]
*[[Taputapuātea]]
*[[Tarraco]]
*[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]]
*[[Tassili n'Ajjer]]
*[[Taxila]]
*[[Tchogha Zanbil]]
*[[Te Wahipounamu]]
*[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]]
*[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Teatru Rjal]]
*[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]]
*[[Tebe (Eġittu)]]
*[[Tekniku]]
*[[Telč]]
*[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]]
* [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]]
* [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]]
*[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]]
*[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]]
*[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]]
*[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]]
*[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]]
*[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]]
*[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]]
*[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]]
*[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]]
*[[Teotihuacan]]
*[[Tequila (Belt)]]
* [[Terminoloġija]]
* [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]]
* [[Tétouan]]
*[[Teżawru]]
*[[Theobald Boehm]]
*[[Theodore Géricault]]
*[[Thimlich Ohinga]]
*[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]]
*[[Thomas à Kempis]]
*[[Tian Shan]]
* [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]]
* [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]]
* [[Tikal]]
* [[Timbuktu]]
* [[Timgad]]
* [[Tina Turner]]
* [[Tinetto]]
* [[Tino]]
* [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]]
*[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]]
*[[Tipasa]]
*[[Tiryns]]
*[[Tiwanaku]]
*[[Tiya]]
*[[Tlacotalpan]]
*[[TNMK]]
*[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]]
*[[Toledo]]
*[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]]
*[[Tomiri]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]]
* [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]]
* [[Torri ta' Belém]]
*[[Torri ta' Erkole]]
*[[Torri ta' Londra]]
*[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]]
*[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]]
*[[Toruń]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]]
*[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]]
*[[Třebíč]]
*[[Trinidad, Kuba]]
*[[Trogir]]
*[[Trojja]]
*[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]]
*[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Tsodilo]]
*[[Tubeteika]]
*[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]]
*[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]]
*[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]]
*[[Turan]]
*[[Tutankhamun]]
*[[Twyfelfontein]]
*[[Tyre]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;U&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Úbeda]]
* [[Ugo Foscolo]]
*[[Uluru]]
*[[Um er-Rasas]]
*[[Umm Al-Jimāl]]
*[[UNESCO]]
*[[Università Iżlamika Russa]]
*[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]]
*[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]]
*[[Università ta' Coimbra]]
*[[Unjoni Sovjetika]]
*[[Urbino]]
*[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]]
*[[Uxmal]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;V&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Val d'Orcia]]
*[[Val di Noto]]
*[[Valentyna Radzymovska]]
*[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]]
*[[Vallée de Mai]]
*[[Vasco da Gama]]
*[[Vat Phou]]
*[[Velimir Khlebnikov]]
*[[Venera 7]]
*[[Verona]]
*[[Via Appia]]
*[[Victoria Amelina]]
*[[Vigan]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]]
*[[Villa d'Este]]
*[[Villa Romana del Casale]]
*[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]]
*[[Villa Tugendhat]]
*[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]]
*[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]]
*[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]]
*[[Vilnius]]
*[[Visby]]
*[[Vitaliy Kim]]
*[[Vito Volterra]]
*[[Vittorio De Sica]]
*[[Vjenna]]
*[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]]
*[[Vlkolínec]]
*[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]
*[[Volubilis]]
*[[Võros]]
*[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]]
*[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;W&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Wachau]]
* [[Wadi Al-Hitan]]
*[[Wadi Rum]]
*[[Wales]]
*[[Weimar Klassika]]
*[[Werrej]]
*[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]]
*[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]]
*[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]]
*[[Wied ta' Loire]]
*[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]]
*[[Wied ta' M'zab]]
*[[Wied ta' Qadisha]]
*[[Wied ta' Viñales]]
*[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]]
*[[Wied tat-Tempji]]
*[[Wilhelm Grimm]]
*[[Wilhelm Röntgen]]
*[[Willem de Sitter]]
*[[Willemstad]]
*[[William Boeing]]
*[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]]
*[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]]
*[[Wismar]]
*[[Władysław Horodecki]]
*[[Wolfgang Paul]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;X&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Xanadu]]
* [[Xanthos]]
* [[Xatt it-Tiben]]
*[[Xeff]]
*[[Xidi]]
*[[Xmara Omo]]
*[[Xochicalco]]
*[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]]
*[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]]
*[[Xjenza spazjali]]
*[[Xtatol]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Y&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Yagul]]
* [[Yakushima]]
* [[Yana Zinkevych]]
* [[Yangdong]]
* [[Yarmak]]
* [[Yaroslavl]]
* [[Yazd]]
* [[Yeni-Kale]]
* [[Yin Xu]]
* [[Yllka Mujo]]
* [[Yogyakarta]]
*[[Yuliya Gushchina]]
*[[Yuri Lysianskyi]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ż&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Żapoteki]]
* [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]]
* [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]]
*[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]]
*[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]]
*[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]]
*[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]]
*[[Żooloġija]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Z&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Zabid]]
* [[Zacatecas (belt)]]
* [[Zagori]]
* [[Zamość]]
* [[Žatec]]
* [[Žehra]]
* [[Ziba Ganiyeva]]
* [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]]
*[[Zofia Zamenhof]]
*[[Zollverein]]
*[[Zond 5]]
*[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]]</text>
      <sha1>sudi2iw06um2ulyr9n9a4egtof4taz2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>329896</id>
      <parentid>329883</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T10:47:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trigcly</username>
        <id>17859</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>aġġornament</comment>
      <origin>329896</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58812" sha1="1u9swbu41ze3mh3bdkghccxthr5gc38" xml:space="preserve">== '''Artikli ġodda (1984)''' ==

=== &lt;u&gt;'''A'''&lt;/u&gt; ===

* [[Aapravasi Ghat]]
* [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]]
* [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]]
*[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]]
*[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]]
*[[Abu al-Fida]]
*[[Abu Mena]]
*[[Abu Simbel]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]]
*[[Afag Bashirgyzy]]
*[[Aflaj tal-Oman]]
*[[Afrodisja]]
*[[Agadez]]
*[[Agostino Carracci]]
*[[Agostino Matrenza]]
*[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]]
*[[Aigai]]
*[[Aït Benhaddou]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]]
*[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]]
*[[Akshata Murthy]]
*[[Aksum]]
*[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]]
*[[Al Zubarah]]
*[[Al-Maghtas]]
*[[Alatyr]]
*[[Albéric Magnard]]
*[[Alberobello]]
*[[Albi]]
*[[Alcalá de Henares]]
*[[Alcide d'Orbigny]]
*[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]]
*[[Alenush Terian]]
*[[Aleppo]]
*[[Alessandro Scarlatti]]
*[[Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Alexander Pushkin]]
*[[Alexander Wolszczan]]
*[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]]
*[[Alfred Hermann Fried]]
*[[Alfred Nobel]]
*[[Alfredo Casella]]
*[[Alois Dryák]]
*[[Alto Douro]]
*[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]]
*[[Ambohimanga]]
*[[Ambra Sabatini]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci]]
*[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]]
* [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]]

* [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]]
*[[Amilcare Ponchielli]]
*[[Anastasia Golovina]]
*[[Anders Jonas Ångström]]
*[[André Citroën]]
*[[André Weil]]
*[[Anfibju]]
*[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]]
*[[Angelina Mango]]
* [[Angkor Wat]]
* [[Angra do Heroísmo]]
* [[Ani]]
* [[Anjar]]
* [[Anna Brigadere]]
* [[Anna Kyriakou]]
*[[Anna Seghers]]
*[[Anna Sychravová]]
*[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]]
*[[Anse aux Meadows]]
* [[Antartika]]
* [[Anticosti]]
* [[Antigua Guatemala]]
*[[Antoine de Jussieu]]
*[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]
*[[Antoinette Miggiani]]
*[[Anton Diabelli]]
*[[Anuradhapura]]
*[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]]
*[[Aporofobija]]
*[[Aquileia]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]]
*[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]]
*[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]]
*[[Arequipa]]
*[[Arġentier]]
*[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]]
*[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]]
*[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]]
*[[Arkeoloġija]]
*[[Arkitett]]
*[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]]
*[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]]
*[[Arles]]
*[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]]
*[[Arslantepe]]
*[[Art tal-Inċens]]
*[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]]
*[[Artiġjan]]
*[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]]
*[[As-Salt]]
*[[Asmara]]
* [[Assisi]]
* [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]]
* [[Assur]]
*[[Asuman Baytop]]
*[[Athos]]
*[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]]
*[[Auschwitz]]
*[[Austin Camilleri]]
*[[Ávila]]
*[[Avukat]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;B&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Baalbek]]
* [[Babilonja]]
* [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]]
* [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]]
* [[Baeza]]
* [[Bagan]]
* [[Baħar l-Abjad]]
* [[Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Baħar ta' Wadden]]
*[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]]
*[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]]
*[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]]
*[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]]
*[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]]
*[[Bajjad]]
*[[Baleron]]
*[[Bamberg]]
*[[Ban Chiang]]
*[[Banská Štiavnica]]
*[[Barbier]]
*[[Bardejov]]
*[[Barokk]]
*[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]]
*[[Bath, Somerset]]
*[[Batlejka]]
*[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]]
*[[Battir]]
*[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]]
*[[Baxkortostan]]
*[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]]
*[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]]
*[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]]
*[[Beatriz Carrillo]]
*[[Beemster]]
*[[Béguinage]]
*[[Belintersat-1]]
*[[BelKA]]
*[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]]
*[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]]
*[[Belt Projbita]]
*[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]]
*[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]]
*[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]]
*[[Belt ta' New York]]
*[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]]
*[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]]
*[[Bennej]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]]
*[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]]
*[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]]
*[[Bernard Grech]]
*[[Betlem]]
*[[Betti Alver]]
*[[Burkhan Khaldun]]
*[[Bidwi]]
*[[Bieb il-Belt]]
*[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]]
*[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]]
*[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]]
*[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]]
*[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]]
*[[Bobby Charlton]]
*[[Bolgar]]
*[[Bordeaux]]
*[[Borobudur]]
*[[Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Bosra]]
*[[Bridgetown]]
*[[Brook Taylor]]
*[[Brú na Bóinne]]
*[[Bruno Pizzul]]
*[[Bryggen]]
*[[Bucha]]
*[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]]
*[[Bugeddum Armen]]
*[[Bukhara]]
*[[Burt Bacharach]]
*[[Buskett]]
*[[Butrint]]
*[[Byblos]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ċ/C&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Cáceres (Spanja)]]
* [[Calakmul]]
* [[Camagüey]]
* [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]]
* [[Campeche]]
* [[Canal du Midi]]
* [[Canaletto]]
* [[Caral]]
* [[Carcassonne]]
*[[Carl Bosch]]
*[[Carl David Anderson]]
*[[Carl Linnaeus]]
*[[Carla Fracci]]
*[[Carlo Collodi]]
*[[Caroline Mikkelsen]]
*[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]]
*[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]]
*[[Çatalhöyük]]
*[[Causses u Cévennes]]
*[[Ċellola]]
*[[Ċensu Apap]]
*[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]]
*[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]]
*[[Český Krumlov]]
*[[Ċetta Chevalier]]
*[[Chaîne des Puys]]
*[[Chan Chan]]
*[[Changdeokgung]]
*[[Chankillo]]
*[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]]
*[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]]
*[[Charles Nicolle]]
*[[Charles Richter]]
*[[Charles Xuereb]]
*[[Charlie Watts]]
*[[Chavín]]
*[[Choeung Ek]]
*[[Chersonesus Tawrika]]
*[[Chichén Itzá]]
*[[Chilehaus]]
*[[Choirokoitia]]
*[[Christiansfeld]]
*[[Christopher Polhem]]
*[[Cidade Velha]]
*[[Cienfuegos]]
*[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]]
*[[Cinque Terre]]
*[[Ċirkewwa]]
*[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]]
*[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]]
*[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]]
*[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]]
*[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]]
*[[Colonia del Sacramento]]
*[[Copan]]
*[[Córdoba, Spanja]]
*[[Coro]]
*[[Crespi d'Adda]]
*[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]]
*[[Cristofano Allori]]
*[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]]
*[[Cuenca (Spanja)]]
*[[Cueva de las Manos]]
*[[Cumalıkızık]]
*[[Curzio Maltese]]
*[[Cusco]]
*[[Cynthia Turner]]
*[[Cyrene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;D&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Daiga Mieriņa]]
* [[Damasku]]
* [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]
* [[Danxia]]
*[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]]
*[[Dar tal-Kimeri]]
*[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]]
*[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]]
*[[Delos]]
*[[Delphi]]
*[[Delta ta' Saloum]]
*[[Delta ta' Okavango]]
*[[Delta tad-Danubju]]
*[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]]
*[[Dengfeng]]
*[[Dentist]]
*[[Denys Shmyhal]]
*[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]]
*[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]]
*[[Deżert ta' Lut]]
*[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]]
*[[Dholavira]]
*[[Diamantina]]
*[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]]
*[[Diaolou]]
*[[Diga ta' Karakaya]]
*[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]]
*[[Dimitrana Ivanova]]
*[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]]
*[[Diy-Gid-Biy]]
*[[Dizzjunarju]]
*[[Djalett]]
*[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]]
*[[Djémila]]
*[[Djerba]]
*[[DNA]]
*[[Dolċier]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Menga]]
*[[Dolmen ta' Viera]]
*[[Dolomiti]]
*[[Domenico Allegri]]
*[[Domenico Scarlatti]]
*[[Domowina]]
*[[Domus de Janas]]
*[[Domus Rumana]]
*[[Donatello]]
*[[Dougga]]
*[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]]
*[[Dubrovnik]]
*[[Durmitor]]
* [[Dwejra]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;E&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Edgar Preca]]
* [[Edward Sexton]]
* [[Edinburgu]]
* [[Edward de Bono]]
* [[Edwin Hubble]]
* [[Efesu]]
* [[Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Ekonomista]]
*[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]]
*[[El Escorial]]
*[[El Jadida]]
*[[El Tajin]]
*[[El Torcal]]
*[[Eladio Dieste]]
*[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]]
*[[Elisha Graves Otis]]
*[[Elvas]]
*[[Emil Nolde]]
*[[Emma Andrijewska]]
*[[Emma Muscat]]
*[[Ernst Schröder]]
*[[Esperantoloġija]]
*[[Essaouira]]
*[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]]
*[[Ethel Anderson]]
*[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]]
*[[Eugenio Montale]]
*[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]]
*[[Evelyn Bonaci]]
*[[Évora]]
*[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;F&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]]
* [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]]
* [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]]
* [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]]
* [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]]
* [[Fanjingshan]]
* [[Fasil Ghebbi]]
* [[Fatehpur Sikri]]
* [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]]
* [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]]
* [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]]
* [[Fehme Agani]]
*[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]]
*[[Fenno-Skandinavja]]
*[[Fernando Botero]]
*[[Ferrara]]
*[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]]
*[[Festival ta' Sanremo]]
*[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]]
*[[Figolla]]
*[[Firenze]]
*[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]]
*[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]]
*[[Flora Martirosian]]
*[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]]
*[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Foresti Irkanjani]]
*[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]]
*[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]]
*[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]]
*[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]]
*[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]]
*[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]]
*[[Forti l-Aħmar]]
* [[Forti ta' Agra]]
*[[Forti ta' Bahla]]
*[[Forti ta' Galle]]
*[[Forti ta' Ġesù]]
*[[Forti ta' Rohtas]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]]
*[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]]
*[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]]
*[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]]
*[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]]
*[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]]
*[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]]
*[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]]
*[[Foss ta' Messel]]
*[[Fotografu]]
*[[Francesco Guardi]]
*[[François-Alphonse Forel]]
*[[François Couperin]]
*[[François Girardon]]
*[[Francois Mauriac]]
*[[Franco Migliacci]]
*[[Franġisk Zahra]]
*[[Frank Drake]]
*[[Franz Beckenbauer]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]]
*[[Franz von Suppé]]
*[[Frawla]]
*[[Fray Bentos]]
*[[Frédéric Bartholdi]]
*[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]]
*[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]]
*[[Frosta tal-Għid]]
* [[Frott]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]]
* [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]]
* [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]]
*[[Fuji]]
*[[Furnar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ġ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ġardinar]]
*[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]]
* [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]]
* [[Ġeoloġija]]
* [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]]
* [[Ġerusalemm]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]]
* [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]]
* [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]]
* [[Ġnien Persjan]]
* [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]]
* [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]]
* [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]]
* [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]]
*[[Ġurnalist]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;G&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Gammelstad]]
* [[Gamzigrad]]
* [[Gati tal-Punent]]
* [[Gebel Barkal]]
* [[Geirangerfjord]]
* [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Georg von Békésy]]
*[[George Gallup]]
*[[Georges Bernanos]]
*[[Georges J.F. Kohler]]
*[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]]
*[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Ghadamès]]
*[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]]
*[[Giacomo Zanella]]
*[[Giampiero Galeazzi]]
*[[Gianni Vella]]
*[[Gigi Riva]]
*[[Giorgia Meloni]]
*[[Giorgio Vasari]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Giotto]]
*[[Giovanni Arduino]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Giovanni Paisiello]]
*[[Giovanni Papini]]
*[[Giulio Natta]]
*[[Gjirokastër]]
*[[Glossarju]]
*[[Göbekli Tepe]]
*[[Goffredo Mameli]]
*[[Goiás]]
*[[Golf ta' California]]
*[[Golf ta' Porto]]
*[[Gonbad-e Qābus]]
*[[Gordion]]
*[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]
*[[Gotiku]]
*[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]]
*[[Grand Pré]]
*[[Grand-Bassam]]
*[[Grand Place, Brussell]]
*[[Graz]]
*[[Grazia Deledda]]
*[[Greenland]]
*[[Gregorio Allegri]]
*[[Gremxula ta' Malta]]
*[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]]
*[[Grotti ta' Longmen]]
*[[Grotti ta' Yungang]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]]
*[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]]
*[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]]
*[[Guimarães]]
*[[Gustave Charpentier]]
* [[Gżejjer Eolji]]
* [[Gżejjer Falkland]]
* [[Gżejjer Galapagos]]
* [[Gżejjer Marquesas]]
* [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]]
* [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]]
* [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]]
* [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]]
* [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]]
* [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]]
* [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]]
* [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]]
* [[Gżira ta' Cocos]]
* [[Gżira ta' Fraser]]
* [[Gżira ta' Gorée]]
* [[Gżira ta' Henderson]]
*[[Gżira ta' Jeju]]
*[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]]
*[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]]
*[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]]
*[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]]
*[[Gżira ta' Pico]]
*[[Gżira ta' Robben]]
*[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]]
*[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]]
*[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]]
*[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;GĦ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Għajn Tuffieħa]]
* [[Għalliem]]
*[[Għar Dalam]]
*[[Għar ta' Altamira]]
*[[Għar ta' Gorham]]
*[[Għar ta' Karain]]
*[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]]
*[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]]
*[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]]
*[[Għar tal-Irħam]]
*[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]]
*[[Għarb]]
*[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]]
*[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]]
*[[Għerien ta' Ellora]]
*[[Għerien ta' Mogao]]
*[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]]
*[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]]
*[[Għid]]
*[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]]
*[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]]
*[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]]
*[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;H&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Hahoe]]
* [[Haley Bugeja]]
* [[Halloumi]]
* [[Hallstatt]]
* [[Hampi]]
*[[Hans Geiger]]
*[[Hans Memling]]
*[[Hans Spemann]]
*[[Harar]]
*[[Harry Belafonte]]
*[[Hatı Çırpan]]
*[[Hatra]]
*[[Hattusha]]
*[[Hawa Mahal]]
*[[Hebron]]
*[[Hedeby]]
*[[Hegmataneh]]
*[[Hegra]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]]
*[[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
*[[Henri Frederic Amiel]]
*[[Hermannus Contractus]]
*[[Hideki Shirakawa]]
*[[Hideki Yukawa]]
*[[Hildesheim]]
*[[Höga Kusten]]
*[[Hoh Xil]]
*[[Hội An]]
*[[Holašovice]]
*[[Hollókő]]
*[[Hongcun]]
*[[Hospicio Cabañas]]
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]]
*[[Hovgården]]
*[[Howard Carter]]
*[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]]
*[[Huangshan]]
*[[Hubert de Givenchy]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ħ&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]]
* [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]]
* [[Ħajja]]
*[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]]
*[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]]
*[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;I&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ibn Battuta]]
* [[ICOMOS]]
* [[Idolu ta' Shigir]]
* [[Idrija]]
* [[Idrijski žlikrofi]]
* [[Ilha Grande]]
* [[Il'ja Prigožini]]
* [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]]
*[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]]
*[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]]
*[[Inara Luigas]]
*[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]]
*[[Independence Hall]]
*[[Indiċi]]
*[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]]
*[[Ingredjent]]
*[[Intaljatur]]
*[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]]
* [[Ipproċessar testwali]]
* [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]]
* [[Iremel]]
* [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]]
* [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]]
* [[Irpin]]
* [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]]
*[[Isabella d'Este]]
*[[ISBN]]
*[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]]
*[[Istmu Kuronjan]]
*[[Ivan Turgenev]]
*[[Ivrea]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;J&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Jacinto Benavente]]
* [[Jaipur]]
* [[Jakob Bogdani]]
* [[Jan Novák]]
*[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]]
*[[Jarrod Sammut]]
*[[Jean Antoine Houdon]]
*[[Jean Dieudonné]]
*[[Jean Picard]]
*[[Jebel Faya]]
*[[Jeddah]]
*[[Jodensavanne]]
*[[Joggins]]
*[[Johann Christian Bach]]
*[[Johan Jensen]]
*[[John Edward Critien]]
*[[John Kendrew]]
*[[John Strutt Rayleigh]]
*[[Jongmyo]]
*[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]]
*[[Josef Hoffman]]
*[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]]
*[[Joya de Cerén]]
*[[Jože Plečnik]]
*[[Jules Pascin]]
*[[Julia Malinova]]
*[[Julia Sanina]]
*[[Júlia Sigmond]]
*[[Julio Baghy]]
*[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]]
*[[Jum il-Ġifa]]
*[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Jum l-Ewropa]]
*[[Jum Zamenhof]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;K&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]]
* [[Kairouan]]
* [[Kaja Kallas]]
*[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]]
*[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]]
*[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]]
*[[Kanal ta' Rideau]]
*[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]]
*[[Kandy]]
*[[Kappella]]
*[[Karavanseraj Persjani]]
*[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]]
*[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]
*[[Karl Weierstrass]]
*[[Karlskrona]]
*[[Karlu III]]
*[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]]
*[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]]
*[[Kastell ta' Ankara]]
*[[Kastell ta' Durham]]
*[[Kastell ta' Himeji]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]]
*[[Kastell ta' Lubart]]
*[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]]
*[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]]
*[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]]
*[[Kastell ta' Paphos]]
*[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]]
*[[Kastell ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]]
*[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]]
*[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]]
*[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]]
*[[Katarina Vitale]]
* [[Katidral]]
*[[Katidral ta' Aachen]]
*[[Katidral ta' Amiens]]
*[[Katidral ta' Bourges]]
*[[Katidral ta' Burgos]]
*[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]]
*[[Katidral ta' Chartres]]
*[[Katidral ta' Köln]]
*[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]]
*[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]]
*[[Katidral ta' Reims]]
*[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]]
*[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]]
*[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]]
*[[Katidral ta' Speyer]]
*[[Katidral ta' Tournai]]
*[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]]
*[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]]
*[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]]
*[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]]
*[[Kauksi Ülle]]
*[[Kaunas]]
*[[Kavallier ta' Madara]]
* [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]]
* [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]]
* [[KazCosmos]]
*[[Kelma]]
*[[Kerkuane]]
*[[Kernavė]]
*[[Kewkbet is-Safar]]
*[[Khami]]
*[[Khinalug]]
*[[Khiva]]
*[[Khor Rori]]
*[[Khorramabad]]
*[[Khuttal]]
*[[Kibbeh]]
*[[Kiki Kogelnik]]
*[[Kinderdijk]]
*[[Kirurgu]]
*[[Kizhi Pogost]]
*[[Kladruby nad Labem]]
* [[Klima ta' Malta]]
* [[Klondike]]
* [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]]
* [[Knarik Vardanyan]]
* [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]]
* [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]]
*[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]]
*[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]]
*[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]]
*[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]]
*[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]]
*[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]]
*[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]]
*[[Knisja ta' Boyana]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]]
*[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]]
*[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]]
*[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]]
*[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]]
*[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]]
*[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]]
*[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]]
*[[Koh Ker]]
*[[Kok]]
*[[Kolomenskoye]]
*[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]]
*[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]]
*[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]]
*[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]]
* [[Kolossew]]
* [[Konso]]
*[[Konversazzjoni]]
*[[Korfù]]
*[[Kosta Ġurassika]]
*[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]]
*[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]]
*[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]]
*[[Kotlovina]]
*[[Koutammakou]]
*[[Krak des Chevaliers]]
*[[Krakovja]]
*[[Krater ta' Logoisk]]
*[[Krater ta' Vredefort]]
*[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]]
*[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]]
*[[Kreta]]
*[[Krisztina Tóth]]
*[[Krzemionki]]
*[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]]
*[[Kujataa]]
*[[Kulangsu]]
*[[Kuldīga]]
*[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chaco]]
*[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]]
*[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]]
*[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]]
*[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]]
*[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]]
*[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]]
*[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]]
*[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]]
*[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]]
*[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]]
*[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]]
*[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]]
*[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]]
*[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]]
*[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]]
*[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]
*[[Kunya-Urgench]]
*[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]]
*[[Kutná Hora]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;L&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[L-Arti]]
* [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]]
* [[Lag ta' Baikal]]
* [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]]
* [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]]
* [[Lag ta' Laach]]
* [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]]
* [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]]
* [[Lag ta' Skadar]]
* [[Lagi ta' Willandra]]
* [[Lake District]]
* [[Lamu]]
*[[Landier]]
*[[Lapponja Żvediża]]
*[[Las Médulas]]
*[[Lascaux]]
*[[Lavaux]]
*[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]]
*[[Lazzaro Pisani]]
*[[Le Corbusier]]
*[[Le Havre]]
*[[Le Locle]]
*[[Leptis Magna]]
*[[Lessikoloġija]]
* [[Lessiku]]
* [[Letoon]]
* [[Lev Davidovich Landau]]
* [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]]
* [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]]
* [[Levuka]]
* [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]]
* [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]]
*[[Lika Kavzharadze]]
*[[Lima]]
*[[Lingwa Erżjana]]
*[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]]
*[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]]
*[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]]
*[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]]
*[[Linji ta' Nazca]]
*[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]]
*[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]]
*[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]]
*[[Lista ta' peniżoli]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]]
*[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]]
*[[Liz Truss]]
*[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]]
*[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]]
*[[Lorenzo de' Medici]]
*[[Lorenzo Gafà]]
*[[Lorenzo Valla]]
*[[Luang Prabang]]
*[[Lübeck]]
*[[Lucavsala]]
*[[Lucia Piussi]]
*[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]]
*[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Ludovico Carracci]]
*[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]]
*[[Luigi Boccherini]]
*[[Luigi Galvani]]
*[[Luigi Pirandello]]
*[[Lumbini]]
*[[Luna 26]]
*[[Lunenburg]]
*[[Lvant ta' Rennell]]
*[[Lviv]]
*[[Lyon]]
*[[Lyubov Panchenko]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;M&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Maċedonit]]
* [[Machu Picchu]]
* [[Madinat Al-Zahra]]
*[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]]
*[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]]
*[[Maison Carrée]]
* [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]]
*[[Maltin]]
*[[Måneskin]]
*[[Manhush]]
*[[Manto Mavrogenous]]
*[[Mantova]]
*[[Margaret Abela]]
*[[Maria De Filippi]]
*[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]]
*[[Maria Grollmuß]]
*[[Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Mario Draghi]]
*[[Mário Zagallo]]
*[[Marrakesh]]
*[[Marta Kos]]
*[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]]
*[[Mary Chronopoulou]]
*[[Mary Fenech Adami]]
*[[Mary Moser]]
*[[Masada]]
*[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]]
*[[Maurizio Costanzo]]
*[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]]
*[[Maymand]]
*[[Mbanza Kongo]]
*[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]]
*[[Medina ta' Sousse]]
*[[Melka Kunture]]
*[[Mérida (Spanja)]]
*[[Merill]]
*[[Meroe]]
*[[Merv]]
*[[Meteora]]
*[[Michael Refalo]]
*[[Michail Glinka]]
*[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]]
*[[Milan]]
*[[Mileva Filipović]]
*[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]]
*[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]]
*[[Minaret ta' Jam]]
*[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]]
*[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]]
*[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]]
*[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]]
*[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]]
*[[Mira Alečković]]
*[[Mirella Freni]]
*[[Miroslav Řepa]]
*[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]]
*[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]]
*[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]]
*[[Mnajdra]]
*[[Modena]]
*[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]]
*[[Moidam]]
*[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]]
*[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]]
*[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Rila]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]]
*[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]]
*[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]]
*[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]]
*[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]]
*[[Monika Kryemadhi]]
*[[Møns Klint]]
*[[Mont-Saint-Michel]]
*[[Monte Albán]]
*[[Monte San Giorgio]]
*[[Monte Titano]]
*[[Monticello]]
* [[Monument]]
* [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]]
* [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]]
* [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]]
* [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]]
* [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]]
* [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]]
*[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]]
*[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]]
*[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]]
*[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]]
*[[Morelia]]
*[[Moritz Cantor]]
*[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]]
*[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]]
*[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]]
*[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]]
*[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]]
*[[Moskea tat-Tatari]]
*[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]]
*[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]]
*[[Motoori Norinaga]]
*[[Mramorje]]
*[[Mtskheta]]
*[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]
*[[Muħammed]]
*[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]]
*[[Muntanja Pelée]]
*[[Muntanja Qingcheng]]
*[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]]
*[[Muntanja Wutai]]
*[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]]
*[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]]
*[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]]
*[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]]
*[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]]
*[[Muntanji Wudang]]
*[[Muntanji Wuyi]]
*[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]]
*[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]]
*[[Mużew ta' Trojja]]
*[[Myśliwska]]
*[[Mystras]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;N&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Nærøyfjord]]
* [[Nadur]]
* [[Naftalan]]
* [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
* [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]]
* [[Nalanda Mahavihara]]
* [[Namhansanseong]]
* [[Nancy]]
* [[Nan Madol]]
*[[Napli]]
*[[Naryn-Kala]]
*[[Nataliya Kobrynska]]
*[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]]
*[[Nekropoli]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]]
*[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]]
*[[Nemrut Dağı]]
*[[Nessebar]]
*[[New Lanark]]
*[[New Secret (jott)]]
*[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]]
*[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]]
*[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]]
*[[Nicolas Flamel]]
*[[Nicolau Coelho]]
*[[Nida]]
*[[Nika Križnar]]
*[[Nikkō]]
*[[Nino Ramishvili]]
*[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]]
*[[Nisa f’Malta]]
*[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]]
*[[Nizza]]
*[[Norman Morrison]]
*[[Nutar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;O&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]]
* [[Olga Tass]]
*[[Olimpja]]
*[[Olinda]]
*[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']]
*[[Oplontis]]
*[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]]
*[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]]
*[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]]
*[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]]
*[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]]
*[[Orthohantavirus]]
*[[Ortografija Litwana]]
*[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]]
*[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]]
*[[Osun-Osogbo]]
*[[Otto Toeplitz]]
*[[Ouro Preto]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;P&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Pablo Neruda]]
* [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]]
* [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]]
* [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]]
* [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]]
* [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]]
* [[Pál Maléter]]
* [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]]
*[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]]
*[[Palazz Mariinskyi]]
*[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]]
*[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]]
*[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]]
*[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]]
*[[Palazz ta' Golestan]]
*[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]]
*[[Palazz ta' Mafra]]
*[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]]
*[[Palazz ta' Potala]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]]
*[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]]
*[[Palazz ta' Versailles]]
*[[Palazz tal-Khan]]
*[[Palazz tas-Sajf]]
*[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]]
*[[Palazzi Minojċi]]
*[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]]
*[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]]
*[[Palenque]]
*[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]]
*[[Palestina]]
*[[Palianytsia]]
*[[Palmaria]]
*[[Palmyra]]
*[[Pamukkale]]
*[[Panamá Viejo]]
*[[Papa Ljun XIV]]
*[[Papahānaumokuākea]]
*[[Paquimé]]
*[[Paramaribo]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]]
*[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]]
*[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]]
*[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]]
*[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]]
*[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]]
*[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]]
*[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]]
*[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]]
*[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]]
*[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]]
*[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]]
*[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]]
*[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]]
*[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]]
*[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]]
*[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]]
*[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]]
*[[Parmigianino]]
*[[Parrukkier]]
*[[Pasargadae]]
*[[Paseo del Prado]]
*[[Pattadakal]]
*[[Paulo Coelho]]
*[[Pavlo Lee]]
*[[Pécs]]
*[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]]
*[[Peña de los Enamorados]]
*[[Peniżola]]
*[[Peniżola Valdés]]
*[[Pergamon]]
*[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]]
*[[Persepolis]]
*[[Peter Carl Fabergé]]
*[[Péter Magyar]]
*[[Pëtr Kapica]]
*[[Petra]]
*[[Petra Brocková]]
*[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]]
*[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]]
*[[Philipp Otto Runge]]
*[[Philippi]]
*[[Pienza]]
*[[Piero Angela]]
*[[Pierre Fatou]]
*[[Pietro Longhi]]
*[[Pietru l-Kbir]]
*[[Pimachiowin Aki]]
*[[Ping Yao]]
*[[Pippo Baudo]]
*[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]]
*[[Pitons]]
*[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]]
*[[Pjanta]]
*[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]]
*[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]]
*[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]]
*[[Pjazza]]
*[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]]
* [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]]
*[[Plamer]]
*[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]]
*[[Pobiti Kamani]]
*[[Politika]]
*[[Polonnaruwa]]
*[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]]
*[[Pont ta' Forth]]
*[[Pont ta' Malabadi]]
*[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]]
*[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]]
*[[Pont tal-Fjuri]]
*[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]]
*[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]]
*[[Port Royal]]
*[[Port ta' Mariupol]]
*[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]]
*[[Porta Nigra]]
*[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]]
*[[Porto]]
*[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]]
*[[Potosí]]
*[[Pożati]]
*[[Prambanan]]
*[[Professjoni]]
*[[Proklos]]
*[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]]
*[[Provins]]
*[[Pu'er]]
*[[Puebla (belt)]]
*[[Pythagoreion]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Q&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Qabar ta' Askia]]
* [[Qabar ta' Humayun]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]]
* [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]]
* [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]]
* [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]]
* [[Qala (Għawdex)]]
* [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]]
* [[Qalhat]]
* [[Qanat]]
* [[Qaryat al-Faw]]
* [[Qaytarma]]
* [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]]
* [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]]
* [[Quanzhou]]
* [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]]
* [[Quedlinburg]]
* [[Quirigua]]
* [[Quito]]
* [[Quseir Amra]]
* [[Qutb Minar]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;R&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Rachid Chouhal]]
* [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]]
* [[Rammelsberg]]
* [[Ramses II]]
* [[Rani-ki-Vav]]
* [[Ras'ken' Ozks]]
* [[Ravenna]]
* [[Ravesa Lleshi]]
* [[Red Bay]]
* [[Regensburg]]
* [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]]
* [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]]
*[[Reichenau]]
*[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]]
*[[Rembrandt]]
*[[Renata Scotto]]
*[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]]
*[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]]
*[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]]
*[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]]
*[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]]
*[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]]
*[[Rettilu]]
*[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]]
*[[Riga]]
*[[Risco Caído]]
*[[Riversleigh]]
*[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]]
*[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]]
*[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]]
*[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]]
*[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]]
*[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]]
*[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]]
*[[Robert Fico]]
*[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]]
*[[Roberto Burle Marx]]
*[[Rodi (belt)]]
* [[Roi Mata]]
* [[Roșia Montană]]
* [[Ronald Searle]]
* [[Røros]]
* [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]]
* [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]]
* [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]]
* [[Royal Exhibition Building]]
* [[Róža Domašcyna]]
*[[Rudolf Diesel]]
*[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;S&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Sabratha]]
* [[Saeva Dupka]]
* [[Safranbolu]]
* [[Saint-Émilion]]
* [[Sajjied]]
*[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]]
*[[Salamanca]]
*[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]]
*[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]]
*[[Salme Kann]]
*[[Saltaire]]
*[[Salvatore Accardo]]
*[[Salzburg]]
*[[Samantha Cristoforetti]]
*[[Samarkanda]]
*[[Samarra]]
*[[Sambor Prei Kuk]]
*[[Sammallahdenmäki]]
*[[Samuel Deguara]]
*[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]
*[[San Gimignano]]
*[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]]
*[[San Miguel de Allende]]
*[[San Pietruburgu]]
*[[Sana'a]]
*[[Sanchi]]
*[[Sandra Milo]]
*[[Sandra Mondaini]]
*[[Sandro Botticelli]]
*[[Sangiran]]
*[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]]
*[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]]
*[[Santiago de Compostela]]
*[[Santiago de Querétaro]]
*[[Santiniketan]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]]
*[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]]
*[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]]
*[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]]
*[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]]
*[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]]
*[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]]
*[[São Cristóvão]]
*[[São Luís]]
*[[Sarazm]]
*[[Sardis]]
* [[Saryarka]]
* [[Sassi ta' Matera]]
*[[Schokland]]
*[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]]
*[[Sebastian Brant]]
*[[Segovia]]
*[[Seka Sablić]]
*[[Sengħa]]
*[[Seokguram]]
*[[Seowon]]
*[[Severo Ochoa]]
*[[Sevil Shhaideh]]
*[[Sewell]]
*[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]]
*[[SGang Gwaay]]
*[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]]
*[[Shahrisabz]]
*[[Shaken Aimanov]]
*[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]]
*[[Sheki]]
*[[Shennongjia]]
*[[Shibam]]
*[[Shirakami-Sanchi]]
*[[Shiretoko]]
*[[Sian Ka'an]]
*[[Šibenik]]
*[[Sibila Petlevski]]
*[[Sidney Webb]]
*[[Siega Verde]]
*[[Siena]]
*[[Sighișoara]]
*[[Sigiriya]]
*[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]]
*[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]]
*[[Sikhote-Alin]]
*[[Simon Kldiashvili]]
*[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]]
*[[Sinéad O'Connor]]
*[[Sintra]]
*[[Siracusa]]
*[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]]
*[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]]
*[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]]
*[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]]
*[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]]
*[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]]
*[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]]
*[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]]
* [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]]
*[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]]
*[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]]
*[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]]
*[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]]
*[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]]
*[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]]
*[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]]
*[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]]
*[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]]
*[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]]
*[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]]
*[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]]
*[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]]
*[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]]
*[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]]
*[[Siti tat-Tusi]]
*[[Skarpan]]
*[[Skellig Michael]]
*[[Skogskyrkogården]]
*[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]]
*[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]]
*[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]]
*[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]]
*[[Skorba]]
*[[Skrivan]]
*[[Slavko Brezoski]]
*[[Socotra]]
*[[Soltaniyeh]]
*[[Songo Mnara]]
*[[Sophia Loren]]
*[[Sophie Germain]]
*[[Sophie Liebknecht]]
*[[Söyembikä]]
*[[Speicherstadt]]
*[[Spinalonga]]
*[[Sputnik 5]]
*[[Stari Ras]]
*[[Statwa]]
*[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]]
*[[Statwa tal-Libertà]]
*[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]]
*[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]]
*[[Stećak]]
*[[Stepan Erzya]]
*[[Stevns Klint]]
*[[Stonehenge]]
*[[Stone Town]]
*[[Strett ta' Hormuz]]
*[[Su Nuraxi]]
*[[Subak]]
*[[Sulaiman-Too]]
*[[Sundarbans]]
*[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]]
*[[Surtsey]]
*[[Susa]]
*[[Svaneti]]
*[[Svetlana Antonovska]]
*[[Sviyazhsk]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;T&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Ta' Bakkja]]
* [[Ta' Ħaġrat]]
* [[Ta' Kandja]]
*[[Tabib]]
*[[Tadrart Acacus]]
*[[Taħdit]]
*[[Taishan]]
*[[Taj Mahal]]
*[[Takalik Abaj]]
*[[Takht-e Soleyman]]
*[[Takht-i-Bahi]]
*[[Takkanot Shum]]
*[[Taksim]]
*[[Tallinn]]
*[[Tamgaly]]
*[[Tanġier]]
*[[Taos Pueblo]]
*[[Taputapuātea]]
*[[Tarraco]]
*[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]]
*[[Tassili n'Ajjer]]
*[[Taxila]]
*[[Tchogha Zanbil]]
*[[Te Wahipounamu]]
*[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]]
*[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Teatru Rjal]]
*[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]]
*[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]]
*[[Tebe (Eġittu)]]
*[[Tekniku]]
*[[Telč]]
*[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]]
* [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]]
* [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]]
*[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]]
*[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]]
*[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]]
*[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]]
*[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]]
*[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]]
*[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]]
*[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]]
*[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]]
*[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]]
*[[Teotihuacan]]
*[[Tequila (Belt)]]
* [[Terminoloġija]]
* [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]]
* [[Tétouan]]
*[[Teżawru]]
*[[Theobald Boehm]]
*[[Theodore Géricault]]
*[[Thimlich Ohinga]]
*[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]]
*[[Thomas à Kempis]]
*[[Tian Shan]]
* [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]]
* [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]]
* [[Tikal]]
* [[Timbuktu]]
* [[Timgad]]
* [[Tina Turner]]
* [[Tinetto]]
* [[Tino]]
* [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]]
*[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]]
*[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]]
*[[Tipasa]]
*[[Tiryns]]
*[[Tiwanaku]]
*[[Tiya]]
*[[Tlacotalpan]]
*[[TNMK]]
*[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]]
*[[Toledo]]
*[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]]
*[[Tomiri]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]]
*[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]]
* [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]]
* [[Torri ta' Belém]]
*[[Torri ta' Erkole]]
*[[Torri ta' Londra]]
*[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]]
*[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]]
*[[Toruń]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]]
*[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]]
*[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]]
*[[Třebíč]]
*[[Trinidad, Kuba]]
*[[Trogir]]
*[[Trojja]]
*[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]]
*[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]]
*[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]]
*[[Tsodilo]]
*[[Tubeteika]]
*[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]]
*[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]]
*[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]]
*[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]]
*[[Turan]]
*[[Tutankhamun]]
*[[Twyfelfontein]]
*[[Tyre]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;U&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Úbeda]]
* [[Ugo Foscolo]]
*[[Uluru]]
*[[Um er-Rasas]]
*[[Umm Al-Jimāl]]
*[[UNESCO]]
*[[Università Iżlamika Russa]]
*[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]]
*[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]]
*[[Università ta' Coimbra]]
*[[Unjoni Sovjetika]]
*[[Urbino]]
*[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]]
*[[Uxmal]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;V&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Val d'Orcia]]
*[[Val di Noto]]
*[[Valentyna Radzymovska]]
*[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]]
*[[Vallée de Mai]]
*[[Vasco da Gama]]
*[[Vat Phou]]
*[[Velimir Khlebnikov]]
*[[Venera 7]]
*[[Verona]]
*[[Via Appia]]
*[[Victoria Amelina]]
*[[Vigan]]
*[[Vincent van Gogh]]
*[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]]
*[[Villa d'Este]]
*[[Villa Romana del Casale]]
*[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]]
*[[Villa Tugendhat]]
*[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]]
*[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]]
*[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]]
*[[Vilnius]]
*[[Visby]]
*[[Vitaliy Kim]]
*[[Vito Volterra]]
*[[Vittorio De Sica]]
*[[Vjenna]]
*[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]]
*[[Vlkolínec]]
*[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]
*[[Volubilis]]
*[[Võros]]
*[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]]
*[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;W&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Wachau]]
* [[Wadi Al-Hitan]]
*[[Wadi Rum]]
*[[Wales]]
*[[Weimar Klassika]]
*[[Werrej]]
*[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]]
*[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]]
*[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]]
*[[Wied ta' Loire]]
*[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]]
*[[Wied ta' M'zab]]
*[[Wied ta' Qadisha]]
*[[Wied ta' Viñales]]
*[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]]
*[[Wied tat-Tempji]]
*[[Wilhelm Grimm]]
*[[Wilhelm Röntgen]]
*[[Willem de Sitter]]
*[[Willemstad]]
*[[William Boeing]]
*[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]]
*[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]]
*[[Wismar]]
*[[Władysław Horodecki]]
*[[Wolfgang Paul]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;X&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Xanadu]]
* [[Xanthos]]
* [[Xatt it-Tiben]]
*[[Xeff]]
*[[Xidi]]
*[[Xmara Omo]]
*[[Xochicalco]]
*[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]]
*[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]]
*[[Xjenza spazjali]]
*[[Xtatol]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Y&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Yagul]]
* [[Yakushima]]
* [[Yana Zinkevych]]
* [[Yangdong]]
* [[Yarmak]]
* [[Yaroslavl]]
* [[Yazd]]
* [[Yeni-Kale]]
* [[Yin Xu]]
* [[Yllka Mujo]]
* [[Yogyakarta]]
*[[Yuliya Gushchina]]
*[[Yuri Lysianskyi]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Ż&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Żapoteki]]
* [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]]
* [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]]
*[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]]
*[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]]
*[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]]
*[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]]
*[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]]
*[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]]
*[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]]
*[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]]
*[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]]
*[[Żooloġija]]

=== '''&lt;u&gt;Z&lt;/u&gt;''' ===

* [[Zabid]]
* [[Zacatecas (belt)]]
* [[Zagori]]
* [[Zamość]]
* [[Žatec]]
* [[Žehra]]
* [[Ziba Ganiyeva]]
* [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]]
*[[Zofia Zamenhof]]
*[[Zollverein]]
*[[Zond 5]]
*[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]]</text>
      <sha1>1u9swbu41ze3mh3bdkghccxthr5gc38</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Madonna (kantanta)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25892</id>
    <revision>
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'''Madonna Louise Ciccone''' (twieldet 16 ta' Awwissu 1958) magħrufa bħala '''Madonna''', imwielda fis-16 ta' Awwissu 1958 f'Bay City, [[Michigan]], hija kantanta, żeffiena, attur, produttur tal-films, direttur u negozjanta [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]] ta' oriġini [[Italja|Taljana]] u Franċiża-Kanadiża. Hija spiss ikkwotata bħala influwenza kbira fuq artisti żgħażagħ tas-seklu 21 u meqjusa bħala waħda mill-akbar stilel fuq il-pjaneta.

== Bijografija ==
'''&lt;big&gt;Oriġini u tfulija (1958–1978)&lt;/big&gt;''' 

Madonna twieldet fis-16 ta’ Awwissu 1958 f’Bay City, [[Michigan]]. Hija bint Silvio Anthony &quot;Tony&quot; Ciccone, inġinier Taljan-Amerikan ta' Chrysler u General Motors, u Madonna Louise Fortin, ta' oriġini [[Franċiża-Kanadiża]]. Missieru twieled fit-2 ta’ Ġunju 1931 minn immigranti Taljani mir-raħal ta’ Pacentro (Abruzzo) li waslu l-Istati Uniti fl-1919&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.parismatch.com/People/Bonne-fortune-et-bon-coeur-Madonna-aide-un-village-des-abruzzes-apres-le-seisme-138582|titlu=Bonne fortune, bon cœur pour Madonna|data=2009-04-08|sit=parismatch.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Fir-rigward ta’ ommu, imwielda fil-11 ta’ Lulju 1933, hija dixxendent dirett ta’ Julien Fortin, li emigrat minn Perche lejn [[Franza]] Ġdida fl-1650. Il-familja Fortin hija relatata mal-pijunier Zacharie Cloutier, u b’hekk Madonna kienet kuġin imbiegħda ta’ diversi personalitajiet tal-[[Quebec]] fosthom [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], Diane Tell u Xavier Dolan&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.perche-quebec.com/madonna/individus/madonna.htm|titlu=Madonna, son ancêtre Julien Fortin est né à Saint-Cosme-en-Vairais (Sarthe, France) en 1621|sit=perche-quebec.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Miżżewweġ fl-1955, Silvio Ciccone u Madonna Fortin imbagħad kellhom sitt itfal: Anthony (3 ta’ Mejju 1956 – 25 ta’ Frar 2023), Martin (imwieled fil-15 ta’ Ġunju, 1957), Madonna (li konna laqqmu “Iċ-Ċkejkna Nonni” biex niddistingwuha minnha. omm[8]), Paula (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Awwissu, 1959), Christopher (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Novembru, 1960) u Melanie (imwielda fit-30 ta’ Ġunju, 1962). Imrobbija f’ambjent strettament Kattoliku, Madonna ħadet lil Veronika bħala l-ewwel isimha, b’referenza għal Santa Veronika.

Nannu missieru, li ma kellux diploma, kellu jaħdem ta’ barriera għal salarju żgħir, u trabba lil uliedu strettament sabiex jgħallimhom id-dixxiplina, ir-rispett u, fuq kollox, biex jgħixu permezz tal-perseveranza biss. Missier Madonna se japplika l-istess metodu lil uliedu biex jassigurahom futur preferibbli minn tiegħu. 

Fl-1 ta’ Diċembru 1963, ta’ 5 snin, Madonna tilfet lil ommha bil-kanċer tas-sider. Il-mewt tagħha se tkun suġġett rikurrenti fix-xogħlijiet mużikali tagħha, li Madonna se tindirizza fost l-oħrajn fl-albums ''Like a Prayer'' (1989), ''Ray of Light'' (1998) u ''American Life'' (2003), u se tagħmel id-digriet tagħha li qatt mhu ser. jiddependu fuq il-persuna u ma jkollhom ebda rekwiżit biex jiġġieldu u jiddefendu posthom fis-soċjetà.

'''&lt;big&gt;Karriera&lt;/big&gt;''' 

'''Bidu fil-mużika (1978–1984)''' 

F’Settembru tal-1978, waslet [[Belt ta' New York|New York]] b’$35 fil-but, u marret fid-distrett tat-teatri, [[Times Square]], bit-tama li ssib fama. Madonna se tfakkar diversi episodji trawmatiċi mal-wasla tagħha: “Ma ġejtx milqugħa hemm b’idejha miftuħa. L-ewwel sena, kont miżmuma b'pistola. Ġejt stuprat fuq il-bejt ta’ bini, fejn ġejt imbuttat b’sikkina fuq wara, u l-appartament tiegħi nqasam tliet darbiet.” Malajr saret studenta taż-żeffiena klassika rispettata ħafna Pearl Lang, u għexet minn xogħlijiet okkażjonali fi prekarjetà kbira, solitarja u bil-ftit flus li ġabu magħhom ix-xogħolijiet tagħha bħala waitress, żeffiena jew mudella nude. Madonna għalhekk se tinkorpora l-immaġni tal-ħolma Amerikana: tirnexxi mix-xejn permezz ta’ determinazzjoni kbira. Imbagħad telqet lejn Durham biex tieħu audition u tieħu lezzjonijiet taż-żfin mingħand Martha Graham u Alvin Ailey fl-''American Dance'' Center fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]].

Fl-1979, iltaqgħet ma’ Dan Gilroy, li għallimha l-kitarra. Għajjien mir-relazzjoni tumultuous tagħha ma' Pearl Lang, ħalliet il-karriera tagħha taż-żfin fil-ġenb biex issegwi l-mużika u b'hekk saret id-drummer u mbagħad kantanta tal-grupp ''Breakfast Club''. Wara numru ta’ auditions (notevolment għal Footloose u Fame), il-produtturi nnutawha waqt awdizzjoni għal [[Patrick Hernandez]] u riedu li tittanta xortiha fi Franza; imbagħad għexet għal ħames xhur bejn [[Lille]], [[Pariġi]] u [[Marsilja]], ħadet kuntratti żgħar iżda kisbet esperjenza. Għajjien għal darb'oħra, hija marret lura l-Istati Uniti f'[[Awwissu]] u reġgħet bdiet l-awdizzjonijiet. F’Ottubru, spiċċat tieħu sehem f’film b’baġit baxx, A Certain Sacrifice ta’ Stephen Jon Lewicki. Matul is-sajf tal-1980, hija pproduċiet il-grupp tagħha stess &quot;''Emmy &amp; The Emmys''&quot; f'Manhattan's Music Building, ma' Stephen Bray u Gary Burke, li għalih kitbet 14-il kanzunetta. Il-grupp iwettaq fil-każini, u jwettaq il-kompożizzjonijiet tal-kantanta.

F'April tal-1982, hija ffirmat ma' Sire Records, sussidjarja ta' Warner, li ppermettiet ir-rilaxx tal-ewwel 45 rpm tagħha, Everybody, li ma għarrfithiex mal-pubbliku ġenerali iżda kellha xi suċċess fil-nightclubs Amerikani. Imbagħad ġew ''Burning Up'' u ''Physical Attraction'' li, għal darb'oħra, kienu magħrufa l-aktar fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]. F'Lulju 1983, ħareġ l-ewwel album tagħha, Madonna, li kien jikkonsisti f'kanzunetti taż-żfin, ħafna minnhom prodotti minn Reggie Lucas u miktuba mill-kantanta stess. Quddiem is-suċċess progressiv tal-album, ġew rilaxxati tliet singles oħra, li wkoll iltaqgħu b'suċċess: ''Holiday'', ''Borderline'', u ''Lucky Star''. Minn dakinhar, l-album biegħ aktar minn 10 miljun kopja, nofshom fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].

'''Minn Like a Virgin għal Like a Prayer: il-konsagrazzjoni (1984–1990)'''

Kien bit-tieni album tiegħu li l-artist verament sar magħruf internazzjonalment. Like a Virgin, li dehret fl-aħħar tal-1984, biegħet aktar minn 20 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja, fosthom 10 miljuni fl-Istati Uniti, grazzi għas-singles ''Material Girl'', daqsxejn kontroversjali, ''Angel'', ''Dress You Up'' u speċjalment ''Like a Virgin'', titolu kontroversjali ħafna (li jħallat innuendos erotiċi u referenzi reliġjużi) li sar l-ewwel hit internazzjonali kbir reali tal-kantanta. Din id-darba, Madonna pparteċipat biss fil-kitba għal nofs l-album. Il-fenomenu pop qed jinfirex: tfajliet żgħażagħ tal-Punent qed jadottaw l-istil tax-xagħar u l-istil tal-ħwejjeġ; ħwejjeġ ta 'taħt fuq nett u brazzuletti tal-gomma għamlu &quot;wanabees&quot; l-ewwel groupies popstar femminili. Fl-1985, Like a Virgin reġgħet ħarġet b’titlu addizzjonali, is-suċċess Into the Groove, soundtrack tal-film Desperately Seeking Susan, li fih Madonna kellha wieħed mir-rwoli ewlenin. Fl-istess sena, iżżewġet lill-attur Sean Penn f’bajja privata f’[[Malibu]]: iż-żwieġ tagħhom kien imħassar bil-vjolenza u spiċċaw jiddivorzjaw fl-1989. Filwaqt li l-ewwel tour tagħha, ''The Virgin Tour'', waqfet fl-akbar bliet mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]] u l-[[Kanada]]. 

Fl-1986, meta kienet mistennija li titlaq mix-xena, hija rritornat ma’ True Blue, album li fih saret aktar involuta (issa hija ko-kittieba u ko-produttriċi tal-album kollu). Iktar matur, dan id-diska kien suċċess ġdid, li kklassifika fl-ewwel post fi 28 pajjiż (rekord dak iż-żmien) u kien se jsir l-aktar album li jinbiegħ, b’aktar minn 30 miljun kopja. Il-ħames singles, ''Live to Tell'', ''Papa Don't Preach'', ''True Blue'', ''Open Your Heart'' u ''La isla bonita'', saru hits internazzjonali, u laħqu l-ewwel post fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi. Għal darb’oħra ħolqot kontroversja, notevolment bil-clip għal ''Open Your Heart'' fejn dehret bħala stripper, u t-test ta’ ''Papa Don't Preach'', interpretat minn xi wħud bħala kanzunetta kontra l-abort (iktar tard il-kantanta kienet tgħid li kienet favorevoli għal abort). Imbagħad kitbet b’mod konġunt ''Each Time You Break My Heart'' ma’ Stephen Bray, li hija ppjanat li tkanta waħedha, qabel offrietha lil Nick Kamen, għalkemm kienet preżenti fil-backing vocals.

Mistiedna minn [[Jacques Chirac]], dak iż-żmien sindku u Prim Ministru RPR tal-President soċjalista [[François Mitterrand]], fuq talba ta’ bintha, Claude Chirac, fan tal-istilla, Madonna se tagħti ċekk ta’ 500,000 frank għar-riċerka kontra l-AIDS, fis-Salons tal- Muniċipju.

Is-sena ta’ wara, hija ħadet sehem fuq [[Broadway]] fid-dramm Speed the Plough ta’ David Mamet, flimkien ma’ Joe Mantegna u Ron Silver. Id-dramm se jkun falliment kritiku.{{Commons|Category:Madonna (entertainer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madonna}}

[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1958]]</text>
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'''Madonna Louise Ciccone''' (twieldet 16 ta' Awwissu 1958) magħrufa bħala '''Madonna''', imwielda fis-16 ta' Awwissu 1958 f'Bay City, [[Michigan]], hija kantanta, żeffiena, [[attur]], produttur tal-films, direttur u negozjanta [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]] ta' oriġini [[Italja|Taljana]] u Franċiża-Kanadiża. Hija spiss ikkwotata bħala influwenza kbira fuq artisti żgħażagħ tas-seklu 21 u meqjusa bħala waħda mill-akbar stilel fuq il-pjaneta.

== Bijografija ==
'''&lt;big&gt;Oriġini u tfulija (1958–1978)&lt;/big&gt;''' 

Madonna twieldet fis-16 ta’ Awwissu 1958 f’Bay City, [[Michigan]]. Hija bint Silvio Anthony &quot;Tony&quot; Ciccone, inġinier Taljan-Amerikan ta' Chrysler u General Motors, u Madonna Louise Fortin, ta' oriġini [[Franċiża-Kanadiża]]. Missieru twieled fit-2 ta’ Ġunju 1931 minn immigranti Taljani mir-raħal ta’ Pacentro (Abruzzo) li waslu l-Istati Uniti fl-1919&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.parismatch.com/People/Bonne-fortune-et-bon-coeur-Madonna-aide-un-village-des-abruzzes-apres-le-seisme-138582|titlu=Bonne fortune, bon cœur pour Madonna|data=2009-04-08|sit=parismatch.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Fir-rigward ta’ ommu, imwielda fil-11 ta’ Lulju 1933, hija dixxendent dirett ta’ Julien Fortin, li emigrat minn Perche lejn [[Franza]] Ġdida fl-1650. Il-familja Fortin hija relatata mal-pijunier Zacharie Cloutier, u b’hekk Madonna kienet kuġin imbiegħda ta’ diversi personalitajiet tal-[[Quebec]] fosthom [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], Diane Tell u Xavier Dolan&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.perche-quebec.com/madonna/individus/madonna.htm|titlu=Madonna, son ancêtre Julien Fortin est né à Saint-Cosme-en-Vairais (Sarthe, France) en 1621|sit=perche-quebec.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Miżżewweġ fl-1955, Silvio Ciccone u Madonna Fortin imbagħad kellhom sitt itfal: Anthony (3 ta’ Mejju 1956 – 25 ta’ Frar 2023), Martin (imwieled fil-15 ta’ Ġunju, 1957), Madonna (li konna laqqmu “Iċ-Ċkejkna Nonni” biex niddistingwuha minnha. omm[8]), Paula (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Awwissu, 1959), Christopher (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Novembru, 1960) u Melanie (imwielda fit-30 ta’ Ġunju, 1962). Imrobbija f’ambjent strettament Kattoliku, Madonna ħadet lil Veronika bħala l-ewwel isimha, b’referenza għal Santa Veronika.

Nannu missieru, li ma kellux diploma, kellu jaħdem ta’ barriera għal salarju żgħir, u trabba lil uliedu strettament sabiex jgħallimhom id-dixxiplina, ir-rispett u, fuq kollox, biex jgħixu permezz tal-perseveranza biss. Missier Madonna se japplika l-istess metodu lil uliedu biex jassigurahom futur preferibbli minn tiegħu. 

Fl-1 ta’ Diċembru 1963, ta’ 5 snin, Madonna tilfet lil ommha bil-kanċer tas-sider. Il-mewt tagħha se tkun suġġett rikurrenti fix-xogħlijiet mużikali tagħha, li Madonna se tindirizza fost l-oħrajn fl-albums ''Like a Prayer'' (1989), ''Ray of Light'' (1998) u ''American Life'' (2003), u se tagħmel id-digriet tagħha li qatt mhu ser. jiddependu fuq il-persuna u ma jkollhom ebda rekwiżit biex jiġġieldu u jiddefendu posthom fis-soċjetà.

'''&lt;big&gt;Karriera&lt;/big&gt;''' 

'''Bidu fil-mużika (1978–1984)''' 

F’Settembru tal-1978, waslet [[Belt ta' New York|New York]] b’$35 fil-but, u marret fid-distrett tat-teatri, [[Times Square]], bit-tama li ssib fama. Madonna se tfakkar diversi episodji trawmatiċi mal-wasla tagħha: “Ma ġejtx milqugħa hemm b’idejha miftuħa. L-ewwel sena, kont miżmuma b'pistola. Ġejt stuprat fuq il-bejt ta’ bini, fejn ġejt imbuttat b’sikkina fuq wara, u l-appartament tiegħi nqasam tliet darbiet.” Malajr saret studenta taż-żeffiena klassika rispettata ħafna Pearl Lang, u għexet minn xogħlijiet okkażjonali fi prekarjetà kbira, solitarja u bil-ftit flus li ġabu magħhom ix-xogħolijiet tagħha bħala waitress, żeffiena jew mudella nude. Madonna għalhekk se tinkorpora l-immaġni tal-ħolma Amerikana: tirnexxi mix-xejn permezz ta’ determinazzjoni kbira. Imbagħad telqet lejn Durham biex tieħu audition u tieħu lezzjonijiet taż-żfin mingħand Martha Graham u Alvin Ailey fl-''American Dance'' Center fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]].

Fl-1979, iltaqgħet ma’ Dan Gilroy, li għallimha l-kitarra. Għajjien mir-relazzjoni tumultuous tagħha ma' Pearl Lang, ħalliet il-karriera tagħha taż-żfin fil-ġenb biex issegwi l-mużika u b'hekk saret id-drummer u mbagħad kantanta tal-grupp ''Breakfast Club''. Wara numru ta’ auditions (notevolment għal Footloose u Fame), il-produtturi nnutawha waqt awdizzjoni għal [[Patrick Hernandez]] u riedu li tittanta xortiha fi Franza; imbagħad għexet għal ħames xhur bejn [[Lille]], [[Pariġi]] u [[Marsilja]], ħadet kuntratti żgħar iżda kisbet esperjenza. Għajjien għal darb'oħra, hija marret lura l-Istati Uniti f'[[Awwissu]] u reġgħet bdiet l-awdizzjonijiet. F’Ottubru, spiċċat tieħu sehem f’film b’baġit baxx, A Certain Sacrifice ta’ Stephen Jon Lewicki. Matul is-sajf tal-1980, hija pproduċiet il-grupp tagħha stess &quot;''Emmy &amp; The Emmys''&quot; f'Manhattan's Music Building, ma' Stephen Bray u Gary Burke, li għalih kitbet 14-il kanzunetta. Il-grupp iwettaq fil-każini, u jwettaq il-kompożizzjonijiet tal-kantanta.

F'April tal-1982, hija ffirmat ma' Sire Records, sussidjarja ta' Warner, li ppermettiet ir-rilaxx tal-ewwel 45 rpm tagħha, Everybody, li ma għarrfithiex mal-pubbliku ġenerali iżda kellha xi suċċess fil-nightclubs Amerikani. Imbagħad ġew ''Burning Up'' u ''Physical Attraction'' li, għal darb'oħra, kienu magħrufa l-aktar fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]. F'Lulju 1983, ħareġ l-ewwel album tagħha, Madonna, li kien jikkonsisti f'kanzunetti taż-żfin, ħafna minnhom prodotti minn Reggie Lucas u miktuba mill-kantanta stess. Quddiem is-suċċess progressiv tal-album, ġew rilaxxati tliet singles oħra, li wkoll iltaqgħu b'suċċess: ''Holiday'', ''Borderline'', u ''Lucky Star''. Minn dakinhar, l-album biegħ aktar minn 10 miljun kopja, nofshom fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].

'''Minn Like a Virgin għal Like a Prayer: il-konsagrazzjoni (1984–1990)'''

Kien bit-tieni album tiegħu li l-artist verament sar magħruf internazzjonalment. Like a Virgin, li dehret fl-aħħar tal-1984, biegħet aktar minn 20 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja, fosthom 10 miljuni fl-Istati Uniti, grazzi għas-singles ''Material Girl'', daqsxejn kontroversjali, ''Angel'', ''Dress You Up'' u speċjalment ''Like a Virgin'', titolu kontroversjali ħafna (li jħallat innuendos erotiċi u referenzi reliġjużi) li sar l-ewwel hit internazzjonali kbir reali tal-kantanta. Din id-darba, Madonna pparteċipat biss fil-kitba għal nofs l-album. Il-fenomenu pop qed jinfirex: tfajliet żgħażagħ tal-Punent qed jadottaw l-istil tax-xagħar u l-istil tal-ħwejjeġ; ħwejjeġ ta 'taħt fuq nett u brazzuletti tal-gomma għamlu &quot;wanabees&quot; l-ewwel groupies popstar femminili. Fl-1985, Like a Virgin reġgħet ħarġet b’titlu addizzjonali, is-suċċess Into the Groove, soundtrack tal-film Desperately Seeking Susan, li fih Madonna kellha wieħed mir-rwoli ewlenin. Fl-istess sena, iżżewġet lill-attur Sean Penn f’bajja privata f’[[Malibu]]: iż-żwieġ tagħhom kien imħassar bil-vjolenza u spiċċaw jiddivorzjaw fl-1989. Filwaqt li l-ewwel tour tagħha, ''The Virgin Tour'', waqfet fl-akbar bliet mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]] u l-[[Kanada]]. 

Fl-1986, meta kienet mistennija li titlaq mix-xena, hija rritornat ma’ True Blue, album li fih saret aktar involuta (issa hija ko-kittieba u ko-produttriċi tal-album kollu). Iktar matur, dan id-diska kien suċċess ġdid, li kklassifika fl-ewwel post fi 28 pajjiż (rekord dak iż-żmien) u kien se jsir l-aktar album li jinbiegħ, b’aktar minn 30 miljun kopja. Il-ħames singles, ''Live to Tell'', ''Papa Don't Preach'', ''True Blue'', ''Open Your Heart'' u ''La isla bonita'', saru hits internazzjonali, u laħqu l-ewwel post fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi. Għal darb’oħra ħolqot kontroversja, notevolment bil-clip għal ''Open Your Heart'' fejn dehret bħala stripper, u t-test ta’ ''Papa Don't Preach'', interpretat minn xi wħud bħala kanzunetta kontra l-abort (iktar tard il-kantanta kienet tgħid li kienet favorevoli għal abort). Imbagħad kitbet b’mod konġunt ''Each Time You Break My Heart'' ma’ Stephen Bray, li hija ppjanat li tkanta waħedha, qabel offrietha lil Nick Kamen, għalkemm kienet preżenti fil-backing vocals.

Mistiedna minn [[Jacques Chirac]], dak iż-żmien sindku u Prim Ministru RPR tal-President soċjalista [[François Mitterrand]], fuq talba ta’ bintha, Claude Chirac, fan tal-istilla, Madonna se tagħti ċekk ta’ 500,000 frank għar-riċerka kontra l-AIDS, fis-Salons tal- Muniċipju.

Is-sena ta’ wara, hija ħadet sehem fuq [[Broadway]] fid-dramm Speed the Plough ta’ David Mamet, flimkien ma’ Joe Mantegna u Ron Silver. Id-dramm se jkun falliment kritiku.{{Commons|Category:Madonna (entertainer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madonna}}

[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1958]]</text>
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{{Infobox bijografija}}

'''Robert Nesta Marley''' magħruf bħala '''Bob Marley''' (6 ta' Frar 1945  – 11 ta' Mejju 1981) kien [[kantant]] u [[attur]] [[Ġamajka|Ġamajkani]].

Huwa kiseb suċċess dinji matul ħajtu, u għadu sal-lum l-aktar mużiċist tar-reggae magħruf, filwaqt li kien meqjus bħala dak li ppermetta li l-mużika Ġamajkana u l- moviment Rastafari jilħqu udjenza globali. Huwa biegħ aktar minn 200 miljun rekord madwar id-dinja &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.fr/bob-marley,1998472.asp|titlu=Biographie de Bob Marley|sit=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]|data-aċċess=1 janvier 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

Bob Marley beda l-karriera mużikali tiegħu fl-1962. Fl-1963, ifforma ma ' Bunny Livingston u Peter Tosh trio vokali, The Wailing Wailers. B'''Simmer Down'', fl-1964, li sejjaħ għat-tmiem tal-ġlidiet bejn il-ghettos u għall-għaqda kontra l-faqar, The Wailers kisbu l-ewwel suċċess lokali reali tagħhom fil-Ġamajka. Ħafna oħrajn segwew sal-1968. Sadanittant, Bob Marley sar Rastafari mill-1966, taħt l-influwenza ta’ figuri importanti (bħal Mortimer Planno ) tal-moviment Rastafari, li dakinhar kien qed jisplodu fil-Ġamajka.

Bejn l-1968 u l-1971, il-Wailers bdew mal-produttur Lee &quot; Scratch » Perry kollaborazzjoni siewja ħafna li ġġenerat erba 'albums sintetizzati fl-1972 mit-tikketta Trojan fuq l-album ''African Herbsman'' . Kmieni ħafna fl-1973, rilaxxati taħt l-isem tal-grupp The Wailers ''Catch A Fire'', imbagħad ''Burnin''' f'April 1973, it-tnejn fuq Island Record, it-tikketta mwaqqfa minn Chris Blackwell . Kien fl-aħħar tal-Burnin' Tour tal-1973 fl-Ingilterra li Bunny Livingston, imbagħad Peter McIntosh, ħalla l-grupp fl-aħħar tal-1973.

Bob Marley, issa waħdu, jiddependi fuq is-sezzjoni tar-ritmu notevoli komposta minn Aston &quot; familja »Man Barrett (bass) u Carlton« Carly » Barrett (tnabar) biex jistabbilixxi ruħu taħt l-isem Bob Marley &amp; the Wailers. Ma’ dan il-qalba iebsa hemm it-tastiera Touter (mibdul minn ''Rastaman Vibration'' minn Tyrone Downie u Earl “ Wya » Lindo), il-kitarrist Amerikan Al Anderson u t-trio vokali The I-Threes kompost minn Rita Marley (martu), Judy Mowatt u Marcia Griffiths . Fl-1974, ħareġ l-album ''Natty Dread'' li mmarka l-bidu tas-suċċess dinji ta’ Bob Marley, notevolment immexxi mill-qoxra tat-titlu ''I Shot the Sheriff'' ta’ Eric Clapton . L-album kien suċċess madwar id-dinja.

Dan kien segwit mill-album ''Rastaman Vibration'' (1976), li definittivament għamel lil Bob Marley stilla dinjija u l-akbar kelliem għar -reggae . Ftit xhur wara l-ħruġ ta’ dan l-album, Bob Marley baqa’ ħaj minn attentat ta’ qtil f’Diċembru 1976 fid-dar tiegħu f’Kingston, il-Ġamajka waqt il-kampanja elettorali, li mbuttatu biex joqgħod [[Londra|f’Londra]] . Jirrakkonta dan l-episodju fil-kanzunetta ''Ambush in the Night'' fuq l-album ''Survival'' . Kien waqt dan l-eżilju li dam sa nofs l-1978 u l- One Love Peace Concert f’Kingston, li ħareġ l-album ''Exodus'' (1977), xogħol meqjus minn ''Time Magazine'' bħala l-aqwa album tas {{s-|XX}} .

Fl-1978 ħareġ l-album ''Kaya'', imbagħad ''Survival'' fl-1979, li huwa meqjus minn ħafna speċjalisti mużikali bħala l-aktar album milħuq tiegħu. Qabel u wara ''Survival'', Bob Marley għamel diversi vjaġġi lejn l-Afrika u ta ftit kunċerti hemmhekk, inkluż wieħed fiż [[Żimbabwe|-Żimbabwe]] fl-1980, waqt il-festi li jiċċelebraw l-adeżjoni ta’ dak il-pajjiż għall-indipendenza.

Jbati minn melanoma dijanjostikata fl-1977 li saret kanċer ġeneralizzat, Bob Marley ħareġ l-aħħar album tiegħu, ''Uprising'', fl-1980 u ta l-aħħar kunċert tiegħu f’Pittsburgh fuq{{Data|23 septembre 1980}} . Huwa miet fuq{{Data|11 mai 1981}} f’Miami, l-Istati Uniti, fl-età ta’ sitta u tletin sena. Huwa kien midfun fil-21 ta’ Mejju f’Saint Ann, il-Ġamajka. Il-funeral tal-istat tiegħu f'Kingston attendew eluf ta' nies &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.biography.com/musician/bob-marley|titlu=Bob Marley|sit=Biography|lingwa=en-us|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; .

Matul il-karriera tiegħu, Bob Marley sar l-akbar mużiċist reggae fid-dinja u ikona tal-moviment Rastafari. Huwa wkoll meqjus bħala simbolu globali tal-kultura u l-identità Ġamajkani, filwaqt li jippromwovi wkoll għall -Pan-Afrikaniżmu {{,}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.biography.com/musician/bob-marley|titlu=Bob Marley|sit=Biography|lingwa=en-us|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Ċita ktieb|kunjom=Gooden|isem=Lou|sena=2003|titlu=Reggae Heritage : Jamaica's Music History, Culture &amp; Politic|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=GSbzpWSGkGUC&amp;pg=PA293|lingwa=en|edizzjoni=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4107-8062-1|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Dinja, u t-tnaqqis tal-inugwaljanza u l-faqar. Bob Marley huwa wkoll fost l- artisti mużikali bl-aħjar bejgħ ta 'kull żmien,  filwaqt li l-istil tiegħu influwenza artisti minn ġeneri differenti &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita ktieb|data=2007-10-06|titlu=Billboard|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=lQ4EAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA42|lingwa=en|edizzjoni=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.|isbn=|data-aċċess=2019-07-26}}.&lt;/ref&gt; . Il-Ġamajka onoratu wara mewtu ftit wara mewtu, peress li ġie msemmi fl- Ordni tal-Mertu Ġamajkani . Jibqa' fil {{s-|XXI}} l-aktar Ġamajkani famużi fid-dinja flimkien ma' Usain Bolt &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sportune.fr/article/usain-bolt-dans-la-legende-des-jamaicains-les-plus-celebres-33505|titlu=Usain Bolt dans la légende des Jamaïcains les plus célèbres|data=11 août 2011|sit=sportune.fr|data-aċċess=2 mars 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

== Bijografija ==


'''&lt;big&gt;Twelid u oriġini&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Bob Marley house in Nine Mile.jpg|alt=Post fejn twieled Bob Marley|nofs|daqsminuri|Post fejn twieled Bob Marley]] 

Robert Nesta Marley twieled fis-6 ta’ Frar, 1945 fir-razzett tan-nanniet materni tiegħu, Omeriah Malcolm u Albertha Whilby, it-tnejn afro-Karibew, pjanti tal-kafè, banana, chili, eċċ, f’Rhoden Hall, ħdejn Nine Miles fil-parroċċa ta’ Santa Ann. Magħruf bħala l-post fejn twieled Bob Marley, qatta’ tfulitu hemmhekk. Huwa iben omm li dak iż-żmien kellu 18-il sena, Cedella Malcolm, is-sitt bint tal-Malcolms, iżżewweġ lil Marley imbagħad lil Booker (1926-2008), u missier abjad ta' oriġini Ingliża, Norval Sinclair Marley (1885-1955). Imwieled fil-[[Ġamajka]], dak iż-żmien [[kolonja Brittanika]], missieru kellu 59 sena meta twieled ibnu. Filwaqt li qal li kien kaptan fir-Royal Marines, huwa sejjaħ lilu nnifsu &quot;Kaptan&quot; u kien foreman tal-pjantaġġuni (&quot;Huwa ssorvelja s-suddiviżjoni tal-art rurali&quot;). Robert kien jaf ftit li xejn lil missieru, spiss jivvjaġġa, u li l-familja tiegħu ma kinitx approvata miż-żwieġ, iżda madankollu pprovdietlu l-appoġġ finanzjarju (irregolari) meħtieġ għal Cedella u ibnu8. In-nanniet paterni ta’ Bob huma Albert Thomas Marley, Ingliż minn Sussex, u Ellen Broomfield, nattiva tal-Levant imwielda fil-[[Ġamajka]]. Skont Michael George Marley (iben Noel Marley, hu nnifsu ħu Norval Marley), li tgħallimha mill-familja tiegħu, imbagħad ivverifikat, il-Marley kienu Lhud Sirjani li għaddew mill-Ingilterra qabel ma joqogħdu fil-Ġamajka (innota li Christopher Marley, min-Norval Marley tal-familja, iddikjarat: “Il-familja ta’ Norval Marley qatt ma kienet Sirjana”)&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.bobmarley.com/history/|titlu=History – Bob Marley|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

'''&lt;big&gt;Perjodu Ska&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Nine-Mile-Jamaica.JPG|alt=Fronton tal-“Café One Love” tal-post fejn twieled Bob Marley f’Disa’ Miles.|nofs|daqsminuri|Fronton tal-“''Café One Love''” tal-post fejn twieled Bob Marley f’[[Disa’ Miles]].]]


Meta kien żagħżugħ, Bob Marley segwa lil ommu li ħalliet il-faqar tal-kampanja għal dak tal-ghetto ta’ Trenchtown f’Kingston. Wara li telaq mill-iskola ta’ 14-il sena, sab lil Neville Livingston, iktar tard magħruf bħala Bunny Wailer, f’Kingston, li kien jaf minn tfulitu f’Disa’ Miles, u hemm iltaqa’ ma’ Winston Hubert McIntosh, magħruf bħala Peter Tosh, li miegħu kanta innijiet u hits soul Amerikan li jisimgħu fuq ir-radjijiet ta’ Miami. Il-kantant Joe Higgs, li jgħix ukoll Trenchtown, jagħtihom lezzjonijiet tal-kant u jgħinhom itejbu ħafna. Bob Marley irreġistra l-ewwel kanzunetta tiegħu Judge Not għall-produttur Leslie Kong, tat-tikketta ta’ Beverley, fl-1962, fl-età ta’ 17-il sena, kif ukoll cover ta’ hit country ta’ Claude Gray : ''One Cup of Coffee'' fl-1962 Dawn it-titli ftit kellhom suċċess. , iżda kompla jinvesti ruħu fil-mużika.

Bob Marley beda l-karriera mużikali tiegħu fl-1962. Fl-1963, huwa fforma ma' Neville O'Reilly Livingston (aktar tard Bunny Wailer) u Wynston Hubert McIntosh (aktar tard Peter Tosh) trio vokali mmudellat fuq gruppi vokali Amerikani bħall-Impressions. It-trio kienu l-ewwel imsejħa Wailing Wailers, qabel eventwalment jissejħu The Wailers. Il-grupp jinkludi wkoll lil Junior Braithwaite kif ukoll, bħal “Waillers Minute”, Beverley Kelso u Cherry Green. Huma kisbu kuntratt ma' Studio One fl-1964 u l-binarji bikrija tagħhom ta' ska, gospel, rhythm and blues u soul ġew prodotti mill-produttur lokali kbir Clement &quot;Sir Coxsone&quot; Dodd, li kellu l-assistent tal-istudjo Lee &quot;Scratch&quot; Perry (Scratch jiżgura wkoll promozzjoni) . Coxsone Dodd u l-Wailers jiffirmaw kuntratt ta’ ħames snin. Fi Frar 1964, it-titlu Simmer Down kien suċċess u sar Nru 1 fil-Ġamajka: 80,000 kopja tat-titlu nbiegħu. Huwa att politiku fis-sens nobbli tat-terminu, sejħa biex jitwaqqfu l-ġlidiet fratriċidi bejn il-ghettos u biex ningħaqdu fil-ġlieda kontra l-faqar. [[The Wailers]] irreġistraw ''Rude Boy'', I'm Still Waiting, Put It On u verżjoni bikrija ta' ''One Love''. Bob Marley jieqaf mix-xogħol tiegħu bħala welder. Wara l-album bl-isem The Wailin' Wailers fl-1965, it-trio sseparaw minn Coxsone, li ma tantx ħallashom bi tpattija għall-għexieren ta’ titli li rreġistraw għalih.

Tul il-karriera tagħhom bħala trio, imbagħad bħala att solo, il-Wailers se jħallsu l-prezz ta’ produtturi, maniġers u qraba oħra mhux intenzjonati li ma jkollhom l-ebda kwiet biex iqaxxruhom, il-prattika mużikali f’dak iż-żmien fil-Ġamajka ma tkunx sa id-data tal-preżentazzjoni legali u l-kuntratti bil-miktub, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-impenji jsiru fil-forma ta’ “ftehimiet”. Għalhekk, il-Wailers u aktar tard Bob Marley ġew ħelwin misruqa, notevolment minn Coxsone Dodd, Duke Reid, Lee &quot;Scratch&quot; Perry, Leslie Kong, Danny Sims u oħrajn Morttimo Planno, Allan &quot;Skill&quot; Cole, Don Taylor, eċċ. Volumi finanzjarji li, kieku kellna nqisu l-arretrati ta’ “royalties” u misapproprjazzjoni oħra tad-dħul, fl-aħħar mill-aħħar għandhom ikunu pjuttost sturduti&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.bobmarley.com/history/|titlu=History – Bob Marley|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

'''&lt;big&gt;Perjodu Rocksteady&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Bob Marley I Threes.jpg|alt=Rita Marley (martu) u l-I Threes.|nofs|daqsminuri|Rita Marley (martu) u l-I Threes.]]


Lejn nofs is-sittinijiet, rocksteady irnexxielu ska. Aktar bil-mod u jixxengel minn dan tal-aħħar, rocksteady jimmarka stadju fl-evoluzzjoni tal-[[mużika Ġamajkana]], li dejjem aktar teħles mir-ritmi mgħaġġla tal-ska. Filwaqt li jieħu r-ruħ u r-rhythm and blues tal-[[Amerika ta 'Fuq]], l-istil huwa mmarkat b'aktar vokali u tastieri, u inqas ram. Il-kanzunetti jieħdu temi ta 'l-imħabba u r-reliġjon u l-lirika gradwalment issir imbuttata bit-twemmin [[Rastafari]]. Il-kantanti jindirizzaw liż-żgħażagħ u lis-subien rough tal-[[ghettos]], u jippruvaw jagħtuhom tama.

L-għada taż-żwieġ tiegħu ma’ Rita Anderson fil-11 ta’ Frar, 196614, Bob Marley, fuq talba ta’ ommu, reġa’ żżewweġ lil Ġamajkana jisimha Booker li tgħix f’[[Wilmington]], Delaware, telaq jingħaqad magħha fl-Istati Uniti. Bob Marley ħadem hemm fil-Lukanda Dupont, iżda kompla jikteb kanzunetti. Huwa huwa sostitwit temporanjament minn Constantine &quot;Dream&quot; Walker. Xtaq li jerġa’ jikseb il-libertà tiegħu, reġa’ lura lejn il-gżira tiegħu wara s-sajf tal-1966. Huwa beda jinteressa ruħu dejjem aktar fil-moviment Rastafari, li tfaċċa fis-snin tletin fil-[[Ġamajka]], u waqqaf it-tikketta indipendenti Wail ma’ Peter Tosh u Bunny 'n Soul 'm. L-ewwel titlu tagħhom, prodott minnhom infushom, fl-istil rocksteady ġdid, jissejjaħ Bend Down Low. F'Kingston, Mortimer Planno, Rasta Ġamajkan ta' oriġini Kubana li vvjaġġa lejn l-Etjopja u ltaqa' ma' Haile Selassie I fil-bidu tas-snin sittin, għaddalu parti mill-kultura Rasta tiegħu. Razza mħallta ħafifa miċħuda mill-Ġamajkani suwed, Bob Marley ħassu aċċettat minn dan il-moviment. Mingħajr l-appoġġ ta 'distributur professjonali, ir-rekords tiegħu mibjugħa ħażin ħafna, u Bob Marley kien fqir wisq biex jgħix fil-belt ma' martu Rita u ż-żewġt itfal tiegħu Cedella u Ziggy. Irritorna lejn ir-raħal twelidu fl-1967 għat-tiġdid spiritwali, iżda kompla jirreġistra u jippubblika numru ta’ 45s oskurati għad-ditta żgħira tiegħu Wail'n Soul'm, bħall-klassiċi futuri ''Hypocrites u Nice Time'', li ġew rilaxxati taħt l-isem. tal-grupp Wailers.

Rita, Bob Marley u Peter Tosh iltaqgħu, f'Jannar 1968, mal-kantant Amerikan Johnny Nash, li kien determinat li jniedi l-istil rocksteady fl-Istati Uniti, u l-manager tiegħu Danny Sims, li magħhom iffirmaw kuntratt internazzjonali esklussiv għar-rekords u JAD. edizzjonijiet. Bob Marley ipprovdahom numru ta’ kompożizzjonijiet ġodda, fosthom Stir It Up, li ma damx ma sar suċċess għal Nash. Johnny Nash kellu ħafna suċċess ma 'rocksteady (hit Amerikana Hold Me Tight fl-1968), iżda l-album ta' The Wailers li hu ffinanzja ma ġiex rilaxxat (finalment ma ġiex ippubblikat sal-1997 minn JAD). Verżjoni ġdida biss ta 'Bd Down Low b'ram Amerikan miżjud fi New York ġiet rilaxxata fi Franza u l-Kanada (JAD-CBS) fl-1968, iżda mingħajr ebda suċċess. Fl-istess ħin, Bob Marley kiteb l-ewwel biċċa tiegħu Rasta, Selassie Is the Chapel, fl-1968. Dan ir-recording importanti, fl-istil nyabinghi (tnabar Rasta), kien iffinanzjat minn Mortimo Planno, li interpreta n-naħa B, A Little Prayer. Ftit produtturi lokali ġew u marru, iżda t-trio vokali ma kellux aktar suċċess minn meta ħalla Coxsone Dodd.

'''&lt;big&gt;Reggae u Island Records&lt;/big&gt;'''

Mingħajr riżorsi, Bob Marley mar lura l-Istati Uniti biex jingħaqad ma’ ommu fl-1969. Ħadem għal diversi xhur bħala ħaddiem ta’ billejl f’fabbrika tal-karozzi Chrysler, li ispirat il-lirika tal-kanzunetta It's Alright (1970). Martu u wliedu żgħar ingħaqdu miegħu. Mar-ritorn tiegħu, huwa waqqaf id-diski Tuff Gong, imsemmija wara l-ghetto (imnissla mil-laqam ta’ Leonard Howell, il-fundatur “Gong” tal-moviment Rastafarian), u rreġistra cover ta’ Say It Loud – I'm Black ta’ James Brown. u I'm Proud semmiet mill-ġdid Black Progress, fl-istil reggae ġdid, b'mużiċisti żgħażagħ, l-aħwa Carlton (fuq id-drums) u Aston “Family Man” Barrett (fuq il-bass), li qatt mhu se jħalluh. Iżda d-diski indipendenti Tuff Gong xorta ma kellhom l-ebda suċċess.

Marley imbagħad mar l-Ingilterra biex jara lil ħabib antik tiegħu Lee “Scratch” Perry, li wasal hemm fl-aħħar tal-1969, akkumpanjat mill-aħwa Barrett taħt l-isem ta’ Upsetters. Perry kiseb suċċess bl-Ingliż bl-istrumentali The Return of Django u qabel li jipproduċi t-trio vokali The Wailers. Lee Perry, qrib ħafna ta’ Bob Marley fuq livell spiritwali, ta kulur ġdid lill-grupp, li rreġistra diversi kanzunetti miegħu, fosthom Duppy Conqueror, Sun Is Shining, Soul Rebel, Kaya u (I've Gotta) Keep on Moving. minn Curtis Mayfield. Lee Perry ġabar uħud minn dawn il-45s u biegħhom – mingħajr l-għarfien tal-Wailers – lit-tikketta Trojan, biex jipproduċi l-album African Herbsman, maħruġ fl-Ingilterra fil-bidu tas-sena 1973. Dan kien apprezzat moderatament ħafna minn Bob Marley li Fl-istess ħin ħin, Catch A Fire ħareġ bit-tikketta Island Records.

Għadu mingħajr suċċess, Bob Marley (li l-grupp tiegħu ma' Bunny Wailer u Peter Tosh għadu jismu The Wailers) irrekordja madwar għaxar kanzunetti mat-tim ta' mużiċisti ta' Leslie Kong &quot;Beverley's All-Stars&quot; (Lloyd Parkes, Jackie Jackson, Paul Douglas, Gladstone &quot;Gladdie&quot;. &quot; Anderson, Winston Wright, Rad Bryan, Lynn Taitt, u Hux Brown), produttur Ġamajkan (Kong kien diġà pproduċa l-ewwel żewġ 45s solo ta' The Wailers fl-1962), li kellu suċċess fl-Ingilterra grazzi għal ħoss professjonali li kapaċi jidħol fis-suq. is-suq Brittaniku (Trojan records f’Londra). Huwa ppubblika dawn it-titli fl-1971 taħt l-isem The Best of the Wailers. Bunny Wailer joġġezzjona għal dan it-titlu (kien jippreferi Cheer Up) imbagħad jhedded lil Kong: &quot;mela jkun l-aħħar album tiegħek..., sempliċiment għax ma tkunx aktar hawn biex tisma' l-bqija&quot;. Leslie Kong mietet ftit wara minn attakk tal-qalb. Bob Marley javviċina l-organizzazzjoni Rasta tat-Tnax-il Tribù ta’ Iżrael imwaqqfa mill-Profeta Gad, alias Vernon Carrington. The Wailers ikomplu jalternaw bejn awto-produzzjonijiet għal Tuff Gong u sessjonijiet prodotti u ffinanzjati minn Perry. Minkejja l-kwalità tax-xogħol prolifiku tagħhom, ma kellhom l-ebda suċċess lokali sakemm Trench Town Rock (Tuff Gong 1971) ħarġet minnhom infushom.

F'dan il-punt ċentrali fil-karriera tiegħu, Bob Marley kien diġà kkontribwixxa għal mill-inqas 350 track irreġistrat fl-istudjo (inklużi madwar tletin bħala backing vocalist), li ħafna minnhom ma kinux se jiġu żvelati lill-udjenzi internazzjonali sa ħafna aktar tard, ħafna wara mewtu, notevolment. fis-sensiela ta’ għaxar CDs The Complete Bob Marley and the Wailers 1967 to 1972 (JAD) prodotti bejn l-1998 u l-2003 mill-Franċiż Bruno Blum u l-Amerikan Roger Steffens u l-pubblikazzjoni, fl-1991, tar-reġistrazzjonijiet ta’ Studio One li saru bejn l-1964 u 1966. Bob Marley sussegwentement kien jerġa’ jirreġistra xi wħud minn dawn il-kompożizzjonijiet, bħal ''Satisfy My Soul'', ''Sun Is Shining'' jew ''Lively Up Yourself''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita rivista|data=2012-12-31|editur-kunjom1=Nau|editur-isem1=François|titlu=La version syriaque de l’Octateuque de Clément|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463226442}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Fuq talba ta’ Johnny Nash u Danny Sims (it-tnejn fundaturi tat-tikketta JAD ma’ Arthur Jenkins), li qed ifittxu kompożizzjonijiet għall-mużika tal-film Svediż ''Vil Sa Garna Tro'' (''Love is not a game''), taħt id-direzzjoni ta’ Gunnard Hoglund, li fih Nash għandu r-rwol ewlieni, Bob Marley jitlaq (waħdu) għal [[Stokkolma]] f’Novembru 1970 mal-ekwipaġġ kollu tal-films. Jgħix f'Nockeby qrib [[Stokkolma]] ma' mużiċisti li huma kulturalment 'il bogħod ħafna mill-kultura Rasta tiegħu u huwa pjuttost iżolat fix-xitwa kiesħa Svediża fejn is-silġ jimblokka l-iffilmjar tal-film. Kiteb diversi biċċiet hemmhekk, u kkollabora fuq il-mużika għall-film. 1972, Nash imbagħad iffirma ma’ CBS Records f’Londra fejn irreġistra l-akbar suċċess tal-karriera tiegħu, ''I Can See Clearly Now''. Bob Marley iffirma wkoll mas-CBS grazzi għal Johnny Nash u Danny Sims li ppruvaw inieduh internazzjonalment. Iżda l-45 rpm Reggae fuq Broadway ta’ Bob Marley, li ħareġ fl-istess ħin ta’ Nash, ma kellu l-ebda suċċess. Il-ħoss u l-mużiċisti Ingliżi miġjuba minn Nash ma kinux tajbin għal Bob. Ftit kunċerti f'Londra, mal-aħwa Barrett, ġew organizzati bħala l-att tal-ftuħ ta' Nash, iżda mingħajr suċċess. Il-mawra ta’ madwar mitt data organizzata u ffinanzjata minn Sony kienet diżastru għal Marley. Nash, li t-titlu tiegħu ''I Can See Clearly'' ''Now'' huwa suċċess fl-Istati Uniti, iħalli Londra ma’ Danny Sims u jħalli lil Marley hemm, akkumpanjat mill-Wailers kollha.

'''&lt;big&gt;Il-bidu tas-suċċess&lt;/big&gt;'''

Fuq suġġeriment ta’ Chris Blackwell, l-ewwel żewġ albums għal Island — 'u ''Burnin''&lt;nowiki/&gt;' — ġew imħallta mill-ġdid f'Londra, fejn ġew miżjuda solos tal-kitarra (minn Wayne Perkins għal Catch A Fire), kif ukoll partijiet tat-tastiera li pprovdew aktar rock tagħha. u aktar aċċessibbli għall-pubbliku ġenerali tal-Punent. Blackwell irid jagħmel ''Catch A Fire'' id-diska ta’ grupp “black rock”. ''Catch a Fire'' imbagħad Burnin' ġew rilaxxati mill-Gżira mill-ġdid taħt l-isem tal-grupp ''The Wailers'' f'April u Ottubru 1973. Kien suċċess mal-istampa, iżda mhux mal-pubbliku. Wara tour promozzjonali bl-Ingliż, Bunny Wailer ħalla l-grupp (bl-iskuża li t-tour ma kienx imħallas minn Island u li Chris Blackwell għamel lill-Wailers idoqqu f'postijiet ta' perdizzjoni), sostitwit minn Joe Higgs għat-tmiem tat-tour tal-Istati Uniti tal-1973 , notevolment għall-kunċert storiku li ngħata fil-31 ta’ Ottubru f’KSAN Radio f’San Francisco (ara KSAN Radio) fejn il-Wailers se jagħtu prestazzjoni diretta li tgħammix quddiem udjenza żgħira ta’ nies privileġġjati. Lura fil-[[Ġamajka]], Peter Tosh ħalla l-grupp, u ħalla lil Bob Marley għall-karriera solo tiegħu. Li pjuttost jifraħ lil Chris Blackwell li dejjem ra lil Bob bħala mexxej kariżmatiku, figurehead iddestinat li jmexxi lill-Wailers fix-xena internazzjonali. Lil hinn mill-attitudni tal-boxxla ta’ Island Records, kien hemm tensjonijiet qawwija għal diversi xhur bejn Bob, Peter u Bunny, għal raġunijiet differenti. Tliet personalitajiet b'saħħithom b'ambizzjonijiet dejjem inqas konverġenti. Bob, Peter u Bunny irreġistraw mijiet ta’ titoli flimkien bejn l-1963 u l-1973.

L-isem tal-grupp imbagħad inbidel biex jissejjaħ uffiċjalment “Bob Marley and the Wailers” (fuq is-suġġeriment ta’ Chris Blackwell). Il-Wailers li issa se jkunu l-akkumpanjati tiegħu, inkluż it-trio vokali femminili “I Threes” ma’ Rita Marley, Marcia Griffiths u Judy Mowatt, li tieħu ħsieb il-korijiet, iż-żewġ aħwa Barrett (Ashton “Family Man” fuq il-bass u Carlton fuq drums), il-pjanisti Earl “Wire” Lindo u Tyrone Downie (Touter jinsab fuq it-tastieri fuq l-album u waqt il-“Natty Dread Tour”), il-kitarrist Earl “Chinna” Smith, il-plejer tal-armonika Lee Jaffee (biss fuq Natty Dread) u l-perkussjonista Alvin &quot;Seeco&quot; Patterson. It-tielet album ippubblikat minn Island kien intitolat Natty Dread u ħareġ fl-1974 taħt l-isem &quot;Bob Marley and the Wailers&quot;, li fih il-grupp inkorpora influwenza rhythm'n blues mal-kitarrist Amerikan Al Anderson. Kitarist solista Ġamajkan ieħor, Junior Marvin kien ingaġġat wara t-tluq ta 'Al Anderson fl-1976 (u kkreditat mill-1977 fuq l-album Exodus).

L-album ''Natty Dread'' ġie rilaxxat fil-25 ta 'Ottubru 1974 u kien segwit minn mawra fl-Ingilterra u l-Istati Uniti matul l-1975. Dan l-album inizjalment kellu jissejjaħ ''Knotty Dread'', imnaqqas għal Natty Dread fuq talba ta' Island Records. Qabel ma marru fuq tour, il-Wailers daqqu mal-Jackson Five fit-8 ta’ Marzu fin-National Heroes Stadium f’Kingston u ma’ [[Stevie Wonder]] wara t-tour tal-4 ta’ Ottubru waqt il-''Wonder Dream Concert'', ukoll fin-National Heroes Stadium. Din se tkun ukoll l-aħħar kollaborazzjoni tal-istadju ta’ Bob ma’ Peter Tosh u Bunny Livingston. Natty Dread huwa l-ewwel suċċess internazzjonali kbir ta’ Bob Marley and the Wailers, parzjalment iffavorit mill-qoxra, wara l-ħruġ ta’ ''Burnin''’, ta’ ''I Shot The Sheriff'' minn Eric Clapton ta’ fama dinjija. L-album ''Live!'' irrekordjat fit-18 ta’ Lulju, 1975 fil-Lyceum f’[[Londra]], jagħti rendikont maġistral ta’ dan it-tour notevoli li matulu Bob Marley u l-grupp tiegħu xegħlu s-swali fejn daqqew, notevolment fit-18 ta’ Ġunju fis-Schaefer Music Festival fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]], fil-Boarding. House f’[[San Francisco]] għal erba’ sets mill-4 sas-7 ta’ Lulju u fir-Roxy f’[[Los Angeles]] fejn il-Wailers se jdoqqu sitt ijiem mid-9 sat-13 ta’ Lulju, taħt il-ħarsa ta’ [[George Harrison]], ir-[[Rolling Stones]] u [[Herbie Hancock]], fost oħrajn. It-tour kien suċċess fenomenali u titlu bħal ''No Woman'', ''No Cry'' wassal lil Bob Marley għal-livell ta’ stilla internazzjonali.

Kien fl-1975 li Bob Marley xtara mingħand Chris Blackwell id-dar f’56 Hope Road, il-Island House, f’Kingston, li kien diġà jokkupa mill-1973 u li kien se jsir il-Mużew ta’ Bob Marley wara l-mewt ta’ Bob. Bejn l-1975 u l-1980, 56 Hope Road kienet post ta’ skambji politiċi u artistiċi intensi u ħolqien mużikali eċċezzjonali, iffrekwentat kontinwament minn għexieren ta’ Rastas u oħrajn. 56 Hope Road se jkun ukoll il-post għal ħafna logħbiet tal-futbol li minnhom Bob kien partitarju reali. Sport li pprattika kważi kull jum ta’ ħajtu, id-dar f’[[Kingston]] u waqt it-tour, qabel kull kunċert.

'''&lt;big&gt;Attentat ta' qtil&lt;/big&gt;'''

Fl-1976, ġie rilaxxat l-album ''Rastaman Vibration'', l-aqwa rekord ta’ bejgħ ta’ Bob Marley &amp; The Wailers matul ħajtu u l-ewwel suċċess Amerikan tiegħu. Din ir-rilaxx kienet segwita minn mawra Amerikana u mbagħad Ingliża, it-tnejn ta’ ħeġġa għall-mużiċisti minħabba t-tul tagħha u straordinarji fuq livell mużikali. Il-kunċert fenomenali li ngħata fir-Roxy f’[[Los Angeles]] fis-26 ta’ Mejju 1976 jixhed l-enerġija u l-qawwa tal-Wailers fuq il-palk f’dak iż-żmien. Bob Marley jinsab fil-quċċata tal-qawwa tal-palk tiegħu waqt dan ir-''Rastaman Vibration Tour''. L-1976 tikkorrispondi wkoll għal perjodu iebes ħafna għall-[[Ġamajka]], f’xifer il-falliment wara l-kriżi taż-żejt tal-1973. 

Il-gangsteriżmu żviluppa konsiderevolment fuq il-gżira, li m’għadx għandha ħafna x’taqsam mal-Ġamajka li tiċċelebra l-indipendenza tagħha fl-1962. Amplifikata mill-virulenti oppożizzjoni bejn il-JLP (Partit Laburista tal-Ġamajka) ta’ Edward Seaga u l-PNP (Partit Nazzjonali tal-Poplu) ta’ Michael Manley, elett mill-1972, il-vjolenza mbuttat lill-gvern biex jiddeċiedi stat ta’ emerġenza fid-19 ta’ Ġunju, 1976, ftit xhur qabel il- elezzjonijiet.

Fit-3 ta’ Diċembru 1976 f’[[Kingston]], ftit qabel il-kunċert kbir fil-miftuħ ''Smile Jamaica'' li sar fuq talba tal-Prim Ministru Ġamajkan Michael Manley, Bob Marley ħarab minn sparatura f’daru minn sitt irġiel armati, waqt li kien qed jagħmel provi ma’ il-banda tiegħu fid-Dar tal-Gżira f’56 Triq it-Tama. Huwa ma appoġġjax lil Michael Manley, iżda kien impenjat għal dan il-kunċert għall-[[Ġamajka]] u l-poplu Ġamajkan li jbati (is-“Sufferers”). Bullit ħaktetu sidru u qagħdu f’driegħ ix-xellug, filwaqt li ieħor ħabat f’rasu lil Rita, iżda mingħajr ma qatilha. Don Taylor, il-manager Amerikan ta’ Bob Marley, ħareġ imweġġa’ gravi ħafna b’ħames balal. Id-dubji jippersistu dwar l-oriġini ta’ dan l-attentat ta’ qtil. Lil hinn mid-dikjarazzjonijiet ‘l hawn u ‘l hemm li jimplikaw il-JLP, is-CIA, u anke t-tpattija kontra Allan “Skill” Cole li allegatament imtella’ l-imħatri, illum ma nistgħux ngħidu b’ċertezza min hu tassew fl-oriġini ta’ dan l-attakk. Waqt intervista tal-1977, Bob Marley kien pjuttost evażiv dwar is-suġġett u semma dan l-episodju drammatiku fil-kanzunetta tiegħu ''Ambush in the Night'' fl-album ''Survival'' ippubblikat fl-1979.
[[Stampa:Bob-Marley-in-Concert Zurich 05-30-80.jpg|alt=Bob Marley f'kunċert, 1980, Zurich, l-Isvizzera.|nofs|daqsminuri|Bob Marley f'kunċert, 1980, [[Zurich]], l-[[Żvizzera|Isvizzera]].]]


Jumejn wara l-attakk li kważi sewilu ħajtu, Bob Marley ipparteċipa kif ippjanat fil-kunċert ''Smile Jamaica'' f’[[Kingston]]. Meta l-ġurnalisti staqsewh għaliex kien tant ħerqan li jdoqq f’dan il-kunċert, hu wieġeb: “In-nies li jippruvaw jagħmlu din id-dinja ħażina qatt ma jieħdu ġranet ta’ mistrieħ. Kif stajt? » Ashton “Family Man” Barrett, moħbi fl-għoljiet, jiġi sostitwit dakinhar minn Cat Coore tat-Tielet Dinja. Meta jasal fuq il-palk, Bob Marley juri l-faxex tiegħu lill-udjenza, bħal martri.

'''&lt;big&gt;Eżilju u suċċess globali&lt;/big&gt;'''

Ma baqax iħossu sigur fil-Ġamajka qabel l-elezzjonijiet, Bob Marley mar fl-eżilju f'Jannar tal-1977 u stabbilixxa ruħu f'[[Londra]]. Huwa rreġistra l-album Exodus hemmhekk bejn Marzu u April 1977, li ħareġ fl-aħħar tar-rebbiegħa. Mir-reġistrazzjonijiet ta’ Exodus, ittieħdet ukoll l-album Kaya, li ħareġ fl-1978. Wara t-tluq tal-kitarristi Al Anderson u Donald Kinsey, kitarrista żagħżugħ Ġamajkan ħa f’idejh u ġie kkreditat fuq l-album, imlaqqam il-“Ġamajkan Hendrix”: Junior Marvin. Exodus huwa album li huwa kemm reliġjuż kif ukoll sentimentali, li jiftaħ bil-mistika ħafna Natural Mystic u jagħlaq b’din il-kanzunetta tal-imħabba universali One Love/People Get Ready. Fl-2000, l-album ''Exodus'' ġie elett mit-Times Magazine bħala l-aqwa album tas-seklu 20, qabel is-Surġent Pepper tal-Beatles jew Kind of Blue ta’ Miles Davis. Ir-relazzjoni romantika ta’ Bob Marley mal-Ġamajkana Cindy Breakspeare, Miss World 1976, għenet biex ipoġġih fuq il-faċċata tal-midja. Bob u Cindy għexu rumanz matul dan l-eżilju f’Londra, li dam għaddej sal-1980. Cindy Breakspeare, li kellha tifel ma’ Bob, Damian Marley, kienet preżenti wkoll fl-intourage ta’ Bob Marley sal-aħħar ta’ ħajtu, f’Mejju tal-1981.

Kien waqt l-Exodus Tour, li beda f’Pariġi fl-10 ta’ Mejju 1977 fil-Padiljun ta’ [[Pariġi]], li Bob Marley weġġa’ l-kbir ta’ sieq il-leminija waqt logħba tal-futbol ma’ ġurnalisti Franċiżi, il-ġurnata ta’ qabel il-kunċert. Ftit jiem wara, ħarġet kunċert fir-Rainbow Theatre f’[[Londra]], sieq Bob kienet tgħaddi d-demm. Huwa wettaq batterija ta’ eżamijiet, fosthom bijopsija, li żvelat melanoma akrolentiginous fuq is-sieq il-kbir (marda tal-ġilda li tirrappreżenta biss 4% tal-kanċer), bla dubju minħabba espożizzjoni twila wisq għax-xemx. Tabib Amerikan ordna amputazzjoni urġenti tas-sieq. Iżda taħlita ta’ superstizzjoni minn ta’ madwaru (skont dawk qrib tiegħu, din l-amputazzjoni kienet twaqqaflu milli jiżfen fuq il-palk jew jerġa’ jilgħab il-futbol u speċjalment il-kultura Rastafari tipprojbixxi kull amputazzjoni) u pressjoni f’nofs tour Ewropew fejn finalment jiltaqa' mal-udjenza tiegħu, jikkontribwixxi biex jittardja l-operazzjoni. Wara ħafna eżitazzjoni, tabib ta 'Miami neħħa biss is-sodda tad-dwiefer, b'mod żbaljat jemmen li kien se jwaqqaf il-progressjoni tal-kanċer. It-tour Exodus Amerikan huwa kkanċellat.

Fl-aħħar ta’ Marzu 1978, ħareġ l-album Kaya, irrekordjat flimkien ma’ Exodus f’Londra matul l-eżilju tal-1977. L-album laħaq suċċess kbir, iżda kien ikkunsidrat mill-istampa speċjalizzata bħala album minuri, pjuttost ħafif. F'April 1978, Bob Marley u l-Wailers għamlu ritorn trijonfanti fil-[[Ġamajka]]. Waqt il-Kunċert ''One Love Peace'' li jsir fit-22 ta’ April fl-Istadium Nazzjonali f’[[Kingston]]. Bob Marley, li jitla’ fuq il-palk fi tmiem kunċert li dam kważi tmien sigħat u li ġab flimkien The Meditations, Culture, Dennis Brown, Jacob Miller, Peter Tosh, eċċ., jirnexxielu jlaqqa’ fuq il-palk liż-żewġ għedewwa politiċi li huma jikkontestaw bil-qawwa g[all-poter, Edward Seaga (JLP) u l-Prim Ministru Michael Manley (PNP) fi spe/i ta’ barka Rastafari, immortalizzata fil-film dokumentarju Heartland Reggae ta’ James P. Lewis. Wara dan il-kunċert storiku, Bob Marley sar l-eroj nazzjonali kbir ta’ parti mill-Ġamajka (l-ifqar), dak li għamel ir-reggae u l-moviment [[Rastafari]] globali u għamel din il-gżira tal-Karibew magħrufa mad-dinja kollha.

Waqt Kaya Tour twil ħafna, li matulu l-album ''Babylon by Bus'' ġie rreġistrat fil-pubbliku, irrekordjat fost l-oħrajn fil-Padiljun ta’ [[Pariġi]] f’Porte de Pantin bejn il-25 u s-27 ta’ Ġunju 1978 (lokalità taż-Zenith attwali). Kien ukoll fl-1978 li Bob bena l-istudjo Tuff Gong, ħolma antika, fid-dar tiegħu f’56 Hope Road f’[[Kingston]], fejn irreġistra l-album ''Survival'' with the Wailers, fuq l-istudjo ġdid fjamant tiegħu b’24 track. Is-sopravivenza, li qabel kellha tissejjaħ ''Black'' ''Survival'', tkanta l-ħelsien tal-kontinent Afrikan u l-emanċipazzjoni tan-nies suwed mill-jasar għal ritorn lejn l-art ta’ oriġini, l-[[Afrika]]. Dan l-album huwa meqjus mill-istampa speċjalizzata bħala l-aktar album milħuq mill-albums kollha ta’ Bob Marley. Il-grupp Bob Marley and the Wailers issa jgawdi minn suċċess globali u jdoqq mad-dinja kollha sal-[[Ġappun]], l-[[Awstralja]] u [[New Zealand]] fejn Bob Marley huwa milqugħ bil-qalb mill-[[Maoris]].

'''&lt;big&gt;L-aħħar snin u l-mewt&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Hollywood Walk of Fame stars - Bob Marley.jpg|alt=Plakka kommemorattiva fuq il-Walk of Fame ta’ Hollywood.|nofs|daqsminuri|Plakka kommemorattiva fuq il-[[Walk of Fame ta’ Hollywood]].]]


Bob Marley and the Wailers bdew l-1980 b’żewġ kunċerti mogħtija fil-[[Gabon]] għal għeluq snin il-President Bongo. Imbagħad segwa fit-18 u d-19 ta’ April biż-“''Zimbabwe Independence Concert''”, fir-Rufaro Stadium f’Salisbury, għall-indipendenza taż-[[Żimbabwe]]. Bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti, il-grupp spiċċa jirreġistra l-album ''Uprising'' fl-istudjo Dynamics f'[[Kingston]]. L-album ħareġ fir-rebbiegħa tal-1980, eżatt qabel ma jitlaq għall-Urising Tour, li kien ikun it-tour tas-superlattivi kollha, u l-aħħar. 100,000 ruħ f’San Siro f’[[Milan]] fis-27 ta’ Ġunju, 50,000 ruħ f’[[Le Bourget]], qrib [[Pariġi]], fit-3 ta’ Lulju, eċċ. Bob Marley u l-Wailers issa jimlew grawnds ewlenin madwar id-dinja. Barra minn hekk, l-album Uprising kien suċċess madwar id-dinja kollha u s-hit ta’ stil disco Could You Be Loved gradwalment xegħel id-dancefloors tal-nightclubs tal-pjaneta. Imma nhar il-Ħadd 21 ta’ Settembru, 1980, eżatt wara ż-żewġ kunċerti storiċi li ngħataw f’Madison Square Garden fi New York, fid-19 u l-20, Bob Marley waqa’ waqt li kien qed jogging f’[[Central Park]]. 

Bob għandu eżami tar-raġġi X fejn jiġu skoperti ħames metastasi tal-melanoma tiegħu (kanċer tal-ġilda), tlieta fil-moħħ, waħda fil-pulmun u waħda fl-istonku : il-kanċer tiegħu nfirex. It-tobba f’Kettering Sloan, ċentru ta’ trattament tal-kanċer magħruf mad-dinja kollha fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]], tawh xahar biex jgħix, u esprimew sorpriża li Bob kien għadu ħaj bi żvilupp tant mifrux tal-kanċer. Bob Marley madankollu insista li jagħti l-aħħar kunċert f'[[Pittsburgh]], fit-23 ta' Settembru, 1980 qabel ma l-Urising Tour ġie kkanċellat definittivament.

Bob Marley imbagħad għadda minn sessjonijiet ta’ radjuterapija u kimoterapija li wassluh biex jitlef id-dreadlocks tiegħu fiċ-Ċentru tal-Kanċer Memorial Sloan-Kettering fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]]. Fid-dawl tal-kundizzjoni tiegħu u taħt pressjoni minn Rita Marley, martu, Bob Marley tgħammed fl-4 ta’ Novembru fil-Knisja Ortodossa Etjopja f’Miami, li l-ogħla awtorità tagħha kienet il-mibki Imperatur tal-Etjopja Haile Selassie I, meqjus minn Rastas bħala r-reinkarnazzjoni. ta’ Ġesù mħabbar fl-Apocalypse (“is-sultan tas-slaten, il-Mulej tas-slaten”). Huwa tgħammed minn Abouna Yesuhaq taħt l-isem tal-magħmudija: Bob Berhane Selassie (ብርሃነ ሥላሴ (Berhanä Sellasé): dawl tat-Trinità Qaddisa bl-Amhariku). Ftit jiem wara, Bob Marley telaq għar-Ringberg Klinik ta 'Dr Josef Issels f'Rottach-Egern fil-Bavarja, fejn għadda minn trattament kontroversjali kontra l-kanċer (trasfużjonijiet tad-demm, sessjonijiet ta' ipertermija u injezzjonijiet ta 'THX, aġent kontra l-karċinoġenu). It-tabib Josef Issels, speċjalista Ġermaniż fil-mediċina ħolistika, jittratta pazjenti tal-[[kanċer]] morda terminali meqjusa mitlufa mill-mediċina tradizzjonali. Dan it-trattament tawwal il-ħajja ta’ Bob Marley għal diversi xhur, bl-ispiża ta’ tbatija kbira li ġarrab b’kuraġġ kbir.

Kien f’Rottach-Egern li Bob Marley dgħajjef estremament (li kien jiżen inqas minn 50 kilo) iċċelebra għeluq is-36 sena tiegħu fis-6 ta’ Frar 1981, imdawwar b’ommu, Cedella Booker, Rita Marley, martu, il-mużiċisti tiegħu (minbarra l-aħwa Barrett) u ftit Ġamajkani oħra bħal Neville Garrick. Fil-bidu ta’ Mejju 1981, Dr Issels iddikjara li ma seta’ jibqa’ jagħmel xejn biex isalva lil Bob Marley, u ġie ripatrijat bl-ajruplan lejn il-Ġamajka biex itemm jiemu u jindifen hemm. Waqt waqfa f’Miami fejn ried jara lil ommu, Bob fl-aħħar tpoġġa f’kura intensiva fid-9 ta’ Mejju, 1981 fl-Isptar Cedars of Lebanon f’Miami u, dgħajjef wisq biex jagħmel il-vjaġġ bl-ajruplan lejn Kingston u l-Ġamajka nattiva tiegħu, miet f’Miami. l-età ta’ 36 sena fil-11 ta’ Mejju, 1981 għall-ħabta tal-11:45 a.m. 

Wara funeral statali f’[[Kingston]], Bob Marley ġie midfun fil-21 ta’ Mejju f’mausoleum mibni bil-għaġla f’Rhoden Hall, qrib Nine Miles, fil-parroċċa ta’ Saint Ann, fejn twieled u fejn minn filgħodu ftit ftit ftit eluf ta’ nies. inġabru biex jgħidu addio lil dak li għamel ir-reggae mużika rikonoxxuta globalment u li kanta l-uġigħ ta’ Sufferers madwar id-dinja&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.ina.fr/art-et-culture/musique/video/CAB8100960601/funerailles-bob-marley.fr.html|titlu=}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Il-wirt tiegħu ==
'''&lt;big&gt;Wirt legali u finanzjarju&lt;/big&gt;'''

Meta miet fl-1981, il-wirt ta’ Bob Marley kien stmat għal 30 miljun dollaru Amerikan, mifrux fuq kontijiet bankarji differenti. Lil hinn mill-assi finanzjarji, il-wirt ta 'Bob Marley jikkonċerna proprjetajiet immobbli (56 Hope Road, Studio Tuff Gong, eċċ.) U speċjalment il-kwistjoni tad-drittijiet tal-awtur għall-produzzjoni immensa tal-Wailers sal-1973, imbagħad Bob Marley sal-mewt tiegħu. Biex ma nsemmux dak kollu li kien għadu ma ħareġx fl-1981 jew li kien se joħroġ wara, bħal Confrontation fl-1983 u Legend fl-1984 (li, b’10 miljun kopja, ikun wieħed mill-akbar bejgħ rekord ta’ kull żmien). Bob Marley għamel aktar flus wara mewtu milli matul ħajtu.

Iżda Bob Marley ma fassalx testment, minkejja l-insistenza ftit jew wisq interessata ta’ xi qrabatu. Volontarjament jew le, huwa rrifjuta li jikteb l-aħħar xewqat tiegħu fuq il-karta. Kien minħabba l-fatt li Rastas jirrifjutaw li jitkellmu dwar il-mewt, jew xewqa minn Bob Marley li kulħadd jiżvela ruħu kif inhu, kif issuġġerixxa Neville Garrick? Taħt il-liġi Ġamajkana, u mingħajr testment, 55% tal-proprjetà u 10% tal-wirt artistiku jmorru għand l-armla ta’ Bob, martu Rita Marley, u l-bqija tal-proprjetà lill-11-il tifel rikonoxxuti minn Bob matul ħajtu. Iżda Rita Marley tipproduċi dokument datat 1978 li jagħtiha kważi l-fortuna kollha ta’ Bob Marley. Aktar tard irriżulta, fl-1986, li dan id-dokument kien falz, falsifikat minn Rita u l-avukati tagħha. Rita Marley imbagħad ġiet imċaħħda mill-ġestjoni tal-proprjetà tagħha u l-wirt Marley, fdat f'idejn amministratur mill-Qorti Suprema tal-Ġamajka.

Wara ħafna proċeduri legali u imbroglios dwar id-drittijiet legali ta’ Bob Marley (li kkredita lil ċerti qrabatu biex jaħarbu mill-voraċità tal-produtturi, b’mod partikolari Danny Simms), Chris Blackwell akkwista fl-1991, għal 11-il miljun dollaru, it-tmexxija tal-art artistika. wirt ta’ Bob Marley, flimkien mal-familja Marley. Fl-istess ħin, Chris Blackwell xtara (għal ftit aktar minn $1 miljun) mingħand Danny Simms id-drittijiet tal-pubblikazzjoni tal-kanzunetti kollha ta’ Bob li jappartjenu lil Caïman Music. Għaxar snin ta’ proċeduri li jinvolvu Rita Marley, uliedha, Danny Simms, Coxsone Dodd, il-Wailers. 

Fis-6 ta’ Frar, 1991, l-anniversarju tat-twelid ta’ Bob (6 ta’ Frar, 1945), ġiet inawgurata stilla ta’ Bob Marley fuq il-famuża Hollywood Walk of Fame fuq Hollywood Boulevard, Los Angeles, fil-preżenza ta’ Rita Marley. Lil hinn li daħal fil-leġġenda, Bob Marley illum sar marka li ġġib ħafna flus lill-familja Marley u lill-benefiċjarji, l-istess flus li minnhom Bob qal fl-1980: &quot;Ix-Xitan jikkontrolla l-'flus. Jekk trid issir sinjuri, trid tagħmel ftehim max-Xitan għax hu hu li jħaddem l-istampar tal-flus.”

'''&lt;big&gt;Wirt mużikali reliġjuż&lt;/big&gt;'''

Il-wirt kulturali u mużikali ta' Bob Marley huwa konsiderevoli llum. Bob, il-kantant, ir-rastaman, ir-ribelli, il-profeta, li x-xbihat tiegħu jintwerew fuq ħitan mad-dinja kollha, sar ikona, bl-istess mod bħal Che Guevara, Martin Luther King jew Marilyn Monroe. Fl-erbat irkejjen tad-dinja, il-figura ta 'Bob Marley hija preżenti, fuq il-ħitan tal-viċinat, fil-ħwienet tas-souvenirs, fil-bins tal-ħwienet tad-diski. Bob Marley jibqa’ kullimkien is-simbolu tal-ġlieda kontra l-oppressjoni u s-sejħa għall-imħabba universali. Manu Chao qal f’intervista li t-shirt ta’ Bob Marley kien aħjar minn vesta kontra l-balal biex taqsam id-distretti tad-dawl aħmar tal-pjaneta! Dan juri l-importanza ta’ Bob Marley sal-lum u fid-dinja kollha.

Fi tmien snin ta’ karriera internazzjonali, Bob Marley ta dimensjoni eċċezzjonali lir-reggae u influwenza konsiderevolment il-mużika kollha kemm hi, kemm jekk rock pop tal-Punent, varjetà internazzjonali u dik li llum nsejħulu llum “World Music”. Anke jekk figuri ewlenin oħra tar-reggae bħal Burning Spear, Peter Tosh, Culture jew Toots &amp; the Maytals ikkontribwew għad-diffużjoni madwar id-dinja ta’ din il-mużika, Bob Marley kien, bejn l-1973 u l-1980, il-bastiment ewlieni tar-reggae madwar id-dinja. U anke wara mewtu fl-1981, ir-rekords Confrontation (1983) u Legend (1984) estendew aktar l-influwenza tiegħu. Mill-1981 'l hawn, il-kanzunetti tiegħu ġew idoqqu, koperti u mħallta mill-ġdid minn numru konsiderevoli ta' artisti u DJs. Minn Eric Clapton sa Ben Harper, inklużi Lauryn Hill u Tracy Chapman, il-kanzunetti ta’ Bob Marley qasmu r-repertorji mużikali kollha għal aktar minn 30 sena.

Iżda Bob Marley għadu messaġġ li huwa kemm soċjali kif ukoll reliġjuż. Għadha tirrappreżenta sal-lum ix-xbieha tad-denunzja tal-oppressjoni tas-suwed mill-abjad, iżda wkoll tal-foqra mis-sinjuri, tal-illitterati minn nies edukati, eċċ. Minn Slave Driver, Crazy Baldhead, Get Up Stand Up, sa Revolution, Burnin' and Lootin', Rat Race jew Gwerra, leħnu għadu jġorr ir-rifjut tad-dominazzjoni, l-oppressjoni, is-segregazzjoni (&quot;Aħna nirrifjutaw li nkunu, dak li ridtna nagħmlu. be”; Babylon System: Survival) u jappella għall-ġlieda għall-emanċipazzjoni u d-drittijiet tal-bniedem ugwali (“Stand Up for your rights... Don't give up the fight”; Qum, Stand Up: Burnin'). Iżda lil hinn mir-ribelljoni u l-ġlieda, Bob Marley qatt ma waqaf isejjaħ għall-imħabba universali u l-komunjoni tal-irġiel. “Imħabba Waħda, Qalb Waħda” tiegħu (“Ejja ningħaqdu u nħossuna sew”) m’hi xejn ħlief messaġġ ta’ paċi u mħabba. Eżatt bħal ''This Love, No woman No cry, So much Trouble in the World, ...''

Bob Marley huwa wkoll messaġġ reliġjuż, dak ta’ Jah Rastafari, inkorporat f’għajnejn Rastas mill-Imperatur tal-Etjopja Haile Selassie I, meqjus bħala l-messija fuq l-art. Bob kien reliġjuż ħafna, kien jagħmel parti mit-Tnax-il Tribù ta’ Iżrael, jaqra l-Bibbja diversi drabi kuljum, kien imur għall-quddies il-Ħadd, beda l-kunċerti kollha tiegħu mill-1978 bil-famuż “Tislijiet f’Isem il-Maestà Tiegħu l-Imperatur Haile Selassie I. ; ''Jah, Rastafari!'' &quot;. Ħafna nies, kemm matul ħajtu kif ukoll illum, jaraw lil Bob Marley bħala profeta fis-servizz ta’ Jah Rastarafi jew saħansitra bħala r-reinkarnazzjoni ta’ Kristu (Tyrone Downie). Il-messaġġ Rastafarian huwa omnipreżenti fil-kanzunetti ta’ Bob Marley: Forever Loving Jah, Rastaman Chant, Jah Live, Rastaman Vibration, eċċ. Il-kunċerti ta’ Bob Marley, minbarra li huma palk u avvenimenti mużikali b’saħħithom, għandhom jitqiesu bħala quddies kbar fejn l-indiġja, ir-ribelljoni u l-imħabba jitħalltu, iżda wkoll iċ-ċelebrazzjoni ta’ Jah u s-sejħa għall-kuntentizza tal-bnedmin permezz tal-prattika tal-preċetti [[Rastafari]].

== Tfal ==
Bob Marley irrikonoxxa ħdax-il tifel u tifla b’seba’ nisa, fosthom ħamsa minn martu Rita, għalkemm tnejn minnhom ma kinux tiegħu. Huwa ma għarafx l-ewwel bintu Imani Carole, imwielda fit-22 ta’ Mejju, 1963 minn relazzjoni ma’ Cheryl Murray, iżda adotta lil Sharon wara ż-żwieġ tiegħu ma’ Rita fl-1966. Ħafna wettqu karriera mużikali, u b’suċċess għal Ky -Mani Marley, Damian Marley , Ziggy Marley, Julian Marley u Stephen Marley b'mod partikolari. Rohan Marley kien plejer professjonali tal-futbol Amerikan u, għal xi żmien, ħbieb tal-mudell Brażiljan Isabeli Fontana&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.nostalgie.be/article/4363/bob-marley-decouvrez-ses-11-enfants|titlu=Bob Marley : découvrez ses 11 enfants|kunjom=Belgique|isem=Nostalgie|sit=www.nostalgie.be|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Referenzi ==
&lt;references /&gt;
{{Awtorità}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Marley, Bob}}
[[Kategorija:Kantanti]]
[[Kategorija:Mużiċisti]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1945]]
[[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1981]]
[[Kategorija:Ġamajka]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Claire Holt</title>
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        <username>Themeramisin</username>
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      <text bytes="5127" sha1="rxztumms3vcig4r4juuzkb1s4fucswg" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}{{Grammatika}}

'''Claire Rhiannon Holt''' ([[Brisbane]], 11 ta’ [[Ġunju]] 1988) hija attur [[Awstralja|Awstraljana]] li saret ċittadina [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]]. Huwa kiseb fama internazzjonali grazzi għar-rwoli tiegħu fis-sensiela televiżiva ''H2O'', ''The Vampire Diaries'' u ''The Originals'' u l-film ''47 Meters Down'' . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm2322853/trivia/|titlu=Claire Holt - Trivia|sit=IMDb|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bijografija ==
Claire Rhiannon Holt  twieldet u trabbiet fi [[Brisbane]],  Għandha żewġ aħwa nisa u ħu.  Għall-ewwel studjat biex issir tabiba, iżda bdiet tidher f'xi reklami biex taqla' xi flus u, wara li ħadmet għal żmien qasir bħala mudella, iddeċidiet li ssir attriċi. 

=== Karriera ===
Hi kisbet l-ewwel rwol tagħha bħala Emma Gilbert ''f’H2O'', mill -2006 sal- 2009. Fis-sajf tal-2010 iffilmjat il-film televiżiv ''Mean Girls 2'', is-segwiment ta’ ''Mean Girls'', filwaqt li fl -2011 interpretat ir-rwol rikorrenti ta’ Samara Cook f’Pretty ''Little Liars'' . Waqt l-għażla tal-atturi għas-sensiela televiżiva ''The Secret Circle'', ġiet iffirmata biex tidher fir-rwol tal-vampira Rebekah Mikaelson, f’The ''Vampire Diaries'',  rwol li interpretat ukoll fl-ewwel staġun tal -ispin-off tas- sensiela u f’dawk ta’ wara, intitolati ''The Originals'' . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/vampire-diaries-spinoff-originals-claire-holt-421332/|titlu=‘Vampire Diaries’ Spinoff ‘The Originals’ Adds Claire Holt|kunjom=Goldberg|isem=Lesley|data=2013-02-13|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[Stampa:Claire_Holt_at_PaleyFest_2014.jpg|daqsminuri|Claire Holt fil-Paley Fest 2014]]

== Ħajja privata ==
F'Lulju 2015, ħabbret l-għerusija tagħha mal-għarus tagħha ta' żmien twil, il-produttur tat-televiżjoni Matt Kaplan, u żżewġu f'ċerimonja privata fit-28 ta' April 2016.  Fis-27 ta' April 2017, Kaplan ressqet divorzju, fejn semmiet &quot;differenzi irrikonċiljabbli.&quot;  &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/848671/claire-holt-s-husband-files-for-divorce-just-before-the-couple-s-1-year-wedding-anniversary|titlu=Claire Holt's Husband Files for Divorce Just Before the Couple's 1-Year Wedding Anniversary|data=2017-05-05|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fit-3 ta' Diċembru 2017, ħabbret l-għerusija tagħha mal- iżviluppatur tal-proprjetà immobbli Andrew Joblon.  Fl-4 ta' Marzu 2018, ħabbret li kellha korriment.  Il-koppja żżewġet fit-18 ta' Awwissu 2018.  Għandhom tlett itfal: James imwieled fit-28 ta' Marzu 2019,   Elle Madeline, imwielda fit-12 ta' Settembru 2020  u Ford Matthew, imwieled fid-9 ta' Novembru 2023. &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.instylemag.com.au/claire-holt-wedding?category=Fashion|titlu='Vampire Diaries' Actress Claire Holt Just Got Married|kunjom=Tsoukatos|isem=Arielle|data=2018-08-20|lingwa=en-AU|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1028199/claire-holt-gives-birth-to-a-baby-boy-1-year-after-suffering-miscarriage|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth to a Baby Boy 1 Year After Suffering Miscarriage|data=2019-03-29|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1187443/claire-holt-gives-birth-welcomes-baby-no-2-with-husband-andrew-joblon|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth, Welcomes Baby No. 2 With Husband Andrew Joblon|data=2020-09-13|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1389692/claire-holt-gives-birth-welcomes-baby-no-3-with-husband-andrew-joblon|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth, Welcomes Baby No. 3 With Husband Andrew Joblon|data=2023-11-10|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fil-21 ta' Novembru 2019, ħabbret li kienet saret ċittadina [[Stati Uniti|tal-Istati Uniti]] . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-7721619/Vampire-Diaries-actress-Claire-Holt-celebrates-citizen.html|titlu=Vampire Diaries actress Claire Holt celebrates becoming a US citizen|kunjom=Place|isem=Tom|data=2019-11-25|sit=Mail Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmografija ==

=== Ċinema ===

* ''Messengers 2: The Scarecrow (2009)''
* ''47 Meters Down'' , dirett minn Johannes Roberts (2017)
* ''The Divorce Party'', dirett minn Hughes William Thompson (2019)
* ''Film tal-Orrur bla Titlu'', dirett minn Nick Simon (2021)

=== Televiżjoni ===

* ''H2O'' ( ''H2O: Just Add Water'' ) – Serje televiżiva, 52 episodju (2006-2008)
* ''Mean Girls 2'', dirett minn Melanie Mayron – Film għat-TV (2011)
* ''Pretty Little Liars'' – Serje televiżiva, 5 episodji (2011)
* ''The Vampire Diaries'' – Serje televiżiva, 38 episodju (2011–2015)
* ''L-Oriġinali'' – Serje televiżiva, 38 episodju (2013–2018)
* ''Aquarius'' – Serje televiżiva, 22 episodju (2015-2016)
* ''Legacies'' – Serje televiżiva, episodji 4x05 - 4x15 (2021-2022)
* ''Ibbażat fuq Storja Vera'' – Serje televiżiva, episodju 1x05 (2023)
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1988]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Candidates in the 2026 Maltese general election</title>
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      <comment>Correct spelling and full name of Brian Charles Decelis</comment>
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Din il-paġna hija lista tal- kandidati  fl-Elezzjoni Ġenerali ta' Malta tal-2026 . L-iskadenza biex tippreżenta bħala kandidat hija l-11 ta' Mejju 2026. &lt;ref name=&quot;r986&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://electoral.gov.mt/Contents/Item/Display/80653|titlu=Nomination of Agents by Political Parties|data=2026-04-29|sit=Electoral Commission of Malta General Election 2026|data-aċċess=2026-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Partijiet ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;unsortable&quot; |Partijiet
! Kandidati
! Distretti
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background-color: {{party color|Labour Party (Malta)}}&quot; |
| [[Partit Laburista (Malta)|Partit Laburista]]
| ''TBD''
| 13
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background-color: {{party color|Nationalist Party (Malta)}}&quot; |
| [[Partit Nazzjonalista (Malta)|Partit Nazzjonalista]]
| ''TBD''
| 13
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background-color: {{party color|AD+PD}}&quot; |
| [[AD+PD]]
| 8
| 13
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background:#1BA99E;&quot; |
| Momentum
| 7
| 13
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background:#C00;&quot; |
| [[Partit Popolari (Malta)|Aħna Maltin]]
| ''TBD''
| 13
|-
| style=&quot;background:{{party color|Imperium Europa}};&quot; |
| [[Imperium Europa]]
| ''TBD''
| ''TBD''
|-
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; style=&quot;background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}&quot; |
|Indipendenti
| ''TBD''
| ''TBD''
|}

== Kandidati ==


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot; |Distrett
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |[[Partit Laburista (Malta)|Partit Laburista]]&lt;ref name=&quot;j703&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/labour-announces-approval-of-26-candidates-including-13-first-timers/|titlu=Labour announces approval of 26 candidates, including 13 first-timers|isem=John Paul|awtur=Cordina|data=2026-04-28|sit=Newsbook|data-aċċess=2026-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |[[Partit Nazzjonalista (Malta)|Partit Nazzjonalista]]
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |[[AD+PD]]&lt;ref name=&quot;m019&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/election-2026/141361/adpd_approves_candidates_for_upcoming_general_election|titlu=ADPD approves candidates for upcoming general election|isem=Jade|awtur=Bezzina|data=2026-04-29|sit=MaltaToday|data-aċċess=2026-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |Momentum&lt;ref name=&quot;b242&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/momentum-election-candidates.1127709|titlu=These are Momentum's election candidates|data=2026-04-30|sit=Times of Malta|data-aċċess=2026-04-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |[[Partit Popolari (Malta)|Aħwa Maltin]]
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |[[Imperium Europa]]
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |Independenti
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|Labour Party (Malta)}};&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|Nationalist Party (Malta)}};&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|AD+PD}};&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:#1BA99E;&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:#C00;&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|Imperium Europa}};&quot; |
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|Independent politician}};&quot; |
|-
|Distrett 1&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Ray Abela*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cressida Galea*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Davina Sammut Hili]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fleur Abela&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yana Borg Debono Grech&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joseph Bugeja&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;John Grech&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Olaf McKay&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Francesca Zarb
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Darren Carabott*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Mario De Marco|Mario de Marco]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Paula Mifsud Bonnici*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Justin Schembri*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;James Aaron Ellul
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Mark Zerafa
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Billy McBee
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |Eman Cross
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 2&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Byron Camilleri*
Rodrick Zerafa&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Georvin Bugeja
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Bernice Bonello*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stephen Spiteri*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;John Baptist Camilleri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Leone Sciberras&lt;br /&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Mario Mallia
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Matthew Agius
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 3&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Ray Abela*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Alicia Bugeja Said]]*
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Janice Abela Chetcuti*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Carmelo Mifsud Bonnici*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stephen Spiteri*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Andrew Agius&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;John Baptist Camilleri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Errol Cutajar&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ray Gatt&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Leone Sciberras
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Brian Charles Decelis
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Mark Philip Camilleri Gambin
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett
4(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Byron Camilleri*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Katya De Giovanni*
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Bernice Bonello*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Carmelo Mifsud Bonnici*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mark Anthony Sammut*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Duncan Borg Myatt&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stefan Caruana&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Michael Piccinino
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Brian Charles Decelis
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Alastair Farrugia
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 5&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Julia Farrugia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Omar Farrugia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Remenda Grech&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rodrick Zerafa
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Toni Bezzina*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stanley Zammit*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stefan Caruana&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Oliver Cini&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Owen Sciberras
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Melissa Bagley
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Alastair Farrugia
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 6&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Malcolm Paul Agius Galea*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Omar Farrugia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ramona Attard*
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Jerome Caruana Cilia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Frederick Aquilina&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Julian Borg&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Annabelle Cilia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Oliver Cini&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;George Muscat
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Sandra Gauci
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Billy McBee
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 7&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Malcolm Paul Agius Galea*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Naomi Cachia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Julia Farrugia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Samantha Pace Gasan
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Rebekah Borg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Adrian Delia]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ian Vassallo Hagi*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Andrew Agius&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Charles Azzopardi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Paul Mazzola&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Anton Mifsud
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Carmel Cacopardo
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Pierre Schembri Wismayer
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 8&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Ramona Attard*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cressida Galea*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Alex Muscat*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yana Borg Debono Grech&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joseph Bugeja&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;John Grech
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Ivan Castillo*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Adrian Delia]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Beppe Fenech Adami]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Justin Schembri*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Julie Zahra*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ludwig Cauchi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Edmond Cuschieri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Angelo Micallef&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;George Muscat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;David Pace Ross
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Mario Mallia
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Matthew Agius
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 9&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Rebecca Buttigieg*
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Graziella Attard Previ*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Graham Bencini*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eve Borg Bonello*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Albert Buttigieg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Beppe Fenech Adami]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joe Giglio*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Julie Zahra*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Marilena Gauci&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jonathan Muscat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Noel Muscat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Alex Perici Calascione]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Charles Selvaggi
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Mark Zerafa
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |[[Arnold Cassola]]
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |Eman Cross
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 10&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Rebecca Buttigieg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Katya De Giovanni*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Deborah Schembri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;David Caruana
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Janice Abela Chetcuti*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Graziella Attard Previ*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Graham Bencini*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eve Borg Bonello*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Albert Buttigieg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joe Giglio*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mark Anthony Sammut*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Errol Cutajar&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Marilena Gauci&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Noel Muscat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rachel Williams
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Marcus Lauri
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |[[Arnold Cassola]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pierre Schembri Wismayer
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 11&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |Alex Muscat*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Francesca Zarb
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Ivan Bartolo*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rebekah Borg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Bernard Grech]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dione Borg&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Edmond Cuschieri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joseph Grech
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Carmel Cacopardo
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Mark Philip Camilleri Gambin
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 12&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |[[Alicia Bugeja Said]]*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Naomi Cachia*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Deborah Schembri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Carlos Zarb
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Alex Borg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ivan Castillo*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Graziella Galea*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ian Vassallo Hagi*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Charles Azzopardi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joseph Grech&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Anton Mifsud&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jonathan Muscat&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rachel Williams
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Sandra Gauci&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Luke Caruana
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Carmel Asciak
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|-
|Distrett 13&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5 siġġijiet)
| style=&quot;background:#fcc;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#BCD4E6;&quot; |Alex Borg*&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Norma Camilleri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Beppe Galea&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Luke Said&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Frank Anthony Tabone
| style=&quot;background:#ddeec5;&quot; |Luke Caruana
| style=&quot;background:#AFEEEE;&quot; |Carmel Asciak
| style=&quot;background:#FFB2B1;&quot; |''TBD''
| style=&quot;background:#D3D3D3;&quot; |''TBD''
|''TBD''
|}
[[Kategorija:Elezzjonijiet ġenerali f'Malta]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Frosta tal-Għid</title>
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      <id>329877</id>
      <parentid>329834</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T00:58:50Z</timestamp>
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        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>18288</id>
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      <comment>Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5</comment>
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      <text bytes="5422" sha1="djeonptdg4yzfbjvfxyottf1s9j8aaw" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Pomlázka.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-frosta tal-Għid.]]
Il-frosta tal-Għid tintuża fiċ-[[Ċekja]], fis-[[Slovakkja]] u f'xi partijiet tal-[[Ungerija]] bħala parti minn tradizzjoni li skontha n-[[Mara|nisa]] jissawtu b'fergħa taż-żafżafa mżejna — u/jew imxarrba bl-ilma — l-għada tal-[[Għid]].

It-&quot;tradizzjoni&quot; tipikament tiġi pprattikata l-għada tal-Għid filgħodu, u tinvolvi frosta speċjali magħmula bl-idejn imsejħa ''pomlázka'' jew ''karabáč'' (biċ-[[Lingwa Ċeka|Ċek]]); ''korbáč'', ''šibák'' jew ''šibačka'' (bis-[[Lingwa Slovakka|Slovakk]]); jew ''siba'' jew ''korbács'' (bl-[[Lingwa Ungeriża|Ungeriż]]). Il-''pomlázka'' tikkonsisti minn erbgħa sa erbgħa u għoxrin zokk żgħir taż-żafżafa, u normalment tkun twila bejn [[metru]] u nofs sa żewġ metri, u tkun imżejna b'żigarelli [[Lewn|kkuluriti]] fit-tarf tagħha.

In-nisa jilbsu diversi lbiesi twal biex jevitaw l-uġigħ ikkawżat mid-daqqiet bil-frosta. Jekk l-[[Raġel|irġiel]] jaslu d-dar ta' mara wara nofsinhar, in-nisa jaħsluhom b'barmil ilma kiesaħ. F'xi reġjuni, l-irġiel jaħslu lin-nisa bl-ilma jew jitfgħulhom il-fwieħa.

Meta jmorru minn dar għall-oħra, l-irġiel l-ewwel ikantaw rima relatata mal-bajd u ma' temi oħra tar-rebbiegħa, bħall-ġenerożità u l-fertilità. Jekk in-nisa ma jkollhomx bajd dekorat, iduru u jħallu lill-irġiel isawtulhom riġlejhom bil-frosta tal-Għid.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita aħbar|titlu=Whipping away infertility at Easter|url=http://magicbohemia.com/2019/04/15/whipping-away-infertility-on-easter/|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-05-09|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216215035/http://magicbohemia.com/2019/04/15/whipping-away-infertility-on-easter/|arkivju-data=2019-12-16|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Għalkemm is-swat bil-frosta jaf iweġġa' xi ftit, mhuwiex maħsub biex jikkawża tbatija. Normalment din it-tradizzjoni tiġi pprattikata biss fost il-membri tal-familja.

Fl-imgħoddi, is-subien kienu jiġru wara l-bniet fit-toroq tal-villaġġi bil-frosti tal-Għid f'idejhom, u illustrazzjonijiet antiki ta' nies lebsin b'mod tradizzjonali juru lill-bniet jaħarbu jew jistaħbew. Il-ġiri 'l hemm u 'l hawn għal-logħob —simili għal logħba bħal &quot;biha&quot; — għadu jsir, iżda l-attakki aggressivi issa jitqiesu bħala bullying inaċċettabbli mill-ġenerazzjoni moderna. Ir-riċerka turi li sa terz tal-popolazzjoni tqis li l-konsum eċċessiv tal-alkoħol matul is-swat bil-frosta tal-Għid huwa l-iżjed problema sinifikanti ta' din it-&quot;tradizzjoni&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://nms.global/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/TZ-Velikonoce-2022-04-08.pdf|titlu=&quot;Pomlázku nemá rádo 79 % žen – působí bolest, modřiny a ponížení&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Stampa:Gardavská Moravské typy.jpg|daqsminuri|L-użu tal-''pomlázka''; [[pittura]] ta' [[Marie Gardavská]] (1871–1937).]]
Skont it-&quot;tradizzjoni&quot; n-nisa għandhom jissawtu b'frosta tal-Għid sabiex jikkonservaw is-saħħa, is-sbuħija u l-fertilità tagħhom għas-sena kollha.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.praguepost.com/166-expats-in-cz/38463-easter-whips-up-some-czech-traditions|titlu=Easter whips up some Czech traditions|kunjom=Johnston|isem=Raymond|data=2014-04-17|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-05-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Skont stħarriġ li sar fl-2019, 60 % tal-familji Ċeki jsegwu t-&quot;tradizzjoni&quot; tas-swat bil-frosta tal-Għid jew tal-ħasil bl-ilma l-għada tal-Għid.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://velikonoce.nasesvatky.cz/svet|titlu=Velikonoce {{!}} Svet|kunjom=Černínová|isem=Bc. Eva|sit=velikonoce.nasesvatky.cz|lingwa=cs|data-aċċess=2026-05-09|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805010347/https://velikonoce.nasesvatky.cz/svet|arkivju-data=2021-08-05|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fil-[[Kroazja]], il-frosta tkun magħmula minn zkuk taż-żebbuġ, iżda ma tintużax għas-swat. F'xi pajjiżi, bħall-[[Polonja]], il-friegħi tal-palm jew taż-żafżafa tal-Għid fil-forma ta' Palma Kurpiowska huma parti mit-tradizzjoni tal-Għid, għalkemm jintużaw biss għal raġunijiet simboliċi u mhumiex relatati mat-tradizzjoni Ċeka, Slovakka u Ungeriża deskritta hawn fuq.&lt;ref&gt;Silverman, Deborah Anders (2000). Polish-American Folklore. University of Illinois Press. pp. 34–38. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;9780252025693&lt;/bdi&gt;. pp 69-70.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://worldculturalthreads.com/more-than-a-palm/|titlu=More Than a Palm: The Art, Soul, and Symbolism of Poland's Kurpie Easter Tradition 🇵🇱|kunjom=piterweg74|data=2026-03-29|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-05-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== [[Etimoloġija]] ==
Il-frosta tal-Għid biċ-Ċek tissejjaħ ''karabáč,'' bis-Slovakk ''korbáč'' (l-isem standard għal &quot;frosta&quot; hu ''bič'' u ''korbáč'', li oriġinat mit-[[Lingwa torka|Tork]] ''kırbaç'', u normalment tfisser tip wieħed partikolari ta' &quot;frosta tal-qasab&quot;) u bl-Ungeriż ''korbács''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.c3.hu/~nyelvor/period/1233/123306.htm|titlu=Magyar Nyelvőr – Pacsai Imre: Magyar–szlovák kulturális és nyelvi kapcsolat jegyei...|kunjom=Imre|isem=Pacsai|sit=www.c3.hu|lingwa=hu|data-aċċess=2026-05-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fiċ-Ċekja l-frosta tal-Għid tissejjaħ ''pomlázka'' li tfisser &quot;l-istrument li jerġa' jagħtik iż-żgħożija&quot;, timplika li mara li tissawwat b'''pomlázka'' &quot;tiġi tidher iżgħar u isbaħ&quot;.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Folklor]]
[[Kategorija:Tradizzjonijiet]]
[[Kategorija:Ċekja]]
[[Kategorija:Slovakkja]]
[[Kategorija:Ungerija]]</text>
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    <title>Ħajja</title>
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      <text bytes="40584" sha1="epfuisrh5o1bkrvusfhaef1kq32hbih" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

== Żvilupp ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''Kronoloġija tal-ħajja'''
|-
|−4500 —

–

—

–

−4000 —

–

—

–

−3500 —

–

—

–

−3000 —

–

—

–

−2500 —

–

—

–

−2000 —

–

—

–

−1500 —

–

—

–

−1000 —

–

—

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−500 —

–

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0 —
|
Ilma 

Ħajja uniċellolari 

Fotosinteżi 

Ħajja multiċellolari 

Pjanti 

Artropodi u Molluski

Fjuri

Dinosawri 

[[Mammiferu|Mammiferi]]

[[Għasfur|Għasafar]]

Primati

Perjodu Adean

Perjodu Arkean

Perjodu Proterożojku

Perjodu Fanerożojku  

|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Formazzjoni tad-Dinja
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed forma bikrija tal-ilma
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|LUCA
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fossili bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|[[Ossiġenu]] atmosferiku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Riproduzzjoni sesswali
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fungi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
The first classification of organisms was made by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC), who grouped living things as either plants or animals, based mainly on their ability to move. He distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood, which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively, and divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds (mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians), birds, fishes and whales. The bloodless animals were divided into five groups: cephalopods, crustaceans, insects (which included the spiders, scorpions, and centipedes), shelled animals (such as most molluscs and echinoderms), and zoophytes (animals that resembled plants). This theory remained dominant for more than a thousand years.

=== Linnaeus ===
In the late 1740s, Carl Linnaeus introduced his system of binomial nomenclature for the classification of species. Linnaeus attempted to improve the composition and reduce the length of the previously used many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new descriptive terms and precisely defining their meaning.

The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had classified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but later placed them back in Plantae. Herbert Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, including them with single-celled organisms and thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledging their special status. The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom system. Evolutionary history shows that the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.

As advances in microscopy enabled detailed study of cells and microorganisms, new groups of life were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were created. These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as animals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Ernst Haeckel in the kingdom Protista; later, the prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera, which would eventually be divided into two separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea. This led to the six-kingdom system and eventually to the current three-domain system, which is based on evolutionary relationships.

However, the classification of eukaryotes, especially of protists, is still controversial.

As microbiology developed, viruses, which are non-cellular, were discovered. Whether these are considered alive has been a matter of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life such as cell membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their environments. Viruses have been classed into &quot;species&quot; based on their genetics, but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial.

The original Linnaean system has been modified many times, for example as follows:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese et al.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 kingdoms
|3 kingdoms
|2 empires
|4 kingdoms
|5 kingdoms
|3 domains
|2 empires,
6/7 kingdoms
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(not treated)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |Protista
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Prokaryota
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Monera
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Monera
|Bacteria
|Bacteria
|-
|Archaea
|Archaea (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |Eukaryota
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Protoctista
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Protista
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |Eucarya
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;Protozoa&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;Chromista&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Vegetabilia
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Plantae
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Plantae
|Plantae
|Plantae
|-
|Fungi
|Fungi
|-
|Animalia
|Animalia
|Animalia
|Animalia
|Animalia
|}
The attempt to organise the Eukaryotes into a small number of kingdoms has been challenged. The Protozoa do not form a clade or natural grouping, and nor do the Chromista (Chromalveolata).

=== Metaġenomika ===
The ability to sequence large numbers of complete genomes has allowed biologists to take a metagenomic view of the phylogeny of the whole tree of life. This has led to the realisation that the majority of living things are bacteria, and that all have a common origin.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
All life forms require certain core chemical elements for their biochemical functioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—the elemental macronutrients for all organisms. Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter. Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino acids cysteine and methionine. The most abundant of these elements in organisms is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds. This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form the immense variety of chemical arrangements described in organic chemistry. Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.

=== DNA ===
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates, they are one of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group.

The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T, and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA. This has the key property that each strand contains all the information needed to recreate the other strand, enabling the information to be preserved during reproduction and cell division. Within cells, DNA is organised into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotes store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus.

=== Ċelloli ===
Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.

There are two primary types of cells, reflecting their evolutionary origins. Prokaryote cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, although they have circular DNA and ribosomes. Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. The other primary type is the eukaryote cell, which has a distinct nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles. In addition, their DNA is organised into chromosomes. All species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, though with a wide diversity of protist microorganisms. The conventional model is that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of the eukaryotes forming through endosymbiosis between bacteria and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.

The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins. Most of these are synthesised by the ribosomes through an enzyme-catalyzed process called protein biosynthesis. A sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined based upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid. In eukaryotic cells, these proteins may then be transported and processed through the Golgi apparatus in preparation for dispatch to their destination.

Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed. However, the result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period. Most species of multicellular plants, animals and fungi as well as many protists are capable of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction, involving a meiotic process, is considered to have arisen very early in the evolution of eukaryotes.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies of identical cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specialisations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialised cells that form the adult organism. This specialisation allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. About 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, the enzyme GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.

Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system.

== Fl-univers ==
Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable, possibly resulting in a biophysical cosmology instead of a mere physical cosmology. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilisations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.

Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilise to survive such extremes, is important for the search for extraterrestrial life. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.

Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the Sun-like &quot;main sequence&quot; of stellar evolution for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.

The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilisation is most likely to exist, within wide bounds of uncertainty. A &quot;Confidence of Life Detection&quot; scale (CoLD) for reporting evidence of life beyond Earth has been proposed.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
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      <text bytes="41094" sha1="jymov7lbq4u2xwke8o89hjihkgwnyj5" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

== Żvilupp ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''Kronoloġija tal-ħajja'''
|-
|−4500 —

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−4000 —

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−3500 —

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−3000 —

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−2500 —

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Ilma 

Ħajja uniċellolari 

Fotosinteżi 

Ħajja multiċellolari 

Pjanti 

Artropodi u Molluski

Fjuri

Dinosawri 

[[Mammiferu|Mammiferi]]

[[Għasfur|Għasafar]]

Primati

Perjodu Adean

Perjodu Arkean

Perjodu Proterożojku

Perjodu Fanerożojku  

|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Formazzjoni tad-Dinja
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed forma bikrija tal-ilma
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|LUCA
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fossili bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|[[Ossiġenu]] atmosferiku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Riproduzzjoni sesswali
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fungi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
L-ewwel klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi saret mill-filosfu Grieg  Aristotli (384–322 Q.K.), li ġabar l-organiżmi ħajjin f'pjanti jew f'annimali, abbażi prinċipalment tal-kapaċità tagħhom li jiċċaqilqu. Huwa ddistingwa l-annimali bid-demm mill-annimali bla demm, li jista' jitqabbel mal-kunċetti ta' vertebrati u invertebrati rispettivament, u qasam l-annimali bid-demm f'ħames gruppi: kwadrupedi vivipari (mammiferi), kwadrupedi ovipari (rettili u anfibji), għasafar, ħut u balieni. L-annimali bla demm ġew maqsuma f'ħames gruppi: ċefalopodi, krustaċji, insetti (li kienu jinkludu l-[[Brimba|brimb]], l-iskorpjuni u ċ-ċentipiedi), annimali bil-qxur (bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-molluski u tal-ekinodermi) u żoofiti (l-annimali li kienu qishom pjanti). Din it-teorija baqgħet dominanti għal iktar minn elf sena.

=== Linnaeus ===
Fl-aħħar tas-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, Carl Linnaeus introduċa s-sistema tiegħu tan-nomenklatura binomjali għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet. Linnaeus ipprova jtejjeb il-kompożizzjoni u jnaqqas it-tul tal-ismijiet preċedenti b'ħafna kelmiet billi jabolixxi r-retorika bla bżonn, billi jintroduċi termini deskrittivi ġodda u billi jiddefinixxi b'mod preċiż it-tifsira tagħhom.

Il-fungi oriġinarjament ġew ittrattati bħala pjanti. Għal perjodu qasir Linnaeus kien ikklassifikahom fit-[[takson]] ''Vermes'' fl-''Animalia'', iżda iktar 'il quddiem reġa' poġġihom fil-''Plantae''. [[Herbert Copeland]] ikklassifika l-''Fungi'' fil-''Protoctista'' tiegħu, u inkludihom flimkien mal-organiżmi uniċellolari, u għaldaqstant evita l-problema parzjalment iżda rrikonoxxa l-istatus speċjali tagħhom. Il-problema eventwalment ġiet solvuta minn Whittaker, meta tahom ir-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tagħhom stess fis-sistema tiegħu b'ħames renji. L-istorja evoluzzjonarja turi li l-fungi huma iktar relatati mill-qrib mal-annimali milli mal-pjanti.

Malli l-avvanzi fil-mikroskopija ppermettew l-istudju dettaljat taċ-ċelloli u tal-mikroorganiżmi, ġew żvelati gruppi ġodda ta' ħajja, u nħolqu l-oqsma tal-bijoloġija ċellolari u tal-mikrobijoloġija. Dawn l-organiżmi ġodda oriġinarjament kienu deskritti separatament fil-protożoa bħala annimali u fil-protofiti/fit-tallofiti bħala pjanti, iżda ġew magħquda minn [[Ernst Haeckel]] fir-renju ''Protista''; iktar 'il quddiem, il-prokarjoti nqasmu fir-renju ''Monera'', li eventwalment inqasam f'żewġ gruppi separati, il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea''. Dan wassal għal sistema ta' sitt renji u eventwalment għas-sistema attwali ta' tliet [[Dominju (bijoloġija)|dominji]], li hija bbażata fuq ir-relazzjonijiet evoluzzjonarji.

Madankollu, il-klassifikazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti, speċjalment tal-protisti, għadha kontroversjali.

Mal-iżvilupp tal-mikrobijoloġija, ġew skoperti l-viruses, li mhumiex ċellolari. Jekk dawn jitqisux bħala ħajjin ilu jiġi dibattut; il-viruses ma għandhomx il-karatteristiċi tal-ħajja bħal membrani ċellolari, metaboliżmu u l-kapaċità li jikbru jew jirrispondu għall-ambjenti tagħhom. Il-viruses ġew ikklassifikati f'&quot;speċijiet&quot; abbażi tal-ġenetika tagħhom, iżda bosta aspetti ta' tali klassifikazzjoni għadhom kontroversjali.

Is-sistema oriġinali ta' Linnaeus ġiet immodifikata bosta drabi, pereżempju kif ġej:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese ''et al''.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 renji
|3 renji
|2 imperi
|4 renji
|5 renji
|3 dominji
|2 imperi,
6/7 renji
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(mhux trattati)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Prokaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
|''Bacteria''
|''Bacteria''
|-
|''Archaea''
|''Archaea'' (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eukaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protoctista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eucarya''
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Protozoa''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Chromista''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Vegetabilia''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|-
|''Fungi''
|''Fungi''
|-
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|}
It-tentattiv ta' organizzazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti f'għadd żgħir ta' renji ġie kkontestat. Il-''Protozoa'' ma jiffurmawx raggruppament naturali, u lanqas il-''Chromista'' (''Chromalveolata'').

=== Metaġenomika ===
Il-kapaċità ta' sekwenzjar ta' għadd kbir ta' ġenomi kompluti ppermettiet lill-bijologi jkollhom viżjoni metaġenomika tal-filoġenija tas-siġra sħiħa tal-ħajja. Dan wassal għar-realizzazzjoni li l-maġġoranza tal-organiżmi ħajjin huma batterji, u li kollha għandhom oriġini komuni.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
All life forms require certain core chemical elements for their biochemical functioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—the elemental macronutrients for all organisms. Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter. Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino acids cysteine and methionine. The most abundant of these elements in organisms is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds. This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form the immense variety of chemical arrangements described in organic chemistry. Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.

=== DNA ===
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates, they are one of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group.

The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T, and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA. This has the key property that each strand contains all the information needed to recreate the other strand, enabling the information to be preserved during reproduction and cell division. Within cells, DNA is organised into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotes store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus.

=== Ċelloli ===
Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.

There are two primary types of cells, reflecting their evolutionary origins. Prokaryote cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, although they have circular DNA and ribosomes. Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. The other primary type is the eukaryote cell, which has a distinct nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles. In addition, their DNA is organised into chromosomes. All species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, though with a wide diversity of protist microorganisms. The conventional model is that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of the eukaryotes forming through endosymbiosis between bacteria and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.

The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins. Most of these are synthesised by the ribosomes through an enzyme-catalyzed process called protein biosynthesis. A sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined based upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid. In eukaryotic cells, these proteins may then be transported and processed through the Golgi apparatus in preparation for dispatch to their destination.

Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed. However, the result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period. Most species of multicellular plants, animals and fungi as well as many protists are capable of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction, involving a meiotic process, is considered to have arisen very early in the evolution of eukaryotes.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies of identical cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specialisations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialised cells that form the adult organism. This specialisation allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. About 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, the enzyme GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.

Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system.

== Fl-univers ==
Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable, possibly resulting in a biophysical cosmology instead of a mere physical cosmology. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilisations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.

Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilise to survive such extremes, is important for the search for extraterrestrial life. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.

Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the Sun-like &quot;main sequence&quot; of stellar evolution for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.

The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilisation is most likely to exist, within wide bounds of uncertainty. A &quot;Confidence of Life Detection&quot; scale (CoLD) for reporting evidence of life beyond Earth has been proposed.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
[[Kategorija:Natura]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Elementi kimiċi */</comment>
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      <text bytes="41954" sha1="9va8boj1dbnhuezgcqrb3h4kzzd2okj" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

== Żvilupp ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''Kronoloġija tal-ħajja'''
|-
|−4500 —

–

—

–

−4000 —

–

—

–

−3500 —

–

—

–

−3000 —

–

—

–

−2500 —

–

—

–

−2000 —

–

—

–

−1500 —

–

—

–

−1000 —

–

—

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−500 —

–

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0 —
|
Ilma 

Ħajja uniċellolari 

Fotosinteżi 

Ħajja multiċellolari 

Pjanti 

Artropodi u Molluski

Fjuri

Dinosawri 

[[Mammiferu|Mammiferi]]

[[Għasfur|Għasafar]]

Primati

Perjodu Adean

Perjodu Arkean

Perjodu Proterożojku

Perjodu Fanerożojku  

|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Formazzjoni tad-Dinja
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed forma bikrija tal-ilma
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|LUCA
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fossili bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|[[Ossiġenu]] atmosferiku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Riproduzzjoni sesswali
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fungi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
L-ewwel klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi saret mill-filosfu Grieg  Aristotli (384–322 Q.K.), li ġabar l-organiżmi ħajjin f'pjanti jew f'annimali, abbażi prinċipalment tal-kapaċità tagħhom li jiċċaqilqu. Huwa ddistingwa l-annimali bid-demm mill-annimali bla demm, li jista' jitqabbel mal-kunċetti ta' vertebrati u invertebrati rispettivament, u qasam l-annimali bid-demm f'ħames gruppi: kwadrupedi vivipari (mammiferi), kwadrupedi ovipari (rettili u anfibji), għasafar, ħut u balieni. L-annimali bla demm ġew maqsuma f'ħames gruppi: ċefalopodi, krustaċji, insetti (li kienu jinkludu l-[[Brimba|brimb]], l-iskorpjuni u ċ-ċentipiedi), annimali bil-qxur (bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-molluski u tal-ekinodermi) u żoofiti (l-annimali li kienu qishom pjanti). Din it-teorija baqgħet dominanti għal iktar minn elf sena.

=== Linnaeus ===
Fl-aħħar tas-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, Carl Linnaeus introduċa s-sistema tiegħu tan-nomenklatura binomjali għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet. Linnaeus ipprova jtejjeb il-kompożizzjoni u jnaqqas it-tul tal-ismijiet preċedenti b'ħafna kelmiet billi jabolixxi r-retorika bla bżonn, billi jintroduċi termini deskrittivi ġodda u billi jiddefinixxi b'mod preċiż it-tifsira tagħhom.

Il-fungi oriġinarjament ġew ittrattati bħala pjanti. Għal perjodu qasir Linnaeus kien ikklassifikahom fit-[[takson]] ''Vermes'' fl-''Animalia'', iżda iktar 'il quddiem reġa' poġġihom fil-''Plantae''. [[Herbert Copeland]] ikklassifika l-''Fungi'' fil-''Protoctista'' tiegħu, u inkludihom flimkien mal-organiżmi uniċellolari, u għaldaqstant evita l-problema parzjalment iżda rrikonoxxa l-istatus speċjali tagħhom. Il-problema eventwalment ġiet solvuta minn Whittaker, meta tahom ir-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tagħhom stess fis-sistema tiegħu b'ħames renji. L-istorja evoluzzjonarja turi li l-fungi huma iktar relatati mill-qrib mal-annimali milli mal-pjanti.

Malli l-avvanzi fil-mikroskopija ppermettew l-istudju dettaljat taċ-ċelloli u tal-mikroorganiżmi, ġew żvelati gruppi ġodda ta' ħajja, u nħolqu l-oqsma tal-bijoloġija ċellolari u tal-mikrobijoloġija. Dawn l-organiżmi ġodda oriġinarjament kienu deskritti separatament fil-protożoa bħala annimali u fil-protofiti/fit-tallofiti bħala pjanti, iżda ġew magħquda minn [[Ernst Haeckel]] fir-renju ''Protista''; iktar 'il quddiem, il-prokarjoti nqasmu fir-renju ''Monera'', li eventwalment inqasam f'żewġ gruppi separati, il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea''. Dan wassal għal sistema ta' sitt renji u eventwalment għas-sistema attwali ta' tliet [[Dominju (bijoloġija)|dominji]], li hija bbażata fuq ir-relazzjonijiet evoluzzjonarji.

Madankollu, il-klassifikazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti, speċjalment tal-protisti, għadha kontroversjali.

Mal-iżvilupp tal-mikrobijoloġija, ġew skoperti l-viruses, li mhumiex ċellolari. Jekk dawn jitqisux bħala ħajjin ilu jiġi dibattut; il-viruses ma għandhomx il-karatteristiċi tal-ħajja bħal membrani ċellolari, metaboliżmu u l-kapaċità li jikbru jew jirrispondu għall-ambjenti tagħhom. Il-viruses ġew ikklassifikati f'&quot;speċijiet&quot; abbażi tal-ġenetika tagħhom, iżda bosta aspetti ta' tali klassifikazzjoni għadhom kontroversjali.

Is-sistema oriġinali ta' Linnaeus ġiet immodifikata bosta drabi, pereżempju kif ġej:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese ''et al''.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 renji
|3 renji
|2 imperi
|4 renji
|5 renji
|3 dominji
|2 imperi,
6/7 renji
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(mhux trattati)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Prokaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
|''Bacteria''
|''Bacteria''
|-
|''Archaea''
|''Archaea'' (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eukaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protoctista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eucarya''
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Protozoa''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Chromista''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Vegetabilia''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|-
|''Fungi''
|''Fungi''
|-
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|}
It-tentattiv ta' organizzazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti f'għadd żgħir ta' renji ġie kkontestat. Il-''Protozoa'' ma jiffurmawx raggruppament naturali, u lanqas il-''Chromista'' (''Chromalveolata'').

=== Metaġenomika ===
Il-kapaċità ta' sekwenzjar ta' għadd kbir ta' ġenomi kompluti ppermettiet lill-bijologi jkollhom viżjoni metaġenomika tal-filoġenija tas-siġra sħiħa tal-ħajja. Dan wassal għar-realizzazzjoni li l-maġġoranza tal-organiżmi ħajjin huma batterji, u li kollha għandhom oriġini komuni.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
Il-forom kollha ta' ħajja jirrikjedu ċerti elementi kimiċi ewlenin biex jiffunzjonaw bijokimikament. Dawn jinkludu l-[[karbonju]], l-[[idroġenu]], in-[[nitroġenu]], l-[[ossiġenu]], il-[[fosforu]] u l-[[kubrit]] — il-makronutrijenti tal-elementi għall-organiżmi kollha. Dawn flimkien jirrappreżentaw l-aċidi nuklejċi, il-proteini u l-lipidi, il-qofol tal-materja ħajja. Ħamsa minn dawn is-sitt elementi jinkludu l-komponenti kimiċi tad-DNA, bl-eċċezzjoni tal-kubrit. Dan tal-aħħar huwa komponent tal-aminoaċidi ċistein u metjonin. L-iżjed abbundanti fost dawn l-elementi fl-organiżmi huwa l-karbonju, li għandu l-karatteristika mixtieqa ta' legatur kovalenti stabbli u multiplu. Dan jippermetti lill-molekoli bbażati bil-karbonju (organiċi) jiffurmaw il-varjetà immensa ta' arranġamenti kimiċi deskritti fil-[[kimika organika]]. Tipi ipotetiċi alternattivi tal-bijokimika ġew proposti li jeliminaw wieħed jew iktar minn dawn l-elementi, jissostitwixxu xi elementi għal ieħor mhux fil-lista, jew jibdlu l-kiralitajiet meħtieġa jew xi proprjetajiet kimiċi oħra.

=== DNA ===
L-aċidu deossiribonuklejku jew id-DNA hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi. Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

=== Ċelloli ===
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.

Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies of identical cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specialisations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialised cells that form the adult organism. This specialisation allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. About 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, the enzyme GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.

Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system.

== Fl-univers ==
Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable, possibly resulting in a biophysical cosmology instead of a mere physical cosmology. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilisations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.

Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilise to survive such extremes, is important for the search for extraterrestrial life. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.

Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the Sun-like &quot;main sequence&quot; of stellar evolution for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.

The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilisation is most likely to exist, within wide bounds of uncertainty. A &quot;Confidence of Life Detection&quot; scale (CoLD) for reporting evidence of life beyond Earth has been proposed.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
[[Kategorija:Natura]]</text>
      <sha1>9va8boj1dbnhuezgcqrb3h4kzzd2okj</sha1>
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      <text bytes="42173" sha1="qvtth6q52ucrkjpky7ga97hoztizdmr" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

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Ilma 

Ħajja uniċellolari 

Fotosinteżi 

Ħajja multiċellolari 

Pjanti 

Artropodi u Molluski

Fjuri

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[[Mammiferu|Mammiferi]]

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Primati

Perjodu Adean

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Perjodu Fanerożojku  

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|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
L-ewwel klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi saret mill-filosfu Grieg  Aristotli (384–322 Q.K.), li ġabar l-organiżmi ħajjin f'pjanti jew f'annimali, abbażi prinċipalment tal-kapaċità tagħhom li jiċċaqilqu. Huwa ddistingwa l-annimali bid-demm mill-annimali bla demm, li jista' jitqabbel mal-kunċetti ta' vertebrati u invertebrati rispettivament, u qasam l-annimali bid-demm f'ħames gruppi: kwadrupedi vivipari (mammiferi), kwadrupedi ovipari (rettili u anfibji), għasafar, ħut u balieni. L-annimali bla demm ġew maqsuma f'ħames gruppi: ċefalopodi, krustaċji, insetti (li kienu jinkludu l-[[Brimba|brimb]], l-iskorpjuni u ċ-ċentipiedi), annimali bil-qxur (bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-molluski u tal-ekinodermi) u żoofiti (l-annimali li kienu qishom pjanti). Din it-teorija baqgħet dominanti għal iktar minn elf sena.

=== Linnaeus ===
Fl-aħħar tas-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, Carl Linnaeus introduċa s-sistema tiegħu tan-nomenklatura binomjali għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet. Linnaeus ipprova jtejjeb il-kompożizzjoni u jnaqqas it-tul tal-ismijiet preċedenti b'ħafna kelmiet billi jabolixxi r-retorika bla bżonn, billi jintroduċi termini deskrittivi ġodda u billi jiddefinixxi b'mod preċiż it-tifsira tagħhom.

Il-fungi oriġinarjament ġew ittrattati bħala pjanti. Għal perjodu qasir Linnaeus kien ikklassifikahom fit-[[takson]] ''Vermes'' fl-''Animalia'', iżda iktar 'il quddiem reġa' poġġihom fil-''Plantae''. [[Herbert Copeland]] ikklassifika l-''Fungi'' fil-''Protoctista'' tiegħu, u inkludihom flimkien mal-organiżmi uniċellolari, u għaldaqstant evita l-problema parzjalment iżda rrikonoxxa l-istatus speċjali tagħhom. Il-problema eventwalment ġiet solvuta minn Whittaker, meta tahom ir-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tagħhom stess fis-sistema tiegħu b'ħames renji. L-istorja evoluzzjonarja turi li l-fungi huma iktar relatati mill-qrib mal-annimali milli mal-pjanti.

Malli l-avvanzi fil-mikroskopija ppermettew l-istudju dettaljat taċ-ċelloli u tal-mikroorganiżmi, ġew żvelati gruppi ġodda ta' ħajja, u nħolqu l-oqsma tal-bijoloġija ċellolari u tal-mikrobijoloġija. Dawn l-organiżmi ġodda oriġinarjament kienu deskritti separatament fil-protożoa bħala annimali u fil-protofiti/fit-tallofiti bħala pjanti, iżda ġew magħquda minn [[Ernst Haeckel]] fir-renju ''Protista''; iktar 'il quddiem, il-prokarjoti nqasmu fir-renju ''Monera'', li eventwalment inqasam f'żewġ gruppi separati, il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea''. Dan wassal għal sistema ta' sitt renji u eventwalment għas-sistema attwali ta' tliet [[Dominju (bijoloġija)|dominji]], li hija bbażata fuq ir-relazzjonijiet evoluzzjonarji.

Madankollu, il-klassifikazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti, speċjalment tal-protisti, għadha kontroversjali.

Mal-iżvilupp tal-mikrobijoloġija, ġew skoperti l-viruses, li mhumiex ċellolari. Jekk dawn jitqisux bħala ħajjin ilu jiġi dibattut; il-viruses ma għandhomx il-karatteristiċi tal-ħajja bħal membrani ċellolari, metaboliżmu u l-kapaċità li jikbru jew jirrispondu għall-ambjenti tagħhom. Il-viruses ġew ikklassifikati f'&quot;speċijiet&quot; abbażi tal-ġenetika tagħhom, iżda bosta aspetti ta' tali klassifikazzjoni għadhom kontroversjali.

Is-sistema oriġinali ta' Linnaeus ġiet immodifikata bosta drabi, pereżempju kif ġej:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese ''et al''.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 renji
|3 renji
|2 imperi
|4 renji
|5 renji
|3 dominji
|2 imperi,
6/7 renji
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(mhux trattati)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Prokaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
|''Bacteria''
|''Bacteria''
|-
|''Archaea''
|''Archaea'' (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eukaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protoctista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eucarya''
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Protozoa''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Chromista''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Vegetabilia''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|-
|''Fungi''
|''Fungi''
|-
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|}
It-tentattiv ta' organizzazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti f'għadd żgħir ta' renji ġie kkontestat. Il-''Protozoa'' ma jiffurmawx raggruppament naturali, u lanqas il-''Chromista'' (''Chromalveolata'').

=== Metaġenomika ===
Il-kapaċità ta' sekwenzjar ta' għadd kbir ta' ġenomi kompluti ppermettiet lill-bijologi jkollhom viżjoni metaġenomika tal-filoġenija tas-siġra sħiħa tal-ħajja. Dan wassal għar-realizzazzjoni li l-maġġoranza tal-organiżmi ħajjin huma batterji, u li kollha għandhom oriġini komuni.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
Il-forom kollha ta' ħajja jirrikjedu ċerti elementi kimiċi ewlenin biex jiffunzjonaw bijokimikament. Dawn jinkludu l-[[karbonju]], l-[[idroġenu]], in-[[nitroġenu]], l-[[ossiġenu]], il-[[fosforu]] u l-[[kubrit]] — il-makronutrijenti tal-elementi għall-organiżmi kollha. Dawn flimkien jirrappreżentaw l-aċidi nuklejċi, il-proteini u l-lipidi, il-qofol tal-materja ħajja. Ħamsa minn dawn is-sitt elementi jinkludu l-komponenti kimiċi tad-DNA, bl-eċċezzjoni tal-kubrit. Dan tal-aħħar huwa komponent tal-aminoaċidi ċistein u metjonin. L-iżjed abbundanti fost dawn l-elementi fl-organiżmi huwa l-karbonju, li għandu l-karatteristika mixtieqa ta' legatur kovalenti stabbli u multiplu. Dan jippermetti lill-molekoli bbażati bil-karbonju (organiċi) jiffurmaw il-varjetà immensa ta' arranġamenti kimiċi deskritti fil-[[kimika organika]]. Tipi ipotetiċi alternattivi tal-bijokimika ġew proposti li jeliminaw wieħed jew iktar minn dawn l-elementi, jissostitwixxu xi elementi għal ieħor mhux fil-lista, jew jibdlu l-kiralitajiet meħtieġa jew xi proprjetajiet kimiċi oħra.

=== DNA ===
L-aċidu deossiribonuklejku jew id-DNA hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi. Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

=== Ċelloli ===
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.

Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Fl-univers ==
Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable, possibly resulting in a biophysical cosmology instead of a mere physical cosmology. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilisations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.

Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilise to survive such extremes, is important for the search for extraterrestrial life. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.

Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the Sun-like &quot;main sequence&quot; of stellar evolution for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.

The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilisation is most likely to exist, within wide bounds of uncertainty. A &quot;Confidence of Life Detection&quot; scale (CoLD) for reporting evidence of life beyond Earth has been proposed.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
[[Kategorija:Natura]]</text>
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      <text bytes="42563" sha1="7zaph0xk1iywsb0lrpbtwqqgj7qhu62" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

== Żvilupp ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''Kronoloġija tal-ħajja'''
|-
|−4500 —

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−4000 —

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−3500 —

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−3000 —

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−2500 —

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Ilma 

Ħajja uniċellolari 

Fotosinteżi 

Ħajja multiċellolari 

Pjanti 

Artropodi u Molluski

Fjuri

Dinosawri 

[[Mammiferu|Mammiferi]]

[[Għasfur|Għasafar]]

Primati

Perjodu Adean

Perjodu Arkean

Perjodu Proterożojku

Perjodu Fanerożojku  

|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Formazzjoni tad-Dinja
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed forma bikrija tal-ilma
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|LUCA
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fossili bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|[[Ossiġenu]] atmosferiku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Riproduzzjoni sesswali
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed fungi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
L-ewwel klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi saret mill-filosfu Grieg  Aristotli (384–322 Q.K.), li ġabar l-organiżmi ħajjin f'pjanti jew f'annimali, abbażi prinċipalment tal-kapaċità tagħhom li jiċċaqilqu. Huwa ddistingwa l-annimali bid-demm mill-annimali bla demm, li jista' jitqabbel mal-kunċetti ta' vertebrati u invertebrati rispettivament, u qasam l-annimali bid-demm f'ħames gruppi: kwadrupedi vivipari (mammiferi), kwadrupedi ovipari (rettili u anfibji), għasafar, ħut u balieni. L-annimali bla demm ġew maqsuma f'ħames gruppi: ċefalopodi, krustaċji, insetti (li kienu jinkludu l-[[Brimba|brimb]], l-iskorpjuni u ċ-ċentipiedi), annimali bil-qxur (bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-molluski u tal-ekinodermi) u żoofiti (l-annimali li kienu qishom pjanti). Din it-teorija baqgħet dominanti għal iktar minn elf sena.

=== Linnaeus ===
Fl-aħħar tas-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, Carl Linnaeus introduċa s-sistema tiegħu tan-nomenklatura binomjali għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet. Linnaeus ipprova jtejjeb il-kompożizzjoni u jnaqqas it-tul tal-ismijiet preċedenti b'ħafna kelmiet billi jabolixxi r-retorika bla bżonn, billi jintroduċi termini deskrittivi ġodda u billi jiddefinixxi b'mod preċiż it-tifsira tagħhom.

Il-fungi oriġinarjament ġew ittrattati bħala pjanti. Għal perjodu qasir Linnaeus kien ikklassifikahom fit-[[takson]] ''Vermes'' fl-''Animalia'', iżda iktar 'il quddiem reġa' poġġihom fil-''Plantae''. [[Herbert Copeland]] ikklassifika l-''Fungi'' fil-''Protoctista'' tiegħu, u inkludihom flimkien mal-organiżmi uniċellolari, u għaldaqstant evita l-problema parzjalment iżda rrikonoxxa l-istatus speċjali tagħhom. Il-problema eventwalment ġiet solvuta minn Whittaker, meta tahom ir-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tagħhom stess fis-sistema tiegħu b'ħames renji. L-istorja evoluzzjonarja turi li l-fungi huma iktar relatati mill-qrib mal-annimali milli mal-pjanti.

Malli l-avvanzi fil-mikroskopija ppermettew l-istudju dettaljat taċ-ċelloli u tal-mikroorganiżmi, ġew żvelati gruppi ġodda ta' ħajja, u nħolqu l-oqsma tal-bijoloġija ċellolari u tal-mikrobijoloġija. Dawn l-organiżmi ġodda oriġinarjament kienu deskritti separatament fil-protożoa bħala annimali u fil-protofiti/fit-tallofiti bħala pjanti, iżda ġew magħquda minn [[Ernst Haeckel]] fir-renju ''Protista''; iktar 'il quddiem, il-prokarjoti nqasmu fir-renju ''Monera'', li eventwalment inqasam f'żewġ gruppi separati, il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea''. Dan wassal għal sistema ta' sitt renji u eventwalment għas-sistema attwali ta' tliet [[Dominju (bijoloġija)|dominji]], li hija bbażata fuq ir-relazzjonijiet evoluzzjonarji.

Madankollu, il-klassifikazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti, speċjalment tal-protisti, għadha kontroversjali.

Mal-iżvilupp tal-mikrobijoloġija, ġew skoperti l-viruses, li mhumiex ċellolari. Jekk dawn jitqisux bħala ħajjin ilu jiġi dibattut; il-viruses ma għandhomx il-karatteristiċi tal-ħajja bħal membrani ċellolari, metaboliżmu u l-kapaċità li jikbru jew jirrispondu għall-ambjenti tagħhom. Il-viruses ġew ikklassifikati f'&quot;speċijiet&quot; abbażi tal-ġenetika tagħhom, iżda bosta aspetti ta' tali klassifikazzjoni għadhom kontroversjali.

Is-sistema oriġinali ta' Linnaeus ġiet immodifikata bosta drabi, pereżempju kif ġej:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese ''et al''.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 renji
|3 renji
|2 imperi
|4 renji
|5 renji
|3 dominji
|2 imperi,
6/7 renji
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(mhux trattati)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Prokaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
|''Bacteria''
|''Bacteria''
|-
|''Archaea''
|''Archaea'' (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eukaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protoctista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eucarya''
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Protozoa''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Chromista''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Vegetabilia''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|-
|''Fungi''
|''Fungi''
|-
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|}
It-tentattiv ta' organizzazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti f'għadd żgħir ta' renji ġie kkontestat. Il-''Protozoa'' ma jiffurmawx raggruppament naturali, u lanqas il-''Chromista'' (''Chromalveolata'').

=== Metaġenomika ===
Il-kapaċità ta' sekwenzjar ta' għadd kbir ta' ġenomi kompluti ppermettiet lill-bijologi jkollhom viżjoni metaġenomika tal-filoġenija tas-siġra sħiħa tal-ħajja. Dan wassal għar-realizzazzjoni li l-maġġoranza tal-organiżmi ħajjin huma batterji, u li kollha għandhom oriġini komuni.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
Il-forom kollha ta' ħajja jirrikjedu ċerti elementi kimiċi ewlenin biex jiffunzjonaw bijokimikament. Dawn jinkludu l-[[karbonju]], l-[[idroġenu]], in-[[nitroġenu]], l-[[ossiġenu]], il-[[fosforu]] u l-[[kubrit]] — il-makronutrijenti tal-elementi għall-organiżmi kollha. Dawn flimkien jirrappreżentaw l-aċidi nuklejċi, il-proteini u l-lipidi, il-qofol tal-materja ħajja. Ħamsa minn dawn is-sitt elementi jinkludu l-komponenti kimiċi tad-DNA, bl-eċċezzjoni tal-kubrit. Dan tal-aħħar huwa komponent tal-aminoaċidi ċistein u metjonin. L-iżjed abbundanti fost dawn l-elementi fl-organiżmi huwa l-karbonju, li għandu l-karatteristika mixtieqa ta' legatur kovalenti stabbli u multiplu. Dan jippermetti lill-molekoli bbażati bil-karbonju (organiċi) jiffurmaw il-varjetà immensa ta' arranġamenti kimiċi deskritti fil-[[kimika organika]]. Tipi ipotetiċi alternattivi tal-bijokimika ġew proposti li jeliminaw wieħed jew iktar minn dawn l-elementi, jissostitwixxu xi elementi għal ieħor mhux fil-lista, jew jibdlu l-kiralitajiet meħtieġa jew xi proprjetajiet kimiċi oħra.

=== DNA ===
L-aċidu deossiribonuklejku jew id-DNA hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi. Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

=== Ċelloli ===
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.

Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Fl-univers ==
Għalkemm il-ħajja hija kkonferma biss fid-Dinja, bosta jaħsbu li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri mhux biss hija plawżibbli, iżda probabbli jew inevitabbli, u x'aktarx li tirriżulta f'kożmoloġija bijofiżika minflok sempliċi kożmoloġija fiżika. [[Pjaneta|Pjaneti]] u [[Qamar|qmura]] oħra fis-[[Sistema Solari]] u sistemi pjanetarji oħra qed jiġu eżaminati għal evidenza ta' sostenn tal-ħajja sempliċi fl-imgħoddi, u proġetti bħal SETI qed jippruvaw jindividwaw trażmissjonijiet bir-radju minn ċivilizzazzjonijiet aljeni possibbli. Postijiet oħra fi ħdan is-Sistema Solari li jaf jospitaw il-ħajja mikrobika jinkludu s-sottoswol ta' [[Marte (pjaneta)|Marte]], l-atmosfera superjuri ta' [[Venere (pjaneta)|Venere]], u l-oċeani tas-sottoswol ta' wħud mill-qmura tal-pjaneti ġganteski.

L-investigazzjoni tat-tenaċità u tal-versatilità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, kif ukoll il-fehim tas-sistemi molekolari li xi organiżmi jużaw biex jibqgħu jgħixu f'kundizzjonijiet estremi, huma importanti għat-tfittxija tal-ħajja ekstraterrestri. Pereżempju, il-likeni jaf jibqgħu ħajjin għal xahar f'ambjent simulat ta' Marte.

Lil hinn mis-Sistema Solari, ir-reġjun madwar [[stilla]] sekwenzjali prinċipali oħra li jaf isostni ħajja bħal dik tad-Dinja fi pjaneta bħad-Dinja huwa magħrufa bħala ż-żona abitabbli. Ir-raġġi interni u esterni ta' din iż-żona jvarjaw skont il-luminożità tal-istilla, l-istess bħall-intervall ta' żmien li matulu tgħix iż-żona. Stilel iktar enormi mix-[[xemx]] għandha żona abitabbli ikbar, iżda jibqgħu fuq is-&quot;sekwenza prinċipali&quot; bħal tax-xemx tal-evoluzzjoni stellari għal intervall ta' żmien iqsar. Il-pjaneti nani ħomor żgħar għandhom il-problema opposta, b'żona abitabbli iżgħar li hija soġġetta għal livelli ogħla ta' attività manjetika u għall-effetti ta' llokkjar mareali minn orbiti fil-qrib. Għaldaqstant, l-istilel fil-medda tal-massa intermedja bħax-xemx jaf ikollhom probabbiltà akbar li tiżviluppa fihom ħajja bħal tad-Dinja.

Il-pożizzjoni tal-istilla fi ħdan [[galassja]] jaf taffettwa wkoll il-probabbiltà li tifforma ħajja. L-istilel f'reġjuni b'abbundanza akbar ta' elementi tqal li jistgħu jiffurmaw pjaneti, flimkien ma' rata baxxa ta' avvenimenti ta' supernova li potenzjalment jagħmlu ħsara lill-ħabitats, għandhom probabbiltà akbar li jospitaw pjaneti b'ħajja kumplessa. Il-varjabbli tal-ekwazzjoni ta' Drake jintużaw biex jiġu diskussi l-kundizzjonijiet fis-sistemi pjanetarji fejn iċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tista' teżisti bl-ikbar probabbiltà, fi ħdan inċertezza kbira. Ġiet proposta skala ta' &quot;Kunfidenza tad-Detezzjoni tal-Ħajja&quot; għar-rapportar ta' evidenza tal-ħajja lil hinn mid-Dinja.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
[[Kategorija:Natura]]</text>
      <sha1>7zaph0xk1iywsb0lrpbtwqqgj7qhu62</sha1>
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      <comment>żieda referenzi</comment>
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      <text bytes="43130" sha1="nswi2elbc8jrrmae1gd42ay0406t8h2" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Coral reef... South end of my area (14119221571).jpg|daqsminuri|Diversità ta' forom ta' ħajja fuq skoll tal-qroll.]]
Il-'''ħajja''' hija materja bi proċessi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]], bħas-senjalar u l-kapaċità li wieħed isostni lilu nnifsu. Deskrittivament il-ħajja tiġi definita bħala l-kapaċità ta' omeostażi, organizzazzjoni, metaboliżmu, tkabbir, adattament, rispons għall-istimoli u riproduzzjoni. Kull forma ta' ħajja eventwalment tasal għall-istadju tal-[[mewt]], u l-ebda ħajja mhi immortali. Ġew proposti bosta definizzjonijiet [[Filosofija|filosofiċi]] tas-sistemi tal-ħajja, bħal sistemi li jorganizzaw lilhom infushom. Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja hija kkumplikata iktar mill-viruses, li jirreplikaw biss fiċ-ċelloli ospitanti, u l-possibbiltà ta' ħajja ekstraterrestri, li jaf tkun differenti ħafna mill-ħajja fid-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]]. Il-ħajja teżisti kullimkien fid-Dinja fl-arja, fl-ilma u fil-ħamrija, u bosta ekosistemi jifformaw il-bijosfera. Uħud minnhom huma ambjenti ibsin li jgħixu fihom biss l-estremofili. Il-ħajja f'ekosistema partikolari tissejjaħ il-bijota tagħha.

Il-ħajja ilha tiġi studjata minn żmien il-qedem, b'teoriji bħall-materjaliżmu ta' [[Empedokle]] li sostna li kienet magħmula minn erba' elementi esterni, u l-ilomorfiżmu ta' [[Aristotli]] li sostna li l-organiżmi ħajjin kellhom l-erwieħ u jinkorporaw kemm il-forma kif ukoll il-materja. Il-ħajja oriġinat mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena ilu, u rriżultat f'antenat komuni universali. Il-ħajja evolviet fl-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] kollha li jeżistu llum, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet estinti, li wħud minnhom ħallew traċċi bħala fossili. It-tentattivi ta' klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin bdiet ukoll permezz ta' Aristotli. Il-klassifikazzjoni moderna bdiet bis-sistema tan-nomenklatura binomjali ta' [[Carl Linnaeus]] fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18.

L-organiżmi ħajjin huma magħmula minn molekoli bijokimiċi, iffurmat l-iktar minn ftit elementi kimiċi ewlenin. L-organiżmi ħajjin kollha jkun fihom żewġ tipi ta' makromolekoli, proteini u aċidi nukleiċi, u dawn tal-aħħar normalment ikun fihom id-[[DNA]] u l-RNA: dawn ikun fihom l-informazzjoni meħtieġa minn kull speċi, inkluż l-istruzzjonijiet għall-produzzjoni ta' kull tip ta' proteina. Il-proteini, min-naħa tagħhom, iservu bħala l-makkinarju li jwettaq il-bosta proċessi [[Kimika|kimiċi]] tal-ħajja. Iċ-ċellola hija l-unità strutturali u funzjonali tal-ħajja. L-organiżmi iż-żgħar, inkluż il-prokarjoti (batterji u l-''archaea''), jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi żgħar. L-organiżmi l-kbar, l-iktar l-ewkarjoti, jistgħu jikkonsistu minn ċelloli uniċi jew jistgħu jkunu multiċellolari bi struttura iktar kumplessa. Il-ħajja hija magħrufa li teżisti fid-Dinja biss iżda huwa maħsub li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri hija probabbli. Il-ħajja artifiċjali qed tiġi simulata u esplorata mix-xjenzati u mill-inġiniera.

== Definizzjonijiet ==

=== Sfida ===
Id-definizzjoni tal-ħajja ilha sfida għax-xjenzati u għall-filosfi. Parzjalment dan għax il-ħajja hija proċess mhux sustanza. Dan huwa kkumplikat minħabba nuqqas ta' għarfien dwar il-karatteristiċi tal-entitajiet ħajjin, jekk hemm, li jaf żviluppaw 'il barra mid-Dinja. Tressqu wkoll definizzjonijiet filosofiċi, b'diffikultajiet simili dwar kif l-organiżmi ħajjin jiġu distinti mill-organiżmi mhux ħajjin. Kien hemm diversi dibattiti wkoll dwar id-definizzjonijiet [[Dritt|legali]], għalkemm dawn ġeneralment jiffukaw fuq id-deċiżjoni li [[bniedem]] jiġi ddikjarat mejjet, u r-rammifikazzjonijiet legali ta' din id-deċiżjoni. Ġew ikkompilati mill-inqas 123 definizzjoni tal-ħajja.

Bijota huwa raggruppament ta' organiżmi ħajjin, speċjalment l-[[Annimal|annimali]] u l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]], li jabitaw post u żmien speċifiku, bħal ekosistema jew [[bijoma]]; għaldaqstant, l-għan tal-konservazzjoni tan-natura hu li tippreserva l-bijota ta' ekosistema.

=== Deskrittiva ===
Ladarba ma hemmx konsensus dwar definizzjoni tal-ħajja, il-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet attwali fil-bijoloġija, l-istudju [[Xjenza|xjentifiku]] tal-ħajja, huma deskrittivi. Il-ħajja titqies bħala karatteristika ta' xi ħaġa li tippreserva, tmexxi jew issaħħaħ l-eżistenza tagħha fl-ambjent partikolari. Dan jimplika l-karatteristiċi kollha jew il-biċċa l-kbira ta' dawn li ġejjin:

# Omeostażi: ir-regolazzjoni tal-ambjent intern biex jinżamm stat kostanti; pereżempju, il-produzzjoni tal-għaraq biex titnaqqas it-temperatura.
# Organizzazzjoni: l-għamla strutturali minn ċellola waħda jew iktar – l-unitajiet bażiċi tal-ħajja.
# Metaboliżmu: it-trasformazzjoni tal-enerġija, użata għall-konverżjoni tas-sustanzi kimiċi f'komponenti ċellolari (anaboliżmu) u għad-dekompożizzjoni tal-materja organika (kataboliżmu). L-organiżmi ħajjin jeħtieġu l-enerġija għall-omeostażi u għal attivitajiet oħra.
# Tkabbir: iż-żamma ta' rata ogħla ta' anaboliżmu milli ta' kataboliżmu. Waqt li jikber organiżmu jżid id-daqs u l-istruttura tiegħu.
# Adattament: il-proċess [[Evoluzzjoni|evoluzzjonarju]] li bih organiżmu jsir iktar kapaċi jgħix fil-ħabitat tiegħu.
# Rispons għall-istimoli: bħall-kontrazzjoni ta' organiżmu uniċellolari lil hinn minn sustanzi kimiċi esterni, ir-reazzjonijiet kumplessi jinvolvu s-sensi kollha tal-organiżmi multiċellolari, jew iċ-ċaqliq tal-weraq ta' pjanta lejn ix-[[xemx]] (fototropiżmu), u l-kemotaksi.
# Riproduzzjoni: il-kapaċità ta' produzzjoni ta' organiżmi individwali ġodda, asesswalment minn organiżmu ġenitur uniku jew sesswalment minn żewġ organiżmi ġenituri.

=== [[Fiżika]] ===
Mill-perspettiva tal-fiżika, organiżmu huwa sistema termodinamika bi struttura molekolari organizzata li tista' tirriproduċi lilha nnifisha u tevolvi sabiex tgħix. Termodinamikament, il-ħajja ġiet deskritta bħala sistema miftuħa li tuża l-aspetti tal-ambjenti tagħha biex toħloq kopji imperfetti tagħha nnifsiha. Spjegazzjoni oħra hija li l-ħajja tista' tiġi definita bħala &quot;sistema kimika li ssostni lilha nnifisha kapaċi li tgħaddi mill-evoluzzjoni ta' [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]&quot;, li hija definizzjoni adottat minn kumitat tan-[[NASA]] li pprova jiddefinixxi l-ħajja għall-iskopijiet tal-eżobijoloġija, abbażi ta' suġġeriment ta' [[Carl Sagan]]. Madankollu, din id-definizzjoni ġiet ikkritikata ferm minħabba li skontha, individwu uniku li jirriproduċi sesswalment mhuwiex ħaj peress li mhux kapaċi jevolvi waħdu.

=== Sistemi ħajjin ===
Oħrajn għandhom puntdivista teoriku tas-sistemi ħajjin li mhux neċessarjament tiddependi fuq il-kimika molekolari. Definizzjoni sistematika partikolari tal-ħajja hi li l-organiżmi ħajjin jorganizzaw lilhom infushom u huma awtopojetiċi (jipproduċu lilhom infushom). Varjazzjonijiet ta' dan jinkludu d-definizzjoni ta' [[Stuart Kauffman]] bħala aġent awtonomu jew sistema b'diversi aġenti kapaċi jirriproduċi lilu nnifsu u jlesti mill-inqas ċiklu wieħed ta' ħidma termodinamika. Din id-definizzjoni hija estiża bl-evoluzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet ġodda maż-żmien. Is-sistemi ħajjin huma kkaratterizzati minn organizzazzjoni ġerarkika fuq diversi skali, li tvarja minn makkinarji molekolari għal ċelloli, organi, tessuti, organiżmi, popolazzjonijiet, ekosistemi, sal-bijosfera kollha.

=== Mewt ===
[[Stampa:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004 edit1.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-katavri tal-annimali, bħal ta' dan il-buflu [[Afrika|Afrikan]], jiġu rriċiklati mill-ekosistema, u jipprovdu l-enerġija u n-nutrijenti għall-organiżmi ħajjin.]]
Il-mewt hija t-terminazzjoni tal-funzjonijiet vitali jew tal-proċessi tal-ħajja kollha f'organiżmu jew f'ċellola. Waħda mill-isfidi tad-definizzjoni tal-mewt hi d-distinzjoni tagħha mill-ħajja. Il-mewt milli jidher tirreferi għal mument meta l-ħajja tintemm, jew meta jibda l-istat ta' wara l-ħajja. Madankollu, id-determinazzjoni meta tkun seħħet il-mewt hija diffiċli, għax sikwit it-tmiem tal-funzjonijiet tal-ħajja mhuwiex simultanju fost is-sistemi kollha tal-organi. Għaldaqstant, id-determinazzjoni tirrikjedi l-istabbiliment ta' linji kunċettwali bejn il-ħajja u l-mewt. Dan huwa problematiku minħabba li hemm ftit konsensus dwar kif il-ħajja tiġi definita. Għal millenji sħaħ, in-natura tal-mewt kienet tħassib ċentrali tat-tradizzjonijiet [[Reliġjon|reliġjużi]] tad-dinja u tal-istħarriġ filosofiku. Bosta reliġjonijiet għandhom twemmin f'forma ta' ħajja wara l-mewt jew reinkarnazzjoni għar-ruħ, jew l-irxoxtar tal-ġisem fi stadju iktar 'il quddiem.

=== Viruses ===
[[Stampa:Adenovirus transmission electron micrograph B82-0142 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|L-''adenoviruses'' kif jidhru permezz ta' mikroskopju tal-elettroni.]]
Jekk il-viruses għandhomx jitqiesu bħala ħajjin huwa kontroversjali. Spiss jiġu kkunsidrati l-iktar bħala replikaturi tal-kodifikazzjoni tal-ġeni biss iktar milli forom ta' ħajja. Ġew deskritti bħala &quot;organiżmi fit-tarf tal-ħajja&quot; minħabba li għandhom ġeni, jevolvu permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali, u jirreplikaw billi jagħmlu diversi kopji tagħhom infushom permezz tal-awtoassemblaġġ. Madankollu, il-viruses ma għandhom metaboliżmu u jirrikjedu ċellola ospitanti biex jagħmlu prodotti ġodda. L-awtoassemblaġġ tal-viruses fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli ospitanti għandu implikazzjonijiet għall-istudju dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja, peress li jaf jappoġġa l-ipoteżi li l-ħajja jaf bdiet bħala molekoli organiċi li kapaċi jagħmlu awtoassemblaġġ.

== [[Storja]] tal-istudju ==

=== Materjaliżmu ===
Uħud mill-iżjed teoriji bikrin tal-ħajja kienu materjalisti, u kienu jsostnu li dak kollu li jeżisti huwa materja, u li l-ħajja hija sempliċement forma kumplessa jew arranġament tal-materja. Empedokle (430 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].) argumenta li kollox fl-univers huwa magħmula minn taħlita ta' erba' &quot;elementi&quot; eterni jew &quot;għeruq ta' kollox&quot;: il-ħamrija, l-ilma, l-arja u n-nar. Kull forma ta' bidla tiġi spjegata mill-arranġament u mill-arranġament mill-ġdid ta' dawn l-erba' elementi. Id-diversi forom ta' ħajja huma kkawżati minn taħlita xierqa ta' elementi. [[Demokritu]] (460 Q.K.) kien atomista; huwa ħaseb li l-karatteristika essenzjali tal-ħajja kienet li jkollha ruħ (''psike''), u li r-ruħ, bħal kull ħaġa oħra, kienet magħmula minn atomi tan-nar. Huwa elabora dwar in-nar minħabba r-rabta apparenti bejn il-ħajja u s-sħana, u peress li n-nar jiċċaqlaq. B'kuntrast ma' dan, [[Platun]] sostna li l-dinja kienet organizzata skont forom permanenti, riflessi b'mod imperfett fil-materja; il-forom kienu jipprovdu d-direzzjoni jew l-intelliġenza, u b'hekk jispjegaw ir-regolaritajiet osservati fid-dinja.

Il-materjaliżmu mekkanistiku li oriġina fil-[[Greċja antika]] reġa' ġġedded u ġie rivedut mill-filosfu [[Franza|Franċiż]] [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), li sostna li l-annimali u l-bnedmin kienu assemblaġġi ta' partijiet li kienu jaħdmu flimkien bħala makkinarju. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] enfasizza l-organizzazzjoni ġerarkika tal-makkinarji ħajjin, u fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Monadoloġija'' (1714) innota li &quot;...il-makkinarji tan-natura, jiġifieri l-korpi ħajjin, xorta waħda huma makkinarji anke fl-iżgħar partijiet tagħhom, sal-infinità&quot;. Din l-idea ġiet żviluppata iktar minn [[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]] (1709–1750) fil-ktieb tiegħu ''L'Homme Machine''. Fis-seklu 19, l-avvanzi fit-teorija ċellolari fix-xjenza bijoloġika ħeġġew dan il-ħsieb. It-teorija evoluzzjonarja ta' Charles Darwin (1859) hija spjegazzjoni mekkanistika dwar l-oriġini tal-ispeċijiet permezz tas-selezzjoni naturali. Fil-bidu tas-seklu 20, [[Stéphane Leduc]] (1853–1939) ippromwova l-idea li l-proċessi bijoloġiċi jistgħu jinftehmu f'termini ta' fiżika u ta' kimika, u li t-tkabbir tagħhom kien qisu dak ta' kristalli inorganiċi f'soluzzjonijiet tas-silikat tas-sodju. L-ideat tiegħu, spjegati fil-ktieb tiegħu ''La biologie synthétique'', ġew irrifjutati b'mod wiesa' matul ħajtu, iżda reġgħu qanqlu interess fix-xogħol ta' Russell, Barge u kollegi oħra.

=== Ilomorfiżmu ===
[[Stampa:Aristotelian Soul.png|daqsminuri|L-istruttura tal-erwieħ tal-pjanti, tal-annimali u tal-bnedmin skont Aristotli.]]
L-ilomorfiżmu hija teorija li ġiet espressa għall-ewwel darba mill-[[Filosofija Ellenistika|filosfu]] [[Greċja|Grieg]] Aristotli (322 Q.K.). L-applikazzjoni tal-ilomorfiżmu għall-bijoloġija kienet importanti għal Aristotli, u l-bijoloġija ġiet koperta b'mod estensiv fil-kitbiet eżistenti tiegħu. Skont dan il-ħsieb, kollox fl-univers materjali għandu l-materja u l-forma, u l-forma ta' organiżmu ħaj hija r-ruħ tiegħu (bil-Grieg: ''psyche''; bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]: ''anima''). Hemm tliet tipi ta' erwieħ: ir-''ruħ veġetattiva'' ''tal-pjanti'', li twassalhom biex jikbru, jiddiżintegraw u jitimgħu lilhom infushom, iżda li ma tikkawżax iċ-ċaqliq u s-sensazzjoni; ir-''ruħ tal-annimali'', li twassalhom biex jiċċaqilqu u jħossu; u r-''ruħ razzjonali'', li hija s-sors tal-kuxjenza u tar-raġunament, li (Aristotli kien jemmen li) tinstab fil-bniedem biss. Kull ruħ ogħla jkollha l-attributi kollha tar-ruħ inferjuri. Aristotli kien jemmen li filwaqt li l-materja tista' teżisti mingħajr il-forma, il-forma ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-materja, u għaldaqstant ir-ruħ ma tistax teżisti mingħajr il-ġisem.

Dan ir-rakkont huwa konsistenti mal-ispjegazzjonijiet teoloġiċi tal-ħajja, li jsemmu fenomeni f'termini ta' skopijiet jew għanijiet. B'hekk, il-bjudija tal-pil tal-ors polari hija spjegata mill-iskop tiegħu ta' mimetizzazzjoni. Id-direzzjoni tal-kawżalità (mill-ġejjieni għall-imgħoddi) hija f'kontradizzjoni mal-evidenza xjentifika għas-selezzjoni naturali, li tispjega l-konsegwenza f'termini ta' kawża preċedenti. Il-karatteristiċi bijoloġiċi jiġu spjegati mhux billi wieħed iħares lejn ir-riżultati ottimali tal-ġejjieni, iżda billi wieħed iħares lejn l-istorja evoluzzjonarja tal-imgħoddi ta' speċi, li wasslet għas-selezzjoni naturali tal-karatteristiċi inkwistjoni.

=== Ġenerazzjoni spontanja ===
Il-ġenerazzjoni spontanja kienet it-twemmin li l-organiżmi ħajjin jistgħu jifformaw mingħajr dixxendenza minn organiżmi simili. Tipikament, l-idea kienet li ċerti forom bħall-qamel setgħu jfeġġu minn materja inanimata bħat-trab jew is-suppost ġenerazzjoni staġonali tal-ġrieden u tal-insetti mit-tajn jew miż-żibel.

It-teorija tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ġiet proposta minn Aristotli, li kkompila u espanda x-xogħol tal-filosfi naturali preċedenti u d-diversi spjegazzjonijiet tal-qedem tad-dehra tal-organiżmi; din kienet meqjusa bħala l-aqwa spjegazzjoni għal żewġ millenji. Ġiet irrifjutata b'mod deċiżiv wara l-esperimenti ta' [[Louis Pasteur]] fl-1859, li espanda l-investigazzjonijiet tal-predeċessuri tiegħu bħal [[Francesco Redi]]. Ir-rifjut tal-ideat tradizzjonali tal-ġenerazzjoni spontanja ma għadux kontroversjali fost il-bijologi.

=== Vitaliżmu ===
Il-vitaliżmu huwa t-twemmin li hemm prinċipju tal-ħajja mhux materjali. Dan oriġina minn [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] (is-[[seklu 17]]), u baqa' popolari sa nofs is-seklu 19. Kien jappella għal filosfi bħal [[Henri Bergson]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], u [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], anatomisti bħal [[Xavier Bichat]], u spiżjara bħal [[Justus von Liebig]]. Il-vitaliżmu kien jinkludi l-idea li kien hemm differenza fundamentali bejn il-materja organika u inorganika, u t-twemmin li l-materja organika tista' tirriżulta biss mill-organiżmi ħajjin. Dan intwera li mhux minnu fl-1828, meta [[Friedrich Wöhler]] ħejja l-urea mill-materjali inorganiċi. Din is-sinteżi ta' Wöhler titqies bħala l-punt ta' tluq tal-kimika organika moderna. Din hija ta' importanza storika minħabba li għall-ewwel darba kompost organiku ġie prodott f'reazzjonijiet inorganiċi.

Matul is-snin 50 tas-seklu 19, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] antiċipat minn [[Julius Robert von Mayer]], wera li l-ebda enerġija ma tintilef fiċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli, u ssuġġerixxa li ma kienet meħtieġa l-ebda &quot;forza vitali&quot; għaċ-ċaqliq tal-muskoli. Dawn ir-riżultati wasslu għall-abbandun tal-interess xjentifiku fit-teoriji vitalistiċi, speċjalment wara li [[Eduard Buchner]] wera li l-fermentazzjoni alkoħolika setgħet isseħħ f'estratti tal-ħmira ħielsa miċ-ċelloli. Minkejja dan, għadu jeżisti t-twemmin f'teoriji psewdoxjentifiċi bħall-omeopatija, li tinterpreta d-diversi mardiet u l-mard inġenerali bħala kkawżati minn disturbi f'forza vitali jew forza tal-ħajja ipotetiċi.

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Ilma 

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|L-iżjed fungi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Avveniment ta' ossiġenazzjoni Neoproterożojku
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Bijota Edjakarana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|Splużjoni Kambrijana
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed tetrapodi bikrin
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|←
|L-iżjed ominojdi bikrin
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |(miljuni ta' snin ilu)
|}

=== Oriġini tal-ħajja ===
L-età tad-Dinja hija madwar 4.54 biljun sena. Il-ħajja fid-Dinja ilha teżisti għal mill-inqas 3.5 biljun sena, bl-eqdem traċċi fiżiċi tal-ħajja li jmorru lura 3.7 biljun sena. L-istimi mill-kronoloġiji molekolari, kif miġbura fil-qosor fil-bażi tad-data pubblika ta' TimeTree, tqiegħed l-oriġini tal-ħajja għall-ħabta ta' 4.0 biljun sena ilu. L-ipoteżijiet dwar l-oriġini tal-ħajja jippruvaw jispjegaw il-formazzjoni ta' antenat komuni universali mill-molekoli organiċi sempliċi permezz tal-ħajja preċellolari għall-protoċelloli u l-metaboliżmu. Fl-2016 ġew identifikati bejn wieħed u ieħor sett ta' 355 ġen mill-aħħar antenat komuni universali.

Huwa maħsub li l-bijosfera żviluppat, mill-oriġini tal-ħajja 'l quddiem, mill-inqas xi 3.5 biljun sena ilu. L-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-ħajja fid-Dinja tinkludi l-grafit bijoġeniku fil-blat metasedimentarju ta' 3.7 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent ta' [[Greenland]] u l-fossili mill-medda mikrobika li nstabu fil-ġebel ramli ta' 3.48 biljun sena ilu mill-Punent tal-[[Awstralja]]. Iktar reċentement, fl-2015, &quot;il-fdalijiet tal-ħajja bijotika&quot; nstabu fil-blat ta' 4.1 biljun sena ilu fil-Punent tal-Awstralja. Fl-2017 tħabbar li ġew skoperti mikroorganiżmi fossilizzati (jew mikrofossili) f'preċipitati ta' kanali idrotermali fil-Medda ta' Nuvvuagittuq ta' [[Quebec]], il-[[Kanada]], li kien qodma saħansitra 4.28 biljun sena, l-eqdem rekord tal-ħajja fid-Dinja. Dan jissuġġerixxi &quot;l-emerġenza kważi istantanja tal-ħajja&quot; wara l-formazzjoni tal-oċeani 4.4 biljun sena ilu, u mhux wisq wara l-formazzjoni tad-Dinja 4.54 biljun sena ilu.

=== Evoluzzjoni ===
L-evoluzzjoni hija l-bidla fil-karatteristiċi ereditabbli tal-popolazzjoni bijoloġiċi tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Din tirriżulta fit-tfaċċar ta' speċijiet ġodda u spiss fl-għebien ta' speċijiet tal-qedem. L-evoluzzjoni sseħħ meta l-proċessi evoluzzjonarji bħas-selezzjoni naturali (inkluż is-selezzjoni sesswali) u l-att tal-effett ġenetiku fuq il-varjazzjoni ġenetika, u tirriżulta f'ċerti karatteristiċi bi frekwenza tiżdied jew tonqos fi ħdan popolazzjoni tul ġenerazzjonijiet suċċessivi. Il-proċess tal-evoluzzjoni wassal għall-[[bijodiversità]] f'kull livell tal-organizzazzjoni bijoloġika.

=== Fossili ===
Il-fossili huma l-fdalijiet jew it-traċċi tal-organiżmi ppreservati tal-imgħoddi mbiegħed. It-totalità tal-fossili, kemm dawk skoperti kif ukoll dawk mhux skoperti, u l-kollokazzjoni tagħhom f'saffi (strati) ta' blat sedimentarju huma magħrufa bħala r-''rekord tal-fossili''. Eżemplar ippreservat jissejjaħ fossilu jekk ikun eqdem mid-data arbitrarja ta' 10,000 sena ilu. Għaldaqstant, il-fossili jvarjaw bħala età mill-iktar reċenti fil-bidu tal-perjodu Oloċen għall-iktar tal-qedem mill-perjodu Arċejan, sa 3.4 biljun sena ilu.

=== Estinzjoni ===
L-estinzjoni hija l-proċess li permezz tiegħu speċi tisparixxi għalkollox. Il-mument tal-estinzjoni huwa l-mewt tal-aħħar individwu ta' dik l-ispeċi. Minħabba li l-medda potenzjoni tal-ispeċijiet jaf tkun kbira ħafna, jaf ikun diffiċli li wieħed jiddetermina eżatt dak il-mument, u normalment dan isir b'mod retrospettiv wara perjodu ta' assenza apparenti. L-ispeċijiet isiru estinti meta ma jkunux kapaċi jgħixu iktar f'ħabitats li jkunu qed jinbidlu jew kontra kompetizzjoni superjuri. Iktar minn 99 % tal-ispeċijiet kollha li qatt għexu issa huma estinti. L-estinzjonijiet tal-massa jaf aċċelleraw l-evoluzzjoni billi pprovdew opportunitajiet għal gruppi ġodda ta' organiżmi biex jiddiversifikaw.

== Kundizzjonijiet ambjentali ==
[[Stampa:20100422 235222 Cyanobacteria.jpg|daqsminuri|Iċ-ċjanobatterji biddlu b'mod drammatiku l-kompożizzjoni tal-forom tal-ħajja fid-Dinja billi wasslu kważi għall-estinzjoni tal-organiżmi intolleranti għall-ossiġenu.]]
Id-diversità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja hija r-riżultat tal-interskambju dinamiku bejn l-opportunità ġenetika, il-kapaċità metabolika, l-isfidi ambjentali u s-simbjożi. Għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-eżistenza tagħha, l-ambjent abitabbli tad-Dinja ġie dominat mill-mikroorganiżmi u soġġetti għall-metaboliżmu u għall-evoluzzjoni tagħhom. Bħala konsegwenza ta' dawn l-attivitajiet mikrobiċi, l-ambjent fiżiku u kimiku fid-Dinja ilu jinbidel fuq skala taż-żmien [[Ġeoloġija|ġeoloġika]], u b'hekk jaffettwa l-andament tal-evoluzzjoni tal-ħajja sussegwenti. Pereżempju, ir-rilaxx tal-ossiġenu molekolari miċ-ċjanobatterji bħala prodott sekondarju tal-fotosinteżi wassal għal bidliet globali fl-ambjent tad-Dinja. Minħabba li l-ossiġenu kien tossiku għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħajja fid-Dinja fl-imgħoddi, dan wassal għal sfidi evoluzzjonarji ġodda, u fl-aħħar mill-aħħar wassal għall-formazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet ewlenin tal-annimali u tal-pjanti tad-Dinja. Dan l-interskambju bejn l-organiżmi u l-ambjent tagħhom huwa karatteristika inerenti tas-sistemi ħajjin.

=== Bijosfera ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus geothermalis cells.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus geothermalis'', batterju li joktor fil-fawwariet ġeotermali u fis-sottoswoli fil-fond tal-oċeani.]]
Il-bijosfera hija s-somma globali tal-ekosistemi kollha. Tista' titqies ukoll bħala ż-żona tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, sistema magħluqa (apparti r-radjazzjoni solari u kożmika u s-sħana mill-ġewwieni tad-Dinja), u fil-biċċa l-kbira awtoregolatorja. L-organiżmi jeżistu f'kull parti tal-bijosfera, inkluż fil-ħamrija, fil-fawwariet termali, fil-blat f'fond ta' mill-inqas 19-il kilometru (12-il mil) taħt l-art, fl-iżjed partijiet fondi tal-oċeani, u f'għoli ta' mill-inqas 64 kilometru (40 mil) fl-[[atmosfera]]. Pereżempju, l-ispori tal-''Aspergillus niger'' ġew individwati fil-mesosfera f'altitudni ta' bejn 48 u 77 kilometru. Taħt kundizzjonijiet tal-ittestjar, il-forom tal-ħajja ġew osservati li jibqgħu ħajjin fil-vakwu tal-ispazju. Il-forom tal-ħajja joktru fit-Trunċiera fonda ta' Mariana, u fi ħdan il-blat sa 580 metru (1,900 pied; 0.36 mili) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar sa 2,590 metru (8,500 pied; 1.61 mil) tal-oċeani lil hinn mill-kosta tal-Majjistral tal-Istati Uniti, u 2,400 metru (7,900 pied; 1.5 mil) taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar lil hinn mill-[[Ġappun]]. Fl-2014, il-forom tal-ħajja nstabu jgħixu 800 metru (2,600 pied; 0.50 mili) taħt is-silġ tal-[[Antartika]]. L-ispedizzjonijiet tal-Programm Internazzjonali ta' Skoperta tal-Oċeani sabu ħajja uniċellolari f'sediment ta' 120 °C xi 1.2 kilometru taħt il-qiegħ tal-baħar fiż-żona tas-subduzzjoni fil-Fondoq ta' Nankai. Skont riċerkatur, &quot;Tista' ssib il-mikrobi kullimkien — jadattaw b'mod estremament tajjeb għall-kundizzjonijiet ta' madwarhom, u jibqgħu jgħixu kull fejn ikunu&quot;.

=== Medda ta' tolleranza ===
Il-komponenti inerti ta' ekosistema huma l-fatturi fiżiċi u kimiċi neċessarji għall-ħajja — l-enerġija (id-dawl tax-xemx jew l-enerġija kimika), l-ilma, is-sħana, l-atmosfera, il-gravità, in-nutrijenti u l-protezzjoni mir-radjazzjoni solari ultravjola. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-ekosistemi, il-kundizzjonijiet ivarjaw binhar u minn staġun għall-ieħor. Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu f'dawn l-ekosistemi, l-organiżmi jridu jkunu kapaċi jittolleraw firxa ta' kundizzjonijiet definiti bħala l-&quot;medda ta' tolleranza&quot;. Lil hinn minn din il-medda hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-istress fiżjoloġiku&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni huma possibbli iżda mhux ottimali. Lil hinn minn dawn iż-żoni mbagħad hemm iż-&quot;żoni tal-intolleranza&quot;, fejn l-għajxien u r-riproduzzjoni ta' dak l-organiżmu hija improbabbli jew impossibbli. L-organiżmi li għandhom medda wiesgħa ta' tolleranza għandhom distribuzzjoni iktar mifruxa mill-organiżmi b'medda dejqa ta' tolleranza.

=== Estremofili ===
Sabiex jibqgħu jgħixu, xi mikroorganiżmi evolvew biex jifilħu għall-iffriżar, it-tnixxif totali, il-ġuħ, livelli għoljin ta' esponiment għar-radjazzjoni, u sfidi fiżiċi jew kimiċi oħra. Dawn il-mikroorganiżmi estremofili jistgħu jibqgħu ħajjin wara l-esponiment għal ċerti kundizzjonijiet għal perjodi twal. Jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw sorsi mhux komuni tal-enerġija. Il-karatterizzazzjoni tal-istruttura u tad-diversità metabolika tal-komunitajiet mikrobiċi f'tali ambjenti estremi hija kontinwa.

== Klassifikazzjoni ==

=== Antikità ===
[[Stampa:Deinococcus radiodurans.jpg|daqsminuri|Id-''Deinococcus radiodurans'' huwa estemofilu li jista' jirreżisti estremi tal-kesħa, tad-diżidratazzjoni, tal-vakwu, tal-aċtu u tal-esponiment għar-radjazzjoni.]]
L-ewwel klassifikazzjoni tal-organiżmi saret mill-filosfu Grieg  Aristotli (384–322 Q.K.), li ġabar l-organiżmi ħajjin f'pjanti jew f'annimali, abbażi prinċipalment tal-kapaċità tagħhom li jiċċaqilqu. Huwa ddistingwa l-annimali bid-demm mill-annimali bla demm, li jista' jitqabbel mal-kunċetti ta' vertebrati u invertebrati rispettivament, u qasam l-annimali bid-demm f'ħames gruppi: kwadrupedi vivipari (mammiferi), kwadrupedi ovipari (rettili u anfibji), għasafar, ħut u balieni. L-annimali bla demm ġew maqsuma f'ħames gruppi: ċefalopodi, krustaċji, insetti (li kienu jinkludu l-[[Brimba|brimb]], l-iskorpjuni u ċ-ċentipiedi), annimali bil-qxur (bħall-biċċa l-kbira tal-molluski u tal-ekinodermi) u żoofiti (l-annimali li kienu qishom pjanti). Din it-teorija baqgħet dominanti għal iktar minn elf sena.

=== Linnaeus ===
Fl-aħħar tas-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, Carl Linnaeus introduċa s-sistema tiegħu tan-nomenklatura binomjali għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-ispeċijiet. Linnaeus ipprova jtejjeb il-kompożizzjoni u jnaqqas it-tul tal-ismijiet preċedenti b'ħafna kelmiet billi jabolixxi r-retorika bla bżonn, billi jintroduċi termini deskrittivi ġodda u billi jiddefinixxi b'mod preċiż it-tifsira tagħhom.

Il-fungi oriġinarjament ġew ittrattati bħala pjanti. Għal perjodu qasir Linnaeus kien ikklassifikahom fit-[[takson]] ''Vermes'' fl-''Animalia'', iżda iktar 'il quddiem reġa' poġġihom fil-''Plantae''. [[Herbert Copeland]] ikklassifika l-''Fungi'' fil-''Protoctista'' tiegħu, u inkludihom flimkien mal-organiżmi uniċellolari, u għaldaqstant evita l-problema parzjalment iżda rrikonoxxa l-istatus speċjali tagħhom. Il-problema eventwalment ġiet solvuta minn Whittaker, meta tahom ir-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tagħhom stess fis-sistema tiegħu b'ħames renji. L-istorja evoluzzjonarja turi li l-fungi huma iktar relatati mill-qrib mal-annimali milli mal-pjanti.

Malli l-avvanzi fil-mikroskopija ppermettew l-istudju dettaljat taċ-ċelloli u tal-mikroorganiżmi, ġew żvelati gruppi ġodda ta' ħajja, u nħolqu l-oqsma tal-bijoloġija ċellolari u tal-mikrobijoloġija. Dawn l-organiżmi ġodda oriġinarjament kienu deskritti separatament fil-protożoa bħala annimali u fil-protofiti/fit-tallofiti bħala pjanti, iżda ġew magħquda minn [[Ernst Haeckel]] fir-renju ''Protista''; iktar 'il quddiem, il-prokarjoti nqasmu fir-renju ''Monera'', li eventwalment inqasam f'żewġ gruppi separati, il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea''. Dan wassal għal sistema ta' sitt renji u eventwalment għas-sistema attwali ta' tliet [[Dominju (bijoloġija)|dominji]], li hija bbażata fuq ir-relazzjonijiet evoluzzjonarji.

Madankollu, il-klassifikazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti, speċjalment tal-protisti, għadha kontroversjali.

Mal-iżvilupp tal-mikrobijoloġija, ġew skoperti l-viruses, li mhumiex ċellolari. Jekk dawn jitqisux bħala ħajjin ilu jiġi dibattut; il-viruses ma għandhomx il-karatteristiċi tal-ħajja bħal membrani ċellolari, metaboliżmu u l-kapaċità li jikbru jew jirrispondu għall-ambjenti tagħhom. Il-viruses ġew ikklassifikati f'&quot;speċijiet&quot; abbażi tal-ġenetika tagħhom, iżda bosta aspetti ta' tali klassifikazzjoni għadhom kontroversjali.

Is-sistema oriġinali ta' Linnaeus ġiet immodifikata bosta drabi, pereżempju kif ġej:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Linnaeus
1735
!Haeckel
1866
!Chatton
1925
!Copeland
1938
!Whittaker
1969
!Woese ''et al''.
1990
!Cavalier-Smith
1998, 2015
|-
|2 renji
|3 renji
|2 imperi
|4 renji
|5 renji
|3 dominji
|2 imperi,
6/7 renji
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''(mhux trattati)''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Prokaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Monera''
|''Bacteria''
|''Bacteria''
|-
|''Archaea''
|''Archaea'' (2015)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eukaryota''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protoctista''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Protista''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |''Eucarya''
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Protozoa''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; |&quot;''Chromista''&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Vegetabilia''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|''Plantae''
|-
|''Fungi''
|''Fungi''
|-
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|''Animalia''
|}
It-tentattiv ta' organizzazzjoni tal-ewkarjoti f'għadd żgħir ta' renji ġie kkontestat. Il-''Protozoa'' ma jiffurmawx raggruppament naturali, u lanqas il-''Chromista'' (''Chromalveolata'').

=== Metaġenomika ===
Il-kapaċità ta' sekwenzjar ta' għadd kbir ta' ġenomi kompluti ppermettiet lill-bijologi jkollhom viżjoni metaġenomika tal-filoġenija tas-siġra sħiħa tal-ħajja. Dan wassal għar-realizzazzjoni li l-maġġoranza tal-organiżmi ħajjin huma batterji, u li kollha għandhom oriġini komuni.

== Kompożizzjoni ==

=== Elementi kimiċi ===
Il-forom kollha ta' ħajja jirrikjedu ċerti elementi kimiċi ewlenin biex jiffunzjonaw bijokimikament. Dawn jinkludu l-[[karbonju]], l-[[idroġenu]], in-[[nitroġenu]], l-[[ossiġenu]], il-[[fosforu]] u l-[[kubrit]] — il-makronutrijenti tal-elementi għall-organiżmi kollha. Dawn flimkien jirrappreżentaw l-aċidi nuklejċi, il-proteini u l-lipidi, il-qofol tal-materja ħajja. Ħamsa minn dawn is-sitt elementi jinkludu l-komponenti kimiċi tad-DNA, bl-eċċezzjoni tal-kubrit. Dan tal-aħħar huwa komponent tal-aminoaċidi ċistein u metjonin. L-iżjed abbundanti fost dawn l-elementi fl-organiżmi huwa l-karbonju, li għandu l-karatteristika mixtieqa ta' legatur kovalenti stabbli u multiplu. Dan jippermetti lill-molekoli bbażati bil-karbonju (organiċi) jiffurmaw il-varjetà immensa ta' arranġamenti kimiċi deskritti fil-[[kimika organika]]. Tipi ipotetiċi alternattivi tal-bijokimika ġew proposti li jeliminaw wieħed jew iktar minn dawn l-elementi, jissostitwixxu xi elementi għal ieħor mhux fil-lista, jew jibdlu l-kiralitajiet meħtieġa jew xi proprjetajiet kimiċi oħra.

=== DNA ===
L-aċidu deossiribonuklejku jew id-DNA hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi. Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

=== Ċelloli ===
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.&lt;ref&gt;Knoll, Andrew H. (2011). &quot;The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity&quot;. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences''. '''39''': 217–239. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..217K. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.01%3A_Characteristics_of_Fungi/24.1B%3A_Fungi_Cell_Structure_and_Function|titlu=24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function|data=2018-07-15|sit=Biology LibreTexts|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

=== Struttura multiċellolari ===
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Fl-univers ==
Għalkemm il-ħajja hija kkonferma biss fid-Dinja, bosta jaħsbu li l-ħajja ekstraterrestri mhux biss hija plawżibbli, iżda probabbli jew inevitabbli, u x'aktarx li tirriżulta f'kożmoloġija bijofiżika minflok sempliċi kożmoloġija fiżika. [[Pjaneta|Pjaneti]] u [[Qamar|qmura]] oħra fis-[[Sistema Solari]] u sistemi pjanetarji oħra qed jiġu eżaminati għal evidenza ta' sostenn tal-ħajja sempliċi fl-imgħoddi, u proġetti bħal SETI qed jippruvaw jindividwaw trażmissjonijiet bir-radju minn ċivilizzazzjonijiet aljeni possibbli. Postijiet oħra fi ħdan is-Sistema Solari li jaf jospitaw il-ħajja mikrobika jinkludu s-sottoswol ta' [[Marte (pjaneta)|Marte]], l-atmosfera superjuri ta' [[Venere (pjaneta)|Venere]], u l-oċeani tas-sottoswol ta' wħud mill-qmura tal-pjaneti ġganteski.

L-investigazzjoni tat-tenaċità u tal-versatilità tal-ħajja fid-Dinja, kif ukoll il-fehim tas-sistemi molekolari li xi organiżmi jużaw biex jibqgħu jgħixu f'kundizzjonijiet estremi, huma importanti għat-tfittxija tal-ħajja ekstraterrestri. Pereżempju, il-likeni jaf jibqgħu ħajjin għal xahar f'ambjent simulat ta' Marte.

Lil hinn mis-Sistema Solari, ir-reġjun madwar [[stilla]] sekwenzjali prinċipali oħra li jaf isostni ħajja bħal dik tad-Dinja fi pjaneta bħad-Dinja huwa magħrufa bħala ż-żona abitabbli. Ir-raġġi interni u esterni ta' din iż-żona jvarjaw skont il-luminożità tal-istilla, l-istess bħall-intervall ta' żmien li matulu tgħix iż-żona. Stilel iktar enormi mix-[[xemx]] għandha żona abitabbli ikbar, iżda jibqgħu fuq is-&quot;sekwenza prinċipali&quot; bħal tax-xemx tal-evoluzzjoni stellari għal intervall ta' żmien iqsar. Il-pjaneti nani ħomor żgħar għandhom il-problema opposta, b'żona abitabbli iżgħar li hija soġġetta għal livelli ogħla ta' attività manjetika u għall-effetti ta' llokkjar mareali minn orbiti fil-qrib. Għaldaqstant, l-istilel fil-medda tal-massa intermedja bħax-xemx jaf ikollhom probabbiltà akbar li tiżviluppa fihom ħajja bħal tad-Dinja.

Il-pożizzjoni tal-istilla fi ħdan [[galassja]] jaf taffettwa wkoll il-probabbiltà li tifforma ħajja. L-istilel f'reġjuni b'abbundanza akbar ta' elementi tqal li jistgħu jiffurmaw pjaneti, flimkien ma' rata baxxa ta' avvenimenti ta' supernova li potenzjalment jagħmlu ħsara lill-ħabitats, għandhom probabbiltà akbar li jospitaw pjaneti b'ħajja kumplessa. Il-varjabbli tal-ekwazzjoni ta' Drake jintużaw biex jiġu diskussi l-kundizzjonijiet fis-sistemi pjanetarji fejn iċ-ċivilizzazzjoni tista' teżisti bl-ikbar probabbiltà, fi ħdan inċertezza kbira. Ġiet proposta skala ta' &quot;Kunfidenza tad-Detezzjoni tal-Ħajja&quot; għar-rapportar ta' evidenza tal-ħajja lil hinn mid-Dinja.

== Artifiċjali ==
Il-ħajja artifiċjali hija s-simulazzjoni ta' kwalunkwe aspett tal-ħajja, pereżempju permezz tal-kompjuters, tar-robotika jew tal-bijokimika. Il-bijoloġija sintetika hija qasam ġdid tal-bijoteknoloġija li tgħaqqad flimkien ix-xjenza u l-inġinerija bijoloġika. L-għan komuni huwa d-disinn u l-kostruzzjoni ta' funzjonijiet u sistemi bijoloġiċi ġodda mhux misjuba fin-natura. Il-bijoloġija sintetika tinkludi d-definizzjoni mill-ġdid wiesgħa u l-espansjoni tal-bijoteknoloġija, bl-għanijiet aħħarin li jkunu jistgħu jiddisinjaw u jibnu sistemi bijoloġiċi b'inġinerija li jipproċessaw l-informazzjoni, jimmanipolaw is-sustanzi kimiċi, jipproduċu l-materjali u l-istrutturi, jipproduċu l-enerġija, jipprovdu l-ikel, u jieħdu ħsieb iż-żamma u t-titjib tas-saħħa tal-bniedem u tal-ambjent.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]
[[Kategorija:Natura]]</text>
      <sha1>nswi2elbc8jrrmae1gd42ay0406t8h2</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>DNA</title>
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        <id>17859</id>
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      <comment>Kontenut, stampi, kwotazzjonijiet u ħoloq</comment>
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      <text bytes="2595" sha1="1mrqkdq7dfft6jox1wae4xo04vgt2g8" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:DNA animation.gif|daqsminuri|Sezzjoni ta' spiral doppju tad-DNA.]]
L-'''aċidu deossiribonuklejku'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deoxyribonucleic+acid|titlu=Definition of DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID|data=2026-03-28|sit=www.merriam-webster.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; jew id-'''DNA''' hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi.&lt;ref&gt;Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014). ''Molecular Biology of the Cell'' (6th ed.). Garland. p. Chapter 4: DNA, Chromosomes and Genomes. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;978-0-8153-4432-2&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/dna|titlu=DNA|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

== Proprjetajiet ==
In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

== Referenzi ==</text>
      <sha1>1mrqkdq7dfft6jox1wae4xo04vgt2g8</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>329880</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Bijoloġija]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2623" sha1="chw6qvbz33iikv9rbqlnqdivoiyib9b" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:DNA animation.gif|daqsminuri|Sezzjoni ta' spiral doppju tad-DNA.]]
L-'''aċidu deossiribonuklejku'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deoxyribonucleic+acid|titlu=Definition of DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID|data=2026-03-28|sit=www.merriam-webster.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; jew id-'''DNA''' hija molekola li ġġorr il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istruzzjonijiet ġenetiċi fit-tkabbir, fl-iżvilupp, fil-funzjonament u fir-riproduzzjoni tal-organiżmi ħajjin magħrufa kollha u ta' bosta viruses. Id-DNA u l-RNA huma aċidi nuklejċi; flimkien mal-proteini u mal-karboidrati kumplessi, dawn huma wieħed mit-tliet tipi ewlenin ta' makromolekoli li huma essenzjali għall-forom magħrufa kollha ta' ħajja. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-molekoli tad-DNA jikkonsistu minn żewġ razez bijopolimeriċi b'koljatura ma' xulxin biex jiffurmaw spiral doppju. Iż-żewġ razez tad-DNA huma magħrufa bħala polinukleotidi peress li huma magħmula minn unitajiet iktar sempliċi msejħa nukleotidi.&lt;ref&gt;Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014). ''Molecular Biology of the Cell'' (6th ed.). Garland. p. Chapter 4: DNA, Chromosomes and Genomes. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;978-0-8153-4432-2&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/dna|titlu=DNA|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kull nukleotid huwa magħmul minn nukleobażi li fiha n-nitroġenu — ċitosina (C), gwanina (G), adenina (A) jew timina (T) — kif ukoll zokkor imsejjaħ deossiribożju u grupp ta' fosfati.

== Proprjetajiet ==
In-nukleotidi huma magħqudin ma' xulxin permezz ta' katina b'legaturi kovalenti bejn iz-zokkor ta' nukleotid wieħed u l-fosfat tan-nukleotid ta' wara, u dan jirriżulta f'sinsla alternanti ta' zokkor u ta' fosfati. Skont ir-regoli tal-pari bażi (A ma' T, u Ċ ma' G), il-legaturi tal-idroġenu jingħaqdu mal-bażijiet bin-nitroġenu taż-żewġ razez separati ta' polinukleotidi biex jiffurmaw DNA b'żewġ razez. Dan għandu l-karatteristika ewlenija li kull razza jkun fiha l-informazzjoni kollha meħtieġa biex terġa' tinħoloq ir-razza l-oħra, u b'hekk l-informazzjoni tibqa' ppreservata matul ir-riproduzzjoni u d-diviżjoni ċellolari. Fi ħdan iċ-ċelloli, id-DNA hija organizzata fi strutturi twal imsejħa kromożomi. Waqt id-diviżjoni ċellolari dawn il-kromożomi jirdoppjaw fil-proċess tar-replikazzjoni tad-DNA, u b'hekk kull ċellola tiġi pprovduta b'sett sħiħ ta' kromożomi tagħha stess. L-ewkarjoti jaħżnu l-biċċa l-kbira tad-DNA tagħhom fi ħdan in-nukleu taċ-ċelloli.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]</text>
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    <title>Ċellola</title>
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        <username>Trigcly</username>
        <id>17859</id>
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      <comment>Kontenut, stampi, kwotazzjonijiet u ħoloq</comment>
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      <text bytes="3756" sha1="mvnv4h3y8xgormtmcut7tmz8cmgj5vl" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Typical human cell.tif|daqsminuri|Ċellola tal-[[bniedem]] bl-elementi kollha tagħha.]]
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

== Tipi ==
Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.&lt;ref&gt;Knoll, Andrew H. (2011). &quot;The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity&quot;. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences''. '''39''': 217–239. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..217K. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.01%3A_Characteristics_of_Fungi/24.1B%3A_Fungi_Cell_Structure_and_Function|titlu=24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function|data=2018-07-15|sit=Biology LibreTexts|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mekkaniżmi molekolari ==
Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

== Riproduzzjoni ==
Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

== Referenzi ==</text>
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      <text bytes="5326" sha1="3h8usao3wf9tym7x6m49iih4cp7jypm" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Typical human cell.tif|daqsminuri|Ċellola tal-[[bniedem]] bl-elementi kollha tagħha.]]
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

== Tipi ==
Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.&lt;ref&gt;Knoll, Andrew H. (2011). &quot;The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity&quot;. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences''. '''39''': 217–239. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..217K. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.01%3A_Characteristics_of_Fungi/24.1B%3A_Fungi_Cell_Structure_and_Function|titlu=24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function|data=2018-07-15|sit=Biology LibreTexts|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mekkaniżmi molekolari ==
Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

== Riproduzzjoni ==
Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

== Struttura multiċellolari ==
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Referenzi ==</text>
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      <text bytes="5354" sha1="3dkdkxl2koa3aoga4s9usikuofv8uc1" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Typical human cell.tif|daqsminuri|Ċellola tal-[[bniedem]] bl-elementi kollha tagħha.]]
Iċ-ċelloli huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

== Tipi ==
Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.&lt;ref&gt;Knoll, Andrew H. (2011). &quot;The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity&quot;. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences''. '''39''': 217–239. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..217K. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.01%3A_Characteristics_of_Fungi/24.1B%3A_Fungi_Cell_Structure_and_Function|titlu=24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function|data=2018-07-15|sit=Biology LibreTexts|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mekkaniżmi molekolari ==
Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

== Riproduzzjoni ==
Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

== Struttura multiċellolari ==
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]</text>
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      <text bytes="49885" sha1="exi4zhdde8275jjql0qp9vmwcug31oj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}

'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==

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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==

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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==

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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijologi]]
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as ''Carolus Linnæus'', the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.

=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'' on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, ''Genera Plantarum'' and ''Critica Botanica''. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a &quot;disagreement&quot; with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman wera lil Linnaeus li l-botanika kienet suġġett serju. Huwa għallmu jikklassifika l-pjanti skont is-sistema ta' Tournefort. Linnaeus ġie mgħallem ukoll dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti, skont [[Sébastien Vaillant]]. Fl-1727, Linnaeus, ta' 21 sena, inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund fi Scania (Skåne). Huwa ġie rreġistrat bħala ''Carolus Linnæus'', il-forma Latina tal-isem sħiħ tiegħu, li huwa uża wkoll iktar 'il quddiem għall-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu bil-Latin.

Il-Professur [[Kilian Stobæus]], xjenzat naturali, tabib u storiku, offra t-tagħlim u l-akkomodazzjoni lil Linnaeus, kif ukoll l-użu tal-librerija tiegħu, li kienet tinkludi bosta kotba dwar il-botanika. Huwa ppermetta wkoll id-dħul bla ħlas għal-lekċers tiegħu. Fil-ħin liberu tiegħu, Linnaeus esplora l-flora ta' Skåne, flimkien ma' studenti oħra li kellhom l-istess interessi tiegħu.

=== Uppsala ===
F'Awwissu 1728, Linnaeus iddeċieda li jattendi l-Università ta' Uppsala fuq il-parir ta' Rothman, li kien jemmen li kienet l-aħjar għażla jekk Linnaeus ried jistudja kemm il-mediċina kif ukoll il-botanika. Rothman ibbaża din ir-rakkomandazzjoni fuq iż-żewġ professuri li kienu jgħallmu fil-fakultà tal-mediċina f'Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck iż-Żgħir u Lars Roberg. Għalkemm Rudbeck u Roberg bla dubju kienu professuri tajbin, sa dak iż-żmien kienu ferm iktar anzjani u ma tantx kellhom interess fit-tagħlim. Rudbeck ma baqax jagħti lekċers pubbliċi, u bdew jagħtuhom minfloku oħrajn. Il-lekċers tal-botanika, taż-żooloġija, tal-farmakoloġija u tal-[[anatomija]] ma kinux mill-aqwa. F'Uppsala, Linnaeus iltaqa' ma' benefattur ġdid, [[Olof Celsius]], li kien professur tat-teoloġija u botaniku dilettant. Huwa laqa' lil Linnaeus f'daru u ħallih juża l-librerija tiegħu, li kienet waħda mill-iżjed libreriji botaniċi rikki fl-Iżvezja.

Fl-1729, Linnaeus kiteb teżi, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'', dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti. Din ġibdet l-attenzjoni ta' Rudbeck; f'Mejju 1730, huwa għażel lil Linnaeus biex jagħti lekċers fl-università minkejja li kien għadu student tat-tieni sena. Il-lekċers tiegħu kienu popolari, u Linnaeus spiss indirizza udjenza ta' 300 ruħ. F'Ġunju, Linnaeus ma baqax jgħix fid-dar ta' Celsius u minflok mar jgħix fid-dar ta' Rudbeck biex isir l-għalliem tal-iżgħar tlett itfal fost l-24 ulied tiegħu. Il-ħbiberija tiegħu ma' Celsius ma ntilfitx u huma baqgħu jagħmlu l-ispedizzjonijiet botaniċi flimkien. Matul dik ix-xitwa, Linnaeus beda jiddubita s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Tournefort u ddeċieda li joħloq is-sistema tiegħu stess. Il-pjan tiegħu kien li jaqsam il-pjanti skont l-għadd ta' stamen jew stami u pistilli. Huwa beda jikteb diversi kotba, li iktar 'il quddiem irriżultaw pereżempju f'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''Genera Plantarum'' u f'''Critica Botanica''. Huwa pproduċa wkoll ktieb dwar il-pjanti mkabbra fil-Ġnien Botaniku ta' Uppsala, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

L-eks assistent ta' Rudbeck, [[Nils Rosén]], reġa' lura l-università f'Marzu 1731 b'lawrja fil-mediċina. Rosén beda jagħti lekċers dwar l-anatomija u pprova jieħu post il-lekċers dwar il-botanika ta' Linnaeus, iżda Rudbeck ma ħallihx. Sa Diċembru, Rosén għallem lil Linnaeus b'mod privat dwar il-mediċina. F'Diċembru, Linnaeus kellu xi jgħid mal-[[mara]] ta' Rudbeck u kellu jitlaq mid-dar tal-mentor tiegħu; ir-relazzjoni tiegħu ma' Rudbeck però ma marritx għall-agħar. Dak il-[[Milied]], Linnaeus reġa' lura d-dar f'Stenbrohult biex iżur lill-ġenituri tiegħu għall-ewwel darba wara xi 3 snin. Ommu ma qablitx miegħu li ma sarx patri, iżda kienet kuntenta meta saret taf li kien qed jgħallem fl-università.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', later known as ''Linnaea borealis'', the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book ''Flora Lapponica''. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.

In ''Flora Lapponica'' Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ''Flora Lapponica'' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ''Flora Lapponica'' as &quot;the most classic and delightful&quot; of Linnaeus's works.

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: &quot;If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds.&quot;

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the ''Anopheles'' mosquito), he did correctly predict that ''Artemisia annua'' (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
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