Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.8 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 18783 330774 330703 2026-06-29T11:55:43Z Makenzis 12206 /* Ħoloq esterni */ 330774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Tim tal-Futbol |isem = Austria Wien |stampa = [[Stampa:Austria Wien.png|180px]] |ismijiet_oħra = Die Veilchen (Il-Vjola) |isem_sħiħ = Fußballklub Austria Wien |grawnd = [[Stadju Franz Horr]], [[Vjenna]] |jesa' = 10,850 |fundazzjoni = 12 ta' Marzu 1911 |president = |kowċ = |kampjonat = [[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] | staġun = 2021/22 | pożizzjoni = 3. | sit_elettroniku = http://www.fk-austria.at | pattern_la1=_FAK1213h | pattern_b1=_FAK1213h | pattern_ra1=_FAK1213h | pattern_sh1 =_FAK 1213h | pattern_so1 =_FAK1213h | pattern_la2=_FAK1314a | pattern_b2=_FAK1314a | pattern_ra2=_FAK1314a | pattern_sh2 =_FAK 1213a | pattern_so2 =_FAK1213a }} '''Fußballklub Austria Wien''' (magħruf bl-Ingliż bħala '''Austria Vienna''') huwa [[klabb tal-futbol]] [[Awstrija]]k li huwa bbażat ġewwa l-belt kapitali [[Vjenna]]. Il-klabb rebaħ 23 titlu tal-[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]], li qabżu biss lir-rivali tagħhom [[SK Rapid Wien]]. B'27 rebħa tat-[[Tazza Awstrijaka]] u 6 rebħiet tas-[[Supercup Awstrijaka]], Austria Vienna huwa l-aktar klabb suċċessiv f'kull wieħed minn dawn il-kompetizzjonijiet. Il-klabb ħa sehem fil-finali tat-[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] fl-1978, u fis-semifinali tat-Tazza Ewropea fl-istaġun ta' wara. == Storja == === Il-Klabb fit-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija === FK Austria Wien kien stabbilit ġewwa Vjenna fit-12 ta' Marzu 1911 bħala l-''Wiener Amateur Sportvereinigung'' minn plejers u l-uffiċjali tal-''Vienna Cricket- and Football- Club'', li ħadu l-vjola u l-abjad bħala l-kuluri tal-klabb il-ġdid. It-tim kiseb l-ewwel unur fl-1924. ''Amateure'' biddlu isimhom għal ''Austria'' fl-1926 bħala l-eks dilettanti kienet saru professjonisti. Il-klabb ukoll rebħu t-tieni kampjonat tagħhom f'dik is-sena. Fl-1930ijiet, wieħed mill-aktar eras suċċessivi ta' Austria Wien, kisbu żewġ titli (1933, 1936) u t-''[[Tazza Mitropa]]'', il-kompetizzjoni taċ-ċampjins fl-Ewropa Ċentrali. L-istilla ta 'dik in-naħa kien l-attakkant [[Matthias Sindelar]], li kien ivvotat fl-1998 bħala l-aqwa plejer tal-futbol Awstrijak.<ref>{{Ċita web |data-aċċess=2005-03-09 |titlu=Archive copy |url=http://www.thefa.com/England/SeniorTeam/NewsAndFeatures/Postings/2004/07/England_vAut_Sindelar.htm |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050309164808/http://www.thefa.com/England/SeniorTeam/NewsAndFeatures/Postings/2004/07/England_vAut_Sindelar.htm |arkivju-data=2005-03-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> Is-suċċessi tal-klabb kienu mwaqqfa mill-[[Anschluss|annessjoni tal-Awstrija mill-Ġermanja Nażista]] fl-1938. Madankollu, il-plejers Lhudija u l-istaff fil-klabb kienu esterminati jew ġew maħruba mill-pajjiż, Sindelar miet taħt ċirkustanzi mhux solvuti fit-23 ta' Jannar 1939 minħabba [[velenu]] bil-[[monossidu tal-karbonju]] fl-appartament tiegħu. Huwa kien irrifjuta li jilagħab għall-Ġermanja, li jiċċita korriment u rtirar internazzjonali. Anka l-klabb ma kellhuwx suċċess f'dak il-perjodu, li kien jilgħabu fil-kampjonat [[Gauliga Ostmark]], dawn irnexxielhom jirbħu rebħa ferm aktar importanti fiż-żamma tal-isem "Austria" minkejja t-tentattivi mill-awtoritajiet sportivi Nazisti riedu ibidlu l-isem tal-klabb. Austria Wien rebħu l-ewwel kampjonat tagħhom għal 23 sena fl-1949, u kisbu ieħor fis-sena ta 'wara. Huma aktar tard rebħu l-5 titolu, fl-1953. Il-klabb rebaħ 16-titolu fi 33 staġuni bejn l-1960 u l-1993, li kienu rebħu 3 titli nfila (1961, 1962, u 1963). L-attakkant [[Ernst Ocwirk]], li rebaħ ħames titli tal-kampjonat f'żewġ perjodi separati fil-klabb, kien mmexxa l-klabb biex jirbaħ żewġ titli tal-Bundesliga fl-1969 u l-1970. Kien bosta plejer oħra ta 'din l-era inklużi [[Horst Nemec]]. Is-1970 rat il-bidu ta 'suċċess ta' era oħra, minkejja li ma kisbux l-ebda titolu tal-kampjonat bejn l-1970 u l-1976 minħabba li l-iskwadra kienet mibnija mill-ġdid. In-naħa reġat lura għal perjodu ta 'dominanza bi 8 titoli tal-kampjonat fi 11-staġun mill-1975-76 sal-1985-1986. Wara li rebħu [[Tazza Awstrijaka]] fl-1977, Austria Wien laħqu l-finali tal-Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej fis-sena 1978, li tilfu 4–0 ma klabb Belġjan [[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]]. F'dak l-istaġun, il-klabb laħaq ukoll is-semifinali tat-[[Tazza Ewropea]], iżda tilfu 1-0 bl-aggregat mat-tim Żvediż [[Malmö FF|Malmo]]. <ref>{{Ċita web |data-aċċess=2013-02-16 |titlu=Archive copy |url=http://uk.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=1978/matches/round=1013/index.html |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220805/http://uk.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season%3D1978/matches/round%3D1013/index.html |arkivju-data=2013-10-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fl-1982–83, Austria Wien laħqu s-semifinals tal-Cup Winner's Cup, li tilfu 5-3 bl-aggregat kontra [[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] ta' Spanja. <ref>{{Ċita web |data-aċċess=2013-02-16 |titlu=Archive copy |url=http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/ecwc/history/season=1982/round=872/index.html |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112134127/http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/ecwc/history/season%3D1982/round%3D872/index.html |arkivju-data=2016-01-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dawn huma ċertu plejers ta' Austria Wien f'din l-era suċċessiva: [[Herbert Prohaska|Herbert "''Schneckerl''" Prohaska]], [[Felix Gasselich]], [[Thomas Parits]], [[Walter Schachner]], [[Gerhard Steinkogler]], [[Toni Polster]] u [[Tibor Nyilasi]]. === Storja riċenti === [[Stampa:FK Austria Wien - Teamphoto 2010-11.jpg|thumb|250px|Ritratt tat-tim fl-istaġun 2010–2011.]] Fil-bidu tad-1990ijiet, Austria Wien s'issa gawdew l-aħħar era suċċessiva tagħhom: tlett rebħiet infila tal-Bundesliga (1991-93); tlett tazza nazzjonali (1990, 1992 and 1994) kif ukoll 4 titli tas-''Super cup'' (1991, 1992, 1993, 1994). Il-klabb naqas fid-1990ijiet minħabba problemi finanzjarji li kkawżaw plejers ewlenin biex jinbiegħu. Austria Wien kienet meħuda minn biljunarju Awstrijak-Kanadiż, u minħabba tratt ulterjur mal-[[Memphis (sigarett)|Memphis]] li kienet kumpanija tas-sigaretti, l-klabb bidel ismu għal FK Austria Memphis Magna. Li dan ikkawża investiment fil-plejers, fuq baġit tliet darbiet ogħla bħala medja fil-kampjonat, raw l-ewwel titolu tal-Bundesliga wara għaxar snin fl-istaġun 2002-03. Minkejja dan, il-kowċ [[Walter Schachner]] kien maħruq, u s-sostituzzjoni tiegħu ma' [[Christoph Daum]] ma setgħux jiksbu t-titolu tal-kampjonat, imma rebħu t-Tazza. Fl-2004, l-isem Memphis tneħħa. Austria Wien laħqu l-aħħar kwart tal-finali tagħhom Ewropew fl-istaġun 2004-05 kif kienu eliminati minn [[Parma FC|Parma]] tal-Italja fit-[[Tazza UEFA]]. Fil-21 ta' Novembru 2005, Frank Stonach iddeċieda li jirriżenja mill-kariga tiegħu. Bħala riżultat minn diversi bħall-aqwa skorer [[Roland Linz]], [[Vladimír Janočko]], [[Joey Didulica]], [[Libor Sionko]], [[Filip Šebo]] u [[Sigurd Rushfeldt]] ġew trasferiti għal timijiet oħra fis-Sajf tal-2006. L-istaġun 2005-06 kien konkluż bir-rebħa tal-kampjonat u t-Tazza nazzjonali. L-istaġun 2006-07 ra tnaqqis fil-klabb minħabba baġit tant imnaqqsa u telf ta 'atturi ewlenin. Minkejja li tilfu 4-1 bl-aggregat kontra [[SL Benfica|Benfica]] tal-Portugall fir-rawnd preliminari taċ-[[Champions League|Ċampjins Lijg]], it-tim irnexxielu jikkwalifikaw (kontra [[Legia Warsaw]] li rebħu 2–1 bl-aggregat) għall-Fażi tal-Gruppi tat-Tazza UEFA. Eks Plejer u kowċ [[Thomas Parits]] sar maniġer ġenerali ġdid, tlett ijiem wara tilfu 4-0 kontra [[FC Red Bull Salzburg|Red Bull Salzburg]], it-tim keċċa liż-żewġ kowċis [[Peter Stöger]] u [[Frank Schinkels]]. [[Georg Zellhofer]] ħa l-inkariga minflokhom. L-istaġun tal-kampjonat ra l-finitura fis-6 post minkejja li kienu fl-aħħar post fil-Milied, għalkemm Austria Wien ukoll rebħu t-Tazza. Għamlu suċċes tajjeb fl-istaġun ta 'wara, billii kisbu t-3 post fil-klassifika. Is-sajf tal-2008 ġab bidliet notevoli għal Austria Wien. Tnax-il plejer ħalla l-klabb, fosthom il-plejers ewlenin bħal Sanel Kuljic U Yüksel Sariyar, li marru mat-tim ġdid li kienu fondat minn Frank Stronach li jismu [[SC Wiener Neustadt|FC Magna]] fit-Tieni Diviżjoni Awstrijaka. Il-''Betriebsführervertrag'' il-kumpanija Magna ta' Stronach falliet, li tat il-klabb struttura ġdida għal kollox. Fl-1 ta' Lulju 2008, l-isem oriġinali ''FK Austria Wien'', l-ebda isem ta' sponsor ma kien inkluż għall-ewwel darba fi 30 sena. Il-klabb ukoll irrekluta plejer internazzjonali Ċiniż [[Sun Xiang]], li sar l-ewwel plejer Ċiniż li lagħab fil-[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]]. Fl-istaġun 2012-13 Austria Vienna rebħu l-24 titlu tal-kampjonat tagħhom, fuq id-detenturi [[Red Bull Salzburg]], iżda tilfu l-finali tat-tazza 1-0 kontra tim tat-tielet livell [[FC Pasching]].<ref> http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/association=aut/news/newsid=1958970.html</ref> F'Awwissu 2013, Austria Wien kwalifikaw għall-fażi tal-gruppi tal-[[Fażi tal-gruppi tal-UEFA Champions League 2013–14|UEFA Champions League]] għall-ewwel darba wara li għelbu lil [[GNK Dinamo Zagreb|Dinamo Zagreb]] fir-rawnd tal-''play-offs''.<ref>http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid=1983204.html#monaco+group+stage+draw</ref> == Unuri == '''Kompetizzjonijiet domestiċi:'''<br /> '''[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] (24)''' * '''Ċampjins:'''1923–24 (titlu reġjonali), 1925–26 (titlu reġjonali), 1948–49, 1949–50, 1952–53, 1960–61 · 1961–62 · 1962–63, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1975–76, 1977–78 · 1978–79, 1979–80 · 1980–81, 1983–84, 1984–85 · 1985–86, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1992–93, 2002–03, 2005–06, 2012–13 '''[[Tazza Awstrijaka]] (27)''' * '''Ċampjins:''' 1921, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1933, 1935, 1936, 1948, 1949, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1971, 1974, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1990, 1992, 1994, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 * '''Runners Up:''' 2013 '''[[Supercup Awstrijaka]] (6)''' * '''Rebbieħa:''' 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2003, 2004 '''[[Tazza Wiener]] (2)''' * '''Rebbieħa:''' 1948, 1949 '''Kompetizzjonijiet Ewropej: '''<br /> '''[[Tazza Mitropa]] (2)''' * '''Ċampjins:''' 1933, 1936 '''[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]]''' * ''''Finalisti:''' '''1978 '''[[Copa Rio (kompetizzjoni internazzjonali)|Copa Rio]]''' * ''''Finalisti:''' '''1952 == Parteċipazzjoni fl-Ewropa == {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! Staġun ! Kompetizzjoni ! Rawnd ! Pajjiż ! Klabb ! Home ! Away |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1960-61|1960–61]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|ENG}} |[[Wolverhampton Wanderers FC|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] |2–0 |0–5 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1961–62|1961–62]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|ROM}} |[[FC Steaua București|Steaua București]] |2–0 |0–0 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|Portugall}} |[[SL Benfica|Benfica]] |1–1 |1–5 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1962–63|1962–63]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|FIN}} |[[HIFK]] |5–3 |2–0 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|Franza}} |[[Stade de Reims]] |3–2 |0–5 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1963–64|1963–64]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Górnik Zabrze]] |1–0, 1–2 |0–1 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1967-68|1967–68]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|ROM}} |[[FC Steaua București|Steaua București]] |0–2 |1–2 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1969–70|1969–70]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Dynamo Kyiv|Dynamo Kyiv]] |1–2 |1–3 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1970–71|1970–71]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |Kwalifikazzjoni |{{flagicon|BUL}} |[[PFC Levski Sofia|Levski Sofia]] |3–0 |1–3 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Atlético Madrid]] |1–2 |0–2 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1971-72|1971–72]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |Kwalifikazzjoni |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Boldklubben 1909|B 1909]] |2–0 |2–4 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|Albanija}} |[[KS Dinamo Tirana|Dinamo Tirana]] |1–0 |1–1 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|ITA}} |[[Torino FC|Torino]] |0–0 |0–1 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1972–73|1972–73]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|BUL}} |[[PFC Beroe Stara Zagora|Beroe Stara Zagora]] |1–3 |0–7 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1974-75|1974–75]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[KSV Waregem|Waregem]] |4–1 |1–2 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] |2–2 |0–3 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1976–77|1976–77]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Borussia Mönchengladbach]] |1–0 |0–3 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1977-78|1977–78]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|Wales}} |[[Cardiff City FC|Cardiff City]] |1–0 |0–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|Slovakkja}} |[[MFK Košice]] |0–0 |1–1 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|Jugożlavja}} |[[HNK Hajduk Split|Hajduk Split]] |1–1 |1–1 ([[L-għoti tal-penalties|p]] 3-0) |- | | |Semifinali |{{flagicon|USSR}} |[[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]] |2–1 ([[L-għoti tal-penalties|p]] 5-4) |1–2 |- | | |Finali |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[RSC Anderlecht|Anderlecht]] |'''0–4''' |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1978–79|1978–79]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|ALB}} |[[KS Vllaznia Shkodër|Vllaznia Shköder]] |4–1 |0–2 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|NOR}} |[[Lillestrøm SK|Lillestrøm]] |4–1 |0–0 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Dynamo Dresden]] |3–1 |0–1 |- | | |Semifinali |{{flagicon|SWE}} |[[Malmö FF|Malmö]] |0–0 |0–1 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1979–80|1979–80]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Vejle Boldklub|Vejle]] |1–1 |2–3 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1980–81|1980–81]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|SCO}} |[[Aberdeen FC|Aberdeen]] |0–0 |0–1 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1981–82|1981–82]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|ALB}} |[[KF Partizani Tirana|Partizani Tirana]] |3–1 |0–1 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Dynamo Kyiv|Dynamo Kyiv]] |0–1 |1–1 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1982-83|1982–83]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Panathinaikos FC|Panathinaikos]] |2–0 |1–2 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|TUR}} |[[Galatasaray SK|Galatasaray]] |0–1 |4–2 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[FC Barcelona]] |0–0 |1–1 |- | | |Semifinali |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Real Madrid CF|Real Madrid]] |2–2 |1–3 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1983–84|1983–84]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|LUX}} |[[Aris Bonnevoie]] |10–0 |5–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|FRA}} |[[Stade Lavallois]] |2–0 |3–3 |- | | |3R |{{flagicon|ITA}} |[[FC Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]] |2–1 |1–1 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|ENG}} |[[Tottenham Hotspur FC|Tottenham Hotspur]] |2–2 |0–2 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1984–85|1984–85]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|Malta}} |[[Valletta FC|Valletta]] |4–0 |4–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Berliner FC Dynamo|Dynamo Berlin]] |2–1 |3–3 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|ENG}} |[[Liverpool FC|Liverpool]] |1–1 |1–4 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1985–86|1985–86]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Berliner FC Dynamo|Dynamo Berlin]] |2–1 |2–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[FC Bayern Munich|Bayern Munich]] |3–3 |2–4 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1986–87|1986–87]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|LUX}} |[[FC Avenir Beggen|Avenir Beggen]] |3–0 |3–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[FC Bayern Munich|Bayern Munich]] |1–1 |0–2 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1987–88|1987–88]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Bayer 04 Leverkusen|Bayer Leverkusen]] |0–0 |1–5 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1988–89|1988–89]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|Litwanja}} |[[FK Žalgiris Vilnius]] |5–2 |0–2 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|SCO}} |[[Heart of Midlothian FC|Hearts]] |0–1 |0–0 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1989–90|1989–90]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|Olanda}} |[[AFC Ajax|Ajax]] |1–0 |3–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[SV Werder Bremen|Werder Bremen]] |2–0 |0–5 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1990-91|1990–91]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Eintracht Schwerin]] |0–0 |2–0 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|ITA}} |[[Juventus FC|Juventus]] |0–4 |0–4 |- |[[Tazza taċ-Ċampjins 1991–92|1991–92]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|ENG}} |[[Arsenal FC|Arsenal]] |1–0 |1–6 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1992–93|1992–93]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|BUL}} |[[PFC CSKA Sofia|CSKA Sofia]] |3–1 |2–3 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[Club Brugge KV|Club Brugge]] |3–1 |0–2 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 1993–94|1993–94]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |1R |{{flagicon|NOR}} |[[Rosenborg BK|Rosenborg]] |4–1 |1–3 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[FC Barcelona]] |1–2 |0–3 |- |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej 1994–95|1994–95]] |[[Tazza tat-Tazez Ewropej]] |1R |{{flagicon|Slovenja}} |[[NK Maribor|Maribor]] |3–0 |1–1 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|ENG}} |[[Chelsea FC|Chelsea]] |1–1 |0–0 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 1995–96|1995–96]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |Kwalifikazzjoni |{{flagicon|AZE}} |[[Kapaz PFC]] |5–1 |4–0 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|Belarus}} |[[FC Dinamo Minsk|Dinamo Minsk]] |1–2 |0–1 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1996|1996]] |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |Grupp 3, 1 logħba |{{flagicon|Slovenja}} |[[NK Maribor|Maribor]] | |0–3 |- | | |Grupp 3, 2 logħba |{{flagicon|Iżlanda}} |[[Keflavík Football Club|Keflavík]] |6–0 | |- | | |Grupp 3, 3 logħba |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[FC Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] | |1–2 |- | | |Grupp 3, 4 logħba |{{flagicon|SWE}} |[[Örebro SK|Örebro]] |2–3 | |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1997|1997]] |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |Grupp 9, 1 logħba |{{flagicon|Slovakkja}} |[[MŠK Žilina]] | |1–3 |- | | |Grupp 9, 2 logħba |{{flagicon|ROM}} |[[FC Rapid Bucureşti|Rapid Bucureşti]] |1–1 | |- | | |Grupp 9, 3 logħba |{{flagicon|FRA}} |[[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] | |0–2 |- | | |Grupp 9, 4 logħba |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Odra Wodzislaw]] |1–5 | |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1998|1998]] |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |1R |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Ruch Chorzów]] |0–1 |2–2 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1999|1999]] |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |3R |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[K. Sint-Truidense VV|Sint-Truidense]] |1–2 |2–0 |- | | |4R |{{flagicon|FRA}} |[[Stade Rennais FC|Rennes]] |2–2 |0–2 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2000|2000]] |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |2R |{{flagicon|CYP}} |[[Nea Salamina Famagusta FC|Nea Salamina Famagusta]] |3–0 |0–1 |- | | |3R |{{flagicon|ROM}} |[[Ceahlăul Piatra Neamţ]] |3–0 |2–2 |- | | |4R |{{flagicon|ITA}} |[[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]] |0–1 |0–2 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2002–03|2002–03]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Shakhtar Donetsk|Shakhtar Donetsk]] |5–1 |0–1 |- | | |2R |{{flagicon|Portugall}} |[[FC Porto|Porto]] |0–1 |0–2 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 2003–04|2003–04]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |3RK |{{flagicon|FRA}} |[[Olympique de Marseille|Marseille]] |0–1 |0–0 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2003–04|2003–04]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[Borussia Dortmund]] |1–2 |0–1 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2004–05|2004–05]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |2RK |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Illychivets Mariupol|Illychivets Mariupol]] |3–0 |0–0 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Legia Warszawa]] |1–0 |3–1 |- | | |2R, Grupp C, 1 logħba |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Real Zaragoza]] |1–0 | |- | | |2R, Grupp C, 2 logħba |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk|Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk]] | |0–1 |- | | |2R, Grupp C, 3 logħba |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[Club Brugge KV|Club Brugge]] |1–1 | |- | | |2R, Grupp C, 4 logħba |{{flagicon|Olanda}} |[[FC Utrecht|Utrecht]] | |2–1 |- | | |3R |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Athletic Bilbao]] |0–0 |2–1 |- | | |4R |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Real Zaragoza]] |1–1 |2–2 |- | | |Kwarti tal-finali |{{flagicon|ITA}} |[[Parma FC|Parma]] |1–1 |0–0 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2005–06|2005–06]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |2RK |{{flagicon|Slovakkja}} |[[MŠK Žilina]] |2–2 |2–1 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|NOR}} |[[Viking FK|Viking]] |2–1 |0–1 |- |[[UEFA Champions League 2006–07|2006–07]] |[[UEFA Champions League]] |3RK |{{flagicon|Portugall}} |[[SL Benfica|Benfica]] |1–1 |0–3 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2006–07|2006–07]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1R |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Legia Warszawa]] |1–0 |1–1 |- | | |2R, Grupp F, 1 logħba |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[SV Zulte Waregem|Zulte-Waregem]] |1–4 | |- | | |2R, Grupp F, 2 logħba |{{flagicon|Olanda}} |[[AFC Ajax|Ajax]] | |0–3 |- | | |2R, Grupp F, 3 logħba |{{flagicon|CZE}} |[[Sparta Prague]] |0–1 | |- | | |2R, Grupp F, 4 logħba |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[RCD Espanyol|Espanyol]] | |0–1 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2007–08|2007–08]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |2RK |{{flagicon|CZE}} |[[FK Jablonec|Jablonec]] |4–3 |1–1 |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|NOR}} |[[Vålerenga IF Fotball|Vålerenga]] |2–0 |2–2 |- | | |2R, Grupp H, 1 logħba |{{flagicon|FRA}} |[[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Bordeaux]] |1–2 | |- | | |2R, Grupp H, 2 logħba |{{flagicon|SWE}} |[[Helsingborgs IF|Helsingborg]] | |0–3 |- | | |2R, Grupp H, 3 logħba |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Panionios FC|Panionios]] |0–1 | |- | | |2R, Grupp F, 4 logħba |{{flagicon|TUR}} |[[Galatasaray SK|Galatasaray]] | |0–0 |- |[[Tazza UEFA 2008–09|2008–09]] |[[Tazza UEFA]] |1RK |{{flagicon|Każakistan}} |[[FC Tobol|Tobol]] |2–0 |0–1 |- | | |2RK |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC WIT Georgia|WIT Georgia]] |2–0 |ma ntlagħbitx |- | | |1R |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Lech Poznań]] |2–1 |2–4 ([[Ħin supplementari|ħs]]) |- |[[UEFA Europa League 2009–10|2009–10]] |[[UEFA Europa League]] |3RK |{{flagicon|Serbja}} |[[FK Vojvodina|Vojvodina]] |1–1 |4–2 |- | | |Play-off |{{flagicon|Ukrajna}} |[[FC Metalurh Donetsk|Metalurh Donetsk]] |2–2 |3–2 ([[Ħin supplementari|ħs]]) |- | | |Grupp L |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Athletic Bilbao]] |0–3 |0–3 |- | | |Grupp L |{{flagicon|Portugall}} |[[CD Nacional|Nacional]] |1–1 |1–5 |- | | |Grupp L |{{flagicon|GER}} |[[SV Werder Bremen|Werder Bremen]] |2–2 |0–2 |- |[[UEFA Europa League 2010–11|2010–11]] |[[UEFA Europa League]] |2RK |{{flagicon|BIH}} |[[NK Široki Brijeg|Široki Brijeg]] |2–2 |1–0 |- | | |3RK |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Ruch Chorzów]] |3–1 |3–0 |- | | |Play-off |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Aris Thessaloniki FC|Aris]] |1–1 |0–1 |- |rowspan="6"|[[UEFA Europa League 2011–12|2011–12]] |rowspan="6"|[[UEFA Europa League]] |2RK |{{flagicon|Montenegro}} |[[FK Rudar Pljevlja]] |2–0 |3–0 |- |3RK |{{flagicon|SLO}} |[[NK Olimpija Ljubljana (2005)|Olimpija Ljubljana]] |3–2 |1–1 |- |Play-Off |{{flagicon|ROU}} |[[Gaz Metan Mediaş]] |3–1 |0–1 |- |rowspan="3"| Grupp G |{{flagicon|UKR}} |[[FC Metalist Kharkiv|Metalist Kharkiv]] |1–2 |1–4 |- |{{flagicon|NED}} |[[AZ Alkmaar|AZ]] |2–2 |2–2 |- |{{flagicon|SWE}} |[[Malmö FF|Malmö]] |2–0 |1–2 |- |rowspan=5|[[UEFA Champions League 2013–14|2013–14]] |rowspan=5|[[UEFA Champions League]] |3RK |{{flagicon|Iżlanda}} |[[Fimleikafélag Hafnarfjarðar|FH]] |1–0 |0–0 |- |Play-Off |{{flagicon|CRO}} |[[GNK Dinamo Zagreb|Dinamo Zagreb]] |2–3 |2–0 |- |rowspan="3"| Grupp G |{{flagicon|POR}} |[[FC Porto|Porto]] | | |- |{{flagicon|ESP}} |[[Atlético Madrid]] | | |- |{{flagicon|RUS}} |[[FC Zenit Saint Petersburg|Zenit Saint Petersburg]] | | |- |} == Plejere notevoli == {{col-begin-small}} {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Joey Didulica]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Aleksandar Dragović]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Flögel]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Friedl Koncilia]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Erich Obermayer]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ernst Ocwirk]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Andreas Ogris]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Anton Pfeffer]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Toni Polster]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Herbert Prohaska]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Alfred Riedl]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Schachner]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Paul Scharner]] {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Matthias Sindelar]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ernst Stojaspal]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ivica Vastić]] * {{flagicon|BIH}} [[Saša Papac]] * {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Djalminha]] * {{flagicon|BUL}} [[Petko Petkov]] * {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Joey Didulica]] * {{flagicon|CZE}} [[Libor Sionko]] * {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Tibor Nyilasi]] * {{flagicon|Latvja}} [[Vitālijs Astafjevs]] * {{flagicon|Litwanja}} [[Valdas Ivanauskas]] * {{flagicon|Litwanja}} [[Arminas Narbekovas]] * {{flagicon|NGR}} [[Rabiu Afolabi]] {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|NGR}} [[Tosin Dosunmu]] * {{flagicon|NOR}} [[Mons Ivar Mjelde]] * {{flagicon|NOR}} [[Sigurd Rushfeldt]] * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Jacek Bąk]] * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Sebastian Mila]] * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Krzysztof Ratajczyk]] * {{flagicon|Slovakkja}} [[Filip Šebo]] * {{flagicon|Slovenja}} [[Milenko Ačimovič]] * {{flagicon|Slovenja}} [[Nastja Čeh]] * {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Mikael Antonsson]] * {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Arkoç Özcan]] * {{flagicon|URU}} [[Julio Morales]] * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Roland Linz]] {{col-end}} == Storja tal-Kowċis == {{col-begin-small}} {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Jimmy Hogan]] (1911–12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Hugo Meisl]] (1912–13) * ''mhux magħruf'' (1914–18) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Johann Andres]] (1919–21) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gustav Lanzer]] (1922–27) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Robert Lang (futboler)|Robert Lang]] (1928–30) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Kurz]] (1930–31) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Rudolf Seidl]] (1931–32) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Schrott (futboler)|Karl Schrott]] (1933) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Blum]] (1933–35) * {{flagicon|HUN|1935}} [[Jenő Konrád]] (1935–36) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Nausch]] (1936–37) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Matthias Sindelar]] (1937–38) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Schneider (futboler)|Josef Schneider]] (1939–40) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Schneider]] (1941–42) * ''mhux magħruf'' (1943–45) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Geyer]] (1945) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinrich Müller (futboler)|Heinrich Müller]] (1946–54) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Nausch]] (1954–55) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Leopold Vogl]] (1956–57) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Adamek]] (1957–58) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Smistik]] (1958–59) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Probst]] (1959–60) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Schlechta]] (1960–62) {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Eduard Frühwirth]] (1962–64) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ernst Ocwirk]] (Lul 1965–Ġun 70) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinrich Müller (futboler)|Heinrich Müller]] (1971–72) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Stotz]] (Ġun 1972–Marzu 73) * {{flagicon|HUN|1957}} [[Béla Guttmann]] (Marzu 1973–Mejju 73) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Pecanka]] (1973–74) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Argauer]] (1974) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Robert Dienst]] (1974–75) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Johann Löser]] (Jan 1975–Ġun 75) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Stotz]] (Lul 1975–Ġun 77) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Hermann Stessl]] (Lul 1977–Mejju 79) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Erich Hof]] (Lul 1979–Marzu 82) * {{flagicon|Ċekoslovakkja}} [[Václav Halama]] (April 1982–Ġun 84) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Parits]] (Lul 1984–Ġun 85) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Hermann Stessl]] (Lul 1985–Ġun 86) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Parits]] (Lul 1986–Ġun 87) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Stotz]] (Lul 1987–Ott 87) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ferdinand Janotka]] (Ott 1987–Ġun 88) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[August Starek]] (Lul 1988–Nov 88) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Robert Sara]] (Nov 1988–Diċ 88) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Erich Hof]] (Jan 1989–Marzu 90) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Herbert Prohaska]] (Marzu 1990–Ġun 92) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Hermann Stessl]] (Lul 1992–Mejju 93) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Josef Hickersberger]] (Lul 1993–Ġun 94) {{col-3}} * {{flagicon|GER}} [[Egon Coordes]] (Lul 1994–Ġun 95) * {{flagicon|GER}} [[Horst Hrubesch]] (Lul 1995–Ġun 96) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Skocik]] (Lul 1996–April 97) * {{flagicon|GER}} [[Wolfgang Frank]] (April 1997–April 98) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Robert Sara]] ''(provviżorju)'' (April 1998–Mejju 98) * {{flagicon|Slovenja}} [[Zdenko Verdenik]] (Mejju 1998–April 99) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Friedrich Koncilia]] ''(provviżorju)'' (April 1999–Mejju 99) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Herbert Prohaska]] (Ġun 1999–Mejju 00) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ernst Baumeister]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mejju 2000) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Ġun 2000–Marzu 01) * {{flagicon|Olanda}} [[Arie Haan]] (Marzu 2001–Aug 01) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Hörmann]] & {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Anton Pfeffer]] (Aug 2001–Diċ 01) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Dietmar Constantini]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Jan 2002–Mejju 02) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Walter Schachner]] (Lul 2002–Ott 02) * {{flagicon|GER}} [[Christoph Daum]] (Ott 2002–Ġun 03) * {{flagicon|GER}} [[Joachim Löw]] (Lul 2003–Marzu 04) * {{flagicon|DEN}} [[Lars Søndergaard]] (Marzu 2004–Mejju 05) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Peter Stöger]] (Mejju 2005–Diċ 05) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Frank Schinkels]] (Jan 2006–Ott 06) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Georg Zellhofer]] (Ott 2006–Marzu 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Dietmar Constantini]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Marzu 2008–April 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Karl Daxbacher]] (Mejju 2008–Diċ 11) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Ivica Vastić]] (Diċ 2011–Mejju 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Peter Stöger]] (Ġun 2012–) {{col-end}} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == * [http://www.fk-austria.at Websajt Uffiċjali ] {{de}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101006045859/http://members.chello.at/bogi/index.html Sajt Uffiċjali tal-Akkademja Żgħażagħ] {{de}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091016161912/http://www.eufo.de/football/aut/austwien.htm Austria Wien fuq EUFO.DE] * [http://www.weltfussball.de/teams/austria-wien/ Austria Wien fuq Weltfussball.de] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160307104847/https://playerhistory.com/club/1043/ Austria Wien fuq Playerhistory.com] * [http://www.transfermarkt.de/de/verein/14/fkaustriawien/uebersicht/startseite.html Austria Wien fuq Transfermarkt.de] * [http://www.footballsquads.co.uk/austria/2012-2013/bundes/austvien.htm Austria Wien fuq Football Squads.co.uk] * [http://www.football-lineups.com/team/Austria_Vienna/ Austria Wien fuq Football-Lineups.com] {{Bundesliga (Awstrija)}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol Awstrijaċi|Austria Wien]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1911]] [[Kategorija:FK Austria Wien]] g1shbxra1ywp0tnjb24nj9aqzd6eyoo 0 18890 330770 330666 2026-06-29T11:11:47Z Makenzis 12206 /* Ħoloq esterni */ 330770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Tim tal-Futbol |isem = SV Ried |stampa = [[Stampa:SV Ried.png|180px]] |ismijiet_oħra = |isem_sħiħ = SV Josko Ried |grawnd = [[Keine Sorgen Arena]], [[Ried im Innkreis]] |jesa' = 7,680 |fundazzjoni = 1912 |president = |kowċ = |kampjonat = Bundesliga | staġun = 2021/22 | pożizzjoni = 10. (Bundesliga) | sit_elettroniku = http://www.svried.at/ |pattern_la1=_svried1112|pattern_b1=_svried1112|pattern_ra1=_svried1112|pattern_sh1=_svried1112withwhite|pattern_so1=_color_3_stripes_white|leftarm1=175c49|body1=175c49|rightarm1=175c49|shorts1=000000|socks2=ffffff |pattern_la2=_svried1112|pattern_b2=_svried1112|pattern_ra2=_svried1112|pattern_sh2=_svried1112withblack|pattern_so2=_color_3_stripes_black|leftarm2=e00e03|body2=e00e03|rightarm2=e00e03|shorts2=ffffff|socks2=ffffff| }} '''SV Ried''' huwa [[klabb tal-futbol]] [[Awstrija|Awstrijak]] li huwa bbażat ġewwa [[Ried im Innkreis]]. It-tim jilgħab il-logħob f'daru ġewwa Keine-Sorgen Arena li jesa' 7,680 spettatur. Il-klabb attwalment jilgħab fil-[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] wara li rebaħ il-promozzjoni mill-[[Erste Liga]] fl-istaġun 2004-05. Għal raġunijiet ta' sponsorizzazzjoni, l-isem sħiħ tal-klabb bħalissa huwa ''SV Josko Ried''. ==Storja== Il-klabb ġie fondat fil-5 ta 'Mejju 1912 bħala ''Sportvereinigung Ried'', u lagħbu f'kampjonati reġjonali fl-Awstrija ta' fuq sal-1991, qabel ma telgħu għall-ewwel darba fil-kampjonat nazzjonali. L-ewwel kisba ta' SV Ried kien il-promozzjoni għall-ogħla livell tal-futbol Awstrijak fl-1995. SV Ried kisbu l-ewwel unur maġġur tagħhom fl-1998 meta rebħu t-[[Tazza Awstrijaka]], li għelbu lil [[SK Sturm Graz]] 3–1 fil-finali. Fl-2003, Ried kienu relegati, li kienu għalqu tmien snin fl-ogħla diviżjoni . Żewġ staġuni wara, Ried kisbu l-istatus tal-Bundesliga, li saru ċampjins tal-Erste Liga fit-23 ta' Mejju 2005 wara rebħa ta' 3–2 kontra [[SV Kapfenberg]]. Fl-istaġun ta 'wara (2005/06) Ried kisbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fl-ogħla kampjonat s'issa, ir-raba post, fil-Bundesliga. Is-sena ta' wara rrnexxielhom itejjbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fit-2 post u saru viċi-ċampjins. Wara l-ewwel terz tal-istaġun, it-tim deher li kellu battalja kontra r-relegazzjoni u kienu mwaħħla fl-aħħar post għal ħames ġimgħat. Il-ġestjoni klabb madankollu afda il-fiduċja tal-kapaċitajiet tal-kowċ Helmut Kraft, li jirriżulta li tkun l-aħjar deċiżjoni wara kollox. Tnax-il logħba mingħajr telfa fit-tieni terz tal-istaġun u ħames rebħiet mill-aħħar ħames logħbiet li ggaranta l-ogħla finitura tal-klabb fl-istaġun u kisbu post fl-ewwel rawnd tal-kwalifikazzjoni tal-[[UEFA Cup]]. == Unuri == * Tazza Awstrijaka 1998, 2011 * It-2 post fil-Bundesliga 2006/2007 ==Kowċis== * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] (Lul 1988–Mejju 99) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 1999-Mejju 00) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kronjäger]] (Lul 2000–April 01) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Alfred Tatar]] (April 2001–Mar 02) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] (Mar 2002–Mejju 03) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mejju 2003) * {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Petar Segrt]] (Lul 2003–Diċ 03) * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Andrzej Lesiak]] (Jan 2004–Ġun 4) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 2004–Mejju 06) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kraft]] (Ġun 2006–Ott 07) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Weissenböck]] (Ott 2007–April 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Michael Angerschmid]] ''(provviżorju)'' (April 2008–Ġun 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Georg Zellhofer]] (Mejju 2008–Lul 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Lul 2008) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Paul Gludovatz]] (Lul 2008–Mar 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mar 2012–Mejju 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Fuchsbichler]] (Ġun 2012–Nov 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Nov 2012–) == Parteċipazzjoni fl-Ewropa == '''Q''' = Kwalifikazzjoni '''PO''' = Play-Off {| class="wikitable" ! Staġun ! Kompetizzjoni ! Rawnd ! Pajjiż ! Klabb ! Home ! Away ! Aggregat |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1996|1996]] |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |rowspan="4"|Grupp 4 |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Zaglebie Lubin]] | |1–2 |- |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Silkeborg IF]] |0–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Wales}} |[[Conwy United FC]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[R. Charleroi SC|RSC Charleroi]] |1–3 | |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1997|1997]] |rowspan="4"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |rowspan="4"|Grupp 12 |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Iraklis Thessaloniki FC|Iraklis Saloniki]] |3–1 | |- |{{flagicon|Malta}} |[[Floriana FC|Floriana]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[Merani-91 Tbilisi]] |1–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Russja}} |[[Torpedo Moskva]] | |0–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1998-99|1998-99]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] |1 |{{flagicon|HUN}} |[[MTK Budapest]] |2–0 |1–0 |3–0 |- |2 |{{flagicon|ISR}} |[[Maccabi Haifa FC|Maccabi Haifa]] |2–1 |1–4 |3–5 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2001|2001]] |UEFA Intertoto Cup |1 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC WIT Georgia|WIT Georgia]] |2–1 |0–1 |2–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2006|2006]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |2 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC Dinamo Tbilisi|Dinamo Tbilisi]] |3–1 |1–0 |4–1 |- |3K |{{flagicon|Moldova}} |[[FC Tiraspol]] |3–1 |1–1 |4–2 |- |[[UEFA Cup 2006-07|2006-07]] |[[UEFA Cup]] |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |0–0 |0–1 |0–1 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup 2007-08|2007-08]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Cup |1K |{{flagicon|AZE}} |[[Neftchi Baku PFC|Neftchi Baku]] |3–1 |1–2 |4–3 |- |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |1–1 |0–3 |1–4 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League 2011-12|2011-12]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League|Europa League]] |3K |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Brøndby IF]] |2–0 |2–4 |4–4 |- |PO |{{flagicon|NED}} |[[PSV Eindhoven|PSV]] |0–0 |0–5 |0–5 |} == Ħoloq esterni == * [http://www.svried.at/ Sit Uffiċjali] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091016163056/http://www.eufo.de/football/aut/sv_rried.htm SV Ried fuq EUFO.DE] * [http://www.weltfussball.de/teams/sv-ried/ SV Ried fuq Weltfussball.de] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306225720/http://www.playerhistory.com/club/3798/ SV Ried fuq Playerhistory.com] * [http://www.transfermarkt.de/de/verein/266/svried/uebersicht/startseite.html SV Ried fuq Transfermarkt.de] * [http://www.footballsquads.co.uk/austria/2012-2013/bundes/ried.htm SV Ried fuq Football Squads.co.uk] * [http://www.football-lineups.com/team/SV_Ried/ SV Ried fuq Football-Lineups.com] {{commons|SV Ried}} {{Bundesliga (Awstrija)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ried}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1912]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol Awstrijaċi]] 5zz4rt6zdirl6ocwwh6itew052iqvvg 330771 330770 2026-06-29T11:11:56Z Makenzis 12206 /* Ħoloq esterni */ 330771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Tim tal-Futbol |isem = SV Ried |stampa = [[Stampa:SV Ried.png|180px]] |ismijiet_oħra = |isem_sħiħ = SV Josko Ried |grawnd = [[Keine Sorgen Arena]], [[Ried im Innkreis]] |jesa' = 7,680 |fundazzjoni = 1912 |president = |kowċ = |kampjonat = Bundesliga | staġun = 2021/22 | pożizzjoni = 10. (Bundesliga) | sit_elettroniku = http://www.svried.at/ |pattern_la1=_svried1112|pattern_b1=_svried1112|pattern_ra1=_svried1112|pattern_sh1=_svried1112withwhite|pattern_so1=_color_3_stripes_white|leftarm1=175c49|body1=175c49|rightarm1=175c49|shorts1=000000|socks2=ffffff |pattern_la2=_svried1112|pattern_b2=_svried1112|pattern_ra2=_svried1112|pattern_sh2=_svried1112withblack|pattern_so2=_color_3_stripes_black|leftarm2=e00e03|body2=e00e03|rightarm2=e00e03|shorts2=ffffff|socks2=ffffff| }} '''SV Ried''' huwa [[klabb tal-futbol]] [[Awstrija|Awstrijak]] li huwa bbażat ġewwa [[Ried im Innkreis]]. It-tim jilgħab il-logħob f'daru ġewwa Keine-Sorgen Arena li jesa' 7,680 spettatur. Il-klabb attwalment jilgħab fil-[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] wara li rebaħ il-promozzjoni mill-[[Erste Liga]] fl-istaġun 2004-05. Għal raġunijiet ta' sponsorizzazzjoni, l-isem sħiħ tal-klabb bħalissa huwa ''SV Josko Ried''. ==Storja== Il-klabb ġie fondat fil-5 ta 'Mejju 1912 bħala ''Sportvereinigung Ried'', u lagħbu f'kampjonati reġjonali fl-Awstrija ta' fuq sal-1991, qabel ma telgħu għall-ewwel darba fil-kampjonat nazzjonali. L-ewwel kisba ta' SV Ried kien il-promozzjoni għall-ogħla livell tal-futbol Awstrijak fl-1995. SV Ried kisbu l-ewwel unur maġġur tagħhom fl-1998 meta rebħu t-[[Tazza Awstrijaka]], li għelbu lil [[SK Sturm Graz]] 3–1 fil-finali. Fl-2003, Ried kienu relegati, li kienu għalqu tmien snin fl-ogħla diviżjoni . Żewġ staġuni wara, Ried kisbu l-istatus tal-Bundesliga, li saru ċampjins tal-Erste Liga fit-23 ta' Mejju 2005 wara rebħa ta' 3–2 kontra [[SV Kapfenberg]]. Fl-istaġun ta 'wara (2005/06) Ried kisbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fl-ogħla kampjonat s'issa, ir-raba post, fil-Bundesliga. Is-sena ta' wara rrnexxielhom itejjbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fit-2 post u saru viċi-ċampjins. Wara l-ewwel terz tal-istaġun, it-tim deher li kellu battalja kontra r-relegazzjoni u kienu mwaħħla fl-aħħar post għal ħames ġimgħat. Il-ġestjoni klabb madankollu afda il-fiduċja tal-kapaċitajiet tal-kowċ Helmut Kraft, li jirriżulta li tkun l-aħjar deċiżjoni wara kollox. Tnax-il logħba mingħajr telfa fit-tieni terz tal-istaġun u ħames rebħiet mill-aħħar ħames logħbiet li ggaranta l-ogħla finitura tal-klabb fl-istaġun u kisbu post fl-ewwel rawnd tal-kwalifikazzjoni tal-[[UEFA Cup]]. == Unuri == * Tazza Awstrijaka 1998, 2011 * It-2 post fil-Bundesliga 2006/2007 ==Kowċis== * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] (Lul 1988–Mejju 99) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 1999-Mejju 00) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kronjäger]] (Lul 2000–April 01) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Alfred Tatar]] (April 2001–Mar 02) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] (Mar 2002–Mejju 03) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mejju 2003) * {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Petar Segrt]] (Lul 2003–Diċ 03) * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Andrzej Lesiak]] (Jan 2004–Ġun 4) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 2004–Mejju 06) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kraft]] (Ġun 2006–Ott 07) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Weissenböck]] (Ott 2007–April 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Michael Angerschmid]] ''(provviżorju)'' (April 2008–Ġun 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Georg Zellhofer]] (Mejju 2008–Lul 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Lul 2008) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Paul Gludovatz]] (Lul 2008–Mar 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mar 2012–Mejju 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Fuchsbichler]] (Ġun 2012–Nov 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Nov 2012–) == Parteċipazzjoni fl-Ewropa == '''Q''' = Kwalifikazzjoni '''PO''' = Play-Off {| class="wikitable" ! Staġun ! Kompetizzjoni ! Rawnd ! Pajjiż ! Klabb ! Home ! Away ! Aggregat |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1996|1996]] |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |rowspan="4"|Grupp 4 |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Zaglebie Lubin]] | |1–2 |- |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Silkeborg IF]] |0–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Wales}} |[[Conwy United FC]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[R. Charleroi SC|RSC Charleroi]] |1–3 | |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1997|1997]] |rowspan="4"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |rowspan="4"|Grupp 12 |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Iraklis Thessaloniki FC|Iraklis Saloniki]] |3–1 | |- |{{flagicon|Malta}} |[[Floriana FC|Floriana]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[Merani-91 Tbilisi]] |1–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Russja}} |[[Torpedo Moskva]] | |0–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1998-99|1998-99]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] |1 |{{flagicon|HUN}} |[[MTK Budapest]] |2–0 |1–0 |3–0 |- |2 |{{flagicon|ISR}} |[[Maccabi Haifa FC|Maccabi Haifa]] |2–1 |1–4 |3–5 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2001|2001]] |UEFA Intertoto Cup |1 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC WIT Georgia|WIT Georgia]] |2–1 |0–1 |2–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2006|2006]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |2 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC Dinamo Tbilisi|Dinamo Tbilisi]] |3–1 |1–0 |4–1 |- |3K |{{flagicon|Moldova}} |[[FC Tiraspol]] |3–1 |1–1 |4–2 |- |[[UEFA Cup 2006-07|2006-07]] |[[UEFA Cup]] |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |0–0 |0–1 |0–1 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup 2007-08|2007-08]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Cup |1K |{{flagicon|AZE}} |[[Neftchi Baku PFC|Neftchi Baku]] |3–1 |1–2 |4–3 |- |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |1–1 |0–3 |1–4 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League 2011-12|2011-12]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League|Europa League]] |3K |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Brøndby IF]] |2–0 |2–4 |4–4 |- |PO |{{flagicon|NED}} |[[PSV Eindhoven|PSV]] |0–0 |0–5 |0–5 |} == Ħoloq esterni == * [http://www.svried.at/ Sit Uffiċjali] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091016163056/http://www.eufo.de/football/aut/sv_rried.htm SV Ried fuq EUFO.DE] * [http://www.weltfussball.de/teams/sv-ried/ SV Ried fuq Weltfussball.de] * [http://www.transfermarkt.de/de/verein/266/svried/uebersicht/startseite.html SV Ried fuq Transfermarkt.de] * [http://www.footballsquads.co.uk/austria/2012-2013/bundes/ried.htm SV Ried fuq Football Squads.co.uk] * [http://www.football-lineups.com/team/SV_Ried/ SV Ried fuq Football-Lineups.com] {{commons|SV Ried}} {{Bundesliga (Awstrija)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ried}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1912]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol Awstrijaċi]] rgtdb4lkjewh6vom83te5s16zystj3r 330772 330771 2026-06-29T11:12:03Z Makenzis 12206 /* Ħoloq esterni */ 330772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Tim tal-Futbol |isem = SV Ried |stampa = [[Stampa:SV Ried.png|180px]] |ismijiet_oħra = |isem_sħiħ = SV Josko Ried |grawnd = [[Keine Sorgen Arena]], [[Ried im Innkreis]] |jesa' = 7,680 |fundazzjoni = 1912 |president = |kowċ = |kampjonat = Bundesliga | staġun = 2021/22 | pożizzjoni = 10. (Bundesliga) | sit_elettroniku = http://www.svried.at/ |pattern_la1=_svried1112|pattern_b1=_svried1112|pattern_ra1=_svried1112|pattern_sh1=_svried1112withwhite|pattern_so1=_color_3_stripes_white|leftarm1=175c49|body1=175c49|rightarm1=175c49|shorts1=000000|socks2=ffffff |pattern_la2=_svried1112|pattern_b2=_svried1112|pattern_ra2=_svried1112|pattern_sh2=_svried1112withblack|pattern_so2=_color_3_stripes_black|leftarm2=e00e03|body2=e00e03|rightarm2=e00e03|shorts2=ffffff|socks2=ffffff| }} '''SV Ried''' huwa [[klabb tal-futbol]] [[Awstrija|Awstrijak]] li huwa bbażat ġewwa [[Ried im Innkreis]]. It-tim jilgħab il-logħob f'daru ġewwa Keine-Sorgen Arena li jesa' 7,680 spettatur. Il-klabb attwalment jilgħab fil-[[Bundesliga (Awstrija)|Bundesliga Awstrijaka]] wara li rebaħ il-promozzjoni mill-[[Erste Liga]] fl-istaġun 2004-05. Għal raġunijiet ta' sponsorizzazzjoni, l-isem sħiħ tal-klabb bħalissa huwa ''SV Josko Ried''. ==Storja== Il-klabb ġie fondat fil-5 ta 'Mejju 1912 bħala ''Sportvereinigung Ried'', u lagħbu f'kampjonati reġjonali fl-Awstrija ta' fuq sal-1991, qabel ma telgħu għall-ewwel darba fil-kampjonat nazzjonali. L-ewwel kisba ta' SV Ried kien il-promozzjoni għall-ogħla livell tal-futbol Awstrijak fl-1995. SV Ried kisbu l-ewwel unur maġġur tagħhom fl-1998 meta rebħu t-[[Tazza Awstrijaka]], li għelbu lil [[SK Sturm Graz]] 3–1 fil-finali. Fl-2003, Ried kienu relegati, li kienu għalqu tmien snin fl-ogħla diviżjoni . Żewġ staġuni wara, Ried kisbu l-istatus tal-Bundesliga, li saru ċampjins tal-Erste Liga fit-23 ta' Mejju 2005 wara rebħa ta' 3–2 kontra [[SV Kapfenberg]]. Fl-istaġun ta 'wara (2005/06) Ried kisbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fl-ogħla kampjonat s'issa, ir-raba post, fil-Bundesliga. Is-sena ta' wara rrnexxielhom itejjbu l-ogħla pożizzjoni fit-2 post u saru viċi-ċampjins. Wara l-ewwel terz tal-istaġun, it-tim deher li kellu battalja kontra r-relegazzjoni u kienu mwaħħla fl-aħħar post għal ħames ġimgħat. Il-ġestjoni klabb madankollu afda il-fiduċja tal-kapaċitajiet tal-kowċ Helmut Kraft, li jirriżulta li tkun l-aħjar deċiżjoni wara kollox. Tnax-il logħba mingħajr telfa fit-tieni terz tal-istaġun u ħames rebħiet mill-aħħar ħames logħbiet li ggaranta l-ogħla finitura tal-klabb fl-istaġun u kisbu post fl-ewwel rawnd tal-kwalifikazzjoni tal-[[UEFA Cup]]. == Unuri == * Tazza Awstrijaka 1998, 2011 * It-2 post fil-Bundesliga 2006/2007 ==Kowċis== * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] (Lul 1988–Mejju 99) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 1999-Mejju 00) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kronjäger]] (Lul 2000–April 01) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Alfred Tatar]] (April 2001–Mar 02) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] (Mar 2002–Mejju 03) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Klaus Roitinger]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mejju 2003) * {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Petar Segrt]] (Lul 2003–Diċ 03) * {{flagicon|POL}} [[Andrzej Lesiak]] (Jan 2004–Ġun 4) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Hochhauser]] (Lul 2004–Mejju 06) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Helmut Kraft]] (Ġun 2006–Ott 07) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Thomas Weissenböck]] (Ott 2007–April 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Michael Angerschmid]] ''(provviżorju)'' (April 2008–Ġun 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Georg Zellhofer]] (Mejju 2008–Lul 08) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Lul 2008) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Paul Gludovatz]] (Lul 2008–Mar 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Mar 2012–Mejju 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Heinz Fuchsbichler]] (Ġun 2012–Nov 12) * {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Gerhard Schweitzer]] ''(provviżorju)'' (Nov 2012–) == Parteċipazzjoni fl-Ewropa == '''Q''' = Kwalifikazzjoni '''PO''' = Play-Off {| class="wikitable" ! Staġun ! Kompetizzjoni ! Rawnd ! Pajjiż ! Klabb ! Home ! Away ! Aggregat |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1996|1996]] |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup]] |rowspan="4"|Grupp 4 |{{flagicon|POL}} |[[Zaglebie Lubin]] | |1–2 |- |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Silkeborg IF]] |0–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Wales}} |[[Conwy United FC]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|BEL}} |[[R. Charleroi SC|RSC Charleroi]] |1–3 | |- |rowspan="4"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 1997|1997]] |rowspan="4"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |rowspan="4"|Grupp 12 |{{flagicon|GRE}} |[[Iraklis Thessaloniki FC|Iraklis Saloniki]] |3–1 | |- |{{flagicon|Malta}} |[[Floriana FC|Floriana]] | |2–1 |- |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[Merani-91 Tbilisi]] |1–3 | |- |{{flagicon|Russja}} |[[Torpedo Moskva]] | |0–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1998-99|1998-99]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] |1 |{{flagicon|HUN}} |[[MTK Budapest]] |2–0 |1–0 |3–0 |- |2 |{{flagicon|ISR}} |[[Maccabi Haifa FC|Maccabi Haifa]] |2–1 |1–4 |3–5 |- |[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2001|2001]] |UEFA Intertoto Cup |1 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC WIT Georgia|WIT Georgia]] |2–1 |0–1 |2–2 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Intertoto Cup 2006|2006]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Intertoto Cup |2 |{{flagicon|GEO}} |[[FC Dinamo Tbilisi|Dinamo Tbilisi]] |3–1 |1–0 |4–1 |- |3K |{{flagicon|Moldova}} |[[FC Tiraspol]] |3–1 |1–1 |4–2 |- |[[UEFA Cup 2006-07|2006-07]] |[[UEFA Cup]] |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |0–0 |0–1 |0–1 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Cup 2007-08|2007-08]] |rowspan="2"|UEFA Cup |1K |{{flagicon|AZE}} |[[Neftchi Baku PFC|Neftchi Baku]] |3–1 |1–2 |4–3 |- |2K |{{flagicon|SUI}} |[[FC Sion|Sion]] |1–1 |0–3 |1–4 |- |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League 2011-12|2011-12]] |rowspan="2"|[[UEFA Europa League|Europa League]] |3K |{{flagicon|DEN}} |[[Brøndby IF]] |2–0 |2–4 |4–4 |- |PO |{{flagicon|NED}} |[[PSV Eindhoven|PSV]] |0–0 |0–5 |0–5 |} == Ħoloq esterni == * [http://www.svried.at/ Sit Uffiċjali] * [http://www.weltfussball.de/teams/sv-ried/ SV Ried fuq Weltfussball.de] * [http://www.transfermarkt.de/de/verein/266/svried/uebersicht/startseite.html SV Ried fuq Transfermarkt.de] * [http://www.footballsquads.co.uk/austria/2012-2013/bundes/ried.htm SV Ried fuq Football Squads.co.uk] * [http://www.football-lineups.com/team/SV_Ried/ SV Ried fuq Football-Lineups.com] {{commons|SV Ried}} {{Bundesliga (Awstrija)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ried}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1912]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol Awstrijaċi]] ahi6tw1vidyrlbzm4vqmphshhbqhhzm 2 25623 330765 330692 2026-06-28T17:18:49Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament 330765 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Artikli ġodda (2015)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Aapravasi Ghat]] * [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]] * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] * [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Mena]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]] *[[Afag Bashirgyzy]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agadez]] *[[Agostino Carracci]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]] *[[Aigai]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Akshata Murthy]] *[[Aksum]] *[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]] *[[Al Zubarah]] *[[Al-Maghtas]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Albéric Magnard]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcalá de Henares]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Aleppo]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alexander Pushkin]] *[[Alexander Wolszczan]] *[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alois Dryák]] *[[Alto Douro]] *[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]] *[[Ambohimanga]] *[[Ambra Sabatini]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] *[[Anfibju]] *[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]] *[[Angelina Mango]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Angra do Heroísmo]] * [[Ani]] * [[Anjar]] * [[Anna Brigadere]] * [[Anna Kyriakou]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] *[[Anse aux Meadows]] * [[Antartika]] * [[Anticosti]] * [[Antigua Guatemala]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Anuradhapura]] *[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]] *[[Aporofobija]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arequipa]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]] *[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Art tal-Inċens]] *[[Arthur Schnitzler]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] *[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]] *[[As-Salt]] *[[Asmara]] * [[Assisi]] * [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]] * [[Assur]] * [[Astrofiżika]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Athos]] *[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Ávila]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Baalbek]] * [[Babilonja]] * [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]] * [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]] * [[Baeza]] * [[Bagan]] * [[Baħar l-Abjad]] * [[Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]] *[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]] *[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]] *[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]] *[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Baleron]] *[[Bamberg]] *[[Ban Chiang]] *[[Banská Štiavnica]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Barokk]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Bath, Somerset]] *[[Batlejka]] *[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]] *[[Battir]] *[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Béguinage]] *[[Belintersat-1]] *[[BelKA]] *[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]] *[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]] *[[Belt Projbita]] *[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]] *[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]] *[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Betlem]] *[[Betti Alver]] *[[Burkhan Khaldun]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]] *[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]] *[[BirdLife International]] *[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]] *[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]] *[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]] *[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]] *[[Bobby Charlton]] *[[Bolgar]] *[[Bordeaux]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Bosra]] *[[Bridgetown]] *[[Brook Taylor]] *[[Brú na Bóinne]] *[[Bruno Pizzul]] *[[Bryggen]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]] *[[Bugeddum Armen]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Burt Bacharach]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] *[[Byblos]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Cáceres (Spanja)]] * [[Calakmul]] * [[Camagüey]] * [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]] * [[Campeche]] * [[Canal du Midi]] * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] * [[Carcassonne]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carl David Anderson]] *[[Carl Linnaeus]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Carlo Collodi]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Causses u Cévennes]] *[[Ċellola]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Chakapuli]] *[[Chan Chan]] *[[Changdeokgung]] *[[Chankillo]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charles Richter]] *[[Charles Xuereb]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chavín]] *[[Choeung Ek]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Chilehaus]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Chun Wang]] *[[Cidade Velha]] *[[Cienfuegos]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċirkewwa]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]] *[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]] *[[Colonia del Sacramento]] *[[Copan]] *[[Córdoba, Spanja]] *[[Coro]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]] *[[Cuenca (Spanja)]] *[[Cueva de las Manos]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Curzio Maltese]] *[[Cusco]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] *[[Cyrene]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daiga Mieriņa]] * [[Damasku]] * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[Danxia]] * [[Darius I]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Dar tal-Kimeri]] *[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]] *[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]] *[[Delos]] *[[Delphi]] *[[Delta ta' Saloum]] *[[Delta ta' Okavango]] *[[Delta tad-Danubju]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Demokrazija]] *[[Dengfeng]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]] *[[Deżert ta' Lut]] *[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]] *[[Dholavira]] *[[Diamantina]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diaolou]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dimitrana Ivanova]] *[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]] *[[Diy-Gid-Biy]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Djémila]] *[[Djerba]] *[[DNA]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Allegri]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Domus de Janas]] *[[Domus Rumana]] *[[Donatello]] *[[Dougga]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edgar Preca]] * [[Edward Sexton]] * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Edward de Bono]] * [[Edwin Hubble]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]] *[[El Escorial]] *[[El Jadida]] *[[El Tajin]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Eladio Dieste]] *[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Elvas]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Essaouira]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Ethel Anderson]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Évora]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]] * [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] * [[Fanjingshan]] * [[Fasil Ghebbi]] * [[Fatehpur Sikri]] * [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]] * [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]] * [[Fehme Agani]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Fernando Botero]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]] *[[Figolla]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Irkanjani]] *[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]] *[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]] *[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]] *[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]] *[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]] *[[Forti l-Aħmar]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Forti ta' Galle]] *[[Forti ta' Ġesù]] *[[Forti ta' Rohtas]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]] *[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]] *[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]] *[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]] *[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]] *[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]] *[[Foss ta' Messel]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Fram2]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[François Girardon]] *[[Francois Mauriac]] *[[Franco Migliacci]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Frank Drake]] *[[Franz Beckenbauer]] *[[Franz Kafka]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Franz von Suppé]] *[[Frawla]] *[[Fray Bentos]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] *[[Frosta tal-Għid]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] * [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]] *[[Fuji]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]] * [[Ġerusalemm]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġnien Persjan]] * [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]] * [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] * [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Gamzigrad]] * [[Gati tal-Punent]] * [[Gebel Barkal]] * [[Geirangerfjord]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[Georg von Békésy]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Ghadamès]] *[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Gigi Riva]] *[[Giorgia Meloni]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giotto]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Boccaccio]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Goffredo Mameli]] *[[Goiás]] *[[Golf ta' California]] *[[Golf ta' Porto]] *[[Gonbad-e Qābus]] *[[Gordion]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Gotiku]] *[[Gozinaki]] *[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]] *[[Grand Pré]] *[[Grand-Bassam]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Greenland]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grotti ta' Longmen]] *[[Grotti ta' Yungang]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Guimarães]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] * [[Gżejjer Marquesas]] * [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]] * [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]] * [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]] * [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]] * [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]] * [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]] * [[Gżira ta' Cocos]] * [[Gżira ta' Fraser]] * [[Gżira ta' Gorée]] * [[Gżira ta' Henderson]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]] *[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]] *[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]] *[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]] *[[Gżira ta' Pico]] *[[Gżira ta' Robben]] *[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]] *[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]] *[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Gorham]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]] *[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]] *[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]] *[[Għarb]] *[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]] *[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]] *[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Ellora]] *[[Għerien ta' Mogao]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għid]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hahoe]] * [[Haley Bugeja]] * [[Halloumi]] * [[Hallstatt]] * [[Hampi]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Sloane]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Harar]] *[[Harry Belafonte]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hatra]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Hawa Mahal]] *[[Hebron]] *[[Hedeby]] *[[Hegmataneh]] *[[Hegra]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]] *[[Henri Fantin-Latour]] *[[Henri Frederic Amiel]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hideki Shirakawa]] *[[Hideki Yukawa]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Höga Kusten]] *[[Hoh Xil]] *[[Hội An]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hollókő]] *[[Hongcun]] *[[Hospicio Cabañas]] *[[Hospital de Sant Pau]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Huangshan]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]] * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] * [[Ħajja]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] *[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]] *[[Ħuta]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Ibn Battuta]] * [[ICOMOS]] * [[Idolu ta' Shigir]] * [[Idrija]] * [[Idrijski žlikrofi]] * [[Ilha Grande]] * [[Il'ja Prigožini]] * [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Independence Hall]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Internet]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]] * [[Iremel]] * [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] * [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] * [[Jaipur]] * [[Jakob Bogdani]] * [[Jan Novák]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jarrod Sammut]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Jebel Faya]] *[[Jeddah]] *[[Jodensavanne]] *[[Joggins]] *[[Johann Christian Bach]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Josef Hoffman]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Joya de Cerén]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Jules Pascin]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Julia Sanina]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julio Baghy]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] *[[Jum Zamenhof]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]] * [[Kairouan]] * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]] *[[Kanal ta' Rideau]] *[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]] *[[Kandy]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karavanseraj Persjani]] *[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Karlskrona]] *[[Karlu III]] *[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]] *[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]] *[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]] *[[Kastell ta' Ankara]] *[[Kastell ta' Durham]] *[[Kastell ta' Himeji]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta' Lubart]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]] *[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]] *[[Kastell ta' Paphos]] *[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]] *[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Amiens]] *[[Katidral ta' Bourges]] *[[Katidral ta' Burgos]] *[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]] *[[Katidral ta' Chartres]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Reims]] *[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katidral ta' Speyer]] *[[Katidral ta' Tournai]] *[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]] *[[Katidral tat-Tlugħ is-Sema tal-Madonna ta' Kiev]] *[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]] *[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] *[[Kaunas]] *[[Kavallier ta' Madara]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] * [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]] * [[KazCosmos]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kerkuane]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Kewkbet is-Safar]] *[[Khafre]] *[[Khami]] *[[Khinalug]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Khor Rori]] *[[Khorramabad]] *[[Khuttal]] *[[Kibbeh]] *[[Kiki Kogelnik]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kizhi Pogost]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] * [[Klondike]] * [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]] * [[Knarik Vardanyan]] * [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]] *[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]] *[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]] *[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]] *[[Knisja ta' Boyana]] *[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Koh Ker]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]] *[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] * [[Konso]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Kotlovina]] *[[Koutammakou]] *[[Krak des Chevaliers]] *[[Krakovja]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Krater ta' Vredefort]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Kreta]] *[[Krisztina Tóth]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]] *[[Kubdari]] *[[Kujataa]] *[[Kulangsu]] *[[Kuldīga]] *[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]] *[[Kultura ta' Chaco]] *[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]] *[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]] *[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]] *[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]] *[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]] *[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]] *[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]] *[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]] *[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]] *[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]] *[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]] *[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]] *[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]] *[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]] *[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]] *[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]] *[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kunya-Urgench]] *[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] * [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]] * [[Lag ta' Baikal]] * [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]] * [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]] * [[Lag ta' Laach]] * [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]] * [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]] * [[Lag ta' Skadar]] * [[Lagi ta' Willandra]] * [[Lake District]] * [[Lamu]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Le Corbusier]] *[[Le Havre]] *[[Le Locle]] *[[Léon Werth]] *[[Leptis Magna]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Lev Davidovich Landau]] * [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] * [[Levuka]] * [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]] * [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lima]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]] *[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]] *[[Liz Truss]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Gafà]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Luang Prabang]] *[[Lübeck]] *[[Luca Parmitano]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lucia Piussi]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]] *[[Ludovico Ariosto]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Galvani]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Luna 26]] *[[Lunenburg]] *[[Lvant ta' Rennell]] *[[Lviv]] *[[Lyon]] *[[Lyubov Panchenko]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Maċedonit]] * [[Machu Picchu]] * [[Madinat Al-Zahra]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] *[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]] *[[Maison Carrée]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Margaret Abela]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Maria Grollmuß]] *[[Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Mário Zagallo]] *[[Marrakesh]] *[[Marta Kos]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Chronopoulou]] *[[Mary Fenech Adami]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Masada]] *[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]] *[[Maurizio Costanzo]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Maymand]] *[[Mbanza Kongo]] *[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Medina ta' Sousse]] *[[Mehmet Ali Ağca]] *[[Melka Kunture]] *[[Mérida (Spanja)]] *[[Merill]] *[[Meroe]] *[[Merv]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Michael Refalo]] *[[Michail Glinka]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mileva Filipović]] *[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minaret ta' Jam]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]] *[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Miroslav Řepa]] *[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]] *[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]] *[[Mnajdra]] *[[Modena]] *[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]] *[[Moidam]] *[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]] *[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]] *[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]] *[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]] *[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]] *[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]] *[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]] *[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]] *[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]] *[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]] *[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]] *[[Monasteru ta' Rila]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]] *[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]] *[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Møns Klint]] *[[Mont-Saint-Michel]] *[[Monte Albán]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] *[[Monte Titano]] *[[Monticello]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]] * [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]] * [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]] * [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]] *[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]] *[[Morelia]] *[[Moritz Cantor]] *[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]] *[[Moskea tat-Tatari]] *[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]] *[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Mramorje]] *[[Mtskheta]] *[[Mtsvane]] *[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanja Pelée]] *[[Muntanja Qingcheng]] *[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]] *[[Muntanja Wutai]] *[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]] *[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]] *[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]] *[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Muntanji Wudang]] *[[Muntanji Wuyi]] *[[Mużew Brittaniku]] *[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]] *[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Myśliwska]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nærøyfjord]] * [[Nadur]] * [[Naftalan]] * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nalanda Mahavihara]] * [[Namhansanseong]] * [[Nancy]] * [[Nan Madol]] *[[Napli]] *[[Naryn-Kala]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]] *[[Nekropoli]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[Nessebar]] *[[New Lanark]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolas Flamel]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nida]] *[[Nika Križnar]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nil]] *[[Nino Ramishvili]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Nizza]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]] * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Olinda]] *[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]] *[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]] *[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]] *[[Orthohantavirus]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]] *[[Osun-Osogbo]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] *[[Ouro Preto]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pablo Neruda]] * [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]] * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]] * [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]] * [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] * [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]] * [[Pál Maléter]] * [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz Mariinskyi]] *[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]] *[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]] *[[Palazz ta' Golestan]] *[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]] *[[Palazz ta' Mafra]] *[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]] *[[Palazz ta' Potala]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazz ta' Versailles]] *[[Palazz tal-Khan]] *[[Palazz tas-Sajf]] *[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]] *[[Palazzi Minojċi]] *[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palenque]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Palmaria]] *[[Palmyra]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Panamá Viejo]] *[[Papa Ljun XIV]] *[[Papahānaumokuākea]] *[[Paquimé]] *[[Paramaribo]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]] *[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]] *[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]] *[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]] *[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]] *[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]] *[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Pasargadae]] *[[Paseo del Prado]] *[[Patoloġija]] *[[Pattadakal]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pécs]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Peniżola Valdés]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]] *[[Persepolis]] *[[Peter Carl Fabergé]] *[[Péter Magyar]] *[[Pëtr Kapica]] *[[Petra]] *[[Petra Brocková]] *[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]] *[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Philippi]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pietru l-Kbir]] *[[Pimachiowin Aki]] *[[Ping Yao]] *[[Pippo Baudo]] *[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]] *[[Pitons]] *[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]] *[[Pjanta]] *[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]] *[[Pjazza]] *[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] * [[Pkhali]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]] *[[Pobiti Kamani]] *[[Politika]] *[[Polonnaruwa]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Pont tal-Fjuri]] *[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port Ħieles ta' Malta]] *[[Port Royal]] *[[Port ta' Mariupol]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Porto]] *[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]] *[[Potosí]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Prambanan]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Proklos]] *[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]] *[[Provins]] *[[Pu'er]] *[[Puebla (belt)]] *[[Pythagoreion]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qabar ta' Askia]] * [[Qabar ta' Humayun]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]] * [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]] * [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]] * [[Qala (Għawdex)]] * [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]] * [[Qalhat]] * [[Qanat]] * [[Qaryat al-Faw]] * [[Qaytarma]] * [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quanzhou]] * [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]] * [[Quedlinburg]] * [[Quirigua]] * [[Quito]] * [[Quseir Amra]] * [[Qutb Minar]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Rachid Chouhal]] * [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]] * [[Rammelsberg]] * [[Ramses II]] * [[Rani-ki-Vav]] * [[Ras'ken' Ozks]] * [[Ravenna]] * [[Ravesa Lleshi]] * [[Red Bay]] * [[Regensburg]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] * [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rettilu]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Risco Caído]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]] *[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Darwin]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]] *[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]] *[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]] *[[Robert Fico]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] *[[Roberto Burle Marx]] *[[Rodi (belt)]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Roșia Montană]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Røros]] * [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]] * [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Royal Exhibition Building]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Sabratha]] * [[Saeva Dupka]] * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]] *[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]] *[[Salme Kann]] *[[Saltaire]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[Samarra]] *[[Sambor Prei Kuk]] *[[Sammallahdenmäki]] *[[Samuel Deguara]] *[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]] *[[San Miguel de Allende]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sana'a]] *[[Sanchi]] *[[Sandra Milo]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Sangiran]] *[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santiago de Querétaro]] *[[Santiniketan]] *[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]] *[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]] *[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]] *[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] *[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]] *[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]] *[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]] *[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]] *[[São Cristóvão]] *[[São Luís]] *[[Sarazm]] *[[Sardis]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] * [[Satsivi]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Segovia]] *[[Seka Sablić]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Sevil Shhaideh]] *[[Sewell]] *[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]] *[[SGang Gwaay]] *[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Shaken Aimanov]] *[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]] *[[Sheki]] *[[Shennongjia]] *[[Shibam]] *[[Shirakami-Sanchi]] *[[Shiretoko]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Šibenik]] *[[Sibila Petlevski]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siega Verde]] *[[Siena]] *[[Sighișoara]] *[[Sigiriya]] *[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]] *[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]] *[[Sikhote-Alin]] *[[Simon Kldiashvili]] *[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]] *[[Sinéad O'Connor]] *[[Sintra]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]] *[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]] *[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]] *[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]] *[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]] *[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]] *[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]] *[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]] *[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]] *[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]] *[[Siti tat-Tusi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]] *[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]] *[[Skorba]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Slavko Brezoski]] *[[Socotra]] *[[Soltaniyeh]] *[[Songo Mnara]] *[[Sophia Loren]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Sophie Liebknecht]] *[[Söyembikä]] *[[Speicherstadt]] *[[Spinalonga]] *[[Sputnik 5]] *[[Stari Ras]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stepan Erzya]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Stone Town]] *[[Strett ta' Hormuz]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Subak]] *[[Sulaiman-Too]] *[[Sundarbans]] *[[Supra (festa)]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] *[[Surtsey]] *[[Susa]] *[[Svaneti]] *[[Svetlana Antonovska]] *[[Sviyazhsk]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Ħaġrat]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Tadrart Acacus]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taishan]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Takalik Abaj]] *[[Takht-e Soleyman]] *[[Takht-i-Bahi]] *[[Takkanot Shum]] *[[Taksim]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tamgaly]] *[[Tanġier]] *[[Taos Pueblo]] *[[Taputapuātea]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]] *[[Tassili n'Ajjer]] *[[Taxila]] *[[Tchogha Zanbil]] *[[Te Wahipounamu]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]] *[[Tebe (Eġittu)]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] *[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] * [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]] *[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]] *[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] *[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]] *[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]] *[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]] *[[Teotihuacan]] *[[Tequila (Belt)]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] * [[Tétouan]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Theobald Boehm]] *[[Theodore Géricault]] *[[Thimlich Ohinga]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Thoros ta' Edessa]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] * [[Timbuktu]] * [[Timgad]] * [[Tina Turner]] * [[Tinetto]] * [[Tino]] * [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]] *[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]] *[[Tipasa]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tiwanaku]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Toledo]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Tomiri]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Torri ta' Londra]] *[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]] *[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]] *[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trinidad, Kuba]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tsodilo]] *[[Tubeteika]] *[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]] *[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]] *[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]] *[[Turan]] *[[Tutankhamun]] *[[Twyfelfontein]] *[[Tyre]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Úbeda]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[Umm Al-Jimāl]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Università Iżlamika Russa]] *[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]] *[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]] *[[Università ta' Coimbra]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Vasco da Gama]] *[[Vat Phou]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Venera 7]] *[[Verona]] *[[Via Appia]] *[[Victoria Amelina]] *[[Vigan]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]] *[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]] *[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Vlkolínec]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Volubilis]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] *[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] * [[Wadi Al-Hitan]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Wales]] *[[Weimar Klassika]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]] *[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Loire]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied ta' M'zab]] *[[Wied ta' Qadisha]] *[[Wied ta' Viñales]] *[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[Willemstad]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wismar]] *[[Władysław Horodecki]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xanadu]] * [[Xanthos]] * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xerxes I]] *[[Xidi]] *[[Xmara Omo]] *[[Xochicalco]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] *[[Xtatol]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yagul]] * [[Yakushima]] * [[Yana Zinkevych]] * [[Yangdong]] * [[Yarmak]] * [[Yaroslavl]] * [[Yazd]] * [[Yeni-Kale]] * [[Yin Xu]] * [[Yllka Mujo]] * [[Yogyakarta]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żapoteki]] * [[Żejt]] * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] * [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]] *[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]] *[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]] *[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zabid]] * [[Zacatecas (belt)]] * [[Zagori]] * [[Zamość]] * [[Žatec]] * [[Žehra]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] * [[Zivana]] * [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] *[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]] bz2szhh4au3to5d1fzgaz6iqgactn5g 330768 330765 2026-06-29T10:31:48Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament 330768 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Artikli ġodda (2016)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Aapravasi Ghat]] * [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]] * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] * [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Mena]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]] *[[Afag Bashirgyzy]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agadez]] *[[Agostino Carracci]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]] *[[Aigai]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Akshata Murthy]] *[[Aksum]] *[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]] *[[Al Zubarah]] *[[Al-Maghtas]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Albéric Magnard]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcalá de Henares]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Aleppo]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alexander Pushkin]] *[[Alexander Wolszczan]] *[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alois Dryák]] *[[Alto Douro]] *[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]] *[[Ambohimanga]] *[[Ambra Sabatini]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] *[[Anfibju]] *[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]] *[[Angelina Mango]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Angra do Heroísmo]] * [[Ani]] * [[Anjar]] * [[Anna Brigadere]] * [[Anna Kyriakou]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] *[[Anse aux Meadows]] * [[Antartika]] * [[Anticosti]] * [[Antigua Guatemala]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Anuradhapura]] *[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]] *[[Aporofobija]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arequipa]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]] *[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Art tal-Inċens]] *[[Arthur Schnitzler]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] *[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]] *[[As-Salt]] *[[Asmara]] * [[Assisi]] * [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]] * [[Assur]] * [[Astrofiżika]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Athos]] *[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Ávila]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Baalbek]] * [[Babilonja]] * [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]] * [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]] * [[Baeza]] * [[Bagan]] * [[Baħar l-Abjad]] * [[Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]] *[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]] *[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]] *[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]] *[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Baleron]] *[[Bamberg]] *[[Ban Chiang]] *[[Banská Štiavnica]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Barokk]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Bath, Somerset]] *[[Batlejka]] *[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]] *[[Battir]] *[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Béguinage]] *[[Belintersat-1]] *[[BelKA]] *[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]] *[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]] *[[Belt Projbita]] *[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]] *[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]] *[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Betlem]] *[[Betti Alver]] *[[Burkhan Khaldun]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]] *[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]] *[[BirdLife International]] *[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]] *[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]] *[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]] *[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]] *[[Bobby Charlton]] *[[Bolgar]] *[[Bordeaux]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Bosra]] *[[Bridgetown]] *[[Brook Taylor]] *[[Brú na Bóinne]] *[[Bruno Pizzul]] *[[Bryggen]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]] *[[Bugeddum Armen]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Burt Bacharach]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] *[[Byblos]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Cáceres (Spanja)]] * [[Calakmul]] * [[Camagüey]] * [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]] * [[Campeche]] * [[Canal du Midi]] * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] * [[Carcassonne]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carl David Anderson]] *[[Carl Linnaeus]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Carlo Collodi]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Causses u Cévennes]] *[[Ċellola]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Chakapuli]] *[[Chan Chan]] *[[Changdeokgung]] *[[Chankillo]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charles Richter]] *[[Charles Xuereb]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chavín]] *[[Choeung Ek]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Chilehaus]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Chun Wang]] *[[Cidade Velha]] *[[Cienfuegos]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċirkewwa]] *[[Ċiru l-Kbir]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]] *[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]] *[[Colonia del Sacramento]] *[[Copan]] *[[Córdoba, Spanja]] *[[Coro]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]] *[[Cuenca (Spanja)]] *[[Cueva de las Manos]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Curzio Maltese]] *[[Cusco]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] *[[Cyrene]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daiga Mieriņa]] * [[Damasku]] * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[Danxia]] * [[Darius I]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Dar tal-Kimeri]] *[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]] *[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]] *[[Delos]] *[[Delphi]] *[[Delta ta' Saloum]] *[[Delta ta' Okavango]] *[[Delta tad-Danubju]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Demokrazija]] *[[Dengfeng]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]] *[[Deżert ta' Lut]] *[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]] *[[Dholavira]] *[[Diamantina]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diaolou]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dimitrana Ivanova]] *[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]] *[[Diy-Gid-Biy]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Djémila]] *[[Djerba]] *[[DNA]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Allegri]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Domus de Janas]] *[[Domus Rumana]] *[[Donatello]] *[[Dougga]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edgar Preca]] * [[Edward Sexton]] * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Edward de Bono]] * [[Edwin Hubble]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]] *[[El Escorial]] *[[El Jadida]] *[[El Tajin]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Eladio Dieste]] *[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Elvas]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Essaouira]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Ethel Anderson]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Évora]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]] * [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] * [[Fanjingshan]] * [[Fasil Ghebbi]] * [[Fatehpur Sikri]] * [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]] * [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]] * [[Fehme Agani]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Fernando Botero]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]] *[[Figolla]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Irkanjani]] *[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]] *[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]] *[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]] *[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]] *[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]] *[[Forti l-Aħmar]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Forti ta' Galle]] *[[Forti ta' Ġesù]] *[[Forti ta' Rohtas]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]] *[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]] *[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]] *[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]] *[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]] *[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]] *[[Foss ta' Messel]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Fram2]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[François Girardon]] *[[Francois Mauriac]] *[[Franco Migliacci]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Frank Drake]] *[[Franz Beckenbauer]] *[[Franz Kafka]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Franz von Suppé]] *[[Frawla]] *[[Fray Bentos]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] *[[Frosta tal-Għid]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] * [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]] *[[Fuji]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]] * [[Ġerusalemm]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġnien Persjan]] * [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]] * [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] * [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Gamzigrad]] * [[Gati tal-Punent]] * [[Gebel Barkal]] * [[Geirangerfjord]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[Georg von Békésy]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Ghadamès]] *[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Gigi Riva]] *[[Giorgia Meloni]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giotto]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Boccaccio]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Goffredo Mameli]] *[[Goiás]] *[[Golf ta' California]] *[[Golf ta' Porto]] *[[Gonbad-e Qābus]] *[[Gordion]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Gotiku]] *[[Gozinaki]] *[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]] *[[Grand Pré]] *[[Grand-Bassam]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Greenland]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grotti ta' Longmen]] *[[Grotti ta' Yungang]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Guimarães]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] * [[Gżejjer Marquesas]] * [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]] * [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]] * [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]] * [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]] * [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]] * [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]] * [[Gżira ta' Cocos]] * [[Gżira ta' Fraser]] * [[Gżira ta' Gorée]] * [[Gżira ta' Henderson]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]] *[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]] *[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]] *[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]] *[[Gżira ta' Pico]] *[[Gżira ta' Robben]] *[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]] *[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]] *[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Gorham]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]] *[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]] *[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]] *[[Għarb]] *[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]] *[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]] *[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Ellora]] *[[Għerien ta' Mogao]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għid]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hahoe]] * [[Haley Bugeja]] * [[Halloumi]] * [[Hallstatt]] * [[Hampi]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Sloane]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Harar]] *[[Harry Belafonte]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hatra]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Hawa Mahal]] *[[Hebron]] *[[Hedeby]] *[[Hegmataneh]] *[[Hegra]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]] *[[Henri Fantin-Latour]] *[[Henri Frederic Amiel]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hideki Shirakawa]] *[[Hideki Yukawa]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Höga Kusten]] *[[Hoh Xil]] *[[Hội An]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hollókő]] *[[Hongcun]] *[[Hospicio Cabañas]] *[[Hospital de Sant Pau]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Huangshan]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]] * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] * [[Ħajja]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] *[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]] *[[Ħuta]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Ibn Battuta]] * [[ICOMOS]] * [[Idolu ta' Shigir]] * [[Idrija]] * [[Idrijski žlikrofi]] * [[Ilha Grande]] * [[Il'ja Prigožini]] * [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Independence Hall]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Internet]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]] * [[Iremel]] * [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] * [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] * [[Jaipur]] * [[Jakob Bogdani]] * [[Jan Novák]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jarrod Sammut]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Jebel Faya]] *[[Jeddah]] *[[Jodensavanne]] *[[Joggins]] *[[Johann Christian Bach]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Josef Hoffman]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Joya de Cerén]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Jules Pascin]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Julia Sanina]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julio Baghy]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] *[[Jum Zamenhof]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]] * [[Kairouan]] * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]] *[[Kanal ta' Rideau]] *[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]] *[[Kandy]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karavanseraj Persjani]] *[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Karlskrona]] *[[Karlu III]] *[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]] *[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]] *[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]] *[[Kastell ta' Ankara]] *[[Kastell ta' Durham]] *[[Kastell ta' Himeji]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta' Lubart]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]] *[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]] *[[Kastell ta' Paphos]] *[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]] *[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Amiens]] *[[Katidral ta' Bourges]] *[[Katidral ta' Burgos]] *[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]] *[[Katidral ta' Chartres]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Reims]] *[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katidral ta' Speyer]] *[[Katidral ta' Tournai]] *[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]] *[[Katidral tat-Tlugħ is-Sema tal-Madonna ta' Kiev]] *[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]] *[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] *[[Kaunas]] *[[Kavallier ta' Madara]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] * [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]] * [[KazCosmos]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kerkuane]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Kewkbet is-Safar]] *[[Khafre]] *[[Khami]] *[[Khinalug]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Khor Rori]] *[[Khorramabad]] *[[Khuttal]] *[[Kibbeh]] *[[Kiki Kogelnik]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kizhi Pogost]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] * [[Klondike]] * [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]] * [[Knarik Vardanyan]] * [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]] *[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]] *[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]] *[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]] *[[Knisja ta' Boyana]] *[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Koh Ker]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]] *[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] * [[Konso]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Kotlovina]] *[[Koutammakou]] *[[Krak des Chevaliers]] *[[Krakovja]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Krater ta' Vredefort]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Kreta]] *[[Krisztina Tóth]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]] *[[Kubdari]] *[[Kujataa]] *[[Kulangsu]] *[[Kuldīga]] *[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]] *[[Kultura ta' Chaco]] *[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]] *[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]] *[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]] *[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]] *[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]] *[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]] *[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]] *[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]] *[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]] *[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]] *[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]] *[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]] *[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]] *[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]] *[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]] *[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]] *[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kunya-Urgench]] *[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] * [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]] * [[Lag ta' Baikal]] * [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]] * [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]] * [[Lag ta' Laach]] * [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]] * [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]] * [[Lag ta' Skadar]] * [[Lagi ta' Willandra]] * [[Lake District]] * [[Lamu]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Le Corbusier]] *[[Le Havre]] *[[Le Locle]] *[[Léon Werth]] *[[Leptis Magna]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Lev Davidovich Landau]] * [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] * [[Levuka]] * [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]] * [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lima]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]] *[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]] *[[Liz Truss]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Gafà]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Luang Prabang]] *[[Lübeck]] *[[Luca Parmitano]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lucia Piussi]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]] *[[Ludovico Ariosto]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Galvani]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Luna 26]] *[[Lunenburg]] *[[Lvant ta' Rennell]] *[[Lviv]] *[[Lyon]] *[[Lyubov Panchenko]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Maċedonit]] * [[Machu Picchu]] * [[Madinat Al-Zahra]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] *[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]] *[[Maison Carrée]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Margaret Abela]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Maria Grollmuß]] *[[Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Mário Zagallo]] *[[Marrakesh]] *[[Marta Kos]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Chronopoulou]] *[[Mary Fenech Adami]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Masada]] *[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]] *[[Maurizio Costanzo]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Maymand]] *[[Mbanza Kongo]] *[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Medina ta' Sousse]] *[[Mehmet Ali Ağca]] *[[Melka Kunture]] *[[Mérida (Spanja)]] *[[Merill]] *[[Meroe]] *[[Merv]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Michael Refalo]] *[[Michail Glinka]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mileva Filipović]] *[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minaret ta' Jam]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]] *[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Miroslav Řepa]] *[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]] *[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]] *[[Mnajdra]] *[[Modena]] *[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]] *[[Moidam]] *[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]] *[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]] *[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]] *[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]] *[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]] *[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]] *[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]] *[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]] *[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]] *[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]] *[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]] *[[Monasteru ta' Rila]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]] *[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]] *[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Møns Klint]] *[[Mont-Saint-Michel]] *[[Monte Albán]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] *[[Monte Titano]] *[[Monticello]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]] * [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]] * [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]] * [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]] *[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]] *[[Morelia]] *[[Moritz Cantor]] *[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]] *[[Moskea tat-Tatari]] *[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]] *[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Mramorje]] *[[Mtskheta]] *[[Mtsvane]] *[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanja Pelée]] *[[Muntanja Qingcheng]] *[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]] *[[Muntanja Wutai]] *[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]] *[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]] *[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]] *[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Muntanji Wudang]] *[[Muntanji Wuyi]] *[[Mużew Brittaniku]] *[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]] *[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Myśliwska]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nærøyfjord]] * [[Nadur]] * [[Naftalan]] * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nalanda Mahavihara]] * [[Namhansanseong]] * [[Nancy]] * [[Nan Madol]] *[[Napli]] *[[Naryn-Kala]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]] *[[Nekropoli]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[Nessebar]] *[[New Lanark]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolas Flamel]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nida]] *[[Nika Križnar]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nil]] *[[Nino Ramishvili]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Nizza]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]] * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Olinda]] *[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]] *[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]] *[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]] *[[Orthohantavirus]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]] *[[Osun-Osogbo]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] *[[Ouro Preto]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pablo Neruda]] * [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]] * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]] * [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]] * [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] * [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]] * [[Pál Maléter]] * [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz Mariinskyi]] *[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]] *[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]] *[[Palazz ta' Golestan]] *[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]] *[[Palazz ta' Mafra]] *[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]] *[[Palazz ta' Potala]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazz ta' Versailles]] *[[Palazz tal-Khan]] *[[Palazz tas-Sajf]] *[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]] *[[Palazzi Minojċi]] *[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palenque]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Palmaria]] *[[Palmyra]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Panamá Viejo]] *[[Papa Ljun XIV]] *[[Papahānaumokuākea]] *[[Paquimé]] *[[Paramaribo]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]] *[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]] *[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]] *[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]] *[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]] *[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]] *[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Pasargadae]] *[[Paseo del Prado]] *[[Patoloġija]] *[[Pattadakal]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pécs]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Peniżola Valdés]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]] *[[Persepolis]] *[[Peter Carl Fabergé]] *[[Péter Magyar]] *[[Pëtr Kapica]] *[[Petra]] *[[Petra Brocková]] *[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]] *[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Philippi]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pietru l-Kbir]] *[[Pimachiowin Aki]] *[[Ping Yao]] *[[Pippo Baudo]] *[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]] *[[Pitons]] *[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]] *[[Pjanta]] *[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]] *[[Pjazza]] *[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] * [[Pkhali]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]] *[[Pobiti Kamani]] *[[Politika]] *[[Polonnaruwa]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Pont tal-Fjuri]] *[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port Ħieles ta' Malta]] *[[Port Royal]] *[[Port ta' Mariupol]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Porto]] *[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]] *[[Potosí]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Prambanan]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Proklos]] *[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]] *[[Provins]] *[[Pu'er]] *[[Puebla (belt)]] *[[Pythagoreion]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qabar ta' Askia]] * [[Qabar ta' Humayun]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]] * [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]] * [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]] * [[Qala (Għawdex)]] * [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]] * [[Qalhat]] * [[Qanat]] * [[Qaryat al-Faw]] * [[Qaytarma]] * [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quanzhou]] * [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]] * [[Quedlinburg]] * [[Quirigua]] * [[Quito]] * [[Quseir Amra]] * [[Qutb Minar]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Rachid Chouhal]] * [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]] * [[Rammelsberg]] * [[Ramses II]] * [[Rani-ki-Vav]] * [[Ras'ken' Ozks]] * [[Ravenna]] * [[Ravesa Lleshi]] * [[Red Bay]] * [[Regensburg]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] * [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rettilu]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Risco Caído]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]] *[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Darwin]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]] *[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]] *[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]] *[[Robert Fico]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] *[[Roberto Burle Marx]] *[[Rodi (belt)]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Roșia Montană]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Røros]] * [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]] * [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Royal Exhibition Building]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Sabratha]] * [[Saeva Dupka]] * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]] *[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]] *[[Salme Kann]] *[[Saltaire]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[Samarra]] *[[Sambor Prei Kuk]] *[[Sammallahdenmäki]] *[[Samuel Deguara]] *[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]] *[[San Miguel de Allende]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sana'a]] *[[Sanchi]] *[[Sandra Milo]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Sangiran]] *[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santiago de Querétaro]] *[[Santiniketan]] *[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]] *[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]] *[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]] *[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] *[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]] *[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]] *[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]] *[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]] *[[São Cristóvão]] *[[São Luís]] *[[Sarazm]] *[[Sardis]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] * [[Satsivi]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Segovia]] *[[Seka Sablić]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Sevil Shhaideh]] *[[Sewell]] *[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]] *[[SGang Gwaay]] *[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Shaken Aimanov]] *[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]] *[[Sheki]] *[[Shennongjia]] *[[Shibam]] *[[Shirakami-Sanchi]] *[[Shiretoko]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Šibenik]] *[[Sibila Petlevski]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siega Verde]] *[[Siena]] *[[Sighișoara]] *[[Sigiriya]] *[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]] *[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]] *[[Sikhote-Alin]] *[[Simon Kldiashvili]] *[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]] *[[Sinéad O'Connor]] *[[Sintra]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]] *[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]] *[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]] *[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]] *[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]] *[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]] *[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]] *[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]] *[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]] *[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]] *[[Siti tat-Tusi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]] *[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]] *[[Skorba]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Slavko Brezoski]] *[[Socotra]] *[[Soltaniyeh]] *[[Songo Mnara]] *[[Sophia Loren]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Sophie Liebknecht]] *[[Söyembikä]] *[[Speicherstadt]] *[[Spinalonga]] *[[Sputnik 5]] *[[Stari Ras]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stepan Erzya]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Stone Town]] *[[Strett ta' Hormuz]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Subak]] *[[Sulaiman-Too]] *[[Sundarbans]] *[[Supra (festa)]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] *[[Surtsey]] *[[Susa]] *[[Svaneti]] *[[Svetlana Antonovska]] *[[Sviyazhsk]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Ħaġrat]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Tadrart Acacus]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taishan]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Takalik Abaj]] *[[Takht-e Soleyman]] *[[Takht-i-Bahi]] *[[Takkanot Shum]] *[[Taksim]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tamgaly]] *[[Tanġier]] *[[Taos Pueblo]] *[[Taputapuātea]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]] *[[Tassili n'Ajjer]] *[[Taxila]] *[[Tchogha Zanbil]] *[[Te Wahipounamu]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]] *[[Tebe (Eġittu)]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] *[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] * [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]] *[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]] *[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] *[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]] *[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]] *[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]] *[[Teotihuacan]] *[[Tequila (Belt)]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] * [[Tétouan]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Theobald Boehm]] *[[Theodore Géricault]] *[[Thimlich Ohinga]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Thoros ta' Edessa]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] * [[Timbuktu]] * [[Timgad]] * [[Tina Turner]] * [[Tinetto]] * [[Tino]] * [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]] *[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]] *[[Tipasa]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tiwanaku]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Toledo]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Tomiri]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Torri ta' Londra]] *[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]] *[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]] *[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trinidad, Kuba]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tsodilo]] *[[Tubeteika]] *[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]] *[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]] *[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]] *[[Turan]] *[[Tutankhamun]] *[[Twyfelfontein]] *[[Tyre]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Úbeda]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[Umm Al-Jimāl]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Università Iżlamika Russa]] *[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]] *[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]] *[[Università ta' Coimbra]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Vasco da Gama]] *[[Vat Phou]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Venera 7]] *[[Verona]] *[[Via Appia]] *[[Victoria Amelina]] *[[Vigan]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]] *[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]] *[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Vlkolínec]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Volubilis]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] *[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] * [[Wadi Al-Hitan]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Wales]] *[[Weimar Klassika]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]] *[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Loire]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied ta' M'zab]] *[[Wied ta' Qadisha]] *[[Wied ta' Viñales]] *[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[Willemstad]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wismar]] *[[Władysław Horodecki]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xanadu]] * [[Xanthos]] * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xerxes I]] *[[Xidi]] *[[Xmara Omo]] *[[Xochicalco]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] *[[Xtatol]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yagul]] * [[Yakushima]] * [[Yana Zinkevych]] * [[Yangdong]] * [[Yarmak]] * [[Yaroslavl]] * [[Yazd]] * [[Yeni-Kale]] * [[Yin Xu]] * [[Yllka Mujo]] * [[Yogyakarta]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żapoteki]] * [[Żejt]] * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] * [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]] *[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]] *[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]] *[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zabid]] * [[Zacatecas (belt)]] * [[Zagori]] * [[Zamość]] * [[Žatec]] * [[Žehra]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] * [[Zivana]] * [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] *[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]] mgm7045ouuk6lal32dol3ib6c7qvh2h 0 34489 330775 330650 2026-06-29T11:56:05Z MargaritaPLV 28281 Applied licensed Maltese proofreader's language edits to the draft 330775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Kumpanija Dotcom | isem_kumpanija = ROZIE APP | tip_kumpanija = kumpanija b’responsabbiltà limitata | ġeneru = applikazzjoni mobbli u pjattaforma online | fundazzjoni = 10 ta’ Frar 2023<ref name="firmas">{{ċita web |titlu=ROZIE APP, Limited Liability Company, 40203461450 |url=https://www.firmas.lv/en/companies/rozie-app/40203461450 |sit=Firmas.lv |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> | lokalità = [[Aizkraukle]], [[Latvja]] | żona_servizz = [[Malta]] | industrija = teknoloġija tal-informazzjoni; servizzi ta’ tindif | prodotti = applikazzjoni mobbli | servizzi = pjattaforma għall-ibbukkjar ta’ servizzi ta’ tindif | proprjetarju = SIA "ROZIE APP"<ref name="terms">{{ċita web |titlu=Terms and Conditions |url=https://rozie.app/terms-and-conditions/ |sit=Rozie |data=12 Mejju 2026 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> | url = [https://rozie.app/ rozie.app] | tip_sit = suq online | reġistrazzjoni = 40203461450<ref name="firmas" /> | pubblikata = Ottubru 2024<ref name="lrpv-detail">{{ċita web |titlu=Candidates for Trademark of Year 2025 main award in the first quarter: Rozie and Uzars |url=https://www.lrpv.gov.lv/en/article/candidates-trademark-year-2025-main-award-first-quarter-rozie-and-uzars |pubblikatur=Latvijas Republikas Patentu valde |data=28 April 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> | stat_attwali = attiva }} '''Rozie''' hija applikazzjoni mobbli u pjattaforma online għall-ibbukkjar ta’ servizzi ta’ tindif. Il-pjattaforma ġiet żviluppata minn professjonisti tal-IT [[Latvja|Latvjani]] u topera primarjament fis-suq [[Malta|Malti]]. Il-kumpanija ROZIE APP twaqqfet fl-2023, l-applikazzjoni mobbli tnediet f’Ottubru 2024, u Malta kienet is-suq ewlieni magħżul mill-kumpanija.<ref name="lrpv-detail" /> == Sfond == SIA "ROZIE APP" hija kumpanija b’responsabbiltà limitata reġistrata fil-Latvja fl-10 ta’ Frar 2023, bin-numru ta’ reġistrazzjoni 40203461450 u l-indirizz legali f’Aizkraukle.<ref name="firmas" /> Rozie topera bħala suq diġitali li jlaqqa’ klijenti li jitolbu servizzi ta’ tindif ma’ persuni li joffru dawk is-servizzi. Il-pjattaforma tipprovdi l-ibbukkjar, tiffaċilita l-ħlas u tagħti servizz ta’ għajnuna lill-klijenti, iżda ma tipprovdix direttament is-servizzi ta’ tindif.<ref name="terms" /> Malta ntgħażlet bħala l-ewwel suq ta’ din il-pjattaforma minħabba d-daqs tas-suq, l-użu mifrux tal-lingwa Ingliża u l-possibbiltà li t-tmexxija u l-għajnuna lill-klijenti jingħataw mil-Latvja.<ref name="delfi">{{ċita aħbar |kunjom=Zoldnere |isem=Taira |titlu=Soli pa solim – Latvijas jaunuzņēmums sāk apgūt Amerikas tirgu |url=https://www.delfi.lv/bizness/44467736/tehnologijas/120100551/soli-pa-solim-latvijas-jaunuznemums-sak-apgut-amerikas-tirgu |url-aċċess=subscription |pubblikazzjoni=Delfi Plus |data=28 Diċembru 2025 |lingwa=lv |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="labs-en">{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Rozie, a cleaning service platform founded in Latvia, conquers the Maltese market |url=https://labsoflatvia.com/en/inspirational-stories/rozie-a-cleaning-service-platform-founded-in-latvia-conquers-the-maltese-market |pubblikazzjoni=Labs of Latvia |data=19 Novembru 2024 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="labs-lv">{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Rozie kā pirmo tirgu izvēlas Maltu |url=https://labsoflatvia.com/aktuali/rozie-ka-pirmo-tirgu-izvelas-maltu/ |pubblikazzjoni=Labs of Latvia |data=21 Novembru 2024 |lingwa=lv |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> == L-istorja tal-kumpanija == Dainis Duļbinskis kien l-ewwel li ħareġ b’din l-idea, u huwa ko-fundatur u ko-proprjetarju ta’ Rozie App.<ref name="delfi" /><ref name="db-portrait">{{ċita aħbar |kunjom=Vilciņa |isem=Armanda |titlu=Portrets - Rozie radītājs un līdzīpašnieks Dainis Duļbinskis |url=https://db.lv/zinas/portrets-iroziei-raditajs-un-lidzipasnieks-dainis-dulbinskis |url-aċċess=subscription |pubblikazzjoni=Dienas Bizness |data=16 Ġunju 2026 |paġni=42–43 |lingwa=lv |data-aċċess=21 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> L-iżvilupp tal-applikazzjoni beda fl-2023, u l-prodott tnieda f’Malta fl-1 ta’ Ottubru 2024.<ref name="delfi" /> Fit-twaqqif ta’ Rozie, it-tim kien magħmul minn Dainis Duļbinskis, Aleksandrs Tuļs u Edgars Veigurs. Duļbinskis kien il-Kap Eżekuttiv, Tuļs kien responsabbli għall-finanzi u l-iżvilupp strateġiku, u Veigurs kien id-Direttur Tekniku.<ref name="delfi" /> == L-operat f’Malta == Il-pjattaforma tlaqqa’ flimkien talbiet għal xogħol ta’ tindif u offerti minn dawk li jipprovdu s-servizzi. Il-klijenti jistgħu jagħmlu talbiet għal xogħol, il-fornituri jibagħtu l-offerti, u wara li jingħata s-servizz iż-żewġ naħat ikunu jistgħu jħallu reviews.<ref name="bt">{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Rozie hits 10,000 users: Malta’s top cleaning app thrives |url=https://www.businesstoday.com.mt/business/business/2962/rozie_hits_10000_users_maltas_top_cleaning_app_thrives |pubblikazzjoni=BusinessToday Malta |data=9 Mejju 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="maltatoday">{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Cleaning house just got easier: Meet Rozie, Malta’s cleaning app |url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/business/tech/134866/cleaning_house_just_got_easier_meet_rozie_maltas_cleaning_app |pubblikazzjoni=MaltaToday |data=14 Mejju 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="times">{{ċita aħbar |titlu=Cleaning just got easier: Rozie is Malta’s cleaning app that puts you in control |url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/cleaning-got-easier-rozie-malta-cleaning-app-puts-control-a2.1110396 |pubblikazzjoni=Times of Malta |data=27 Mejju 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> Sa Mejju 2025, in-numru ta’ dawk li kellhom kont reġistrat ma’ Rozie qabeż l-10,000.<ref name="bt" /> F’dan il-perjodu, il-pjattaforma kienet attiva f’Malta bħala applikazzjoni biex jiġu bbukkjati servizzi ta’ tindif.<ref name="maltatoday" /><ref name="times" /> == Żvilupp u kummerċjalizzazzjoni == Wara t-tnedija f’Ottubru 2024, Rozie kienet disponibbli fuq Apple Store u Google Play u bdiet kampanja kummerċjali fuq Google Ads.<ref name="marketingsherpa">{{ċita web |kunjom=Burstein |isem=Daniel |titlu=Influencer Trust Marketing: How home cleaning marketplace app increased purchases 4.9x with social media collabs |url=https://marketingsherpa.com/article/case-study/influencer |sit=MarketingSherpa |data=5 Ġunju 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> F’Malta, saret kampanja b’influencers u reklami fuq il-kartuna tal-ħalib li kienet segwita minn żieda fin-numru ta’ persuni li installaw l-applikazzjoni minn madwar 3,600 fix-xahar għal madwar 6,500 fix-xahar.<ref name="marketingsherpa" /> == Għajnuna u pjanijiet ta’ espansjoni == Il-kumpanija rċeviet għajnuna minn LIAA għall-iżvilupp tal-website.<ref name="delfi" /> Sal-aħħar tal-2025, il-kumpanija kienet irreġistrat l-isem Rozie App, Inc. fid-Delaware u kienet qed tħejji biex taddatta l-prodott għas-suq Amerikan.<ref name="delfi" /> == Trademark == Fl-2025, ROZIE kienet fost il-kandidati tal-ewwel kwart tas-sena għall-premju "Trademark of the Year 2025" fil-kategorija "Trademark of the Year for the European Union" tal-Uffiċċju tal-Privattivi tal-Latvja.<ref name="lrpv-detail" /> Il-marka tal-Unjoni Ewropea ROZIE, bin-numru 019116762, hija kkwotata bħala trademark ta’ ROZIE APP, LLC.<ref name="lrpv-nominees">{{ċita web |titlu=Well-known Latvian brands among first nominees for Trademark of Year 2025 award |url=https://www.lrpv.gov.lv/en/article/well-known-latvian-brands-among-first-nominees-trademark-year-2025-award |pubblikatur=Latvijas Republikas Patentu valde |data=25 April 2025 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="euipo">{{ċita web |titlu=EUIPO eSearch: ROZIE, 019116762 |url=https://euipo.europa.eu/eSearch/#details/trademarks/019116762 |sit=European Union Intellectual Property Office |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=16 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> Fl-Istati Uniti, l-applikazzjoni għal trademark ROZIE għandha n-numru tas-serje USPTO 99429982.<ref name="uspto-tsdr">{{ċita web |titlu=Trademark Status and Document Retrieval: ROZIE, serial number 99429982 |url=https://tsdr.uspto.gov/#caseNumber=99429982&caseSearchType=US_APPLICATION&caseType=DEFAULT&searchType=statusSearch |sit=United States Patent and Trademark Office |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=16 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> L-applikazzjoni ġiet ippubblikata fit-''Trademark Official Gazette'' tal-USPTO fil-5 ta’ Mejju 2026.<ref name="uspto-tmog">{{ċita web |titlu=USPTO Trademark Official Gazette: ROZIE, serial number 99429982 |url=https://tmog.uspto.gov/search/single-case-view?serialNumber=99429982&issueDate=2026-05-05 |sit=Trademark Official Gazette |pubblikatur=United States Patent and Trademark Office |data=5 Mejju 2026 |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=16 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> == Disponibbiltà == L-applikazzjoni Rozie tinsab fuq Google Play u fuq l-App Store ta’ Apple.<ref name="googleplay">{{ċita web |titlu=Rozie - Cleaning Services |url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?hl=en&id=com.rozie.app |sit=Google Play |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref><ref name="appstore">{{ċita web |titlu=Rozie - Cleaning Services |url=https://apps.apple.com/mt/app/rozie-cleaning-services/id6479990769 |sit=Apple App Store |lingwa=en |data-aċċess=15 Ġunju 2026}}</ref> == Referenzi == <references /> == Ħoloq esterni == * [https://rozie.app/ Sit uffiċjali] k7g308130xm16g436z0tgralm4v0ikh 0 34492 330750 330749 2026-06-28T12:36:32Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Faragħuni]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Darius I''' (bil-Persjan Antik: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 ''Dārayavaʰuš''; <abbr>twieled għall-ħabta tal-</abbr>550 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. u miet fl-486 Q.K.), magħruf ukoll bħala '''Darius''' '''il-Kbir''', kien it-tielet Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, u rrenja mill-522 Q.K. sa [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-486 Q.K. Huwa rrenja fuq l-imperu fil-quċċata territorjali tiegħu, meta kien jinkludi l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Punent tal-[[Asja]], partijiet mill-Balkani (Traċja–Maċedonja u Peonja) u l-Kawkasu, il-biċċa l-kbira mir-reġjuni kostali tal-[[Baħar l-Iswed]], l-Asja Ċentrali, il-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant Imbiegħed, u partijiet mit-Tramuntana tal-[[Afrika]] u mill-Grigal tal-Afrika, inkluż l-[[Eġittu]] (''Mudrâya''), il-Lvant tal-[[Libja]] u l-kosta tas-[[Sudan]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dagestan/|titlu=DĀḠESTĀN|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-06-28}}</ref><ref>Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). ''The Making of the Georgian Nation''. Indiana University Press. ISBN <bdi>978-0-253-20915-3</bdi>.</ref><ref>Durant, Will (1954). ''Our Oriental Heritage being a history of civilization in Egypt and the Near East to the death of Alexander, and in India, China and Japan from the beginnings to our own day''. The Story of Civilization (Volume 1 ed.). [[Belt ta' New York|New York]]: Simon and Schuster. ISBN <bdi>978-0-671-54800-1</bdi>. p. 355.</ref> Darius tela' fuq it-tron wara li għeleb lill-monarka tal-Akemenidi Bardija (jew ''Smerdis''), li skontu kien impostur imsejjaħ Gaumata. Ir-re l-ġdid ħabbat wiċċu ma' ribelljonijiet madwar l-imperu kollu iżda għelibhom kollha; avveniment ewlieni tal-karriera ta' Darius deskritt fl-istorjografija [[Greċja|Griega]] kienet l-ispedizzjoni punittiva kontra [[Ateni]] u Eretrija talli ħadu sehem fir-Rewwixta tal-Baħar Joniku. Darius organizza l-imperu billi qasmu f'provinċji amministrattivi, kull waħda ggvernata minn ''satrap''. Huwa organizza l-muniti tal-Akemenidi bħala sistema monetarja uniformi ġdida, u għażel l-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala [[lingwa]] kouffiċjali tal-imperu flimkien mal-Persjan Antik. Huwa wassal biex l-imperu jkollu qagħda aħjar billi tejjeb it-toroq u introduċa piżijiet u kejliet standard. Permezz ta' dawn il-bidliet, l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi sar ċentralizzat u unifikat.<ref>Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). ''Worlds Together, Worlds Apart concise edition vol.1''. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 132. ISBN <bdi>978-0-393-25093-0</bdi>.</ref> Darius wettaq proġetti oħra ta' kostruzzjoni fl-imperu kollu, u ffoka primarjament fuq [[Susa]], [[Pasargadae]], [[Persepolis]], il-[[Babilonja]] u l-Eġittu. Huwa ordna t-tinqix ta' kitba fuq wiċċ l-irdum tal-Għolja ta' Behistun biex jirreġistra l-konkwisti tiegħu, li iktar 'il quddiem saret evidenza importanti tal-lingwa Persjana Antika. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Dārīus'' u ''Dārēus'' huma l-forom bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] tal-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]] ''Dareîos'' (Δαρεῖος), li nibtet mill-Persjan Antik ''Dārayauš'' (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁, ''d-a-r-y-uš''); li hija forma mqassra ta' ''Dārayavaʰuš'' (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, ''d-a-r-y-v-u-š''). Il-forma itwal bil-Persjan hija riflessa fil-forom bl-Elamit ''Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš'', bil-Babiloniż ''Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš'', u bl-Aramajk ''drywhwš'' (𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔), u x'aktarx fil-forma itwal bil-Grieg, ''Dareiaîos'' (Δαρειαῖος). L-isem fil-forma nominattiva jfisser "dak li għandu ħakma tajba tat-tajjeb (tjubija)", li toħroġ fid-dieher mill-ewwel parti ''dāraya'', li tfisser "detentur", u l-avverbju ''vau'', li jfisser "tajjeb" jew "tjubija". == Sorsi primarji == F'xi żmien bejn l-inkurunazzjoni tiegħu u [[Mewt|mewtu]], Darius ħalla riljiev trilingwi monumentali mal-Għolja ta' Behistun, imnaqqax bl-Elamit, bil-Persjan Antik u bil-Babiloniż. It-tinqix jibda b'awtobijografija qasira li tinkludi lil missirijietu u l-arblu tar-razza tiegħu. Sabiex tgħinu fil-preżentazzjoni ta' missirijietu, Darius kiteb is-sekwenza ta' avvenimenti li seħħew wara l-mewt ta' [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Darius isemmi diversi drabli li huwa r-re denju bil-grazzja tad-divinità suprema Ahura Mazda. Instabu wkoll testi u monumenti oħra minn Persepolis, kif ukoll tavla tat-tafal bil-kitba kunejformi bil-Persjan Antik ta' Darius minn Gherla, ir-[[Rumanija]] (Harmatta) u ittra mingħand Darius lil Gadates, ippreservata f'test Grieg ta' żmien ir-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]]. Fit-tavli tal-pedamenti tal-Palazz ta' Apadana, Darius iddeskriva bil-kitba kunejformi bil-Persjan Antik, il-kobor tal-imperu tiegħu f'termini [[Ġeografija|ġeografiċi]] wesgħin:<blockquote>''Darius ir-re kbir, re tar-rejiet, re tal-pajjiżi, iben Hystaspes, Akemenid. Ir-re Darius jgħid: Dan huwa r-renju tiegħi, mill-poplu Sacae lil hinn minn Sogdia sal-poplu Kush, u mis-Sind (bil-Persjan Antik: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", lokattiv ta' "Hiduš", jiġifieri l-"Wied tal-Indus") lil Lidja (bil-Persjan Antik: "Spardâ") – [dan huwa] dak li tani Ahuramazda, l-ikbar fost l-allat. J'Alla Ahuramazda jħares lili u r-residenza rjali tiegħi!''</blockquote>— kitba mnaqqxa ta' Darius I fil-pedamenti tal-Palazz ta' Apadana. [[Stampa:DNa Inscription Dārayavauš.jpg|daqsminuri|Isem Darius I bil-kitba kunejformi bil-Persjan Antik fuq il-qabar tiegħu: ''Dārayavauš'' (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁).]] Erodotu, storiku Grieg u l-awtur ta' ''L-Istorji'', ipprovda rendikont ta' bosta rejiet Persjani u l-Gwerer bejn il-Griegi u l-Persjani. Huwa kiteb b'mod estensiv dwar Darius, f'nofs il-Ktieb Nru 3 u l-Kotba Nri 4, 5 u 6. Jibda bit-tneħħija ta' Gaumata li allegatament ħa l-poter b'mod illegali u jkompli sa tmiem ir-renju ta' Darius. == Ħajja bikrija == Darius kien l-ikbar fost ħames ulied subien ta' Hystaspes. L-identitià ta' ommu mhix ċerta. Skont l-istoriku modern Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1994), kien maħsub li omm Darius kienet [[mara]] msejħa Rhodogune. Madankollu, skont Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (2013), testi li nstabu reċentement f'Persepolis jindikaw li ommu kienet Irdabama, sid tal-artijiet affluwenti minn familja ta' mexxejja Elamiti lokali. B'mod simili, Richard Stoneman jirreferi għal Irdabama bħala omm Darius. Il-kitba mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun ta' Darius tistqarr li missieru kien is-satrap ta' Baktrija fil-522 Q.K. Skont Erodotu (III.139), Darius, qabel ma ħataf il-poter u "bla konsegwenza f'dak iż-żmien", kien ġellied bil-lanza (''doryphoros'') fil-kampanja militari Eġizzjana (528–525 Q.K.) ta' Cambyses II, re kbir Persjan ta' dak iż-żmien; spiss dan jiġi interpretat li jfisser li huwa kellu r-rwol importanti li jżomm il-lanez personali tar-re. Hystaspes kien uffiċjal fl-armata ta' Ċiru u nobbli tal-qorti tiegħu; skont il-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun, Hystapes kien sekondokuġin ta' Ċiru min-naħa ta' missieru, għalkemm dan jaf ġie vvintat sabiex l-aċċess għat-tron ta' Darius ikun leġittimu. Qabel ma' Ċiru u l-armata tiegħu qasmu x-xmara Araxes biex jiġġieldu kontra l-[[Armenja|Armeni]], huwa għamel lil ibnu Cambyses II bħala r-re f'każ li ma jerġax lura mill-battalja. Ladarba Ċiru qasam ix-xmara Aras, huwa ra xbieha fejn Darius kellu l-ġwienaħ fuq spallejh u kien jinsab fil-konfini tal-Ewropa u tal-Asja (id-dinja magħrufa f'dak iż-żmien). Meta Ċiru qam mill-ħolma, huwa interpretaha bħala periklu kbir għas-sigurtà futura tal-imperu, peress li kienet tfisser li Darius xi darba kien se jirrenja fuq id-dinja kollha. Madankollu, ibnu Cambyses kien l-eredi tat-tron, mhux Darius, u b'hekk Ċiru beda jara jekk Darius kellux pjanijiet ambizzjużi u ta' tradiment. Dan wassal biex Ċiru jordna lil Hystaspes biex imur lura lejn Persis u joqgħod għassa b'mod strett fuq ibnu, sar-ritorn ta' Ċiru. === Aċċess għat-tron === [[Stampa:Lineage of Darius the Great.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|In-nisel ta' Darius il-Kbir skont il-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun.]] Jeżistu rakkonti differenti dwar l-aċċess għat-tron ta' Darius kemm mingħand Darius stess kif ukoll mingħand l-istoriċi Griegi. L-eqdem rekords jirrapportaw kobba mħabbla ta' avvenimenti li fihom Cambyses II tilef ir-raġuni, ordna li ħuh Bardiya jinqatel, u miet minħabba ferita infettata f'riġel. Wara dan, Darius u grupp ta' sitt nobbli vvjaġġaw lejn Sikayauvati biex joqtlu lil Gaumata, li kien ħa t-tron taparsi Bardiya fl-assenza tar-re. Ir-rakkont ta' Darius, imnaqqax mal-Għolja ta' Behistun, jiddikjara li Cambyses II qatel lil ħuh stess, Bardiya, iżda li din il-qtil ma kienx magħruf fost il-poplu Iranjan. Gaumata allegatament tela' fuq it-tron b'mod illegali u gideb lin-nies, taparsi kien Bardiya. L-Iranjani bdew jirribellaw kontra t-tmexxija ta' Cambyses, u fil-11 ta' Marzu 522 Q.K., faqqgħet rewwixta kontra Cambyses fl-assenza tiegħu. Fl-1 ta' Lulju, il-poplu Iranjan għażel li jkun taħt it-tmexxija ta' Gaumata, bħala "Bardiya". L-ebda membru tal-familja Akemenida ma tkellem kontra Gaumata għax beżgħu għal ħajjithom. Darius, li kien iġorr il-lanez irjali ta' Cambyses sal-mewt tar-re depost, talab għall-għajnuna, u f'Settembru 522 Q.K., flimkien ma' Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus u Aspathines, qatel lil Gaumata fil-fortizza ta' Sikayauvati. Erodotu jipprovdi rakkont dubjuż dwar l-aċċess għat-tron ta' Darius: diversi jiem wara l-qtil ta' Gaumata, Darius u sitt nobbli oħra ddiskutew dwar id-destin tal-imperu. Għall-ewwel, is-seba' ddiskutew dwar il-forma ta' governanza: repubblika demokratika (''Isonomia'') ġiet appoġġata bil-kbir minn Otanes, oligarkija ġiet appoġġata minn Megabyzus, filwaqt li Darius kien favur monarkija. Wara li stqarr li repubblika kienet twassal għall-korruzzjoni u għall-ġlied intern, filwaqt li monarka kien jiggverna b'għerf perfett, u jaħbi bl-aħjar mod il-pjanijiet biex jingħelbu l-għedewwa, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx possibbli skontu b'governanzi oħra, Darius irnexxielu jikkonvinċi lil erba' mis-seba' nobbli. [[Stampa:The Darius seal. Darius stands in a royal chariot below Ahura Mazda and shoots arrows at a rampant lion. From Thebes, Egypt. 6th-5th century BCE. British Museum (cropped).jpg|daqsminuri|Il-marka fuq it-tafal ta' siġill ċilindriku tar-Re Darius il-Kbir jikkaċċja fuq karru, bil-kitba "Jien Darius, ir-Re Kbir" bil-Persjan Antik (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "''adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya''"), bl-Elamit u bil-Babiloniż. Il-kelma "kbir" tidher biss bil-Babiloniż. Din it-tavla tat-tafal tinsab fil-[[Mużew Brittaniku]] u ġiet skavata f'[[Tebe (Eġittu)|Tebe]], l-Eġittu.]] Sabiex tittieħed deċiżjoni rigward min kien se jsir il-monarka, sitta minnhom iddeċidew li jsir test, u Otanes astjena, peress li ma kellux interess isir re. Huma kellhom jinġabru barra l-palazz, rekbin iż-[[Żiemel|żwiemel]] tagħhom maż-żerniq, u skont liema żiemel jiżher l-ewwel ma' tlugħ ix-xemx, is-sid tiegħu kellu jsir ir-re. Skont Erodotu, Darius kellu [[Skjavitù|skjav]], Oebares, li ħakk idu fuq il-ġenitali ta' debba ta' Darius. Meta s-sitta nġabru, Oebares poġġa idu qrib imnieħer iż-żiemel ta' Darius, li eċita ruħu mar-riħa u beda jiżher. Dan ġie segwit minn sajjetti u ragħad, u b'hekk l-oħrajn niżlu minn fuq iż-żwiemel u niżlu għarkopptejhom quddiem Darius bħala rikonoxximent tal-provvidenza divina favur Darius. Fir-rakkont tiegħu, Darius stess sostna li kiseb it-tron mhux permezz ta' frodi, iżda b'mod makakk, u saħansitra tella' [[statwa]] tiegħu nnifsu riekeb iż-żiemel jiżher tiegħu bil-kitba mnaqqxa: "Darius, iben Hystaspes, kiseb is-sovranità tal-Persja bil-ħila taż-żiemel tiegħu u bl-għajnuna makakka ta' Oebares, l-iskjav tiegħu". Skont ir-rakkonti tal-istoriċi Griegi, Cambyses II kien ħalla lil Patizeithes fit-tmun tar-renju meta mar lejn l-Eġittu. Iktar 'il quddiem huwa bagħat lil Prexaspes biex joqtol lil Bardiya. Wara l-qtil, Patizeithes poġġa lil ħuh Gaumata, Magjan li kien jixbah lil Bardiya, fuq it-tron u ddikjarah bħala Re Kbir. Otanes skopra li Gaumata kien impostur, u flimkien ma' sitt nobbli Iranjani oħra, inkluż Darius, ħejja pjan biex jegħleb lill-psewdo-Bardiya. Wara l-qtil tal-impostur flimkien ma' ħuh Patizeithes u Magjani oħra, Darius ġie inkurunat re l-għada filgħodu. Id-dettalji rigward l-aċċess għat-tron ta' Darius huma ġeneralment rikonoxxuti bħala qerq li ntuża biex jingħeleb u jinqatel is-suċċessur ta' Cyrus, Bardiya. Sabiex jilleġittima t-tmexxija tiegħu, Darius kellu oriġini komuni vvintata bejnu u Ċiru billi ddeżinja lil Achaemenes bħala l-fundatur tad-dinastija tagħhom. Fil-verità, Darius ma kienx jagħmel parti mill-familja ta' Ċiru u tan-nisel tiegħu, il-mexxejja ta' Anshan. == Renju bikri == [[Stampa:Darius.jpg|daqsminuri|Darius il-Kbir ta' [[Eugène Flandin]] (1840).]] === Rewwixti bikrin === Wara l-inkurunazzjoni tiegħu f'Pasargadae, Darius ittrasferixxa ruħu f'[[Ecbatana]]. F'qasir żmien sar jaf li Bardiya kellu appoġġ qawwi, u li faqqgħu rewwixtri f'Elam u fil-Babilonja. Darius temm ir-rewwixta tal-Elamiti meta l-mexxej rivoluzzjonarju nħataf u ġie ġustizzjat f'[[Susa]]. Wara 3 xhur, ir-rewwixta fil-Babilonja ntemmet. Sakemm kien fil-Babilonja, Darius sar jaf li kienet faqqgħet rivoluzzjoni f'Baktrija, satrapija li dejjem kienet favur Darius, u inizjalment bagħat armata suldati biex irażżnu l-irvellijiet. Wara dan, ir-rewwixti faqqgħu wkoll f'Persis, l-art tal-Persjani u ta' Darius, kif ukoll f'Elam u fil-Babilonja, segwiti minn Medija, Parzja, Assirja u l-Eġittu. Sal-522 Q.K., kien hemm irvellijiet kontra Darius fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minkejja li milli jidher Darius ma kellux l-appoġġ tal-popolin, huwa kellu armata leali, immexxija minn persuni tal-qalba tiegħu u min-nobbli (inkluż is-sitt nobbli li kienu għenuh jeħles minn Gaumata). Bl-appoġġ tagħhom, Darius irnexxielu jrażżan u jegħleb l-irvellijiet kollha fi żmien sena. Skont kliem Darius stess, huwa kien qatel total ta' disa' "rejiet giddibin" billi għeleb l-irvellijiet. Darius ħalla rendikont dettaljat ta' dawn l-irvellijiet fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. === Eliminazzjoni ta' Intafernes === Wieħed mill-avvenimenti sinifikanti tar-renju bikri ta' Darius kien il-qtil ta' Intafernes, wieħed mis-seba' nobbli li kienu ddeponew lill-mexxej ta' qabel u poġġew lil Darius bħala l-monarka l-ġdid. Is-seba' kienu għamlu ftehim li setgħu lkoll iżuru lir-re l-ġdid kull meta jixtiequ, għajr meta kien ma' mara. Lejla minnhom, Intafernes mar il-palazz biex jiltaqa' ma' Darius, iżda twaqqaf minn żewġ uffiċjali li qalulu li Darius kien ma' mara. Intafernes inkorla u ħassu insultat, għaldaqstant ħareġ ix-xabla tiegħu u qata' widnejn u mnieħer iż-żewġ uffiċjali, u dendilhom ma' xedd ir-ras taż-żiemel tiegħu u rabtu ma' għonq l-irġiel u ħallihom jitilqu. L-uffiċjali marru għand ir-re u wrewh x'kien għamlilhom Intafernes. Darius beda jibża' għas-sikurezza tiegħu; huwa ħaseb li n-nobbli kollha kienu ngħaqdu flimkien biex jirribellaw kontrih u li l-attakk kontra l-uffiċjali tiegħu kien l-ewwel sinjal ta' rewwixta. Huwa bagħat messaġġier lil kull wieħed min-nobbli, u staqsihom kinux japprovaw l-azzjonijiet ta' Intafernes. Huma ċaħdu kwalunkwe rabta mal-azzjonijiet ta' Intafernes, u stqarru li żammew mad-deċiżjoni tagħhom li jaħtru lil Darius bħala Re tar-Rejiet. L-għażla ta' Darius li jistaqsi lin-nobbli tindika li ma kienx ċert għalkollox rigward l-awtorità tiegħu. Huwa ħa prekawzjonijiet kontra xi reżistenza ulterjuri u bagħat xi suldati biex jaħtfu lil Intafernes, flimkien ma' ibnu, il-membri tal-familja, il-qrabat u xi ħbieb li kellhom il-kapaċità li jarmaw lilhom infushom. Darius kien jemmen li Intafernes kien qed jippjana ribelljoni, iżda meta tressaq il-qorti, ma kienx hemm prova ta' tali pjan. Minkejja dan, Darius qatel il-familja kollha ta' Intafernes, ħlief lil martu, lil ibnu u lil ħu l-mara tiegħu. Il-mara tiegħu ntalbet tagħżel bejn ħuha u binha u għażlet lil ħuha. Ir-raġunament tagħha għal dan kien li b'hekk seta' jkollha raġel ieħor u iben ieħor, iżda qatt ma seta' jkollha ħuha ieħor. Darius baqa' impressjonat bit-tweġiba tagħha u ma qatel lill-ebda wieħed minnhom. == Kampanji militari == [[Stampa:Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions.jpg|daqsminuri|Vażun Eġizzjan tal-alabastru ta' Darius I b'kitbiet ġeroglifiċi u kunejformi b'erba' lingwi. Il-kitba ġeroglifika fuq il-vażun tgħid: "Re tal-Eġittu ta' Fuq u t'Isfel, Sinjur taż-Żewġ Artijiet, Darius, li jgħix għal dejjem, is-sena 36".]] === Kampanja militari Eġizzjana === Wara li aċċerta l-awtorità tiegħu fl-imperu, Darius wettaq kampanja militari fl-Eġittu fejn għeleb il-qawwiet ribelli u kiseb l-artijiet li Cambyses kien ħakem, filwaqt li inkorpora parti kbira mill-Eġittu fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Skont il-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Bisotun, ir-ribelljoni Eġizzjana bdiet meta Darius kien fil-Babilonja jindirizza r-ribelljoni hemmhekk. Ġie ssuġġerit li l-inklużjoni tal-Eġittu fost il-lista ta' provinċji ribellużi f'din il-kitba mnaqqxa kien żball tal-iskribi, u diversi dati huma possibbli għar-ribelljoni effettiva. Bl-istess mod, l-identità tal-mexxej tar-ribelli mhux magħruf, iżda ġie ssuġġerit li kien Petubastis III. Permezz ta' sensiela oħra ta' kampanji, Darius I eventwalment irrenja fuq l-apiċi territorjali tal-imperu, meta kien estiż minn partijiet mill-Balkani (Traċja, il-Maċedonja, il-Bulgarija, Peonja) fil-Punent, sal-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant. === Invażjoni tal-Wied tal-Indus === Fil-516 Q.K., Darius wettaq kampanja militari lejn l-Asja Ċentrali, Aria u l-Baktrija u mbagħad immarċja fl-[[Afganistan]] lejn [[Taxila]], illum il-ġurnata fil-[[Pakistan]]. Darius qatta' x-xitwa tal-516–515 Q.K. f'Gandhara, iħejji ruħu biex jaħkem il-Wied tal-Indus. Darius ħakem l-artijiet madwar ix-xmara Indus fil-515 Q.K. Darius I kkontrolla l-Wied tal-Indus minn Gandhara sa [[Karachi]] moderna u ħatar is-Scylax Grieg ta' Caryanda biex jesplora l-[[Oċean Indjan]] mill-ħalq tax-xmara Indus sas-[[Kanal ta' Suez|Suez]]. === Rewwixta Babiloniża === [[Stampa:Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-fruntiera tal-Lvant tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi.]] Wara li Bardiya nqatel, seħħew diversi rvellijiet madwar l-imperu kollu, speċjalment fin-naħa tal-Lvant. Darius asserixxa l-pożizzjoni tiegħu bħala r-re bil-forza, u ħa l-armati tiegħu miegħu fl-imperu kollu, u għakkes kull rewwixta b'mod individwali. L-iżjed notevoli fost ir-rewwixti kollha kienet ir-rewwixta Babiloniża mmexxija minn [[Nebuchadnezzar III]]. Din ir-rewwixta seħħet meta Otanes irtira l-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata mill-Babilonja biex jgħin lil Darius jgħakkes ir-rewwixti l-oħra. Darius ħass li l-Babiloniżi kienu ħadu vantaġġ minnu u qarrqu bih, u dan wassal biex Darius jibni armata kbira u jimmarċja lejn il-Babilonja. Fil-Babilonja, Darius sab id-daħliet magħluqin u sensiela ta' difiżi lesti għalih u għall-armata tiegħu biex jevitaw li jidħlu fil-belt. Darius ġie mżeblagħ u rridikolat mir-ribelli, inkluż il-frażi famuża: "Iva mela, se taħtaf il-belt tagħna, meta l-bgħula jwelldu moħor". Għal sena u nofs, Darius u l-armati tiegħu ma rnexxielhomx jerġgħu jaħtfu l-belt, għalkemm ippruvaw b'bosta metodi u strateġiji — saħansitra dawk li kien uża Ċiru l-Kbir meta ħataf il-Babilonja. Is-sitwazzjoni nbidlet favur Darius, meta skont ir-rakkont, bagħal ta' Zopyrus, suldat imlaħħaq, kellu moħor. Wara dan, tħejja pjan biex Zopyrus jagħmel tabirruħu li diżertatur, jidħol fil-kamp Babiloniż, u jikseb il-fiduċja tal-Babiloniżi. Il-pjan irnexxa u l-armata ta' Darius eventwalment iċċirkondat il-belt u għelbet lir-ribelli. Matul din ir-rewwixta, in-nomadi Xitjani ħadu vantaġġ mid-diżordni u l-kaos u invadew il-Persja. Darius l-ewwel għeleb ir-ribelli f'Elam, fl-Assirja u fil-Babilonja, u mbagħad attakka l-invażuri Xitjani. Huwa kompla jgħakkes lill-invażuri, u mar warajhom sa marġ; hemmhekk ma sabx għedewwa iżda tribù Xitjana enigmatika. Huwa rnexxielu jaħtaf ir-re Xitjan Skunkha u żiedu mar-rejiet ribelli l-oħra msemmija fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. === Kampanja militari Ewropea tax-Xitjani === [[Stampa:DariusScythes fr.svg|daqsminuri|Mappa tal-kampanja militari Ewropea tax-Xitjani ta' Darius I.]] Ix-Xitjani kienu grupp ta' tribujiet nomadiċi tat-Tramuntana tal-Iran li kienu jitkellmu lingwa tal-Lvant tal-Iran (lingwi Xitjani) u li invadew lil Medija, qatlu lil Ċiru f'battalja, għamlu rewwixta kontra Darius u heddu li jfixklu l-kummerċ bejn l-Asja Ċentrali u x-xtut tal-Baħar l-Iswed peress li kienu jgħixu bejn ix-xmara Danubju, ix-xmara Don u l-Baħar l-Iswed. Darius qasam il-Baħar l-Iswed fl-Istretti tal-Bosforu bl-użu ta' bosta dgħajjes. Darius ħakem partijiet kbar mil-Lvant tal-Ewropa, u saħansitra qasam ix-xmara Danubju biex jiddikjara gwerra kontra x-Xitjani. Darius invada x-Xitja Ewropea fil-513 Q.K., u x-Xitjani ħarbu mill-armata ta' Darius, bl-użu ta' finti u billi rtiraw lejn il-Lvant u qabbdu l-kampanja tal-madwar, imblokkaw il-bjar, interċettaw il-konvojs, qerdu l-mergħat u ġġieldu b'mod kontinwu kontra l-armata ta' Darius. L-armata ta' Darius ipprovat tiġġieled kontra x-Xitjani u segwiet l-armata tagħhom fil-fond tal-artijiet Xitjani, fejn ma kien hemm l-ebda belt x'tinħakem u l-ebda provvisti x'jinsterqu. Iffrustrat, Darius bagħat ittra lill-mexxej Xitjan Idanthyrsus biex jiġġieled jew jarrendi. Il-mexxej wieġeb li ma kienx se jieqaf biex jiġġieled kontra Darius sakemm isibu l-oqbra ta' missirijiethom u jipprovaw jeqirduhom. Sakemm dan iseħħ, huma kienu se jibqgħu għaddejjin bl-istrateġija tagħhom peress li ma kellhomx bliet jew artijiet ikkultivati x'jitilfu. Minkejja t-tattiki ta' evażjoni tax-Xitjani, il-kampanja militari ta' Darius sa dak iż-żmien kienet relattivament waħda ta' suċċess. Kif ippreżentat minn Erodotu, it-tattiki użati mix-Xitjani rriżultaw fit-telfa tal-aqwa artijiet tagħhom u f'danni mġarrba mill-alleat leali tagħhom. B'hekk Darius ħa l-inizjattiva u iktar ma resaq lejn il-Lvant fl-artijiet ikkultivati tax-Xitjani fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa proprja, huwa baqa' jiġi fornut mill-ġdid mill-flotta tiegħu u għex sa ċertu punt minn dak li pprovdiet l-art. Iktar ma resaq lejn il-Lvant fl-artijiet Xitjani Ewropej, huwa ħataf il-belt iffortifikata l-kbira tal-Budini, wieħed mill-alleati tax-Xitjani, u taha n-nar. Darius eventwalment ordna waqfa max-xtut ta' Oarus, fejn bena "tmien fortijiet kbar, xi 8 mili (13-il kilometru) 'il bogħod minn xulxin", bla dubju bħala difiża tal-fruntiera. F'''L-Istorji'' tiegħu, Erodotu jiddikjara li l-fdalijiet tal-fortijiet kienu għadhom viżibbli fi żmienu. Wara li segwa lix-Xitjani għal xi xahar, l-armata ta' Darius kienet qed iġġarrab telfiet minħabba l-għeja, il-ġuħ u l-mard. Darius beda jinkwieta li jitlef iktar suldati minn fost it-truppi tiegħu, għaldaqstant waqqaf l-immarċjar max-xtut tax-xmara Volha u mexa lejn Traċja. Huwa kien ħakem biżżejjed territorji Xitjani biex jobbligahom jirrispettaw il-forzi Persjani. === Invażjoni Persjana tal-Greċja === [[Stampa:Map Greco-Persian Wars-en.svg|daqsminuri|Is-siti ewlenin tal-invażjonijiet Persjani tal-Greċja.]] L-ispedizzjoni Ewropea ta' Darius kienet avveniment ewlieni fir-renju tiegħu, u bdiet bl-invażjoni ta' Traċja. Darius ħakem ukoll bosta bliet fit-Tramuntana tal-Eġew, Peonja, filwaqt li l-Maċedonja ċediet volontarjament, wara t-talba tal-art u tal-ilma, u saret renju vassall. Imbagħad Darius telaq minn Megabyzus biex jaħkem lil Traċja, u reġa' lura lejn [[Sardis]] biex iqatta' x-xitwa hemmhekk. Il-Griegi li kienu jgħixu fl-Asja Minuri u f'xi gżejjer Griegi ċedew quddiem it-tmexxija Persjana diġa sal-510 Q.K. Madankollu, kien hemm ċerti Griegi li kienu pro-Persjani, għalkemm fil-biċċa l-kbira kienu bbażati f'[[Ateni]]. Sabiex jittejbu r-relazzjonijiet bejn il-Griegi u l-Persjani, Darius fetaħ il-qorti tiegħu u t-teżor għal dawk il-Griegi li riedu jaqduh. Dawk il-Griegi qdewh bħala suldati, [[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] u baħħara. Madankollu, it-tħassib dejjem jiżdied fost il-Griegi dwar il-qawwa tar-renju ta' Darius flimkien mal-indħil kostanti mill-Griegi f'Jonja u f'Lidja wittew it-triq għall-kunflitt futur bejn il-Persja u wħud mill-bliet-stati Griegi ewlenin. [[Stampa:Darius detail on the Darius vase.jpg|daqsminuri|Detall ta' Darius, b'kitba t'ismu bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]] (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, fin-naħa ta' fuq, fuq il-lemin).]] Meta Aristagoras organizza r-Rewwixta tal-Jonju, Eretrija u Ateni appoġġawh billi bagħtu bastimenti u truppi lejn Jonja u billi taw in-nar lil Sardis. L-operazzjonijiet militari u navali Persjani kontra r-rewwixta ntemmu bl-okkupazzjoni Persjana mill-ġdid tal-gżejjer Griegi u tal-Jonju, kif ukoll is-sottomissjoni mill-ġdid ta' Traċja u l-ħakma tal-Maċedonja fl-492 Q.K. taħt Mardonius. Il-Maċedonja kienet renju vassall tal-Persjani mill-aħħar tas-seklu 6 Q.K., iżda żammet l-awtonomija. Il-kampanja militari ta' Mardonius fl-492 wasslet biex issir parti subordinati bis-sħiħ tar-renju Persjan. Dawn l-azzjonijiet militari, bħala rispons dirett għar-rewwixta f'Jonja, kienu l-bidu tal-ewwel invażjoni Persjana tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja. Fl-istess żmien, partijiet anti-Persjani kisbu iktar poter f'Ateni, u l-aristokratiċi pro-Persjani ġew eżiljati minn Ateni u minn Sparta. Darius wieġeb billi bagħat it-truppi mmexxija minn ibnu tar-rispett tul il-Hellespont. Madankollu, maltempata qalila u fastidji mit-Traċjani wasslu biex it-truppi jerġgħu lura lejn il-Persja. Bħala tpattija kontra Ateni u Eretrija, Darius bena armata oħra ta' 20,000 raġel taħt l-ammirall tiegħu, Datis, u n-neputi tiegħu Artafernes, li kiseb suċċess meta ħataf lil Eretrija u avvanza lejn Maratona. Fl-490 Q.K., fil-Battalja ta' Maratona, l-armata Persjana ġarrbet telfa kontra armata minn Ateni, b'9,000 raġel appoġġati minn 600 Platejani u 10,000 suldat armat immexxijin minn Miltiades. It-telfa mġarrba f'Maratona immarkat it-tmiem tal-ewwel invażjoni Persjana tal-Greċja. Darius beda t-tħejjijiet għat-tieni qawwa taħt il-kmand tiegħu, minflok il-ġenerali tiegħu; madankollu, qabel ma tlestew it-tħejjijiet, Darius miet, u b'hekk il-kompitu għadda f'idejn ibnu [[Xerxes]]. == Familja == Darius kien iben Hystaspes u n-neputi ta' Arsames. Darius iżżewweġ lil Atossa, bint Ċiru, u flimkien kellhom erba' subien: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes u Hystaspes. Huwa żżewweġ ukoll lil Artystone, bint oħra ta' Ċiru, u flimkien kellhom żewġ subien magħrufa, Arsames u Gobryas. Darius iżżewweġ lil Parmys, bint Bardiya, u flimkien kellhom iben, Ariomardus. Barra minn hekk, Darius iżżewweġ lin-neputija tiegħu Phratagune, u flimkien kellhom żewġ subien, Abrokomas u Hyperantes. Huwa żżewweġ ukoll mara nobbli oħra, Phaidyme, bint Otanes. Mhux magħruf kellhomx tfal flimkien. Qabel dawn iż-żwiġijiet irjali, Darius kien iżżewweġ bint mhux magħrufa ta' ħabib kbir tiegħu li kien iġorr il-lanez, Gobryas, minn żwieġ bikri, u flimkien kellhom tliet subien, Artobazanes, Ariabignes u Arsamenes. Kwalunkwe bniet li jaf kellhom flimkien mhumiex magħrufa. Għalkemm Artobazanes kien l-ewwel iben ta' Darius, Xerxes sar l-eredi u r-re suċċessur minħabba l-influwenza ta' Atossa; hija kellha awtorità kbira fir-renju peress li Darius kien iħobb lilha l-iktar fost in-nisa kollha li żżewweġ. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == [[Stampa:Naghsh-e rostam, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 25.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-qabar ta' Darius f'Naqsh-e Rostam.]] Wara li sar jaf bit-telfa li ġarrbu l-Persjani fil-Battalja ta' Maratona, Darius beda jippjana spedizzjoni oħra kontra l-bliet-stati Griegi; din id-darba, hu, mhux Datis, kellu jikkmanda l-armati imperjali. Darius qatta' 3 snin iħejji l-irġiel u l-bastimenti għall-gwerra meta faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu. Din ir-rewwixta fl-Eġittu wasslet biex saħħtu tmur għall-agħar u b'hekk ma setax imexxi armata oħra. Ftit wara, Darius miet, wara 30 jum ta' tbatija minħabba marda mhux identifikata, parzjalment minħabba s-sehem li kellu biex jgħakkes ir-rewwixta, tal-età ta' madwar 64 sena. F'Ottubru 486 Q.K., il-katavru tiegħu ġie bbalzmat u midfun fil-qabar imħaffer fil-blat f'Naqsh-e Rostam, li kien ilu jħejji. Kitba mnaqqxa fuq il-qabar tiegħu tintroduċih bħala "Re Kbir, Re tar-Rejiet, Re ta' pajjiżi b'kull xorta ta' rġiel, Re bil-kbir u fil-wisa' f'din id-dinja, iben Hystaspes, Achemenidu, Persjan, iben Persjan, Arjan, ta' nisel Arjan". Riljiev taħt il-qabar tiegħu li juri l-ġlied li sar riekeb fuq żiemel tnaqqax iktar 'il quddiem matul ir-renju tar-Re tar-Rejiet Sassanid, [[Bahram II]] (<abbr>li rrenja</abbr> fil-274–293 [[WK|W.K]].). Xerxes, l-ikbar iben ta' Darius u Atossa, sar is-suċċessur għat-tron bħala Xerxes I; qabel l-aċċess tiegħu għat-tron, huwa kien ikkontesta s-suċċessjoni ma' ħuh tar-rispett ikbar minnu Artobarzanes, l-ikbar iben fost is-subien kollha ta' Darius, li kien twieled mingħand l-ewwel mara tiegħu qabel ma Darius kiseb il-poter. Bl-aċċess għat-tron ta' Xerxes, l-imperu reġa' ġie mmexxi minn membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru. == Governanza == [[Stampa:Tribute in the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-volum ta' tributi annwali skont kull distrett fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi.]] === Organizzazzjoni === Kmieni fir-renju tiegħu, Darius ried jorganizza mill-ġdid l-istruttura tal-imperu u jirriforma s-sistema tat-tassazzjoni li wiret mingħand Ċiru u Cambyses. Sabiex jagħmel dan, Darius ħoloq għoxrin provinċja msejħa satrapati (jew ''archi'') li ġew assenjati satrap (''archon'') kull waħda u speċifika tributi fissi li s-satrapati kienu meħtieġa jħallsu. Lista sħiħa ġiet ippreservata fil-katalogu ta' Erodotu, l-ewwel u qabel kollox b'Jonja, elenkata mas-satrapati l-oħra mill-Punent għal-Lvant, għajr Persis, li kienet l-art tal-Persjani u l-unika provinċja li ma kinitx art maħkuma. It-tributi tħallsu f'biċċiet tal-fidda u tad-deheb. It-tributi f'biċċiet tal-fidda minn kull satrap kienu jitkejlu bil-biċċiet Babiloniżi. It-tributi mħallsa f'biċċiet tad-deheb kienu jitkejlu bil-biċċiet Ewbojċi. It-tributi totali mis-satrapi ammontaw għal inqas minn 15,000 biċċa tal-fidda. Il-maġġoranza tas-satrapi kienu ta' oriġini Persjana u kienu membri tal-familja rjali jew tal-familji tas-sitt nobbli kbar. Dawn is-satrapi ntgħażlu personalment minn Darius biex jimmonitorjaw dawn il-provinċji. Kull waħda mill-provinċji ġiet maqsuma f'sottoprovinċji, kull waħda bil-gvernatur tagħha stess, li kien jintgħażel mill-qorti rjali jew mis-satrap. Sabiex jiġu vvalutati t-tributi, kienu jiġu evalwati l-ispejjeż u d-dħul ta' kull satrap. Sabiex jiġi żgurat li persuna waħda ma tiksibx wisq poter, kull satrap kellu segretarju, li kien josserva l-affarijiet tal-istat u kien jikkomunika ma' Darius; teżorier, li kien jissalvagwardja id-dħul provinċjali; u kmandant tal-gwarniġjon, li kien responsabbli għat-truppi. L-ispetturi rjali, li kienu l-"għajnejn u l-widnejn" ta' Darius, kienu jwettqu kontrolli ulterjuri fuq kull satrap. L-amministrazzjoni imperjali kienet ikkoordinata minn qisu reġistrar b'kwartieri ġenerali f'Persepolis, f'Susa u fil-Babilonja, b'fergħat f'Baktrija, f'Ecbatana, f'Sardis, f'Dascylium u f'Memphis. Darius żamm l-Aramajk bħala l-lingwa komuni, li f'qasir żmien infirxet madwar l-imperu kollu. Darius laqqa' grupp ta' studjużi biex joħolqu sistema ta' lingwa separata użata biss għal Persis u l-Persjani, li ġiet imsejħa l-kitba Arjana u kienet tintuża biss għall-kitbiet uffiċjali. Qabel dan, il-kisbiet tar-re kienu jiġu indirizzati bil-Persjan biss permezz ta' narrazzjoni u inni, u permezz tal-"mastri tal-memorja". L-istorja orali baqgħet taqdi rwol importanti matul l-istorja kollha tal-Iran. === Ekonomija === [[Stampa:Daric coin of the Achaemenid Empire (Darius I to Xerxes II).jpg|daqsminuri|Munita darika tad-deheb izzekkata f'Sardis.]] Darius introduċa munita universali ġdida, il-munita ''darika'', kemxejn qabel il-500 Q.K. Qabel l-introduzzjoni tagħha, il-pagamenti kienu jsiru bi tpartit jew b'muniti użati zekkati f'Lidja jew fi bliet Joniċi oħra. Darius uża s-sistema taz-zekkar tal-muniti bħala munita transnazzjonali biex jirregola l-kummerċ u n-negozju fl-imperu kollu tiegħu. Il-munita darika kienet rikonoxxuta wkoll lil hinn mill-fruntieri tal-imperu, f'postijiet bħall-Ewropa Ċentrali Ċeltika u l-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]]. Hemm żewġ tipi ta' muniti dariċi, il-munita darika tad-deheb u l-munita darika tal-fidda. Ir-re biss seta' jizzekka l-muniti dariċi tad-deheb. Il-ġenerali importanti u s-satrapi kienu jizzekkaw il-muniti dariċi tal-fidda, normalment għar-reklutaġġ ta' merċenarji Griegi fl-Anatolja. Il-munita darika kienet spinta kbira għall-kummerċ internazzjonali. L-oġġetti kkummerċjalizzati bħat-tessuti, it-twapet, l-għodod u l-oġġetti tal-metall bdew jivvjaġġaw madwar l-Asja, l-Ewropa u l-Afrika. Il-munita darika tejbet ukoll id-dħul tal-gvern peress li l-introduzzjoni tal-munita darika għamlitha iktar faċli li jinġabru taxxi ġodda fuq l-art, il-bhejjem u s-swieq. Din wasslet għar-reġistrazzjoni tal-art li kienet titkejjel u mbagħad tiġi intaxxata. Iż-żieda fid-dħul tal-gvern għenet biex tinżamm u tittejjeb l-infrastruttura eżistenti u għenet biex jiġu ffinanzjati l-proġetti tal-irrigazzjoni fl-artijiet nexfin. Din is-sistema l-ġdida tat-taxxa wasslet ukoll għall-formazzjoni tas-sistema bankarja statali u għall-ħolqien ta' ditti bankarji. Waħda mill-iżjed ditti bankarji famużi kienet dik tal-Aħwa Subien Murashu, ibbażata fil-belt Babiloniża ta' [[Nippur]]. Dawn id-ditti bankarji kienu jipprovdu self u kreditu lill-klijenti tagħhom. Bħala sforz biex ikompli jtejjeb il-kummerċ, Darius bena kanali, mogħdijiet tal-ilma taħt l-art u qawwa navali b'saħħitha. Skont Erodotu, it-teknoloġija tal-irrigazzjoni bil-[[qanat]] ġiet introdotta fl-Eġittu, u dan ġie appoġġat mill-istoriku [[Albert T. Olmstead]]. Huwa kompla jtejjeb u jwessa' n-network ta' toroq u l-istazzjonijiet tul ir-rotot kummerċjali fl-imperu kollu, biex b'hekk ikun hemm sistema ta' awtorizzazzjoni tal-ivvjaġġar għar-Re, għas-satrapi u għall-uffiċjali għoljin l-oħra, li kienet tintitola lill-vjaġġatur jieħu provvisti f'postijiet ta' waqfa ta' kuljum. === [[Reliġjon]] === [[Stampa:Behistun Darius the Great.jpg|nofs|daqsminuri|Darius il-Kbir bil-kuruna fl-Għolja ta' Behistun.]] <blockquote>"Bil-grazzja ta' Ahuramazda jien ir-re; Ahuramazda tani r-renju". — Darius, fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun.</blockquote>Filwaqt li ma hemm l-ebda konsensus ġenerali fost l-istudjużi dwar jekk Darius u l-predeċessuri tiegħu kinux influwenzati miż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], huwa stabbilit sew li Darius kien jemmen bis-sħiħ f'Ahura Mazda, li kien iqis bħala divinità suprema. Madankollu, id-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet meqjuma wkoll minn dawk li kienu jsegwu t-tradizzjoni reliġjuża Indo-Iranjana. Bħalma wieħed jista' jara fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun, Darius kien jemmen li d-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet ħatritu biex jirrenja fuq l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Darius kellu twemmin [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] doppju u kien jemmen li kull ribelljoni fir-renju tiegħu kienet xogħol id-''druj'', l-għadu ta' Asha. Darius kien jemmen dan peress li kien iħares is-sewwa skont it-twemmin ta' Asha, u b'hekk id-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet tappoġġah. F'bosta kitbiet kunejformi li jelenkaw il-kisbiet tiegħu, huwa jippreżenta lilu nnifsu bħala devot, x'aktarx saħansitra konvint, li kellu d-dritt divin li jirrenja fuq id-dinja kollha. F'kitba minnhom huwa jikteb: "Ahura Mazda tiegħi, jien ta' Ahura Mazda". Fl-artijiet li nħakmu mill-imperu tiegħu, Darius adotta l-istess tolleranza tal-Akemenidi li Ċiru kien wera u li wrew ir-rejiet Akemenidi ta' warajh. Huwa appoġġa reliġjonijiet u twemmin "aljeni" sakemm il-fidili tagħhom "jissottomettu taħt il-kmand tiegħu u jkunu paċifiċi", u xi kultant tahom għotjiet mit-teżor tiegħu għall-iskopijiet tagħhom. Huwa kien iffinanzja r-restawr tat-tempju Iżraelit li oriġinarjament kien ġie ordnat b'digriet minn Ċiru, appoġġa l-kulti Griegi kif wieħed jista' jara fl-ittra tiegħu lil Gadatas, u appoġġa lill-patijiet Elamiti. Huwa osserva wkoll riti reliġjużi Eġizzjani relatati mar-rejiet u bena t-tempju għall-alla Eġizzjan Amun. === Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni === [[Stampa:History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria (1903) (14584070300).jpg|daqsminuri|Tpinġija ta' rikostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa.]] Minn kmieni, Darius u l-konsulenti tiegħu kellhom l-idea li jistabbilixxu residenzi rjali ġodda f'Susa u f'Persepolis peress li Darius kien ħerqan li juri l-poter li kien għadu kemm stabbilixxa u jħalli warajh legat dejjiemi. Mill-ħakma ta' Ċiru, il-konfigurazzjoni urbana ta' Susa baqgħet kif kienet, bil-konfigurazzjoni ta' żmien l-Elamiti. L-evidenza [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġika]] f'Susa turina li matul it-tmexxija ta' Darius biss beda jkun hemm sinjali ta' konfigurazzjoni ta' żmien l-Akemenidi. [[Stampa:Persepolis - Tachara 01.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-fdalijiet tal-Palazz ta' Tachara f'Persepolis.]] Matul l-ispedizzjoni Griega ta' Darius, huwa beda proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni f'Susa, fl-Eġittu u f'Persepolis. Il-Kanal ta' Darius li kkollega n-[[Nil]] mal-[[Baħar l-Aħmar]] inbena minnu. Kien estiż minn Zagazig moderna fil-Lvant tad-Delta tan-Nil sa Wadi Tumilat, il-Lag ta' Timsah u l-Lag Morr il-Kbir, qrib il-Kanal ta' Suez modern. Sabiex jiftaħ dan il-kanal, huwa vvjaġġa lejn l-Eġittu fl-497 Q.K., fejn saret l-inawgurazzjoni b'ħafna briju u ċelebrazzjonijiet. Darius bena wkoll kanal biex jikkollega l-Baħar l-Aħmar u l-[[Mediterran]]. Fiż-żjara tiegħu lejn l-Eġittu, Darius tella' monumenti u ordna li Aryandes jiġi ġustizzjat bl-akkuża ta' tradiment. Meta Darius reġa' lura lejn Persis, huwa sab li l-kodifikazzjoni tal-liġi Eġizzjana kienet intemmet. Darius tejjeb ir-Rotta Rjali, u biddilha f'network ta' toroq b'komunikazzjoni timxi ħarir, b'servizzi ta' soġġorn f'intervalli regolari. [[Stampa:Flickr - isawnyu - Hibis, Temple Decorations (III).jpg|daqsminuri|Darius bħala l-Faragħun tal-Eġittu, fit-Tempju ta' Hibis.]] Fl-Eġittu, Darius bena bosta tempji u rrestawra dawk li kienu nqerdu qabel. Minkejja li Darius kien jemmen fid-divinità Ahura Mazda, huwa bena tempji ddedikati lill-allat tar-reliġjon tal-[[Eġittu tal-qedem|Eġittu tal-Qedem]]. Instabu diversi tempji ddedikati lil Ptah u lil Nekhbet. Darius ħoloq ukoll diversi toroq u rotot fl-Eġittu. Il-monumenti mibnija minn Darius spiss kien ikollhom kitbiet imnaqqxin bil-lingwi uffiċjali tal-Imperu Persjan, bil-Persjan Antik, bl-Elamit u bil-Babiloniż, kif ukoll bil-[[ġeroglifiċi Eġizzjani]]. Huwa ordna wkoll il-ħolqien tal-kitba kunejformi bil-Persjan Antik. Sabiex jibni dawn il-monumenti, Darius impjega għadd kbir ta' ħaddiema u ta' artiġjani ta' nazzjonalitajiet differenti. Bosta minn dawn il-ħaddiema ġew deportati u impjegati apposta għal dawn il-proġetti. Dawn id-deportati tejbu l-ekonomija tal-imperu u tejbu r-relazzjonijiet interkulturali. Fi żmien il-mewt ta' Darius, kien hemm proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni li kienu għadhom għaddejjin. Xerxes lesta dawn ix-xogħlijiet u f'xi każijiet kabbar il-proġetti ta' missieru billi bena binjiet ġodda tiegħu stess. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-550 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-486 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] e08mtoxu19e6kxfd4wd8w1j6vokf004 0 34494 330751 2026-06-28T14:40:11Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut inizjali 330751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == 50lwje12ajuh8t1xtf5zfqz4vrytcwd 330752 330751 2026-06-28T14:40:37Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] nx03danjhn0ntckazb462oil5petp6b 330753 330752 2026-06-28T14:40:51Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] q68j7yqztqqpvlzbvdubnt7fl6wr58z 330754 330753 2026-06-28T14:40:59Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Monarki]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] iuu8v7oemzyjaahvazp2jixp0skkt9n 330755 330754 2026-06-28T14:41:06Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Persja]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Persja]] ree74ydo5ct8454qitdwj5zsnik2pa4 330756 330755 2026-06-28T14:41:29Z Trigcly 17859 removed [[Category:Persja]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] iuu8v7oemzyjaahvazp2jixp0skkt9n 330757 330756 2026-06-28T14:41:36Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Iran]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] kmd96mfkwpe6bf5yv7bhs5iniwfrnic 330758 330757 2026-06-28T14:43:12Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Faragħuniż]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuniż]] p60hj0kgok6mnh69md0j3fvfmjzr575 330759 330758 2026-06-28T14:43:18Z Trigcly 17859 removed [[Category:Faragħuniż]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] kmd96mfkwpe6bf5yv7bhs5iniwfrnic 330760 330759 2026-06-28T14:43:30Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Faragħuni]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his father's generals headed by his cousin Mardonius, who accused him of timidity. From 483 Q.K., Xerxes prepared his expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic massive sized empire and beyond, including the Medes, Saka, Elamites, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Arabs Macedonians, Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionian Greeks, Aegean Greeks, Aeolian Greeks, Greeks from Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and many more. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. The Carthaginian invasion of Sicily deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 Q.K. from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athens and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested destruction layer, known as the Perserschutt. The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes was induced, by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 Q.K.) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly. According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him. Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in Babylon, a key province of the empire, required the king's personal attention. He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at Plataea by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He oversaw the building of the Gate of All Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the Apadana. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace in Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] 0hwfavnl8ov36o5222glnlkj6nvsnat 330761 330760 2026-06-28T15:37:40Z Trigcly 17859 /* Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja */ 330761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius miet meta kien fil-proċess li jħejji t-tieni armata għall-invażjoni tal-art kontinentali Griega, u b'hekk ħalla f'idejn ibnu biex jikkastiga lill-Atenjani, lin-Naksjani u lill-Eretrijani talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika, il-ħruq ta' Sardis, u r-rebħa tagħhom kontra l-Persjani f'Maratona. Xerxes inizjalment ried jevita gwerra kbira mal-Greċja, iżda ġie konvint mod ieħor mill-ġenerali ta' missieru mmexxijin minn kuġinuh Mardonius, li akkużah li kien timidu. Mill-483 Q.K., Xerxes ħejja l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu: il-Kanal ta' Xerxes tħaffer fl-istmu tal-[[peniżola]] tal-[[Athos|Muntanja Athos]], il-provvisti nħażnu fl-istazzjonijiet tul ir-rotta mit-Traċja, u żewġ pontijiet li iktar 'il quddiem saru magħrufa bħala l-Pontijiet ta' Xerxes inbnew minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont. Suldati ta' bosta nazzjonalitajiet servew fl-armati ta' Xerxes mill-imperu multietniku enormi tiegħu u lil hinn, inkluż il-Medes, is-Saka, l-Elamiti, l-Assirjani, il-[[Feniċi]], il-Babiloniżi, l-Eġizzjani, il-[[Lhud]], il-Maċedoni [[Għarab]], it-Traċjani, il-Peonjani, il-Griegi Akeani, il-Griegi Joniċi, il-Griegi tal-Eġew, il-Griegi Eoljani, il-Griegi minn Pontus, il-Kolkjani, is-Sindhis u bosta oħrajn. Skont l-istoriku Grieg [[Erodotu]], l-ewwel tentattivi ta' Xerxes li jagħmel pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont intemmu f'falliment meta maltempata qerdet il-kejbils tal-kittien u tal-papiru tal-pontijiet. B'ritaljazzjoni, Xerxes ordna li l-Hellespont (l-istrett innifsu) jiġi msawwat bil-frosta 300 darba, u ordna li jintremew il-ktajjen fl-ilma. It-tieni tentattiv ta' Xerxes li joħloq pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont irnexxa. L-invażjoni [[Kartaġiniżi|Kartaġiniża]] ta' [[Sqallija]] ċaħdet lill-Greċja mill-appoġġ tal-monarki setgħana ta' [[Siracusa]] u ''Agrigentum''; sorsi tal-qedem jassumu li Xerxes kien responsabbli, filwaqt li l-istudjużi moderni huma xettiċi. Barra minn hekk, bosta stati Griegi iżgħar żammew mal-Persjani, speċjalment Thessaly, Tebe u Argos. Xerxes ħareġ rebbieħ matul il-battalji inizjali. Xerxes salpa fir-rebbiegħa tal-480 Q.K. minn Sardis bi flotta u b'armata li skont l-istimi ta' Erodotu kienu jammontaw għal bejn wieħed u ieħor miljun ruħ, flimkien ma' 10,000 ġellied prim imsejħa immortali. Stimi iktar reċenti jsostnu li l-qawwa Persjana kien fiha madwar 60,000 ġellied. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === Fil-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, qawwa żgħira ta' ġellied Griegi mmexxija mir-Re [[Leonidas ta' Sparta]] rreżistiet il-qawwiet Persjani ferm akbar, iżda fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ġarrbet telfa. Skont Erodotu, il-Persjani kissru l-formazzjoni tat-truppi Spartani wara li raġel Grieg jismu Ephialtes tradixxa lil pajjiżu billi qal lill-Persjani li kienet teżisti mogħdija oħra madwar il-muntanji. F'Artemisium, maltempati kbar qerdu l-bastimenti min-naħa Griega u b'hekk il-battalja ntemmet b'mod prematur meta l-Griegi semgħu bit-telfa mġarrba f'Thermopylae u rtiraw. Wara Thermopylae nħatfet Ateni. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Atenjani kienu abbandunaw il-belt u ħarbu lejn il-gżira ta' Salamis qabel il-wasla ta' Xerxes. Grupp żgħira pprova jiddefendi l-Akropoli ta' Ateni, iżda ġarrbu telfa. Xerxes ordna l-Qerda ta' Ateni u ħaraq il-belt, tant li ħalla saff ta' qerda li ġie attestat arkeoloġikament, magħruf bħala l-Perserschutt. Il-Persjani b'hekk kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali Griega kollha lejn it-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes ġie mħajjar jattakka l-flotta Griega permezz tal-messaġġ ta' Themistocles (kontra l-parir ta' Artemisia ta' Halicarnassus), peress li suppost kellu kundizzjonijiet favorevoli, minflok ma jibgħat parti mill-bastimenti tiegħu lejn il-Gżejjer Peleponniżi u jistenna x-xoljiment tal-armati Griegi. Il-Battalja ta' Salamis (Settembru 480 Q.K.) intrebħet mill-flotta Griega, u wara Xerxes stabbilixxa kamp tax-xitwa f'Thessaly. Skont Erodotu, minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jattakkaw il-pontijiet minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont u jagħmlu nassa lill-armata tiegħu fl-Ewropa, Xerxes iddeċieda li jirtira lura lejn l-Asja, u ħa l-ikbar parti tal-armata miegħu. Xi ħaġa oħra li wasslet għall-irtirar jaf kienu l-irvellijiet kontinwi fil-Babilonja, li kienet provinċja ewlenija tal-imperu, u kienet teħtieġ l-attenzjoni personali tar-re. Huwa ħalla warajh kontinġent fil-Greċja biex itemm il-kampanja militari taħt Mardonius, li skont Erodotu kien issuġġerixxa l-irtirar. Din il-qawwa ġarrbet telfa s-sena ta' wara fi Plataea billi kkombina l-qawwiet tal-bliet-stati Griegi, u temmet l-offensiva Persjana fuq il-Greċja għal dejjem. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == Wara t-telfiet militari tiegħu fil-Greċja, Xerxes reġa' lura lejn il-Persja u ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-bosta proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru f'Susa u f'Persepolis. Huwa ssorvelja l-bini tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha u tas-Sala tal-Mitt Kolonna f'Persepolis, li huma l-ikbar strutturi u l-iżjed imponenti tal-palazz. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-Palazz ta' Apadana, it-Tachara (il-Palazz ta' Darius) u t-Teżor, li kollha kienu nbdew minn Darius, kif ukoll il-palazz tiegħu stess li kien id-doppju tad-daqs ta' dak ta' missieru. Il-gosti arkitettoniċi tiegħu kienu simili għal dawk ta' missieru, għalkemm fuq skala iktar ġganteska. Huwa ordna li jiżdiedu l-brikks bl-enamel fuq il-faċċata esterna tal-Palazz ta' Apadana bħala tiżjin. Huwa wettaq ukoll il-manutenzjoni meħtieġa tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru u lesta d-Daħla ta' Susa u bena palazz f'Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == In August 465 Q.K., likely between 4 and 8 August, Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achaemenids. Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne. == Reliġjon == While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, the first born son, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus. * Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. * Artaxerxes I * Rhodogune * Amytis, wife of Megabyzus. * Esther wife of King Xerxes '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, satrap of Babylon. * Tithraustes * Parysatis * Ratashah == Akkoljenza == Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of Aeschylus' play ''The Persians'', first performed in Athens in 472 Q.K., only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom. Herodotus's ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century Q.K., centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (<abbr>r.</abbr> 336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes is identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V. Fox, consider to be historical romance. There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera. The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto ''Artaserse'' (1730), which was first set to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach. The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930. Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. He was played by David Farrar in the film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''300'' and ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' by Frank Miller, as well as the film adaptation ''300'' (2007) and its sequel ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in Iran. Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in ''Meet the Spartans'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''South Park'' episode "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film ''Esther and the King'' and by Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of alternate history taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Harry Turtledove in his anthology ''Departures'' and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] rrll59glr42ka3sjsdwx7w5m3iisfa5 330762 330761 2026-06-28T16:32:25Z Trigcly 17859 /* Mewt u suċċessjoni */ 330762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === Darius miet meta kien fil-proċess li jħejji t-tieni armata għall-invażjoni tal-art kontinentali Griega, u b'hekk ħalla f'idejn ibnu biex jikkastiga lill-Atenjani, lin-Naksjani u lill-Eretrijani talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika, il-ħruq ta' Sardis, u r-rebħa tagħhom kontra l-Persjani f'Maratona. Xerxes inizjalment ried jevita gwerra kbira mal-Greċja, iżda ġie konvint mod ieħor mill-ġenerali ta' missieru mmexxijin minn kuġinuh Mardonius, li akkużah li kien timidu. Mill-483 Q.K., Xerxes ħejja l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu: il-Kanal ta' Xerxes tħaffer fl-istmu tal-[[peniżola]] tal-[[Athos|Muntanja Athos]], il-provvisti nħażnu fl-istazzjonijiet tul ir-rotta mit-Traċja, u żewġ pontijiet li iktar 'il quddiem saru magħrufa bħala l-Pontijiet ta' Xerxes inbnew minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont. Suldati ta' bosta nazzjonalitajiet servew fl-armati ta' Xerxes mill-imperu multietniku enormi tiegħu u lil hinn, inkluż il-Medes, is-Saka, l-Elamiti, l-Assirjani, il-[[Feniċi]], il-Babiloniżi, l-Eġizzjani, il-[[Lhud]], il-Maċedoni [[Għarab]], it-Traċjani, il-Peonjani, il-Griegi Akeani, il-Griegi Joniċi, il-Griegi tal-Eġew, il-Griegi Eoljani, il-Griegi minn Pontus, il-Kolkjani, is-Sindhis u bosta oħrajn. Skont l-istoriku Grieg [[Erodotu]], l-ewwel tentattivi ta' Xerxes li jagħmel pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont intemmu f'falliment meta maltempata qerdet il-kejbils tal-kittien u tal-papiru tal-pontijiet. B'ritaljazzjoni, Xerxes ordna li l-Hellespont (l-istrett innifsu) jiġi msawwat bil-frosta 300 darba, u ordna li jintremew il-ktajjen fl-ilma. It-tieni tentattiv ta' Xerxes li joħloq pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont irnexxa. L-invażjoni [[Kartaġiniżi|Kartaġiniża]] ta' [[Sqallija]] ċaħdet lill-Greċja mill-appoġġ tal-monarki setgħana ta' [[Siracusa]] u ''Agrigentum''; sorsi tal-qedem jassumu li Xerxes kien responsabbli, filwaqt li l-istudjużi moderni huma xettiċi. Barra minn hekk, bosta stati Griegi iżgħar żammew mal-Persjani, speċjalment Thessaly, Tebe u Argos. Xerxes ħareġ rebbieħ matul il-battalji inizjali. Xerxes salpa fir-rebbiegħa tal-480 Q.K. minn Sardis bi flotta u b'armata li skont l-istimi ta' Erodotu kienu jammontaw għal bejn wieħed u ieħor miljun ruħ, flimkien ma' 10,000 ġellied prim imsejħa immortali. Stimi iktar reċenti jsostnu li l-qawwa Persjana kien fiha madwar 60,000 ġellied. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === Fil-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, qawwa żgħira ta' ġellied Griegi mmexxija mir-Re [[Leonidas ta' Sparta]] rreżistiet il-qawwiet Persjani ferm akbar, iżda fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ġarrbet telfa. Skont Erodotu, il-Persjani kissru l-formazzjoni tat-truppi Spartani wara li raġel Grieg jismu Ephialtes tradixxa lil pajjiżu billi qal lill-Persjani li kienet teżisti mogħdija oħra madwar il-muntanji. F'Artemisium, maltempati kbar qerdu l-bastimenti min-naħa Griega u b'hekk il-battalja ntemmet b'mod prematur meta l-Griegi semgħu bit-telfa mġarrba f'Thermopylae u rtiraw. Wara Thermopylae nħatfet Ateni. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Atenjani kienu abbandunaw il-belt u ħarbu lejn il-gżira ta' Salamis qabel il-wasla ta' Xerxes. Grupp żgħira pprova jiddefendi l-Akropoli ta' Ateni, iżda ġarrbu telfa. Xerxes ordna l-Qerda ta' Ateni u ħaraq il-belt, tant li ħalla saff ta' qerda li ġie attestat arkeoloġikament, magħruf bħala l-Perserschutt. Il-Persjani b'hekk kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali Griega kollha lejn it-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes ġie mħajjar jattakka l-flotta Griega permezz tal-messaġġ ta' Themistocles (kontra l-parir ta' Artemisia ta' Halicarnassus), peress li suppost kellu kundizzjonijiet favorevoli, minflok ma jibgħat parti mill-bastimenti tiegħu lejn il-Gżejjer Peleponniżi u jistenna x-xoljiment tal-armati Griegi. Il-Battalja ta' Salamis (Settembru 480 Q.K.) intrebħet mill-flotta Griega, u wara Xerxes stabbilixxa kamp tax-xitwa f'Thessaly. Skont Erodotu, minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jattakkaw il-pontijiet minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont u jagħmlu nassa lill-armata tiegħu fl-Ewropa, Xerxes iddeċieda li jirtira lura lejn l-Asja, u ħa l-ikbar parti tal-armata miegħu. Xi ħaġa oħra li wasslet għall-irtirar jaf kienu l-irvellijiet kontinwi fil-Babilonja, li kienet provinċja ewlenija tal-imperu, u kienet teħtieġ l-attenzjoni personali tar-re. Huwa ħalla warajh kontinġent fil-Greċja biex itemm il-kampanja militari taħt Mardonius, li skont Erodotu kien issuġġerixxa l-irtirar. Din il-qawwa ġarrbet telfa s-sena ta' wara fi Plataea billi kkombina l-qawwiet tal-bliet-stati Griegi, u temmet l-offensiva Persjana fuq il-Greċja għal dejjem. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == Wara t-telfiet militari tiegħu fil-Greċja, Xerxes reġa' lura lejn il-Persja u ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-bosta proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru f'Susa u f'Persepolis. Huwa ssorvelja l-bini tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha u tas-Sala tal-Mitt Kolonna f'Persepolis, li huma l-ikbar strutturi u l-iżjed imponenti tal-palazz. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-Palazz ta' Apadana, it-Tachara (il-Palazz ta' Darius) u t-Teżor, li kollha kienu nbdew minn Darius, kif ukoll il-palazz tiegħu stess li kien id-doppju tad-daqs ta' dak ta' missieru. Il-gosti arkitettoniċi tiegħu kienu simili għal dawk ta' missieru, għalkemm fuq skala iktar ġganteska. Huwa ordna li jiżdiedu l-brikks bl-enamel fuq il-faċċata esterna tal-Palazz ta' Apadana bħala tiżjin. Huwa wettaq ukoll il-manutenzjoni meħtieġa tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru u lesta d-Daħla ta' Susa u bena palazz f'Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == F'Awwissu 465 Q.K., x'aktarx bejn l-4 u t-8 ta' Awwissu, Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali u l-iżjed uffiċjal setgħan fil-qorti Persjana, wettaq l-assassinju ta' Xerxes bl-għajnuna tar-raġel ikkastrat, Aspamitres. Għalkemm l-Irkanjan Artabanus kellu l-istess isem taz-ziju famuż ta' Xerxes, sar prominenti bis-saħħa tal-popolarità li kellu fil-kwartieri reliġjużi tal-qorti u l-intriċċi fil-ħarem. Huwa poġġa lis-seba' ulied subien tiegħu f'karigi ewlenin u kellu pjan biex ineħħi lill-Akemenidi minn fuq it-tron. L-istoriċi Griegi jagħtu rakkonti li jvarjaw rigward l-avvenimenti. Skont Ctesias (f'''Persica'' 20), Artabanus imbagħad akkuża l-Prinċep Eredi Darius, l-ikbar iben ta' Xerxes, bil-qtil u pperswada lil iben ieħor ta' Xerxes, Artaxerxes, biex ipatti għall-patriċidju billi joqtol lil Darius. Iżda skont [[Aristotli]] (fil-''Politika'' 5.1311b), Artabanus l-ewwel qatel lil Darius u mbagħad qatel lil Xerxes. Wara li Artaxerxes skopra l-qtil, huwa qatel lil Artabanus u lill-ulied subien tiegħu. F'dawn l-intriċċi ħa sehem ukoll il-Ġeneral Megabyzus, li ddeċieda li jaqleb in-naħat u x'aktarx salva lill-Akemenidi milli jitilfu l-kontroll li kellhom fuq it-tron Persjan. == [[Reliġjon]] == Filwaqt li ma hemm l-ebda konsensus ġenerali fost l-istudjużi dwar jekk Xerxes u l-predeċessuri tiegħu kinux influwenzati miż-Żoroastrijaniżmu, ġie stabbilit sew li Xerxes kien jemmen ferm f'Ahura Mazda, li kien iqis bħala d-divinità suprema. Madankollu, id-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet meqjuma wkoll minn aderenti tat-tradizzjoni reliġjuża (Indo-)Iranjana. Fir-rigward tat-trattament ta' reliġjonijiet oħra, Xerxes segwa l-istess politika tal-predeċessuri tiegħu: huwa appella għall-istudjużi reliġjużi lokali, għamel sagrifiċċji għad-divinitajiet lokali, u qered it-tempji fil-bliet u fil-pajjiżi li kkawżaw id-diżordni. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, l-ewwel tifel tiegħu, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes I jew Artabanus; * Hystaspes, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes Il; * Artaxerxes I; * Rhodogune; * Amytis, il-mara ta' Megabyzus; * Ester, il-mara tar-Re Xerxes. '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, is-satrap tal-Babilonja; * Tithraustes; * Parysatis; * Ratashah. == Akkoljenza == Fis-sorsi Griegi u [[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]], Xerxes jiġi ppreżentat b'mod negattiv ħafna u b'hekk dawn wittew it-triq għar-rappreżentazzjonijiet sussegwenti tiegħu fi ħdan it-tradizzjoni tal-Punent. Xerxes huwa karattru ċentrali tad-dramm ta' Aeschylus ''Il-Persjani'', li ttellgħet għall-ewwel darba f'Ateni fl-472 Q.K., 7 snin biss wara l-invażjoni tal-Greċja min-naħa tiegħu. Id-dramm jippreżentah bħala figura ffemminata u l-isforz tiegħu biex iġib lill-Asja u lill-Ewropa taħt il-kontroll tiegħu jwassal biex jinqered hu flimkien mar-renju tiegħu. ''L-Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, miktubin iktar 'il quddiem fis-seklu 5 Q.K., huma ċċentrati fuq il-Gwerer Persjani, b'Xerxes bħala figura ewlenija. Ftit mill-informazzjoni ta' Erodotu hija mċajpra. [[Pierre Briant]] akkużah li ppreżenta deskrizzjoni sterjotipata tal-Persjani u bi preġudizzju parzjali. [[Richard Stoneman]] iqis id-deskrizzjoni ta' Xerxes min-naħa ta' Erodotu bħala waħda traġika u bi sfumaturi, imqabbla mal-vilifikazzjoni li ġarrab mir-re Maċedonu [[Alessandru Manju]] (li rrenja fit-336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes jiġi identifikat mar-re Ahasuerus fil-Ktieb ta' Ester fil-[[Bibbja]], li xi studjużi, inkluż Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper u Michael V. Fox, iqisu bħala rumanz storiku. Madankollu ma hemmx konsensus dwar liema avveniment storiku pprovda l-bażi tal-ġrajja. Xerxes huwa l-protagonista tal-opra ''Serse'' tal-[[kompożitur]] [[Barokk]] [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]-[[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] [[George Frideric Handel]]. Ittellgħet għall-ewwel darba fit-Teatru tar-Re ta' [[Londra]] fil-15 ta' April 1738. L-arja famuża "Ombra mai fù" tiftaħ l-opra. Il-qtil ta' Xerxes minn Artabanus (''Artabano''), il-ġustizzjar tal-prinċep eredi Darius (''Dario''), ir-rewwixta ta' Megabyzus (''Megabise''), u s-suċċessjoni sussegwenti ta' Artaxerxes I tiġi romantiċizzata mill-[[poeta]] [[Italja|Taljan]] [[Metastasio]] fil-librett tal-opri tiegħu ''Artaserse'' (1730), li ġiet ikkonvertita f'[[mużika]] għall-ewwel darba minn [[Leonardo Vinci]], u sussegwentement minn kompożituri oħra bħal [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] u [[Johann Christian Bach]]. Ir-rumanz storiku ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) tal-kittieb [[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Olandiż]] [[Louis Couperus]] jiddeskrivi l-Gwerer Persjani mill-perspettiva ta' Xerxes. Għalkemm ir-rakkont huwa fizzjoni, Couperus xorta waħda jibbaża fuq studju estensiv ta' Erodotu. It-[[traduzzjoni]] bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]] ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' ta' Frederick H. Martens dehret fl-1930. L-affaxxinazzjoni ta' ġenerazzjonijiet li ġew wara fir-rigward ta' Sparta tal-qedem, b'mod partikolari l-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, wasslet biex Xerxes jissemma jew jidher f'opri tal-[[kultura]] popolari. Il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem minn David Farrar fil-film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), fejn jintwera bħala despota krudili b'kilba għall-poter u kmandant inkapaċi. Jissemma wkoll b'mod prominenti fir-rumanzi grafiċi ''300'' u ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' ta' Frank Miller, kif ukoll fl-adattament f'film ''300'' (2007) u l-film li ġie warajh ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014); il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem mill-attur [[Brażil|Brażiljan]] Rodrigo Santoro, fejn jiġi rrappreżentat bħala raġel ġgant bi kwalitajiet androġeni, li jsostni li huwa alla-re. Din ir-rappreżentazzjoni attirat ħafna kontroversja, speċjalment fl-Iran. Ken Davitian jaħdimha ta' Xerxes f'<nowiki/>''Meet the Spartans'', parodija tal-ewwel film ''300'', mimli umoriżmu u anakroniżmi apposta. B'mod simili, verżjoni satirika ħafna ta' Xerxes abbażi tar-rappreżentazzjoni tiegħu f'''300'' tintwera fl-episodju ta' ''South Park'', "D-Yikes!". Gore Vidal, fir-rumanz ta' fizzjoni storika tiegħu ''Creation'' (1981), jiddeskrivi fit-tul kif l-Akemenidi kisbu l-poter, speċjalment Darius I, u jippreżenta ċ-ċirkostanzi ta' [[ħajja]] u mewt ta' Xerxes. Il-verżjoni ta' Vidal tal-Gwerer Persjani, li tvarja mit-tradizzjoni tal-istorji Griegi, tingħad permezz tal-karattru vvintat ta' Cyrus Spitama, nofsu Grieg u nofsu Persjan, u n-neputi tal-profeta Żoroaster. Bis-saħħa tar-rabta tal-familja tiegħu, Cyrus jitrawwem fil-qorti Persjana wara l-qtil ta' Żoroaster, u sar il-ħabib tat-tfulija ta' Xerxes, u iktar 'il quddiem sar diplomatiku li ntbagħat lejn l-[[Indja]], u mbagħad lejn il-Greċja, u b'hekk jirnexxielu jingħata aċċess privileġġat fil-konfront ta' bosta figuri storiċi ewlenin ta' dak iż-żmien. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) jinħadem minn Richard Egan fil-film tal-1960 ''Esther and the King'' u minn Joel Smallbone fil-film tal-2013, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes għandu rwol sekondarju importanti (u qatt ma jidher) f'żewġ xogħlijiet qosra ta' storja alternattiva li jseħħu ġenerazzjonijiet sħaħ wara r-rebħa totali tiegħu kontra l-Greċja. Dawn huma: "Counting Potsherds" ta' Harry Turtledove fl-antoloġija tiegħu ''Departures'' u "The Craft of War" ta' Lois Tilton fl-ewwel volum ta' ''Alternate Generals''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] rk4k12ko4podscmut9lgsye4fxb9u45 330763 330762 2026-06-28T17:13:13Z Trigcly 17859 /* Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter */ 330763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez''; mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.) kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj". Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == [[Stampa:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|daqsminuri|Il-Babilonja ta' H. Fletcher, 1690.]] Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === [[Stampa:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|daqsminuri|Is-suldati ta' Xerxes I, ta' kull etniċità, fuq il-qabar ta' Xerxes I, f'Naqsh-e Rostam.]] Darius miet meta kien fil-proċess li jħejji t-tieni armata għall-invażjoni tal-art kontinentali Griega, u b'hekk ħalla f'idejn ibnu biex jikkastiga lill-Atenjani, lin-Naksjani u lill-Eretrijani talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika, il-ħruq ta' Sardis, u r-rebħa tagħhom kontra l-Persjani f'Maratona. Xerxes inizjalment ried jevita gwerra kbira mal-Greċja, iżda ġie konvint mod ieħor mill-ġenerali ta' missieru mmexxijin minn kuġinuh Mardonius, li akkużah li kien timidu. Mill-483 Q.K., Xerxes ħejja l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu: il-Kanal ta' Xerxes tħaffer fl-istmu tal-[[peniżola]] tal-[[Athos|Muntanja Athos]], il-provvisti nħażnu fl-istazzjonijiet tul ir-rotta mit-Traċja, u żewġ pontijiet li iktar 'il quddiem saru magħrufa bħala l-Pontijiet ta' Xerxes inbnew minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont. Suldati ta' bosta nazzjonalitajiet servew fl-armati ta' Xerxes mill-imperu multietniku enormi tiegħu u lil hinn, inkluż il-Medes, is-Saka, l-Elamiti, l-Assirjani, il-[[Feniċi]], il-Babiloniżi, l-Eġizzjani, il-[[Lhud]], il-Maċedoni [[Għarab]], it-Traċjani, il-Peonjani, il-Griegi Akeani, il-Griegi Joniċi, il-Griegi tal-Eġew, il-Griegi Eoljani, il-Griegi minn Pontus, il-Kolkjani, is-Sindhis u bosta oħrajn. Skont l-istoriku Grieg [[Erodotu]], l-ewwel tentattivi ta' Xerxes li jagħmel pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont intemmu f'falliment meta maltempata qerdet il-kejbils tal-kittien u tal-papiru tal-pontijiet. B'ritaljazzjoni, Xerxes ordna li l-Hellespont (l-istrett innifsu) jiġi msawwat bil-frosta 300 darba, u ordna li jintremew il-ktajjen fl-ilma. It-tieni tentattiv ta' Xerxes li joħloq pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont irnexxa. L-invażjoni [[Kartaġiniżi|Kartaġiniża]] ta' [[Sqallija]] ċaħdet lill-Greċja mill-appoġġ tal-monarki setgħana ta' [[Siracusa]] u ''Agrigentum''; sorsi tal-qedem jassumu li Xerxes kien responsabbli, filwaqt li l-istudjużi moderni huma xettiċi. Barra minn hekk, bosta stati Griegi iżgħar żammew mal-Persjani, speċjalment Thessaly, Tebe u Argos. Xerxes ħareġ rebbieħ matul il-battalji inizjali. Xerxes salpa fir-rebbiegħa tal-480 Q.K. minn Sardis bi flotta u b'armata li skont l-istimi ta' Erodotu kienu jammontaw għal bejn wieħed u ieħor miljun ruħ, flimkien ma' 10,000 ġellied prim imsejħa immortali. Stimi iktar reċenti jsostnu li l-qawwa Persjana kien fiha madwar 60,000 ġellied. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === [[Stampa:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|daqsminuri|Re tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi joqtol lil oplit Grieg. Il-marka ta' siġill ċilindriku fuq it-tafal, skolpita għall-ħabta tal-500–475 Q.K., fi żmien Xerxes I, fil-[[Mużew]] Metropolitan tal-[[Arti]].]] Fil-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, qawwa żgħira ta' ġellied Griegi mmexxija mir-Re [[Leonidas ta' Sparta]] rreżistiet il-qawwiet Persjani ferm akbar, iżda fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ġarrbet telfa. Skont Erodotu, il-Persjani kissru l-formazzjoni tat-truppi Spartani wara li raġel Grieg jismu Ephialtes tradixxa lil pajjiżu billi qal lill-Persjani li kienet teżisti mogħdija oħra madwar il-muntanji. F'Artemisium, maltempati kbar qerdu l-bastimenti min-naħa Griega u b'hekk il-battalja ntemmet b'mod prematur meta l-Griegi semgħu bit-telfa mġarrba f'Thermopylae u rtiraw. Wara Thermopylae nħatfet Ateni. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Atenjani kienu abbandunaw il-belt u ħarbu lejn il-gżira ta' Salamis qabel il-wasla ta' Xerxes. Grupp żgħira pprova jiddefendi l-Akropoli ta' Ateni, iżda ġarrbu telfa. Xerxes ordna l-Qerda ta' Ateni u ħaraq il-belt, tant li ħalla saff ta' qerda li ġie attestat arkeoloġikament, magħruf bħala l-Perserschutt. Il-Persjani b'hekk kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali Griega kollha lejn it-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes ġie mħajjar jattakka l-flotta Griega permezz tal-messaġġ ta' Themistocles (kontra l-parir ta' Artemisia ta' Halicarnassus), peress li suppost kellu kundizzjonijiet favorevoli, minflok ma jibgħat parti mill-bastimenti tiegħu lejn il-Gżejjer Peleponniżi u jistenna x-xoljiment tal-armati Griegi. Il-Battalja ta' Salamis (Settembru 480 Q.K.) intrebħet mill-flotta Griega, u wara Xerxes stabbilixxa kamp tax-xitwa f'Thessaly. Skont Erodotu, minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jattakkaw il-pontijiet minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont u jagħmlu nassa lill-armata tiegħu fl-Ewropa, Xerxes iddeċieda li jirtira lura lejn l-Asja, u ħa l-ikbar parti tal-armata miegħu. Xi ħaġa oħra li wasslet għall-irtirar jaf kienu l-irvellijiet kontinwi fil-Babilonja, li kienet provinċja ewlenija tal-imperu, u kienet teħtieġ l-attenzjoni personali tar-re. Huwa ħalla warajh kontinġent fil-Greċja biex itemm il-kampanja militari taħt Mardonius, li skont Erodotu kien issuġġerixxa l-irtirar. Din il-qawwa ġarrbet telfa s-sena ta' wara fi Plataea billi kkombina l-qawwiet tal-bliet-stati Griegi, u temmet l-offensiva Persjana fuq il-Greċja għal dejjem. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == [[Stampa:Xerxes tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam (4615488322).jpg|daqsminuri|Il-qabar ta' Xerxes I f'Naqsh-e Rostam.]] Wara t-telfiet militari tiegħu fil-Greċja, Xerxes reġa' lura lejn il-Persja u ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-bosta proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru f'Susa u f'Persepolis. Huwa ssorvelja l-bini tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha u tas-Sala tal-Mitt Kolonna f'Persepolis, li huma l-ikbar strutturi u l-iżjed imponenti tal-palazz. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-Palazz ta' Apadana, it-Tachara (il-Palazz ta' Darius) u t-Teżor, li kollha kienu nbdew minn Darius, kif ukoll il-palazz tiegħu stess li kien id-doppju tad-daqs ta' dak ta' missieru. Il-gosti arkitettoniċi tiegħu kienu simili għal dawk ta' missieru, għalkemm fuq skala iktar ġganteska. Huwa ordna li jiżdiedu l-brikks bl-enamel fuq il-faċċata esterna tal-Palazz ta' Apadana bħala tiżjin. Huwa wettaq ukoll il-manutenzjoni meħtieġa tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru u lesta d-Daħla ta' Susa u bena palazz f'Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == [[Stampa:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Din il-kitba kunejformi ssemmi l-qtil ta' Xerxes I minn ibnu. Mill-Babilonja, l-[[Iraq]]. Issa tinsab fil-[[Mużew Brittaniku]].]] F'Awwissu 465 Q.K., x'aktarx bejn l-4 u t-8 ta' Awwissu, Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali u l-iżjed uffiċjal setgħan fil-qorti Persjana, wettaq l-assassinju ta' Xerxes bl-għajnuna tar-raġel ikkastrat, Aspamitres. Għalkemm l-Irkanjan Artabanus kellu l-istess isem taz-ziju famuż ta' Xerxes, sar prominenti bis-saħħa tal-popolarità li kellu fil-kwartieri reliġjużi tal-qorti u l-intriċċi fil-ħarem. Huwa poġġa lis-seba' ulied subien tiegħu f'karigi ewlenin u kellu pjan biex ineħħi lill-Akemenidi minn fuq it-tron. [[Stampa:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|daqsminuri|Xerxes waqt li qed jiġi ddeżinjat minn Darius I. Persepolis. L-etniċitajiet tal-imperu jidhru qed jappoġġaw it-tron. Id-divinità Ahura mazda tinkuruna x-xena.]] L-istoriċi Griegi jagħtu rakkonti li jvarjaw rigward l-avvenimenti. Skont Ctesias (f'''Persica'' 20), Artabanus imbagħad akkuża l-Prinċep Eredi Darius, l-ikbar iben ta' Xerxes, bil-qtil u pperswada lil iben ieħor ta' Xerxes, Artaxerxes, biex ipatti għall-patriċidju billi joqtol lil Darius. Iżda skont [[Aristotli]] (fil-''Politika'' 5.1311b), Artabanus l-ewwel qatel lil Darius u mbagħad qatel lil Xerxes. Wara li Artaxerxes skopra l-qtil, huwa qatel lil Artabanus u lill-ulied subien tiegħu. F'dawn l-intriċċi ħa sehem ukoll il-Ġeneral Megabyzus, li ddeċieda li jaqleb in-naħat u x'aktarx salva lill-Akemenidi milli jitilfu l-kontroll li kellhom fuq it-tron Persjan. == [[Reliġjon]] == Filwaqt li ma hemm l-ebda konsensus ġenerali fost l-istudjużi dwar jekk Xerxes u l-predeċessuri tiegħu kinux influwenzati miż-Żoroastrijaniżmu, ġie stabbilit sew li Xerxes kien jemmen ferm f'Ahura Mazda, li kien iqis bħala d-divinità suprema. Madankollu, id-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet meqjuma wkoll minn aderenti tat-tradizzjoni reliġjuża (Indo-)Iranjana. Fir-rigward tat-trattament ta' reliġjonijiet oħra, Xerxes segwa l-istess politika tal-predeċessuri tiegħu: huwa appella għall-istudjużi reliġjużi lokali, għamel sagrifiċċji għad-divinitajiet lokali, u qered it-tempji fil-bliet u fil-pajjiżi li kkawżaw id-diżordni. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, l-ewwel tifel tiegħu, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes I jew Artabanus; * Hystaspes, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes Il; * Artaxerxes I; * Rhodogune; * Amytis, il-mara ta' Megabyzus; * Ester, il-mara tar-Re Xerxes. '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, is-satrap tal-Babilonja; * Tithraustes; * Parysatis; * Ratashah. == Akkoljenza == [[Stampa:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|daqsminuri|Kitba kunejformi trilingwi ta' Xerxes imnaqqxa mal-irdum tal-Fortizza ta' Van, illum fit-[[Turkija]].]] Fis-sorsi Griegi u [[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]], Xerxes jiġi ppreżentat b'mod negattiv ħafna u b'hekk dawn wittew it-triq għar-rappreżentazzjonijiet sussegwenti tiegħu fi ħdan it-tradizzjoni tal-Punent. Xerxes huwa karattru ċentrali tad-dramm ta' Aeschylus ''Il-Persjani'', li ttellgħet għall-ewwel darba f'Ateni fl-472 Q.K., 7 snin biss wara l-invażjoni tal-Greċja min-naħa tiegħu. Id-dramm jippreżentah bħala figura ffemminata u l-isforz tiegħu biex iġib lill-Asja u lill-Ewropa taħt il-kontroll tiegħu jwassal biex jinqered hu flimkien mar-renju tiegħu. ''L-Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, miktubin iktar 'il quddiem fis-seklu 5 Q.K., huma ċċentrati fuq il-Gwerer Persjani, b'Xerxes bħala figura ewlenija. Ftit mill-informazzjoni ta' Erodotu hija mċajpra. [[Pierre Briant]] akkużah li ppreżenta deskrizzjoni sterjotipata tal-Persjani u bi preġudizzju parzjali. [[Richard Stoneman]] iqis id-deskrizzjoni ta' Xerxes min-naħa ta' Erodotu bħala waħda traġika u bi sfumaturi, imqabbla mal-vilifikazzjoni li ġarrab mir-re Maċedonu [[Alessandru Manju]] (li rrenja fit-336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes jiġi identifikat mar-re Ahasuerus fil-Ktieb ta' Ester fil-[[Bibbja]], li xi studjużi, inkluż Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper u Michael V. Fox, iqisu bħala rumanz storiku. Madankollu ma hemmx konsensus dwar liema avveniment storiku pprovda l-bażi tal-ġrajja. [[Stampa:Edwin Long - Queen Esther - Google Art Project.jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-re Persjan fil-Ktieb ta' Ester fil-Bibbja x'aktarx kien Xerxes. [[Pittura]] ta' Edwin Long.]] Xerxes huwa l-protagonista tal-opra ''Serse'' tal-[[kompożitur]] [[Barokk]] [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]-[[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] [[George Frideric Handel]]. Ittellgħet għall-ewwel darba fit-Teatru tar-Re ta' [[Londra]] fil-15 ta' April 1738. L-arja famuża "Ombra mai fù" tiftaħ l-opra. Il-qtil ta' Xerxes minn Artabanus (''Artabano''), il-ġustizzjar tal-prinċep eredi Darius (''Dario''), ir-rewwixta ta' Megabyzus (''Megabise''), u s-suċċessjoni sussegwenti ta' Artaxerxes I tiġi romantiċizzata mill-[[poeta]] [[Italja|Taljan]] [[Metastasio]] fil-librett tal-opri tiegħu ''Artaserse'' (1730), li ġiet ikkonvertita f'[[mużika]] għall-ewwel darba minn [[Leonardo Vinci]], u sussegwentement minn kompożituri oħra bħal [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] u [[Johann Christian Bach]]. Ir-rumanz storiku ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) tal-kittieb [[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Olandiż]] [[Louis Couperus]] jiddeskrivi l-Gwerer Persjani mill-perspettiva ta' Xerxes. Għalkemm ir-rakkont huwa fizzjoni, Couperus xorta waħda jibbaża fuq studju estensiv ta' Erodotu. It-[[traduzzjoni]] bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]] ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' ta' Frederick H. Martens dehret fl-1930. L-affaxxinazzjoni ta' ġenerazzjonijiet li ġew wara fir-rigward ta' Sparta tal-qedem, b'mod partikolari l-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, wasslet biex Xerxes jissemma jew jidher f'opri tal-[[kultura]] popolari. Il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem minn David Farrar fil-film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), fejn jintwera bħala despota krudili b'kilba għall-poter u kmandant inkapaċi. Jissemma wkoll b'mod prominenti fir-rumanzi grafiċi ''300'' u ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' ta' Frank Miller, kif ukoll fl-adattament f'film ''300'' (2007) u l-film li ġie warajh ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014); il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem mill-attur [[Brażil|Brażiljan]] Rodrigo Santoro, fejn jiġi rrappreżentat bħala raġel ġgant bi kwalitajiet androġeni, li jsostni li huwa alla-re. Din ir-rappreżentazzjoni attirat ħafna kontroversja, speċjalment fl-Iran. Ken Davitian jaħdimha ta' Xerxes f'''Meet the Spartans'', parodija tal-ewwel film ''300'', mimli umoriżmu u anakroniżmi apposta. B'mod simili, verżjoni satirika ħafna ta' Xerxes abbażi tar-rappreżentazzjoni tiegħu f'''300'' tintwera fl-episodju ta' ''South Park'', "D-Yikes!". [[Stampa:Ahasuerus by Ernest Normand.jpg|daqsminuri|Xerxes (Ahasuerus) maħdum minn Ernest Normand, 1888 (detall).]] Gore Vidal, fir-rumanz ta' fizzjoni storika tiegħu ''Creation'' (1981), jiddeskrivi fit-tul kif l-Akemenidi kisbu l-poter, speċjalment Darius I, u jippreżenta ċ-ċirkostanzi ta' [[ħajja]] u mewt ta' Xerxes. Il-verżjoni ta' Vidal tal-Gwerer Persjani, li tvarja mit-tradizzjoni tal-istorji Griegi, tingħad permezz tal-karattru vvintat ta' Cyrus Spitama, nofsu Grieg u nofsu Persjan, u n-neputi tal-profeta Żoroaster. Bis-saħħa tar-rabta tal-familja tiegħu, Cyrus jitrawwem fil-qorti Persjana wara l-qtil ta' Żoroaster, u sar il-ħabib tat-tfulija ta' Xerxes, u iktar 'il quddiem sar diplomatiku li ntbagħat lejn l-[[Indja]], u mbagħad lejn il-Greċja, u b'hekk jirnexxielu jingħata aċċess privileġġat fil-konfront ta' bosta figuri storiċi ewlenin ta' dak iż-żmien. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) jinħadem minn Richard Egan fil-film tal-1960 ''Esther and the King'' u minn Joel Smallbone fil-film tal-2013, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes għandu rwol sekondarju importanti (u qatt ma jidher) f'żewġ xogħlijiet qosra ta' storja alternattiva li jseħħu ġenerazzjonijiet sħaħ wara r-rebħa totali tiegħu kontra l-Greċja. Dawn huma: "Counting Potsherds" ta' Harry Turtledove fl-antoloġija tiegħu ''Departures'' u "The Craft of War" ta' Lois Tilton fl-ewwel volum ta' ''Alternate Generals''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] 6k3gvpcwhed173b0sw3o3dg20i1lz86 330764 330763 2026-06-28T17:18:06Z Trigcly 17859 żieda referenzi 330764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Xerxes I''' (pronunzja: /ˈzɜːrksiːz/ ''ZURK-seez'';<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/xerxes-i|titlu=XERXES I definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary|data=2026-05-19|sit=www.collinsdictionary.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-06-28}}</ref> mill-Persjan Antik '''''Khshayarsha''','' magħruf iktar bħala '''Xerxes''' '''il-Kbir'''; li twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. – miet fl-465 Q.K.)<ref>Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006). ''Warfare in the Ancient World''. Pen and Sword. ISBN <bdi>1848846304</bdi>.</ref> kien mexxej [[Persjani|Persjan]] li rrenja bħala r-raba' Re tar-Rejiet tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi mill-486 Q.K. sal-assassinju tiegħu fl-465 Q.K. Huwa kien iben [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]] u Atossa, bint [[Ċiru l-Kbir]]. Fl-[[Storja|istorja]] tal-Punent, Xerxes huwa magħruf l-iktar għall-invażjoni li wettaq fil-[[Greċja]] fl-480 Q.K., li ntemmet b'telfa għall-Persjani. Xerxes sar is-suċċessur ta' Darius minflok ħuh il-kbir Artobarzan u wiret imperu multietniku kbir mal-[[mewt]] ta' missieru. Huwa kkonsolida l-poter billi għakkes ir-rewwixti fl-[[Eġittu]] u fil-[[Babilonja]], u ġedded il-kampanja militari ta' missieru biex il-Greċja tiġi sottomessa u biex [[Ateni]] u l-alleati tagħha jiġu kkastigati talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika. Fl-480 Q.K., Xerxes mexxa armata kbira u qasam il-Hellespont lejn l-[[Ewropa]]. Huwa kiseb rebħiet f'Thermopylae u f'Artemisium qabel ma ħataf u qered lil Ateni. Il-qawwiet tiegħu kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja fit-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju sa ma ġarrbu telfa fil-Battalja ta' Salamis. Minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jagħmlulu nasba fl-Ewropa, Xerxes irtira flimkien mal-biċċa l-kbira tal-armata tiegħu lura lejn l-[[Asja]], u ħalla warajh lil Mardonius biex ikompli l-kampanja militari tiegħu. Mardonius ġarrab telfa fi Plataea s-sena ta' wara, li temmet l-invażjoni Persjana. Wara li rritorna lejn il-[[Iran|Persja]], Xerxes iddedika ruħu għall-proġetti kbar ta' kostruzzjoni, il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha, tal-Palazzi ta' Apadana u ta' Tachara f'Persepolis, u kompla l-kostruzzjoni tal-Palazz ta' Darius f'Susa. Huwa ħa ħsieb it-twettiq tal-manutenzjoni tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru. Fl-465 Q.K., Xerxes u l-eredi tiegħu Darius ġew assassinati minn Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali. Is-suċċessur tiegħu kien it-tielet iben tiegħu, li tela' fuq it-tron bħala Artaxerxes I. == [[Etimoloġija]] == ''Xérxēs'' (Ξέρξης) hija t-trażlitterazzjoni [[Lingwa Griega|Griega]] u [[Lingwa Latina|Latina]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') tal-Persjan Antik ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' (li jfisser "mexxej fuq l-eroj"), abbażi tal-ewwel parti ''xšaya'', li tfisser "mexxej", u t-tieni parti ''ṛšā'', li tfisser "eroj".<ref>Marciak, Michał (2017). ''Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West''. Brill. ISBN <bdi>9789004350724</bdi>. p. 80.</ref> Isem Xerxes kien magħruf bl-Akkadjan bħala ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' u bl-[[Aramajk ta' Ġesù|Aramajk]] bħala ''ḥšyʾrš''. Xerxes sar isem popolari fost il-mexxeja tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name/|titlu=XERXES i. The Name|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-06-28}}</ref> == Ħajja bikrija == === Nisel u twelid === Missier Xerxes kien Darius I (li rrenja fil-522 Q.K. sal-486 Q.K.), il-monarka tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, minkejja li ma kienx membru tal-familja ta' Ċiru l-Kbir, il-fundatur tal-imperu. Omm Xerxes kienet Atossa, bint Ċiru. Darius u Atossa żżewġu fil-522 Q.K., u Xerxes twieled għall-ħabta tal-518 Q.K. === Trawwim u [[edukazzjoni]] === Skont id-djalogu Grieg tal-Ewwel Alcibiades, li jiddeskrivi t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni tipiċi tal-prinċpijiet Persjani, dawn kienu jitrawmu minn irġiel ikkastrati. Tal-età ta' 7 snin, il-prinċpijiet kienu jitgħallmu jirkbu ż-[[żiemel]] u jikkaċċjaw; wara li kienu jagħlqu 14-il sena, kienu jiġu mgħallma minn erba' [[Għalliem|għalliema]] minn sfondi aristokratiċi, li kienu jgħallmuhom ikunu "għorrief, ġusti, prudenti u qalbiena". Il-prinċpijiet Persjani kienu jitgħallmu wkoll l-affarijiet bażiċi tar-[[reliġjon]] taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]], u kienu jiġu mgħallma jkunu sinċieri, kuraġġużi u jkollhom awtokontroll. Id-djalogu żied ukoll li "l-biża', għal Persjan, hija l-ekwivalenti tal-[[Skjavitù|iskjavitù]]". Tal-età ta' 16 jew 17-il sena, il-prinċpijiet kienu jibdew l-10 snin obbligatorji ta' servizz nazzjonali, li kienu jinkludu l-prattika tal-isparar bil-qaws u tat-tfigħ tal-ġavellin, il-kompetizzjoni għal premjijiet, u l-kaċċa. Wara kienu jagħtu servizz fil-militar għal madwar 25 senaA, u wara kienu jiġu elevati għall-istatus ta' anzjani u konsulenti tar-re. F'dak iż-żmien, il-familji inkluż ta' Xerxes, kienu jiżżewġu bejn il-membri tal-istess familja. Dan ir-rakkont dwar l-edukazzjoni fost l-elit Persjan huwa appoġġat mid-deskrizzjoni ta' Xenophon tas-seklu 5 Q.K. Il-prinċep tal-Akemenidi, Ċiru ż-Żgħir, kien midħla sew tiegħu. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li dan kien it-tip ta' trawwim u ta' edukazzjoni li esperjenza Xerxes. Mhuwiex magħruf jekk Xerxes qatt tgħallem jaqra jew jikteb, peress li l-Persjani kienu jagħtu preferenza lill-istorja orali minflok il-letteratura miktuba. Stoneman jissuġġerixxi li t-trawwim u l-edukazzjoni ta' Xerxes x'aktarx li ma kinitx wisq differenti minn dik tar-rejiet Persjani li ġew wara, bħal Abbas il-Kbir, ir-re tal-Imperu tas-Safavidi fis-[[seklu 17]] [[WK|W.K]]. Mill-498 Q.K., Xerxes irresjeda fil-palazz irjali tal-Babilonja. === Aċċess għat-tron === Waqt li Darius kien qed iħejji għal gwerra oħra kontra l-Greċja, faqqgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu fl-486 Q.K. rigward it-tassazzjoni u d-deportazzjoni tal-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] biex jibnu l-palazzi rjali f'[[Susa]] u f'[[Persepolis]]. Skont il-[[Dritt|liġi]] Persjana r-re kellu jagħżel suċċessur qabel ma jmur fuq spedizzjonijiet perikolużi; meta Darius iddeċieda li jitlaq lejn l-Eġittu (487–486 Q.K.), huwa ħejja l-qabar tiegħu f'Naqsh-e Rustam (5 kilometri mill-palazz irjali tiegħu f'Persepolis) u ħatar lil Xerxes, ibnu l-kbir mingħand Atossa, bħala s-suċċessur tiegħu. Darius ma setax imexxi l-kampanja militari minħabba li saħħtu marret għall-agħar; huwa miet f'Ottubru 486 Q.K. tal-età ta' 64 sena. Artobazan sostna li kellu jingħata l-kuruna bħala l-ikbar iben ta' Darius, filwaqt li Xerxes sostna l-istess għalih abbażi tal-fatt li kien iben Atossa, bint Ċiru, u li Ċiru kien rebaħ il-libertà tal-Persjani. Dak li sostna Xerxes ġie appoġġat minn re Spartan f'eżilju li kien preżenti fil-Persja dak iż-żmien, ir-re Ewripontid Demaratus, li sostna wkoll li l-ikbar iben b'mod universali ma kellux l-aqwa jedd għall-kuruna, u kkwota l-liġi Spartana, li kienet tiddikjara li l-ewwel iben li jitwieled meta l-missier ikun re kien l-eredi għat-tron. Xi studjużi moderni huma tal-fehma wkoll li d-deċiżjoni mhux tas-soltu ta' Darius li jagħti t-tron lil Xerxes kienet frott il-ħsieb tal-prestiġju partikolari li kellhom Ċiru l-Kbir u bintu Atossa. Artobazan twieled meta "Darius kien sudditu", filwaqt li Xerxes kien l-ikbar iben "li twieled wara li Darius tela' fuq it-tron". Filwaqt li omm Artobazan kienet persuna komuni, omm Xerxes kienet bint il-fundatur tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Xerxes ġie inkurunat u tela' fuq it-tron wara f'Ottubru–Diċembru 486 Q.K. meta kellu madwar 32 sena. It-tranżizzjoni tal-poter lil Xerxes mexiet ħarir, mill-ġdid parzjalment bis-saħħa tal-awtorità kbira ta' Atossa u l-aċċess tiegħu għall-poter irjali ma ġiex ikkontestat minn ħadd fil-qorti jew fil-familja Akemenida jew minn xi nazzjon sudditu. == Konsolidazzjoni tal-poter == [[Stampa:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|daqsminuri|Il-Babilonja ta' H. Fletcher, 1690.]] Fi żmien l-aċċess ta' Xerxes għat-tron, il-borma bdiet tbaqbaq f'uħud mid-dominji tiegħu. Inqalgħet rewwixta fl-Eġittu, li kienet tidher perikoluża biżżejjed tant li Xerxes ma mexxiex l-armata personalment biex jerġa' jistabbilixxi l-ordni (b'hekk kellu l-opportunità li jibda r-renju tiegħu b'kampanja militari). Xerxes għakkes ir-rewwixta f'Jannar 484 Q.K. u ħatat lil ħuh Achaemenes bħala s-satrap tal-Eġittu, minflok is-satrap ta' qabel Pherendates, li jingħad li nqatel waqt ir-rewwixta. L-armata nfilġet sabiex tgħakkes ir-rewwixta Eġizzjana, wara li ġiet immobilizzata minn Darius fit-3 snin ta' qabel. Għaldaqstant, Xerxes kellu jerġa' jgħaqqad armata oħra għall-ispedizzjoni tiegħu fil-Greċja, li damet 4 snin oħra. Kien hemm l-inkwiet ukoll fil-Babilonja, fejn kien hemm mill-inqas żewġ rewwixti kontra Xerxes matul ir-renju tiegħu. L-ewwel rewwixta faqqgħet f'Ġunju jew f'Lulju 484 Q.K. u tmexxiet minn ribelli jismu Bel-shimanni. Ir-rewwixta ta' Bel-shimmani kellha għomorha qasir; id-dokumenti Babiloniżi miktubin matul ir-renju tiegħu jkopru perjodu ta' ġimagħtejn biss. Sentejn wara, il-Babilonja kellha mexxej ribelli ieħor, Shamash-eriba. Fil-bidu tas-sajf tal-482 Q.K., Shamash-eriba ħataf il-Babilonja u bliet oħra fil-qrib, bħal [[Borsippa]] u [[Dilbat]], u ġarrab telfa biss f'Marzu 481 Q.K. wara l-assedju twil tal-Babilonja. Il-kawża preċiża tar-rewwixta fil-Babilonja mhix ċerta. Jaf faqqgħet minħabba żidiet fit-taxxi. Qabel dawn ir-rewwixti, il-Babilonja kienet okkupat pożizzjoni speċjali fl-Imperu tal-Akemenidi; ir-rejiet tal-Akemenidi kellhom it-titli ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u "Re tal-Artijiet", li kienu jimplikaw li kienu jipperċepixxu l-Babilonja bħala xi entità separata fi ħdan l-imperu tagħhom, magħquda mar-renju tagħhom stess f'unjoni personali. Madankollu, wara r-rewwixti Xerxes neħħa t-titlu ta' "Re tal-Babilonja" u qasam is-satrapija Babiloniża li qabel kienet tassew kbira (kienet tirrappreżenta l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż) f'sottounitajiet iżgħar. Abbaż ta' testi mill-awturi klassiċi, spiss wieħed jissoponi li Xerxes wettaq tpattija brutali kontra l-Babilonja wara ż-żewġ rewwixti. Skont il-[[Kittieb|kittieba]] tal-qedem, Xerxes qered il-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-Babilonja u kkawża xi ħsarat fit-tempji tal-belt. L-Esagila allegatament ġarrbet ħsara kbira, u Xerxes allegatament ġarr l-[[Statwa|istatwa]] ta' Marduk miegħu mill-belt, u x'aktarx ġabha miegħu fl-Iran u dewwibha (l-awturi klassiċi jsostnu li l-istatwa kienet magħmula kollha mid-deheb, u b'hekk setgħet tinħall faċilment). L-istoriku modern [[Amélie Kuhrt]] iqis li huwa improbabbli li Xerxes qered it-tempji, iżda jemmen li l-ġrajja tiegħu jagħmel dan jaf oriġinat minn sentiment anti-Persjan fost il-Babiloniżi. Huwa dubjuż jekk l-istatwa tneħħietx mill-Babilonja wara kollox u wħud saħansitra ssuġġerew li Xerxes neħħa statwa mill-belt, iżda kienet l-istatwa tad-deheb ta' raġel mhux l-istatwa tal-alla Marduk. Għalkemm ma tantx jissemma meta mqabbel ma' perjodi iktar bikrin, id-dokumenti kontemporanji jissuġġerixxu li l-Festival tas-Sena l-Ġdida Babiloniża tkompla f'xi forma jew oħra fi żmien l-Imperu tal-Akemenidi. Minħabba l-bidla fit-tmexxija mill-Babiloniżi stess għall-Persjani u minħabba s-sostituzzjoni tal-familji tal-elit tal-belt minn Xerxes wara r-rewwixta, x'aktarx li r-ritwali u l-avvenimenti tradizzjonali tal-festival nbidlu b'mod konsiderevoli. == Kampanji militari == === Invażjoni tal-art kontinentali tal-Greċja === [[Stampa:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|daqsminuri|Is-suldati ta' Xerxes I, ta' kull etniċità, fuq il-qabar ta' Xerxes I, f'Naqsh-e Rostam.]] Darius miet meta kien fil-proċess li jħejji t-tieni armata għall-invażjoni tal-art kontinentali Griega, u b'hekk ħalla f'idejn ibnu biex jikkastiga lill-Atenjani, lin-Naksjani u lill-Eretrijani talli ndaħlu fir-Rewwixta Jonika, il-ħruq ta' Sardis, u r-rebħa tagħhom kontra l-Persjani f'Maratona. Xerxes inizjalment ried jevita gwerra kbira mal-Greċja, iżda ġie konvint mod ieħor mill-ġenerali ta' missieru mmexxijin minn kuġinuh Mardonius, li akkużah li kien timidu. Mill-483 Q.K., Xerxes ħejja l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu: il-Kanal ta' Xerxes tħaffer fl-istmu tal-[[peniżola]] tal-[[Athos|Muntanja Athos]], il-provvisti nħażnu fl-istazzjonijiet tul ir-rotta mit-Traċja, u żewġ pontijiet li iktar 'il quddiem saru magħrufa bħala l-Pontijiet ta' Xerxes inbnew minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont. Suldati ta' bosta nazzjonalitajiet servew fl-armati ta' Xerxes mill-imperu multietniku enormi tiegħu u lil hinn, inkluż il-Medes, is-Saka, l-Elamiti, l-Assirjani, il-[[Feniċi]], il-Babiloniżi, l-Eġizzjani, il-[[Lhud]], il-Maċedoni [[Għarab]], it-Traċjani, il-Peonjani, il-Griegi Akeani, il-Griegi Joniċi, il-Griegi tal-Eġew, il-Griegi Eoljani, il-Griegi minn Pontus, il-Kolkjani, is-Sindhis u bosta oħrajn. Skont l-istoriku Grieg [[Erodotu]], l-ewwel tentattivi ta' Xerxes li jagħmel pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont intemmu f'falliment meta maltempata qerdet il-kejbils tal-kittien u tal-papiru tal-pontijiet. B'ritaljazzjoni, Xerxes ordna li l-Hellespont (l-istrett innifsu) jiġi msawwat bil-frosta 300 darba, u ordna li jintremew il-ktajjen fl-ilma. It-tieni tentattiv ta' Xerxes li joħloq pont minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont irnexxa. L-invażjoni [[Kartaġiniżi|Kartaġiniża]] ta' [[Sqallija]] ċaħdet lill-Greċja mill-appoġġ tal-monarki setgħana ta' [[Siracusa]] u ''Agrigentum''; sorsi tal-qedem jassumu li Xerxes kien responsabbli, filwaqt li l-istudjużi moderni huma xettiċi. Barra minn hekk, bosta stati Griegi iżgħar żammew mal-Persjani, speċjalment Thessaly, Tebe u Argos. Xerxes ħareġ rebbieħ matul il-battalji inizjali. Xerxes salpa fir-rebbiegħa tal-480 Q.K. minn Sardis bi flotta u b'armata li skont l-istimi ta' Erodotu kienu jammontaw għal bejn wieħed u ieħor miljun ruħ, flimkien ma' 10,000 ġellied prim imsejħa immortali. Stimi iktar reċenti jsostnu li l-qawwa Persjana kien fiha madwar 60,000 ġellied. === Battalja ta' Thermopylae u l-qerda ta' Ateni === [[Stampa:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|daqsminuri|Re tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi joqtol lil oplit Grieg. Il-marka ta' siġill ċilindriku fuq it-tafal, skolpita għall-ħabta tal-500–475 Q.K., fi żmien Xerxes I, fil-[[Mużew]] Metropolitan tal-[[Arti]].]] Fil-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, qawwa żgħira ta' ġellied Griegi mmexxija mir-Re [[Leonidas ta' Sparta]] rreżistiet il-qawwiet Persjani ferm akbar, iżda fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ġarrbet telfa. Skont Erodotu, il-Persjani kissru l-formazzjoni tat-truppi Spartani wara li raġel Grieg jismu Ephialtes tradixxa lil pajjiżu billi qal lill-Persjani li kienet teżisti mogħdija oħra madwar il-muntanji. F'Artemisium, maltempati kbar qerdu l-bastimenti min-naħa Griega u b'hekk il-battalja ntemmet b'mod prematur meta l-Griegi semgħu bit-telfa mġarrba f'Thermopylae u rtiraw. Wara Thermopylae nħatfet Ateni. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Atenjani kienu abbandunaw il-belt u ħarbu lejn il-gżira ta' Salamis qabel il-wasla ta' Xerxes. Grupp żgħira pprova jiddefendi l-Akropoli ta' Ateni, iżda ġarrbu telfa. Xerxes ordna l-Qerda ta' Ateni u ħaraq il-belt, tant li ħalla saff ta' qerda li ġie attestat arkeoloġikament, magħruf bħala l-Perserschutt. Il-Persjani b'hekk kisbu l-kontroll tal-art kontinentali Griega kollha lejn it-Tramuntana tal-Istmu ta' Korinzju. === Battalja ta' Salamis u Battalja ta' Plataea === Xerxes ġie mħajjar jattakka l-flotta Griega permezz tal-messaġġ ta' Themistocles (kontra l-parir ta' Artemisia ta' Halicarnassus), peress li suppost kellu kundizzjonijiet favorevoli, minflok ma jibgħat parti mill-bastimenti tiegħu lejn il-Gżejjer Peleponniżi u jistenna x-xoljiment tal-armati Griegi. Il-Battalja ta' Salamis (Settembru 480 Q.K.) intrebħet mill-flotta Griega, u wara Xerxes stabbilixxa kamp tax-xitwa f'Thessaly. Skont Erodotu, minħabba li beża' li l-Griegi setgħu jattakkaw il-pontijiet minn naħa għall-oħra tal-Hellespont u jagħmlu nassa lill-armata tiegħu fl-Ewropa, Xerxes iddeċieda li jirtira lura lejn l-Asja, u ħa l-ikbar parti tal-armata miegħu. Xi ħaġa oħra li wasslet għall-irtirar jaf kienu l-irvellijiet kontinwi fil-Babilonja, li kienet provinċja ewlenija tal-imperu, u kienet teħtieġ l-attenzjoni personali tar-re. Huwa ħalla warajh kontinġent fil-Greċja biex itemm il-kampanja militari taħt Mardonius, li skont Erodotu kien issuġġerixxa l-irtirar. Din il-qawwa ġarrbet telfa s-sena ta' wara fi Plataea billi kkombina l-qawwiet tal-bliet-stati Griegi, u temmet l-offensiva Persjana fuq il-Greċja għal dejjem. == Proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni == [[Stampa:Xerxes tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam (4615488322).jpg|daqsminuri|Il-qabar ta' Xerxes I f'Naqsh-e Rostam.]] Wara t-telfiet militari tiegħu fil-Greċja, Xerxes reġa' lura lejn il-Persja u ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-bosta proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni li ma kinux tlestew minn missieru f'Susa u f'Persepolis. Huwa ssorvelja l-bini tad-Daħla tan-Nazzjonijiet Kollha u tas-Sala tal-Mitt Kolonna f'Persepolis, li huma l-ikbar strutturi u l-iżjed imponenti tal-palazz. Huwa ssorvelja t-tlestija tal-Palazz ta' Apadana, it-Tachara (il-Palazz ta' Darius) u t-Teżor, li kollha kienu nbdew minn Darius, kif ukoll il-palazz tiegħu stess li kien id-doppju tad-daqs ta' dak ta' missieru. Il-gosti arkitettoniċi tiegħu kienu simili għal dawk ta' missieru, għalkemm fuq skala iktar ġganteska. Huwa ordna li jiżdiedu l-brikks bl-enamel fuq il-faċċata esterna tal-Palazz ta' Apadana bħala tiżjin. Huwa wettaq ukoll il-manutenzjoni meħtieġa tar-Rotta Rjali li nbniet minn missieru u lesta d-Daħla ta' Susa u bena palazz f'Susa. == Mewt u suċċessjoni == [[Stampa:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|xellug|daqsminuri|Din il-kitba kunejformi ssemmi l-qtil ta' Xerxes I minn ibnu. Mill-Babilonja, l-[[Iraq]]. Issa tinsab fil-[[Mużew Brittaniku]].]] F'Awwissu 465 Q.K., x'aktarx bejn l-4 u t-8 ta' Awwissu, Artabanus, il-kmandant tal-għassies irjali u l-iżjed uffiċjal setgħan fil-qorti Persjana, wettaq l-assassinju ta' Xerxes bl-għajnuna tar-raġel ikkastrat, Aspamitres. Għalkemm l-Irkanjan Artabanus kellu l-istess isem taz-ziju famuż ta' Xerxes, sar prominenti bis-saħħa tal-popolarità li kellu fil-kwartieri reliġjużi tal-qorti u l-intriċċi fil-ħarem. Huwa poġġa lis-seba' ulied subien tiegħu f'karigi ewlenin u kellu pjan biex ineħħi lill-Akemenidi minn fuq it-tron. [[Stampa:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|daqsminuri|Xerxes waqt li qed jiġi ddeżinjat minn Darius I. Persepolis. L-etniċitajiet tal-imperu jidhru qed jappoġġaw it-tron. Id-divinità Ahura mazda tinkuruna x-xena.]] L-istoriċi Griegi jagħtu rakkonti li jvarjaw rigward l-avvenimenti. Skont Ctesias (f'''Persica'' 20), Artabanus imbagħad akkuża l-Prinċep Eredi Darius, l-ikbar iben ta' Xerxes, bil-qtil u pperswada lil iben ieħor ta' Xerxes, Artaxerxes, biex ipatti għall-patriċidju billi joqtol lil Darius. Iżda skont [[Aristotli]] (fil-''Politika'' 5.1311b), Artabanus l-ewwel qatel lil Darius u mbagħad qatel lil Xerxes. Wara li Artaxerxes skopra l-qtil, huwa qatel lil Artabanus u lill-ulied subien tiegħu. F'dawn l-intriċċi ħa sehem ukoll il-Ġeneral Megabyzus, li ddeċieda li jaqleb in-naħat u x'aktarx salva lill-Akemenidi milli jitilfu l-kontroll li kellhom fuq it-tron Persjan. == [[Reliġjon]] == Filwaqt li ma hemm l-ebda konsensus ġenerali fost l-istudjużi dwar jekk Xerxes u l-predeċessuri tiegħu kinux influwenzati miż-Żoroastrijaniżmu, ġie stabbilit sew li Xerxes kien jemmen ferm f'Ahura Mazda, li kien iqis bħala d-divinità suprema. Madankollu, id-divinità Ahura Mazda kienet meqjuma wkoll minn aderenti tat-tradizzjoni reliġjuża (Indo-)Iranjana. Fir-rigward tat-trattament ta' reliġjonijiet oħra, Xerxes segwa l-istess politika tal-predeċessuri tiegħu: huwa appella għall-istudjużi reliġjużi lokali, għamel sagrifiċċji għad-divinitajiet lokali, u qered it-tempji fil-bliet u fil-pajjiżi li kkawżaw id-diżordni. == Nisa u tfal == '''Mar-Reġina Amestris''': * Darius, l-ewwel tifel tiegħu, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes I jew Artabanus; * Hystaspes, li nqatel minn Artaxerxes Il; * Artaxerxes I; * Rhodogune; * Amytis, il-mara ta' Megabyzus; * Ester, il-mara tar-Re Xerxes. '''Ma' nisa oħra mhux magħrufa''': * Artarius, is-satrap tal-Babilonja; * Tithraustes; * Parysatis; * Ratashah. == Akkoljenza == [[Stampa:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|daqsminuri|Kitba kunejformi trilingwi ta' Xerxes imnaqqxa mal-irdum tal-Fortizza ta' Van, illum fit-[[Turkija]].]] Fis-sorsi Griegi u [[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]], Xerxes jiġi ppreżentat b'mod negattiv ħafna u b'hekk dawn wittew it-triq għar-rappreżentazzjonijiet sussegwenti tiegħu fi ħdan it-tradizzjoni tal-Punent. Xerxes huwa karattru ċentrali tad-dramm ta' Aeschylus ''Il-Persjani'', li ttellgħet għall-ewwel darba f'Ateni fl-472 Q.K., 7 snin biss wara l-invażjoni tal-Greċja min-naħa tiegħu. Id-dramm jippreżentah bħala figura ffemminata u l-isforz tiegħu biex iġib lill-Asja u lill-Ewropa taħt il-kontroll tiegħu jwassal biex jinqered hu flimkien mar-renju tiegħu. ''L-Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, miktubin iktar 'il quddiem fis-seklu 5 Q.K., huma ċċentrati fuq il-Gwerer Persjani, b'Xerxes bħala figura ewlenija. Ftit mill-informazzjoni ta' Erodotu hija mċajpra. [[Pierre Briant]] akkużah li ppreżenta deskrizzjoni sterjotipata tal-Persjani u bi preġudizzju parzjali. [[Richard Stoneman]] iqis id-deskrizzjoni ta' Xerxes min-naħa ta' Erodotu bħala waħda traġika u bi sfumaturi, imqabbla mal-vilifikazzjoni li ġarrab mir-re Maċedonu [[Alessandru Manju]] (li rrenja fit-336–323 Q.K.). Xerxes jiġi identifikat mar-re Ahasuerus fil-Ktieb ta' Ester fil-[[Bibbja]], li xi studjużi, inkluż Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper u Michael V. Fox, iqisu bħala rumanz storiku. Madankollu ma hemmx konsensus dwar liema avveniment storiku pprovda l-bażi tal-ġrajja. [[Stampa:Edwin Long - Queen Esther - Google Art Project.jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-re Persjan fil-Ktieb ta' Ester fil-Bibbja x'aktarx kien Xerxes. [[Pittura]] ta' Edwin Long.]] Xerxes huwa l-protagonista tal-opra ''Serse'' tal-[[kompożitur]] [[Barokk]] [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]-[[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] [[George Frideric Handel]]. Ittellgħet għall-ewwel darba fit-Teatru tar-Re ta' [[Londra]] fil-15 ta' April 1738. L-arja famuża "Ombra mai fù" tiftaħ l-opra. Il-qtil ta' Xerxes minn Artabanus (''Artabano''), il-ġustizzjar tal-prinċep eredi Darius (''Dario''), ir-rewwixta ta' Megabyzus (''Megabise''), u s-suċċessjoni sussegwenti ta' Artaxerxes I tiġi romantiċizzata mill-[[poeta]] [[Italja|Taljan]] [[Metastasio]] fil-librett tal-opri tiegħu ''Artaserse'' (1730), li ġiet ikkonvertita f'[[mużika]] għall-ewwel darba minn [[Leonardo Vinci]], u sussegwentement minn kompożituri oħra bħal [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] u [[Johann Christian Bach]]. Ir-rumanz storiku ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) tal-kittieb [[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Olandiż]] [[Louis Couperus]] jiddeskrivi l-Gwerer Persjani mill-perspettiva ta' Xerxes. Għalkemm ir-rakkont huwa fizzjoni, Couperus xorta waħda jibbaża fuq studju estensiv ta' Erodotu. It-[[traduzzjoni]] bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]] ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' ta' Frederick H. Martens dehret fl-1930. L-affaxxinazzjoni ta' ġenerazzjonijiet li ġew wara fir-rigward ta' Sparta tal-qedem, b'mod partikolari l-Battalja ta' Thermopylae, wasslet biex Xerxes jissemma jew jidher f'opri tal-[[kultura]] popolari. Il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem minn David Farrar fil-film ''The 300 Spartans'' (1962), fejn jintwera bħala despota krudili b'kilba għall-poter u kmandant inkapaċi. Jissemma wkoll b'mod prominenti fir-rumanzi grafiċi ''300'' u ''Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander'' ta' Frank Miller, kif ukoll fl-adattament f'film ''300'' (2007) u l-film li ġie warajh ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014); il-karattru tiegħu jinħadem mill-attur [[Brażil|Brażiljan]] Rodrigo Santoro, fejn jiġi rrappreżentat bħala raġel ġgant bi kwalitajiet androġeni, li jsostni li huwa alla-re. Din ir-rappreżentazzjoni attirat ħafna kontroversja, speċjalment fl-Iran. Ken Davitian jaħdimha ta' Xerxes f'''Meet the Spartans'', parodija tal-ewwel film ''300'', mimli umoriżmu u anakroniżmi apposta. B'mod simili, verżjoni satirika ħafna ta' Xerxes abbażi tar-rappreżentazzjoni tiegħu f'''300'' tintwera fl-episodju ta' ''South Park'', "D-Yikes!". [[Stampa:Ahasuerus by Ernest Normand.jpg|daqsminuri|Xerxes (Ahasuerus) maħdum minn Ernest Normand, 1888 (detall).]] Gore Vidal, fir-rumanz ta' fizzjoni storika tiegħu ''Creation'' (1981), jiddeskrivi fit-tul kif l-Akemenidi kisbu l-poter, speċjalment Darius I, u jippreżenta ċ-ċirkostanzi ta' [[ħajja]] u mewt ta' Xerxes. Il-verżjoni ta' Vidal tal-Gwerer Persjani, li tvarja mit-tradizzjoni tal-istorji Griegi, tingħad permezz tal-karattru vvintat ta' Cyrus Spitama, nofsu Grieg u nofsu Persjan, u n-neputi tal-profeta Żoroaster. Bis-saħħa tar-rabta tal-familja tiegħu, Cyrus jitrawwem fil-qorti Persjana wara l-qtil ta' Żoroaster, u sar il-ħabib tat-tfulija ta' Xerxes, u iktar 'il quddiem sar diplomatiku li ntbagħat lejn l-[[Indja]], u mbagħad lejn il-Greċja, u b'hekk jirnexxielu jingħata aċċess privileġġat fil-konfront ta' bosta figuri storiċi ewlenin ta' dak iż-żmien. Xerxes (Ahasuerus) jinħadem minn Richard Egan fil-film tal-1960 ''Esther and the King'' u minn Joel Smallbone fil-film tal-2013, ''The Book of Esther''. Xerxes għandu rwol sekondarju importanti (u qatt ma jidher) f'żewġ xogħlijiet qosra ta' storja alternattiva li jseħħu ġenerazzjonijiet sħaħ wara r-rebħa totali tiegħu kontra l-Greċja. Dawn huma: "Counting Potsherds" ta' Harry Turtledove fl-antoloġija tiegħu ''Departures'' u "The Craft of War" ta' Lois Tilton fl-ewwel volum ta' ''Alternate Generals''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Twieldu fil-518 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-465 Q.K.]] [[Kategorija:Monarki]] [[Kategorija:Iran]] [[Kategorija:Faragħuni]] jczf6qhakbayi7mizqf4sb5jgjx5d73 0 34495 330766 2026-06-29T09:37:07Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut inizjali 330766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Ċiru II tal-Persja''' (twieled fis-600 – miet fil-530 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].), magħruf l-iktar bħala '''Ċiru l-Kbir''' (bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]]: ''Cyrus the Great''), kien il-fundatur tal-[[Imperu tal-Akemenidi]]. Art twelidu kienet Persis u wassal id-dinastija tal-Akemenidi fil-poter billi għeleb l-Imperu Medjan u ħaddan l-istati ċivilizzati preċedenti kollha tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, kabbar l-imperu b'mod vast tul il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Punent tal-[[Asja]] u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Asja Ċentrali, u ħoloq dak li f'qasir żmien sar l-ikbar imperu fl-[[Storja|istorja]] ta' dak iż-żmien. L-ikbar daqs territorjali tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi nkiseb taħt [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]], li rrenja f'imperu estiż mix-Xlokk tal-[[Ewropa]] u l-Grigal tal-[[Afrika]] fil-Punent sal-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant. Wara li assorba l-Imperu Medjan, Ċiru ħakem lil Lidja u eventwalment l-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż, u b'hekk kiseb il-kontroll tal-Anatolja u n-Nieqa Għammiela, rispettivament. Huwa mexxa wkoll spedizzjoni ewlenija fl-Asja Ċentrali, fejn l-armata tiegħu wasslet biex "kull nazzjon tissottometti ruħha mingħajr l-ebda eċċezzjoni" qabel ma allegatament miet fil-battalja mal-Massageti, poplu nomadiku tal-Lvant tal-[[Iran]], tul is-Syr Darya f'Diċembru 530 Q.K. Madankollu, skont Xenophon ta' [[Ateni]], Ċiru ma mietx waqt il-ġlied u minflok kien reġa' lura lejn il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' [[Pasargadae]]. Kienet x'kienet id-data ta' mewtu, is-suċċessur tiegħu kien ibnu [[Cambyses II]], li wettaq kampanji militari li wasslu għall-ħakmiet tal-[[Eġittu]], tan-Nubja u taċ-Ċirenajka matul ir-renju qasir tiegħu. Għall-Griegi, huwa kien magħruf bħala ''Ċiru x-Xiħ'' (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: Κῦρος ὁ Πρεσβύτερος, ''Kŷros ho Presbýteros'') u kien partikolarment magħruf fost l-istudjużi kontemporanji minħabba l-[[politika]] abitwali ta' tolleranza għad-drawwiet u għar-[[Reliġjon|reliġjonijiet]] tal-popli fl-artijiet li ħakem. B'mod simili, fil-[[Ġudaiżmu]] jiġi mfaħħar għar-rwol tiegħu fil-liberazzjoni tal-poplu [[Lhud|Lhudi]] mill-Babiloniżi billi ħareġ l-Editt tar-Restawr wara l-ħakma [[Persjani|Persjana]] tal-[[Babilonja]]. Dan l-avveniment jiġi deskritt fil-[[Bibbja]] bl-[[Ebrajk]] bħala r-ritorn lejn Zion (għolja f'[[Ġerusalemm]]), fejn il-Lhud spostati ġew ripatrijati lejn dak li kien ir-Renju ta' Ġuda, u b'hekk iffaċilita l-istabbiliment mill-ġdid tas-sovranità tal-Lhud fl-Art ta' [[Iżrael]]. Ċiru ffaċilita wkoll l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Lhud għal tempju ġdid f'Ġerusalemm fil-provinċja ta' Yehud tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, fejn qabel kien hemm it-Tempju ta' Salamun oriġinali qabel ma nqered matul l-assedju Babiloniż ta' Ġerusalemm. L-isforzi tiegħu rriżultaw fit-tlestija tat-Tieni Tempju, li mmarkat il-bidu tal-perjodu tat-Tieni Tempju u tal-Ġudaiżmu tat-Tieni Tempju. Skont il-Ktieb ta' Iżaija, huwa ndilek minn Yahweh u ġie ddeżinjat espliċitament bħala l-"messija" għal dan il-kompitu; Ċiru huwa l-unika figura mhux Lhudija li jingħata ġieħ b'dan il-mod. Minbarra l-influwenza tiegħu fuq it-tradizzjonijiet kemm fil-Lvant kif ukoll fil-Punent, Ċiru huwa magħruf għall-kisbiet li għamel fil-politika u fl-istrateġija militari. Huwa kien influwenti fl-iżvilupp ta' sistema ta' amministrazzjoni ċentrali fil-belt kapitali tiegħu biex jiggverna s-satrapiji tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, li kienu jaħdmu għall-profitt kemm tal-mexxejja kif ukoll tas-sudditi. Il-prestiġju li kellu fid-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]] tal-qedem gradwalment laħqet saħansitra sa Ateni, fejn il-Griegi tal-klassi superjuri adottaw aspetti tal-[[kultura]] tal-klassi tat-tmexxija Persjana għalihom stess. Bl-istess mod, ir-renju ta' Ċiru kellu rwol kruċjali fid-definizzjoni tal-istorja tal-Iran għal iktar minn millenju, peress li l-imperi Persjani futuri spiss ħarsu lejn żmien l-Akemenidi b'reverenza u bħala l-eżempju ideali li wieħed għandu jemula. Id-dinastija tiegħu kienet strumentali wkoll biex tippermetti l-iżvilupp taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]] u biex jinfirex saħansitra saċ-[[Ċina]]. Għalhekk, huwa jibqa' figura importanti fl-Iran modern, u l-qabar tiegħu f'Pasargadae jservi bħala post ta' reverenza għal miljuni ta' ċittadini tal-pajjiż. == [[Etimoloġija]] == L-isem Ċiru jew ''Cyrus'' huwa forma [[Lingwa Latina|Latinizzata]] li oriġinat mill-isem Grieg Κῦρος (''Kỹros''), li oriġina mill-isem bil-Persjan Antik ''Kūruš''. L-isem u t-tifsira tiegħu ġew irreġistrati fi ħdan kitbiet imnaqqxin tal-qedem b'[[Lingwa|lingwi]] differenti. L-istoriċi Griegi tal-qedem [[Ċtesju]] u [[Plutarka]] ddikjaraw li Ċiru ngħata isem ix-[[xemx]] (''Kuros''), kunċett li ġie interpretat li jfisser "bħax-xemx" (''Khurvash'') billi tiġi nnotata r-relazzjoni man-nom Persjan għal "xemx", ''khor'', filwaqt li jintuża s-suffiss ''-vash'' għal "bħal". [[Karl Hoffmann]] issuġġerixxa [[traduzzjoni]] bbażata fuq it-tifsira ta' għerq Indo-Ewropew li jfisser "umilja", għaldaqstant l-isem "Ċiru" jfisser "l-umiljatur tal-għadu f'kompetizzjoni verbali". Derivazzjoni Iranjana oħra possibbli hi li l-isem ifisser "iż-żgħir, wild", simili għall-Kurd ''kur'' ("iben, tifel żgħir") jew l-Ossezjan ''i-gur-un'' ("twieled") u ''kur'' (barri żgħir). Bil-[[lingwa Persjana]] u speċjalment fl-Iran, isem Ċiru jiġi spellut bħala کوروش (''Kūroš'', [kuːˈɾoʃ]). Fil-Bibbja, bil-lingwa Ebrajka jissejjaħ bħala ''Koresh'' (כורש‎). Xi bċejjeċ ta' evidenza jissuġġerixxu li Ċiru huwa Kay Khosrow, re Persjan leġġendarju tad-dinastija Kajanjana u karattru f'''Shahnameh'', ġrajja epika Persjana. Madankollu, xi studjużi jemmnu li la Ċiru u lanqas Cambyses ma kienu ismijiet Iranjani, u jipproponu li Ċiru kellu oriġini Elamita u li l-isem kien ifisser "dak li jindokra" bil-lingwa Elamita estinta. Raġuni waħda għal dan hi li filwaqt li l-ismijiet Elamiti jaf jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-uš'', l-ebda test bl-Elamit ma jispelli l-isem b'dan il-mod – ''Kuraš'' biss. Fl-istess ħin, il-Persjan Antik ma kienx jippermetti li l-ismijiet jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-aš'', għaldaqstant jagħmel sens għall-kelliema Persjani li jibdlu ''Kuraš'' oriġinali f'forma iktar korretta grammatikament bħal ''Kuruš''. L-iskribi Elamiti, min-naħa l-oħra, ma kienx ikollhom għalfejn jibdlu l-isem oriġinali ''Kuraš'' f'''Kuruš'', peress li ż-żewġ forom kienu aċċettabbli. Għalhekk, ''Kuraš'' x'aktarx li jirrappreżenta l-forma oriġinali. Opinjoni oħra tal-istudjużi hi li ''Kuruš'' kien isem ta' oriġini Indo-Arjana, f'ġieħ il-merċenarji Indo-Arjani Kuru u Kamboja mil-Lvant tal-[[Afganistan]] u l-Majjistral tal-[[Indja]] li għenu fil-ħakma tal-Lvant Nofsani. == Storja dinastika == Id-dominanza Persjana u r-renju Persjan fil-promontorju Iranjan bdew bħala estensjoni tad-dinastija tal-Akemenidi, li wessgħu d-dominju bikri tagħhom x'aktarx mis-seklu 9 Q.K. 'il quddiem. Il-fundatur li ta ismu għad-dinastija kien [[Achaemenes]] (mill-Persjan Antik ''Haxāmaniš''). L-Akemenidi huma d-"dixxendenti ta' Achaemenes", peress li Darius il-Kbir, id-disa' re tad-dinastija, traċċa n-nisel tiegħu lejh, u ddikjara "għal din ir-raġuni, li aħna nissejħu Akemenidi". Achaemenes bena l-istat ta' Parsumash fil-Lbiċ tal-Iran u s-suċċessur tiegħu kien [[Teispes]], li ħa t-titlu ta' "Re ta' Anshan" wara li ħataf il-belt Anshan u kabbar ir-renju tiegħu iktar biex jinkludi lil Pars ukoll. Id-dokumenti tal-qedem isemmu li Teispes kellu iben imsejjaħ [[Ċiru I]], li kien ukoll is-suċċessur ta' missieru bħala "Re ta' Anshan". Ċiru I kellu lil ħuh li ismu ġie rreġistrat bħala Ariaramnes. Fis-600 Q.K., is-suċċessur ta' Ċiru I kien ibnu, [[Cambyses I]], li rrenja sal-559 Q.K. Ċiru II jew "Ċiru l-Kbir" kien iben Cambyses I, li semma lil ibnu għal missieru, Ċiru I. Hemm diversi kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru l-Kbir u tar-rejiet ta' warajh li jirreferu għal Cambyses I bħala "re kbir" u "re ta' Anshan". Fosthom hemm siltiet fiċ-ċilindru ta' Ċiru fejn Ċiru jsejjaħ lilu nnifsu bħala "iben Cambyses, re kbir, re ta' Anshan". Kitba mnaqqxa oħra ssemmi lil Cambyses I bħala "re setgħan" u "Akemenidu", li skont il-maġġoranza tal-istudjużi tnaqqxet taħt Darius u titqies bħala ffalsifikar minn Darius. Madankollu, in-nannu min-naħa ta' omm Cambyses II, Pharnaspes, jissejjaħ mill-istoriku Erodotu bħala "Akemenidu". Ir-rakkont ta' Xenophon fiċ-Ċiropedija jsemmi lill-mara ta' Cambyses bħala Mandane u jsemmi lil Cambyses bħala r-re tal-Iran (Persja tal-qedem). Dawn jaqblu mal-kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru stess, peress li Anshan u Parsa kienu ismijiet differenti tal-istess art. Dawn jaqblu wkoll ma' rakkonti mhux Iranjani oħra, għajr f'punt partikolari ta' Erodotu fejn jistqarr li Cambyses ma kienx re iżda "Persjan minn familja tajba". Madankollu, f'xi siltiet oħra, ir-rakkont ta' Erodotu huwa żbaljat anke rigward l-isem ta' iben Chishpish, li jsemmih bħala Cambyses iżda skont l-istudjużi moderni suppost huwa Ċiru I. Il-ħsieb tradizzjonali bbażat fuq ir-riċerka [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġika]] u l-ġenealoġija mogħtija fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun u minn Erodotu jsostni li Ċiru l-Kbir kien Akemenidu. Madankollu, M. Waters issuġġerixxa li Ċiru ma għandux rabta mal-Akemenidid jew ma' Darius il-Kbir, u li l-familja tiegħu kellha oriġini Tejspida u Anxanita. === Titli === It-titli rjali sħaħ tiegħu kienu Re Kbir, Re tal-Persja, Re ta' Anshan, Re ta' Medija, Re tal-Babilonja, Re tas-[[Sumerja]] u ta' [[Akkad]], u Re tal-Erba' Rkejjen tad-Dinja. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tinnota l-bidla fit-titlu tiegħu minn "Re ta' Anshan" għal "Re tal-Persja". L-Assirjologu [[François Vallat]] kiteb li "Meta Astyages immarċja kontra Ċiru, Ċiru jissejjaħ "Re ta' Anshan", iżda meta Ċiru jaqsam ix-xmara Tigris fi triqtu lejn Lidja, huwa jissejjaħ bħala r-"Re tal-Persja". Għaldaqstant il-kolp ta' stat seħħ bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti". === Arblu tar-razza === {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !Arblu tar-razza ta' Ċiru |- | {| class="wikitable" | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Achaemenes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Teispes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ariaramnes Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ċiru I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Arsames Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Cambyses I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Hystaspes Prinċep | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Ċiru l-Kbir''' '''(Ċiru II)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Darius''' '''il-Kbir''' '''(Darius I)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Cambyses II''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Bardiya (Smerdis) Prinċep (impostur taparsi Gaumata mexxa bħala Smerdis) | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Artystone Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Atossa Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |} |- |'''Noti:''' # Mexxejja mhux ikkonfermati, minħabba l-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. |} == Ħajja bikrija u personali == Ċiru was born to Cambyses I, King of Anshan, and Mandane, daughter of Astyages, King of Media, during the period of 600–599 BC. By his own account, generally believed now to be accurate, Ċiru was preceded as king by his father Cambyses I, grandfather Ċiru I, and great-grandfather Teispes. Ċiru married Cassandane who was an Achaemenian and the daughter of Pharnaspes. Cassandane bore him two sons, Cambyses II and Bardiya along with three daughters, Atossa, Artystone, and Roxane.^{[''citation needed'']} Ċiru and Cassandane were known to love each other very much – Cassandane said that she found it more bitter to leave Ċiru than to depart her life. After her death, Ċiru insisted on public mourning throughout the kingdom. The Nabonidus Chronicle states that Babylonia mourned Cassandane for six days (identified as 21–26 March 538 BC). After his father's death, Ċiru inherited the Persian throne at Pasargadae, which was a vassal of Astyages. The Greek historian Strabo has said that Ċiru was originally named Agradates by his step-parents. It is possible that, when reuniting with his original family, following the naming customs, Ċiru's father, Cambyses I, named him Ċiru after his grandfather, who was Ċiru I. There is also an account by Strabo that claimed Agradates adopted the name Ċiru after the Ċiru river near Pasargadae. === Mitoloġija === Herodotus gave a mythological account of Ċiru's early life. In this account, Astyages had two prophetic dreams in which a flood, and then a series of fruit-bearing vines, emerged from his daughter Mandane's pelvis, and covered the entire kingdom. These were interpreted by his advisers as a foretelling that his grandson would one day rebel and supplant him as king. Astyages summoned Mandane, at the time pregnant with Ċiru, back to Ecbatana to have the child killed. His general Harpagus delegated the task to Mithradates, one of the shepherds of Astyages, who raised the child and passed off his stillborn son to Harpagus as the dead infant Ċiru. Ċiru lived in secrecy, but when he reached the age of 10, during a childhood game, he had the son of a nobleman beaten when he refused to obey Ċiru's commands. As it was unheard of for the son of a shepherd to commit such an act, Astyages had the boy brought to his court, and interviewed him and his adoptive father. Upon the shepherd's confession, Astyages sent Ċiru back to Persia to live with his biological parents. However, Astyages summoned the son of Harpagus, and in retribution, chopped him to pieces, roasted some portions while boiling others, and tricked his adviser into eating his child during a large banquet. Following the meal, Astyages's servants brought Harpagus the head, hands and feet of his son on platters, so he could realize his inadvertent cannibalism. == Poter == === Suċċessjoni għal Medija === Ċiru l-Kbir succeeded to the throne in 559 BC following his father's death; however, Ċiru was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors, Ċiru had to recognize Median overlordship. Astyages, last king of the Median Empire and Ċiru's grandfather, may have ruled over the majority of the Ancient Near East, from the Lydian frontier in the west to the lands of the Parthians and Persians in the east. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Astyages launched an attack against Ċiru, "king of Ansan". According to the historian Herodotus, it is known that Astyages placed Harpagus in command of the Median army to conquer Ċiru. However, Harpagus contacted Ċiru and encouraged his revolt against Media, before eventually defecting along with several of the nobility and a portion of the army. This mutiny is confirmed by the Nabonidus Chronicle. The Chronicle suggests that the hostilities lasted for at least three years (553–550 BC), and the final battle resulted in the capture of Ecbatana. This was described in the paragraph that preceded the entry for Nabonidus's year 7, which detailed Ċiru's victory and the capture of his grandfather. According to the historians Herodotus and Ctesias, Ċiru spared the life of Astyages and married his daughter, Amytis. This marriage pacified several vassals, including the Bactrians, Parthians, and Saka. Ċiru also subdued and incorporated Sogdia into the empire during his military campaigns of 546–539 BC. With Astyages out of power, all of his vassals (including many of Ċiru's relatives) were now under his command. His father's cousin Arsames, who had been the king of the city-state of Parsa under the Medes, therefore would have had to give up his throne. However, this transfer of power within the family seems to have been smooth, and it is likely that Arsames was still the nominal governor of Parsa under Ċiru's authority—more a Prince or a Grand Duke than a King. His son, Hystaspes, who was also Ċiru's second cousin, was then made satrap of Parthia and Phrygia. Ċiru l-Kbir thus united the twin Achaemenid kingdoms of Parsa and Anshan into Persia proper. Arsames lived to see his grandson become Darius the Great, Shahanshah of Persia, after the deaths of both of Ċiru's sons. Ċiru's conquest of Media was merely the start of his wars. === Ħakma ta' Lidja u tal-Asja Minuri === The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Ċiru's overthrow of the Median kingdom (550 BC) and his conquest of Babylon (539 BC). It was common in the past to give 547 BC as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position is currently not much held. The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of Pteria in Cappadocia. The king of Lydia Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Ċiru levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The Battle of Pteria was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning. While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the winter, before the allies could unite, Ċiru l-Kbir pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, Sardis. Shortly before the final Battle of Thymbra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Ċiru l-Kbir to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Ċiru defeated and captured Croesus. Ċiru occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 BC. According to Herodotus, Ċiru l-Kbir spared Croesus's life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain. Before Ċiru returned to the capital, Commagene was incorporated into Persia in 546 BC. Later, a Lydian named Pactyas was entrusted by Ċiru to send Croesus's treasury to Persia. However, soon after Ċiru's departure, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia, Tabalus. Ċiru sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares's arrival, Pactyas fled to Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The fate of Pactyas is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to Ċiru and put to death after being tortured. Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Ċiru sent Harpagus to complete Mazares's conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Aeolia and Caria, using the technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 BC and returned to Persia. === Ħakmiet fl-Asja Ċentrali u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja === After the conquest of Lydia, Ċiru campaigned in the east between around 545 BC to 540 BC. Ċiru first tried to conquer Gedrosia, however he was decisively defeated and departed Gedrosia. Gedrosia was most likely conquered during the reign of Darius I. After the failed attempt to conquer Gedrosia, Ċiru attacked the regions of Bactria, Arachosia, Sogdia, Saka, Chorasmia, Margiana and other provinces in the east. In 533 BC, Ċiru l-Kbir crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and collected tribute from the Indus cities. Thus, Ċiru probably had established vassal states in western India. Ċiru then returned with his army to Babylon due to the unrest taking place in and around Babylon. === Ħakma tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż === By the year 540 BC, Ċiru captured Elam and its capital, Susa. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus, had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC. Just before October 539 BC, Ċiru fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on 10 October, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace. It is probable that Ċiru engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus, who had retreated to Sippar following his defeat at Opis, fled to Borsippa. Around 12 October, Persian general Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus. Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh", which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night. Shortly thereafter, Nabonidus returned from Borsippa and surrendered to Ċiru. On 29 October, Ċiru entered the city of Babylon. Prior to Ċiru's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia, Ċiru probably incorporated its sub-national entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence to support this assumption. After taking Babylon, Ċiru l-Kbir proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Ċiru Cylinder, an inscription on a cylinder that was deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Ċiru as pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples, and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms. Ċiru l-Kbir's dominions composed the largest empire the world had ever seen to that point. At the end of Ċiru's rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the Indus River in the east. == Mewt == === Narrattivi kunfliġġenti === The details of Ċiru's death vary by account. Ctesias, in his ''Persica'', has the longest account, which says Ċiru met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their war elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. The account of Herodotus from his ''Histories'' provides the second-longest detail, in which Ċiru met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a Scythian tribal confederation from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the Eurasian Steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory. The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Ċiru first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, the queen Tomyris, a proposal she rejected.^{[''citation needed'']} He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force (c. 529 BC), beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Oxus, or Amu Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Ċiru had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Ċiru's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Ċiru l-Kbir was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Ċiru brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son. However, some scholars question this version, mostly because even Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Ċiru's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath. Herodotus also recounts that Ċiru saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe. Archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Ċiru l-Kbir in the following way:<blockquote>Herodotus therefore, as I surmise, may have known of the close connection between this type of winged figure and the image of Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating the king's death before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus.</blockquote>Muhammad Dandamayev says that Persians may have taken Ċiru's body back from the Massagetae, unlike what Herodotus claimed. According to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (AD 1166–1199) Ċiru was killed by his wife Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (Maksata), in the 60th year of Jewish captivity. An alternative account from Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'' contradicts the others, claiming that Ċiru died peacefully at his capital. The final version of Ċiru's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Ċiru met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. === Post tad-dfin === Ċiru l-Kbir's remains may have been interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540–530 BC) still exists, which many believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly identical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb twice. Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Ċiru l-Kbir has remained largely intact, and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his epitaph read:<blockquote>O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Ċiru who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.</blockquote>Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Ċiru died around December 530 BC, and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Ċiru's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great. The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; the tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man could barely squeeze through. Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Ċiru l-Kbir was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb. Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi", stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage. Years later, in the chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Ċiru l-Kbir's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court. On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Ċiru's tomb. However, Alexander admired Ċiru, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. In any case, Alexander ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior. Despite his admiration for Ċiru l-Kbir, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander had, six years previously (330 BC), sacked Persepolis, the opulent city that Ċiru may have chosen the site for, and either ordered its burning as an act of pro-Greek propaganda or set it on fire during drunken revels. The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divisions, successive empires, regime changes, and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Ċiru's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension. The United Nations recognizes the tomb of Ċiru l-Kbir and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site. == Legat == === Influwenza fuq iċ-ċivilizzazzjonijiet tal-Lvant u tal-Punent === British historian Charles Freeman suggests that "In scope and extent his achievements [Ċiru] ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander, who was to demolish the [Achaemenid] empire in the 320s but fail to provide any stable alternative." Ċiru has been a personal hero to many people, including Thomas Jefferson, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and David Ben-Gurion. The achievements of Ċiru l-Kbir throughout antiquity are reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father", the very title that had been used during the time of Ċiru himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon: Ċiru's standard, described as a golden eagle mounted upon a "lofty shaft", remained the official banner of the Achaemenids.<blockquote>And those who were subject to him, he treated with esteem and regard, as if they were his own children, while his subjects themselves respected Ċiru as their "Father" ... What other man but 'Ċiru', after having overturned an empire, ever died with the title of "The Father" from the people whom he had brought under his power? For it is plain fact that this is a name for one that bestows, rather than for one that takes away!</blockquote>The historian Plutarch (<abbr>c.</abbr> 46 – c. 119 AD) tells that "the Persians, because Ċiru was hook-nosed, even to this day love hook-nosed men and consider them the most handsome". The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator", as they were offended by their previous ruler, Nabonidus, for committing sacrilege. The Book of Ezra narrates a story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Ċiru, in which Ċiru proclaims: "All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah."(Ezra 1:2) Ċiru was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid Empire endured long after his death.^{[''citation needed'']} The rise of Persia under Ċiru's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history, including in forms of Iranian philosophy, literature and religion. Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid Empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Ċiru l-Kbir and have claimed to continue the line begun by Ċiru. However, there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty. Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Ċiru l-Kbir, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Ċiru's tomb. Ċiru's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland and colonial America. Many of the thinkers and rulers of Classical Antiquity as well as the Renaissance and Enlightenment era, and the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Ċiru l-Kbir through works such as ''Cyropaedia''. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned two copies of ''Cyropaedia'', one with parallel Greek and Latin translations on facing pages showing substantial Jefferson markings that signify the amount of influence the book has had on drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye, Ċiru—whose abilities as conqueror and administrator Frye says are attested by the longevity and vigor of the Achaemenid Empire—held an almost mythic role among the Persian people "similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites", with a story that "follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors from elsewhere in the ancient world." Frye writes, "He became the epitome of the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features as a conqueror who was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring. His personality as seen by the Greeks influenced them and Alexander the Great, and, as the tradition was transmitted by the Romans, may be considered to influence our thinking even now." His rule was studied and admired by many of the great leaders, such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Thomas Jefferson. === Amministrazzjoni u politika === ==== Sistema tas-satrapiji ==== Ċiru founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government.^{[''citation needed'']} During his reign, Ċiru maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps was continued by Ċiru's successor, Darius the Great. ==== Strateġija militari ==== Ċiru's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm. Through his military savvy, Ċiru created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers. Ċiru's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sasanians. ==== Proġetti infrastrutturali ==== Ċiru has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargadae Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was a place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since. He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh. In 1658, while the Protectorate of Cromwell ruled Britain, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Ċiru, in which Ċiru is depicted as an archetypal wise ruler. However, despite being featured in the title, Ċiru was not a main focus of Browne's work. "Ċiru the elder, brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circum-scription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof." ==== Denominazzjoni tal-muniti ==== The use of the name ''Kuruş'' as a currency denomination for coinage goes back to the 6th century BC, dating to the time of the Croeseid, the world's first gold coin, originally minted by King Croesus of Lydia. The Croeseid was later continued to be minted and spread in a wide geographical area by Ċiru l-Kbir (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 ''Kūruš''), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, who defeated King Croesus and conquered Lydia with the Battle of Thymbra in 547 BC. Ċiru (Kūruš) made the Croeseid the standard gold coin of his vast empire, using the same ''lion and bull'' design, but with a reduced weight (8.06 grams, instead of the standard 10.7 grams of the original version issued by King Croesus) due to the need for larger amounts of these coins, for a much larger population. === Drittijiet tal-bniedem u multikulturaliżmu === ==== Ċilindru ta' Ċiru ==== One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Ċiru's time is the Ċiru Cylinder (Persian: استوانه کوروش), a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 BC. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London. The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Ċiru as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although not mentioned specifically in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this general policy. In the 1970s, the Shah of Iran adopted the Ċiru cylinder as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy", and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history". This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious, as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Ċiru's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder. The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity. The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Sithu U Thant, after he "was given a replica by the sister of the Shah of Iran". The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium BC, kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms." The cylinder emphasizes Ċiru's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor. Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, has stated that the cylinder was "the first attempt we know about running a society, a state with different nationalities and faiths – a new kind of statecraft." He explained that "It has even been described as the first declaration of human rights, and while this was never the intention of the document – the modern concept of human rights scarcely existed in the ancient world – it has come to embody the hopes and aspirations of many." === Reliġjon u filosofija === ==== Preżenza taż-Żoroastrijaniżmu fl-affarijiet statali tal-Akemenidi ==== French Iranologist Pierre Briant wrote that, given the poor information we have, "it seems quite reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Ċiru might have been." It is also debated whether he was a Zoroastrian or whether Zoroastrianism only becomes involved as the Achaemenid state religion after his lifetime. The evidence in favour of it comes from some of the names of members of Ċiru's family, and similarities between the description of Yahweh in Isaiah 40–48 (which was after Isaiah came into contact with a Persian propagandist under Ċiru's administration who was Zoroastrian) and that of Ahura Mazda in the Gathas. Against the thesis is how Ċiru permitted total freedom of religion and provided funding for the establishment of their temples and other holy sites, as well as a possible late-date for the activity of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, who founded Zoroastrianism. ==== Tolleranza u libertà tar-reliġjon ==== The policies of Ċiru with respect to treatment of minority religions are documented in many historical accounts, particularly in Babylonian and Jewish sources. Ċiru had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the continuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (as American historian Lester Grabbe maintains) is disputed. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries. ==== Fidi personali u prattiki ta' Ċiru ==== Information about religion and ritual during the reign of Ċiru is also available from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, the Histories of Herodotus, and inscriptions, though these were written in later periods and so must be used carefully. The Ċiru Cylinder was composed in the name of Ċiru with him as the first-person speaker. The Cylinder is highly religious and is framed around the interventions of the Babylonian national god Marduk. It is Marduk who is praised in the outset of the text and whose direct intervention is thought to be responsible for what happened in recent history, and it is Marduk who summons Ċiru for the purpose of righting the wrongs of his predecessor Nabonidus. Furthermore, Ċiru offers respect not only to the cult of Marduk, but also to local cults. One inscription from Uruk states "(Ċiru) loves Esangil and Ezida" while another from Ur mentions that he "returned the gods to their shrines." Another from Babylon or Sippar says that unlike Nabonidus, Ċiru provided proper and even increased the sacrifices for the gods. Additional reliable information may come from the funerary customs around the tomb of Ċiru, which indicates a privileged cult honouring the Iranian god Mithra. Some have also identified the figure depicted in the bas-relief from Pasargadae as Mithra, further indicating the reverence of Ċiru for this deity. Additional evidence further indicates the connection between Ċiru and Mithra. ==== Liberazzjoni tal-poplu Lhudi ==== The treatment of the Jewish people by Ċiru during their exile in Babylon after the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the Kingdom of Judah is reported in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament). Ċiru is represented positively and as an agent of Yahweh, even though he is said to "not know" Yahweh (Isaiah 45:4–5). The Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Ċiru, which returned the exiles to the Land of Israel from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem in light of Solomon's Temple having been destroyed by Babylonian armies.<blockquote>Thus saith Ċiru, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of Heaven given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people – the LORD, his God, be with him – let him go there. – (2 Chronicles 36:23)</blockquote>This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.<blockquote>In the first year of King Ċiru, Ċiru the king issued a decree: "Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God." – (Ezra 6:3–5)</blockquote>The Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah (<abbr>lit.</abbr> 'His anointed one') (Isaiah 45:1), making him the only gentile to be so referred. Elsewhere in Isaiah, God is described as saying, "I will raise up Ċiru in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says God Almighty." (Isaiah 45:13) As the text suggests, Ċiru did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. These particular passages (Isaiah 40–55, often referred to as ''Deutero-Isaiah'') are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (''c.'' 536 BC). Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Ċiru in Isaiah in his ''Antiquities of the Jews'', book 11, chapter 1:<blockquote>In the first year of the reign of Ċiru, which was the seventieth from the day that our people were removed out of their own land into Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and calamity of these poor people, according as he had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet, before the destruction of the city, that after they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his posterity, and after they had undergone that servitude seventy years, he would restore them again to the land of their fathers, and they should build their temple, and enjoy their ancient prosperity. And these things God did afford them; for he stirred up the mind of Ċiru, and made him write this throughout all Asia: "Thus saith Ċiru the king: Since God Almighty hath appointed me to be king of the habitable earth, I believe that he is that God which the nation of the Israelites worship; for indeed he foretold my name by the prophets, and that I should build him a house at Jerusalem, in the country of Judea." This was known to Ċiru by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a secret vision: "My will is, that Ċiru, whom I have appointed to be king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when Ċiru read this, and admired the Divine power, an earnest desire and ambition seized upon him to fulfill what was so written; so he called for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contribute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides that, beasts for their sacrifices.</blockquote>While Ċiru is praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1–6 and Ezra 1:1–11), there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Ċiru in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 BC, during the reign of Darius I. According to the Bible, it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7–24). The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000. Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that arguing against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom." Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Ċiru, like earlier rulers, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. She also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control." ==== Allużjoni teorika fl-iskrittura Iżlamika ==== In the 19th century, a number of prominent Indian Muslim scholars began theorizing that Ċiru l-Kbir is the individual mentioned in the Quran by the name Dhu al-Qarnayn, who is described as travelling west and east (towards the "setting and rising places of the Sun") and erecting a large barrier to separate a troubled people from "Ya'juj and Ma'juj" in exchange for tribute, with this barrier destined to keep them sealed until their release signals the end of the world and the Day of Judgement. It was first promoted by Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) and then by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958), subsequently generating wider acceptance among some Muslim communities over the years. This theory had been proposed in 1855 by the German philologist Gustav Moritz Redslob [de], but it was largely dismissed in the Western world. Most Western scholars of religion have instead lent credence to more popular theories in traditional Islamic mythology that identify Dhu al-Qarnayn as either the Greek king Alexander the Great or a certain pre-Islamic Arabian king. == Referenzi == qx12b1umgfaw4lwot5yprmowk7a367r 330767 330766 2026-06-29T10:31:11Z Trigcly 17859 /* Ħajja bikrija u personali */ 330767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Ċiru II tal-Persja''' (twieled fis-600 – miet fil-530 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].), magħruf l-iktar bħala '''Ċiru l-Kbir''' (bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]]: ''Cyrus the Great''), kien il-fundatur tal-[[Imperu tal-Akemenidi]]. Art twelidu kienet Persis u wassal id-dinastija tal-Akemenidi fil-poter billi għeleb l-Imperu Medjan u ħaddan l-istati ċivilizzati preċedenti kollha tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, kabbar l-imperu b'mod vast tul il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Punent tal-[[Asja]] u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Asja Ċentrali, u ħoloq dak li f'qasir żmien sar l-ikbar imperu fl-[[Storja|istorja]] ta' dak iż-żmien. L-ikbar daqs territorjali tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi nkiseb taħt [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]], li rrenja f'imperu estiż mix-Xlokk tal-[[Ewropa]] u l-Grigal tal-[[Afrika]] fil-Punent sal-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant. Wara li assorba l-Imperu Medjan, Ċiru ħakem lil Lidja u eventwalment l-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż, u b'hekk kiseb il-kontroll tal-Anatolja u n-Nieqa Għammiela, rispettivament. Huwa mexxa wkoll spedizzjoni ewlenija fl-Asja Ċentrali, fejn l-armata tiegħu wasslet biex "kull nazzjon tissottometti ruħha mingħajr l-ebda eċċezzjoni" qabel ma allegatament miet fil-battalja mal-Massageti, poplu nomadiku tal-Lvant tal-[[Iran]], tul is-Syr Darya f'Diċembru 530 Q.K. Madankollu, skont Xenophon ta' [[Ateni]], Ċiru ma mietx waqt il-ġlied u minflok kien reġa' lura lejn il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' [[Pasargadae]]. Kienet x'kienet id-data ta' [[Mewt|mewtu]], is-suċċessur tiegħu kien ibnu [[Cambyses II]], li wettaq kampanji militari li wasslu għall-ħakmiet tal-[[Eġittu]], tan-Nubja u taċ-Ċirenajka matul ir-renju qasir tiegħu. Għall-Griegi, huwa kien magħruf bħala ''Ċiru x-Xiħ'' (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: Κῦρος ὁ Πρεσβύτερος, ''Kŷros ho Presbýteros'') u kien partikolarment magħruf fost l-istudjużi kontemporanji minħabba l-[[politika]] abitwali ta' tolleranza għad-drawwiet u għar-[[Reliġjon|reliġjonijiet]] tal-popli fl-artijiet li ħakem. B'mod simili, fil-[[Ġudaiżmu]] jiġi mfaħħar għar-rwol tiegħu fil-liberazzjoni tal-poplu [[Lhud|Lhudi]] mill-Babiloniżi billi ħareġ l-Editt tar-Restawr wara l-ħakma [[Persjani|Persjana]] tal-[[Babilonja]]. Dan l-avveniment jiġi deskritt fil-[[Bibbja]] bl-[[Ebrajk]] bħala r-ritorn lejn Zion (għolja f'[[Ġerusalemm]]), fejn il-Lhud spostati ġew ripatrijati lejn dak li kien ir-Renju ta' Ġuda, u b'hekk iffaċilita l-istabbiliment mill-ġdid tas-sovranità tal-Lhud fl-Art ta' [[Iżrael]]. Ċiru ffaċilita wkoll l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Lhud għal tempju ġdid f'Ġerusalemm fil-provinċja ta' Yehud tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, fejn qabel kien hemm it-Tempju ta' Salamun oriġinali qabel ma nqered matul l-assedju Babiloniż ta' Ġerusalemm. L-isforzi tiegħu rriżultaw fit-tlestija tat-Tieni Tempju, li mmarkat il-bidu tal-perjodu tat-Tieni Tempju u tal-Ġudaiżmu tat-Tieni Tempju. Skont il-Ktieb ta' Iżaija, huwa ndilek minn Yahweh u ġie ddeżinjat espliċitament bħala l-"messija" għal dan il-kompitu; Ċiru huwa l-unika figura mhux Lhudija li jingħata ġieħ b'dan il-mod. Minbarra l-influwenza tiegħu fuq it-tradizzjonijiet kemm fil-Lvant kif ukoll fil-Punent, Ċiru huwa magħruf għall-kisbiet li għamel fil-politika u fl-istrateġija militari. Huwa kien influwenti fl-iżvilupp ta' sistema ta' amministrazzjoni ċentrali fil-belt kapitali tiegħu biex jiggverna s-satrapiji tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, li kienu jaħdmu għall-profitt kemm tal-mexxejja kif ukoll tas-sudditi. Il-prestiġju li kellu fid-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]] tal-qedem gradwalment laħqet saħansitra sa Ateni, fejn il-Griegi tal-klassi superjuri adottaw aspetti tal-[[kultura]] tal-klassi tat-tmexxija Persjana għalihom stess. Bl-istess mod, ir-renju ta' Ċiru kellu rwol kruċjali fid-definizzjoni tal-istorja tal-Iran għal iktar minn millenju, peress li l-imperi Persjani futuri spiss ħarsu lejn żmien l-Akemenidi b'reverenza u bħala l-eżempju ideali li wieħed għandu jemula. Id-dinastija tiegħu kienet strumentali wkoll biex tippermetti l-iżvilupp taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]] u biex jinfirex saħansitra saċ-[[Ċina]]. Għalhekk, huwa jibqa' figura importanti fl-Iran modern, u l-qabar tiegħu f'Pasargadae jservi bħala post ta' reverenza għal miljuni ta' ċittadini tal-pajjiż. == [[Etimoloġija]] == L-isem Ċiru jew ''Cyrus'' huwa forma [[Lingwa Latina|Latinizzata]] li oriġinat mill-isem Grieg Κῦρος (''Kỹros''), li oriġina mill-isem bil-Persjan Antik ''Kūruš''. L-isem u t-tifsira tiegħu ġew irreġistrati fi ħdan kitbiet imnaqqxin tal-qedem b'[[Lingwa|lingwi]] differenti. L-istoriċi Griegi tal-qedem [[Ċtesju]] u [[Plutarka]] ddikjaraw li Ċiru ngħata isem ix-[[xemx]] (''Kuros''), kunċett li ġie interpretat li jfisser "bħax-xemx" (''Khurvash'') billi tiġi nnotata r-relazzjoni man-nom Persjan għal "xemx", ''khor'', filwaqt li jintuża s-suffiss ''-vash'' għal "bħal". [[Karl Hoffmann]] issuġġerixxa [[traduzzjoni]] bbażata fuq it-tifsira ta' għerq Indo-Ewropew li jfisser "umilja", għaldaqstant l-isem "Ċiru" jfisser "l-umiljatur tal-għadu f'kompetizzjoni verbali". Derivazzjoni Iranjana oħra possibbli hi li l-isem ifisser "iż-żgħir, wild", simili għall-Kurd ''kur'' ("iben, tifel żgħir") jew l-Ossezjan ''i-gur-un'' ("twieled") u ''kur'' (barri żgħir). Bil-[[lingwa Persjana]] u speċjalment fl-Iran, isem Ċiru jiġi spellut bħala کوروش (''Kūroš'', [kuːˈɾoʃ]). Fil-Bibbja, bil-lingwa Ebrajka jissejjaħ bħala ''Koresh'' (כורש‎). Xi bċejjeċ ta' evidenza jissuġġerixxu li Ċiru huwa Kay Khosrow, re Persjan leġġendarju tad-dinastija Kajanjana u karattru f'''Shahnameh'', ġrajja epika Persjana. Madankollu, xi studjużi jemmnu li la Ċiru u lanqas Cambyses ma kienu ismijiet Iranjani, u jipproponu li Ċiru kellu oriġini Elamita u li l-isem kien ifisser "dak li jindokra" bil-lingwa Elamita estinta. Raġuni waħda għal dan hi li filwaqt li l-ismijiet Elamiti jaf jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-uš'', l-ebda test bl-Elamit ma jispelli l-isem b'dan il-mod – ''Kuraš'' biss. Fl-istess ħin, il-Persjan Antik ma kienx jippermetti li l-ismijiet jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-aš'', għaldaqstant jagħmel sens għall-kelliema Persjani li jibdlu ''Kuraš'' oriġinali f'forma iktar korretta grammatikament bħal ''Kuruš''. L-iskribi Elamiti, min-naħa l-oħra, ma kienx ikollhom għalfejn jibdlu l-isem oriġinali ''Kuraš'' f'''Kuruš'', peress li ż-żewġ forom kienu aċċettabbli. Għalhekk, ''Kuraš'' x'aktarx li jirrappreżenta l-forma oriġinali. Opinjoni oħra tal-istudjużi hi li ''Kuruš'' kien isem ta' oriġini Indo-Arjana, f'ġieħ il-merċenarji Indo-Arjani Kuru u Kamboja mil-Lvant tal-[[Afganistan]] u l-Majjistral tal-[[Indja]] li għenu fil-ħakma tal-Lvant Nofsani. == Storja dinastika == Id-dominanza Persjana u r-renju Persjan fil-promontorju Iranjan bdew bħala estensjoni tad-dinastija tal-Akemenidi, li wessgħu d-dominju bikri tagħhom x'aktarx mis-seklu 9 Q.K. 'il quddiem. Il-fundatur li ta ismu għad-dinastija kien [[Achaemenes]] (mill-Persjan Antik ''Haxāmaniš''). L-Akemenidi huma d-"dixxendenti ta' Achaemenes", peress li Darius il-Kbir, id-disa' re tad-dinastija, traċċa n-nisel tiegħu lejh, u ddikjara "għal din ir-raġuni, li aħna nissejħu Akemenidi". Achaemenes bena l-istat ta' Parsumash fil-Lbiċ tal-Iran u s-suċċessur tiegħu kien [[Teispes]], li ħa t-titlu ta' "Re ta' Anshan" wara li ħataf il-belt Anshan u kabbar ir-renju tiegħu iktar biex jinkludi lil Pars ukoll. Id-dokumenti tal-qedem isemmu li Teispes kellu iben imsejjaħ [[Ċiru I]], li kien ukoll is-suċċessur ta' missieru bħala "Re ta' Anshan". Ċiru I kellu lil ħuh li ismu ġie rreġistrat bħala Ariaramnes. Fis-600 Q.K., is-suċċessur ta' Ċiru I kien ibnu, [[Cambyses I]], li rrenja sal-559 Q.K. Ċiru II jew "Ċiru l-Kbir" kien iben Cambyses I, li semma lil ibnu għal missieru, Ċiru I. Hemm diversi kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru l-Kbir u tar-rejiet ta' warajh li jirreferu għal Cambyses I bħala "re kbir" u "re ta' Anshan". Fosthom hemm siltiet fiċ-ċilindru ta' Ċiru fejn Ċiru jsejjaħ lilu nnifsu bħala "iben Cambyses, re kbir, re ta' Anshan". Kitba mnaqqxa oħra ssemmi lil Cambyses I bħala "re setgħan" u "Akemenidu", li skont il-maġġoranza tal-istudjużi tnaqqxet taħt Darius u titqies bħala ffalsifikar minn Darius. Madankollu, in-nannu min-naħa ta' omm Cambyses II, Pharnaspes, jissejjaħ mill-istoriku Erodotu bħala "Akemenidu". Ir-rakkont ta' Xenophon fiċ-Ċiropedija jsemmi lill-mara ta' Cambyses bħala Mandane u jsemmi lil Cambyses bħala r-re tal-Iran (Persja tal-qedem). Dawn jaqblu mal-kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru stess, peress li Anshan u Parsa kienu ismijiet differenti tal-istess art. Dawn jaqblu wkoll ma' rakkonti mhux Iranjani oħra, għajr f'punt partikolari ta' Erodotu fejn jistqarr li Cambyses ma kienx re iżda "Persjan minn familja tajba". Madankollu, f'xi siltiet oħra, ir-rakkont ta' Erodotu huwa żbaljat anke rigward l-isem ta' iben Chishpish, li jsemmih bħala Cambyses iżda skont l-istudjużi moderni suppost huwa Ċiru I. Il-ħsieb tradizzjonali bbażat fuq ir-riċerka [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġika]] u l-ġenealoġija mogħtija fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun u minn Erodotu jsostni li Ċiru l-Kbir kien Akemenidu. Madankollu, M. Waters issuġġerixxa li Ċiru ma għandux rabta mal-Akemenidid jew ma' Darius il-Kbir, u li l-familja tiegħu kellha oriġini Tejspida u Anxanita. === Titli === It-titli rjali sħaħ tiegħu kienu Re Kbir, Re tal-Persja, Re ta' Anshan, Re ta' Medija, Re tal-Babilonja, Re tas-[[Sumerja]] u ta' [[Akkad]], u Re tal-Erba' Rkejjen tad-Dinja. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tinnota l-bidla fit-titlu tiegħu minn "Re ta' Anshan" għal "Re tal-Persja". L-Assirjologu [[François Vallat]] kiteb li "Meta Astyages immarċja kontra Ċiru, Ċiru jissejjaħ "Re ta' Anshan", iżda meta Ċiru jaqsam ix-xmara Tigris fi triqtu lejn Lidja, huwa jissejjaħ bħala r-"Re tal-Persja". Għaldaqstant il-kolp ta' stat seħħ bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti". === Arblu tar-razza === {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !Arblu tar-razza ta' Ċiru |- | {| class="wikitable" | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Achaemenes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Teispes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ariaramnes Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ċiru I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Arsames Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Cambyses I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Hystaspes Prinċep | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Ċiru l-Kbir''' '''(Ċiru II)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Darius''' '''il-Kbir''' '''(Darius I)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Cambyses II''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Bardiya (Smerdis) Prinċep (impostur taparsi Gaumata mexxa bħala Smerdis) | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Artystone Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Atossa Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |} |- |'''Noti:''' # Mexxejja mhux ikkonfermati, minħabba l-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. |} == Ħajja bikrija u personali == Ċiru kien iben Cambyses I, Re ta' Anshan, u Mandane, bint Astyages, Re ta' Medija, għall-ħabta tas-600 jew il-599 Q.K. Skont stess, li ġeneralment issa jitqies bħala akkurat, Ċiru ġie ppreċedut bħala re minn missieru Cambyses I, nannuh Ċiru I, u bużnannuh Teispes. Ċiru żżewweġ lil Cassandane li kienet Akemenida u bint Pharnaspes. Flimkien ma' Cassandane kellu żewġ ulied subien, Cambyses II u Bardiya flimkien ma' tliet ulied bniet, Atossa, Artystone u Roxane. Kien magħruf li Ċiru u Cassandane kienu jħobbu lil xulxin ħafna – Cassandane qalet li għaliha kien ikun iktar iebes li titlaq lil Ċiru milli tmut. Wara mewtha, Ċiru insista li jkun hemm luttu pubbliku mar-renju kollu. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tistqarr li l-Babilonja għamlet luttu ta' 6 ijiem għal Cassandane (identifikati bħala l-21–26 ta' Marzu 538 Q.K.). Wara l-mewt ta' missieru, Ċiru wiret it-tron Persjan f'Pasargadae, li kienet vassall ta' Astyages. L-istoriku Grieg [[Strabo]] qal li Ċiru oriġinarjament kien issejjaħ Agradates mill-ġenituri tar-rispett tiegħu. Jista' jkun li meta ngħaqad mal-familja oriġinali tiegħi, skont id-drawwiet tat-tismija, missier Ċiru, Cambyses I, semmih Ċiru f'ġieħ nannuh, li kien Ċiru I. Hemm ukoll rakkont ta' Strabo fejn sostna li Agradates adotta l-isem Ċiru għax-xmara Ċiru qrib Pasargadae. === Mitoloġija === Erodotu ta rakkont mitoloġiku tal-ħajja bikrija ta' Ċiru. F'dan ir-rakkont, Astyages kellu żewġ ħolmiet profetiċi fejn għargħar u mbagħad sensiela ta' vinji li jarmu l-[[frott]] tfaċċaw minn ħoġor bintu Mandane, u ksew ir-renju kollu. Dawn ġew interpretati mill-konsulenti tiegħu bħala tbassir li n-neputi tiegħu xi darba kien se jirribella u jeħodlu postu bħala re. Astyages ikkonvoka lil Mandane meta kienet tqila b'Ċiru biex terġa' lura lejn Ecbatana biex il-wild tagħha jinqatel. Il-ġeneral tiegħu Harpagus iddelega dan il-kompitu lil Mithradates, wieħed mir-[[Ragħaj|rgħajja]] ta' Astyages, li rabba l-wild u ta t-tarbija tiegħu li twieldet mejta lil Harpagus bħala t-tarbija l-mejta taparsi kienet Ċiru. Ċiru għex fis-segretezza, iżda meta għalaq 10 snin, waqt logħba ta' tfulitu, wassal biex iben nobbli jissawwat meta rrifjuta li jobdi l-kmandi ta' Ċiru. Peress li kienet xi ħaġa mhux komuni li iben ragħaj iwettaq att bħal dak, Astyages ordna li t-tifel jitressaq quddiem il-qorti tiegħu, u intervista lilu u lill-missier adottiv tiegħu. Wara l-konfessjoni tar-ragħaj, Astyages bagħat lil Ċiru lura lejn il-Persja biex jgħix mal-ġenituri [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] tiegħu. Madankollu, Astyages ikkonvoka lil iben Harpagus, u bħala tpattija qattgħu biċċiet, xewa xi partijiet minnu u għalla oħrajn, u qarraq bil-konsulent tiegħu sabiex jiekol lil ibnu stess waqt bankett kbir. Wara l-bankett, il-qaddejja ta' Astyages lil Harpagus ġabulu ras ibnu flimkien ma' idejh u saqajh fuq platti, sabiex jinduna li mingħajr ma jaf kien qed jagħmel [[kannibaliżmu]]. == Poter == === Suċċessjoni għal Medija === Ċiru l-Kbir succeeded to the throne in 559 Q.K. following his father's death; however, Ċiru was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors, Ċiru had to recognize Median overlordship. Astyages, last king of the Median Empire and Ċiru's grandfather, may have ruled over the majority of the Ancient Near East, from the Lydian frontier in the west to the lands of the Parthians and Persians in the east. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Astyages launched an attack against Ċiru, "king of Ansan". According to the historian Herodotus, it is known that Astyages placed Harpagus in command of the Median army to conquer Ċiru. However, Harpagus contacted Ċiru and encouraged his revolt against Media, before eventually defecting along with several of the nobility and a portion of the army. This mutiny is confirmed by the Nabonidus Chronicle. The Chronicle suggests that the hostilities lasted for at least three years (553–550 Q.K.), and the final battle resulted in the capture of Ecbatana. This was described in the paragraph that preceded the entry for Nabonidus's year 7, which detailed Ċiru's victory and the capture of his grandfather. According to the historians Herodotus and Ctesias, Ċiru spared the life of Astyages and married his daughter, Amytis. This marriage pacified several vassals, including the Bactrians, Parthians, and Saka. Ċiru also subdued and incorporated Sogdia into the empire during his military campaigns of 546–539 Q.K.. With Astyages out of power, all of his vassals (including many of Ċiru's relatives) were now under his command. His father's cousin Arsames, who had been the king of the city-state of Parsa under the Medes, therefore would have had to give up his throne. However, this transfer of power within the family seems to have been smooth, and it is likely that Arsames was still the nominal governor of Parsa under Ċiru's authority—more a Prince or a Grand Duke than a King. His son, Hystaspes, who was also Ċiru's second cousin, was then made satrap of Parthia and Phrygia. Ċiru l-Kbir thus united the twin Achaemenid kingdoms of Parsa and Anshan into Persia proper. Arsames lived to see his grandson become Darius the Great, Shahanshah of Persia, after the deaths of both of Ċiru's sons. Ċiru's conquest of Media was merely the start of his wars. === Ħakma ta' Lidja u tal-Asja Minuri === The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Ċiru's overthrow of the Median kingdom (550 Q.K.) and his conquest of Babylon (539 Q.K.). It was common in the past to give 547 Q.K. as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position is currently not much held. The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of Pteria in Cappadocia. The king of Lydia Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Ċiru levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The Battle of Pteria was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning. While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the winter, before the allies could unite, Ċiru l-Kbir pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, Sardis. Shortly before the final Battle of Thymbra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Ċiru l-Kbir to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Ċiru defeated and captured Croesus. Ċiru occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 Q.K.. According to Herodotus, Ċiru l-Kbir spared Croesus's life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain. Before Ċiru returned to the capital, Commagene was incorporated into Persia in 546 Q.K.. Later, a Lydian named Pactyas was entrusted by Ċiru to send Croesus's treasury to Persia. However, soon after Ċiru's departure, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia, Tabalus. Ċiru sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares's arrival, Pactyas fled to Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The fate of Pactyas is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to Ċiru and put to death after being tortured. Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Ċiru sent Harpagus to complete Mazares's conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Aeolia and Caria, using the technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 Q.K. and returned to Persia. === Ħakmiet fl-Asja Ċentrali u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja === After the conquest of Lydia, Ċiru campaigned in the east between around 545 Q.K. to 540 Q.K.. Ċiru first tried to conquer Gedrosia, however he was decisively defeated and departed Gedrosia. Gedrosia was most likely conquered during the reign of Darius I. After the failed attempt to conquer Gedrosia, Ċiru attacked the regions of Bactria, Arachosia, Sogdia, Saka, Chorasmia, Margiana and other provinces in the east. In 533 Q.K., Ċiru l-Kbir crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and collected tribute from the Indus cities. Thus, Ċiru probably had established vassal states in western India. Ċiru then returned with his army to Babylon due to the unrest taking place in and around Babylon. === Ħakma tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż === By the year 540 Q.K., Ċiru captured Elam and its capital, Susa. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus, had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 Q.K.. Just before October 539 Q.K., Ċiru fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on 10 October, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace. It is probable that Ċiru engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus, who had retreated to Sippar following his defeat at Opis, fled to Borsippa. Around 12 October, Persian general Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus. Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh", which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night. Shortly thereafter, Nabonidus returned from Borsippa and surrendered to Ċiru. On 29 October, Ċiru entered the city of Babylon. Prior to Ċiru's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia, Ċiru probably incorporated its sub-national entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence to support this assumption. After taking Babylon, Ċiru l-Kbir proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Ċiru Cylinder, an inscription on a cylinder that was deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Ċiru as pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples, and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms. Ċiru l-Kbir's dominions composed the largest empire the world had ever seen to that point. At the end of Ċiru's rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the Indus River in the east. == Mewt == === Narrattivi kunfliġġenti === The details of Ċiru's death vary by account. Ctesias, in his ''Persica'', has the longest account, which says Ċiru met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their war elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. The account of Herodotus from his ''Histories'' provides the second-longest detail, in which Ċiru met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a Scythian tribal confederation from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the Eurasian Steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory. The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Ċiru first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, the queen Tomyris, a proposal she rejected.^{[''citation needed'']} He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force (c. 529 Q.K.), beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Oxus, or Amu Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Ċiru had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Ċiru's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Ċiru l-Kbir was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Ċiru brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son. However, some scholars question this version, mostly because even Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Ċiru's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath. Herodotus also recounts that Ċiru saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe. Archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Ċiru l-Kbir in the following way:<blockquote>Herodotus therefore, as I surmise, may have known of the close connection between this type of winged figure and the image of Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating the king's death before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus.</blockquote>Muhammad Dandamayev says that Persians may have taken Ċiru's body back from the Massagetae, unlike what Herodotus claimed. According to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (AD 1166–1199) Ċiru was killed by his wife Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (Maksata), in the 60th year of Jewish captivity. An alternative account from Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'' contradicts the others, claiming that Ċiru died peacefully at his capital. The final version of Ċiru's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Ċiru met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. === Post tad-dfin === Ċiru l-Kbir's remains may have been interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540–530 Q.K.) still exists, which many believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly identical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb twice. Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Ċiru l-Kbir has remained largely intact, and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his epitaph read:<blockquote>O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Ċiru who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.</blockquote>Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Ċiru died around December 530 Q.K., and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Ċiru's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great. The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; the tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man could barely squeeze through. Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Ċiru l-Kbir was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb. Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi", stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage. Years later, in the chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Ċiru l-Kbir's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court. On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Ċiru's tomb. However, Alexander admired Ċiru, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. In any case, Alexander ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior. Despite his admiration for Ċiru l-Kbir, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander had, six years previously (330 Q.K.), sacked Persepolis, the opulent city that Ċiru may have chosen the site for, and either ordered its burning as an act of pro-Greek propaganda or set it on fire during drunken revels. The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divisions, successive empires, regime changes, and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Ċiru's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension. The United Nations recognizes the tomb of Ċiru l-Kbir and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site. == Legat == === Influwenza fuq iċ-ċivilizzazzjonijiet tal-Lvant u tal-Punent === British historian Charles Freeman suggests that "In scope and extent his achievements [Ċiru] ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander, who was to demolish the [Achaemenid] empire in the 320s but fail to provide any stable alternative." Ċiru has been a personal hero to many people, including Thomas Jefferson, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and David Ben-Gurion. The achievements of Ċiru l-Kbir throughout antiquity are reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father", the very title that had been used during the time of Ċiru himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon: Ċiru's standard, described as a golden eagle mounted upon a "lofty shaft", remained the official banner of the Achaemenids.<blockquote>And those who were subject to him, he treated with esteem and regard, as if they were his own children, while his subjects themselves respected Ċiru as their "Father" ... What other man but 'Ċiru', after having overturned an empire, ever died with the title of "The Father" from the people whom he had brought under his power? For it is plain fact that this is a name for one that bestows, rather than for one that takes away!</blockquote>The historian Plutarch (<abbr>c.</abbr> 46 – c. 119 AD) tells that "the Persians, because Ċiru was hook-nosed, even to this day love hook-nosed men and consider them the most handsome". The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator", as they were offended by their previous ruler, Nabonidus, for committing sacrilege. The Book of Ezra narrates a story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Ċiru, in which Ċiru proclaims: "All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah."(Ezra 1:2) Ċiru was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid Empire endured long after his death.^{[''citation needed'']} The rise of Persia under Ċiru's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history, including in forms of Iranian philosophy, literature and religion. Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid Empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Ċiru l-Kbir and have claimed to continue the line begun by Ċiru. However, there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty. Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Ċiru l-Kbir, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Ċiru's tomb. Ċiru's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland and colonial America. Many of the thinkers and rulers of Classical Antiquity as well as the Renaissance and Enlightenment era, and the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Ċiru l-Kbir through works such as ''Cyropaedia''. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned two copies of ''Cyropaedia'', one with parallel Greek and Latin translations on facing pages showing substantial Jefferson markings that signify the amount of influence the book has had on drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye, Ċiru—whose abilities as conqueror and administrator Frye says are attested by the longevity and vigor of the Achaemenid Empire—held an almost mythic role among the Persian people "similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites", with a story that "follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors from elsewhere in the ancient world." Frye writes, "He became the epitome of the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features as a conqueror who was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring. His personality as seen by the Greeks influenced them and Alexander the Great, and, as the tradition was transmitted by the Romans, may be considered to influence our thinking even now." His rule was studied and admired by many of the great leaders, such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Thomas Jefferson. === Amministrazzjoni u politika === ==== Sistema tas-satrapiji ==== Ċiru founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government.^{[''citation needed'']} During his reign, Ċiru maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps was continued by Ċiru's successor, Darius the Great. ==== Strateġija militari ==== Ċiru's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm. Through his military savvy, Ċiru created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers. Ċiru's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sasanians. ==== Proġetti infrastrutturali ==== Ċiru has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargadae Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was a place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since. He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh. In 1658, while the Protectorate of Cromwell ruled Britain, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Ċiru, in which Ċiru is depicted as an archetypal wise ruler. However, despite being featured in the title, Ċiru was not a main focus of Browne's work. "Ċiru the elder, brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circum-scription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof." ==== Denominazzjoni tal-muniti ==== The use of the name ''Kuruş'' as a currency denomination for coinage goes back to the 6th century Q.K., dating to the time of the Croeseid, the world's first gold coin, originally minted by King Croesus of Lydia. The Croeseid was later continued to be minted and spread in a wide geographical area by Ċiru l-Kbir (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 ''Kūruš''), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, who defeated King Croesus and conquered Lydia with the Battle of Thymbra in 547 Q.K.. Ċiru (Kūruš) made the Croeseid the standard gold coin of his vast empire, using the same ''lion and bull'' design, but with a reduced weight (8.06 grams, instead of the standard 10.7 grams of the original version issued by King Croesus) due to the need for larger amounts of these coins, for a much larger population. === Drittijiet tal-bniedem u multikulturaliżmu === ==== Ċilindru ta' Ċiru ==== One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Ċiru's time is the Ċiru Cylinder (Persian: استوانه کوروش), a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 Q.K.. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London. The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Ċiru as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although not mentioned specifically in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this general policy. In the 1970s, the Shah of Iran adopted the Ċiru cylinder as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy", and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history". This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious, as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Ċiru's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder. The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity. The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Sithu U Thant, after he "was given a replica by the sister of the Shah of Iran". The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium Q.K., kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms." The cylinder emphasizes Ċiru's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor. Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, has stated that the cylinder was "the first attempt we know about running a society, a state with different nationalities and faiths – a new kind of statecraft." He explained that "It has even been described as the first declaration of human rights, and while this was never the intention of the document – the modern concept of human rights scarcely existed in the ancient world – it has come to embody the hopes and aspirations of many." === Reliġjon u filosofija === ==== Preżenza taż-Żoroastrijaniżmu fl-affarijiet statali tal-Akemenidi ==== French Iranologist Pierre Briant wrote that, given the poor information we have, "it seems quite reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Ċiru might have been." It is also debated whether he was a Zoroastrian or whether Zoroastrianism only becomes involved as the Achaemenid state religion after his lifetime. The evidence in favour of it comes from some of the names of members of Ċiru's family, and similarities between the description of Yahweh in Isaiah 40–48 (which was after Isaiah came into contact with a Persian propagandist under Ċiru's administration who was Zoroastrian) and that of Ahura Mazda in the Gathas. Against the thesis is how Ċiru permitted total freedom of religion and provided funding for the establishment of their temples and other holy sites, as well as a possible late-date for the activity of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, who founded Zoroastrianism. ==== Tolleranza u libertà tar-reliġjon ==== The policies of Ċiru with respect to treatment of minority religions are documented in many historical accounts, particularly in Babylonian and Jewish sources. Ċiru had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the continuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (as American historian Lester Grabbe maintains) is disputed. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries. ==== Fidi personali u prattiki ta' Ċiru ==== Information about religion and ritual during the reign of Ċiru is also available from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, the Histories of Herodotus, and inscriptions, though these were written in later periods and so must be used carefully. The Ċiru Cylinder was composed in the name of Ċiru with him as the first-person speaker. The Cylinder is highly religious and is framed around the interventions of the Babylonian national god Marduk. It is Marduk who is praised in the outset of the text and whose direct intervention is thought to be responsible for what happened in recent history, and it is Marduk who summons Ċiru for the purpose of righting the wrongs of his predecessor Nabonidus. Furthermore, Ċiru offers respect not only to the cult of Marduk, but also to local cults. One inscription from Uruk states "(Ċiru) loves Esangil and Ezida" while another from Ur mentions that he "returned the gods to their shrines." Another from Babylon or Sippar says that unlike Nabonidus, Ċiru provided proper and even increased the sacrifices for the gods. Additional reliable information may come from the funerary customs around the tomb of Ċiru, which indicates a privileged cult honouring the Iranian god Mithra. Some have also identified the figure depicted in the bas-relief from Pasargadae as Mithra, further indicating the reverence of Ċiru for this deity. Additional evidence further indicates the connection between Ċiru and Mithra. ==== Liberazzjoni tal-poplu Lhudi ==== The treatment of the Jewish people by Ċiru during their exile in Babylon after the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the Kingdom of Judah is reported in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament). Ċiru is represented positively and as an agent of Yahweh, even though he is said to "not know" Yahweh (Isaiah 45:4–5). The Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Ċiru, which returned the exiles to the Land of Israel from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem in light of Solomon's Temple having been destroyed by Babylonian armies.<blockquote>Thus saith Ċiru, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of Heaven given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people – the LORD, his God, be with him – let him go there. – (2 Chronicles 36:23)</blockquote>This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.<blockquote>In the first year of King Ċiru, Ċiru the king issued a decree: "Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God." – (Ezra 6:3–5)</blockquote>The Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah (<abbr>lit.</abbr> 'His anointed one') (Isaiah 45:1), making him the only gentile to be so referred. Elsewhere in Isaiah, God is described as saying, "I will raise up Ċiru in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says God Almighty." (Isaiah 45:13) As the text suggests, Ċiru did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. These particular passages (Isaiah 40–55, often referred to as ''Deutero-Isaiah'') are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (''c.'' 536 Q.K.). Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Ċiru in Isaiah in his ''Antiquities of the Jews'', book 11, chapter 1:<blockquote>In the first year of the reign of Ċiru, which was the seventieth from the day that our people were removed out of their own land into Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and calamity of these poor people, according as he had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet, before the destruction of the city, that after they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his posterity, and after they had undergone that servitude seventy years, he would restore them again to the land of their fathers, and they should build their temple, and enjoy their ancient prosperity. And these things God did afford them; for he stirred up the mind of Ċiru, and made him write this throughout all Asia: "Thus saith Ċiru the king: Since God Almighty hath appointed me to be king of the habitable earth, I believe that he is that God which the nation of the Israelites worship; for indeed he foretold my name by the prophets, and that I should build him a house at Jerusalem, in the country of Judea." This was known to Ċiru by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a secret vision: "My will is, that Ċiru, whom I have appointed to be king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when Ċiru read this, and admired the Divine power, an earnest desire and ambition seized upon him to fulfill what was so written; so he called for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contribute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides that, beasts for their sacrifices.</blockquote>While Ċiru is praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1–6 and Ezra 1:1–11), there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Ċiru in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 Q.K., during the reign of Darius I. According to the Bible, it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7–24). The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000. Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that arguing against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom." Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Ċiru, like earlier rulers, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. She also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control." ==== Allużjoni teorika fl-iskrittura Iżlamika ==== In the 19th century, a number of prominent Indian Muslim scholars began theorizing that Ċiru l-Kbir is the individual mentioned in the Quran by the name Dhu al-Qarnayn, who is described as travelling west and east (towards the "setting and rising places of the Sun") and erecting a large barrier to separate a troubled people from "Ya'juj and Ma'juj" in exchange for tribute, with this barrier destined to keep them sealed until their release signals the end of the world and the Day of Judgement. It was first promoted by Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) and then by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958), subsequently generating wider acceptance among some Muslim communities over the years. This theory had been proposed in 1855 by the German philologist Gustav Moritz Redslob [de], but it was largely dismissed in the Western world. Most Western scholars of religion have instead lent credence to more popular theories in traditional Islamic mythology that identify Dhu al-Qarnayn as either the Greek king Alexander the Great or a certain pre-Islamic Arabian king. == Referenzi == 2ix1seuxf73edbh60ahaiju4f5aguti 330769 330767 2026-06-29T10:44:28Z Trigcly 17859 /* Ħajja bikrija u personali */ 330769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Ċiru II tal-Persja''' (twieled fis-600 – miet fil-530 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].), magħruf l-iktar bħala '''Ċiru l-Kbir''' (bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]]: ''Cyrus the Great''), kien il-fundatur tal-[[Imperu tal-Akemenidi]]. Art twelidu kienet Persis u wassal id-dinastija tal-Akemenidi fil-poter billi għeleb l-Imperu Medjan u ħaddan l-istati ċivilizzati preċedenti kollha tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, kabbar l-imperu b'mod vast tul il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Punent tal-[[Asja]] u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Asja Ċentrali, u ħoloq dak li f'qasir żmien sar l-ikbar imperu fl-[[Storja|istorja]] ta' dak iż-żmien. L-ikbar daqs territorjali tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi nkiseb taħt [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]], li rrenja f'imperu estiż mix-Xlokk tal-[[Ewropa]] u l-Grigal tal-[[Afrika]] fil-Punent sal-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant. Wara li assorba l-Imperu Medjan, Ċiru ħakem lil Lidja u eventwalment l-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż, u b'hekk kiseb il-kontroll tal-Anatolja u n-Nieqa Għammiela, rispettivament. Huwa mexxa wkoll spedizzjoni ewlenija fl-Asja Ċentrali, fejn l-armata tiegħu wasslet biex "kull nazzjon tissottometti ruħha mingħajr l-ebda eċċezzjoni" qabel ma allegatament miet fil-battalja mal-Massageti, poplu nomadiku tal-Lvant tal-[[Iran]], tul is-Syr Darya f'Diċembru 530 Q.K. Madankollu, skont Xenophon ta' [[Ateni]], Ċiru ma mietx waqt il-ġlied u minflok kien reġa' lura lejn il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' [[Pasargadae]]. Kienet x'kienet id-data ta' [[Mewt|mewtu]], is-suċċessur tiegħu kien ibnu [[Cambyses II]], li wettaq kampanji militari li wasslu għall-ħakmiet tal-[[Eġittu]], tan-Nubja u taċ-Ċirenajka matul ir-renju qasir tiegħu. Għall-Griegi, huwa kien magħruf bħala ''Ċiru x-Xiħ'' (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: Κῦρος ὁ Πρεσβύτερος, ''Kŷros ho Presbýteros'') u kien partikolarment magħruf fost l-istudjużi kontemporanji minħabba l-[[politika]] abitwali ta' tolleranza għad-drawwiet u għar-[[Reliġjon|reliġjonijiet]] tal-popli fl-artijiet li ħakem. B'mod simili, fil-[[Ġudaiżmu]] jiġi mfaħħar għar-rwol tiegħu fil-liberazzjoni tal-poplu [[Lhud|Lhudi]] mill-Babiloniżi billi ħareġ l-Editt tar-Restawr wara l-ħakma [[Persjani|Persjana]] tal-[[Babilonja]]. Dan l-avveniment jiġi deskritt fil-[[Bibbja]] bl-[[Ebrajk]] bħala r-ritorn lejn Zion (għolja f'[[Ġerusalemm]]), fejn il-Lhud spostati ġew ripatrijati lejn dak li kien ir-Renju ta' Ġuda, u b'hekk iffaċilita l-istabbiliment mill-ġdid tas-sovranità tal-Lhud fl-Art ta' [[Iżrael]]. Ċiru ffaċilita wkoll l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Lhud għal tempju ġdid f'Ġerusalemm fil-provinċja ta' Yehud tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, fejn qabel kien hemm it-Tempju ta' Salamun oriġinali qabel ma nqered matul l-assedju Babiloniż ta' Ġerusalemm. L-isforzi tiegħu rriżultaw fit-tlestija tat-Tieni Tempju, li mmarkat il-bidu tal-perjodu tat-Tieni Tempju u tal-Ġudaiżmu tat-Tieni Tempju. Skont il-Ktieb ta' Iżaija, huwa ndilek minn Yahweh u ġie ddeżinjat espliċitament bħala l-"messija" għal dan il-kompitu; Ċiru huwa l-unika figura mhux Lhudija li jingħata ġieħ b'dan il-mod. Minbarra l-influwenza tiegħu fuq it-tradizzjonijiet kemm fil-Lvant kif ukoll fil-Punent, Ċiru huwa magħruf għall-kisbiet li għamel fil-politika u fl-istrateġija militari. Huwa kien influwenti fl-iżvilupp ta' sistema ta' amministrazzjoni ċentrali fil-belt kapitali tiegħu biex jiggverna s-satrapiji tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, li kienu jaħdmu għall-profitt kemm tal-mexxejja kif ukoll tas-sudditi. Il-prestiġju li kellu fid-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]] tal-qedem gradwalment laħqet saħansitra sa Ateni, fejn il-Griegi tal-klassi superjuri adottaw aspetti tal-[[kultura]] tal-klassi tat-tmexxija Persjana għalihom stess. Bl-istess mod, ir-renju ta' Ċiru kellu rwol kruċjali fid-definizzjoni tal-istorja tal-Iran għal iktar minn millenju, peress li l-imperi Persjani futuri spiss ħarsu lejn żmien l-Akemenidi b'reverenza u bħala l-eżempju ideali li wieħed għandu jemula. Id-dinastija tiegħu kienet strumentali wkoll biex tippermetti l-iżvilupp taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]] u biex jinfirex saħansitra saċ-[[Ċina]]. Għalhekk, huwa jibqa' figura importanti fl-Iran modern, u l-qabar tiegħu f'Pasargadae jservi bħala post ta' reverenza għal miljuni ta' ċittadini tal-pajjiż. == [[Etimoloġija]] == L-isem Ċiru jew ''Cyrus'' huwa forma [[Lingwa Latina|Latinizzata]] li oriġinat mill-isem Grieg Κῦρος (''Kỹros''), li oriġina mill-isem bil-Persjan Antik ''Kūruš''. L-isem u t-tifsira tiegħu ġew irreġistrati fi ħdan kitbiet imnaqqxin tal-qedem b'[[Lingwa|lingwi]] differenti. L-istoriċi Griegi tal-qedem [[Ċtesju]] u [[Plutarka]] ddikjaraw li Ċiru ngħata isem ix-[[xemx]] (''Kuros''), kunċett li ġie interpretat li jfisser "bħax-xemx" (''Khurvash'') billi tiġi nnotata r-relazzjoni man-nom Persjan għal "xemx", ''khor'', filwaqt li jintuża s-suffiss ''-vash'' għal "bħal". [[Karl Hoffmann]] issuġġerixxa [[traduzzjoni]] bbażata fuq it-tifsira ta' għerq Indo-Ewropew li jfisser "umilja", għaldaqstant l-isem "Ċiru" jfisser "l-umiljatur tal-għadu f'kompetizzjoni verbali". Derivazzjoni Iranjana oħra possibbli hi li l-isem ifisser "iż-żgħir, wild", simili għall-Kurd ''kur'' ("iben, tifel żgħir") jew l-Ossezjan ''i-gur-un'' ("twieled") u ''kur'' (barri żgħir). Bil-[[lingwa Persjana]] u speċjalment fl-Iran, isem Ċiru jiġi spellut bħala کوروش (''Kūroš'', [kuːˈɾoʃ]). Fil-Bibbja, bil-lingwa Ebrajka jissejjaħ bħala ''Koresh'' (כורש‎). Xi bċejjeċ ta' evidenza jissuġġerixxu li Ċiru huwa Kay Khosrow, re Persjan leġġendarju tad-dinastija Kajanjana u karattru f'''Shahnameh'', ġrajja epika Persjana. Madankollu, xi studjużi jemmnu li la Ċiru u lanqas Cambyses ma kienu ismijiet Iranjani, u jipproponu li Ċiru kellu oriġini Elamita u li l-isem kien ifisser "dak li jindokra" bil-lingwa Elamita estinta. Raġuni waħda għal dan hi li filwaqt li l-ismijiet Elamiti jaf jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-uš'', l-ebda test bl-Elamit ma jispelli l-isem b'dan il-mod – ''Kuraš'' biss. Fl-istess ħin, il-Persjan Antik ma kienx jippermetti li l-ismijiet jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-aš'', għaldaqstant jagħmel sens għall-kelliema Persjani li jibdlu ''Kuraš'' oriġinali f'forma iktar korretta grammatikament bħal ''Kuruš''. L-iskribi Elamiti, min-naħa l-oħra, ma kienx ikollhom għalfejn jibdlu l-isem oriġinali ''Kuraš'' f'''Kuruš'', peress li ż-żewġ forom kienu aċċettabbli. Għalhekk, ''Kuraš'' x'aktarx li jirrappreżenta l-forma oriġinali. Opinjoni oħra tal-istudjużi hi li ''Kuruš'' kien isem ta' oriġini Indo-Arjana, f'ġieħ il-merċenarji Indo-Arjani Kuru u Kamboja mil-Lvant tal-[[Afganistan]] u l-Majjistral tal-[[Indja]] li għenu fil-ħakma tal-Lvant Nofsani. == Storja dinastika == Id-dominanza Persjana u r-renju Persjan fil-promontorju Iranjan bdew bħala estensjoni tad-dinastija tal-Akemenidi, li wessgħu d-dominju bikri tagħhom x'aktarx mis-seklu 9 Q.K. 'il quddiem. Il-fundatur li ta ismu għad-dinastija kien [[Achaemenes]] (mill-Persjan Antik ''Haxāmaniš''). L-Akemenidi huma d-"dixxendenti ta' Achaemenes", peress li Darius il-Kbir, id-disa' re tad-dinastija, traċċa n-nisel tiegħu lejh, u ddikjara "għal din ir-raġuni, li aħna nissejħu Akemenidi". Achaemenes bena l-istat ta' Parsumash fil-Lbiċ tal-Iran u s-suċċessur tiegħu kien [[Teispes]], li ħa t-titlu ta' "Re ta' Anshan" wara li ħataf il-belt Anshan u kabbar ir-renju tiegħu iktar biex jinkludi lil Pars ukoll. Id-dokumenti tal-qedem isemmu li Teispes kellu iben imsejjaħ [[Ċiru I]], li kien ukoll is-suċċessur ta' missieru bħala "Re ta' Anshan". Ċiru I kellu lil ħuh li ismu ġie rreġistrat bħala Ariaramnes. Fis-600 Q.K., is-suċċessur ta' Ċiru I kien ibnu, [[Cambyses I]], li rrenja sal-559 Q.K. Ċiru II jew "Ċiru l-Kbir" kien iben Cambyses I, li semma lil ibnu għal missieru, Ċiru I. Hemm diversi kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru l-Kbir u tar-rejiet ta' warajh li jirreferu għal Cambyses I bħala "re kbir" u "re ta' Anshan". Fosthom hemm siltiet fiċ-ċilindru ta' Ċiru fejn Ċiru jsejjaħ lilu nnifsu bħala "iben Cambyses, re kbir, re ta' Anshan". Kitba mnaqqxa oħra ssemmi lil Cambyses I bħala "re setgħan" u "Akemenidu", li skont il-maġġoranza tal-istudjużi tnaqqxet taħt Darius u titqies bħala ffalsifikar minn Darius. Madankollu, in-nannu min-naħa ta' omm Cambyses II, Pharnaspes, jissejjaħ mill-istoriku Erodotu bħala "Akemenidu". Ir-rakkont ta' Xenophon fiċ-Ċiropedija jsemmi lill-mara ta' Cambyses bħala Mandane u jsemmi lil Cambyses bħala r-re tal-Iran (Persja tal-qedem). Dawn jaqblu mal-kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru stess, peress li Anshan u Parsa kienu ismijiet differenti tal-istess art. Dawn jaqblu wkoll ma' rakkonti mhux Iranjani oħra, għajr f'punt partikolari ta' Erodotu fejn jistqarr li Cambyses ma kienx re iżda "Persjan minn familja tajba". Madankollu, f'xi siltiet oħra, ir-rakkont ta' Erodotu huwa żbaljat anke rigward l-isem ta' iben Chishpish, li jsemmih bħala Cambyses iżda skont l-istudjużi moderni suppost huwa Ċiru I. Il-ħsieb tradizzjonali bbażat fuq ir-riċerka [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġika]] u l-ġenealoġija mogħtija fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun u minn Erodotu jsostni li Ċiru l-Kbir kien Akemenidu. Madankollu, M. Waters issuġġerixxa li Ċiru ma għandux rabta mal-Akemenidid jew ma' Darius il-Kbir, u li l-familja tiegħu kellha oriġini Tejspida u Anxanita. === Titli === It-titli rjali sħaħ tiegħu kienu Re Kbir, Re tal-Persja, Re ta' Anshan, Re ta' Medija, Re tal-Babilonja, Re tas-[[Sumerja]] u ta' [[Akkad]], u Re tal-Erba' Rkejjen tad-Dinja. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tinnota l-bidla fit-titlu tiegħu minn "Re ta' Anshan" għal "Re tal-Persja". L-Assirjologu [[François Vallat]] kiteb li "Meta Astyages immarċja kontra Ċiru, Ċiru jissejjaħ "Re ta' Anshan", iżda meta Ċiru jaqsam ix-xmara Tigris fi triqtu lejn Lidja, huwa jissejjaħ bħala r-"Re tal-Persja". Għaldaqstant il-kolp ta' stat seħħ bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti". === Arblu tar-razza === {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !Arblu tar-razza ta' Ċiru |- | {| class="wikitable" | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Achaemenes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Teispes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ariaramnes Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ċiru I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Arsames Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Cambyses I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Hystaspes Prinċep | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Ċiru l-Kbir''' '''(Ċiru II)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Darius''' '''il-Kbir''' '''(Darius I)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Cambyses II''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Bardiya (Smerdis) Prinċep (impostur taparsi Gaumata mexxa bħala Smerdis) | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Artystone Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Atossa Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |} |- |'''Noti:''' # Mexxejja mhux ikkonfermati, minħabba l-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. |} == Ħajja bikrija u personali == Ċiru kien iben Cambyses I, Re ta' Anshan, u Mandane, bint Astyages, Re ta' Medija, għall-ħabta tas-600 jew il-599 Q.K. Skont stess, li ġeneralment issa jitqies bħala akkurat, Ċiru ġie ppreċedut bħala re minn missieru Cambyses I, nannuh Ċiru I, u bużnannuh Teispes. Ċiru żżewweġ lil Cassandane li kienet Akemenida u bint Pharnaspes. Flimkien ma' Cassandane kellu żewġ ulied subien, Cambyses II u Bardiya flimkien ma' tliet ulied bniet, Atossa, Artystone u Roxane. Kien magħruf li Ċiru u Cassandane kienu jħobbu lil xulxin ħafna – Cassandane qalet li għaliha kien ikun iktar iebes li titlaq lil Ċiru milli tmut. Wara mewtha, Ċiru insista li jkun hemm luttu pubbliku mar-renju kollu. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tistqarr li l-Babilonja għamlet luttu ta' 6 ijiem għal Cassandane (identifikati bħala l-21–26 ta' Marzu 538 Q.K.). Wara l-mewt ta' missieru, Ċiru wiret it-tron Persjan f'Pasargadae, li kienet vassall ta' Astyages. L-istoriku Grieg [[Strabo]] qal li Ċiru oriġinarjament kien issejjaħ Agradates mill-ġenituri tar-rispett tiegħu. Jista' jkun li meta ngħaqad mal-familja oriġinali tiegħi, skont id-drawwiet tat-tismija, missier Ċiru, Cambyses I, semmih Ċiru f'ġieħ nannuh, li kien Ċiru I. Hemm ukoll rakkont ta' Strabo fejn sostna li Agradates adotta l-isem Ċiru għax-xmara Ċiru qrib Pasargadae. === Mitoloġija === Erodotu ta rakkont mitoloġiku tal-ħajja bikrija ta' Ċiru. F'dan ir-rakkont, Astyages kellu żewġ ħolmiet profetiċi fejn għargħar u mbagħad sensiela ta' vinji li jarmu l-[[frott]] tfaċċaw minn ħoġor bintu Mandane, u ksew ir-renju kollu. Dawn ġew interpretati mill-konsulenti tiegħu bħala tbassir li n-neputi tiegħu xi darba kien se jirribella u jeħodlu postu bħala re. Astyages ikkonvoka lil Mandane meta kienet tqila b'Ċiru biex terġa' lura lejn Ecbatana biex il-wild tagħha jinqatel. Il-ġeneral tiegħu Harpagus iddelega dan il-kompitu lil Mithradates, wieħed mir-[[Ragħaj|rgħajja]] ta' Astyages, li rabba l-wild u ta t-tarbija tiegħu li twieldet mejta lil Harpagus bħala t-tarbija l-mejta taparsi kienet Ċiru. Ċiru għex fis-segretezza, iżda meta għalaq 10 snin, waqt logħba ta' tfulitu, wassal biex iben nobbli jissawwat meta rrifjuta li jobdi l-kmandi ta' Ċiru. Peress li kienet xi ħaġa mhux komuni li iben ragħaj iwettaq att bħal dak, Astyages ordna li t-tifel jitressaq quddiem il-qorti tiegħu, u intervista lilu u lill-missier adottiv tiegħu. Wara l-konfessjoni tar-ragħaj, Astyages bagħat lil Ċiru lura lejn il-Persja biex jgħix mal-ġenituri [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] tiegħu. Madankollu, Astyages ikkonvoka lil iben Harpagus, u bħala tpattija qattgħu biċċiet, xewa xi partijiet minnu u għalla oħrajn, u qarraq bil-konsulent tiegħu sabiex jiekol lil ibnu stess waqt bankett kbir. Wara l-bankett, il-qaddejja ta' Astyages lil Harpagus ġabulu ras ibnu flimkien ma' idejh u saqajh fuq platti, sabiex jinduna li mingħajr ma jaf kien qed jagħmel [[kannibaliżmu]]. == Poter == === Suċċessjoni għal Medija === Ċiru l-Kbir tela' fuq it-tron fil-559 Q.K. wara l-mewt ta' missieru; madankollu, Ċiru kien għadu ma kienx mexxej indipendenti. Bħall-predeċessuri tiegħu, Ċiru kellu jirrikonoxxi lil Medija bħala superjuri. Astyages, l-aħħar re tal-Imperu ta' Medija u n-nannu ta' Ċiru, x'aktarx li rrenja fuq il-maġġoranza tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, mill-fruntiera Lidjana fil-Punent sal-artijiet tal-Partiċi u tal-Persjani fil-Lvant. Skont il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus, Astyages nieda attakk kontra Ċiru, "Re ta' Ansan". Skont l-istoriku Erodotu, huwa magħruf li Astyages poġġa lil Harpagus fil-kmand tal-armata ta' Medija biex jegħleb lil Ċiru. Madankollu, Harpagus ikkuntattja lil Ċiru u ħeġġu jirvilla kontra Medija, qabel ma eventwalment telaq mill-armata flimkien ma' diversi nobbli oħra u parti mill-armata. Dan l-ammutinament huwa kkonfermat mill-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus. Din il-kronaka tissuġġerixxi li l-ostilitajiet damu għaddejjin għal mill-inqas 3 snin (553–550 Q.K.), u l-battalja finali rriżultat fil-ħtif ta' Ecbatana. Dan ġie deskritt fil-paragrafu ta' qabel id-daħla tas-seba' sena ta' Nabonidus, li spjegat fid-dettall ir-rebħa ta' Ċiru u l-ħtif ta' nannuh. Skont l-istoriċi Erodotu u Ċtesju, Ċiru ma qatilx lil Astyages u żżewweġ lil bintu, Amytis. Dan iż-żwieġ ippaċifika diversi vassalli, inkluż il-Baktrijani, il-Partiċi u s-Saka. Ċiru ssottometta u inkorpora lil Sogdija fl-imperu matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu tal-546–539 Q.K.. B'Astyages mhux fil-poter, il-vassalli kollha tiegħu (inkluż bosta mill-qrabat ta' Ċiru) issa kienu taħt il-kmand tiegħu. Il-kuġin ta' missieru Arsames, li kien ir-re tal-belt-stat ta' Parsa taħt il-Medes, għaldaqstant kellu jċedi t-tron. Madankollu, dan it-trasferiment tal-poter fi ħdan il-familja milli jidher mexa ħarir, u x'aktarx li Arsames kien għadu l-gvernatur nominali ta' Parsa taħt l-awtorità ta' Ċiru — iktar bħala Prinċep jew Gran Duka milli Re. Ibnu, Hystaspes, li kien is-sekondokuġin ta' Ċiru, imbagħad sar is-satrap ta' Parthia u ta' Phrygia. Ċiru l-Kbir b'hekk unifika r-renji Akemenidi tewmin ta' Parsa u ta' Anshan fil-Persja. Arsames kien għadu ħaj meta n-neputi tiegħu sar Darius il-Kbir, Shahanshah tal-Persja, wara li mietu ż-żewġ ulied subien ta' Ċiru. Il-ħakma ta' Medija min-naħa ta' Ċiru kienet sempliċement il-bidu tal-gwerer tiegħu. === Ħakma ta' Lidja u tal-Asja Minuri === The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Ċiru's overthrow of the Median kingdom (550 Q.K.) and his conquest of Babylon (539 Q.K.). It was common in the past to give 547 Q.K. as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position is currently not much held. The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of Pteria in Cappadocia. The king of Lydia Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Ċiru levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The Battle of Pteria was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning. While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the winter, before the allies could unite, Ċiru l-Kbir pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, Sardis. Shortly before the final Battle of Thymbra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Ċiru l-Kbir to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Ċiru defeated and captured Croesus. Ċiru occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 Q.K.. According to Herodotus, Ċiru l-Kbir spared Croesus's life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain. Before Ċiru returned to the capital, Commagene was incorporated into Persia in 546 Q.K.. Later, a Lydian named Pactyas was entrusted by Ċiru to send Croesus's treasury to Persia. However, soon after Ċiru's departure, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia, Tabalus. Ċiru sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares's arrival, Pactyas fled to Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The fate of Pactyas is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to Ċiru and put to death after being tortured. Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Ċiru sent Harpagus to complete Mazares's conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Aeolia and Caria, using the technique of building earthworks to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 Q.K. and returned to Persia. === Ħakmiet fl-Asja Ċentrali u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja === After the conquest of Lydia, Ċiru campaigned in the east between around 545 Q.K. to 540 Q.K.. Ċiru first tried to conquer Gedrosia, however he was decisively defeated and departed Gedrosia. Gedrosia was most likely conquered during the reign of Darius I. After the failed attempt to conquer Gedrosia, Ċiru attacked the regions of Bactria, Arachosia, Sogdia, Saka, Chorasmia, Margiana and other provinces in the east. In 533 Q.K., Ċiru l-Kbir crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and collected tribute from the Indus cities. Thus, Ċiru probably had established vassal states in western India. Ċiru then returned with his army to Babylon due to the unrest taking place in and around Babylon. === Ħakma tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż === By the year 540 Q.K., Ċiru captured Elam and its capital, Susa. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus, had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 Q.K.. Just before October 539 Q.K., Ċiru fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on 10 October, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace. It is probable that Ċiru engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus, who had retreated to Sippar following his defeat at Opis, fled to Borsippa. Around 12 October, Persian general Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus. Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh", which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night. Shortly thereafter, Nabonidus returned from Borsippa and surrendered to Ċiru. On 29 October, Ċiru entered the city of Babylon. Prior to Ċiru's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia, Ċiru probably incorporated its sub-national entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence to support this assumption. After taking Babylon, Ċiru l-Kbir proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Ċiru Cylinder, an inscription on a cylinder that was deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Ċiru as pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples, and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms. Ċiru l-Kbir's dominions composed the largest empire the world had ever seen to that point. At the end of Ċiru's rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the Indus River in the east. == Mewt == === Narrattivi kunfliġġenti === The details of Ċiru's death vary by account. Ctesias, in his ''Persica'', has the longest account, which says Ċiru met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their war elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. The account of Herodotus from his ''Histories'' provides the second-longest detail, in which Ċiru met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a Scythian tribal confederation from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the Eurasian Steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory. The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Ċiru first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, the queen Tomyris, a proposal she rejected.^{[''citation needed'']} He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force (c. 529 Q.K.), beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Oxus, or Amu Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Ċiru had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Ċiru's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Ċiru l-Kbir was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Ċiru brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son. However, some scholars question this version, mostly because even Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Ċiru's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath. Herodotus also recounts that Ċiru saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe. Archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Ċiru l-Kbir in the following way:<blockquote>Herodotus therefore, as I surmise, may have known of the close connection between this type of winged figure and the image of Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating the king's death before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus.</blockquote>Muhammad Dandamayev says that Persians may have taken Ċiru's body back from the Massagetae, unlike what Herodotus claimed. According to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (AD 1166–1199) Ċiru was killed by his wife Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (Maksata), in the 60th year of Jewish captivity. An alternative account from Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'' contradicts the others, claiming that Ċiru died peacefully at his capital. The final version of Ċiru's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Ċiru met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. === Post tad-dfin === Ċiru l-Kbir's remains may have been interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540–530 Q.K.) still exists, which many believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly identical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb twice. Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Ċiru l-Kbir has remained largely intact, and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his epitaph read:<blockquote>O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Ċiru who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.</blockquote>Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Ċiru died around December 530 Q.K., and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Ċiru's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great. The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; the tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man could barely squeeze through. Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Ċiru l-Kbir was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb. Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi", stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage. Years later, in the chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Ċiru l-Kbir's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court. On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Ċiru's tomb. However, Alexander admired Ċiru, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. In any case, Alexander ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior. Despite his admiration for Ċiru l-Kbir, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander had, six years previously (330 Q.K.), sacked Persepolis, the opulent city that Ċiru may have chosen the site for, and either ordered its burning as an act of pro-Greek propaganda or set it on fire during drunken revels. The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divisions, successive empires, regime changes, and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Ċiru's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension. The United Nations recognizes the tomb of Ċiru l-Kbir and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site. == Legat == === Influwenza fuq iċ-ċivilizzazzjonijiet tal-Lvant u tal-Punent === British historian Charles Freeman suggests that "In scope and extent his achievements [Ċiru] ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander, who was to demolish the [Achaemenid] empire in the 320s but fail to provide any stable alternative." Ċiru has been a personal hero to many people, including Thomas Jefferson, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and David Ben-Gurion. The achievements of Ċiru l-Kbir throughout antiquity are reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father", the very title that had been used during the time of Ċiru himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon: Ċiru's standard, described as a golden eagle mounted upon a "lofty shaft", remained the official banner of the Achaemenids.<blockquote>And those who were subject to him, he treated with esteem and regard, as if they were his own children, while his subjects themselves respected Ċiru as their "Father" ... What other man but 'Ċiru', after having overturned an empire, ever died with the title of "The Father" from the people whom he had brought under his power? For it is plain fact that this is a name for one that bestows, rather than for one that takes away!</blockquote>The historian Plutarch (<abbr>c.</abbr> 46 – c. 119 AD) tells that "the Persians, because Ċiru was hook-nosed, even to this day love hook-nosed men and consider them the most handsome". The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator", as they were offended by their previous ruler, Nabonidus, for committing sacrilege. The Book of Ezra narrates a story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Ċiru, in which Ċiru proclaims: "All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah."(Ezra 1:2) Ċiru was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid Empire endured long after his death.^{[''citation needed'']} The rise of Persia under Ċiru's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history, including in forms of Iranian philosophy, literature and religion. Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid Empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Ċiru l-Kbir and have claimed to continue the line begun by Ċiru. However, there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty. Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Ċiru l-Kbir, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Ċiru's tomb. Ċiru's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland and colonial America. Many of the thinkers and rulers of Classical Antiquity as well as the Renaissance and Enlightenment era, and the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Ċiru l-Kbir through works such as ''Cyropaedia''. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned two copies of ''Cyropaedia'', one with parallel Greek and Latin translations on facing pages showing substantial Jefferson markings that signify the amount of influence the book has had on drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye, Ċiru—whose abilities as conqueror and administrator Frye says are attested by the longevity and vigor of the Achaemenid Empire—held an almost mythic role among the Persian people "similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites", with a story that "follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors from elsewhere in the ancient world." Frye writes, "He became the epitome of the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features as a conqueror who was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring. His personality as seen by the Greeks influenced them and Alexander the Great, and, as the tradition was transmitted by the Romans, may be considered to influence our thinking even now." His rule was studied and admired by many of the great leaders, such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Thomas Jefferson. === Amministrazzjoni u politika === ==== Sistema tas-satrapiji ==== Ċiru founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government.^{[''citation needed'']} During his reign, Ċiru maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps was continued by Ċiru's successor, Darius the Great. ==== Strateġija militari ==== Ċiru's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm. Through his military savvy, Ċiru created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers. Ċiru's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sasanians. ==== Proġetti infrastrutturali ==== Ċiru has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargadae Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was a place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since. He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh. In 1658, while the Protectorate of Cromwell ruled Britain, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Ċiru, in which Ċiru is depicted as an archetypal wise ruler. However, despite being featured in the title, Ċiru was not a main focus of Browne's work. "Ċiru the elder, brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circum-scription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof." ==== Denominazzjoni tal-muniti ==== The use of the name ''Kuruş'' as a currency denomination for coinage goes back to the 6th century Q.K., dating to the time of the Croeseid, the world's first gold coin, originally minted by King Croesus of Lydia. The Croeseid was later continued to be minted and spread in a wide geographical area by Ċiru l-Kbir (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 ''Kūruš''), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, who defeated King Croesus and conquered Lydia with the Battle of Thymbra in 547 Q.K.. Ċiru (Kūruš) made the Croeseid the standard gold coin of his vast empire, using the same ''lion and bull'' design, but with a reduced weight (8.06 grams, instead of the standard 10.7 grams of the original version issued by King Croesus) due to the need for larger amounts of these coins, for a much larger population. === Drittijiet tal-bniedem u multikulturaliżmu === ==== Ċilindru ta' Ċiru ==== One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Ċiru's time is the Ċiru Cylinder (Persian: استوانه کوروش), a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 Q.K.. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London. The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Ċiru as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although not mentioned specifically in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this general policy. In the 1970s, the Shah of Iran adopted the Ċiru cylinder as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy", and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history". This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious, as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Ċiru's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder. The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity. The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Sithu U Thant, after he "was given a replica by the sister of the Shah of Iran". The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium Q.K., kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms." The cylinder emphasizes Ċiru's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor. Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, has stated that the cylinder was "the first attempt we know about running a society, a state with different nationalities and faiths – a new kind of statecraft." He explained that "It has even been described as the first declaration of human rights, and while this was never the intention of the document – the modern concept of human rights scarcely existed in the ancient world – it has come to embody the hopes and aspirations of many." === Reliġjon u filosofija === ==== Preżenza taż-Żoroastrijaniżmu fl-affarijiet statali tal-Akemenidi ==== French Iranologist Pierre Briant wrote that, given the poor information we have, "it seems quite reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Ċiru might have been." It is also debated whether he was a Zoroastrian or whether Zoroastrianism only becomes involved as the Achaemenid state religion after his lifetime. The evidence in favour of it comes from some of the names of members of Ċiru's family, and similarities between the description of Yahweh in Isaiah 40–48 (which was after Isaiah came into contact with a Persian propagandist under Ċiru's administration who was Zoroastrian) and that of Ahura Mazda in the Gathas. Against the thesis is how Ċiru permitted total freedom of religion and provided funding for the establishment of their temples and other holy sites, as well as a possible late-date for the activity of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, who founded Zoroastrianism. ==== Tolleranza u libertà tar-reliġjon ==== The policies of Ċiru with respect to treatment of minority religions are documented in many historical accounts, particularly in Babylonian and Jewish sources. Ċiru had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the continuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (as American historian Lester Grabbe maintains) is disputed. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries. ==== Fidi personali u prattiki ta' Ċiru ==== Information about religion and ritual during the reign of Ċiru is also available from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, the Histories of Herodotus, and inscriptions, though these were written in later periods and so must be used carefully. The Ċiru Cylinder was composed in the name of Ċiru with him as the first-person speaker. The Cylinder is highly religious and is framed around the interventions of the Babylonian national god Marduk. It is Marduk who is praised in the outset of the text and whose direct intervention is thought to be responsible for what happened in recent history, and it is Marduk who summons Ċiru for the purpose of righting the wrongs of his predecessor Nabonidus. Furthermore, Ċiru offers respect not only to the cult of Marduk, but also to local cults. One inscription from Uruk states "(Ċiru) loves Esangil and Ezida" while another from Ur mentions that he "returned the gods to their shrines." Another from Babylon or Sippar says that unlike Nabonidus, Ċiru provided proper and even increased the sacrifices for the gods. Additional reliable information may come from the funerary customs around the tomb of Ċiru, which indicates a privileged cult honouring the Iranian god Mithra. Some have also identified the figure depicted in the bas-relief from Pasargadae as Mithra, further indicating the reverence of Ċiru for this deity. Additional evidence further indicates the connection between Ċiru and Mithra. ==== Liberazzjoni tal-poplu Lhudi ==== The treatment of the Jewish people by Ċiru during their exile in Babylon after the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the Kingdom of Judah is reported in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament). Ċiru is represented positively and as an agent of Yahweh, even though he is said to "not know" Yahweh (Isaiah 45:4–5). The Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Ċiru, which returned the exiles to the Land of Israel from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem in light of Solomon's Temple having been destroyed by Babylonian armies.<blockquote>Thus saith Ċiru, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of Heaven given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people – the LORD, his God, be with him – let him go there. – (2 Chronicles 36:23)</blockquote>This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.<blockquote>In the first year of King Ċiru, Ċiru the king issued a decree: "Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God." – (Ezra 6:3–5)</blockquote>The Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah (<abbr>lit.</abbr> 'His anointed one') (Isaiah 45:1), making him the only gentile to be so referred. Elsewhere in Isaiah, God is described as saying, "I will raise up Ċiru in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says God Almighty." (Isaiah 45:13) As the text suggests, Ċiru did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. These particular passages (Isaiah 40–55, often referred to as ''Deutero-Isaiah'') are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (''c.'' 536 Q.K.). Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Ċiru in Isaiah in his ''Antiquities of the Jews'', book 11, chapter 1:<blockquote>In the first year of the reign of Ċiru, which was the seventieth from the day that our people were removed out of their own land into Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and calamity of these poor people, according as he had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet, before the destruction of the city, that after they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his posterity, and after they had undergone that servitude seventy years, he would restore them again to the land of their fathers, and they should build their temple, and enjoy their ancient prosperity. And these things God did afford them; for he stirred up the mind of Ċiru, and made him write this throughout all Asia: "Thus saith Ċiru the king: Since God Almighty hath appointed me to be king of the habitable earth, I believe that he is that God which the nation of the Israelites worship; for indeed he foretold my name by the prophets, and that I should build him a house at Jerusalem, in the country of Judea." This was known to Ċiru by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a secret vision: "My will is, that Ċiru, whom I have appointed to be king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when Ċiru read this, and admired the Divine power, an earnest desire and ambition seized upon him to fulfill what was so written; so he called for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contribute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides that, beasts for their sacrifices.</blockquote>While Ċiru is praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1–6 and Ezra 1:1–11), there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Ċiru in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 Q.K., during the reign of Darius I. According to the Bible, it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7–24). The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000. Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that arguing against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom." Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Ċiru, like earlier rulers, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. She also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control." ==== Allużjoni teorika fl-iskrittura Iżlamika ==== In the 19th century, a number of prominent Indian Muslim scholars began theorizing that Ċiru l-Kbir is the individual mentioned in the Quran by the name Dhu al-Qarnayn, who is described as travelling west and east (towards the "setting and rising places of the Sun") and erecting a large barrier to separate a troubled people from "Ya'juj and Ma'juj" in exchange for tribute, with this barrier destined to keep them sealed until their release signals the end of the world and the Day of Judgement. It was first promoted by Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) and then by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958), subsequently generating wider acceptance among some Muslim communities over the years. This theory had been proposed in 1855 by the German philologist Gustav Moritz Redslob [de], but it was largely dismissed in the Western world. Most Western scholars of religion have instead lent credence to more popular theories in traditional Islamic mythology that identify Dhu al-Qarnayn as either the Greek king Alexander the Great or a certain pre-Islamic Arabian king. == Referenzi == plu7npaht9jfwdqzjfehf9phmpiyd2o 330773 330769 2026-06-29T11:45:11Z Trigcly 17859 /* Ħakma ta' Lidja u tal-Asja Minuri */ 330773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Ċiru II tal-Persja''' (twieled fis-600 – miet fil-530 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]].), magħruf l-iktar bħala '''Ċiru l-Kbir''' (bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]]: ''Cyrus the Great''), kien il-fundatur tal-[[Imperu tal-Akemenidi]]. Art twelidu kienet Persis u wassal id-dinastija tal-Akemenidi fil-poter billi għeleb l-Imperu Medjan u ħaddan l-istati ċivilizzati preċedenti kollha tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, kabbar l-imperu b'mod vast tul il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Punent tal-[[Asja]] u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Asja Ċentrali, u ħoloq dak li f'qasir żmien sar l-ikbar imperu fl-[[Storja|istorja]] ta' dak iż-żmien. L-ikbar daqs territorjali tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi nkiseb taħt [[Darius I|Darius il-Kbir]], li rrenja f'imperu estiż mix-Xlokk tal-[[Ewropa]] u l-Grigal tal-[[Afrika]] fil-Punent sal-Wied tal-Indus fil-Lvant. Wara li assorba l-Imperu Medjan, Ċiru ħakem lil Lidja u eventwalment l-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż, u b'hekk kiseb il-kontroll tal-Anatolja u n-Nieqa Għammiela, rispettivament. Huwa mexxa wkoll spedizzjoni ewlenija fl-Asja Ċentrali, fejn l-armata tiegħu wasslet biex "kull nazzjon tissottometti ruħha mingħajr l-ebda eċċezzjoni" qabel ma allegatament miet fil-battalja mal-Massageti, poplu nomadiku tal-Lvant tal-[[Iran]], tul is-Syr Darya f'Diċembru 530 Q.K. Madankollu, skont Xenophon ta' [[Ateni]], Ċiru ma mietx waqt il-ġlied u minflok kien reġa' lura lejn il-[[belt kapitali]] ta' [[Pasargadae]]. Kienet x'kienet id-data ta' [[Mewt|mewtu]], is-suċċessur tiegħu kien ibnu [[Cambyses II]], li wettaq kampanji militari li wasslu għall-ħakmiet tal-[[Eġittu]], tan-Nubja u taċ-Ċirenajka matul ir-renju qasir tiegħu. Għall-Griegi, huwa kien magħruf bħala ''Ċiru x-Xiħ'' (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: Κῦρος ὁ Πρεσβύτερος, ''Kŷros ho Presbýteros'') u kien partikolarment magħruf fost l-istudjużi kontemporanji minħabba l-[[politika]] abitwali ta' tolleranza għad-drawwiet u għar-[[Reliġjon|reliġjonijiet]] tal-popli fl-artijiet li ħakem. B'mod simili, fil-[[Ġudaiżmu]] jiġi mfaħħar għar-rwol tiegħu fil-liberazzjoni tal-poplu [[Lhud|Lhudi]] mill-Babiloniżi billi ħareġ l-Editt tar-Restawr wara l-ħakma [[Persjani|Persjana]] tal-[[Babilonja]]. Dan l-avveniment jiġi deskritt fil-[[Bibbja]] bl-[[Ebrajk]] bħala r-ritorn lejn Zion (għolja f'[[Ġerusalemm]]), fejn il-Lhud spostati ġew ripatrijati lejn dak li kien ir-Renju ta' Ġuda, u b'hekk iffaċilita l-istabbiliment mill-ġdid tas-sovranità tal-Lhud fl-Art ta' [[Iżrael]]. Ċiru ffaċilita wkoll l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Lhud għal tempju ġdid f'Ġerusalemm fil-provinċja ta' Yehud tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, fejn qabel kien hemm it-Tempju ta' Salamun oriġinali qabel ma nqered matul l-assedju Babiloniż ta' Ġerusalemm. L-isforzi tiegħu rriżultaw fit-tlestija tat-Tieni Tempju, li mmarkat il-bidu tal-perjodu tat-Tieni Tempju u tal-Ġudaiżmu tat-Tieni Tempju. Skont il-Ktieb ta' Iżaija, huwa ndilek minn Yahweh u ġie ddeżinjat espliċitament bħala l-"messija" għal dan il-kompitu; Ċiru huwa l-unika figura mhux Lhudija li jingħata ġieħ b'dan il-mod. Minbarra l-influwenza tiegħu fuq it-tradizzjonijiet kemm fil-Lvant kif ukoll fil-Punent, Ċiru huwa magħruf għall-kisbiet li għamel fil-politika u fl-istrateġija militari. Huwa kien influwenti fl-iżvilupp ta' sistema ta' amministrazzjoni ċentrali fil-belt kapitali tiegħu biex jiggverna s-satrapiji tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi, li kienu jaħdmu għall-profitt kemm tal-mexxejja kif ukoll tas-sudditi. Il-prestiġju li kellu fid-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]] tal-qedem gradwalment laħqet saħansitra sa Ateni, fejn il-Griegi tal-klassi superjuri adottaw aspetti tal-[[kultura]] tal-klassi tat-tmexxija Persjana għalihom stess. Bl-istess mod, ir-renju ta' Ċiru kellu rwol kruċjali fid-definizzjoni tal-istorja tal-Iran għal iktar minn millenju, peress li l-imperi Persjani futuri spiss ħarsu lejn żmien l-Akemenidi b'reverenza u bħala l-eżempju ideali li wieħed għandu jemula. Id-dinastija tiegħu kienet strumentali wkoll biex tippermetti l-iżvilupp taż-[[Żoroastrijaniżmu]] u biex jinfirex saħansitra saċ-[[Ċina]]. Għalhekk, huwa jibqa' figura importanti fl-Iran modern, u l-qabar tiegħu f'Pasargadae jservi bħala post ta' reverenza għal miljuni ta' ċittadini tal-pajjiż. == [[Etimoloġija]] == L-isem Ċiru jew ''Cyrus'' huwa forma [[Lingwa Latina|Latinizzata]] li oriġinat mill-isem Grieg Κῦρος (''Kỹros''), li oriġina mill-isem bil-Persjan Antik ''Kūruš''. L-isem u t-tifsira tiegħu ġew irreġistrati fi ħdan kitbiet imnaqqxin tal-qedem b'[[Lingwa|lingwi]] differenti. L-istoriċi Griegi tal-qedem [[Ċtesju]] u [[Plutarka]] ddikjaraw li Ċiru ngħata isem ix-[[xemx]] (''Kuros''), kunċett li ġie interpretat li jfisser "bħax-xemx" (''Khurvash'') billi tiġi nnotata r-relazzjoni man-nom Persjan għal "xemx", ''khor'', filwaqt li jintuża s-suffiss ''-vash'' għal "bħal". [[Karl Hoffmann]] issuġġerixxa [[traduzzjoni]] bbażata fuq it-tifsira ta' għerq Indo-Ewropew li jfisser "umilja", għaldaqstant l-isem "Ċiru" jfisser "l-umiljatur tal-għadu f'kompetizzjoni verbali". Derivazzjoni Iranjana oħra possibbli hi li l-isem ifisser "iż-żgħir, wild", simili għall-Kurd ''kur'' ("iben, tifel żgħir") jew l-Ossezjan ''i-gur-un'' ("twieled") u ''kur'' (barri żgħir). Bil-[[lingwa Persjana]] u speċjalment fl-Iran, isem Ċiru jiġi spellut bħala کوروش (''Kūroš'', [kuːˈɾoʃ]). Fil-Bibbja, bil-lingwa Ebrajka jissejjaħ bħala ''Koresh'' (כורש‎). Xi bċejjeċ ta' evidenza jissuġġerixxu li Ċiru huwa Kay Khosrow, re Persjan leġġendarju tad-dinastija Kajanjana u karattru f'''Shahnameh'', ġrajja epika Persjana. Madankollu, xi studjużi jemmnu li la Ċiru u lanqas Cambyses ma kienu ismijiet Iranjani, u jipproponu li Ċiru kellu oriġini Elamita u li l-isem kien ifisser "dak li jindokra" bil-lingwa Elamita estinta. Raġuni waħda għal dan hi li filwaqt li l-ismijiet Elamiti jaf jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-uš'', l-ebda test bl-Elamit ma jispelli l-isem b'dan il-mod – ''Kuraš'' biss. Fl-istess ħin, il-Persjan Antik ma kienx jippermetti li l-ismijiet jispiċċaw b'<nowiki/>''-aš'', għaldaqstant jagħmel sens għall-kelliema Persjani li jibdlu ''Kuraš'' oriġinali f'forma iktar korretta grammatikament bħal ''Kuruš''. L-iskribi Elamiti, min-naħa l-oħra, ma kienx ikollhom għalfejn jibdlu l-isem oriġinali ''Kuraš'' f'''Kuruš'', peress li ż-żewġ forom kienu aċċettabbli. Għalhekk, ''Kuraš'' x'aktarx li jirrappreżenta l-forma oriġinali. Opinjoni oħra tal-istudjużi hi li ''Kuruš'' kien isem ta' oriġini Indo-Arjana, f'ġieħ il-merċenarji Indo-Arjani Kuru u Kamboja mil-Lvant tal-[[Afganistan]] u l-Majjistral tal-[[Indja]] li għenu fil-ħakma tal-Lvant Nofsani. == Storja dinastika == Id-dominanza Persjana u r-renju Persjan fil-promontorju Iranjan bdew bħala estensjoni tad-dinastija tal-Akemenidi, li wessgħu d-dominju bikri tagħhom x'aktarx mis-seklu 9 Q.K. 'il quddiem. Il-fundatur li ta ismu għad-dinastija kien [[Achaemenes]] (mill-Persjan Antik ''Haxāmaniš''). L-Akemenidi huma d-"dixxendenti ta' Achaemenes", peress li Darius il-Kbir, id-disa' re tad-dinastija, traċċa n-nisel tiegħu lejh, u ddikjara "għal din ir-raġuni, li aħna nissejħu Akemenidi". Achaemenes bena l-istat ta' Parsumash fil-Lbiċ tal-Iran u s-suċċessur tiegħu kien [[Teispes]], li ħa t-titlu ta' "Re ta' Anshan" wara li ħataf il-belt Anshan u kabbar ir-renju tiegħu iktar biex jinkludi lil Pars ukoll. Id-dokumenti tal-qedem isemmu li Teispes kellu iben imsejjaħ [[Ċiru I]], li kien ukoll is-suċċessur ta' missieru bħala "Re ta' Anshan". Ċiru I kellu lil ħuh li ismu ġie rreġistrat bħala Ariaramnes. Fis-600 Q.K., is-suċċessur ta' Ċiru I kien ibnu, [[Cambyses I]], li rrenja sal-559 Q.K. Ċiru II jew "Ċiru l-Kbir" kien iben Cambyses I, li semma lil ibnu għal missieru, Ċiru I. Hemm diversi kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru l-Kbir u tar-rejiet ta' warajh li jirreferu għal Cambyses I bħala "re kbir" u "re ta' Anshan". Fosthom hemm siltiet fiċ-ċilindru ta' Ċiru fejn Ċiru jsejjaħ lilu nnifsu bħala "iben Cambyses, re kbir, re ta' Anshan". Kitba mnaqqxa oħra ssemmi lil Cambyses I bħala "re setgħan" u "Akemenidu", li skont il-maġġoranza tal-istudjużi tnaqqxet taħt Darius u titqies bħala ffalsifikar minn Darius. Madankollu, in-nannu min-naħa ta' omm Cambyses II, Pharnaspes, jissejjaħ mill-istoriku Erodotu bħala "Akemenidu". Ir-rakkont ta' Xenophon fiċ-Ċiropedija jsemmi lill-mara ta' Cambyses bħala Mandane u jsemmi lil Cambyses bħala r-re tal-Iran (Persja tal-qedem). Dawn jaqblu mal-kitbiet imnaqqxin ta' Ċiru stess, peress li Anshan u Parsa kienu ismijiet differenti tal-istess art. Dawn jaqblu wkoll ma' rakkonti mhux Iranjani oħra, għajr f'punt partikolari ta' Erodotu fejn jistqarr li Cambyses ma kienx re iżda "Persjan minn familja tajba". Madankollu, f'xi siltiet oħra, ir-rakkont ta' Erodotu huwa żbaljat anke rigward l-isem ta' iben Chishpish, li jsemmih bħala Cambyses iżda skont l-istudjużi moderni suppost huwa Ċiru I. Il-ħsieb tradizzjonali bbażat fuq ir-riċerka [[Arkeoloġija|arkeoloġika]] u l-ġenealoġija mogħtija fil-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun u minn Erodotu jsostni li Ċiru l-Kbir kien Akemenidu. Madankollu, M. Waters issuġġerixxa li Ċiru ma għandux rabta mal-Akemenidid jew ma' Darius il-Kbir, u li l-familja tiegħu kellha oriġini Tejspida u Anxanita. === Titli === It-titli rjali sħaħ tiegħu kienu Re Kbir, Re tal-Persja, Re ta' Anshan, Re ta' Medija, Re tal-Babilonja, Re tas-[[Sumerja]] u ta' [[Akkad]], u Re tal-Erba' Rkejjen tad-Dinja. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tinnota l-bidla fit-titlu tiegħu minn "Re ta' Anshan" għal "Re tal-Persja". L-Assirjologu [[François Vallat]] kiteb li "Meta Astyages immarċja kontra Ċiru, Ċiru jissejjaħ "Re ta' Anshan", iżda meta Ċiru jaqsam ix-xmara Tigris fi triqtu lejn Lidja, huwa jissejjaħ bħala r-"Re tal-Persja". Għaldaqstant il-kolp ta' stat seħħ bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti". === Arblu tar-razza === {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !Arblu tar-razza ta' Ċiru |- | {| class="wikitable" | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Achaemenes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Teispes''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ariaramnes Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Ċiru I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Arsames Mexxej tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Cambyses I Mexxej ta' Anshan | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Hystaspes Prinċep | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Ċiru l-Kbir''' '''(Ċiru II)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Darius''' '''il-Kbir''' '''(Darius I)''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |'''Cambyses II''' Re tal-Persja | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Bardiya (Smerdis) Prinċep (impostur taparsi Gaumata mexxa bħala Smerdis) | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Artystone Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="6" rowspan="2" |Atossa Prinċipessa | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |- |} |- |'''Noti:''' # Mexxejja mhux ikkonfermati, minħabba l-Kitba Mnaqqxa tal-Għolja ta' Behistun. |} == Ħajja bikrija u personali == Ċiru kien iben Cambyses I, Re ta' Anshan, u Mandane, bint Astyages, Re ta' Medija, għall-ħabta tas-600 jew il-599 Q.K. Skont stess, li ġeneralment issa jitqies bħala akkurat, Ċiru ġie ppreċedut bħala re minn missieru Cambyses I, nannuh Ċiru I, u bużnannuh Teispes. Ċiru żżewweġ lil Cassandane li kienet Akemenida u bint Pharnaspes. Flimkien ma' Cassandane kellu żewġ ulied subien, Cambyses II u Bardiya flimkien ma' tliet ulied bniet, Atossa, Artystone u Roxane. Kien magħruf li Ċiru u Cassandane kienu jħobbu lil xulxin ħafna – Cassandane qalet li għaliha kien ikun iktar iebes li titlaq lil Ċiru milli tmut. Wara mewtha, Ċiru insista li jkun hemm luttu pubbliku mar-renju kollu. Il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus tistqarr li l-Babilonja għamlet luttu ta' 6 ijiem għal Cassandane (identifikati bħala l-21–26 ta' Marzu 538 Q.K.). Wara l-mewt ta' missieru, Ċiru wiret it-tron Persjan f'Pasargadae, li kienet vassall ta' Astyages. L-istoriku Grieg [[Strabo]] qal li Ċiru oriġinarjament kien issejjaħ Agradates mill-ġenituri tar-rispett tiegħu. Jista' jkun li meta ngħaqad mal-familja oriġinali tiegħi, skont id-drawwiet tat-tismija, missier Ċiru, Cambyses I, semmih Ċiru f'ġieħ nannuh, li kien Ċiru I. Hemm ukoll rakkont ta' Strabo fejn sostna li Agradates adotta l-isem Ċiru għax-xmara Ċiru qrib Pasargadae. === Mitoloġija === Erodotu ta rakkont mitoloġiku tal-ħajja bikrija ta' Ċiru. F'dan ir-rakkont, Astyages kellu żewġ ħolmiet profetiċi fejn għargħar u mbagħad sensiela ta' vinji li jarmu l-[[frott]] tfaċċaw minn ħoġor bintu Mandane, u ksew ir-renju kollu. Dawn ġew interpretati mill-konsulenti tiegħu bħala tbassir li n-neputi tiegħu xi darba kien se jirribella u jeħodlu postu bħala re. Astyages ikkonvoka lil Mandane meta kienet tqila b'Ċiru biex terġa' lura lejn Ecbatana biex il-wild tagħha jinqatel. Il-ġeneral tiegħu Harpagus iddelega dan il-kompitu lil Mithradates, wieħed mir-[[Ragħaj|rgħajja]] ta' Astyages, li rabba l-wild u ta t-tarbija tiegħu li twieldet mejta lil Harpagus bħala t-tarbija l-mejta taparsi kienet Ċiru. Ċiru għex fis-segretezza, iżda meta għalaq 10 snin, waqt logħba ta' tfulitu, wassal biex iben nobbli jissawwat meta rrifjuta li jobdi l-kmandi ta' Ċiru. Peress li kienet xi ħaġa mhux komuni li iben ragħaj iwettaq att bħal dak, Astyages ordna li t-tifel jitressaq quddiem il-qorti tiegħu, u intervista lilu u lill-missier adottiv tiegħu. Wara l-konfessjoni tar-ragħaj, Astyages bagħat lil Ċiru lura lejn il-Persja biex jgħix mal-ġenituri [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] tiegħu. Madankollu, Astyages ikkonvoka lil iben Harpagus, u bħala tpattija qattgħu biċċiet, xewa xi partijiet minnu u għalla oħrajn, u qarraq bil-konsulent tiegħu sabiex jiekol lil ibnu stess waqt bankett kbir. Wara l-bankett, il-qaddejja ta' Astyages lil Harpagus ġabulu ras ibnu flimkien ma' idejh u saqajh fuq platti, sabiex jinduna li mingħajr ma jaf kien qed jagħmel [[kannibaliżmu]]. == Poter == === Suċċessjoni għal Medija === Ċiru l-Kbir tela' fuq it-tron fil-559 Q.K. wara l-mewt ta' missieru; madankollu, Ċiru kien għadu ma kienx mexxej indipendenti. Bħall-predeċessuri tiegħu, Ċiru kellu jirrikonoxxi lil Medija bħala superjuri. Astyages, l-aħħar re tal-Imperu ta' Medija u n-nannu ta' Ċiru, x'aktarx li rrenja fuq il-maġġoranza tal-Lvant Qarib tal-qedem, mill-fruntiera Lidjana fil-Punent sal-artijiet tal-Partiċi u tal-Persjani fil-Lvant. Skont il-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus, Astyages nieda attakk kontra Ċiru, "Re ta' Ansan". Skont l-istoriku Erodotu, huwa magħruf li Astyages poġġa lil Harpagus fil-kmand tal-armata ta' Medija biex jegħleb lil Ċiru. Madankollu, Harpagus ikkuntattja lil Ċiru u ħeġġu jirvilla kontra Medija, qabel ma eventwalment telaq mill-armata flimkien ma' diversi nobbli oħra u parti mill-armata. Dan l-ammutinament huwa kkonfermat mill-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus. Din il-kronaka tissuġġerixxi li l-ostilitajiet damu għaddejjin għal mill-inqas 3 snin (553–550 Q.K.), u l-battalja finali rriżultat fil-ħtif ta' Ecbatana. Dan ġie deskritt fil-paragrafu ta' qabel id-daħla tas-seba' sena ta' Nabonidus, li spjegat fid-dettall ir-rebħa ta' Ċiru u l-ħtif ta' nannuh. Skont l-istoriċi Erodotu u Ċtesju, Ċiru ma qatilx lil Astyages u żżewweġ lil bintu, Amytis. Dan iż-żwieġ ippaċifika diversi vassalli, inkluż il-Baktrijani, il-Partiċi u s-Saka. Ċiru ssottometta u inkorpora lil Sogdija fl-imperu matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu tal-546–539 Q.K.. B'Astyages mhux fil-poter, il-vassalli kollha tiegħu (inkluż bosta mill-qrabat ta' Ċiru) issa kienu taħt il-kmand tiegħu. Il-kuġin ta' missieru Arsames, li kien ir-re tal-belt-stat ta' Parsa taħt il-Medes, għaldaqstant kellu jċedi t-tron. Madankollu, dan it-trasferiment tal-poter fi ħdan il-familja milli jidher mexa ħarir, u x'aktarx li Arsames kien għadu l-gvernatur nominali ta' Parsa taħt l-awtorità ta' Ċiru — iktar bħala Prinċep jew Gran Duka milli Re. Ibnu, Hystaspes, li kien is-sekondokuġin ta' Ċiru, imbagħad sar is-satrap ta' Parthia u ta' Phrygia. Ċiru l-Kbir b'hekk unifika r-renji Akemenidi tewmin ta' Parsa u ta' Anshan fil-Persja. Arsames kien għadu ħaj meta n-neputi tiegħu sar Darius il-Kbir, Shahanshah tal-Persja, wara li mietu ż-żewġ ulied subien ta' Ċiru. Il-ħakma ta' Medija min-naħa ta' Ċiru kienet sempliċement il-bidu tal-gwerer tiegħu. === Ħakma ta' Lidja u tal-Asja Minuri === Id-dati preċiżi tal-ħakma ta' Lidja mhux magħrufa, iżda x'aktarx li seħħet bejn meta Ċiru għeleb ir-renju ta' Medija (550 Q.K.) u meta ħakem il-Babilonja (539 Q.K.). Fl-imgħoddi kienet xi ħaġa komuni li s-sena tal-ħakma titqies bħala l-547 Q.K. minħabba xi interpretazzjonijiert tal-Kronaka ta' Nabonidus, iżda din il-pożizzjoni attwalment ma tantx għadha tinżamm. Il-Lidjani l-ewwel attakkaw il-belt ta' Pterija tal-Imperu tal-Akemenidi f'Cappadocia. Ir-re ta' Lidja Croesus assedja u ħataf il-belt u jassar lill-abitanti tagħha. Sadanittant, il-Persjani stiednu liċ-ċittadini ta' Jonja li kienu parti mir-renju ta' Lidja biex jirvellaw kontra l-mexxej tagħhom. L-offerta ġiet irroftata, u b'hekk Ċiru impjega armata u mmarċja kontra l-Lidjani, u żied l-għadd ta' suldati iktar ma għadda minn nazzjonijiet differenti fi triqtu. Effettivament il-Battalja tal-Persja ma kellhiex rebbieħa, u ż-żewġ naħat ġarrbu bosta mwiet sal-wasla tal-lejl. Croesus irtira lejn [[Sardis]] l-għada filgħodu. Meta kien Sardis, Croesus bagħat talbiet biex l-alleati tiegħu jibagħtu l-għajnuna lil Lidja. Madankollu, qrib tmiem ix-xitwa, qabel l-alleati setgħu jingħaqdu, Ċiru l-Kbir ressaq il-gwerra fit-territorju Lidjan u assedja lil Croesus fil-belt kapitali tiegħu, Sardis. Ftit qabel il-Battalja finali ta' Thymbra bejn iż-żewġ mexxejja, Harpagus ta parir lil Ċiru l-Kbir biex iqiegħed id-dromedarji tiegħu quddiem il-ġellieda tiegħu; iż-[[Żiemel|żwiemel]] Lidjani, mhux imdorrijin għar-riħa tad-dromedarji, kien jitgerrxu ħafna. L-istrateġija ħadmet; iż-żwiemel tal-armata Lidjana sfrattaw. Ċiru għeleb u qabad lil Croesus. B'hekk Ċiru okkupa l-belt kapitali ta' Sardis, u ħakem ir-renju Lidjan fil-546 Q.K. Skont Erodotu, Ċiru l-Kbir ħenn għal Croesus u ma qatlux; minflok żammu bħala konsulent tiegħu, iżda dan ir-rakkont ma jaqbilx ma xi traduzzjonijiet tal-Kronaka kontemporanja ta' Nabonidus li skonthom ir-re ta' Lidja nqatel. Qabel ma Ċiru reġa' lura lejn il-belt kapitali, Commagene ġiet inkorporata fil-Persja fil-546 Q.K. Iktar 'il quddiem, Lidjan jismu Pactyas ġie fdat minn Ċiru biex jibgħat t-teżor ta' Croesus lejn il-Persja. Madankollu, ftit wara t-tluq ta' Ċiru, Pactyas qabbad lil xi merċenarji u kkawża rvell f'Sardis, b'rewwixta kontra s-satrap Persjan ta' Lidja, Tabalus. Ċiru bagħat lil Mazares, wieħed mill-kmandanti tiegħu, biex irażżan ir-rewwixta iżda talab li Pactyas jiġi rritornat ħaj. Mal-wasla ta' Mazares, Pactyas ħarab lejn Jonja, fejn kien qabbad iktar merċenarji. Mazares immarċja flimkien mat-truppi tiegħu fit-territorju Grieg u ssottometta l-bliet ta' Magnesia u Priene. Id-destin ta' Pactyas baqa' mhux magħruf, iżda wara li nħataf, x'aktarx li ntbagħat għand Ċiru u ġie ttorturat u ġustizzjat. Mazares baqa' għaddej bil-ħakma tal-Asja Minuri iżda miet b'kawżi mhux magħrufa matul il-kampanja militari tiegħu f'Jonja. Ċiru bagħat lil Harpagus biex ilesti l-konkwista ta' Mazares tal-Asja Minuri. Harpagus ħataf lil Liċja, Aeolia u Caria, billi uża t-teknika tal-kostruzzjoni ta' tumbati tal-ħamrija mas-swar sabiex is-suldati jkunu jistgħu jitilgħu mas-swar tal-bliet assedjati, metodu li ma kienx magħruf mill-Griegi. Huwa temm il-konkwista tiegħu tal-inħawi fil-542 Q.K. u rritorna lejn il-Persja. === Ħakmiet fl-Asja Ċentrali u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja === Wara l-ħakma ta' Lidja, Ċiru wettaq kampanja militari fil-Lvant bejn il-545 Q.K. u l-540 Q.K. Ċiru l-ewwel ipprova jaħkem lil Gedrosia, madankollu ġarrab telfa deċiżiva u telaq minn Gedrosia. Gedrosia x'aktarx li nħakmet matul ir-renju ta' Darius I. Wara t-tentattiv ta' ħakma ta' Gedrosia li falla, Ċiru attakka r-reġjuni tal-Baktrija, Arachosia, Sogdia, Saka, Chorasmia, Margiana u provinċji oħra fil-Lvant. Fil-533 Q.K., Ċiru l-Kbir qasam il-muntanji [[Ħinduiżmu|Induisti]] ta' Kush u ġabar it-tributi mill-bliet max-xmara Indus. B'hekk, Ċiru x'aktarx kien stabbilixxa stati vassalli fil-Punent tal-Indja. Imbagħad Ċiru reġa' lura l-Babilonja flimkien mal-armata tiegħu minħabba l-irvelli li kien hemm madwar il-Babilonja. === Ħakma tal-Imperu Neo-Babiloniż === By the year 540 Q.K., Ċiru captured Elam and its capital, Susa. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), the king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus, had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict had begun possibly in the winter of 540 Q.K.. Just before October 539 Q.K., Ċiru fought the Battle of Opis in or near the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on 10 October, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace. It is probable that Ċiru engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus, who had retreated to Sippar following his defeat at Opis, fled to Borsippa. Around 12 October, Persian general Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus. Herodotus explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Babylonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh", which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night. Shortly thereafter, Nabonidus returned from Borsippa and surrendered to Ċiru. On 29 October, Ċiru entered the city of Babylon. Prior to Ċiru's invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia, Ċiru probably incorporated its sub-national entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence to support this assumption. After taking Babylon, Ċiru l-Kbir proclaimed himself "king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four corners of the world" in the famous Ċiru Cylinder, an inscription on a cylinder that was deposited in the foundations of the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus as impious and portrays the victorious Ċiru as pleasing the god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples, and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although some have asserted that the cylinder represents a form of human rights charter, historians generally portray it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradition of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations of reforms. Ċiru l-Kbir's dominions composed the largest empire the world had ever seen to that point. At the end of Ċiru's rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the west to the Indus River in the east. == Mewt == === Narrattivi kunfliġġenti === The details of Ċiru's death vary by account. Ctesias, in his ''Persica'', has the longest account, which says Ċiru met his death while putting down resistance from the Derbices infantry, aided by other Scythian archers and cavalry, plus Indians and their war elephants. According to him, this event took place northeast of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. The account of Herodotus from his ''Histories'' provides the second-longest detail, in which Ċiru met his fate in a fierce battle with the Massagetae, a Scythian tribal confederation from the southern deserts of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost portion of the Eurasian Steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack them in their own territory. The Massagetae were related to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Ċiru first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler, the queen Tomyris, a proposal she rejected.^{[''citation needed'']} He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force (c. 529 Q.K.), beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river Oxus, or Amu Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Ċiru had left there and, finding the camp well stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and, although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Ċiru's tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Ċiru l-Kbir was ultimately killed, and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Ċiru brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son. However, some scholars question this version, mostly because even Herodotus admits this event was one of many versions of Ċiru's death that he heard from a supposedly reliable source who told him no one was there to see the aftermath. Herodotus also recounts that Ċiru saw in his sleep the oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with the other wing Europe. Archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan explains this statement by Herodotus and its connection with the four winged bas-relief figure of Ċiru l-Kbir in the following way:<blockquote>Herodotus therefore, as I surmise, may have known of the close connection between this type of winged figure and the image of Iranian majesty, which he associated with a dream prognosticating the king's death before his last, fatal campaign across the Oxus.</blockquote>Muhammad Dandamayev says that Persians may have taken Ċiru's body back from the Massagetae, unlike what Herodotus claimed. According to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian (AD 1166–1199) Ċiru was killed by his wife Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (Maksata), in the 60th year of Jewish captivity. An alternative account from Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'' contradicts the others, claiming that Ċiru died peacefully at his capital. The final version of Ċiru's death comes from Berossus, who only reports that Ċiru met his death while warring against the Dahae archers northwest of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. === Post tad-dfin === Ċiru l-Kbir's remains may have been interred in his capital city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb (built around 540–530 Q.K.) still exists, which many believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly identical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander the Great visited the tomb twice. Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Ċiru l-Kbir has remained largely intact, and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his epitaph read:<blockquote>O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Ċiru who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.</blockquote>Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Ċiru died around December 530 Q.K., and that his son Cambyses II had become king. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. He was succeeded either by Ċiru's other son Bardiya or an impostor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great. The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aesthetically; the tomb's geometric shape has changed little over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadrangular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succession of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs, the structure is curtailed by an edifice, with an arched roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man could barely squeeze through. Within this edifice was a golden coffin, resting on a table with golden supports, inside of which the body of Ċiru l-Kbir was interred. Upon his resting place, was a covering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available Babylonian materials, utilizing fine Median worksmanship; below his bed was a fine red carpet, covering the narrow rectangular area of his tomb. Translated Greek accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and ornamental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors called the "Magi", stationed nearby to protect the edifice from theft or damage. Years later, in the chaos created by Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia and after the defeat of Darius III, Ċiru l-Kbir's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which the tomb was treated, and questioned the Magi and put them to court. On some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more about his attempt to undermine their influence and his show of power in his newly conquered empire, than a concern for Ċiru's tomb. However, Alexander admired Ċiru, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. In any case, Alexander ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior. Despite his admiration for Ċiru l-Kbir, and his attempts at renovation of his tomb, Alexander had, six years previously (330 Q.K.), sacked Persepolis, the opulent city that Ċiru may have chosen the site for, and either ordered its burning as an act of pro-Greek propaganda or set it on fire during drunken revels. The edifice has survived the test of time, through invasions, internal divisions, successive empires, regime changes, and revolutions. The last prominent Persian figure to bring attention to the tomb was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) the last official monarch of Persia, during his celebrations of 2,500 years of monarchy. Just as Alexander the Great before him, the Shah of Iran wanted to appeal to Ċiru's legacy to legitimize his own rule by extension. The United Nations recognizes the tomb of Ċiru l-Kbir and Pasargadae as a UNESCO World Heritage site. == Legat == === Influwenza fuq iċ-ċivilizzazzjonijiet tal-Lvant u tal-Punent === British historian Charles Freeman suggests that "In scope and extent his achievements [Ċiru] ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander, who was to demolish the [Achaemenid] empire in the 320s but fail to provide any stable alternative." Ċiru has been a personal hero to many people, including Thomas Jefferson, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and David Ben-Gurion. The achievements of Ċiru l-Kbir throughout antiquity are reflected in the way he is remembered today. His own nation, the Iranians, have regarded him as "The Father", the very title that had been used during the time of Ċiru himself, by the many nations that he conquered, as according to Xenophon: Ċiru's standard, described as a golden eagle mounted upon a "lofty shaft", remained the official banner of the Achaemenids.<blockquote>And those who were subject to him, he treated with esteem and regard, as if they were his own children, while his subjects themselves respected Ċiru as their "Father" ... What other man but 'Ċiru', after having overturned an empire, ever died with the title of "The Father" from the people whom he had brought under his power? For it is plain fact that this is a name for one that bestows, rather than for one that takes away!</blockquote>The historian Plutarch (<abbr>c.</abbr> 46 – c. 119 AD) tells that "the Persians, because Ċiru was hook-nosed, even to this day love hook-nosed men and consider them the most handsome". The Babylonians regarded him as "The Liberator", as they were offended by their previous ruler, Nabonidus, for committing sacrilege. The Book of Ezra narrates a story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Ċiru, in which Ċiru proclaims: "All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah."(Ezra 1:2) Ċiru was distinguished equally as a statesman and as a soldier. Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid Empire endured long after his death.^{[''citation needed'']} The rise of Persia under Ċiru's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history, including in forms of Iranian philosophy, literature and religion. Many of the Iranian dynasties following the Achaemenid Empire and their kings saw themselves as the heirs to Ċiru l-Kbir and have claimed to continue the line begun by Ċiru. However, there are different opinions among scholars whether this is also the case for the Sassanid Dynasty. Alexander the Great was himself infatuated with and admired Ċiru l-Kbir, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Ċiru's heroism in battle and governance and his abilities as a king and a legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Ċiru's tomb. Ċiru's legacy has been felt even as far away as Iceland and colonial America. Many of the thinkers and rulers of Classical Antiquity as well as the Renaissance and Enlightenment era, and the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Ċiru l-Kbir through works such as ''Cyropaedia''. Thomas Jefferson, for example, owned two copies of ''Cyropaedia'', one with parallel Greek and Latin translations on facing pages showing substantial Jefferson markings that signify the amount of influence the book has had on drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. According to Professor Richard Nelson Frye, Ċiru—whose abilities as conqueror and administrator Frye says are attested by the longevity and vigor of the Achaemenid Empire—held an almost mythic role among the Persian people "similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for the Israelites", with a story that "follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors from elsewhere in the ancient world." Frye writes, "He became the epitome of the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features as a conqueror who was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring. His personality as seen by the Greeks influenced them and Alexander the Great, and, as the tradition was transmitted by the Romans, may be considered to influence our thinking even now." His rule was studied and admired by many of the great leaders, such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Thomas Jefferson. === Amministrazzjoni u politika === ==== Sistema tas-satrapiji ==== Ċiru founded the empire as a multi-state empire governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ecbatana. He allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in each state, in the form of a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government.^{[''citation needed'']} During his reign, Ċiru maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved through retaining and expanding the satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by satraps was continued by Ċiru's successor, Darius the Great. ==== Strateġija militari ==== Ċiru's empire was based on tribute and conscripts from the many parts of his realm. Through his military savvy, Ċiru created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers. Ċiru's conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Parthians and Sasanians. ==== Proġetti infrastrutturali ==== Ċiru has been known for his innovations in building projects; he further developed the technologies that he found in the conquered cultures and applied them in building the palaces of Pasargadae. He was also famous for his love of gardens; the recent excavations in his capital city has revealed the existence of the Pasargadae Persian Garden and a network of irrigation canals. Pasargadae was a place for two magnificent palaces surrounded by a majestic royal park and vast formal gardens; among them was the four-quartered wall gardens of "Paradisia" with over 1000 meters of channels made out of carved limestone, designed to fill small basins at every 16 meters and water various types of wild and domestic flora. The design and concept of Paradisia were exceptional and have been used as a model for many ancient and modern parks, ever since. He also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh. In 1658, while the Protectorate of Cromwell ruled Britain, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne penned a discourse entitled The Garden of Ċiru, in which Ċiru is depicted as an archetypal wise ruler. However, despite being featured in the title, Ċiru was not a main focus of Browne's work. "Ċiru the elder, brought up in Woods and Mountains, when time and power enabled, pursued the dictate of his education, and brought the treasures of the field into rule and circum-scription. So nobly beautifying the hanging Gardens of Babylon, that he was also thought to be the author thereof." ==== Denominazzjoni tal-muniti ==== The use of the name ''Kuruş'' as a currency denomination for coinage goes back to the 6th century Q.K., dating to the time of the Croeseid, the world's first gold coin, originally minted by King Croesus of Lydia. The Croeseid was later continued to be minted and spread in a wide geographical area by Ċiru l-Kbir (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 ''Kūruš''), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, who defeated King Croesus and conquered Lydia with the Battle of Thymbra in 547 Q.K.. Ċiru (Kūruš) made the Croeseid the standard gold coin of his vast empire, using the same ''lion and bull'' design, but with a reduced weight (8.06 grams, instead of the standard 10.7 grams of the original version issued by King Croesus) due to the need for larger amounts of these coins, for a much larger population. === Drittijiet tal-bniedem u multikulturaliżmu === ==== Ċilindru ta' Ċiru ==== One of the few surviving sources of information that can be dated directly to Ċiru's time is the Ċiru Cylinder (Persian: استوانه کوروش), a document in the form of a clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. It had been placed in the foundations of the Esagila (the temple of Marduk in Babylon) as a foundation deposit following the Persian conquest in 539 Q.K.. It was discovered in 1879 and is kept today in the British Museum in London. The text of the cylinder denounces the deposed Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and portrays Ċiru as pleasing to the chief god Marduk. It describes how Ċiru had improved the lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Although not mentioned specifically in the text, the repatriation of the Jews from their "Babylonian captivity" has been interpreted as part of this general policy. In the 1970s, the Shah of Iran adopted the Ċiru cylinder as a political symbol, using it "as a central image in his celebration of 2500 years of Iranian monarchy", and asserting that it was "the first human rights charter in history". This view has been disputed by some as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious, as the modern concept of human rights would have been quite alien to Ċiru's contemporaries and is not mentioned by the cylinder. The cylinder has, nonetheless, become seen as part of Iran's cultural identity. The United Nations has declared the relic to be an "ancient declaration of human rights" since 1971, approved by then Secretary General Sithu U Thant, after he "was given a replica by the sister of the Shah of Iran". The British Museum describes the cylinder as "an instrument of ancient Mesopotamian propaganda" that "reflects a long tradition in Mesopotamia where, from as early as the third millennium Q.K., kings began their reigns with declarations of reforms." The cylinder emphasizes Ċiru's continuity with previous Babylonian rulers, asserting his virtue as a traditional Babylonian king while denigrating his predecessor. Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, has stated that the cylinder was "the first attempt we know about running a society, a state with different nationalities and faiths – a new kind of statecraft." He explained that "It has even been described as the first declaration of human rights, and while this was never the intention of the document – the modern concept of human rights scarcely existed in the ancient world – it has come to embody the hopes and aspirations of many." === Reliġjon u filosofija === ==== Preżenza taż-Żoroastrijaniżmu fl-affarijiet statali tal-Akemenidi ==== French Iranologist Pierre Briant wrote that, given the poor information we have, "it seems quite reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Ċiru might have been." It is also debated whether he was a Zoroastrian or whether Zoroastrianism only becomes involved as the Achaemenid state religion after his lifetime. The evidence in favour of it comes from some of the names of members of Ċiru's family, and similarities between the description of Yahweh in Isaiah 40–48 (which was after Isaiah came into contact with a Persian propagandist under Ċiru's administration who was Zoroastrian) and that of Ahura Mazda in the Gathas. Against the thesis is how Ċiru permitted total freedom of religion and provided funding for the establishment of their temples and other holy sites, as well as a possible late-date for the activity of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, who founded Zoroastrianism. ==== Tolleranza u libertà tar-reliġjon ==== The policies of Ċiru with respect to treatment of minority religions are documented in many historical accounts, particularly in Babylonian and Jewish sources. Ċiru had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the continuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (as American historian Lester Grabbe maintains) is disputed. He brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept his army away from the temples and restored the statues of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries. ==== Fidi personali u prattiki ta' Ċiru ==== Information about religion and ritual during the reign of Ċiru is also available from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon, the Histories of Herodotus, and inscriptions, though these were written in later periods and so must be used carefully. The Ċiru Cylinder was composed in the name of Ċiru with him as the first-person speaker. The Cylinder is highly religious and is framed around the interventions of the Babylonian national god Marduk. It is Marduk who is praised in the outset of the text and whose direct intervention is thought to be responsible for what happened in recent history, and it is Marduk who summons Ċiru for the purpose of righting the wrongs of his predecessor Nabonidus. Furthermore, Ċiru offers respect not only to the cult of Marduk, but also to local cults. One inscription from Uruk states "(Ċiru) loves Esangil and Ezida" while another from Ur mentions that he "returned the gods to their shrines." Another from Babylon or Sippar says that unlike Nabonidus, Ċiru provided proper and even increased the sacrifices for the gods. Additional reliable information may come from the funerary customs around the tomb of Ċiru, which indicates a privileged cult honouring the Iranian god Mithra. Some have also identified the figure depicted in the bas-relief from Pasargadae as Mithra, further indicating the reverence of Ċiru for this deity. Additional evidence further indicates the connection between Ċiru and Mithra. ==== Liberazzjoni tal-poplu Lhudi ==== The treatment of the Jewish people by Ċiru during their exile in Babylon after the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the Kingdom of Judah is reported in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament). Ċiru is represented positively and as an agent of Yahweh, even though he is said to "not know" Yahweh (Isaiah 45:4–5). The Ketuvim ends in Second Chronicles with the decree of Ċiru, which returned the exiles to the Land of Israel from Babylon along with a commission to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem in light of Solomon's Temple having been destroyed by Babylonian armies.<blockquote>Thus saith Ċiru, king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of Heaven given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whosoever there is among you of all His people – the LORD, his God, be with him – let him go there. – (2 Chronicles 36:23)</blockquote>This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra.<blockquote>In the first year of King Ċiru, Ċiru the king issued a decree: "Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, be rebuilt and let its foundations be retained, its height being 60 cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also let the gold and silver utensils of the house of God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the temple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be returned and brought to their places in the temple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the house of God." – (Ezra 6:3–5)</blockquote>The Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah (<abbr>lit.</abbr> 'His anointed one') (Isaiah 45:1), making him the only gentile to be so referred. Elsewhere in Isaiah, God is described as saying, "I will raise up Ċiru in my righteousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a price or reward, says God Almighty." (Isaiah 45:13) As the text suggests, Ċiru did ultimately release the nation of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute. These particular passages (Isaiah 40–55, often referred to as ''Deutero-Isaiah'') are believed by most modern critical scholars to have been added by another author toward the end of the Babylonian exile (''c.'' 536 Q.K.). Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian, relates the traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of Ċiru in Isaiah in his ''Antiquities of the Jews'', book 11, chapter 1:<blockquote>In the first year of the reign of Ċiru, which was the seventieth from the day that our people were removed out of their own land into Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and calamity of these poor people, according as he had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet, before the destruction of the city, that after they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his posterity, and after they had undergone that servitude seventy years, he would restore them again to the land of their fathers, and they should build their temple, and enjoy their ancient prosperity. And these things God did afford them; for he stirred up the mind of Ċiru, and made him write this throughout all Asia: "Thus saith Ċiru the king: Since God Almighty hath appointed me to be king of the habitable earth, I believe that he is that God which the nation of the Israelites worship; for indeed he foretold my name by the prophets, and that I should build him a house at Jerusalem, in the country of Judea." This was known to Ċiru by his reading the book which Isaiah left behind him of his prophecies; for this prophet said that God had spoken thus to him in a secret vision: "My will is, that Ċiru, whom I have appointed to be king over many and great nations, send back my people to their own land, and build my temple." This was foretold by Isaiah one hundred and forty years before the temple was demolished. Accordingly, when Ċiru read this, and admired the Divine power, an earnest desire and ambition seized upon him to fulfill what was so written; so he called for the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon, and said to them, that he gave them leave to go back to their own country, and to rebuild their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God, for that he would be their assistant, and that he would write to the rulers and governors that were in the neighborhood of their country of Judea, that they should contribute to them gold and silver for the building of the temple, and besides that, beasts for their sacrifices.</blockquote>While Ċiru is praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:1–6 and Ezra 1:1–11), there was Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Ċiru in turn stopped the construction, which would not be completed until 515 Q.K., during the reign of Darius I. According to the Bible, it was King Artaxerxes who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7–24). The historical nature of this decree has been challenged. Professor Lester L Grabbe argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000. Philip R. Davies called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that arguing against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the Institut Catholique de Paris on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom." Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Ċiru, like earlier rulers, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. She also wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control." ==== Allużjoni teorika fl-iskrittura Iżlamika ==== In the 19th century, a number of prominent Indian Muslim scholars began theorizing that Ċiru l-Kbir is the individual mentioned in the Quran by the name Dhu al-Qarnayn, who is described as travelling west and east (towards the "setting and rising places of the Sun") and erecting a large barrier to separate a troubled people from "Ya'juj and Ma'juj" in exchange for tribute, with this barrier destined to keep them sealed until their release signals the end of the world and the Day of Judgement. It was first promoted by Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) and then by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958), subsequently generating wider acceptance among some Muslim communities over the years. This theory had been proposed in 1855 by the German philologist Gustav Moritz Redslob [de], but it was largely dismissed in the Western world. Most Western scholars of religion have instead lent credence to more popular theories in traditional Islamic mythology that identify Dhu al-Qarnayn as either the Greek king Alexander the Great or a certain pre-Islamic Arabian king. == Referenzi == 7r9qd7yp16fvik50e2o30axrji8ipef