Aiberdeen

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{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Aiberdeen
| native_name   = {{unbulleted list| &lt;small&gt;''{{lang|sco|Aberdeen}}''&lt;/small&gt; |&lt;small&gt; ''{{lang|gd|Obar Dheathain}}''&lt;/small&gt;}}

&lt;!------- images, nicknames, motto ---&gt;
| settlement_type = [[City]] an [[Subdivisions of Scotland#Cooncil areas|cooncil area]]
| image_skyline   = Aberdeen montage.jpg
| image_caption   = Fae left tae richt: [[Marischal College]], Wast Touer o the new Toon Hoose on Union Street, River Dee view fae Tollohill Wids, Auld Aiberdeen Heich Street, [[Aiberdeen Beach]]
| image_flag      = City_Flag_of_Aberdeen.svg
| image_shield    = Aberdeen-arms.png
| nicknames        = &quot;Granite Ceety&quot;, &quot;Grey Ceety&quot;, &quot;Siller Ceety&quot;, and &quot;Siller Ceety wi the Gowden Sands&quot;
| image_map       = Aberdeen_City_in_Scotland.svg	
| map_caption     = Location within [[Scotland]]

&lt;!------- maps and coordinates ------&gt;
| coordinates       = {{coord|57.15|-2.11|type:city_region:GB-ABE|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map       = United Kingdom#UK Scotland#Europe
| pushpin_relief    = yes
| subdivision_type  = [[Sovereign state]]
| subdivision_name  = United Kingdom
| subdivision_type1 = [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Country]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Subdivisions of Scotland|Cooncil area]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Lieutenancy areas of Scotland|Lieutenancy area]]
| subdivision_name1 = Scotland
| subdivision_name2 = Aberdeen City
| subdivision_name3 = Aberdeen

&lt;!------- established ---------------&gt;
| established_title  = Earliest Charter
| established_date   = 1179
| established_title2 = City status
| established_date2  = 1891

&lt;!------- government type, leaders --&gt;
| leader_title  = Governing body
| leader_name   = {{Nowrap|[[Aberdeen City Council]]}}
| leader_title1 = [[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen|Lord Provost]]
| leader_name1  = Barney Crockett

&lt;!------- area ----------------&gt;
| area_total_km2  = 185.7

&lt;!-- elevation -----------------&gt;
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m         =

&lt;!------- population ----------------&gt;
| population                 = 196,670&lt;ref name=&quot;NRS Locality Estimate&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://nationalrecordsofscotland.gov.uk/statistics-and-data/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/population-estimates/special-area-population-estimates/settlements-and-localities/mid-2012/list-of-tables |title=Mid-2012 Population Estimates for Settlements and Localities in Scotland |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |accessdate=25 November 2015 |date=2013-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125185040/http://nationalrecordsofscotland.gov.uk/statistics-and-data/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/population-estimates/special-area-population-estimates/settlements-and-localities/mid-2012/list-of-tables |archive-date=25 November 2015 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_as_of           = {{United Kingdom statistics year|Scotland}}
| population_footnotes       = 
| population_density_km2     = 3505.7
| population_urban           = 214,610&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/UK-UA.html |title=UNITED KINGDOM: Countries and Major Urban Areas |publisher=citypopulation.de |accessdate=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215191542/http://www.citypopulation.de/UK-UA.html |archive-date=15 December 2018 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_urban_footnotes = 
| population_metro           = 239,530&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/php/uk-agglo.php |title=UNITED KINGDOM: Agglomerations |publisher=citypopulation.de |accessdate=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203055500/https://www.citypopulation.de/php/uk-agglo.php |archive-date=3 December 2018 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_blank1_title    = Leid(s)
| population_blank1          = [[Scots leid|Scots]] ([[Doric]]), [[Scots Inglis|Inglis]]
| population_demonym         = Aberdonians

&lt;!------- postal codes, area code ---&gt;
| postal_code_type = [[Postcodes in the United Kingdom|Postcode areas]]
| postal_code      = [[AB postcode area|AB10-AB13 (part), AB15, AB16, AB21-AB25]]
| area_code        = 01224
| blank_name_sec2  = 
| blank_info_sec2  = 
| blank1_name_sec2 = 
| blank1_info_sec2 =

&lt;!-------- website, footnotes, misc --------&gt;
| website       = {{URL|https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk}}
| name          = 
| leader_title2 = [[Members of the 5th Scottish Parliament|MSPs]]
| leader_name2  = {{Collapsible list |title=[[Politics of Aberdeen#Scottish Parliament|3]] |[[Mark McDonald (politician)|Mark McDonald]]&amp;nbsp;(Ind)| [[Kevin Stewart (Scottish politician)|Kevin Stewart]]&amp;nbsp;(SNP) | [[Maureen Watt]]&amp;nbsp;(SNP)}}
| leader_title3 = [[Politics of Aberdeen#UK Parliament|MPs]]
| leader_name3  = {{Collapsible list |title=[[Politics of Aberdeen#UK Parliament|3]] |[[Kirsty Blackman]]&amp;nbsp;(SNP) | [[Richard Thomson (Scottish politician)|Richard Thomson]]&amp;nbsp;(SNP) | [[Stephen Flynn (Scottish politician)|Stephen Flynn]]&amp;nbsp;(SNP)}}

&lt;!------- time zone(s) --------------&gt;
| timezone       = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
| utc_offset     = ±0
| timezone_DST   = [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +1
| blank_name     = [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| blank_info     = GB-ABE
| blank1_name    = [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| blank1_info    = S12000033
| blank2_name    = [[Ordnance Survey National Grid|OS grid reference]]
| blank2_info    = {{gbmappingsmall|NJ925065}}
| blank3_name    = [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| blank3_info    = UKM50
| blank4_name    = Primary Airport
| blank4_info    = [[Aberdeen Airport]]
}}
[[File:Aberdeen Market Cross.jpg|thumb|Aiberdeen Mercat Cross]]
'''Aiberdeen''' ([[Inglis leid|Inglis]]: ''Aberdeen''; [[Scots Gaelic leid|Scots Gaelic]]: ''Obar Dheathain'') is the third burgh o [[Scotland]], wi fowk nummerin 212,125.  It is the main toon an port o the Nor-East o Scotland.

It haes the byname o 'The ''Oil Capital Of [[Europe]]''&lt;nowiki/&gt;' thanks ti the muckle supply o [[crude ayl]] in the [[North Sea]].  It sits on the coast o the North Sea, atween the mous o the [[River Don, Aiberdeenshire|Don]] an the [[River Dee, Aiberdeenshire|Dee]].  Aiberdeen is een o the 32 [[Cooncil areas o Scotland|cooncil]] areas o Scotland an is offeicially kent as '&lt;nowiki/&gt;''The City of Aberdeen'''.

== Coat o Airms an Motto ==
[[File:Aberdeen coat-of-arms.png|thumb|Aiberdeen City Cooncil's Coat o Airms]]

The Aiberdeen Coat o Airms is makkit up wi twa leopards haudin a reid shield wi three wee castles on it.

The motto o Aiberdeen is 'Bon Accord'.

== History ==
Aiberdeen his seen humans bidin fur mair than 8,000 year.&lt;ref name=&quot;prehistory&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scottishaccommodationindex.com/aberdeenpics.htm|title=Welcome to Aberdeen |publisher=Aberdeen Accommodation Index|accessdate=19 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; The burgh stairtit as twa separate [[burgh|toon]]s: [[Auld Aiberdeen]] at the mou o the river Don; an New Aiberdeen, a fishin ton, faar the Denburn watterway entered the Dee estuary. The aerliest [[chairter|charter]] wis grantit by [[William the Lion|William the Lion]] in 1179 an confirmed the corporate richts grantit by [[David I o Scotland|David I]]. In 1319, the Great Chairter o [[Robert the Bruce|Robert the Bruce]] turnt Aiberdeen ti a financially independent toon. Grantit wi it wis the nearby [[Forest o Stocket]], fas income formed the basis for the burgh's [[Common Guid Fund (Aiberdeen)|Common Guid Fund]] fit still benefits Aiberdonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;keith&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|author=Keith, Alexander|year=1987|title=A Thousand Years of Aberdeen |publisher=Aberdeen University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fraser&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|first=W. Hamish|last=Fraser|title=Aberdeen, 1800 to 2000: A New History |year=2000 |publisher=Tuckwell Press |location=Edinburgh}}&lt;/ref&gt;
In the [[Wars o Scots Unthirldom|Wars o Scots Independence]], Aiberdeen wis under Inglis rule, sae Robert the Bruce laid siege tae [[Aiberdeen Castle]] afore destroyin it in 1308, follaed by the massacrin o the Inglis garrison. The burgh wis burnt by [[Edward III o Ingland]] in 1336, bit wis rebiggit an extendit. The burgh wis strangly fortified ti stop attacks by nearby lairds, bit the fortifications wis remuived by 1770.
[[File:The Powis gate Old Aberdeen - geograph.org.uk - 421948.jpg|thumb|upright|The Powis gate Auld Aberdeen]]

In The [[Wars o the Three Kinricks|Wars o the Three Kinricks]] o 1644–1647 the burgh wis plunderit by baith sides. In 1644, it wis taen an destroyit by Royalist troops aifter the [[Battle o Aiberdeen (1644)|Battle o Aiberdeen]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Chris |last=Brown |title=The Battle of Aberdeen 1644|url=https://archive.org/details/battleforaberdee0000brow |year=2002|publisher=Tempus Publishing |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire}}&lt;/ref&gt; an twa year later [[Battle o Aiberdeen (1646)|it wis stormit]] by a Royalist force unner the command o the [[George Gordon, 2nt Marquis o Huntly|Marquis o Huntly]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite DNB|ref=harv|last=Henderson |first=Thomas Finlayson |wstitle=Gordon, George (d.1649)  |volume=22 |pages=190–194}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1647 an ootbreak o [[bubonic plague]] killit a quarter o the population.  In the 18th yeirhunner, a new Toon Hoose wis biggit an the first social services appearit wi the [[Aiberdeen Ryal Infirmary|Infirmary]] at [[Woolmanhill Hospital|Woolmanhill]] in 1742 an the Lunatic Asylum in 1779.  The cooncil began major road impruivements at the end o the 18th yeirhunner wi the main strachts o [[George Street, Aiberdeen|George Street]], [[King Street, Aiberdeen|King Street]] an [[Union Street, Aiberdeen|Union Street]], aa completit at the stairt o the 19th yeirhunner.
[[File:Union Terrace Aberdeen Scotland.jpg|thumb|left|Union Terrace, Aberdeen, circa 1900]]

The expensive infrastructure works led ti the burgh becomin bankrupt in 1817 in the [[Post-Napoleonic depression]], an economic doonturn immediately aifter the [[Napoleonic Wars]]; bit the burgh's prosperity later recoverit. The increasin economic importance o Aiberdeen an the development o the shipbiggin an fishin industries led ti the biggin o the present haven includin Victoria Dock an the Sooth Brakwatter, an the extension o the North Pier. Gas street lichts cam in 1824, an enhanced watter supply came in 1830 fan watter wis pumpit frae the Dee ti a reservoir in Union Place.  An unnergrund sewer system replacit apen sewers in 1865.&lt;ref name=&quot;fraser&quot;/&gt; The burgh wis [[Municipal corporation|incorporatit]] in 1891.  Though Auld Aiberdeen haes a separate history an still haes its auld chairter, it isna officially independent noo. It is an integral pairt o the burgh, as is Woodside an the [[Ryal Burgh|Royal Burgh]] o [[Torry]] ti the sooth o the River Dee.

== Backgroond ==

== Kirks ==
{{see an aa|St Machar Cathedral}}
[[File:St Machar's cathedral with watch house - geograph.org.uk - 174651.jpg|thumb|The kirk's west front]]
[[St Machar Cathedral]] is a [[Presbyterian]] [[The Kirk|Kirk]] in Aiberdeen.

== Education ==
Aiberdeen haes twa universities, the ancient ''[[Varsity o Aiberdeen|University Aiberdeen]]'', an ''[[Robert Gordon Varsity|Robert Gordon University]]'', a modren university often referred tae as RGU. Aiberdeen's student rate o 11.5% is heicher nor the naitional average o 7%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scrol.gov.uk/scrol/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Education&amp;mainLevel=CouncilArea&amp;mainArea=Aberdeen+City&amp;mainText=&amp;mainTextExplicitMatch=null&amp;compLevel=CountryProfile&amp;compArea=Scotland&amp;compText=&amp;compTextExplicitMatch=null |title=Comparative Education Profile: Aberdeen City Council Area, Scotland |accessdate=21 February 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213314/https://www.scrol.gov.uk/scrol/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Education&amp;mainLevel=CouncilArea&amp;mainArea=Aberdeen+City&amp;mainText=&amp;mainTextExplicitMatch=null&amp;compLevel=CountryProfile&amp;compArea=Scotland&amp;compText=&amp;compTextExplicitMatch=null |archivedate=27 September 2007 |df=dmy }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Culture ==
The scran and pieces - [[butterie]]s (butter rolls), [[stovies]] ([[mince]], [[tattie]]s, [[mirran]]s, [[ingin]]s), [[buckie]]s, [[Aiberdeen Angus]] beef etc.

== Pairks an open spaces ==
*Duthie Pairk
*Hazleheid Pairk
*Seaton Pairk
*Johnsteen Gairdens
*Victoria Pairk
*Wastburn Pairk

== Statues ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:William Wallace Statue , Aberdeen.jpg|William Wallace
File:Robert Burns Statue Aberdeen.jpg|Robert Burns
File:Edward VII Statue, Aberdeen. - geograph.org.uk - 115907.jpg|King Edward VII
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Brigs ==
Aiberdeen his many brigs, the maist weel-kent is the [[Brig o Dee (brig)|Brig o Dee]] an the [[Brig o Don]].

== Haven ==
[[File:Aberdeen Harbour from Air.jpg|thumb|Haven o Aiberdeen]]
[[File:Aberdeen harbour - geograph.org.uk - 318364.jpg|thumb|Haven o Aiberdeen]]
Aiberdeen Haven serves the ayl industry as weel as the fishin industry

== Industry ==

== Population ==
In [[1396]] the population wis aboot 3,000 fowk. By [[1801]] it haed grawn ti 26,992. In [[1841]] it wis 63,262; in [[1891]] 121,623; in [[1901]] 153,503; in [[2001]] it wis 197,328.

== Suburbs &amp; Areas ==

* Fittie - Fit o the dee
* Dyce - North
* Torry - Sooth
* Garthdee
* Kincorth
* Pittodrie
* Ruthrieston
* Rubislaw
* Donside Village
* Brig o Don
* Stoneywid
* Bucksburn
* Cove
* Bieldside
* Cults

== Sport ==
[[File:Pittodrie Stadium, Aberdeen - geograph.org.uk - 12610.jpg|thumb|Pittodrie stadium]]
[[Aberdeen F.C.|Aiberdeen Fitbaa Club]] wis foondit in [[1903]]. Its major success wis winnin the [[European Cup Winners Cup]] in [[1983]] an three league Championships atween [[1980]] an [[1986]], unner the management o [[Alex Ferguson]], that uised ti be [[Manchester Unitit F.C.|Manchester United F.C.]] manager. The club's stadium is [[Pittodrie]] at huds the honour o bein [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetain]]'s first aa-seatit stadium an first wi a dugoot.

== Transport ==
'''Aiberdeen railwey station''' is the main [[railwey station]] in [[Aiberdeen]], [[Scotland]]. It is the busiest railwey station in Scotland ootwi [[Glesga]] an [[Edinburgh]]. It is locatit on Guild Street in the city centre, neist ti Union Square.

== Twin Cities ==
Aiberdeen is [[Toun twinnin|twinn'd]] wi several burghs oothrou Europe an aa aroond the world. includin:
* [[Regensburg]], [[Germany]]
* [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Fraunce]]
* [[Stavanger]], [[Norawa]]
* [[Gomel]], [[Belarus]]
* [[Bulawayo]], [[Zimbabwe]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Fremmit airtins ==
{{Commonscat|Aberdeen}}
* [https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/ Aiberdeen City Cooncil]
* [https://www.scots-online.org/grammar/aberdeen_scots.php Aiberdeen byleid] it www.scots-online.org

{{Cooncil areas o Scotland}}

[[Category:Aiberdeen| ]]
[[Category:Cooncil areas o Scotland]]
[[Category:Fishin commonties in Scotland]]
[[Category:Lieutenancy areas o Scotland]]
[[Category:Port ceeties an touns o the North Sea]]
[[Category:Ryal burghs]]
[[Category:Post touns in the AB postcode area]]
[[Category:Places o Scotland]]</text>
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*{{flag|Romanie}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Romania.htm |title=Implementation of the Charter in Romania |work=Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages |publisher=Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research |accessdate=16 June 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222161215/http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Romania.htm |archivedate=22 February 2012 }} {{Cite web |url=http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Romania.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2022-09-14 |archive-date=2012-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222161215/http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Romania.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}&lt;/ref&gt;
*{{flag|Ukraine}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/5029-17| title=Law of Ukraine &quot;On Principles of State Language Policy&quot; (Current version – Revision from 01.02.2014) |publisher=rada.gov.ua|work=Document 5029-17, Article 7: Regional or minority languages Ukraine, Paragraph 2|date=1 February 2014|accessdate=30 April 2014|lang =uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;
'''Semi-offeecial or unoffeecial ''(de facto)'' status:'''
*{{flag|Georgie}}&lt;br&gt;([[Samtskhe-Javakheti]]){{efn|Armenie haes na legal status in Samtske-Javakheti, but it is widely spoken bi its Armenie population, that is concentratit in Ninotsminda an Akhalkalaki districts (ower 90% o the tot population in thir twa destricts).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Hille|first=Charlotte|title=State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus|url=https://archive.org/details/statebuildingcon00hill|year=2010|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|location=Leiden, Netherlands|isbn=9789004179011|page=[https://archive.org/details/statebuildingcon00hill/page/241 241]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thare war 144 state-fundit schuils in the region as o 2010 whaur Armenie is the main leid o instruction.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Javakhk Armenians Looks Ahead to Local Elections|url=http://asbarez.com/78867/georgias-armenian-minority-looks-ahead-toward-local-elections/|accessdate=26 May 2014|newspaper=[[Asbarez]]|date=31 March 2010|quote=Javakheti for use in the region's 144 Armenian schools&amp;nbsp;...}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Mezhdoyan|first=Slava|title=Challenges and problems of the Armenian community of Georgia|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/MinorityIssues/Session5/statements/ItemV/3.%20EuropeanArmenianFederationJustice%20andDemocracy.pdf|publisher=European Armenian Federation for Justice and Democracy|accessdate=26 May 2014|location=Tbilisi|date=28 November 2012|quote=Armenian schools in Georgia are fully funded by the government&amp;nbsp;...}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} 
*{{flag|Lebanon}}{{efn|The Lebanese govrenment recognises Armenian as a minority leid,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About Lebanon|url=http://www.cas.gov.lb/index.php/about-lebanon-en|publisher=Central Administration of Statistics of the Republic of Lebanon|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140526152210/http://www.cas.gov.lb/index.php/about-lebanon-en|archivedate=26 May 2014|quote=Other Languages: French, English and Armenian}}&lt;/ref&gt; pairteecularly for eddicational purposes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties  Under Article 44 of the Convention. Third periodic reports of states parties due in 2003: Lebanon|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/45377eb00.pdf|publisher=[[Committee on the Rights of the Child]]|accessdate=26 May 2014|page=108|date=25 October 2005|quote=Right of minorities to learn their language. The Lebanese curriculum allows Armenian schools to teach the Armenian language as a basic language.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Sanjian|first=Ara|title=Armenians and the 2000 Parliamentary Elections in Lebanon|url=http://www.groong.org/ro/ro-20000907.html|work=Armenian News Network / Groong|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140526153117/http://www.groong.org/ro/ro-20000907.html|archivedate=26 May 2014|quote=Moreover, the Lebanese government approved a plan whereby the Armenian language was to be considered from now on as one of the few 'second foreign languages' that students can take as part of the official Lebanese secondary school certificate (Baccalaureate) exams.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}{{efn|In eddication, accordin tae the [[Treaty o Lausanne (1923)|Treaty o Lausanne]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Jilali|last=Saib|contribution=Languages in Turkey|editor1-last=Extra|editor1-first=Guus|editor2-last=Gorter|editor2-first=Durk|title=The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/otherlanguagesof0000unse_r1e4|year=2001|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9781853595097|page=[https://archive.org/details/otherlanguagesof0000unse_r1e4/page/422 423]|quote=No other language can be taught as a mother language other than Armenian, Greek and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty&amp;nbsp;...}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Okçabol|first1=Rıfat|contribution=Secondary Education in Turkey|editor1-last=Nohl|editor1-first=Arnd-Michael|editor2-last=Akkoyunlu-Wigley|editor2-first=Arzu|editor3-last=Wigley|editor3-first=Simon|title=Education in Turkey|year=2008|publisher=Waxmann Verlag|location=Berlin|isbn=9783830970699|page=65|quote=Private Minority Schools are the school established by Greek, Armenian and Hebrew minorities during the era of the Ottoman Empire and covered by Lausanne Treaty.}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
*{{flag|Iran}}
| agency = Institute o Leid ([[Armenie Naitional Academy o Sciences]])&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=H. Acharian Institute of Language|url=http://www.sci.am/resorgs.php?oid=34&amp;langid=1|website=sci.am|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005040613/http://www.sci.am/resorgs.php?oid=34&amp;langid=1|archivedate=5 October 2014|quote=Main Fields of Activity: investigation of the structure and functioning, history and comparative grammar of the Armenian language, exploration of the literary Eastern and Western Armenian Language, dialectology, regulation of literary language, development of terminology}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| iso1 = hy
| iso2b = arm
| iso2t = hye
| lc1 = hye
| ld1 = Eastren Armenie
| lc2 = hyw
| ld2 = Wastren Armenie
| lc3 = xcl
| ld3 = [[Clessical Armenie]]
| lc4 = axm
| ld4 = [[Middle Armenie]]
| lingua = 57-AAA-a
| map = Map-of-speakers-of-armenian.png
| mapcaption = {{Legend|#023858|Offeecial leid spoken bi the majority}}
  {{Legend|#0570b0|Recognised minority leid}}
  {{Legend|#74a9cf|Signeeficant nummer o speakers}}
| notice = IPA
| protoname = [[Proto-Armenie]]
| glotto = arme1241
| glottorefname = Armenic
}}
'''Armenie''' (''հայերեն լեզու'', ''hayeren lezu'' or ''hayeren'') is a [[Indo-European leids|Indo-European]] leid. It is the naitional leid o the [[Armenie|Republic o Armenie]] an is spak in pairts o [[Georgie (kintra)|Georgie]] an aw. It haes aboot sieven million speakers athort the warld.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commonscat|Armenian language}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Armenie leid| ]]
[[Category:Armenie leids| ]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb leids]]
[[Category:Leids o Armenie]]
[[Category:Leids o Roushie]]
[[Category:Leids o Turkey]]
[[Category:Leids o Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Leids o Iran]]
[[Category:Leids o Lebanon]]
[[Category:Leids o Georgie (kintra)]]
[[Category:Leids o the Caucasus]]
[[Category:Leids o Cyprus]]
[[Category:Leids attestit frae the 5t century]]

{{Stub/Armenie}}
{{Stub/Leid}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Beer</title>
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      <text bytes="6715" sha1="liutt8dilipis6152rjaoa1ubg0fner" xml:space="preserve">[[File:GravityTap.jpg|thumb|[[Schlenkerla]] [[Rauchbier]] bein poured frae a [[cask]]]]
'''Beer''' is an alcoholic drink brewed frae [[maut]], [[hops]] an [[baurley]]. Beer is the warld's auldest&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Alchemy of Culture: Intoxicants in Society|first=Richard|last=Rudgley|isbn=978-0714117362|year=1993|publisher=British Museum Press;|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/originhistoryofb0000arno|first=John P|last=Arnold|isbn=0-9662084-1-2|year=2005|publisher=Reprint Edition by BeerBooks|location=Cleveland, Ohio}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=SHh-4M_QxEsC&amp;pg=PA10&amp;dq=oldest+beverage&amp;q=oldest%20beverage |title=World's Best Beers: One Thousand ... - Google Books |publisher=books.google.com |accessdate=2010-08-07 |isbn=9781402766947 |date=2009-10-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt; an maist widely consumed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Volume of World Beer Production|work=European Beer Guide|url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production|accessdate=17 October 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[alcoholic drink]]; it is the third maist popular drink oweraw, efter [[watter]] an [[tea]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&amp;pg=PA1&amp;dq=most+consumed+beverage
|title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-31121-7|page=1|author= Max Nelson}}&lt;/ref&gt; The production o beer, [[brewin]] involves the [[Brewin#Baurmin|baurmin]] o [[siccar]]s, mainly derived frae [[cereal|cereal grain]] [[stairch]]es—maist commonly frae [[maut]]it [[baurley]], awtho wheat, maize, an rice are widely uised.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barth 2014&quot;&gt;Barth, Roger. ''The Chemistry of Beer: The Science in the Suds'', Wiley 2013: {{ISBN|978-1-118-67497-0}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Most beer is flavoured wi [[hops]], that add bitterness an act as a naitural [[preservative]], tho ither flavourins sic as yerbs or fruit mey occasionally be includit. The baurmin process causes a naitural [[carbonation]] effect, awtho this is eften remuived during processin, an replaced wi forced carbonation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://beer.about.com/od/commercialbeers/f/fizz.htm|title=How Beer Is Carbonated and Why Is Beer Fizzy?|publisher=|accessdate=31 December 2016|archive-date=2017-01-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123135205/http://beer.about.com/od/commercialbeers/f/fizz.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some o humanity's earliest kent writins refer tae the production an distribution o beer: the [[Code o Hammurabi]] includit laws regulatin beer an beer parlours,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Beer Before Bread|work=Alaska Science Forum #1039, Carla Helfferich|url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html|accessdate=13 May 2008|archive-date=2008-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509121452/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; an &quot;The Hime tae [[Ninkasi]]&quot;, a prayer tae the Mesopotamian goddess o beer, served as baith a prayer an as a method o rememberin the recipe for beer in a cultur wi few leeterate fowk.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nin-kasi&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Nin-kasi: Mesopotamian Goddess of Beer|work=Matrifocus 2006, Johanna Stuckey|url=http://www.matrifocus.com/SAM06/spotlight.htm|accessdate=13 May 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;sumer&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy A. |last2=Cunningham |first2=Graham |last3=Robson |first3=Eleanor |authorlink3=Eleanor Robson |date=2004 |title=The literature of ancient Sumer |url=https://archive.org/details/literatureofanci0000unse_t7d8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-926311-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Beer is sauld in bottles an cans; it mey an aa be available on [[Draucht beer|draucht]], pairteecularly in pubs an baurs. The brewin industrie is a global business, conseestin o several dominant [[Multinaitional corporation|multinaitional companies]] an mony thoosands o smawer producers rangin frae [[Microbrewery#Brewpub|brewpubs]] tae [[regional brewery|regional breweries]]. The strenth o beer is uisually aroond 4% tae 6% [[alcohol bi vollum]] (abv), awtho it mey vary atween 0.5% an 20%, wi some breweries creautin ensaumples o 40% abv an abuin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=World's strongest beer reclaimed | website=BBC News | date=2010-02-16  | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8517607.stm | accessdate=2015-08-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; Beer forms pairt o the cultur o beer-drinkin naitions an is associatit wi social tradeetions sic as [[beer festival]]s, as well as a rich [[Public hoose|pub cultur]] involvin activities lik [[pub crawl]]in, an [[pub gemmes]] sic as [[bar billiards]].

In Canadae, the Canadian Govrenment’s Fuid an Drog Regulations states that beer shoud hae alcohol content that ranges frae 1.1% tae 8.6%. The regulation an aa includes that it coud be greater nor 8.6% an labeled accordinly.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-32.html#h-64|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, Food and Drug Regulations|last=Branch|first=Legislative Services|website=laws.justice.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-07-18}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Beer in Sooth Korea shoud hae 25% (v/v) or less. That means that it haes tae be 25 mL o alcohol or less  per 100 mL o solution an  can anerly be conseedert ‘lite’ if thay hae less nor 30 kcal per 100ml. Mair specifically, major ingredients sic as [[Maut]] (baurley an wheat), [[Hops|Hop]], Watter, Stairch ingredients hae tae be allaed bi the Sooth Korean Regulations in the brewin process.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Beer%20Market%20Report_Seoul%20ATO_Korea%20-%20Republic%20of_12-22-2016.pdf|title=Global Agriculture Information Network|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Beers an ither seemilar variations in Singapore maun hae at meenimum o 1.0% alcohol (v/v) concentration at 20°C. It is eften brewed frae a mixtur o grains lik [[maut]], succars or it's equivalent an [[hops]] or ither vegetables.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ava.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/food-regulations-2-feb-20161da0851875296bf09fdaff00009b1e7c|title=Food Regulations in Singapore|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623041652/http://www.ava.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/food-regulations-2-feb-20161da0851875296bf09fdaff00009b1e7c|archive-date=2017-06-23|dead-url=|access-date=|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commonscat}}

[[Category:Beer]]

{{Stub/Strang}}</text>
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    <title>Horse</title>
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{{subspeciesbox
| name = Horse
| status = DOM
| image = Nokota Horses cropped.jpg
| image_caption = &lt;!-- Caption intentionally left blank per consensus to avoid promoting one breed. --&gt;
| image_alt = Twa Nokota horse staundin in open gressland wi rowin hills an trees veesible in the backgrund.
| genus = Equus
| species = ferus
| species_link = Wild horse
| subspecies = caballus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10t edeetion o Systema Naturae|1758]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Linn1758&quot;&gt;
 {{cite book
 | last = Linnaeus
 | first = Carolus
 | authorlink = Carl Linnaeus
 | title = Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis.
 | publisher = Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii)
 | year = 1758
 | page = 73
 | url = http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726976
 | accessdate = 2008-09-08
 | volume = 1
 | edition = 10th
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| synonyms = at least 48 published
| synonyms_ref = &lt;ref name=MSW3/&gt;
}}
[[File:Wiehern.ogg|thumb|Horse nieghs ]]
The '''horse''' (''Equus ferus caballus'')&lt;ref name=MSW3&gt;{{MSW3 Perissodactyla | id = 14100016 | pages = 630–631}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature|year=2003|title=Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010)|journal=Bull. Zool. Nomencl.|volume=60|issue=1|pages=81–84|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821235959/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm|archivedate=2007-08-21}}&lt;/ref&gt; is ane o twa [[Extant taxon|extant]] [[subspecies]] o [[wild horse|''Equus ferus'']]. It is an [[odd-taed ungulate]] [[mammal]] belangin tae the taxonomic faimily [[Equidae]]. Accordin tae scienteefic consensus, the horse hae  [[evolution|evolvit]] ower the past 45 tae 55&amp;nbsp;million years fae a wee multi-taed craitur, ''[[Eohippus]]'', intae the muckle single-taed ainimal o the day. Humans begane tae [[Domestication|domesticate]] the horse aroond 4000 BC, an thair domestication is believed tae hae been widespread bi 3000 BC. Horse in the subspecies ''caballus'' are domesticatit, awtho some domesticatit populations leeve in the wild as [[feral horse]]. Thir feral populations are no true [[wild horse]], as this term is uised tae descrive horse that hae niver been domesticatit, sic as the endangered [[Przewalski's horse]], a separate subspecies, an the anerly remeenin true [[wild horse]]. Thare is an extensive, specializit vocabulary uised tae descrive equine-relatit concepts, cowerin iverything fae [[anatomy]] tae life stages, size, [[equine coat colour|colours]], [[horse merkins|merkins]], [[horse breed|breeds]], [[ainimal locomotion|locomotion]], an behaviour.

Horse anatomy enables them tae mak uise o speed tae escape predators an thay hae a well-developit [[Equilibrioception|sense o balance]] an a strang [[fecht-or-flicht response]]. Relatit tae this need tae flee frae predators in the wild is an unuisual trait: horse are able tae sleep baith staundin up an leein doun. Female horse, cried [[meir]]s, cairy thair young for approximately 11&amp;nbsp;months, an a young horse, cried a [[foal]], can staund an run shortly follaein birth. Maist domesticatit horse begin trainin unner [[saidle]] or in [[Horse harnish|harnish]] atween the ages o twa an fower. Thay reach full adult development bi age five, an hae an average lifespan o atween 25 an 30&amp;nbsp;years.

Horse breeds are lowsely dividit intae three categories based on general temperament: speeritit &quot;het bluids&quot; wi speed an endurement; &quot;cauld bluids&quot;, sic as [[draucht horse]] an some [[pownie]]s, suitable for slaw, hivy wirk; an &quot;[[wairmbluid]]s&quot;, developed frae crosses atween het bluids an cauld bluids, eften focusin on creautin breeds for speceefic ridin purposes, pairteecularly in Europe. Thare are mair nor 300&amp;nbsp;breeds o horse in the warld the day, developed for mony different uises.

Horse an humans interact in a wide variety o sport competeetions an non-competitive recreautional pursuits, as well as in wirkin activities sic as [[Moontit polis|polis wirk]], [[wirkin ainimal|agricultur]], enterteenment, an [[hippotherapy|therapy]]. Horse war historically uised in warfare, frae which a wide variety o [[equestrianism|ridin]] an [[drivin (horse)|drivin]] techniques developed, uisin mony different styles o [[Horse tack|equipment]] an methods o control. Mony products are derived frae horse, includin meat, milk, hide, hair, bane, an pharmaceuticals extractit frae the urine o pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticatit horse wi fuid, watter an shelter, as well as attention frae specialists sic as [[veterinarian]]s an [[ferrier]]s.

==Biology==
[[File:Points of a horse.jpg|thumb|Pynts o a horse&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Goody|first=John|title=Horse Anatomy|edition=2nd|publisher=J A Allen|isbn=0-85131-769-3|year=2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Pavord|first1=Tony|last2=Pavord|first2=Marcy|title=Complete Equine Veterinary Manual|publisher=David &amp; Charles|isbn=0-7153-1883-7|year=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram o a horse wi some pairts labeled.]]
Specific terms an specialised leid are uised tae descrive [[equine anatomy]], different life stages, colours an breeds.

===Lifespan an life stages===
Dependin on breed, [[horse management|management]] an environment, the modren domestic horse haws a life expectancy o 25 tae 30&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=Ensminger46/&gt; Uncommonly, a few ainimals live intae thair 40s an, occasionally, ayont.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/horses/facts/info_age.htm|title=The Age of a Horse|publisher=Government of Ontario|work=Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs|author=Wright, B.|date=March 29, 1999|accessdate=2009-10-21|archive-date=2010-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120031232/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/horses/facts/info_age.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The auldest verifiable record wis &quot;[[Old Billy]]&quot;, a 19t-century horse that lived tae the age o 62.&lt;ref name=Ensminger46/&gt; In modren times, Sugar Puff, wha haed been leetit in ''[[Guinness World Records]]'' as the warld's auldest leevin pownie, dee'd in 2007 at age 56.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9708|title= World's Oldest Living Pony Dies at 56|accessdate=2007-05-31 |author= Ryder, Erin |work= The Horse}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Regairdless o a horse or pownie's actual birth date, for maist competeetion purposes a year is addit tae its age ilk Januar&amp;nbsp;1 o ilk year in the Northren Hemisphere&lt;ref name=Ensminger46/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title= The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society and the Pony Club |url= https://archive.org/details/manualofhorseman00pony |author=British Horse Society |year=1966|edition=6th edition, reprinted 1970 |publisher= British Horse Society |location= Kenilworth, UK |isbn= 0-9548863-1-3|page= [https://archive.org/details/manualofhorseman00pony/page/255 255]}}&lt;/ref&gt; an ilk August&amp;nbsp;1 in the Soothren Hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.studbook.org.au/DisplayPDF.aspx?ty=RULES |format=PDF |title= Rules of the Australian Stud Book |accessdate=2008-07-09 |year= 2007 |publisher=Australian Jockey Club |page=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; The exception is in [[endurement ridin]], whaur the meenimum age tae compete is based on the ainimal's actual calendar age.&lt;ref name=Endurance&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.aerc.org/HorseAge.aspx|title= Equine Age Requirements for AERC Rides|accessdate= 2011-07-25|publisher= American Endurance Riding Conference|archive-date= 2011-08-11|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110811110201/http://aerc.org/HorseAge.aspx|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The follaein terminology is uised tae descrive horse o various ages:

* [[Cowt (horse)|Cowt]]: A male horse unner the age o fower.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 415&lt;/ref&gt; A common terminology error is tae caw ony young horse a &quot;cowt&quot;, whan the term actually anerly refers tae young male horse.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Becker, Marty, Audrey Pavia, Gina Spadafori, Teresa Becker|title=Why Do Horses Sleep Standing Up?: 101 of the Most Perplexing Questions Answered About Equine Enigmas, Medical Mysteries, and Befuddling Behaviors|publisher=HCI|year=2007|isbn=0-7573-0608-X|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Qvz62nMkQLYC&amp;pg=PA23|page= 23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Filly]]: A female horse unner the age o fower.&lt;ref name=Ensminger418/&gt;
* [[Foal]]: A horse o aither sex less nor ane year auld. A nursin foal is while cried a ''soukie'' an a foal that haes been weaned is cried a ''weanlin''.&lt;ref name=Ensminger418&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 418&lt;/ref&gt; Maist domesticatit foals are weaned at five tae seeven month o age, awtho foals can be weaned at fower month wi na adverse pheesical effects.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Giffin|Giffin]], p. 431&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Libbin (horse)|Libbin]]: A [[libbed]] male horse o ony age.&lt;ref name=Ensminger418/&gt;
* [[Meir]]: A female horse fower year auld an aulder.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 422&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Couser]]: A non-libbit male horse fower year auld an aulder.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 427&lt;/ref&gt; The term &quot;horse&quot; is whiles uised colloquially tae refer specifically tae a stallion.&lt;ref name=Ensminger420&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 420&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Yearauld (horse)|Yearauld]]: A horse o aither sex that is atween ane an twa year auld.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 430&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[horse racin]], thir defineetions mey differ: For example, in the Breetish Isles, [[Thoraebred]] horse racin defines cowts an fillies as less nor five year auld.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.equibase.com/newfan/glossary-full.cfm|title= Glossary of Horse Racing Terms|accessdate=2008-04-03 |work= Equibase.com|publisher= Equibase Company, LLC}}&lt;/ref&gt; Houiver, Australie Thoraebred racin defines cowts an fillies as less nor fower year auld.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.studbook.org.au/DisplayPDF.aspx?ty=RULES|title=Rules of the Australian Stud Book|accessdate=2010-02-05|page=9|date=July 2008|publisher=Australian Jockey Club Ltd and Victoria Racing Club Ltd}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Size an meisurment===
The hicht o horse is uisually meisurt at the heichest pynt o the [[withers]], whaur the neck meets the [[back (horse)|back]].&lt;ref name=Whitaker77&gt;[[#Whitaker|Whitaker]], p. 77&lt;/ref&gt; This pynt is uised acause it is a stable pynt o the anatomy, unlik the heid or neck, that muive up an doun in relation tae the bouk o the horse.

[[File:Horse-and-pony.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Size varies greatly amang horse breeds, as wi this full-sized horse an smaw powniey.]]
The size o horse varies bi breed, but is influenced bi [[equine nutreetion|nutreetion]] an aw. Licht ridin horse uisually range in hicht frae {{hands|14|to|16|lk=off}} an can wecht frae {{convert|380|to|550|kg}}.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Bongianni|Bongianni]], entries 1, 68, 69&lt;/ref&gt; Lairger ridin horse uisually stairt at aboot {{hands|15.2|lk=off}} an eften are as taw as {{hands|17|lk=off}}, wechtin frae {{convert|500|to|600|kg|sigfig=3}}.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Bongianni|Bongianni]], entries 12, 30, 31, 32, 75&lt;/ref&gt; Hivy or [[draucht horse]] are uisually at least {{hands|16|lk=off}} heich an can be as taw as {{hands|18|lk=off}} heich. Thay can wecht frae aboot {{convert|700|to|1000|kg|sigfig=3}}.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Bongianni|Bongianni]], entries 86, 96, 97&lt;/ref&gt;

The lairgest horse in recordit history wis probably a [[Shire horse]] named [[Sampson (horse)|Mammoth]], wha wis born in 1848. He stuid {{hands|21.2+1/4|lk=off}} heich an his peak wecht wis estimatit at {{convert|1524|kg}}.&lt;ref name=Whitaker60&gt;[[#Whitaker|Whitaker]], p. 60&lt;/ref&gt; The current record hauder for the warld's smawest horse is [[Thumbelina (horse)|Thumbelina]], a fully matur [[miniature horse]] affectit bi [[dwarfism]]. She is {{convert|17|in|cm|abbr=on}} taw an wechts {{convert|57|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url= http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=409317&amp;in_page_id=1770|title=Meet Thumbelina, the World's Smallest Horse |accessdate=2006-10-08 |author= Martin, Arthur |work= Daily Mail | location=London | date=2006-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Pownies====
{{Main|Pownie}}
Pownies are [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomically]] the same ainimals as horse. The distinction atween a horse an pownie is commonly drawn on the basis o hicht, especially for competeetion purposes. Houiver, hicht alone is nae dispositive; the difference atween horse an pownies mey include aspects o [[phenoteep]] an aw, includin conformation an temperament.

The tradeetional staundart for hicht o a horse or a [[pownie]] at maturity is {{hands|14.2|lk=off}}. An ainimal 14.2&amp;nbsp;h or ower is uisually conseedert tae be a horse an ane less nor 14.2&amp;nbsp;h a pownie,&lt;ref name=EnsmingerHT11&gt;{{cite book |author= Ensminger, M.E.|title= Horses and Tack|url= https://archive.org/details/horsestack0000ensm|edition= Revised|publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company|location= Boston, MA|year= 1991|isbn= 0-395-54413-0 |oclc= 21561287|pages=[https://archive.org/details/horsestack0000ensm/page/11 11]–12}}&lt;/ref&gt; but thare are mony exceptions tae the tradeetional staundart. In Australie, pownies are conseedert tae be thae unner {{hands|14|lk=off}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Howlett, Lorna  |author2=Philip Mathews|title=Ponies in Australia|publisher=Philip Mathews Publishers|location=Milson's Point, NSW|isbn=0-908001-13-4|year=1979|page= 14}}&lt;/ref&gt; For competeetion in the [[wastren ridin|Wastren]] diveesion o the [[United States Equestrian Federation]], the cutaff is {{hands|14.1|lk=off}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.usef.org/_IFrames/RuleBook/rulebooks.aspx |title=2012 United States Equestrian Federation, Inc. Rule Book |publisher=United States Equestrian Federation |page=Rule WS 101 |access-date=2017-10-20 |archive-date=2017-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200000/http://www.usef.org/_IFrames/RuleBook/rulebooks.aspx |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Internaitional Federation for Equestrian Sport]], the warld govrenin bouk for horse sport, uises [[metric seestem|metric]] meisurments an defines a pownie as bein ony horse measurin less nor {{convert|148|cm|in|2}} at the withers withoot shaes, that is juist ower 14.2 h, an {{convert|149|cm|in|2}}, or juist ower 14.2½ h, wi shaes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.fei.org/sites/default/files/Annex%20XVII%20-%20Extracts%20Ponies.pdf | title=Annex XVII: Extracts from Rules for Pony Riders and Children, 9th edition | publisher=Fédération Equestre Internationale | year=2009 | accessdate=2010-03-07 | archive-date=2013-01-28 | archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6E0dISRzn?url=http://www.fei.org/sites/default/files/Annex%20XVII%20-%20Extracts%20Ponies.pdf | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hicht is nae the sole criterion for distinguishin horse frae pownies. [[Breed registry|Breed registries]] for horse that teepically produce individuals baith unner an ower 14.2&amp;nbsp;h conseeder aw ainimals o that breed tae be horse regairdless o thair hicht.&lt;ref&gt;For ensaumple, the [[Missouri Fox Trotter]], or the [[Arabian horse]]. See [[#McBane|McBane]], pp. 192, 218&lt;/ref&gt; Conversely, some pownie breeds mey hae featurs in common wi horse, an individual ainimals mey occasionally matur at ower 14.2&amp;nbsp;h, but are still conseedert tae be pownies.&lt;ref&gt;For ensaumple, the [[Welsh Pownie]]. See [[#McBane|McBane]], pp. 52–63&lt;/ref&gt;

Pownies eften exhibit thicker manes, tails, an oweraw coat. Thay forby hae proportionally shorter legs, wider baurels, hivier bane, shorter an thicker necks, an short heids wi braid foreheids. Thay mey hae caumer temperaments nor horse an a heich level o intelligence that mey or mey nae be uised tae cooperate wi human haundlers an aw.&lt;ref name=EnsmingerHT11/&gt; Smaw size, bi itsel, is nae an exclusive determinant. For ensaumple, the [[Shetland pownie]] that averages {{hands|10|lk=off}}, is conseedert a pownie.&lt;ref name=EnsmingerHT11/&gt; Conversely, breeds sic as the [[Falabella]] an ither [[miniatur horse]], that can be na tawer nor {{convert|30|in|cm}}, are clessifee'd bi thair [[breed registry|registries]] as verra smaw horse, nae pownies.&lt;ref&gt;[[#McBane|McBane]], p. 200&lt;/ref&gt;

===Genetics===
Horse hae 64 [[chromosomes]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/genetics/medgen/chromo/species.html |title=Chromosome Numbers in Different Species |publisher=Vivo.colostate.edu |date=1998-01-30 |accessdate=2013-04-17 |archive-date=2013-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511210119/http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/genetics/medgen/chromo/species.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[horse genome]] wis [[DNA sequencin|sequenced]] in 2007. It conteens 2.7 billion DNA [[base pairs]],&lt;ref name=Cornell&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.vet.cornell.edu/news/articles/09antczakscience.cfm |title=Sequenced horse genome expands understanding of equine, human diseases |publisher=Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine |date=2012-08-21 |accessdate=2013-04-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is lairger nor the [[dug genome]], but smawer nor the [[human genome]] or the [[bovine genome]].&lt;ref name=ScienceDaily&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091105143708.htm |title=Domestic Horse Genome Sequenced |doi=10.1126/science.1178158 |publisher=ScienceDaily, LLC |date=2009-11-05 |accessdate=2013-04-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; The cairt is available tae resairchers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://uswest.ensembl.org/Equus_caballus/Info/Index |title=Ensembl genome browser 71: Equus caballus - Description |publisher=Uswest.ensembl.org |accessdate=2013-04-17 |archive-date=2017-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200000/http://uswest.ensembl.org/Equus_caballus/Info/Index |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Colours an merkins===
[[File:Horsescd1l-095.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Bay (horse)|Bay]] (left) an [[chestane (coat)|chestane]] (whiles cried &quot;sorrel&quot;) are twa o the maist common coat colours, seen in awmaist aw breeds.]]

Horse exhibit a diverse array o [[Equine coat colour|coat colours]] an distinctive [[horse merkins|merkins]], descrived bi a specialised vocabulary. Eften, a horse is clessifee'd first bi its coat colour, afore breed or sex.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Vogel, Colin B.V.M|title=The Complete Horse Care Manual|url=https://archive.org/details/completehorsecar0000voge|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc.|location=New York, NY|year=1995 |isbn=0-7894-0170-3 |oclc=32168476|page=[https://archive.org/details/completehorsecar0000voge/page/14 14]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Horse o the same colour mey be distinguished frae ane anither bi white [[horse merkins|merkins]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management|url=https://archive.org/details/basicguidetohors0000mill|author1=Mills, Bruce  |author2=Barbara Carne |year=1988 |publisher=Howell Book House |location=New York, NY|isbn=0-87605-871-3 |oclc=17507227|pages= [https://archive.org/details/basicguidetohors0000mill/page/72 72]–73}}&lt;/ref&gt; that, alang wi various spottin patterns, are inheritit separately frae coat colour.

Mony [[Equine coat colour genetics|genes]] that creaut horse coat colours an patterns hae been identifee'd. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different [[allele]]s influencin coat colour,&lt;ref name=UCVGL/&gt; an resairch conteenas tae discover new genes airtit tae speceefic traits. The basic coat colours o [[chestane (coat)|chestane]] an [[black (horse)|black]] are determined bi the [[gene]] controlled bi the [[Melanocortin 1 receptor]],&lt;ref name=Marklund1996&gt;{{cite journal |last=Marklund |first=L. |author2=M. Johansson Moller |author3=K. Sandberg |author4=L. Andersson  |title=A missense mutation in the gene for melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MC1R) is associated with the chestnut coat color in horses |journal=Mammalian Genome |volume=7 |pages=895–899 |year=1996 |doi=10.1007/s003359900264 |pmid=8995760 |issue=12}}&lt;/ref&gt; forby kent as the &quot;extension gene&quot; or &quot;reid factor&quot;,&lt;ref name=UCVGL/&gt; as its recessive form is &quot;reid&quot; (chestane) an its dominant form is black.&lt;ref name=UCDIntro/&gt;  Addeetional [[gene]]s control suppression o black colour tae [[pynt colouration]] that results in a [[bay (horse)|bay]], spottin patterns sic as [[pinto horse|pinto]] or [[leopard complex|leopard]], [[dilution gene]]s sic as [[palomino]] or [[dun gene|dun]], as well as [[gray (horse)|graying]], an aw the ither factors that creaut the mony possible coat colours foond in horse.&lt;ref name=UCVGL&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolorhorse.php|title= Horse Coat Color Tests|accessdate=2008-05-01 |work= Veterinary Genetics Laboratory |publisher= University of California}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse that hae a white coat colour are eften mislabeled; a horse that looks &quot;white&quot; is uisually a middle-aged or aulder [[gray (horse)|gray]]. Grays are born a daurker shade, get lichter as thay age, but uisually keep black skin aneath thair white hair coat (wi the exception o pink skin unner white [[horse merkins|merkins]]). The anerly horse properly cried [[white (horse)|white]] are born wi a predominantly white hair coat an pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.&lt;ref name=UCDIntro&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolor.php|title= Introduction to Coat Color Genetics|accessdate=2008-05-01|work= Veterinary Genetics Laboratory |publisher= University of California}}&lt;/ref&gt; Different an unrelatit [[Genetics|genetic]] factors can produce white coat colours in horse, includin several different alleles o [[dominant white]] an the [[sabino horse|sabino-1 gene]].&lt;ref name=haase2009-similar&gt;{{cite journal |author=Haase B |title=Allelic Heterogeneity at the Equine KIT Locus in Dominant White (W) Horses |journal=PLoS Genetics |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e195 |year=2007 |pmid=17997609 |pmc=2065884 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0030195 |author2=Brooks SA |author3=Schlumbaum A |display-authors=3 |last4=Azor |first4=Pedro J. |last5=Bailey |first5=Ernest |last6=Alaeddine |first6=Ferial |last7=Mevissen |first7=Meike |last8=Burger |first8=Dominik |last9=Poncet |first9=Pierre-André}}&lt;/ref&gt; Houever, thare are na &quot;[[Albinism|albino]]&quot; horse, defined as haein baith pink skin an reid een.&lt;ref name=Duplicatetest&gt;{{cite journal |title= Genetic mapping of dominant white (W), a homozygous lethal condition in the horse (''Equus caballus'') |author= Mau, C., Poncet, P. A., Bucher, B., Stranzinger, G. &amp; Rieder, S. |journal= Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics|volume= 121|doi= 10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00481.x |year= 2004 |pages= 374–383 |issue= 6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Reproduction an development===

[[Gestation]] lasts approximately 340&amp;nbsp;days, wi an average range 320–370 days,&lt;ref name=Ensminger156&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; an uisually results in ane [[foal]]; twins are rare.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www2.okstate.edu/pio/twinfoals.html|accessdate= 2008-09-23|title= Rare Twin Foals Born at Vet Hospital: Twin Birth Occurrences Number One in Ten Thousand|author= Johnson, Tom|work= Communications Services, Oklahoma State University|publisher= Oklahoma State University|archive-date= 2012-10-12|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121012052136/http://www2.okstate.edu/pio/twinfoals.html|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Horse are a [[precocial]] species, an foals are capable o staundin an runnin within a short time follaein birth.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Miller, Robert M.  |author2=Rick Lamb|title=Revolution in Horsemanship and What it Means to Mankind |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutioninhors0000mill  |publisher= Lyons Press|location=Guilford, Connecticut|year=2005|isbn=1-59228-387-X |oclc=57005594|pages=[https://archive.org/details/revolutioninhors0000mill/page/102 102]–103}}&lt;/ref&gt; Foals are uisually born in the ware. The [[oestrus cycle]] o a mare occurs aboot ivery 19–22 days an occurs frae early ware intae hairst. Maist mares enter an ''anoestrus'' period in the winter an sicweys dae nae cycle in this period.&lt;ref name=Ensminger150&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 150&lt;/ref&gt; Foals are generally [[weanin|weaned]] frae thair mithers atween fower an sax month o age.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/pages/29352/reducing-weaning-stress-in-foals|author=Kline, Kevin H.|title=Reducing weaning stress in foals|publisher=Montana State University eXtension|date=2010-10-07|accessdate=2012-04-03|archive-date=2012-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322182958/http://www.extension.org/pages/29352/reducing-weaning-stress-in-foals|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse, pairticularly cowts, whiles are pheesically capable o reproduction at aboot 18&amp;nbsp;months, but domesticatit horse are rarely alloued tae breed afore the age o three, especially females.&lt;ref name=HorseTack129&gt;{{cite book |author= Ensminger, M.E.|title= Horses and Tack|url= https://archive.org/details/horsestack0000ensm|edition= Revised|publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company|location= Boston, MA|year= 1991|isbn= 0-395-54413-0 |oclc= 21561287|page=[https://archive.org/details/horsestack0000ensm/page/129 129]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Horse fower year auld are conseedert matur, awtho the skelet normally conteenas tae develop till the age o sax; maturation depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, an quality o care an aw. Lairger horse hae lairger banes; tharefore, nae anerly dae the banes tak langer tae form [[Osseous tishie|bane tishie]], but the [[epiphyseal plate]]s are lairger an tak langer tae convert frae [[cartilage]] tae bane. Thir plates convert efter the ither pairts o the banes, an are crucial tae development.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.equineortho.colostate.edu/questions/dod.htm |title=Developmental Orthopaedic Disease: Problems of Limbs in young Horses|accessdate=2008-04-20|author= McIlwraith, C.W.|publisher=Colorado State University|work=Orthopaedic Research Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dependin on maturity, breed, an wirk expectit, horse are uisually put unner saidle an [[horse trainin|trained]] tae be ridden atween the ages o twa an fower.&lt;ref name=Train163&gt;{{cite book |author=Thomas, Heather Smith |title=Storey's Guide to Training Horses: Ground Work, Driving, Riding |url=https://archive.org/details/storeysguidetotr0000thom |publisher=Storey Publishing |location=North Adams, MA |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58017-467-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/storeysguidetotr0000thom/page/162 163]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Awtho [[Thoraebred]] [[Horse racin|race horse]] are put on the track as young as the age o twa in some kintras,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.jockeyclub.com/factbook.asp?section=11|title= 2-Year-Old Racing (US and Canada)|accessdate=2008-04-28 |work= Online Fact Book|publisher= Jockey Club}}&lt;/ref&gt; horse speceefically bred for sports sic as [[dressage]] are generally nae pit unner saidle till thay are three or fower year auld, acause thair banes an muscles are nae solitly developed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The USDF Guide to Dressage|url=https://books.google.com/?id=9NNobNYAiroC&amp;pg=PA272|author1=Bryant, Jennifer Olson  |author2=George Williams|publisher=Storey Publishing|year=2006|isbn=1-58017-529-5|pages=271–272}}&lt;/ref&gt; For [[endurement ridin]] competeetion, horse are nae deemed matur enough tae compete till thay are a full 60&amp;nbsp;calendar months (five years) auld.&lt;ref name=Endurance/&gt;

===Anatomy===

====Skeletal seestem====
[[File:Horse anatomy.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|The skeletal seestem o a modren horse]]
The horse skelet averages 205 banes.&lt;ref name=Evans90&gt;{{cite book |author= Evans, J.|title= The Horse|url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780716718116|edition= Second|publisher= Freeman|location= New York, NY|year= 1990|isbn=0-7167-1811-1 |oclc= 20132967|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780716718116/page/90 90]}}&lt;/ref&gt; A signeeficant difference atween the horse skelet an that o a human is the lack o a [[Clavicle|hausebane]]—the horse's [[Equine forelimb anatomy|forelimms]] are attached tae the [[Vertebral column|spinal column]] bi a pouerfu set o muscles, tenons, an ligaments that attach the [[Scapula|shoulder blade]] tae the torso. The horse's legs an huifs are unique structurs an aw. Thair leg banes are proportioned differently frae thae o a human. For ensaumple, the bouk pairt that is cried a horse's &quot;knee&quot; is actually made up o the [[Carpus|carpal]] banes that correspond tae the human [[wrist]]. Similarly, the [[hock (zoology)|hock]] contens banes equivalent tae thae in the human [[ankle]] an [[heel]]. The lawer leg banes o a horse correspond tae the banes o the human haund or fit, an the [[Equine anatomy|fetlock]] (incorrectly cried the &quot;anklet&quot;) is actually the proximal [[sesamoid bane]]s atween the [[Equine anatomy|cannon]] banes (a single equivalent tae the human [[Metacarpus|metacarpal]] or [[Metatarsus|metatarsal]] banes) an the [[proximal phalanges]], locatit whaur ane finds the &quot;knuckles&quot; o a human. A horse haes na muscles in its legs ablo the knees an hocks, anerly skin, hair, bane, [[tenon]]s, [[ligament]]s, [[cartilage]], an the assortit specialised tishies that mak up the [[horse huif|huif]].&lt;ref name=Ensminger21&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], pp. 21–25&lt;/ref&gt;

====Huifs====
{{Main|Horse huif|Horseshae|Ferrier}}

The creetical importance o the feet an legs is summed up bi the tradeetional adage, &quot;na fit, na horse&quot;.&lt;ref name=Ensminger367&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 367&lt;/ref&gt; The [[horse huif]] begins wi the [[distal phalanges]], the equivalent o the human fingertip or tip o the tae, surroondit bi [[cartilage]] an ither specialised, bluid-rich saft tishies sic as the [[Horse huif#Internal structurs|laminae]]. The exterior huif waw an horn o the sole is made o [[keratin]], the same material as a human [[Nail (anatomy)|fingernail]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#Giffin|Giffin]], p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; The end result is that a horse, wechtin on average {{convert|500|kg}},&lt;ref&gt;[[#Giffin|Giffin]], p. 457&lt;/ref&gt; traivels on the same banes as wad a human on tiptoe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle_pf.cfm?id=118|title= Yes, The Shin Bone Is Connected to the Ankle Bone|accessdate=2008-04-05 |author= Fuess, Theresa A.|work= Pet Column|publisher= University of Illinois |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060909161307/http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle_pf.cfm?id=118 |archivedate = September 9, 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; For the pertection o the huif unner certain condeetions, some horse hae [[horseshae]]s placed on thair feet bi a perfaisional [[ferrier]]. The huif conteenually growes, an in maist domesticatit horse needs tae be trimmed (an horseshaes reset, if uised) ivery five tae aicht weeks,&lt;ref&gt;[[#Giffin|Giffin]], pp. 310–312&lt;/ref&gt; tho the huifs o horse in the wild wear doun an regroweat a rate suitable for thair terrain.

====Teeth====
{{Main|Horse teeth}}

Horse are adaptit tae [[grazin]]. In an adult horse, thare are 12&amp;nbsp;[[incisor]]s at the front o the mooth, adaptit tae bitin aff the gress or ither vegetation. Thare are 24&amp;nbsp;teeth adaptit for chewin, the [[premolar]]s an [[Molar (tuith)|molars]], at the back o the mooth. Cousers an libbins hae fower addeetional teeth juist ahint the incisors, a teep o [[Canine tuith|canine teeth]] cried &quot;tushes&quot;. Some horse, baith male an female, will develop ane tae fower verra smaw [[Vestigiality|vestigial]] teeth in front o the molars, kent as &quot;wouf&quot; teeth, that are generally remuived acause thay can interfere wi the [[bit (horse)|bit]]. Thare is an emptie interdental space atween the incisors an the molars whaur the bit rests directly on the gums, or &quot;bars&quot; o the horse's mooth whan the horse is [[bridle]]d.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kreling |first=Kai |title=Horses' Teeth and Their Problems: Prevention, Recognition, and Treatment |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3q1LINmOkOIC&amp;pg=PA117-IA1 |year=2005 |publisher=Globe Pequot |location=Guilford, CT |isbn=1-59228-696-8 |chapter=The Horse's Teeth |oclc=59163221|pages= 12–13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An estimate o a horse's age can be made frae leukin at its teeth. The teeth conteeina tae erupt ootthrou life an are worn doun bi grazing. Tharefore, the incisors shaw cheenges as the horse ages; thay develop a distinct wear pattern, cheeanges in tuith shape, an cheenges in the angle at that the chewin surfaces meet. This allous an estimate o a horse's age, awtho diet an veterinary care can affect the rate o tuith wear an aw.&lt;ref name=Ensminger46&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], pp. 46–50&lt;/ref&gt;

====Digeestion====
Horse are [[yerbivore]]s wi a digeestive seestem adaptit tae a [[forage]] diet o gresses an ither plant material, consumed steadily ootthrou the day. Tharefore, compared tae humans, thay hae a relatively smaw painch but verra lang thairms tae facilitate a steidy flow o nutrients. A {{convert|450|kg|adj=on}} horse will eat {{convert|7|to|11|kg}} o fuid per day an, unner normal uise, drink {{convert|38|to|45|L}} o [[watter]]. Horse are nae [[ruminant]]s, thay hae anerly oane painch, lik humans, but unlik humans, thay can utilize [[cellulose]], a major component o gress. Horse are [[hindgut fermentation|hindgut fermenters]]. Cellulose fermentation bi symbiotic bacteria occurs in the [[cecum]], or &quot;watter gut&quot;, that fuid gaes throu afore reachin the [[lairge intestine]]. Horse canna [[Vomitin|vomit]], sae digeestion problems can quickly cause [[horse colic|colic]], a leadin cause o daith.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Giffin|Giffin]], p. 175&lt;/ref&gt;

====Senses====
[[File:Pferdeauge.jpg|thumb|A horse's ee|alt=Close up o a horse ee, wi is dark broun wi lashes on the tap eelid]]
The horse' senses are based on thair status as [[predation|prey ainimals]], whaur thay maun be awaur o thair surroondins at aw times.&lt;ref name=Ensminger309&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], pp. 309–310&lt;/ref&gt; Thay hae the lairgest een o ony laund mammal,&lt;ref name=Sellnow&gt;{{cite book|author=Sellnow, Les|title=Happy Trails: Your Complete Guide to Fun and Safe Trail Riding|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bOUTZgrGD6QC&amp;pg=PA46|year=2004|publisher=Eclipse Press|isbn=1-58150-114-5|oclc=56493380|page=46}}&lt;/ref&gt; an are lateral-eed, meanin that thair een are poseetioned on the sides o thair heids.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url = http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15938 | title=Eye Position and Animal Agility Study Published|journal = The Horse | date =March 7, 2010 |nopp=|accessdate=2010-03-11}} Press Release, citing February 2010 Journal of Anatomy, Dr. Nathan Jeffery, co-author, University of Liverpool.&lt;/ref&gt; This means that horse hae a range o veesion o mair nor 350°, wi approximately 65° o this bein [[binocular veesion]] an the remainin 285° [[monocular veesion]].&lt;ref name=Sellnow/&gt; Horse hae excellent day an [[nicht veesion]], but thay hae twa-colour, or [[Dichromacy|dichromatic veesion]]; thair [[color veesion]] is somewhit lik [[Reid–green colour blindness|reid-green colour blindness]] in humans, whaur certain colours, especially reid an relatit colours, appear as a shade o green.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url= http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9670 |title= In Living Color |accessdate= 2007-07-27 |author= McDonnell, Sue |journal= The Horse via internet archive |date= June 1, 2007 |archive-date= 2007-09-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223341/http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9670 |url-status= bot: unknown }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thair [[Olfaction|sense o smell]], while muckle better nor that o humans, is nae quite as guid as that o a dug. It is believed tae play a key role in the social interactions o horse as well as detectin ither key scents in the environment. Horse hae twa olfactory centres. The first seestem is in the nostrils an nasal cavity, that analyze a wide range o odours. The seicont, locatit unner the nasal cavity, are the [[Vomeronasal organ]]s, cried the Jacobson's organs an aw. Thir hae a separate nerve pathway tae harn an appear tae primarily analyze [[pheromones]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Briggs smell&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Briggs|first=Karen|title=Equine Sense of Smell|url=http://www.thehorse.com/articles/10055/equine-sense-of-smell|publisher=The Horse|accessdate=2013-12-15|date=2013-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A horse's hearin is guid,&lt;ref name=Ensminger309/&gt; an the [[Pinna (anatomy)|pinna]] o ilk lug can rotate up tae 180°, giein the potential for 360° hearin withoot haein tae muive the heid.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Myers, Jane |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-gAgchKMXdkC&amp;printsec=frontcover|title= Horse Safe: A Complete Guide to Equine Safety |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location= Collingwood, UK|year=2005 |isbn=0-643-09245-5 |oclc=65466652|page=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Noise impacts the behaviour o horse an certain kinds o noise mey contreibute tae stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horse war caumest in a quiet settin, or if listenin tae country or clessical muisic, but displayed signs o nervishness whan listenin tae jazz or rock muiic. This study recommended keepin muisic unner a vollum o 21 [[decibel]]s an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Music&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.thehorse.com/articles/31229/music-genres-effect-on-horse-behavior-evaluated|title= Music Genre's Effect on Horse Behavior Evaluated|last= Lesté-Lasserre |first=Christa|date=January 18, 2013|work=The Horse|publisher=Blood Horse Publications|accessdate=23 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; An Australie study foond that stabled racehorse listenin tae talk radio haed a heicher rate o gastric ulcers nor horse listenin tae muisic, an racehorse stabled whaur a radio wis played haed a heicher oweraw rate o ulceration nor horse stabled whaur thare wis na radio playin.&lt;ref name=&quot;EquiNews&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.equinews.com/article/radios-causing-gastric-ulcers|title=Radios Causing Gastric Ulcers|author=Kentucky Equine Research Staff|date=February 15, 2010|work=EquiNews|publisher=Kentucky Equine Research |accessdate=23 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse hae a great sense o balance, due pairtly tae thair abeelity tae feel thair fittin an pairtly tae heichly developed [[proprioception]]—the unconscious sense o whaurethe bouk an limms are at aw times.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.thoroughbredtimes.com/horse-health/1998/October/17/True-horse-sense.aspx|title= True Horse Sense|accessdate= 2008-07-08|author= Thomas, Heather Smith|work= Thoroughbred Times|publisher= Thoroughbred Times Company|archive-date= 2013-01-28|archive-url= https://www.webcitation.org/6E0dQoAfP?url=http://www.thoroughbredtimes.com/horse-health/1998/october/17/true-horse-sense.aspx|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; A horse's [[Somatosensory seestem|sense o titch]] is well developed. The maist sensitive auries are aroond the een, lugs, an neb.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/other/fs9829.pdf|format= PDF|title= Horse Handling and Riding Guidelines Part 1: Equine Senses|accessdate= 2008-07-09|author1= Cirelli, Al Jr.|author2= Brenda Cloud|work= Cooperative Extension|page= 4|publisher= University of Nevada|archive-date= 2015-09-08|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150908031752/http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/other/fs9829.pdf|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Horse are able tae sense contact as subtle as an insect laundin onywhaur on the bouk.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Hairston, Rachel  |author2=Madelyn Larsen|title= The Essentials of Horsekeeping|publisher= Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|year= 2004 |isbn=0-8069-8817-7|location=New York, NY|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vSBwbz7FozYC&amp;pg=PA77 |oclc= 53186526|page= 77}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse hae an advanced sense o taste, that allous them tae sort throu [[fother]] an chuise whit thay wad maist lik tae eat,&lt;ref&gt;[[#Miller|Miller]], p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; an thair [[Prehensility|prehensile]] lips can easily sort even smaw grains. Horse generally will nae eat pushionous plants, houiver, thare are exceptions; horse will occasionally eat toxic amoonts o pushionous plants even whan thare is adequate halthy fuid.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=16|title= Horse Pasture is No Place for Poisonous Plants|accessdate=2008-07-09 |author= Gustavson, Carrie |work= Pet Column July 24, 2000 |publisher= University of Illinois |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070809051147/http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=16 |archivedate = August 9, 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Muivement===
[[File:Muybridge race horse animated.gif|thumb|left|The gallop|alt=Film shawin a horse runnin.]]
Aw horse muive naiturally wi fower basic [[horse gang|gangs]]: the fower-beat [[Horse gang#Walk|walk]], that averages {{convert|6.4|km/h}}; the twa-beat [[Trot (horse gang)|trot or jog]] at {{convert|13|to|19|km/h}} (fester for [[harness racin]] horse); the [[Canter|canter or lope]], a three-beat gang that is {{convert|19|to|24|km/h}}; an the [[Horse gallop|gallop]].&lt;ref name=HorseGaits32&gt;[[#Harris|Harris]], p. 32&lt;/ref&gt; The gallop averages {{convert|40|to|48|km/h}},&lt;ref name=Harris47&gt;[[#Harris|Harris]], pp.&amp;nbsp;47–49&lt;/ref&gt; but the warld record for a horse gallopin ower a short, sprint distance is {{convert|70.76|km/h}}.&lt;ref name=guinness&gt;{{cite web| title = Fastest speed for a race horse| work = Guinness World Records| accessdate = 8 January 2013| url = http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-speed-for-a-race-horse/}}&lt;/ref&gt; Besides thir basic gangs, some horse perform a twa-beat [[Pacin (horse gang)|pace]], insteid o the trot.&lt;ref name=HorseGaits50&gt;[[#Harris|Harris]], p. 50&lt;/ref&gt; Thare are several foweur-beat &quot;[[amblin]]&quot; gangs that are approximately the speed o a trot or pace an aw, tho smuither tae ride. Thir include the lateral [[Amblin#Rack|rack]], [[Amblin|runnin walk]], an [[tölt]] as well as the diagonal [[Fox trot (gang)|tod trot]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Lieberman&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lieberman, Bobbie | year=2007 |title=Easy Gaited Horses|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_equus_2007-08_359/page/47 |journal=Equus|issue= 359|pages=47–51}}&lt;/ref&gt; Amblin gangs are eften genetic in some breeds, kent collectively as [[gangit horse]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Equus Staff  | year=2007 |title=Breeds that Gait|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_equus_2007-08_359/page/52  |journal=Equus |issue= 359|pages=52–54}}&lt;/ref&gt; Eften, gangit horse replace the trot wi ane o the amblin gangs&lt;!--but some horses both trot and amble, can the Harris book support adding this?--&gt;.&lt;ref name=HorseGaits51&gt;[[#Harris|Harris]], pp. 50–55&lt;/ref&gt;

===Behaviour===
Horse are prey ainimals wi a strang [[fecht-or-flicht response]]. Theair first reaction tae threat is tae stairtle an uisually flee, awtho thay will staund thair grund an defend themsels whan flicht is impossible or if thair young are threatened.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.org/pages/23342/horse-fight-vs-flight-instinct |title=Horse Fight vs Flight Instinct |publisher=eXtension |date=2009-09-24 |accessdate=2013-04-17 |archive-date=2013-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515125847/http://www.extension.org/pages/23342/horse-fight-vs-flight-instinct |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Thay tend tae be curious an aw; whan stairtled, thay will eften hesitate an instant tae ascertain the cause o thair fricht, an mey nae ayeweys flee frae something that thay perceive as non-threatenin. Maist licht horse ridin breeds war developed for speed, agility, alertness an endurement; naitural qualities that extend frae thair wild auncestors. Houiver, throu selective breedin, some breeds o horse are quite docile, pairticularly certain draucht horse.&lt;ref name=Natural226&gt;{{cite book|ref=McBane |author= McBane, Susan|title= A Natural Approach to Horse Management|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780413623706 |publisher= Methuen|location= London|year= 1992|isbn= 0-413-62370-X |oclc= 26359746|pages= [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780413623706/page/226 226]–228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse are [[herd ainimal]]s, wi a clear hierarchy o rank, led bi a dominant individual, uisually a meir. Thay are social craiturs that are able tae form companionship attachments tae thair awn species an tae ither ainimals, includin humans. Thay communicate in various weys, includin vocalisations sic as nickerin or whinnyin, mutual [[Social gruimin|gruimin]], an [[bouk leid]]. Mony horse will acome difficult tae manage if thay are isolatit, but wi trainin, horse can learn tae accept a human as a companion, an sicweys be comfortable awey frae ither horse.&lt;ref name=Ensminger305&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], pp. 305–309&lt;/ref&gt; Houiver, whan confined wi insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals mey develop [[stable vices]], an assortment o bad habits, maistly [[Stereotypy (non-human)|stereotypies]] o psychological oreegin, that include wid chewin, waw kickin, &quot;weavin&quot; (rockin back an forth), an ither problems.&lt;ref name=Prince214&gt;{{cite book |author1=Prince, Eleanor F.  |author2=Gaydell M. Collier|title= Basic Horsemanship: English and Western|url=https://archive.org/details/basichorsemanshi00prin  |publisher= Doubleday|location= New York, NY|year= 1974|isbn=0-385-06587-6 |oclc= 873660|pages=[https://archive.org/details/basichorsemanshi00prin/page/214 214]–223}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Intelligence an learnin====
Studies hae indicatit that horse perform a nummer o [[Cogneetion|cognitive]] tasks on a daily basis, meetin mental challenges that include [[foragin|fuid procurement]] an identification o individuals within a [[Social structur|social seestem]]. Thay hae guid [[Spatial visualisation abeelity|spatial discrimination]] abeelities an aw.&lt;ref name=Hanggi&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/features/horseintelligence-119.shtml|title=Understanding horse intelligence|author=Clarkson, Neil|date=2007-04-16|accessdate=2008-09-16|work=Horsetalk 2007|publisher=Horsetalk|archive-date=2013-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124164951/http://horsetalk.co.nz/2012/10/11/understanding-horse-intelligence/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Studies hae assessed equine intelligence in auries sic as [[problem solvin]], speed o learnin, an [[memory]]. Horse excel at semple learnin, but are able tae uise mair advanced cognitive abilities that involve [[categorisation]] an [[concept learnin]] an aw. Thay can learn uisin [[habituation]], [[Desensitisation (psychology)|desensitisation]], [[clessical condeetionin]], an [[operant condeetionin]], an positive an negative [[reinforcement]].&lt;ref name=Hanggi/&gt; Ane study haes indicatit that horse can differentiate atween &quot;mair or less&quot; if the quantity involved is less nor fower.&lt;ref name=&quot;count&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15396 | title=Horses Demonstrate Ability to Count in New Study |author=Lesté-Lasserre, Christa |accessdate=2009-12-06|work=The Horse}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Domesticatit horse mey face greater mental challenges nor wild horse, acause thay live in artifeecial environments that prevent [[instinct]]ive behaviour whilst learnin tasks that are nae naitural.&lt;ref name=Hanggi/&gt; Horse are ainimals o [[Habit (psychology)|habit]] that respond well tae regimentation, an respond best whan the same routines an techniques are uised consistently. Ane trainer believes that &quot;intelligent&quot; horse are reflections o intelligent trainers wha effectively uise response condeetionin techniques an positive reinforcement tae train in the style that best fits wi an individual ainimal's naitural inclinations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://cs.bloodhorse.com/blogs/nicanor/archive/2008/06/17/equine-iq-what-big-brown-couldn-t-tell-you-and-mr-ed-kept-to-himself.aspx|title=What Big Brown Couldn't Tell You and Mr. Ed Kept to Himself (part 1)|author=Coarse, Jim|date=2008-06-17|accessdate=2008-09-16|work=The Blood Horse}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Temperament====
Horse are [[mammal]]s, an as sic are [[wairm-bluidit]], or [[endotherm]]ic craiturs, as opponed tae cauld-bluidit, or [[poikilotherm]]ic ainimals. Houever, thir wirds hae developed a separate meanin in the context o equine terminology, uised tae descrive temperament, nae [[Thermoregulation|bouk temperatur]]. For ensaumple, the &quot;het-bluids&quot;, sic as mony [[horse racin|race horse]], exhibit mair sensitivity an energy,&lt;ref name=Belknap255&gt;[[#Belknap|Belknap]], p. 255&lt;/ref&gt; while the &quot;cauld-bluids&quot;, sic as maist [[draucht horse|draucht breeds]], are quieter an calmer.&lt;ref name=Belknap112&gt;[[#Belknap|Belknap]], p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Whiles &quot;het-bluids&quot; are clessifee'd as &quot;licht horse&quot; or &quot;ridin horse&quot;,&lt;ref name=Ensminger71&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], pp. 71–73&lt;/ref&gt; wi the &quot;cauld-bluids&quot; clessifee'd as &quot;draucht horse&quot; or &quot;wark horse&quot;.&lt;ref name=Ensminger84&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 84&lt;/ref&gt;

====Sleep patterns====
Horse are able tae sleep baith staundin up an leein doun. In an adaptation frae life in the wild, horse are able tae enter licht sleep uisin a &quot;[[stay apparatus]]&quot; in thair legs, allouin them tae doze withoot collapsin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqzzz629/|title= How Horses Sleep|accessdate= 2007-03-23|author= Pascoe, Elaine|work= Equisearch.com|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193341/http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqzzz629/|archivedate= 2007-09-27|df= }}&lt;/ref&gt; Horse sleep better whan in groups acause some ainimals will sleep while ithers staund gaird tae watch for predators. A horse kept alane will nae sleep well acause its [[instinct]]s are tae keep a constant ee oot for danger.&lt;ref name=&quot;Horse sleep pt. 2&quot;/&gt;

Unlik humans, horse dae nae sleep in a solit, unbroken period o time, but tak mony short periods o rest. Horse spend fower tae fifteen oors a day in staundin rest, an frae a few meenits tae several oors leein doun. Tot sleep time in a 24-oor period mey range frae several meenits tae a couple o oors,&lt;ref name=&quot;Horse sleep pt. 2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqpowernap1771/|title= How Horses Sleep, Pt. 2&amp;nbsp;– Power Naps|accessdate= 2007-03-23|author= Pascoe, Elaine|work= Equisearch.com|date= 2002-03-12|archive-date= 2007-09-27|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193158/http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqpowernap1771/|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; maistly in short intervals o aboot 15&amp;nbsp;meenits ilk.&lt;ref name=Ensminger310&gt;[[#Ensminger|Ensminger]], p. 310.&lt;/ref&gt; The average sleep time o a domestic horse is said tae be 2.9 oors per day.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=40 Winks?|author=Holland, Jennifer S. |journal=National Geographic|volume=220|date=July 2011|issue=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Horse maun lee doun tae reach [[Rapid ee muivement sleep|REM sleep]]. Thay anerly hae tae lie doun for an oor or twa ivery few days tae meet thair meenimum REM sleep requirements.&lt;ref name=&quot;Horse sleep pt. 2&quot;/&gt; Houiver, if a horse is niver alloued tae lie doun, efter several days it will acome sleep-deprived, an in rare cases mey suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips intae REM sleep while still staundin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/sleepdisorder_121506/|title= Equine Sleep Disorder Videos|accessdate= 2007-03-23|author= EQUUS Magazine Editors|work= Equisearch.com|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070510051620/http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/sleepdisorder_121506/|archivedate= 2007-05-10|df= }}&lt;/ref&gt; This condeetion differs frae [[narcolepsy]], awtho horse mey suffer frae that disorder an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Smith, BP |title=Large Animal Internal Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/largeanimalinter0000unse |publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis, MO|year=1996 |edition=Second |isbn=0-8151-7724-0 |oclc=33439780|pages= [https://archive.org/details/largeanimalinter0000unse/page/1086 1086]–1087}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Soorces===
{{refbegin|60em}}
*{{cite book |ref=Belknap|author=Belknap, Maria |title=Horsewords: The Equine Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/horsewordsequine0000mari_z9o4_2nded|edition=Second |publisher=Trafalgar Square Publishing |location=North Pomfret, VT |year=2004 |isbn=1-57076-274-0}}
*{{cite book |ref=Bongianni|author=Bongianni, Maurizio |title=Simon &amp; Schuster's Guide to Horses and Ponies |publisher=Fireside |location=New York |year= 1987|isbn=0-671-66068-3}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|ref=Dohner |author=Dohner, Janet Vorwald |editor= Dohner, Janet Vorwald |title=Equines: Natural History |encyclopedia=Historic and Endangered Livestock and Poultry Breeds |year=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=Topeka, KS |pages=400–401 | isbn = 978-0-300-08880-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=Edwards |author=Edwards, Elwyn Hartley |title=The Encyclopedia of the Horse |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location= London, UK|year=1994 |isbn=1-56458-614-6 |oclc=29670649}}
*{{cite book |ref=Ensminger|author= Ensminger, M. E.|title= Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agricultural Series|url=https://archive.org/details/horseshorsemansh0000ensm|edition= Sixth|publisher= Interstate Publishers|location= Danville, IN|year= 1990|isbn=0-8134-2883-1 |oclc= 21977751}}
*{{cite book|ref=Giffin |author1=Giffin, James M.  |author2=Tom Gore|title= Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/horseownersveter0002giff |edition= Second|publisher= Howell Book House |location= New York|year=1998|isbn=0-87605-606-0 |oclc=37245445}}
*{{cite book|ref=Harris |author= Harris, Susan E.|title= Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement|url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h0z5 |publisher= Howell Book House|location= New York|year= 1993|isbn= 0-87605-955-8 |oclc= 25873158}}
*{{cite book|ref=McBane |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc00susa |last=McBane |first=Susan |year=1997 |publisher=Wellfleet Press |location=Edison, NJ |isbn=0-7858-0604-0 |oclc=244110821}}
*{{cite book |ref=Miller|author=Miller, Robert M.|title= Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind |publisher= Russell Meerdink Company Ltd|location=Neenah, WI|year=1999|isbn=0-929346-65-3|url=https://books.google.com/?id=5Qat2gs43owC&amp;pg=PA28|oclc=42389612}}
*{{cite book|ref=Price |author= Price, Steven D.; Spector, David L..; Gail Rentsch; Burn, Barbara B. (editors) |title= The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated|url=https://archive.org/details/wholehorsecatalo0000unse |edition=Revised |publisher=Fireside |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-684-83995-4}}
*{{cite book |ref=Sponenberg|author= Sponenberg, D. Phillip|chapter=The Proliferation of Horse Breeds|title= Horses Through Time|url=https://archive.org/details/horsesthroughtim00olse|edition= First|publisher= Roberts Rinehart Publishers|location= Boulder, CO |year= 1996 |isbn=1-57098-060-8 |oclc= 36179575}}
*{{cite book|ref=Whitaker | author=Whitaker, Julie |author2=Whitelaw, Ian |title=The Horse: A Miscellany of Equine Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/horsemiscellanyo0000whit |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=0-312-37108-X}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Horse| ]]
[[Category:Ainimal-pouered transport]]
[[Category:Ainimals descrived in 1758]]
[[Category:Equus]]
[[Category:Yerbivorous ainimals]]
[[Category:Horse subspecies]]
[[Category:Fermstockin]]
[[Category:Naitional seembols o Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Naitional seembols o Lesotho]]
[[Category:Naitional seembols o Mongolie]]
[[Category:Naitional seembols o Nigerie]]
[[Category:Naitional seembols o Turkmenistan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Jerusalem</title>
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      <text bytes="11833" sha1="d0svbpi7n66tzvex4b7fmwpb5356y9p" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --&gt;
|name                 =Jerusalem
|native_name          ={{lang|he| ירושלים}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|ISO          =Tell ʔabib Yapo
|native_name_lang     =
|settlement_type      =[[Leet o Israeli ceeties|Ceety]]
|translit_lang1       =
|translit_lang1_type  =
|translit_lang1_info  =
|translit_lang2       =
|translit_lang2_type  =
|translit_lang2_info  =
|image_skyline       = Jerusalem infobox image.JPG
|imagesize           = 255px
|image_alt           =
|image_caption       =
|image_flag          = Flag of Jerusalem.svg
|flag_alt            =
|image_seal          =
|seal_alt            = Flag of Jerusalem.svg
|image_shield        = Jerusalem emblem.svg
|shield_alt          =
|nickname            ='''', &lt;br /&gt; ''The Holy City''&lt;ref&gt;[]&lt;/ref&gt;
|motto               =
|image_map           =
|map_alt             =
|map_caption         =
|pushpin_map         =Israel
|pushpin_label_position=
|pushpin_map_alt     =
|pushpin_map_caption =Location in Israel
|coordinates        = {{coord|31|47|N|35|13|E|display=inline,title}}
|coor_pinpoint      =
|coordinates_footnote=
|subdivision_type   =Kintra
|subdivision_name   ={{Flag|Israel}}
|subdivision_type1  =[[Destricts o Israel|Destrict]]
|subdivision_name1  =[[Jerusalem Destrict|Jerusalem]]
|subdivision_type2  =Metropolitan Aurie
|subdivision_name2  =
|subdivision_type3  =
|subdivision_name3  =
|parts_type         =
|parts_style        =
|p1                 =
|established_title  =Foondit
|established_date   =
|established_title  =
|established_date1  =
|founder            =
|named_for          =
|seat_type          =
|seat               =
|government_footnotes=
|government_type    =[[Mayor-cooncil govrenment|Mayor-cooncil]]
|governing_body     =Jerusalem municipality
|leader_party       =
|leader_title       =Mayor
|leader_name        =[[Zaki al-Ghul]] (east)&lt;br&gt;[[Nir Barkat]] (west)
|leader_title1      =
|leader_name1       =
|total_type         =
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|area_footnotes     =
|area_total_km2     =
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|area_urban_km2     =
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|area_metro_km2     =
|area_metro_sq_mi   =
|area_note          =
|elevation_footnotes=
|elevation_m        =
|elevation_ft       =
|population_total       = {{Israel populations|Jerusalem}}{{Israel populations|reference}}
|population_metro       = 1,124,300&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=LOCALITIES, POPULATION AND DENSITY PER SQ. KM., BY METROPOLITAN AREA(1) AND SELECTED LOCALITIES|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton66/st02_25.pdf|website=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton66/st02_25.pdf|publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_as_of       = {{Israel populations|year}}
|population_density_km2 = 6400
|pop_est_as_of        =
|population_demonym   =
|population_note      =
|demographics_type1   =Ethnicity
|demographics1_title1 =Jews
|demographics1_info1  =
|demographics1_title2 =Muslims
|demographics1_info2  =
|demographics1_title3 =Christians
|demographics1_info3  =
|demographics1_title4 =Unclassifee'd
|demographics1_info4  =
|timezone1            =[[Israel Staundart Time|IST]]
|utc_offset1          =+2
|timezone1_DST        =[[Israel Simmer Time|IDT]]
|utc_offset1_DST      =+3
|postal_code_type     =[[Postal codes in Israel|Postal code]]
|postal_code          =
|area_code_type       =[[Telephone numbers in Israel|Aurie code]]
|area_code            =+972 (Israel) 3 (Ceety)
|website              =[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2 jerusalem.muni.il]
|footnotes            =
}}
'''Jerusalem''' ({{lang-he-n|ירושלים}}, ''Yerushaláyim''; {{lang-ar|القدس}}, ''al-Quds'', or {{lang|ar|أورشليم}}, ''ʔūrušalīm'') is the lairgest [[ceety]] o [[Israel]] an some [[kintra]]s merkit it as the [[Caipital ceety|caipital]] o Israel tho it haes nae internaitional kent heidhaund an is merkit as occupiet grund unner internaitional law. It haes a population o 719,900 indwallers. It is the destination o mony veesitors tae Israel. Jerusalem is merkit as a centre o three [[releegion]]s ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] an [[Islam]]). The ceety haes a lang [[history]], datin back tae the 19t century BC.

Mony chiels claim that it shoudnae be kent as the caipital o Israel, as [[East Jerusalem]] is supposed tae be the [[Palestinian territories|Palestinian]] caipital.

The [[Unitit Naitions|UN]] disnae recognise its status as the caipital o Israel as its anerly the caipital unner Israeli law an no [[internaitional law]].

Aye branch o the Israeli govrenment is locatit in Jerusalem, includin the [[Knesset]] (Israel's pairliament), the residences o the [[Prime Meenister o Israel|Prime Meenister]] an [[Preses o Israel|Preses]], an the [[Supreme Court o Israel|Supreme Court]]. Jerusalem is hame tae the [[Ebreu University o Jerusalem|Ebreu University]] an tae the [[Israel Museum]] wi its [[Shrine o the Beuk]]. The [[Jerusalem Biblical Zoo]] haes ranked conseistently as Israel's tap tourist attraction for Israelis.

== Etymology ==
{{further|Names o Jerusalem}}
A ceety cawed ''Rušalimum'' or ''Urušalimum'' (Foondation o [[Shalem]])&lt;ref name=&quot;Stephen J. Binz&quot;&gt;[http://books.google.com/books?id=7zLuDlzdTFYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;dq=Jerusalem%2C%20the%20Holy%20City%20By%20Stephen%20J.%20Binz&amp;pg=PA2#v=onepage&amp;q=foundation%20of%20shalem&amp;f=false Jerusalem, the Holy City] by Stephen J. Binz, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; appears in auncient [[Auncient Egypt|Egyptian]] records as the first twa references tae Jerusalem, in c. 2000 BC an c. 1330 BC respectively.&lt;ref&gt;G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) ''Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament'', (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.specialtyinterests.net/eae.html#287 |title=EA287 '&amp;#39;Abdi Hiba of Jerusalem to the king, No. 3'&amp;#39; |publisher=Specialtyinterests.net |date= |accessdate=2010-09-11 |archive-date=2015-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021050913/http://www.specialtyinterests.net/eae.html#287 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/EA263-end.html |title='&amp;#39;The El Amarna Letters from Canaan'&amp;#39; |publisher=Tau.ac.il |date= |accessdate=2010-09-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; The form ''Yerushalayim'' (Jerusalem) first appears in the [[Bible]], in the beuk o Joshua. This form haes the appearance o a [[portmanteau]] (blend) o''Yireh'' (an abidin place o the fear an the service o God)&lt;ref name=&quot;Louis Ginzberg&quot;&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext98/1lotj10.txt ''The Legends of the Jews'' Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403180037/http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext98/1lotj10.txt |date=2012-04-03 }} by Louis Ginzberg, Release Date: October, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; an the oreeginal ruit [[S-L-M]] an is no a semple phonetic evolution o the form in the [[Amarna letters]]. The meanin o the common ruit [[S-L-M]] is unkent but is thocht tae refer tae aither &quot;peace&quot; (Salam or Shalom in modren Arabic an Ebreu) or [[Shalim]], the god o dusk in the Canaanite releegion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jerusalem |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2010-03-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Jerusalem |last=Elon |first=Amos |url=http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh362/telavivandjerusalem.htm |isbn=0006375316 |date=1996-01-08 |accessdate=2007-04-26 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers Ltd |quote=The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem—Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic). |archive-date=2016-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319003627/http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh362/telavivandjerusalem.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ringgren, H., ''Die Religionen des Alten Orients'' (Göttingen, 1979), 212.&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:JerView.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Ramot]] neighborhuid]]
teepically the endin ''-im'' indicates the plural in Ebreu grammar an ''-ayim'' the dual sicweys leadin tae the suggestion that the name refers tae the fact that the ceety sits on twa hills.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|isbn=0405102984 |last=Wallace |first=Edwin Sherman |title=Jerusalem the Holy |url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalemholy0000wall |month=August |year=1977 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jerusalemholy0000wall/page/16 16] |quote=A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word |accessdate=2007-04-25|publisher=Arno Press|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70 |url=https://archive.org/details/32882018002389-jerusalemthetop |last=Smith |first=George Adam |year=1907 |accessdate=2007-04-25 |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=[https://archive.org/details/32882018002389-jerusalemthetop/page/n285 251] |quote=The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities|isbn=0790529351}} (see here [http://books.google.com/books?id=Nf4QAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA251&amp;dq=jerusalem+name+dual&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1])&lt;/ref&gt; Housomeivver the pronunciation o the last seellable as ''-ayim'' appears tae be a late development, which haed no yet appeared at the time o the [[Septuagint]].

The tradeetion names the auldest settled neighbourhuid o Jerusalem ''[[Ceety o David|the Ceety o David]]''. &quot;[[Zion]]&quot; initially referred tae pairt o the ceety, but later came tae signify the ceety as a whole an as a metaphor for the Biblical [[Land o Israel]]. In Greek an Laitin the ceety's name wis transliteratit ''Hierosolyma'' (Ἱεροσόλυμα), awtho the ceety wis renamed [[Aelia Capitolina]] for pairt o the [[Auncient Rome|Roman]] period o its history. In Arabic, Jerusalem is maist commonly kent as القُدس, transliteratit as ''al-Quds'' an meanin &quot;The Holy&quot;.

== Twin touns an sister ceeties ==
{{See an aa|Leet o twin touns an sister ceeties in Israel}}
* {{Flagicon|USA}} [[New York Ceety]], [[Unitit States]] (syne 1993)

[[File:Panorámica de Jerusalén desde el Monte de los Olivos.jpg|center|thumb|1300px]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Freemit airtins ==
{{Commonscat|Jerusalem}}
* [http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2 Offeecial wabsteid o Jerusalem Municipality]
* [http://www.jerusalemp3.com/ Jerusalemp3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801141619/http://jerusalemp3.com/ |date=2015-08-01 }}, affers free virtual tours in mp3 format frae the Jerusalem Municipality
* {{Wikivoyage|Jerusalem}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jerusalem| ]]
[[Category:Auncient Ebreu pilgrimage steids]]
[[Category:Auncient Jewish settlements o Judaea]]
[[Category:Arab Christian commonties in Israel]]
[[Category:Caipitals in Asie]]
[[Category:Caipitals in the State o Palestine]]
[[Category:Christian haly places]]
[[Category:Ceeties in Israel]]
[[Category:Ceeties in Jerusalem Destrict]]
[[Category:Ceeties in the State o Palestine]]
[[Category:Disputit territories in Asie]]
[[Category:Fower Haly Ceeties]]
[[Category:Ebreu Bible ceeties]]
[[Category:Haly ceeties]]
[[Category:Islamic haly places]]
[[Category:Jerusalem Govrenorate]]
[[Category:Jewish haly places]]
[[Category:Laund o Israel]]
[[Category:Mixed Israeli commonties]]
[[Category:New Testament ceeties]]
[[Category:Orthodox Jewish commonties]]
[[Category:Populatit places established in the 5t millennium BC]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes o Israel]]
[[Category:Torah ceeties]]

{{Stub/Israel}}</text>
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    <title>Augustinus</title>
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[[File:Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''St Augustine of Hippo''' ({{IPA-en|ɒˈɡʌstɨn|}};&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Wells | first = J. |authorlink=John C. Wells| title = Longman Pronunciation Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia00jcwe | publisher = Longman | location = New York | year = 2000| isbn = 0582364671|edition=2}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{lang-la|Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis}};)&lt;ref&gt;The ''[[Roman naming conventions|nomen]]'' Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying little more than Roman citizenship (see: {{cite journal|last=Salway|first=Benet|year=1994|title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c.&amp;nbsp;700&amp;nbsp;B.C. to A.D.&amp;nbsp;700|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/300873|journal=The Journal of Roman Studies|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies|volume=84|pages=124–45|doi=10.2307/300873|issn=00754358}}).&lt;/ref&gt; (November 13, 354 – August 28, 430), Bishop o Hippo Regius, forby kent as '''Augustine''', '''St. Augustine''', or '''St. Austin'''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title = The American Heritage College Dictionary | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0395669189 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company | location = Boston | year = 1997 | isbn = 0395669170 |page= [https://archive.org/details/isbn_0395669189/page/90 91]}}&lt;/ref&gt; wis a [[Laitin]] speakin philosopher an theologian livin in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Africa Province. Augustine wis canonized bi popular acclaim, an later recognised as a Doctor o the Church in 1298 bi Pape Boniface VIII&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=sdunn|date=2008-07-29|title=Chronological list of the Doctors of the Church|url=https://uscatholic.org/articles/200807/chronological-list-of-the-doctors-of-the-church/|access-date=2023-03-20|website=U.S. Catholic|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. His feast day is August 28, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint o brewers, printers, theologians, sore een, an a nummer o ceeties an dioceses.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=PHILOSOPHY|url=http://www.catholicapologetics.info/library/saints/index.htm|access-date=2023-03-20|website=www.catholicapologetics.info}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is nae tae be confused wi St. Augustine of Canterbury(d.604)

Augustine, a Latin church father, is ane o the maist important feegurs in the development o Wastren Christianity. He &quot;established anew the ancient faith&quot; (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei''), accordin tae his contemporary, [[Jerome]].&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerome]] wrote tae Augustine in 418: ''You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient faith''. Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]; {{cite book |title= Augustine the Theologian|url= https://archive.org/details/augustinetheolog0000tese|last= TeSelle |first= Eugene |year= 1970 | location= London |pages= [https://archive.org/details/augustinetheolog0000tese/page/343 343] | isbn= 0223-97728-4}} March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7 .&lt;/ref&gt; In his early years he wis hivily influenced bi Manichaeism an afterwards i the Neo-Platonism o Plotinus,&lt;ref name=&quot;Oxford:Platonism&quot;&gt;{{cite book | editor= Cross, Frank L. and Livingstone, Elizabeth |chapter=Platonism| title = The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | url= https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_o5w8 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford Oxfordshire | year = 2005 | isbn = 0192802909 }}&lt;/ref&gt; but efter his conversion an baptism (387), he developed his awn approach tae philosophy an theology accommodating a variety o methods an different perspectives.&lt;ref&gt;E. TeSelle gives a list of disciplines and methods that are now practiced in isolation, which Augustine utilized concurrently: ''natural philosophy, critical philosophy, phenomenology of finite spirit, rational theology, doctrinal theology or a theology of the history of salvation, speculative theology or Glaubenslehre, anagogical or mystical theology, ethics, ecclesiology, theology of culture, politics, logic, rethoric'', cf. {{cite book |title= Augustine the Theologian|url= https://archive.org/details/augustinetheolog0000tese|last= TeSelle |first= Eugene |year= 1970 | location= London |pages= [https://archive.org/details/augustinetheolog0000tese/page/347 347]–349 | isbn= 0223-97728-4}} March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7.&lt;/ref&gt; He believed that the grace o Christ wis indispensable tae human freedom an framed the concepts o original sin an just war. When the [[Roman Empire]] in the West wis startin tae disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept o the Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name) distinct frae the material Earthly Ceety.&lt;ref name=&quot;CC&quot;&gt;{{cite book | last = Durant | first = Will | title = Caesar and Christ: a History of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Civilization and of Christianity from Their Beginnings to A.D. 325 | publisher = MJF Books | location = New York| year = 1992 | isbn = 1567310141 |authorlink=Will Durant}}&lt;/ref&gt; His thocht profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City of God wis closely identified wi the church, an wis the community which worshipped God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Wilken | first = Robert L. | title = The Spirit of Early Christian Thought | url = https://archive.org/details/spiritofearlychr0000wilk | publisher = Yale University Press | location = New Haven | year = 2003 | isbn = 0300105983 |page=[https://archive.org/details/spiritofearlychr0000wilk/page/291 291]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[Roman Catholic Kirk|Catholic Church]] an the Anglican Communion, he is a saint an pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, an the patron o the Augustinian religious order; his memorial is celebrated 28 August. Mony [[Protestantism|Protestants]], especially Calvinists, consider him tae be ane o the theological faithers o [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] teachin on salvation an divine grace. In the Eastren Orthodox Kirk he is blessed, an his feast day is celebrated on 15 Juin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last =Archimandrite [now Archbishop] Chrysostomos | title =Book Review: ''The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church'' | journal =Orthodox Tradition | volume =II | issue =3&amp;4 | pages =40–43 | url =http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx#rose | accessdate =2007-06-28|authorlink=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Amang the Orthodox he is cried '''Blessed Augustine''', or '''St. Augustine the Blessed'''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Blessed&quot; here does not mean that he is less than a saint, but is a title bestowed upon him as a sign of respect. {{cite journal | title =Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church: A Corrective Compilation | journal =Orthodox Tradition | volume =XIV | issue =4 | pages =33–35 | url =http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx | accessdate =2007-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{Commonscat}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Augustine O Hippo}}
[[Category:354 births]]
[[Category:430 daiths]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Souk Ahras]]
[[Category:Chaoui fowk]]
[[Category:Augustinian Order| ]]
[[Category:Kirk Fathers]]
[[Category:Doctors o the Kirk]]
[[Category:Christian theologians]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic filosofers]]
[[Category:Neoplatonists]]
[[Category:Late Antique writers]]
[[Category:Laitin letter writers]]
[[Category:Sermon writers]]
[[Category:Auncient Roman rhetoricians]]
[[Category:Seestematic theologians]]
[[Category:Late Antique Laitin-leid writers]]
[[Category:Autobiographers]]
[[Category:4t-century Romans]]
[[Category:5t-century Romans]]
[[Category:4t-century writers]]
[[Category:5t-century writers]]
[[Category:4t-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:5t-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:5t-century Christian saunts]]
[[Category:Algerian Roman Catholic saunts]]
[[Category:Romans frae Africae]]
[[Category:Buirials at San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]]
[[Category:Anglican saunts]]
[[Category:Hellenism an Christianity]]
[[Category:Existentialist theologians]]
[[Category:Releegious existentialism]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Mariology]]
[[Category:Amillennialism]]
[[Category:Anti-Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Christian ethicists]]
[[Category:Christian meestics]]
[[Category:Muisic theorists]]
[[Category:Berber Christians]]
[[Category:Christianity in Algerie]]


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  <page>
    <title>AC Aceca</title>
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      <text bytes="2751" sha1="j4g9c7fdimcjwwb5cpag891xtwp23xr" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AC Aceca.jpg|right|250px|1958 AC Aceca.]]

The '''Aceca''' (pronoonced &quot;A-See-Ka&quot;) is a closed [[coupé]] frae the Breetish [[AC Caurs]] company, produced frae 1954 till 1963. The caur oreeginally haed an AC ingine but the seemilar [[Bristol Cars|Bristol]]-ingined '''Aceca-Bristol''' wis an aa available alang wi the oreeginal frae 1956 tae 1963 whan production o the ingine ceased. A few caurs wis biggit frae 1961 tae 1963 wi a 2553&amp;nbsp;cc tuned [[Ford Zephyr]] ingine an sellt as the Aceca 2.6.

Based on the open twa seat AC Ace, the Aceca wis a haun-biggit [[grand tourer]] in the Breetish tradeetion, wi [[ash tree|ash]] wid an steel tubin uised in thair construction. Ane notable featur wis the [[hatchback]] at the rear, makkin the Aceca anerlie the seicont caur, efter the 1953 [[Aston Martin DB2/4]], tae incorporate this element.

151 Acecas, 169 Aceca-Bristols an 8 Ford-ingined models wis biggit whan production haltit in 1963.&lt;ref name=AZ1945&gt;{{cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=M. |authorlink= |coauthors= Gillies.M|title=A-Z of Cars 1945-1970|year=1986 |publisher=Bay View Books |location=Devon, UK |id=ISBN 1-870979-39-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The main differ atween the Aceca an Aceca-Bristol wis the ingine. Baith uised a [[straight-6]] unit, but the Aceca shared its 90&amp;nbsp;hp (67&amp;nbsp;kW), 1,991 cc (121.5 cu in) abuinheid camshaft AC ingine wi the lichter [[AC Ace]], while the Aceca-Bristol uised a 125&amp;nbsp;hp (93&amp;nbsp;kW) &quot;D-Type&quot; 2.0&amp;nbsp;L (1971&amp;nbsp;cc/120&amp;nbsp;in³) unit soorced frae [[Bristol Caurs]]. The Aceca-Bristol wis available wi a milder &quot;B-Type&quot; Bristol ingine o 105&amp;nbsp;hp (78&amp;nbsp;kW) an aw. The Bristol specification addit $1000 tae the Aceca's $5,400 price tag in the Unitit States. In the UK the basic caur cost £1722.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cars4580&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Robson |first=Graham |title=A-Z British Cars 1945-1980|url=https://archive.org/details/azbritishcars1940000robs |year=2006 |publisher=Herridge &amp; Sons |location=Devon, UK|id=ISBN 0-9541063-9-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The front-end stylin o the Ace an Aceca reportedly traces back tae a design duin bi Pinin Farina for AC in the late 1940s. The caur haes exceptional licht wicht awin tae a tubular frame, aluminium ingine block an aluminium body panels. Lairge 16&quot; spoked road wheels, an naur perfect fore/aft wicht distribution alloued exceptional handlin on loose, dirt tracks. It an aa features front-wheel disc brakes (addit in 1957), transverse &quot;de Dion&quot; leaf rear suspension, articulated rear hauf-axles, worm-gear steerin, an optional overdrive on 2nt, 3rd &amp; 4t gears, boued windshield, an leather covert bucket seats. The suspension is independent at the front an rear uisin transverse leaf springs.
 
==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:AC vehicles|Aceca]]</text>
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    <title>Royal Enfield Bullet</title>
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      <text bytes="13393" sha1="2erpt7y6dqxdqfcv9wd2b2gv0z1p4no" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Royal Enfield Bullet 350 1955.JPG|thumb|250px]]
The '''Royal Enfield Bullet''' is a British owerheid valve single cylinder 4-stroke [[motorcycle]] originally made by [[Royal Enfield]] in [[Redditch]], [[Wast Midlands (region)|Wast Midlands]], but now produced by [[Royal Enfield Motors]], the successor tae the Breetish company, at [[Chennai]] (umwhilely kent as Madras), [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[Indie]]. The Royal Enfield Bullet haes the langest production run o ony motorcycle haein remained continuously in production syne 1948. The Bullet marque is even aulder, an haes passed 75 years o continuous production. The Royal Enfield an Bullet names derive frae the company's links wi the [[Royal Small Arms Factory]] in [[Lunnon Borough o Enfield|Enfield]].

==Evolution==
The Bullet haes evolved frae a fower-valve ingine wi exposed valve-gear tae the latest aw-alloy Unit Construction Ingine wi electronic [[fuel-injection]].

===1931&amp;ndash;1939===
Introduced in 1931 as a fower-stroke single cylinder motorcycle, this model wis the first tae featur the Bullet name. It differed in a nummer o ways frae its successors (whilk are nou faimiliar): it haed an inclined ingine wi exposed valve gear featurin fower valves per cylinder wi 350&amp;nbsp;cc an 500&amp;nbsp;cc options. In 1933, a 250&amp;nbsp;cc option wis an aa addit tae the range.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brown&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Roland|title=The History of British Bikes|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbritish0000brow|publisher=Paragon|year=1999|isbn=0-75253-153-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its frame wis an aa considerably different, haein centre-sprung girder front forks, bein amang a new range o models frae Royal Enfield that featurt them, alang wi a saddle-teep fuel tank. Housomeivver, common tae motorcycles o this period, it haed a rigid rear-end, necessitatin a 'sprung' seat for the rider, whilk resultit in the iconic leuk o the motorcycle that is muckle replicatit the day, even tho the sprung seat is unnecessary in modren models.

===1939&amp;ndash;1949===

This model refresht Royal Enfield's model line-up for 1939. It differed in cosmetic details, as weel as in haein twa rocker boxes, whilk resultit in hichter volumetric efficiency for the ingine. The basic design wi front gaiter forks wis retained.

===1949&amp;ndash;1956===

A nummer o chynges wur implementit in order tae bring the bike up-tae-date. This model featurt a vertical ingine wi alloy heid an hichter compression. The frame wis an aa chynged tae a fully sprung design uisin a swing-airm wi non-adjustable hydraulic shockers at the rear, while the front uised a brand-new telescopic fork o Royal Enfield's awn design. This enabled the introduction o a bench seat made o semple foam an wi nae lairge sprungs. Pouer transmission wis via the same fower-speed Albion gearbox as the previous model, wi a unique 'neutral-finder' lever the rider coud press frae ony gear ither than first tae shift tae neutral. The crankshaft continued tae hae a fully-floating big-end bearing. The headlight assembly wis enclosed wi the speedometer an ammeter intae a nacelle, whilk an aa served as the attachment o the front suspension as weel as the handlebars. An itherwise seemilar model, but wi ingine displacement o 499&amp;nbsp;cc, made its debut in 1953.

The prototype haed done weel in a performance trial an went on tae win the trophy at the 1948 [[International Six Days Enduro|Internaitional Sax Days Trial]] an twa Bullet riders wan gowd medals.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kemp&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Andrew|coauthors=De Cet|others=Mirco|title=Classic British Bikes|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781861471369|publisher=Bookmart Ltd|year=2004|isbn=1-86147-136-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1952 [[Johhny Brittain]] wan the [[Scots Sax Days Trial]] on a Royal Enfield Bullet an in 1953 he an aa wan the Internaitional Sax Days Trial athoot losin a single pynt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bullet&quot; /&gt;

In 1949, the [[Indien Airmy]] ordered Royal Enfield Bullets for mairch patrol uiss an the company decidit tae open a factory in [[Madras]]. In 1955, the 350&amp;nbsp;cc Bullets wur sent frae the Redditch factory in kit form for assembly in Indie, but Enfield Indie Ltd. suin developt the factory an produced complete motorcycles independently unner licence. The 1955 model remained amaist unchynged for years an Madras produced ower 20,000 Bullets annually.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brown&quot; /&gt;
===1956&amp;ndash;1964===

In 1955, Royal Enfield carried oot some retoolin an redesign at thair Redditch plant, in the UK, tae modrenise the Bullet, an in 1959 some chynges wur made tae the gear ratios. Thir chynges, housomeivver, wur no incorporatit bi the Indien airm due tae its commitment tae supply the Indien Airmy. Sicweys the Breetish an Indien lines diverged, niver tae meet again.

Atween 1956 an 1960, the Breetish Bullet wis released in several models, includin a 350&amp;nbsp;cc Trials &quot;wirks replica&quot; version, a 350&amp;nbsp;cc &quot;Clipper&quot; model an in 1958 the ''Airflow'' version. This model haed full wather pertection frae a lairge fibreglass fairin an includit panniers for tourin. The design wis developt in partnership wi Breetish Plastics an featurt as a series in ''[[The Motor Cycle]]'' magazine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reynolds&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Jim|title=Best of British Bikes|url=https://archive.org/details/bestofbritishbik0000reyn|publisher=Patrick Stephens Ltd|year=1990|isbn=1-85260-033-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ingines wur the same an the ae differences wur in exhaust, seatin, instrumentation, handlebars an fuel tank. Numerous technical improvements wur an aa made, includin movin tae alternator chargin (1956) an [[Ignition coil|coil ignition]] (1960). The 350&amp;nbsp;cc model continued in production, but the 500&amp;nbsp;cc model wis discontinued in 1961. In 1962, the UK company wis sauld an the Bullet discontinued an in 1967, the [[Redditch]] factory closed. Finally, in 1970, Royal Enfield closed doun completely.&lt;ref name=&quot;geocities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/siliconvalley/vista/8129/bullet.htm|title=The Royal Enfield Bullet a brief history|accessdate=2008-12-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010803015055/http://www.geocities.com/siliconvalley/vista/8129/bullet.htm|archivedate=2001-08-03|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===1955&amp;ndash;1995===

The Enfield Indie Ltd. factory did weel an continued production o the 1955 Bullet design amaist unchynged, re-introducin it tae the Breetish mercat in 1984 unner the name 'Enfield'. This wis a period o stagnation for the Bullet, as the Indien awners did no mak even basic improvements tae the motorcycle, an the quality o pairts dropt at an alarmin rate.

Due tae the protectionist Indien economy, housomeivver, thare wis felt nae need for betterment, an the brand survived intae the 1990s essentially as a domestic Indien commuter bike Equivalent bikes in the mercat wur the [[Yamaha RD350]] an the [[Yezdi]]. Baith bikes enjoy a cult follaein in Indie, but hae been oot o production for decades. Housomeivver, this coud no prevent the erosion o the bike's mercat ance the economy wis sufficiently opened up tae allou the Japanese motorbikes. Chronic laich quality an mismanagement, coupled wi the bike's relatively laich mileage (awtho the Bullet ingine is fuel-efficient, its main competeetion wis wi bikes whose ingines at 100&amp;nbsp;cc wur less nor a third in size) caused a descendin spiral o sales till the company, naur bankruptcy, wis bocht oot bi [[Eicher Motors]], a tractor an commercial vehicle manufacturer.

===1995&amp;ndash;1997===
Unner the newly appointit CEO o Enfield Indie, Siddhartha Lal, Eicher unnerteuk major investment in the ailin firm. This wis stairtit wi the purchase o kenmerk an intellectual property richts o the defunct Breetish Royal Enfield firm, chyngin the name o the company tae Royal Enfield Motors. Mony management an production chynges wur made, wi the production process bein streamlined an excess capacity redistributit. Athoot the lairge-scale Airmy/Law Enforcement orders tae bail the company oot, thare wis ae the individual sales route in whilk the company haed tae perform if it wur tae survive at aw. The company an aa faced the difficult task o caterin tae a ver diverse mercat. Tae preserve the Bullet's naitur an reputation as a classic Breetish bike, as the Raja Gaadi, an tae attract yungsters away frae the newly appeared performance motorcycle mercat, the Bullet marque wis split up intae twa. The Bullet Standard 350 featurt aw the increased manufacturin quality an reliability but wis maintained in the traditional 'Bullet' leuk, available ae in black. A new model, available in mair colours an chrome accents, a CV carburettor, an gas-charged shock absorbers - but wi the same ingine an gearbox as the Standard - wis launched. This model wis cawed the 'Bullet Electra'. The Electra 350 gaed on tae acome the best-sellin Royal Enfield model, accoontin for aroond hauf the company's sales.

Alangside thir developments, Austrian ingine firm AVL wis contractit tae produce an aw-alloy ingine suitable as a drop-in replacement for the cast-[[iron]] block oreeginal ingine (wi design datin frae 1955). The first bike wi this ingine wis launched as the ''Bullet Machismo 350''. This ingine did no sell weel in the Indien mercat; mony prospective buyers wur surveyd as sayin that it didna soond the same as the auld ingine, lackin the 'thump' noise o its predecessor. The ingine did succeed in the Thunderbird model, a chopper style cruiser frae Royal Enfield Motors. An aa seen wis the introduction o a disc-brake on the front wheel as a factory option hameltlie, an staundart on exportit models.

===1997&amp;ndash;2007===

Iver tichter European emission norms forced the Bullet Standard 350 tae end 2007 as its last model year in the EU, sae whan on-haund stocks wur aw sauld the Breetish-design ingined Bullet became nae langer available new. Aw new models exclusively featurt the AVL 'lean-burn' ingine. The introduction o a 5-speed gearbox meant that Royal Enfield coud 'fix' ane o the lang-standin quirks o the Bullet design&amp;mdash;the fit-brake is on the left side while the gearshift is on the richt. Accordinlie, the Bullet Machismo 350 wis equipt wi this gearbox. Housomeivver, the 'left-shift' gearchynge provoket a backlash frae Indien Bullet customers, forcin the company tae no ae continue the Bullet Standard wi the traditional seestem, but even on the Electra it wis affered ae as an option, leadin tae the Electra 4-speed (traditional) an Electra 5-speed (left-shift) variants. Sales figures indicatit that Indien Bullet customers haed shunned the new gearbox, foregoin even the attraction o 5-speed transmission tae keep the gearshift traditional. Housomeivver, customers ootside o Indie teuk tae the new gearbox wi pleasure, as a result it became standard fitment on aw exportit models. New developments includit the addition o electric stairt as an option on some models, while standard on ithers. In 2007&amp;ndash;2008, a leemitit edition, heavily accessorised 500&amp;nbsp;cc lean-burn Machismo 500 wis launched as the ultimate tourin bike. Due tae extremely leemitit production (500 units) an hie price, this became a rare bike. The Machismo 350 wis discontinued.

===Since 2007===

As a result o wirk spannin several years, a new set o ingines wis introduced. Thir wur the [[Unit construction|Unit Construction]] Ingines (UCI). The 350&amp;nbsp;cc UCI foond uise in the domestic model Thunderbird TwinSpark in a configuration wi twa sparkplugs per cylinder, wi integratit 5-speed left-shift gearbox. It haes no been featurt on ony o the Bullet models, hamelt or itherwise. The auld cast-iron ingine currently haes a lairge cult follaein in Indie, sae it is currently unclear whether or no the new UCE ingines will be pusht in tae phase oot the aulder ingine mercat on new models.

The 500&amp;nbsp;cc UCE features [[fuel injection]], an haes greater pouer than ony Royal Enfield 500&amp;nbsp;cc motor. The 500cc UCE, wi an integratit 5-speed gearbox, pouers the current Bullet Classic model. Stairtin in 2009 this ingine wis available ae in the EU tae satisfee emissions regulations,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bullet&quot; /&gt; but is as o 2010 is available in the Unitit States unner twa frame models, the Bullet Classic C5, or the Bullet G5, whilk leuks seemilar an shares panelin wi the earlier AVL Electra models.

==Special custom models==

===EGLI Royal Enfield ''Super Bullet''===
Swiss motorcycle tuner Fritz W. Egli, a distributor o Royal Enfield motorcycles, wis approached bi a customer tae creaut the ultimate Egli Super Bullet. The basis for this bike wis Egli’s central tube frame constructit frae [[nickel]]-platit [[chromium]]-[[molybdenum]] steel an the ingine wis completely redesigned wi a langer stroke crankshaft (105&amp;nbsp;mm), special main bearings, dry clutch, timin belt primary drive. 36&amp;nbsp;mm Keihin flet-slide carburettors wur addit tae provide an ootput o 40&amp;nbsp;hp (30&amp;nbsp;kW) frae a 624&amp;nbsp;cc ingine fed via an electric pump.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bikervoodoo.com/2008/04/02/egli-royal-enfield-super-bullet-624cc/|title=EGLI Royal Enfield ''Super Bullet''|accessdate=2008-12-13|archive-date=2012-07-22|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722054640/http://www.bikervoodoo.com/2008/04/02/egli-royal-enfield-super-bullet-624cc/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Category:Breetish motorcycles]]
[[Category:Royal Enfield motorcycles|Bullet]]
[[Category:Royal Enfield Motors]]
[[Category:Standard motorcycles]]</text>
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    <title>Shanghai</title>
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      <text bytes="18078" sha1="4bovksiyjf7hnpcvtcyjopnlnny76ra" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
|name                = Shanghai
|official_name       = Municipality o Shanghai • {{lang|zh-cn|上海市}}
|native_name         = {{lang|zh-cn|上海}}
|settlement_type     = [[Direct-controlled municipality o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|Municipality]]
|total_type          = Municipality
|image_skyline       = Shanghai montage.png
|image_caption       = Clockwise frae top: A view o the [[Pudong]] skyline; [[Yuyuan Garden]], [[:en:China pavilion at Expo 2010|China Pavilion]] alang wi the [[Expo Axis]], neon signs on [[Nanjing Road (Shanghai)|Nanjing Road]], an [[The Bund]]
|image_map           = Shanghai in China (+all claims hatched).svg
|map_caption         = Location o Shanghai Municipality athin Cheenae
|image_map1 =
|map_caption1 =
|subdivision_type    = Kintra
|subdivision_name    = [[Fowkrepublic o Cheenae]]
|established_title   = Settled
|established_date    = 5t–7t century
|established_title1  = Incorporatit&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Toun
|established_date1   = &lt;br /&gt;751
|established_title2  = &amp;nbsp;- Coonty
|established_date2   = 1292
|established_title3  = &amp;nbsp;- Municipality
|established_date3   = 7 Julie 1927
|parts_type          = Diveesions&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Coonty-level diveesion|Coonty-level]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Admeenistrative diveesions o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae#Tounship level|Tounship-&lt;br/&gt;level]]
|parts               = &lt;br /&gt;[[Leet o admeenistrative diveesions o Shanghai|16 destricts, 1 coonty]]&lt;br /&gt;210 touns an subdestricts
|government_type     = [[Direct-controlled municipality o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|Municipality]]
|leader_title        = [[Pairty chief o the Communist Pairty o Cheenae|CPC Ctte Secretary]]
|leader_name         = [[Han Zheng]]
|leader_title1       = Mayor
|leader_name1        = [[Yang Xiong (politeecian)|Yang Xiong]]
|leader_title2       = Congress Chairman
|leader_name2        = Yin Yicui
|leader_title3       = Conference Chairman
|leader_name3        = Wu Zhiming
|area_total_km2      = 6340.5
|area_land_km2       =
|area_water_km2      = 697
|area_urban_km2      =
|area_footnotes      = &lt;ref name=mofcom&gt;{{cite web|title=Doing Business in China - Survey|url=http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/zt_business/lanmub/|publisher=Ministry Of Commerce - People's Republic Of China|accessdate=5 August 2013|archive-date=2013-08-05|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130805091244/http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/zt_business/lanmub/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;landarea&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36484.html |title=Land Area |work=Basic Facts |publisher=Shanghai Municipal Government |accessdate=19 July 2011 |archive-date=2011-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003033611/http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36484.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;waterresources&quot;&gt;{{cite web
  |url=http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36486.html
  |title=Water Resources
  |work=Basic Facts
  |publisher=Shanghai Municipal Government
  |accessdate=19 July 2011
  |archive-date=2011-10-03
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003033713/http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36486.html
  |url-status=dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|elevation_m            = 4
|elevation_footnotes    = &lt;ref name=&quot;topo&quot;&gt;{{cite web
  |url=http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36485.html
  |title=Topographic Features
  |work=Basic Facts
  |publisher=Shanghai Municipal Government
  |accessdate=19 July 2011
  |archive-date=2011-10-03
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003033931/http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/node24059/node24061/userobject22ai36485.html
  |url-status=dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_total       = 24256800
|population_as_of       = 2014
|population_footnotes   = &lt;ref name=&quot;bulletin2014&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/sjfb/201502/277392.html
|trans-title=Shanghai Economic and Social Development Statistical Bulletin 2014
|script-title=zh:2014年上海市国民经济和社会发展统计公报
|publisher=Shanghai Bureau of Statistics
|language=Chinese
|date=2015-02-28
|accessdate=2015-05-01
|archive-date=2015-03-09
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309200433/http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn/sjfb/201502/277392.html
|url-status=dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_rank=[[Leet o ceeties in Cheenae bi urban population|1st in Cheenae]]
|population_metro =34000000
|population_metro_footnotes = &amp;nbsp;(2010)&lt;ref name=&quot;unpd&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-china-2015_9789264230040-en|title=OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]|accessdate=2015-05-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_demonym     = Shanghainese
|timezone               = [[Cheenae Staundart Time]]
|utc_offset             = +8
|coor_type              =
|coordinates         = {{coord|31|12|N|121|30|E|region:CN-31|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type       = [[Postal code o Cheenae|Postal code]]
|postal_code            = '''2000'''00–'''2021'''00
|area_code              = [[Telephone numbers in Cheenae|21]]
|blank_name             = GDP&lt;ref name=&quot;GDP&quot;&gt;{{cite news
  |url=http://www.dfdaily.com/html/3/2012/1/20/733021.shtml
  |title=上海人均GDP超北京全国最高
  |newspaper=Dongfang Daily
  |language=Chinese
  |date=20 January 2012
  |access-date=2015-07-23
  |archive-date=2012-01-23
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123031652/http://www.dfdaily.com/html/3/2012/1/20/733021.shtml
  |url-status=dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|blank_info             = 2014
|blank1_name            = &amp;nbsp;- Tot
|blank1_info            = [[Renminbi|CNY]]2.356&amp;nbsp;trillion &lt;br/&gt; US$383.55&amp;nbsp;billion ([[Leet o Cheenese admeenistrative diveesions bi GDP|11t]])
|blank2_name            = &amp;nbsp;- Per capita
|blank2_info            = CNY97,555 &lt;br/&gt; US$15,880 ([[Leet o Cheenese admeenistrative diveesions bi GDP per capita|3rd]])
|blank3_name            = &amp;nbsp;- Growth
|blank3_info            = {{increase}} 7%
|blank4_name            = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2010)
|blank4_info            = 0.814&lt;ref name=&quot;2013 report&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH-HD-Publication-NHDR_2013_EN_final.pdf|format=PDF|script-title=zh:《2013中国人类发展报告》|year=2013|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] China|language=zh|accessdate=5 January 2014|archive-date=2014-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611132435/http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH-HD-Publication-NHDR_2013_EN_final.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Leet o admeenistrative diveesions o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae bi Human Development Index|2nt]]) – &lt;span style=&quot;color:#090;&quot;&gt;very heich&lt;/span&gt;
|blank5_name            = [[Licence plates o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|Licence plate]] prefixes
|blank5_info            = 沪A, B, D, E, F, G, H, J, K&lt;br /&gt;沪C (outer suburbs)
|blank6_name            = Ceety flouer
|blank6_info            = [[Magnolia denudata|Yulan magnolia]]
|website                = &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/ www.shanghai.gov.cn]&lt;/span&gt;
}}
'''Shanghai''' ({{zh|c=[[wikt:上|上]][[wikt:海|海]]|p=Shànghǎi}}; [[Shanghainese]]: Zånhae {{IPA|[z̥ɑ̃̀hé]}}; Mandarin: {{IPA-cmn|ʂɑ́ŋxài|}}) is the maist populous ceety in [[Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|Cheenae]] an the [[Leet o ceeties proper bi population|lairgest ceety proper]] in the warld. A [[global ceety]], Shanghai exerts influence ower commerce, finance, cultur, airt, fashion, research an entertainment. The ceety is locatit at the middle portion o the Cheenese coast, an sits at the mouth o the [[Yangtze River]].

Ance a [[Fishin industry in Cheenae|fishin]] an textiles toun, Shanghai grew tae importance in the 19t century due tae its [[Port o Shanghai|favourable port location]] an as ane o the ceeties opened tae foreign trade bi the 1842 [[Treaty o Nanking]].&lt;ref name=&quot;nanking&quot;&gt;
{{cite book
  |last = Mackerras |first = Colin
  |title = The New Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China
  |url = https://archive.org/details/newcambridgehand0000mack |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
  |year = 2001
  |page = [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgehand0000mack/page/242 242]
  |isbn = 0521786746 
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ceety flourished as a centre o commerce atween [[Far East|east]] an [[wastren warld|wast]], an became a multinaitional hub o finance an business bi the 1930s.&lt;ref name=&quot;1930hub&quot;&gt;{{cite web
  |title=A Glimpse at 1930s Shanghai
  |url=http://www.shanghaiexpat.com/Article139.phtml
  |publisher=Yoran Beisher
  |date=2003-09-24
  |accessdate=2008-03-20
  |archive-date=2008-11-21
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121154533/http://www.shanghaiexpat.com/Article139.phtml
  |url-status=dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt; Efter 1990, the [[Economic reform in the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|economic reforms]] introduced bi [[Deng Xiaoping]] resultit in intense re-development an financin in Shanghai, an in 2005 Shanghai became the warld's lairgest cargo port.&lt;ref name=&quot;largest port&quot;&gt;{{cite web
  |title=Shanghai now the world's largest cargo port
  |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HA07Cb02.html
  |publisher=[[Asia Times Online]]
  |date=2006-01-07
  |accessdate=2008-03-20
  |archive-date=2018-10-09
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009220305/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HA07Cb02.html
  |url-status=dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The ceety is a [[tourism|tourist]] destination renouned for its historical landmarks such as [[the Bund]] an [[City God Temple]], an its modern an iver-expandin [[Pudong]] skyline includin the [[Oriental Pearl Tower]]. Today, Shanghai is the lairgest centre o commerce an finance in [[mainland Cheenae]], an haes been described as the &quot;showpiece&quot; o the warld's [[Economy o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|fastest-growin major economy]].&lt;ref name=&quot;showpiece&quot;&gt;
{{cite news 
  |title=Shanghai: China's capitalist showpiece 
  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7373394.stm 
  |publisher=BBC News 
  |date=2008-05-21 
  |accessdate=2008-08-07
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite web 
  |title=Of Shanghai... and Suzhou     
  |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/life/2003/01/27/stories/2003012700170300.htm |publisher=The Hindu Business Line       
  |date=2003-01-27 
  |accessdate=2008-03-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Etymology an Names ==
The twa [[Cheenese character]]s in the ceety's name are {{linktext|上}} (''shàng'') 'abuin' an {{linktext|海}} (''hǎi'') 'sea' which thegither literally mean 'Upper Sea'. The earliest occurrence o this name dates frae the [[Song Dynasty]] (11t century), at which time there wis awready a river confluence an a toun wi this name in the aurie. There are disputes as tae exactly hou the name shoud be interpretit, but offeecial local histories hae consistently said that it signifies 'The upper ''reaches'' o the sea'. Due tae the changin coastline, Cheenese historians hae concludit that in the Tang Dynasty Shanghai wis literally on the sea, hence the oreegin o the name.&lt;ref name=&quot;Danielson, Eric N. 2004, pp.8-9&quot;&gt;Danielson, Eric N., Shanghai and the Yangzi Delta, 2004, pp.8–9.&lt;/ref&gt; Anither readin an aa suggests the sense o &quot;go ontae the sea,&quot; which is consistent wi the seaport status o the ceety. A mair poetic name for Shanghai switches the order o the twa characters, ''Hǎishàng'' ({{linktext|海|上}}), an is aften uised for terms relatit tae Shanghainese airt an cultur.

Shanghai is commonly abbreviatit in Cheenese as ''Hù'' (simp: {{linktext|沪}}/trad: {{linktext|滬}}). This character appears on aw motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today. This is derived frae ''Hu Du'' (simp: {{linktext|沪|渎}}/trad: {{linktext|滬|瀆}}), the name o an ancient fishin village that ance stood at the confluence o [[Suzhou Creek]] an the Huangpu River back in the Tang Dynasty.&lt;ref name=&quot;Danielson, Eric N. 2004, pp.8-9&quot;/&gt; The character Hu is aften combined wi that for Song, as in Wusong Kou, Wu Song River, an Songjiang tae form the nickname '''Song Hu'''. For example, the Japanese attack on Shanghai in August 1937 is commonly cawed the Song Hu Battle. Anither early name for Shanghai wis Hua Ting, nou juist the name o a fower star hotel in the ceety.&lt;ref name=&quot;Danielson, Eric N. 2004, pp.8-9&quot;/&gt; Ane ither commonly uised nickname ''Shēn'' ({{linktext|申}}) is derived frae the name o ''Chunshen Jun ''({{linktext|春|申|君}}), a nobleman an locally revered hero o the [[Chu (state)|Chu Kinrick]] in the 3rd century BC whose territory includit the Shanghai aurie. Sports teams an newspapers in Shanghai aften use the character ''Shēn'' ({{linktext|申}}) in their names. Shanghai is an aa commonly cawed ''Shēnchéng'' ({{linktext|申|城}}, &quot;Ceety o Shēn&quot;).

== Twin touns an sister ceeties ==
Shanghai haes [[twin touns an sister ceeties|ceety pairtnerships]] wi the follaein ceeties an regions:&lt;ref&gt;http://www.shfao.gov.cn/wsb/english/Sister_Cities/index.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518123518/http://www.shfao.gov.cn/wsb/english/Sister_Cities/index.html |date=2011-05-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
*{{flagicon|Japan}} '''[[Yokohama]]''', [[Japan]] - ''1973''
*{{flagicon|Japan}} '''[[Osaka]]''', [[Japan]] - ''1974''
*{{flagicon|Italy}} '''[[Milan]]''', [[Italy]] - ''1979''
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} '''[[Rotterdam]]''', [[Netherlands]] - ''1979''
*{{flagicon|USA}} '''[[San Francisco]]''', [[Unitit States]] - ''1979''
*{{flagicon|Japan}} '''[[Osaka Prefectur]]''', [[Japan]] - ''1980''
*{{flagicon|Croatia}} '''[[Zagreb]]''', [[Croatie]] - ''1980''
*{{flagicon|North Korea}} '''[[Hamhung]]''', [[North Korea]] - ''1982''
*{{flagicon|Philippines}} '''[[Manila]]''', [[Philippines]] - ''1983''
*{{flagicon|Belgium}} '''[[Antwerp]]''', [[Belgium]] - ''1984''
*{{flagicon|Pakistan}} '''[[Karachi]]''', [[Pakistan]] - ''1984''
*{{flagicon|USA}} '''[[Chicago]]''', [[Unitit States]] - ''1985''
*{{flagicon|Canada}} '''[[Montreal]]''', [[Canadae]] - ''1985''
*{{flagicon|Greece}} '''[[Piraeus]]''', [[Greece]] - ''1985''
*{{flagicon|Poland}} '''[[Gdańsk]]''', [[Poland]] - ''1985''
*{{flagicon|Japan}} '''[[Nagasaki Prefectur]]''', [[Japan]] - ''1986''
*{{flagicon|Germany}} '''[[Hamburg]]''', [[Germany]] - ''1986''
*{{flagicon|Morocco}} '''[[Casablanca]]''', [[Morocco]] - ''1986''
*{{flagicon|Swaden}} '''[[Gothenburg]]''', [[Swaden]] - ''1986''
*{{flagicon|France}} '''[[Marseille]]''', [[Fraunce]] - ''1987''
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} '''[[São Paulo]]''', [[Brazil]] - ''1988''
*{{flagicon|RUS}} '''[[Saunt Petersburg]]''', [[Roushie]] - ''1988''
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} '''[[Istanbul]]''', [[Turkey]] - ''1989''
*{{flagicon|Vietnam}} '''[[Ho Chi Minh Ceety]]''', [[Vietnam]] - ''1990''
*{{flagicon|Egypt}} '''[[Alexandria]]''', [[Egyp]] - ''1992''
*{{flagicon|South Korea}} '''[[Busan]]''', [[Republic o Korea|Sooth Korea]] - ''1993''
*{{flagicon|Vanuatu}} '''[[Port Vila]]''', [[Vanuatu]] - ''1994''
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} '''[[Dunedin]]''', [[New Zealand]] - ''1994''
*{{flagicon|Israel}} '''[[Haifa]]''', [[Israel]] - ''1994''
*{{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} '''[[Tashkent]]''', [[Uzbekistan]] - ''1994''
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} '''[[Porto]]''', [[Portugal]] - ''1995''
||
||
*{{flagicon|Yemen}} '''[[Aden]]''', [[Yemen]] - ''1995''
*{{flagicon|Namibia}} '''[[Windhoek]]''', [[Namibie]] - ''1995''
*{{flagicon|UK}} '''[[Lunnon]]''', [[Unitit Kinrick]] - ''1996''
*{{flagicon|Cuba}} '''[[Santiago de Cuba]]''', [[Cuba]] - ''1996''
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} '''[[Rosario, Santa Fe|Rosario]]''', [[Argentinae]] - ''1997''
*{{flagicon|Finland}} '''[[Espoo]]''', [[Finland]] - ''1998''
*{{flagicon|Mexico}} '''[[Jalisco]]''', [[Mexico]] - ''1998''
*{{flagicon|UK}} '''[[Liverpuil]]''', [[Unitit Kinrick]] - ''1999''
*{{flagicon|Mozambique}} '''[[Maputo]]''', [[Mozambique]] - ''1999''
*{{flagicon|the United Arab Emirates}} '''[[Dubai]]''', [[Unitit Arab Emirates]] - ''2000''
*{{flagicon|Thailand}} '''[[Chiang Mai]]''', [[Thailand]] - ''2000''
*{{flagicon|South Africa}} '''[[KwaZulu-Natal]]''', [[Sooth Africae]] - ''2001''
*{{flagicon|Ecuador}} '''[[Guayaquil]]''', [[Ecuador]] - ''2001''
*{{flagicon|Chile}} '''[[Valparaíso]]''', [[Chile]] - ''2001''
*{{flagicon|Spain}} '''[[Barcelona]]''', [[Spain]] - ''2001''
*{{flagicon|Norway}} '''[[Oslo]]''', [[Norawa]] - ''2001''
*{{flagicon|Romania}} '''[[Constanţa]]''', [[Romanie]] - ''2002''
*{{flagicon|Algeria}} '''[[Algiers]]''', [[Algerie]] - ''2003''
*{{flagicon|Sri Lanka}} '''[[Colombo]]''', [[Sri Lanka]] - ''2003''
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} '''[[Aarhus Coonty]]''', [[Denmark]] - ''2003''
*{{flagicon|Slovakia}} '''[[Bratislava Region]]''', [[Slovakie]] - ''2003''
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} '''[[Hauraki Destrict]]''', [[New Zealand]] - ''2003''
*{{flagicon|Austria}} '''[[Salzburg]]''', [[Austria]] - ''2004''
*{{flagicon|Cyprus}} '''[[Nicosia]]''', [[Cyprus]] - ''2004''
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} '''[[Cork (ceety)|Cork]]''', [[Repulic o Ireland|Ireland]] - ''2005''
*{{flagicon|USA}} '''[[Winston-Salem, North Carolina|Winston-Salem]]''', [[Unitit States]] - ''2006''
*{{flagicon|Switzerland}} '''[[Basel]]''', [[Swisserland]] - ''2007''
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} '''[[Borås]]''', [[Swaden]] - ''2007''
*{{flagicon|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} '''[[Sarajevo]]''', [[Bosnie an Herzegovinae]] - ''2008''
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} '''[[Manaus]]''', [[Brazil]] - ''2009''
*{{flagicon|Armenia}} '''[[Yerevan]]''', [[Armenie]] - ''2009''
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Commonscat}}

[[Category:Populatit coastal places in Cheenae]]
[[Category:Independent ceeties]]
[[Category:Metropolitan auries o Cheenae]]
[[Category:Municipalities o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae]]
[[Category:Port ceeties an touns in Cheenae]]
[[Category:Populatit places established in the 10t century]]
[[Category:Shanghai| ]]
[[Category:Treaty o Nanking]]
[[Category:Yangtze River Delta]]</text>
      <sha1>4bovksiyjf7hnpcvtcyjopnlnny76ra</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>David Ben-Gurion</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>915662</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-24T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>79721</id>
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      <comment>Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260424)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
      <origin>915662</origin>
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      <text bytes="6257" sha1="o8v9npf50fa3tp8gtvuy7rehlua6mm0" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox prime minister
|name           = David Ben-Gurion&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;דָּוִד בֶּן-גּוּרִיּוֹן&lt;/small&gt;
|birthname=David Grün
|image          = David Ben-Gurion in 1952.jpg
|caption        =
|office         = [[Leet o Prime Meenisters o Israel|1st]] [[Prime Meenister o Israel]]
|term_start1    = 17 Mey 1948
|term_end1      = 26 Januar 1954
| predecessor1  = ''New office''
| successor1    = [[Moshe Sharett]]
|president1     = [[Chaim Weizmann]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi]]
|term_start2    = 3 November 1955
|term_end2      = 26 Juin 1963
|president2     = [[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Zalman Shazar]]
|predecessor2   = [[Moshe Sharett]]
|successor2     = [[Levi Eshkol]]
| order3        = [[Preses o Israel|Chairman o the Provisional State Cooncil o Israel]]
| term_start3   = 14 Mey 1948
| term_end3     = 16 Mey 1948
| predecessor3  = ''New office''
| successor3    = [[Chaim Weizmann]]
|office4        = [[Meenistry o Defense (Israel)|Meenister o Defense]]
|primeminister4 = '''Himsel'''
|term_start4    = 14 Mey 1948
|term_end4      = 26 Januar 1954
|predecessor4   = ''New office''
|successor4     = [[Pinhas Lavon]]
|primeminister5 = [[Moshe Sharett]]&lt;br&gt;'''Himsel'''
|term_start5    = 21 Februar 1955
|term_end5      = 26 Juin 1963
|predecessor5   = [[Pinhas Lavon]]
|successor5     = [[Levi Eshkol]]
|birth_date     = {{birth date|1886|10|16|df=y}}
|birth_place    = [[Płońsk]], [[Congress Poland]]
|death_date     = {{death date and age|1973|12|1|1886|10|16|df=y}}
|death_place    = [[Ramat Gan]], [[Israel]]
|spouse         = [[Paula Ben-Gurion]]
|children       = 3
|nationality = [[File:Military ensign of Vistula Flotilla of Congress Poland.svg|25px]] [[Congress Poland]]&lt;br&gt;{{flag|Turkey|name=Ottoman Empire}}&lt;br&gt; {{flag|UK|name=Unitit Kinrick}}&lt;br&gt;{{flag|Israel|name=Israel}}
|alma_mater     = [[Varsity o Warsaw]]&lt;br&gt;[[Istanbul Varsity]]
|party          = [[Mapai]], [[Rafi (poleetical pairty)|Rafi]], [[Naitional Leet]]
|religion       = [[Jewish atheism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=A Match Made in Heaven: American Jews, Christian Zionists, and One Man's Exploration of the Weird and Wonderful Judeo-Evangelical Alliance|url=https://archive.org/details/matchmadeheavena00chaf|year=2008|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=9780060890599|author=Zev Chafets|page=[https://archive.org/details/matchmadeheavena00chaf/page/n44 37]|quote=“To be a realist here, you have to believe in miracles,” David Ben-Gurion once remarked. He didn't believe that literally, of course; he was an atheist. But he insisted that his offi- cials and generals take Old Testament names.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity|url=https://archive.org/details/clashoffundament00alit|year=2003|publisher=Verso|isbn=9781859844571|author=Tariq Ali|edition=2|page=[https://archive.org/details/clashoffundament00alit/page/10 10]|quote=Ben-Gurion and Moshe Dayan were self-proclaimed atheists.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/jerusalemonecity0000arms_o4i0|year=1997|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=9780345391681|author=Karen Armstrong|page=[https://archive.org/details/jerusalemonecity0000arms_o4i0/page/368 369]|quote=Even a committed atheist like Ben-Gurion found its sacred position on his own emotional map more compelling than the demographic and historical facts that were staring him in the face.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Writing the Arab-Israeli Conflict: Pragmatism And Historical Inquiry|url=https://archive.org/details/writingarabisrae0000isac|year=2006|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9780739112731|author=Jonathan B. Isacoff|page=[https://archive.org/details/writingarabisrae0000isac/page/54 54]|chapter=2|quote=David Ben-Gurion makes an especially fascinating study as a spokesman for Jewish messianic teleology in that by most accounts he was a secular atheist.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Political Philosophy of Zionism: Trading Jewish Words for a Hebraic Land|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107005945|author=Eyal Chowers|page=124|quote=David Ben-Gurion (1886–1973), the first prime minister of Israel and its foremost politician in the age...Though an atheist, he saw the Bible as the most important source for shaping the new Hebrew's identity...}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
|signature      = David Ben-Gurion signature.svg
}}
'''{{Audio|He-David_Ben_Gurion.ogg|David Ben-Gurion}}''' ({{lang-he|דָּוִד בֶּן-גּוּרִיּוֹן}}, born '''David Grün''' on 16 October 1886, dee'd 1 December 1973) wis the [[Leet o Prime Meenisters o Israel|first]] [[Prime Meenister o Israel]] an a [[Zionism|Zionist]] leader. Ben-Gurion's passion for [[Zionism]], whilk began early in life, culminatit in his instrumental role in the foondin o the state o [[Israel]]. Efter leadin Israel tae victory in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], Ben-Gurion helpit big the state institutions an owersaw the [[Aliyah|absorption o vast nummers o Jews frae aw ower the warld]]. Upon reteerin frae poleetical life in 1970, he flittit tae [[Sde Boker]], a [[kibbutz]] in the [[Negev]] desert, whaur he bidit till his daith. Posthumously, Ben-Gurion wis named ane o ''[[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s 100 Maist Important Fowk o the 20t Century.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commonscat|David Ben Gurion}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ben-Gurion, David}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1973 daiths]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Płońsk Coonty]]
[[Category:Pols Jews]]
[[Category:Israeli fowk o Pols strynd]]
[[Category:Histadrut General secretaries]]
[[Category:Prime Meenisters o Israel]]
[[Category:Leaders o poleetical pairties in Israel]]
[[Category:Members o the Assembly o Representatives (Mandate Palestine)]]
[[Category:Signatories o the Israeli Declaration o Unthirldom]]
[[Category:Cauld War leaders]]
[[Category:Members o the Knesset]]
[[Category:Zionists]]
[[Category:Ashkenazi Jews]]
[[Category:Israeli Jews]]
[[Category:Jews in Ottoman an Breetish Palestine]]
[[Category:Istanbul Varsity alumni]]
[[Category:Buirials in Israel]]
[[Category:Bialik Prize recipients]]
[[Category:Mapai poleeticians]]
[[Category:Rafi (poleetical pairty) politeecians]]
[[Category:National List politeecians]]


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    <title>Welshpool</title>
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{{Infobox UK place
   |coordinates = {{coord|52.65966|-3.14725|display=inline,title}}
   |country=           Wales
   |official_name=     Welshpool
   |welsh_name= Y Trallwng
   |unitary_wales=     [[Powys]]
   |lieutenancy_wales= [[Powys]]
   |constituency_welsh_assembly= [[Montgomeryshire (Assembly constituency)|Montgomeryshire]]
   |constituency_westminster=  [[Montgomeryshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Montgomeryshire]]
   |post_town=         WELSHPOOL
   |postcode_area=     SY
   |postcode_district= SY21
   |dial_code=      01938
   |os_grid_reference=  SJ225075
| population = 6,269
| population_ref = (2001)
 |static_image=[[Image:Welshpool Town Hall.jpg|240px]]
|static_image_caption=&lt;small&gt;Welshpool Town Hall&lt;/small&gt;
 }}

'''Welshpool''' ({{lang-cy|Y Trallwng}}) is a [[toun]] in [[Powys]], [[Wales]], 4 mile (6&amp;nbsp;km) frae the [[Wales-Ingland border]]. The toun is law-lyin on the [[River Severn]]; the [[Welsh leid]] name ''Y Trallwng'' literally meanin 'the mairshy or sinkin land'. Welshpool is the fowert lairgest toun in [[Powys]].

In [[Inglis leid|Inglis]] it wis initially kent as '''Pool''' but its name wis chynged tae Welshpool in 1835 tae distinguish it frae the Inglis toun o [[Poole]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Davies|editor1-link=John Davies (historian)|editor2-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Jenkins | editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins| editor3-first=Baines |editor3-last=Menna|editor4-first=Peredur I. |editor4-last=Lynch|title=The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales |url=https://archive.org/details/welshacademyency0000unse |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff|page=[https://archive.org/details/welshacademyency0000unse/page/944 944] |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; It haes a population o 6,269 ([[Unitit Kinrick Census 2001]]), contains muckle [[Georgian airchitectur]] an is juist north o [[Powis Castle]].

==History==
Welshpool served briefly as the caipital o [[Powys Wenwynwyn]] or Sooth Powys efter its prince wis forced tae flee the traditional Welsh Ryal site at [[Mathrafal]] in 1212. Efter 1284 Powys Wenwynwyn ceased tae exist. The [[Long Mountain (Powys)|Long Mountain]] plays as a backdrop tae maist o Welshpool, which ance served as the ultimate grunds for defence for fortresses in the times when the toun was juist a swampy mairsh.

The toun wis devastatit bi the forces o [[Owain Glyndwr]] in 1400 at the stairt o his rebellion against the Inglis [[Henry IV o Ingland|Keeng Henry IV]]. The day the waymarked [[lang-distance fuitpath]] an [[National Trail]] [[Glyndwr's Way]] runs through the toun.

In 1411 the [[priest]] at the [[kirk]] o St. Mary's &amp; St. Cynfelin's wis [[Adam o Usk]].

St Cynfelin (an' a' kent as St Matu) is reputit tae be the foonder o the kirk in &quot;the age o the saunts in Wales&quot; in the 5t an 6t centuries.

There is a sax-sidit, brick cock-pit which wis built in the early 18t century an wis in continual uise for [[cockfecht]]in till the practice wis ootlawed in 1849. This is the anerlie unaltered cockpit preserved on its oreeginal site in Breetain.

==Transport==
[[Welshpool railway station]] is on the [[Cambrian Line]] an is served bi [[Arriva Trains Wales]]. The toun is the stairtin point of the [[Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway]] an aw, a narrae-gauge [[heritage railway]] popular wi tourists, wi its terminus station at [[Welshpool Raven Square railway station|Raven Square]]. The licht railway ance ran through the toun tae the Cambrian Line railway station, but the day Raven Square, locatit on the wastren edge o the toun, is the eastren terminus o the line.

A sma netwirk o bus services link surroondin touns an veelages, mainly operatit bi [[Tanat Valley Coaches]]. Notable is service No X75, servin [[Shrewsbury]] tae the east an [[Newtown, Powys|Newtown]] an [[Llanidloes]] tae the sooth wast, forby service No D71 tae [[Oswestry]] via Guilsfield an [[Llanymynech]]. In addition there is a local toun service operatit bi Owen's Coaches. The semi-disuised [[Montgomery Canal]] runs through Welshpool an aw. Tae the sooth o the toun is [[Welshpool Airport]] which is kent as the Mid Wales Airport an aw.

==Economy==
The local economy is primarily based upon agricultur an local industry. The Smithfield Livestock Market is the lairgest ane-day sheep mercat in Europe, whilst the toun's industrial estates are hame tae numerous different types o sma industry.
Due tae the toun's sma size an population the attraction o heich street stores is limited, meanin mony o the residents are forced tae shop in neighbourin touns like [[Newtown, Powys|Newtown]] an [[Shrewsbury]].

==Education==
The toun is the hame o Ardwyn Nursery an Infants Schuil, Oldford Nursery an Infants Schuil, Gungrog Nursery an Infants Schuil, Maes-y-dre Primary Schuil an [[Welshpool Heich Schuil]] is a [[seicontary schuil]] which teaches a range o pupils frae ages 11–18 an is consistently set tae a vera heich staundart o education throughoot Key Stage 3 an 4 an [[A Level]] studies. It haes ane o the heichest results average for [[GCSE]]s in [[Wales]].

==Sport==
Welshpool haes a [[fitbaa]] club an a [[rugby union]] club, the umwhile being [[Welshpool Town F.C.]] an the latter, [[Welshpool RFC|Welshpool Rugby Football Club]]. The toun haes [[hockey]] an [[cricket]] clubs an aw.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
*[http://www.welshpooltownfc.co.uk Welshpooltownfc.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829152155/http://welshpooltownfc.co.uk/ |date=2018-08-29 }} - Welshpool Town Football Club
*[http://www.welshpoolhockey.org Welshpool Hockey Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230130504/http://www.welshpoolhockey.org/ |date=2018-12-30 }}- Wabsteid o Welshpool Hockey Club, who compete in the North Wales League
*[http://www.welshpoolrfc.co.uk Welshpool Rugby Club]- Wabsteid o Welshpool Rugby Union Football Club, who compete in the Welsh National League
*[http://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=3715153 photos o Welshpool an surroondin area on geograph]
{{Powys}}
{{River Severn touns}}
{{Severn frae source tae Llandrinio}}
{{Commonscat}}

[[Category:Populatit places on the River Severn]]
[[Category:Touns in Powys]]
[[Category:Touns o the Welsh Mairches]]</text>
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    <title>Al Kufrah Destrict</title>
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      <text bytes="3958" sha1="1ix5mg9b29tdzma5hr1cnoajsbrwqdu" xml:space="preserve">{{Geobox|[[Destricts o Libie|Destrict]]
|country = {{flag|Libie}}
|country_flag = true
|name = Kufra
|flag = 
|native_name =الكفرة
|map = Shabiat Al Kufrah since 2007.svg
|map_caption = Map o Libie wi Kufra destrict heichlichtit
|map_size=220
|capital = [[Al Jawf, Libie|Al Jawf]]
|population_as_of =2006
|population = 50104 	
|population_note=&lt;ref name=&quot;statoids&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://statoids.com/uly.html |title=Districts of libya|publisher= statoids.com |accessdate= 27 October 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_density= auto
|area = 483510
|area_note=&lt;ref&gt;Before 2007 administrative reorganization&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''Al Kufrah''' ({{lang-ar|الكفرة}} ''Al Kufra''), an aa spelled ''Cufra'', is the lairgest [[Destricts o Libie|destrict]] o [[Libie]]. Its caipital is [[Al Jawf, Libie|Al Jawf]], ane o the [[Oasis|oases]] in [[Kufra]] basin. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Libya in Pictures |url=https://archive.org/details/libyainpictures0000dipi |author= Francesca Di Piazza|year= 2005|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|isbn=0-8225-2549-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is a vera lairge [[oil refinery]] near the caipital.
In the late 15t century, [[Leo Africanus]] reportit an oasis in the land o the ''Berdoa'', visitit bi a caravan comin frae [[Awjila]]. It is possible that this oasis wis identical wi either the Al Jawf or the [[Tazirbu|Taiserbo]] oasis, an on early modren maps, the Al Kufra region wis aften labelled as ''Berdoa'' based on this report.
The name ''Kufra'' itself is a derivation frae ''[[kafir]]'', the Arabic term for non-Muslims.&lt;ref&gt;
[[Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs]], ''Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra'' (1881).[http://books.google.ch/books?id=ysgn4iVi6KEC&amp;pg=PA274&amp;dq=%2BKufra+%2BBerdoa&amp;hl=de&amp;ei=qqmHTbv3G52H4gbhx_TxCA&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q=%2BKufra%20%2BBerdoa&amp;f=false]&lt;/ref&gt;
Al Kufra did no faw unner the dominion o either the [[History o Islamic Tripolitanie an Cyrenaica|Arabs]] or the [[Ottoman Tripolitanie|Ottomans]] an wis colonized bi [[Arabized Berber]] tribe o the [[Zuwayya]] anerlie in the mid 19t century, an eventually bi [[History o Libie as Italian colony|the Italians]] bi the 1930s.

Al Kufrah's location in Libie's sootheast places it on the kintra's border wi [[Egyp]], [[Sudan]] (unlike ony ither Libian destrict), an [[Chad]]. It borders the follaein regions o these kintras:

*[[New Valley Govrenorate|Al Wadi al Jadid Govrenorate, Egyp]] - east
*[[Northren (state)|ash-Shamaliyah State, Sudan]] - sootheast
*[[North Darfur|Shamal Darfor State, Sudan]] - far sootheast
*[[Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region|Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region, Chad]] - south
Domestically, it borders the follaein destricts:

*[[Murzuq Destrict|Murzuq]] - wast
*[[Al Jufrah Destrict|Al Jufrah]] - northwast
*[[Al Wahat Destrict|Al Wahat]] - north

Afore 2007, Al Kufrah Destrict wis lairger, includin a strip o desert in the north that haes been moved tae the [[Al Wahat Destrict]].

== Oases ==
Besides the main Oasis group o the Kufra basin, fower mair oases belang tae the region, which lie northwast o Kufra basin: ''[[Rabyanah|Rabyānah]]'', ''[[Buzaymah]]'', ''[[Wadi Zighen]]'' and ''[[Tazirbu|Tāzirbū]]''.&lt;ref name=be515&gt;Bertarelli (1929), p. 515.&lt;/ref&gt; The oasis-valleys o ''[[Jabal Arkanu]]'' an ''[[Jabal Al-Uwaynat]]'' lie sootheast o the basin. &lt;ref name=be515/&gt; 
&lt;!-- other names of oases: are these alternative names of the ones listed above&quot;
&quot;Taiserbo (6343 km²), Sighen (2054 km²), Buseima (320 km²), Erbehna (314 km²), Kebabo (8793 km²)&quot;
http://www.zeno.org/Meyers-1905/A/Kufra
--&gt;

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last=Bertarelli |first=L.V. |title=Guida d'Italia, Vol. XVII |publisher=Consociazione Turistica Italiana|location=Milano |year=1929|language=Italian}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Destricts o Libie}}
{{Destricts o Libie 2001-2007}}

{{coord|24|N|23|E|region:LY-KF_type:adm1st_source:dewiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Destricts o Libie|Kufrah]]
[[Category:Cyrenaica|+]]</text>
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    <title>Guayas Province</title>
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      <text bytes="12855" sha1="9gvy5pyj39my07i0iip3fb62vzdah44" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields that may be available--&gt;
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;
|name                   =  Guayas
|official_name          = Province o Guayas
|other_name             =
|native_name            =  &lt;!-- if different from the English name --&gt;
|native_name_lang       =  &lt;!-- Use ISO639 code, e.g. &quot;fr&quot; for French.
                           If there is more than one native name, in different languages,
                           enter those names using {{lang}}, instead --&gt;
|nickname               =
|settlement_type        = Province
|total_type             = &lt;!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --&gt;
|motto                  =
&lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
|image_flag             = Bandera de Guayaquil.svg
|flag_size              =
|image_seal             =
|seal_size              =
|image_shield           =
|shield_size            =
|image_blank_emblem     =
|blank_emblem_type      =
|blank_emblem_size      =
|image_map              = Ecuador Guayas province.svg
|mapsize                =
|map_caption            = Location o Guayas in Ecuador.
|image_map1             = Mapa de la provincia de Guayas (político 2020).svg
|mapsize1               =
|map_caption1           = Cantons o Guayas Province
|image_dot_map          =
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|dot_map_caption        =
|dot_x =  |dot_y =
|coor_pinpoint          = &lt;!-- can be used to specify exactly where/what the coordinates refer to --&gt;
|coordinates            = 
|subdivision_type       = Kintra
|subdivision_name       = [[Ecuador]]
&lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g. boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
|seat_type              = Caipital
|seat                   = [[Guayaquil]]
|parts_type             = Cantons
|parts_style            = coll
|parts                  = Leet o Cantons
|p1                     =
|p2                     = &lt;!-- etc. up to p50: for separate parts to be listed--&gt;
&lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
|government_footnotes   =
|government_type        =
|leader_party           =
|leader_title           = Provincial Prefect
|leader_name            = Jimmy Jairala
|leader_title1          = 
|leader_name1           =
|established_title      = Established
|established_date       = 1820
|extinct_title          =
|extinct_date           =
|founder                =
|named_for              =
&lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
|area_magnitude         = &lt;!-- use only to set a special wikilink --&gt;
|unit_pref              = Metric
|area_footnotes         =
|area_total_km2         = 16803
|area_land_km2          = &lt;!-- All values must be entered in a raw format: no commas, spaces, or unit symbols.  --&gt;
    &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details on unit conversion--&gt;
|area_water_km2         =
|area_total_sq_mi       =
|area_land_sq_mi        =
|area_water_sq_mi       =
|area_water_percent     =
|area_blank1_title      =
|area_blank1_km2        =
|area_blank1_sq_mi      =
&lt;!-- Elevation --------------------------&gt;
|elevation_footnotes    = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_max_footnotes= &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_min_footnotes= &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_m            =
|elevation_ft           =
|elevation_max_m        =
|elevation_max_ft       =
|elevation_min_m        =
|elevation_min_ft       =
&lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
|population_as_of       = 2010
|population_footnotes   =
|population_note        =
|population_total       = 3,645,483
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_density_sq_mi =
|population_est         =
|pop_est_as_of          =
|population_blank1_title=
|population_blank1      =
|population_density_blank1_km2 =  
|population_density_blank1_sq_mi =
&lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
|timezone1              = &lt;!-- [[Ecuador Time|ECT]] in the mainland, [[Galápagos Time|GALT]] in the Galapagos --&gt;
|utc_offset1            = &lt;!-- -5 in the mainland, -6 in Galapagos --&gt;
&lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
|postal_code_type       = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal_code            =
|postal2_code_type      = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal2_code           =
|area_code_type         =
|area_code              =
|blank_name_sec1        =
|blank_info_sec1        =
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|blank1_info_sec1       = &lt;!-- goes up to blank6_name_sec1 --&gt;
|website                = [http://www.guayas.gob.ec/ www.guayas.gob.ec]
|footnotes              =
}}

'''Guayas''' is a coastal province in [[Ecuador]]. It is bordered tae the wast bi [[Manabí Province|Manabí]], [[Santa Elena Province|Santa Elena]], an the [[Paceefic Ocean]] (as the [[Gulf o Guayaquil]]); tae the east bi [[Los Ríos Province|Los Ríos]], [[Bolívar Province, Ecuador|Bolívar]], [[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]], [[Cañar Province|Cañar]], an [[Azuay Province|Azuay]]; tae the north bi [[Los Ríos Province|Los Ríos]] an [[Bolívar Province, Ecuador|Bolívar]]; an tae the sooth bi [[El Oro Province|El Oro]] an the Paceefic Ocean.

Wi a population o ower 3 million fowk, it is the maist populous [[province]] in Ecuador. It is the [[Leet o Ecuadorian provinces bi aurie|fowert lairgest province in the kintra]] in terms o aurie. The lairgest ceety o Ecuador, [[Guayaquil]], is locatit athin the province.

==Geography==
Guayas' natural terrain is vera diverse. The province haes nae elevations, except for the [[Coastal Range]], which stairts in Guayaquil an goes tae [[Manabí Province|Manabí]]. The auries wast o the Coastal Range are [[desert]]ic, wi an average temperatur o 23&amp;nbsp;°C. The auries east o the range belang tae the [[Guayas River|Guayas]] [[drainage basin|Watershed]]. They are quite [[humid]] an [[fertile]], especially in the north o the province, wi an average temperatur o 30&amp;nbsp;°C in the humid [[saison]] (December–Mey) an 25&amp;nbsp;°C in the dry saison (Juin–November).

===Hydrography===
The maist important river in the province is the [[Daule River]], which flows frae the north tae join the [[Babahoyo River]] tae form the Guayas river. The province is pairt o the lairgest [[drainage basin|river basin]] in [[Sooth Americae]] wast o the [[Andes Muntains]].

===Roads===
Guayas haes its awn seestem for numberin [[roads]]. Housomeivver, this seestem is unkent for maist residents, so it is no regularly uised.

The inter-provincial roads are an aa numbered wi the naitional seestem. Even routes travel north-sooth; odd routes travel east-wast. The inter-provincial roads that cross the province are the follaein:
*Ecuador Heich-gate 15 (Vía del Pacífico; Paceefic Wey)
*Ecuador Heich-gate 25 (Troncal de la Costa; Coastal Main Wey)
*Ecuador Heich-gate 40 (Transversal Austral; Austral Crossin Wey)

== History ==
===Pre-Hispanic culturs===
The native cultur livin in Guayas is the Huancavilca Cultur. Exactly afore the European discovery o Americae, the Huancavilca Cultur wis livin in the province. They are the ancestors o a lairge pairt o the population o the province.

===Spaingie conquest an unthirldom===
Guayaquil wis foondit on August 14, 1534 (its [[wiktionary:foundation|foundation]] is celebrated on Julie 25). Durin the [[Spain]]gie [[Spaingie conquest o the Inca Empire|conquest]], Guayaquil became ane o the maist important [[port]]s in [[Sooth Americae]]. The ceety became [[unthirldom|free]] on October 9, 1820, an the Guayaquil [[Depairtment (subnaitional entity)|Depairtment]] (ane o the oreeginal subdiveesions o Ecuador) wis foondit suin efterwards. It consistit on the [[Manabí Province]], an the Guayaquil Province, which wis later renamed Guayas. The Guayaquil Province includit the territory o what nou is Peruvian [[Tumbes Province|Tumbes]], an the day's [[Los Ríos]] an [[El Oro Province|El Oro]]. The provinces wur separatit frae Guayas in 1860 an 1884, respectively.

===Urbanization===
In recent decades, there haes been a massive exit frae [[landwart]] auries tae the main ceeties (especially [[Guayaquil]]). This haes creatit a problem in Guayaquil, as maist o the migrants muive tae municipal auries, creatin [[shantytoun]]s, wi nae [[Public services|service]]s like [[water]] or [[electricity]].

== Demographics ==
Guayas is the maist populous province in the kintra. The estimatit population o the province in 2003 wis aboot 3,360,000 fowk. A lairge percentage o the [[population]] are ''[[mestizo]]s'', i.e. descendants o baith [[Spaingie colonization o Americae|Spaingie]] an [[Indigenous fowks in Ecuador|indigenous]] fowks, there are an aa big commonties o fowk that descend frae [[Italians]], [[Lebanese fowk|Lebanese]] an [[Germans|German]] fowk.

== Poleetical diveesions==
The province is dividit intae 25 [[canton (admeenistrative diveesion)|canton]]s. The follaein table leets each wi its population as o the 2001 [[census]], its aurie in square kilometres (km²), an the name o the [[canton seat]] or [[Caipital ceety|caipital]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.statoids.com/yec.html Cantons of Ecuador]. Statoids.com. Retrieved 4 November 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! Canton !! Pop. (2001) !! Aurie (km²) !! Seat/Caipital
|-
| [[Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno Canton|Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno]] (Jujan) || align=right|19,982 || align=right|216 || [[Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno, Guayas|Alfredo Baquerizo Moreno]] (a.k.a. [[Jujan]])
|-
| [[Balao Canton|Balao]] || align=right|17,262 || align=right|465 || [[Balao]]
|-
| [[Balzar Canton|Balzar]] (San Jacinto de Balzar) || align=right|48,470 || align=right|1,173 || [[Balzar]]
|-
| [[Colimes Canton|Colimes]] || align=right|21,049 || align=right|758 || [[Colimes]]
|-
| [[Coronel Marcelino Maridueña Canton|Coronel Marcelino Maridueña]] || align=right|11,054 || align=right|255 || [[Coronel Marcelino Maridueña]]
|-
| [[Daule Canton|Daule]] || align=right|85,148 || align=right|462 || [[Daule, Guayas|Daule]]
|-
| [[Durán Canton|Durán]] || align=right|178,714 || align=right|339 || [[Durán, Ecuador|Durán]]
|-
| [[El Empalme Canton|El Empalme]] || align=right|64,789 || align=right|711 || [[El Empalme]] (a.k.a. [[Velasco Ibarra]]
|-
| [[El Triunfo Canton|El Triunfo]] || align=right|34,117 || align=right|389 || [[El Triunfo, Ecuador|El Triunfo]]
|-
| [[General Antonio Elizalde Canton|General Antonio Elizalde]] (Bucay) || align=right|8,696 || align=right|152 || [[Bucay, Ecuador|General Antonio Elizalde]] (a.k.a. [[Bucay]])
|-
| [[Guayaquil Canton|Guayaquil]] || align=right|2,039,789 || align=right|5,237 || [[Guayaquil]]
|-
| [[Isidro Ayora Canton|Isidro Ayora]] || align=right|8,226 || align=right|492 || [[Isidro Ayora, Ecuador|Isidro Ayora]]
|-
| [[Lomas de Sargentillo Canton|Lomas de Sargentillo]] || align=right|14,194 || align=right|67 || [[Lomas de Sargentillo]]
|-
| [[Milagro Canton|Milagro]] || align=right|140,103 || align=right|401 || [[Milagro, Ecuador|Milagro]]
|-
| [[Naranjal Canton|Naranjal]] || align=right|53,482 || align=right|2,015 || [[Naranjal, Ecuador|Naranjal]]
|-
| [[Naranjito Canton|Naranjito]] || align=right|31,756 || align=right|226 || [[Naranjito, Ecuador|Naranjito]]
|-
| [[Nobol Canton|Nobol]] || align=right|14,753 || align=right|128 || [[Nobol]] (a.k.a. [[Narcisa de Jesús]])
|-
| [[Palestina Canton|Palestina]] || align=right|14,067 || align=right|194 || [[Palestina, Ecuador|Palestina]]
|-
| [[Pedro Carbo Canton|Pedro Carbo]] || align=right|36,711 || align=right|927 || [[Pedro Carbo]]
|-
| [[Playas Canton|Playas]] (General Villamil Playas) || align=right|30,045 || align=right|269 || [[Playas, Guayas|Playas]] (a.k.a. General Villamil Playas)
|-
| [[Salitre Canton|Salitre]] (was [[Urbina Jado]]) || align=right|50,379 || align=right|390 || [[El Salitre]]
|-
| [[Samborondón Canton|Samborondón]] || align=right|45,476 || align=right|388 || [[Samborondón]]
|-
| [[Santa Lucía Canton|Santa Lucía]] || align=right|33,868 || align=right|348 || [[Santa Lucía, Ecuador|Santa Lucía]]
|-
| [[Simón Bolívar Canton|Simón Bolívar]] || align=right|20,385 || align=right|289 || [[Simón Bolívar, Ecuador|Simón Bolívar]]
|-
| [[Yaguachi Canton|Yaguachi]] || align=right|47,630 || align=right|512 || [[Yaguachi]] (San Jacinto de Yaguachi)
|}

== See an aw ==
* [[Provinces o Ecuador]]
* [[Cantons o Ecuador]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Freemit airtins ==
* {{es icon}} [http://www.guayas.gov.ec/ Gobierno Provincial del Guayas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090811022752/http://www.gobernaciondelguayas.gov.ec/ |date=2009-08-11 }}, offeecial wabsteid

{{Provinces o Ecuador}}

{{coord|2.2|S|79.9667|W|source:kolossus-eswiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Guayas Province| ]]
[[Category:Provinces o Ecuador]]
[[Category:States an territories established in 1820]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>AK-47</title>
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      <text bytes="14552" sha1="q7gvoad4t9psbvpc1xxkcmdukdx6yeg" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Weapon
|name=AK-47&lt;ref&gt;Table data are for AK-47 with Type 2/3 receiver&lt;/ref&gt;
| image           = АК-47.jpg
| image_size      = 300
| caption         = AK-47 Teep 2A wi ribbed stamped-steel magazine an 6H2 bayonet
|origin={{flag|Soviet Union}}
|type=Assault rifle
|is_ranged=yes
|service=1949–present
|used_by=See ''[[#Uisers|Uisers]]''
|designer=Mikhail Kalashnikov
|design_date=1944–1947
|manufacturer=Izhmash
|production_date=
|number=thereaboots 75 million AK-47&lt;br /&gt;100 million AK-type rifles&lt;ref name=&quot;Worldbank.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;список&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,288456,00.html |title=AK-47 Inventor Doesn't Lose Sleep Over Havoc Wrought With His Invention |publisher=Foxnews.com |date=2007-07-06 |accessdate=2010-04-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|variants=
|weight={{convert|5.21|kg|lb|abbr=on}} wi loadit magazine&lt;ref&gt;Dockery, Kevin (2007). Future Weapons. p. 102.&lt;/ref&gt;
|length={{convert|870|mm|abbr=on}} fixed widden stock&lt;br /&gt; {{convert|875|mm|abbr=on|1}} fauldin stock extended&lt;br /&gt; {{convert|645|mm|abbr=on|1}} stock fauldit
|part_length={{convert|415|mm|abbr=on|1}}
&lt;!-- Ranged weapon specifications --&gt;
|cartridge=7.62×39mm M43/M67
|action=Gas-operatit, rotatin bolt
|rate=600 rounds/min
|velocity=715 m/s&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Warsaw Pact Weapons &amp; Equipment 1990-1991 |url=http://www.crusader80.co.uk/warsaw.html |access-date=2024-03-21|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|range={{convert|400|m|yd|-1}} semi-automatic&lt;ref name=Bidwell/&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
{{convert|300|m|yd|-1}} full automatic&lt;ref name=&quot;Bidwell&quot;&gt;Bidwell, Shelford. ''The Encyclopedia of land warfare in the 20th century'', p. 199. Spring Books, 1977.&lt;/ref&gt;
|feed=10, 20 , 30 , 40 or 75 -roond detachable box an drum style magazine, compatible wi 40-roond box or 75-roond drum magazines frae the RPK an aw
|sights=Adjustable iron sidhts, 100–800&amp;nbsp;metre adjustments, {{convert|378|mm|abbr=on|1}} sicht radius
}}

The '''AK-47''' is a selective-fire, gas-operatit 7.62×39mm assault rifle, first developit in the [[Soviet Union]] bi Mikhail Kalashnikov. It is offeecially kent as ''Avtomat Kalashnikova'' ('''А'''втомат '''К'''алашникова). It is kent as a '''Kalashnikov''', an &quot;AK&quot;, or in [[Roushie leid|Roushie]] slang, '''Kalash''' forby.

Design wirk on the AK-47 stairtit in the last year o [[Warld War II]] (1945). Efter the war in 1948, the AK-47 wis presentit for offeecial military trials. In 1947 the fixed-stock version wis introducit intae service wi select units o the Soviet Airmy. An early development o the design wis the '''AKS''' (S—''Skladnoy'' or &quot;fauldin&quot;), which wis equippit wi an unnerfauldin metal shoulder stock. In 1949, the AK-47 wis offeecially acceptit bi the Soviet Airmit Forces an uised bi the majority o the memmer states o the [[Warsaw Pact]].

The oreeginal AK-47 wis ae o the first true &quot;assault rifles&quot; tae be manufacturt, efter the oreeginal Sturmgewehr 44.&lt;ref name=&quot;poyer&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Poyer |first=Joe |title=The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations |url=https://archive.org/details/ak47ak74kalashni0000joep_x2h6 |publisher=North Cape Publications |year=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt; Efter sax decades the model an its variants wis still the maist widely uised an popular assault rifles in the warld acause o thair durability, law production cost, an ease o uise. It haes been manufactured in mony kintras an haes seen service wi airmit forces as well as revolutionary an terrorist organisations warldwide. The AK-47 wis the basis for developin mony ither types o individual an crew-served fireairms. Mair AK-type rifles haes been producit nor aw ither assault rifles pit thegither.&lt;ref name=&quot;Worldbank.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Killicoat |first=Phillip |title=Weaponomics: The Global Market for Rifles |work=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4202 (Post-Conflict Transitions Working Paper No. 10) |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |date=April 2007 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/13/000016406_20070413145045/Rendered/PDF/wps4202.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=3 April 2010 |page=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112121512/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/13/000016406_20070413145045/Rendered/PDF/wps4202.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Firin the 7.62x39mm cartridge, the AK-47 produces significant woondin effects whan the projectile tumbles an fragments in tissue;&lt;ref&gt;Bellamy RF, Zajtchuk R. The physics and biophysics of wound ballistics. In: Zajtchuk R, ed. Textbook of Military Medicine, Part&amp;nbsp;I: Warfare, Weaponry, and the Casualty, Vol. 5, Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America (1990) pp. 146–155&lt;/ref&gt; but it produces relatively minor woonds whan the projectile exits the body afore beginnin tae yaw.&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Military Small Arms Ammunition Failures and Solutions, GK Roberts,
NDIA Dallas, Texas, 21 May 2008, [http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2008Intl/Roberts.pdf DTIC.mil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628234759/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2008Intl/Roberts.pdf |date=2011-06-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wounding Effects of the AK-47 Rifle Used by Patrick Purdy in the Stockton, California, Schoolyard Shooting of January 17, 1989, Fackler, Martin L. M.D.; Malinowski, John A. B.S.; Hoxie, Stephen W. B.S.; Jason, Alexander B.A., American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, September 1990&lt;/ref&gt;

==Uisers==
&lt;!--READ FIRST: This section is for cited entries only. Please do not add entries into this list without a citation from a reliable source. All entries without a citation will be removed. Thank you.--&gt;
* {{flag|Afghanistan}}&lt;ref name=&quot;washingtonpost&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/24/AR2006112400788.html |title=Weapon Of Mass Destruction |publisher=Washingtonpost.com |date= 2006-11-26|accessdate=2010-04-03 | first=Larry | last=Kahaner}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Albanie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book| editor1-last=Ness |editor1-first= Leland S. |editor2-last=Jones |editor2-first=Richard| title = Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009-2010| url = http://books.google.com/?id=A5ngPgAACAAJ| date = 2009-01-05| publisher = Jane's Information Group| isbn = 978-0-7106-2869-5 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Algerie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Angolae}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Armenie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.mouseguns.com/ak47info/ak47info.htm |title=Mikhail Timofeevich Kalashnikov and the AK-4 |access-date=2011-11-30 |archive-date=2021-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201061109/http://www.mouseguns.com/ak47info/ak47info.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Bangladesh}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Benin}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Botswana}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Bulgarie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt; Bulgarie modification manufactured bi Arsenal J.S.Co as the AR-M1 in 7.62x39mm, 5.45x39mm, &amp; 5.56x45mm&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm 5.56mm AR-M1 &amp; AR-M1F] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618165043/http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm |date=2014-06-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/7,62ar-m1-m1f.htm 7.62mm AR-M1 &amp; AR-M1F] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075455/http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/7%2C62ar-m1-m1f.htm |date=2014-10-06 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Cambodie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Cape Verde}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Central African Republic}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Chad}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Chile}}&lt;ref name=&quot;gander1995&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Terry J. |last=Gander |title=Jane's Infantry Weapons 1995-96 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=qSL8AAAACAAJ| date=May 1995 |isbn=978-0-7106-1241-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Comoros}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Republic o the Congo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Cuba}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Democratic Republic o the Congo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|East Germany}}&lt;ref name=&quot;popenker&quot;&gt;[http://world.guns.ru/assault/as01-e.htm Modern Firearms – AK-47 AKM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306135325/http://world.guns.ru/assault/as01-e.htm |date=2008-03-06 }}. World.guns.ru (2011-01-24). Retrieved on 2011-03-14.&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Egyp}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Ethiopie}}: AK-47 variant.&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Fowkrepublic o Cheenae}}: Type 56 variant wis uised.&lt;ref name=&quot;miller2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book| author = D. M. O. Miller| title = Illustrated directory of twentieth century guns| url = http://books.google.com/?id=GgpRPgAACAAJ| date = 2001-08-31| isbn = 978-1-84065-245-1 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Gabon}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Georgie}}:&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt; Uised bi the Georgie Airmit Forces for ower 15 years. Replacit bi the M4 carbine in 2008.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=http://www.mod.gov.ge/files/ijwtsgknrxgeo.pdf |title=Georgian Army Bids Farewell to Soviet Guns |journal=Today Defence |date=January 2008 |issue=7 |access-date=2011-11-30 |archive-date=2010-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231163645/http://mod.gov.ge/files/ijwtsgknrxgeo.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Greece}}: EKAM counter-terrorist unit o the Hellenic Polis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.kalibar.rs/code/navigate.php?Id=74 |title=Trojanski Konj za Teroriste |language=Serbian |author=Milosevic, Milan |year=2005 |publisher=Kalibar |accessdate=2009-04-04 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5rzTsOf8X?url=http://www.kalibar.rs/code/navigate.php?Id=74 |archivedate=2010-08-15 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.astynomia.gr/images/stories/DOCS/Attachment11480_ENHMEROTIKO_EKAM_ENGL.pdf |title=Greece Ministry of Public Order Press Office: Special Anti-Terrorist Unit |year=July 2004 |publisher=Official Website of the Hellenic Police |access-date=2009-09-27 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5rOg1WIHo?url=http://www.astynomia.gr/images/stories/DOCS/Attachment11480_ENHMEROTIKO_EKAM_ENGL.pdf |archivedate=2010-07-21 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Guinea}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Guyana}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Hungary}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Indie}}: In uise bi Force One.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/maha%5Cs-elite-counter-terror-unit-force-one-becomes-operational/377563/|title=Maha's elite counter terror unit Force One becomes operational|accessdate=2010-07-05|publisher=Business Standard}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Iran}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Iraq}}&lt;ref name=&quot;washingtonpost&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Israel}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt; 
* {{flag|Laos}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Lesotho}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Liberie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Libie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Macedonie}}&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2006/10/12/feature-03 Macedonian military police, US National Guard conduct joint manoeuvres]. SETimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-03-14.&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Madagascar}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Mali}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Maltae}}: Type 56 variant.&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Morocco}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Mongolie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Mozambique}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Namibie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|North Korea}}: Type 56 an Type 58 variants wis uised.&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Palestine}}&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/06/world/middleeast/06mideast.html Israel Aids Palestinians With Arms], New York Times. September 5, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; 
* {{flag|Pakistan}}: Type 56 variant is uised bi the Special Service Group o the Pakistan Airmy.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/regiments/ssg.html Pakistan Military Consortium]. www.PakDef.info (1989-05-29). Retrieved on 2011-03-14. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515155011/http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/regiments/ssg.html |date=2011-05-15 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Peru}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Philippines}}: Uised bi the Santiago City PNP.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&amp;sec=reader&amp;rp=1&amp;fi=p060902.htm&amp;no=3&amp;date=09/02/2006|title=Santiago city forms SWAT team to combat crime|accessdate=2010-02-01|publisher=Philippine Information Agency|date=2006-09-02|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220404/http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&amp;sec=reader&amp;rp=1&amp;fi=p060902.htm&amp;no=3&amp;date=09%2F02%2F2006|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Poland}}&lt;ref name=&quot;popenker&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Qatar}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Romanie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sao Tome an Principe}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}}&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nickryan.net/articles/sahara.html Western Sahara – In the unforgiving deserts of south west Algeria, Nick Ryan meets the nomads fighting a 25 year battle.]&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{flag|Seychelles}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sierra Leone}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sirie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Somalie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Soviet Union}}: Adoptit bi the [[Soviet Union]] in 1951.&lt;ref name=&quot;miller2001&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sri Lanka}}: Type 56 variant.&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Sudan}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzanie]]&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Togo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Turkey}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Vietnam}}: Type 56 variant wis uised extensively bi the Viet Cong.&lt;ref name=&quot;miller2001&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Yemen}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Yugoslavie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;popenker&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Zambie}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;
* {{flag|Zimbabwe}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jones2009&quot;/&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.izhmash.ru/eng/product/akm.shtml Manufacturer's Offeecial Steid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006092719/http://www.izhmash.ru/eng/product/akm.shtml |date=2014-10-06 }}
* [http://kalashnikov.guns.ru/ AK Site – Kalashnikov Hame Page]
* [[s:AK-47 Operator's Manual|US Airmy Operator's Manual for the AK-47 Assault Rifle]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ak-47}}
[[Category:1947 introductions]]
[[Category:7.62 mm fireairms]]
[[Category:Assault rifles]]
[[Category:Roushie inventions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Maryland</title>
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      <text bytes="9209" sha1="h4ikzz7bevbhzvo66hux9i7vkzkk8z3" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox U.S. state
|Name = Maryland
|Fullname =  State of Maryland
|Flag = Flag of Maryland.svg
|Flaglink = [[Banner o Maryland]]
|Seal =Seal of Maryland (reverse).svg
|Map =Maryland in United States.svg
|Nickname = Auld Line State; Free State; Little Americae;''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Maryland's quality of life ranks high compared to other states | url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4183/is_20041211/ai_n10064724/ | work=FindArticles.com | publisher=The Daily Record (Baltimore) | date=December 11, 2004 | accessdate=2009-06-04 | archive-date=2009-01-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105151939/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4183/is_20041211/ai_n10064724 | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;'' America in Miniature''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |url=http://www.visitmaryland.org/Students/Pages/MarylandFacts.aspx
 |title=Maryland Facts
 |publisher=Maryland Office of Tourism
 |accessdate=June 2, 2009
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Demonym = Marylander
|Motto = [[Fatti maschii, parole femine]]&lt;br /&gt;(Manly deeds, wummanly wirds)
|Capital = [[Annapolis, Maryland|Annapolis]]
|LargestCity = [[Baltimore]]
|LargestMetro = [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Aurie|Baltimore-Washington Metro Aurie]]
|Governor = [[Wes Moore]] (D)
|Lieutenant Governor = [[Anthony G. Brown]] (D)
|Legislature = [[Maryland General Assembly|General Assembly]]
|Upperhouse = [[Maryland Senate|Senate]]
|Lowerhouse = [[Maryland Hoose o Delegates|Hoose o Delegates]]
|Senators = [[Barbara Mikulski]] (D) &lt;br /&gt;[[Ben Cardin]] (D)
|Representative=6 Democrats, 2 Republican
|PostalAbbreviation = MD
|OfficialLang = Nane
|AreaRank = 42nt
|TotalAreaUS = 12,407
|TotalArea = 32,133
|LandAreaUS = 9,774
|LandArea = 25,314
|WaterAreaUS = 2,633
|WaterArea = 6,819
|PCWater = 21
|PopRank = 19t
|2000Pop = 6,016,447 (2016 est)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/chart/PST045216/24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|DensityRank = 5t
|2000DensityUS = 596
|2000Density = 230
|MedianHouseholdIncome = $73,594&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/median-annual-income/?currentTimeframe=0|work=The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation|title=Median Annual Household Income|accessdate=December 9, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|IncomeRank = 1st
|AdmittanceOrder = 7t
|AdmittanceDate = 18 Aprile 1788
|TimeZone = [[Eastren Time Zone (North Americae)|Eastren]]: [[Coordinatit Universal Time|UTC]][[Eastren Time Zone|-5]]/[[Eastren Daylicht Time|-4]]
|Latitude = 37° 53′ N to 39° 43′ N
|Longitude = 75° 03′ W to 79° 29′ W
|WidthUS = 101
|Width = 163
|LengthUS = 249
|Length = 400
|HighestPoint = [[Hoye-Crest]]&lt;ref name=USGS&gt;{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|year=2001|accessdate=October 21, 2011|archive-date=2011-10-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=NAVD88&gt;Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|HighestElevUS = 3,360
|HighestElev = 1024
|MeanElevUS = 350
|MeanElev = 110
|LowestPoint = [[Atlantic Ocean]]&lt;ref name=USGS/&gt;
|LowestElevUS = 0
|LowestElev = 0
|ISOCode = US-MD
|Website = www.maryland.gov
|ElectoralVotes = 10
|State Animal = [[Horseshoe crab]]
}}
'''Maryland''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Maryland.ogg|ˈ|m|ɛr|i-|l|ə|n|d}})&lt;ref&gt;For thae that distinguish them, ''Maryland'' is pronooncit as in ''merry'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛr|i}}, na as in the name ''Mary'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛər|i}}. ''(Random House Dictionary)''&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[U.S. state]] locatit in the [[Mid Atlantic States|Mid Atlantic region]] o the [[Unitit States]], bordering [[Virginia]], [[West Virginia]], an the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] tae its sooth an wast; [[Pennsylvania]] tae its north; an [[Delaware]] tae its east. Maryland wis the seivent state tae ratify the [[Unitit States Constitution]], an three nicknames for it (the ''Auld Line State'', the ''Free State'', an the ''Chesapeake Bay State'') are occasionally uised.  Maryland is the [[Leet o U.S. states an territories bi aurie|9t smawest]] state bi aurie, but the [[Leet o U.S. states an territories bi population|19t maist populous]] an the [[Leet o U.S. states an territories bi population densitie|5t maist densely populatit]] o the [[50 Unitit States]].  The state's maist populatit ceety is [[Baltimore]]. Its caipital is [[Annapolis, Maryland|Annapolis]].  It wis namit efter [[Queen Henrietta Maria]].

Ane o the oreeginal [[Thirteen Colonies]], Maryland is conseedert the birthplace o [[releegious freedom]] in Americae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cecilius Calvert 2010&quot;&gt;&quot;George Calvert and Cecilius Calvert, Barons Baltimore&quot; William Hand Browne, Nabu Press (August 1, 2010), {{ISBN|117662539X}} {{ISBN|978-1176625396}}&lt;/ref&gt; The state wis foondit bi [[George Calvert]], a trustit furrin meenister an personal friend o [[James VI an I|Keeng James I]]. Whan Calvert convertit tae Catholicism in 1625 it meant his disqualification frae haudin public office, but his friendship wi King James remeened.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53967315|title=English and Catholic : the Lords Baltimore in the seventeenth century|last=1940-|first=Krugler, John D.,|date=2004|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=0801879639|location=Baltimore|oclc=53967315}}&lt;/ref&gt; Calvert haed haed an early interest in the admeenistration o colonial affairs an peteetioned James for a chairter tae provide a releegious haven for Catholics persecutit in Ingland as weel as tae extend the territories o the Inglis Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=History of Maryland: Province and State|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-AOW-091|last=Andrews|first=Matthew Page|publisher=Doubleday, Doran &amp; Company, Inc|year=1929|isbn=|location=Garden City, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-AOW-091/page/2 3]–5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Consequently, in 1632 James’ son, [[Charles I o Ingland|Charles]], grantit Calvert a chairter tae settle launds in Americae held bi the Croun, tae wit: tae &quot;transport ... a numerous Colony o the Inglis Naition&quot; tae settle thare.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/ma01.asp|title=The Charter of Maryland : 1632|date=1998-12-18|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2018-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unlik the Pilgrims an Puritans, that begoud enforcin conformity wi thair beliefs as suin as thay settled in Americae, Calvert enveesioned a colony whaur fowk o different releegious sects wad coexeest unner the principle o [[toleration]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;  Some historians believe that Calvert's aspiration taewart sic a society mey hae been inspired bi the warks o [[Thomas More]], maist notably the beuk ''[[Utopia (beuk)|Utopia]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;  Accordinly, in 1649 the Maryland General Assemmly passed an [[Maryland Toleration Act|Act Concernin Releegion]], that enshrined the principle o toleration bi penalisin onyane that &quot;reproached&quot; a fellae Marylander as a &quot;heritick, Scismatick, Idolator, puritan, Independant, Prespiterian popish prest, Jesuite, Jesuited papist, Lutheran, Calvenist, Anabaptist, Brownist, Antinomian, Barrowist, Roundhead [or] Separatist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/maryland_toleration.asp|title=Avalon Project - Maryland Toleration Act; September 21, 1649|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2018-05-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Saxteen o Maryland's twenty three cointies mairch on the tidal watters o the [[Chesapeake Bay|Chesapeake Bay estuary]] an its mony tributaries, that combined tot mair nor 4,000 mile o the shoreline. The population is approximately sax million residents.  {{as of|2015}}, Maryland haed the [[Leet o U.S. states bi income|heichest median hoosehauld income]] o ony state, awin in lairge pairt tae its close proximity tae the naition's caipital an a heichly diversified economy spannin manufacturin, services, an biotechnology.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |url=http://proximityone.com/stmhi0910.htm
 |title=State Median Household Income Patterns: 1990–2010
 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau
 |accessdate=August 6, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Relatit information==&lt;!-- see [[wp:NAVHEAD]] --&gt;
{{Maryland|expanded}}
{{Unitit States poleetical diveesions}}
{{Unitit States topics}}

{{Geographic location
 | Northwest =
 | North = {{flag|Pennsylvania}}
 | Northeast = {{flag|New Jersey}}
 | West = {{flag|West Virginia}}
 | Centre = '' Maryland'': [[Outline of Maryland|Outline]] • [[Index of Maryland-related articles|Index]]
 | East = {{flag|Delaware}}
 | Southwest =
 | South = {{flag|Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia}} • {{flag|Virginia}}
 | Southeast = [[Chesapeake Bay]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Atlantic Ocean]]
}}

{{succession
| preceded = [[Massachusetts]]
| office = [[Leet o U.S. states bi date o statehuid]]
| years = Ratifee'd [[Constitution o the Unitit States o Americae|Constitution]] on 28 Aprile 1788 (7th)
| succeeded = [[Sooth Carolina]]
}}

[[Category:Maryland| ]]
[[Category:States o the Unitit States]]
[[Category:States o the Soothren Unitit States]]
[[Category:Umwhile Breetish colonies]]
[[Category:States an territories established in 1788]]


{{Stub/USA}}</text>
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    <title>Burke an Hare murthers</title>
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&lt;!-- Essential parameters --&gt;
| align     = right
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| header = William Burke an William Hare, picturt at Burke's trial
| width     =
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The '''Burke an Hare murthers''' (or the West Port murthers) war serial murthers committit in Edinburgh frae November 1827 tae 31st October 1828. The killins wur attributit tae [[Erse fowk|Erse]] immigrants '''William Burke''' an '''William Hare''', who sauld the [[Cadaver|corpse]] o thair 16 victims tae provide material for [[dissection]]. Thair purchaser wis [[Fisician|Doctor]] [[Robert Knox]], a private anatomy lecturer whose students wur drawn frae [[Edinburgh Medical College]]. Thair accomplices includit Burke's mistress, Helen McDougal, an Hare's wife, Margaret Laird.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/weird/burke/foursome_2.html |title=William Burke &amp; William Hare |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-date=2008-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415201447/http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/weird/burke/foursome_2.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Frae thair infamous method o killin thair victims haes come the wird &quot;burkin&quot;, meanin tae purposefully smother an compress the chest o a victim, an a derivit meanin, tae quietly suppress.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Burking |title=Definition at dictionary.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/burking |title=Definition at Merriam Webster}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Historical backgrund==
{{Main|History o anatomy in the 19t century}}
Afore 1832, thare wur insufficient [[cadaver]]s legitimately available for the study an teachin of [[anatomy]] in [[Great Breetain|Breetish]] medical schools. The [[University o Edinburgh]] wis an institution universally renouned for medical sciences. As medical science began tae flourish in the early nineteent century, demand rose shairply, but at the same time, the anerlie legal supply o cadavers—the bodies o executit creeminals—haed fawen due tae a shairp reduction in the execution rate in the early nineteent century. Anerlie aboot twa or three corpse per year wur available for a lairge nummer o students. This situation attractit creeminal elements who wur willin tae obtain specimens bi ony means. The activities o [[body snatchin|body-snatchers]] (cried resurrectionists an aw) gae rise tae pairticular public fear an revulsion. It wis a short step frae grave-robbin tae [[anatomy murther]].

==Burke an Hare==
[[File:Old Surgeon's Hall, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|Old Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh]]
Burke (1792 – 28 Januar 1829) wis born in Urney, near [[Stràbane]], in the vera wast o [[Coonty Tyrone]], pairt o the Province o [[Ulster]] in the north o [[Ireland]]. Urney, a sma destrict whaur the veelage o [[Clady, Coonty Tyrone|Clady]] is locatit, lees on the eastren bank o the [[River Finn]], juist athort frae [[Coonty Dunnygal]]. Efter tryin his haund at a variety o trades an servin as an officer's servant in the Dunnygal Militia, he left his wife an twa childer in Ireland an emigratit tae Scotland aboit 1817, wirkin as a [[navvy]] for the [[Union Canal (Scotland)|Union Canal]]. Thare he met Helen McDougal. Burke efterwairds wirkit as a labourer, weaver, baker an a cobbler.

Hare's (born 1792 or 1804) birthplace is variously gien as [[Poyntzpass]] near [[Newry]], or [[Derry]], baith o which are in the Province o Ulster in Ireland an aw. Lik Burke, he emigratit tae Scotland an wirkit as a Union Canal labourer. He then muivit tae Edinburgh, whaur he met a man namit Logue, who ran a lodgin-hoose in [[West Port, Edinburgh|the West Port]]. When Logue dee'd in 1826, Hare marriet Margaret Laird, Logue's widae. Margaret Hare continued tae run the lodgin hoose, an Hare wirkit on the canal.

==Murthers==
In late 1828, Burke an McDougal muivit intae Tanner's Close, in the West Port aurie o Edinburgh, whaur Margaret Hare kept a lodgin-hoose. Burke haed met Margaret on previous trips tae Edinburgh, but it is no kent whether he wis previously acquaintit wi Hare. Ance Burke arrivit in Tanner's Corner, thay became guid friends.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Amanda|author2=Martin Smith|title=River of Blood: Serial Killers and Their Victims|publisher=[[Universal Publishers|Universal]]{{dn|date=August 2012}}|year=2004|chapter=William Burke and William Hare|isbn=1-58112-518-6|accessdate=2008-10-11|page=50}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accordin tae Hare's later testimony, the first body thay sauld wis that o a tenant who haed dee'd o naitural causes, an auld airmy [[pensioner]] who awed Hare [[Poond sterling|£]]4 rent. Instead o buryin the body, thay filled the coffin wi bark an brocht the cadaver tae Edinburgh University, leukin for a purchaser. Accordin tae Burke's later testimony, a student directit them tae Surgeon's Square whaur thay sauld the body for £7.10s (2010:£731 US$1,130) tae Dr. Robert Knox, a local [[anatomy|anatomist]].&lt;ref name=&quot;West Port Murders&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=West Port Murders|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomydescript00spitgoog|publisher=Edinburgh: Thomas Ireland|year=1829|chapter=William Burke, Confessions}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Burke an Hare's first murther victim wis a sick tenant, Joseph the Miller, whom thay plied wi whisky an then [[suffocation|suffocatit]]. When thare wur nae ither sickly tenants, thay decidit tae lur a victim frae the street. In Februar 1828, thay invitit pensioner Abigail Simpson tae spend the nicht afore her return tae home. Uisin the same ''[[modus operandi]]'', thay servit Simpson alcohol wi the intention o [[Alcohol intoxication|intoxicatin]] her, an then smothered her. Thay wur peyed £10.&lt;ref name=&quot;West Port Murders&quot;/&gt;

Hare's wife, Margaret, invitit a wumman tae the inn, plied her wi drink, an then sent for her husband. Next, Burke encoontered twa weemen in the section o Edinburgh kent as the Canongate, Mary Patterson an Janet Broun. He invitit them tae breakfast, but Broun left when an argument broke oot atween McDougal an Burke. When she returned, she wis tauld that Patterson haed left wi Burke; in fact, she, too, haed been taken tae Dr. Knox's dissectin ruims.&lt;ref name=&quot;West Port Murders&quot;/&gt; The twa weemen wur describit as prostitutes in contemporary accoonts.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=West Port Murders |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomydescript00spitgoog |publisher=Edinburgh: Thomas Ireland|year=1829}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Trial of William Burke and Helen McDougal |url=https://archive.org/details/b20443791 |publisher=Edinburgh: Robert Buchanan|year=1829|chapter=Preface}}&lt;/ref&gt; The story later arose that some o Knox's students recognisit the dead Patterson.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lonsdale|first=Henry|title=A Sketch of the Life and Writings of Robert Knox, the Anatomist|url=https://archive.org/details/asketchlifeandw01lonsgoog|publisher=London: MacMillan|year=1870}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The next victim wis an acquaintance o Burke, a bigger wumman cried Effie. Thay wur peyed £10 for her body. Then Burke &quot;savit&quot; a wumman frae polis bi claimin that he knew her. He delivered her body tae the medical schuil juist oors later. The next twa victims wur an auld wumman an her blind grandson. While the grandmither dee'd frae an owerdose on painkillers,  Hare teuk the young boy an stretched him ower his knee, then proceedit tae break his back. Baith bodies wur ultimately sauld for £8 each. The next twa victims wur Burke's acquaintance &quot;Mrs. Ostler&quot; an ane o McDougal's relatives, Ann Dougal.

Anither victim wis Elizabeth Haldane, a umwhile lodger who, doun on her luck, askit tae sleep in Hare's stable. Burke an Hare murthert her dochter Peggy Haldane a few months later an aw.

Burke an Hare's next victim wis an even better-kent person, a [[Mental retardation|mentally retardit]] young man wi a limp, namit James Wilson, cried &quot;Daft Jamie&quot;, who wis 18 at the time o his murther. The boy resistit, an the pair haed tae kill him thegither, tho later each blamit the ither for takkin the main pairt in the creeme. His mither began tae ask for her boy. When Dr. Knox uncovered the body the next fore-nuin, several students recognisit Jamie. His heid an feet wur cut aff efter Knox haed shawn his students the body. Knox denied that it wis Jamie, but he apparently began tae dissect the cadaver's face first.

The last victim wis Marjory Campbell Docherty. Burke lured her intae the lodgin hoose bi claimin that his mither wis a Docherty an aw, but he haed tae wait tae complete his murtherous task acause o the presence o lodgers James an Ann Gray. The Grays left for the nicht an neebours&lt;!--This spelling is correct in British English--&gt; heard the soonds o a struggle.

==Detection==

The next day, Ann Gray, who haed returned, became suspicious when Burke wad no let her approach a bed whaur she haed left her stockins. When the Grays wur left alane in the hoose in the early fore-nicht, thay checkit the be an foond Docherty's body unner it. On thair wey tae alert the polis, thay ran intae McDougal who tree'd tae bribe them wi an affer o £10 a week. Thay refused.

Burke an Hare haed remuivit the body frae the hoose afore the polis arrivit. Housomeivver, unner questionin, Burke claimit that Docherty haed left at 7:00 a.m., while McDougal claimit that she haed left in the fore-nicht. The polis arrestit them. An anonymous tip-aff led them tae Knox's classruim whaur thay foond Docherty's body, which James Gray identifee'd. William an Margaret Hare wur arrestit suin thareefter. The murther spree haed lastit twal months.

When an Edinburgh paper wrote aboot the disappearances on 6 November 1828&lt;!--this date is correct in British English--&gt;, Janet Broun went tae the polis an identifee'd her friend Mary Patterson's clothin.

The evidence against the pair wis no owerwhelmin, sae [[Lord Advocate]] [[Sir William Rae, 3rd Baronet|Sir William Rae]] affered Hare [[Prosecutorial immunity|immunity frae prosecution]] if he confessed an greit tae testifee against Burke. Hare's testimony led tae Burke's [[Caipital punishment|daith sentence]] in December 1828. He wis [[hanged]] on 28 Januar 1829, efter which he wis publicly dissectit at the Edinburgh Medical College.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Amanda |author2=Martin Smith|title=River of Blood: Serial Killers and Their Victims|publisher=[[Universal Publishers|Universal]]|year=2004|chapter=William Burke and William Hare|isbn=1-58112-518-6|accessdate=11 October 2008|page=54}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The dissectin professor, [[Alexander Monro (tertius)|Alexander Monro]], dippit his quill pen intae Burke's bluid an wrote &quot;This is written with the blood of Wm Burke, who was hanged at Edinburgh. This blood was taken from his head.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Rosner|first=Lisa|title=The Anatomy Murders|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomymurdersbe00rosn|publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press|Penn Press]]|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8122-4191-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; His skelet an [[daith mask]] are displayed at the University o Edinburgh's Anatomical Museum.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.anatomy.mvm.ed.ac.uk/museum/explore-spotlight.php |title=Anatomical Museum |publisher=Edinburgh University|accessdate=2 March 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Items made frae his tanned skin are displayed at Surgeon's Hall. A cawin caird case made oot o Willliam Burke's skin is on display at The Police Information Centre in Edinburgh's Royal Mile.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Burke's skin pocket book|url=http://www.scotlandandmedicine.com/site/CMD=PICDETAIL/PICID=248/838/default.aspx|work=Scotland Medicine|accessdate=11 October 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5bUW8rrX2?url=http://www.scotlandandmedicine.com/site/CMD=PICDETAIL/PICID=248/838/default.aspx|archivedate=2008-10-11|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.scotlandandmedicine.com/site/CMD=PICDETAIL/PICID=248/838/default.aspx |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-12-07 |archive-date=2008-10-11 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5bUW8rrX2?url=http://www.scotlandandmedicine.com/site/CMD=PICDETAIL/PICID=248/838/default.aspx |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=William Burke|url=http://www.scottish-places.info/people/famousfirst354.html|work=Gazetteer for Scotland|accessdate=11 October 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5bUWKr0cS?url=http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst354.html|archivedate=2008-10-11|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wallets supposedly made frae Burke's skin wur affered for sale on the streets.&lt;ref&gt;David H. Freedman, &quot;20 Things you didn't know about autopsies,&quot; ''Discover'' September 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;

McDougal wis released, syne her complicity tae the murthers wis no pruivable. Knox wis no prosecutit, despite public ootrage at his role in providin an incentive for the 16 murthers. Burke swore in his confession that Knox haed kent nothin o the oreegin o the cadavers.&lt;ref name=&quot;West Port Murders&quot;/&gt;

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burke An Hare Murthers}}
[[Category:1792 births]]
[[Category:1829 daiths]]
[[Category:1859 daiths]]
[[Category:Heichgatemen]]
[[Category:History o anatomy]]
[[Category:History o Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Murther in Scotland]]
[[Category:Auld Toun, Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Erse serial killers]]</text>
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    <title>Warld War II</title>
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{{WW2InfoBox}}
'''Warld War II''', or the '''Seicont Warld War''' (aften abbreviatit as '''WWII''' or WW2), wis a global war that stertit in 1939 an endit in 1945. It inrowed [[Warld War II bi country|the wappin forces o the warld's naitions]]—includin aw o the [[great pouer]]s—at the hinner en formin twa opponin [[military alliance]]s: the [[Feres o Warld War II|Feres]] an the [[Axis pouers|Axis]]. It wis the braidest  [[war]] in history, an directly inrowed mair nor 100 million fowk frae ower 30 kintras. In a state o &quot;[[tot war]]&quot;, the major participants funged thair hail economic, industrial, an scienteefic cawpabilities ahint the [[war brash]], erasin the distinction atween [[ceevilian]] an [[militar]] resoorces. Merkit bi mass daiths o ceevilians, includin the [[Holocaust]] (in whilk thareaboot 11 million fowk wis killt)&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Fitzgerald|2011|p=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Hedgepeth|Saidel|2010|p=16}}&lt;/ref&gt; an the [[strategic bombin during Warld War II|strategic bombin o industrial an population centres]] (in whilk thareaboot ane million fowk wis killt, includin the [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|uise o twa nuclear wappens in combat]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=War, Violence, and Population: Making the Body Count |url=https://archive.org/details/warviolencepopul00tyne |author=James A. Tyner |page=[https://archive.org/details/warviolencepopul00tyne/page/n63 49] |date=March 3, 2009 |publisher=The Guilford Press; 1 edition |isbn=1-6062-3038-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; it resultit in an estimate [[Warld War II casualties|50 million tae 85 million fatalities]]. Thir made Warld War&amp;nbsp;II the [[Leet o wars an disasters by death toll|deidliest pingle]] in [[History o the warld|human history]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sommerville 2008 5&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Sommerville|2011|p=5}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Empire o Japan]] ettilt tae dominate [[Asie]] an the [[Paceefic]] an wis awready [[Seicont Sino-Japanese War|at war]] wi the [[Republic o Cheenae (1912–1949)|Republic o Cheenae]] in 1937,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bar&amp;Shyu 2001 6&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Barrett|Shyu|2001|p=6}}.&lt;/ref&gt; but the warld war is generally said tae hae began on 1 September 1939&lt;ref&gt;Axelrod, Alan (2007) ''Encyclopedia of World War II, Volume 1''. Infobase Publishing. pp. 659.&lt;/ref&gt; wi the [[invasion o Poland|invasion]] o [[Seicont Pols Republic|Poland]] bi [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] an subsequent declarations o war on Germany bi [[French Third Republic|Fraunce]] an the [[Unitit Kinrick]]. Frae late 1939 tae early 1941, in a series o campaigns an [[Tripartite Pact|treaties]], Germany vinkisht or maunt the feck o continental Europe, an formed the Axis alliance wi [[Kinrick o Italy|Italy]] an [[Empire o Japan|Japan]]. Follaein the [[Treaty o Non-Aggression atween Germany an the Soviet Union|Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], Germany an the Soviet Union pairteetioned an annexed territories o thair European neighbours, [[Soviet invasion o Poland|Poland]], [[Winter War|Finland]], [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabia an Northren Bukovina|Romanie]] an the [[Occupation o the Baltic states|Baltic states]]. The Unitit Kinrick an the [[Commonweel o Naitions|Breetish Commonweel]] wis the anerly Allied forces continuin the fecht agin the European Axis pouers, wi campaigns in [[Wastren Desert Campaign|North Africae]] an the [[East African Campaign (Warld War II)|Horn o Africae]] as weel as the lang-rinnin [[Battle o the Atlantic]]. In Juin 1941, the European Axis pouers lencht [[Operation Barbarossa|an invasion o the Soviet Union]], appenin the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|lairgest laund war theatre in history]], whilk trappit the feck o the Axis' militar forces intae a [[Attrition warfare|attrition war]]. In December 1941, Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attackit the Unitit States]] an [[Japanese invasion o Malaya|European territories]] in the Paceefic Ocean, an swith vinkisht a fait feck o the Wastren Paceefic.

The Axis forderin hautit in 1942 whan Japan lost the creetical [[Battle o Midway]], near [[Hawaii]], an Germany wis defait in the [[Seicont Battle o El Alamein|North Africae]] an syne, decisively, at [[Battle o Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] in the Soviet Union. In 1943, wi a series o German defaits on the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]], the [[Allied invasion o Sicily|Allied invasion]] o Italy whilk rase Italian renooncement, an Allied owerhauns in the Paceefic, the Axis lost the initiative an taen legbail on haun on aw fronts. In 1944, the Wastren Allies [[Normandy landings|invadit German-occupied Fraunce]], while the Soviet Union won back aw o its territorial losses an invadit Germany an its feres. Durin 1944 an 1945 the Japanese dreed major reverses in mainland Asie in [[Second Guangxi Campaign|Sooth]] [[Battle o Wast Hunan|Central Cheenae]] an [[Burma Campaign|Burma]], while the Allies lamed the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] an fangt key Wastren Paceefic islands.

The war in Europe endit wi an [[Wastren Allied invasion o Germany|invasion o Germany]] bi the Wastren Allies an the Soviet Union culminatin in the [[Battle o Berlin|tak o Berlin]] bi Soviet an Pols truips an the subsequent [[German Instrument o Surrender|German uncondeetional surrender]] on [[Victory in Europe Day|8 Mey 1945]]. Follaein the [[Potsdam Declaration]] bi the Allies on the 26t Julie 1945 an Japan's refuise o tae renoonce unner its terms, the Unitit States [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|drappit atomic bombs]] on the Japanese ceeties o [[Hiroshima]] an [[Nagasaki]] on the 6t August an the 9t August respectively. Wi an [[Operation Downfall|invasion o the Japanese airchipelago]] imminent, the possibility o addeetional atomic bombins, an the [[Soviet-Japanese War (1945)|Soviet Union's declaration o war on Japan]] an [[Soviet invasion o Manchuria|invasion o Manchuria]], [[Surrender o Japan|Japan renoonced]] on the 15t August 1945. Sicweys endit the war in Asie, souderin the Allies' tot victory.

Warld War&amp;nbsp;II chynged the warld's poleetical alignment an social structur. The [[Unitit Naitions]] (UN) wis estaiblisht fur tae forder internaitional comploutherin an fur tae prevene futur conflicks. The gree-bearin [[great pouer]]s—the Unitit States, the Soviet Union, Cheenae, the Unitit Kinrick, an Fraunce—became the [[Permanent members o the Unitit Naitions Security Council|permanent memmers]] o the [[Unitit Naotions Security Cooncil]].&lt;ref name=&quot;The UN Security Council&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=The UN Security Council|url=http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|accessdate=15 May 2012|archive-date=2012-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620101548/http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Soviet Union an the Unitit States ootcam as rival [[superpouer]]s, settin the stage fur the [[Cauld War]], whilk lastit fur the neist 46 year. Atween haun, the European great pouers' hank waned, while the [[decolonisation o Asie]] an [[decolonisation o Africae|Africae]] began. Maist kintras whase industries haed been damaged muived taewart [[post-Warld War II economic expansion|economic betterness]]. Poleetical integration, inspecially [[European integration|in Europe]], wis a war ootcome, as pairt o a ettle at endin afore-war laith an creautin a common identity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=From War to Peace: A European Tale|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/eu-lecture_en.html|publisher=Nobel Lecture by the European Union|accessdate=4 January 2014|author=Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council|author2=José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission|date=10 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Backgrund==
=== Europe ===
[[Warld War I]] haed radically altert the [[Geopolitics|poleetical]] European map, wi the defeat o the [[Central Powers]]—includin [[Austrick-Hungary]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Kinrick o Bulgarie|Bulgarie]] an the [[Ottoman Empire]]—an the 1917 [[October Revolution|Bolshevik seizur o pouer]] in [[Roushie Republic|Roushie]], that hinderly led tae the foondin o the [[Soviet Union]]. Atween haun, the veectorious [[Allies o Warld War I]], sic as Fraunce, Belgium, Italy, Romanie an Greece, gained territory, an new [[naition-states]] wis creatit oot o the collapse o Austrick-Hungary an the Ottoman an [[Roushie Empire]]s. Fur tae prevene a futur warld war, the [[League o Naitions]] wis creatit in the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|1919 Paris Peace Conference]].

Maugre strang [[pacifism|pacifist]] sentiment [[eftermath o Warld War I|efter Warld War I]],{{sfn|Ingram|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bREQibN9i-sC&amp;pg=PA76 76–8]}} its eftermath still caused [[irredentist]] an [[revanchist]] [[naitionalism]] in several European states. Thir sentiments wis especially merkit in Germany acause o the signeeficant territorial, colonial, an financial losses incurred bi the [[Treaty o Versailles]]. Unner the treaty, Germany lost aroond 13 percent o its hame territory an aw o [[German colonial empire|its owerseas possessions]], while German annexation o ither states wis prohibitit, [[Warld War I reparations|reparations]] war imposed, an leemits wis placed on the size an capability o the kintra's [[Reichswehr|airmed forces]].{{sfn|Kantowicz|1999|p=149}}

The German Empire wis dissolved in the [[German Revolution o 1918–1919]], an a democratic govrenment, later kent as the [[Weimar Republic]], wis creautit. The interwar period saw strife atween supporters o the new republic an hardline opponents on baith the [[richt-weeng politics|richt]] an [[left-weeng politics|left]]. Italy, as an Entente ally, haed made some post-war territorial gains; houiver, Italian naitionalists wis angert that the [[Treaty o Lunnon (1915)|promises made]] bi Breetain an Fraunce tae siccar Italian entrance intae the war wisnae fulfilt in the peace dounset. Frae 1922 tae 1925, the [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] muivement led bi [[Benito Mussolini]] seized pouer in Italy wi a naitionalist, [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], an [[cless collaboration]]ist agenda that abolisht representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-weeng an leeberal forces, an pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at makkin Italy a [[warld pouer]], promisin the creaution o a &quot;[[New Roman Empire]]&quot;.{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=35}}

[[File:Nürnberg Reichsparteitag Hitler retouched.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] at a German [[Naitional Socialist]] poleetical rally in [[Nürnberg]], August 1933]]

[[Adolf Hitler]], efter an [[Beer Hall Putsch|unsuccessfu attempt tae owerthraw the German govrenment]] in 1923, eventually acame the [[Adolf Hitler's rise tae pouer|Chancellor o Germany in 1933]]. He abolisht democracy, espoosin a [[New Order (Nazism)|radical, racially motivatit revision o the warld order]], an suin begoud a massive [[German re-airmament|reairmament campaign]].{{sfn|Brody|1999|p=4}} Meanwhile, Fraunce, tae siccar its alliance, [[Franco-Italian Greement|alloued Italy a free haund in Ethiopie]], that Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation wis aggravatit in early 1935 whan the [[Saar (League o Naitions)|Territory o the Saar Basin]] wis legally reunitit wi Germany an Hitler repudiatit the Treaty o Versailles, acceleratit his reairmament programme, an introduced [[conscription]].{{sfn|Zalampas|1989|p=62}}

Hitler defee'd the Versailles an [[Locarno treaties]] bi [[Remilitarisation o the Rhineland|remilitarisin]] the [[Rhineland]] in Mairch 1936, [[Appeasement|encoonterin little opposeetion]].{{sfn|Adamthwaite|1992|p=52}} In October 1936, Germany an Italy formed the [[Roum–Berlin Axis]]. A month later, Germany an Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], that Italy wad jyne in the follaein year.

=== Asie ===
The [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) pairty in Cheenae launched a [[Northren Expedition|unification campaign]] against [[Warlaird Era|regional warlairds]] an nominally unifee'd Cheenae in the mid-1920s, but wis suin embrulyie'd in a [[Cheenese Ceevil War|ceevil war]] against its umwhile [[Cheenese Communist Pairty]] allies{{sfn|Preston|1998|p=104}} an [[Central Plains War|new regional warlairds]]. In 1931, an [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|increasinly militareestic]] [[Empire o Japan]], that haed lang soct influence in Cheenae{{sfn|Myers|Peattie|1987|p=458}} as the first step o whit its govrenment saw as the kintra's [[Hakko ichiu|richt tae rule Asie]], uised the [[Mukden Incident]] as a pretext tae [[Japanese invasion o Manchurie|launch an invasion o Manchurie]] an establish the [[puppet state]] o [[Manchukuo]].{{sfn|Smith|Steadman|2004|p=28}}

Ower waik tae resist Japan, Cheenae appealt tae the [[League o Naitions]] fur help. Japan widrew frae the League o Naitions efter bein [[Lytton Report|condemned]] fur its incursion intae Manchurie. The twa naitions syne focht several battles, in [[28 Januar Incident|Shanghai]], [[Battle o Rehe|Rehe]] an [[Defence o the Great Waw|Hebei]], till the [[Tanggu Truce]] wis signed in 1933. Thareefter, Cheenese volunteer forces conteena'd the reseestance tae Japanese aggression in [[Pacification o Manchukuo|Manchurie]], an [[Actions in Inner Mongolie (1933–1936)|Chahar an Suiyuan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Coogan|1993}}: &quot;Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Efter the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]], the Kuomintang an communist forces greed on a ceasefire tae present a [[Seicont Unitit Front|unitit front]] fur tae oppone Japan.{{sfn|Busky|2002|p=10}}

== Pre-war events ==
=== Spaingie Ceevil War (1936–39) ===
{{Main|Spaingie Ceevil War}}

Whan ceevil war ootbrak in Spain, Hitler an Mussolini lent militar uphaudin tae the [[Naitionalist faction (Spaingie Ceevil War)|Naitionalist rebels]], led bi General [[Francisco Franco]]. The Soviet Union uphaudit the existin govrenment, the [[Seicont Spaingie Republic|Spaingie Republic]]. Ower 30,000 foreign volunteers, kent as the [[Internaitional Brigades]], forby focht agin the Naitionalists. Baith Germany an the USSR uised this [[proxy war]] as an opportunity fur tae test in combat thair maist advanced wappens an tactics. The Naitionalists wan the ceevil war in Apryle 1939; Franco, nou dictator, remeened offeecially neutral in World War II but generally favoured the Axis.{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=271}} His greatest collaboration wi Germany wis the sendin o [[Blue Diveesion|volunteers]] tae fecht on the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=146}}

=== Japanese invasion o Cheenae (1937) ===
{{Main|Seicont Sino-Japanese War}}
In Julie 1937, Japan capturt the umwhile Cheenese imperial caipital o [[Peking]] efter instigatin the [[Marco Polo Brig Incident]], that culminatit in the Japanese campaign tae invade aw o Cheenae.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|pp=547–51}} The Soviets quickly signed a [[Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact wi Cheenae]] tae lend [[materiel]] uphaudin, effectively endin Cheenae's prior [[Sino-German comploutherin 1926–1941|comploutherin wi Germany]]. Frae September tae November, the Japanese attackit [[Battle o Taiyuan|Taiyuan]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Guo 1971 221&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Guo|2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hsu &amp; Chang 1971 221&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=195–200}}.&lt;/ref&gt; as weel as engagin the [[Naitional Revolutionary Airmy|Kuomintang Airmy]] [[Battle o Xinkou|aroond Xinkou]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Guo 1971 221&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hsu &amp; Chang 1971 221&quot;/&gt; an [[Communist Pairty o Cheenae|Communist forces]] [[battle o Pingxingguan|in Pingxingguan]].&lt;ref name=Tucker2009&gt;{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&amp;pg=PA1873|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|date=23 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|accessdate=27 August 2017|via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=yang&gt;Yang Kuisong, &quot;On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; [[Generalissimo]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] deployed his [[German-trained diveesions in the Naitional Revolutionary Airmy|best airmy]] tae [[Battle o Shanghai|defend Shanghai]], but, efter three month o fechtin, Shanghai fell. The Japanese conteena'd tae push the Cheenese forces back, [[Battle o Nanking|capturin the caipital Nanking]] in December 1937. Efter the faw o Nanking, tens o thoosands, gif no hunders o thoosands, o Cheenese ceevilians an disairmed combatants wis [[Nanking Massacre|murthert bi the Japanese]].&lt;ref&gt;Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. ''The Massacre in History''. 1999, page 223-4&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=tot&gt;Totten, Samuel. ''Dictionary of Genocide''. 2008, 298–9.&lt;/ref&gt;

In Mairch 1938, Naitionalist Cheenese forces wan thair [[Battle o Taierzhuang|first major veectory at Taierzhuang]] but then the ceety o [[Xuzhou]] [[Battle o Xuzhou|wis taken bi Japanese]] in Mey.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=221–230}} In Juin 1938, Cheenese forces stawed the Japanese advance bi [[1938 Yellae River fluid|fluidin the Yellae River]]; this manoeuvre bocht time fur the Cheenese tae prepare thair defences at [[Wuhan]], but the [[Battle o Wuhan|ceety wis takken]] bi October.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|p=566}} Japanese militar veectories didnae bring aboot the collapse o Cheenese resistance that Japan haed howpit tae achieve; insteid the Cheenese govrenment relocatit inland tae [[Chongqing]] an conteena'd the war.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=150–2}}{{sfn|Sella|1983|pp=651–87}}

=== European occupations an agreements ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg|right|thumb|upright|German Foreign Meenister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] (richt) an the Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]], efter signin the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], 23 August 1939]]
In Europe, Germany an Italy wis becomin aggressiver. In Mairch 1938, Germany [[Anschluss|annexed Austrick]], again provokin [[Appeasement o Hitler|a bittock response]] frae ither European pouers.{{sfn|Collier|Pedley|2000|p=144}} Encouraged, Hitler begoud pressin German claims on the [[Sudetenland]], an aurie o [[Czechoslovakie]] wi a predominantly [[ethnic German]] population; an suin Breetain an Fraunce follaed the coonsel o Breetish Prime Meenister [[Neville Chamberlain]] an concedit this territory tae Germany in the [[Munich Greement]], that wis made agin the wishes o the Czechoslovak govrenment, in exchynge fur a promise o nae mair territorial demands.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=121–2}} Suin efterwart, Germany an Italy forced Czechoslovakie tae [[First Vienna Awaird|cede addeetional territory]] tae [[Hungary]] an Poland annexed Czechoslovakie's [[Zaolzie]] region.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=157}}

Awtho aw o Germany's statit demands haed been satisfee'd bi the greement, preevatly Hitler wis furious that Breetish interference haed preventit him frae seizin aw o Czechoslovakie in ane operation. In subsequent speeches, Hitler attackit Breetish an Jewish &quot;war-mongers&quot; an in Januar 1939 [[Plan Z|saicretly ordered a major big-up o the German navy]] tae challenge Breetish naval supremacy. In Mairch 1939, [[German occupation o Czechoslovakie|Germany invadit the remeender o Czechoslovakie]] an subsequently split it intae the German [[Pertectorate o Bohemie an Moravie]] an a pro-German [[client state]], the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]].{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=pp. 143–4 (2008 ed.)}} Hitler forby deleevered the 20 Mairch 1939 [[1939 German ultimatum tae Lithuanie|ultimatum tae Lithuanie]], forcin the concession o the [[Klaipėda Region]].

Greatly alairmed an wi Hitler makkin forder demands on the [[Free Ceety o Danzig]], Breetain an Fraunce [[Anglo-Pols militar alliance#Breetish Guarantee tae Poland|guaranteed thair uphaudin o Pols unthirldom]]; whan [[Italian invasion o Albanie|Italy conquered Albanie]] in Apryle 1939, the same guarantee wis extendit tae Romanie an [[Greece]].{{sfn|Lowe|Marzari|2002|p=330}} Shortly efter the [[Franco-Pols Militar Alliance|Franco]]-Breetish pledge tae Poland, Germany an Italy formalised thair awn alliance wi the [[Pact o Steel]].{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=234}} Hitler accuised Breetain an Poland o tryin tae &quot;encircle&quot; Germany an renoonced the [[Anglo-German Naval Greement]] an the [[German–Pols Non-Aggression Pact]].

The situation reakit a general creesis in late August as German truips conteena'd tae mobilise agin the Pols mairch. In August 23, whan tripartite negotiations aboot a militar alliance atween Fraunce, Breetain an USSR stawed&lt;ref&gt;Derek Watson, Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939, ''Europe-Asia Studies'', Vol. 52, No. 4 (Jun., 2000), pp. 695-722 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/153322]&lt;/ref&gt;, Soviet Union signed [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|a non-aggression pact]] wi Germany.{{sfn|Shore|2003|p=108}} This pact haed a saicret protocol that defined German an Soviet &quot;spheres o influence&quot; (wastren [[Seicont Pols Republic|Poland]] an [[Lithuanie]] for Germany; [[Territories o Poland annexed bi the Soviet Union|eastren Poland]], Finland, [[Estonie]], Latvie an [[Bessarabie]] fur the USSR), an raised the quaisten o conteenuin Pols unthirldom.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=608}} The pact neutralised the possibility o Soviet opposeetion tae a campaign against Poland an assured that Germany wad nae hae tae face the prospect o a twa-front war, as it haed in Warld War I. Immediately efter that, Hitler ordert the attack tae proceed on 26 August, but upon hearin that Breetain haed concludit a formal mutual assistance pact wi Poland, an that Italy wad mainteen neutrality, he decidit tae delay it.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/DAP-Poland/Campaign-II.html#chapter5|title=The German Campaign In Poland (1939)|publisher=|accessdate=29 October 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In response tae Breetish requests fur direct negotiations fur tae evit war, Germany made demands on Poland, that anerly served as a pretext tae worsen relations.&lt;ref name=ww2db_com&gt;{{cite web |url=http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 |title=The Danzig Crisis |website=ww2db.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Pols [[plenipotentiary]] immediately traivel fur tae Berlin tae negotiate the haundower o [[Danzig]], an tae allou a [[plebiscite]] in the [[Pols Corridor]] in that the German minority wad vote on secession.&lt;ref name=ww2db_com/&gt; The Poles refuised tae complee wi the German demands, an on the nicht o 30–31 August in a veeolent meetin wi the Breetish ambassador [[Neville Henderson]], Ribbentrop declared that Germany conseedert its claims rejectit.&lt;ref name=ibiblio1939&gt;{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1939, with explanation |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Coorse o the war ==

=== War braks oot in Europe (1939–40) ===
[[File:Schleswig Holstein firing Gdynia 13.09.1939.jpg|left|thumb|German battleship [[SMS Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig-Holstein]] firin first salvos o WWII in the attack o [[battle o Westerplatte|Westerplatte]]. Gdańsk, 1 September 1939]]
On 1 September 1939, upon [[Operation Himmler|haein staged]] several [[Gleiwitz incident|mairch incidents]], Germany [[Invasion o Poland|invadit Poland]]. {{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=1–2}} The [[Battle o Westerplatte]] is aften descrived as the first European battle o Warld War II. Breetain respondit wi an ultimatum tae Germany tae cease militar operations, an on 3 September, efter the ultimatum wis ignored, Fraunce, Breetain, [[Australie]], an [[New Zealand]] declared a war on Germany. This alliance wis jynt bi [[Union o Sooth Africae|Sooth Africae]] (6 September) an [[Canadae]] (10 September). The alliance providit [[Phoney War|na direct militar support]] tae Poland, ootside o a [[Saar Offensive|cautious French probe intae the Saarland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Keegan 1997 35&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Keegan|1997|p=35}}.&lt;br /&gt;{{Harvnb|Cienciala|2010|p=128}}, observes that, while it is true that Poland wis faur awey, makkin it difficult for the French an Breetish tae provide support, &quot;[f]ew Western historians of World War II&amp;nbsp;... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Allies o Warld War II|Wastren Allies]] forby begoud a [[Blockade o Germany (1939–45)|naval blockade o Germany]], that aimed tae damage the kintra's economy an war effort.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=32}}; {{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=248–9}}; {{Harvnb|Roskill|1954|p=64}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Germany respondit bi orderin [[Submarine warfare#Warld War II|U-boat warfare]] agin Allied merchand an warships, that wad later escalate intae the [[Battle o the Atlantic]].

On 8 September, German truips reached suburbs o [[Warsaw]]. The Pols wastlin [[Battle o Bzura|coonter offensive]] hautit the German advance fur several day, but it wis ootflankit an encircled bi the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. Remnants o the Pols airmy brak throu tae [[Battle o Warsaw (1939)|besieged Warsaw]]. On 17 September 1939, efter signin a [[Battles o Khalkhin Gol|cease-fire wi Japan]], the [[Soviet invasion o Poland|Soviets invadit Eastren Poland]].{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=80, 83}}

On 27 September, Warsaw gairison signed a cease-fire an surrendered tae the Germans, an [[Samodzielna Grupa Operacyjna Polesie|the last lairge operational unit o the Pols Airmy]] [[Battle o Kock (1939)|surrendered on 6 October]]. Maugre a militar defeat, the Pols govrenment niver surrendered; the Pols resistance established an [[Pols Unnergrund State|Unnergrund State]] an a pairtisan [[Hame Airmy]].{{sfn|Hempel|2005|p=24}}.

Germany [[Pols auries annexed bi Nazi Germany|annexed]] the wastren an [[General Govrenment|occupied]] the central pairt o Poland, an the USSR [[Pols auries annexed bi Nazi Germany|annexed]] its eastren pairt; smaw shares o Pols territory war transferred tae [[Territorial chynges o Poland#Warld War II|Lithuanie]] an [[Slovak invasion o Poland|Slovakie]].
On the 6t October, Hitler made a public peace owertur tae Breetain an Fraunce, but said that the futur o Poland wis tae be determined exclusively bi Germany an the Soviet Union. The proposal wis rejectit&lt;ref name=ibiblio1939/&gt;, an Hitler ordered an immediate offensive agin Fraunce,&lt;ref&gt;Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive frae Hitler in October 1939 whilk concludes: &quot;The attack [on France] is tae be launcht this Autumn if conditions is possible ava.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; that wad be postponed till the ware o 1940 due tae bad wather. {{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Bullock|1990|loc=pp. 563–4, 566, 568–9, 574–5 (1983 ed.)}}&lt;ref&gt;Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, p186-7. Deighton states that &quot;the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

The Soviet Union forced the [[Baltic states|Baltic kintras]]—Estonie, Latvie an Lithuanie, the states that war in a Soviet [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact|sphere o influence]]&quot;—tae sign [[Backgrund o the occupation o the Baltic states#Soviet ultimatums an occupation|&quot;mutual assistance pacts&quot;]] that stipulatit stationin Soviet truips in thir kintras. Suin efter that, signeeficant Soviet militar contingent wis muived thare.{{sfn|Smith|Pabriks|Purs|Lane|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=55–6}}. Finland refuised tae sign a seemilar pact an rejectit tae cede pairt o its territory tae the USSR, thar promptit a Soviet invasion in November 1939{{sfn|Spring|1986|p=207-226}}, an the USSR wis expelt frae the League o Naitions&lt;ref&gt;Carl van Dyke. The Soviet Invasion of Finland. Frank Cass Publishers, Lindon, Portland, OR. {{ISBN|0-7146-4753-5}}, p. 71.&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite owerwhelmin numerical superiority, Soviet militar sonse wis modest, an the [[Winter War|Finno-Soviet war]] endit in Mairch 1940 wi [[Moscow Peace Treaty|meenimal Finnish concessions]].{{sfn|Hanhimäki|1997|p=12}}

In Juin 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed [[Soviet occupation o the Baltic states (1940)|Estonie, Latvie an Lithuanie]],{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}} an the disputit Romanie regions o [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabie an Northren Bukovina|Bessarabie, Northren Bukovina an Hertza]]. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet poleetical rapprochement an economic co-operation{{sfn|Ferguson|2006|pp=367, 376, 379, 417}}{{sfn|Snyder|2010|p=118ff}} gradually stawed,{{sfn|Koch|1983}}{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=56}} an baith states begoud preparations for war.{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=59}}

=== Wastren Europe (1940–41) ===
{{main|Wastren Front (Warld War II)}}
[[File:Maginot Line ln-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map o the French [[Maginot Line]]]]

In Apryle 1940, [[Operation Weserübung|Germany invadit Denmark an Norawa]] tae pertect shipments o [[Swwadish airn-ure minin in World War II|airn ore frae Swaden]], that the Allies war [[Operation Wilfred|attemptin tae cut aff]] bi unilaterally minin neutral Norse watters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=57–63}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Denmark]] capitulatit efter a few oors, an [[Norse Campaign|mauggre Allied support]], in that the important herbour o [[Narvik]] temporarily wis recapturt frae the Germans, [[Norawa]] wis conquert within twa month.{{sfn|Commager|2004|p=9}} [[Norawa Debate|Breetish discontent ower the Norse campaign]] led tae the replacement o the Breetish Prime Meenister, [[Neville Chamberlain]], wi [[Winston Churchill]] on 10 Mey 1940.{{sfn|Reynolds|2006|p=76}}

Germany [[Battle o Fraunce|launcht an offensive agin Fraunce]] an, adherin tae the [[Manstein Plan]] forby attackit the neutral naitions o [[Battle o Belgium|Belgium]], [[Battle o the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], an [[German invasion o Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] on 10 Mey 1940.{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=122–3}} That same day, Breetish forces laundit in [[Invasion o Iceland|Iceland]] an the [[Breetish occupation o the Faroe Islands|Faroes]] tae preempt a possible German invasion o the islands.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=436}}. The Americans later relieved the Breetish, wi marines arrivin in Reykjavik on 7 Julie 1941 ({{Harvnb|Schofield|1981|p=122}}).&lt;/ref&gt; The US, in close co-operation wi [[Henrik Kauffmann|the Dens envoy tae Washington D.C.]], greed tae pertect [[Greenland in Warld War II|Greenland]], layin the poleetical framewark for the formal establishment o bases in Apryle 1941. The [[Netherlands in Warld War II|Netherlands]] an [[Belgium in Warld War II|Belgium]] wis owerrun uisin [[blitzkrieg]] tactics in a few days an weeks, respectively.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=721–3}} The French-fortifee'd [[Maginot Line]] an the main bouk o the Allied forces that haed muived intae Belgium wae circumventit bi a flankin muivement throu the thickly widdit [[Ardennes]] region,{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=59–60}} mistakenly perceived bi Allied planners as an impenetrable naitural barrier against airmoured vehicles.{{sfn|Regan|2004|p=152}}{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|p=48}} As a result, the bouk o the Allied airmies foond themsels trappit in an encirclement an war beaten. The majority war takken prisoner, whilst ower 300,000, maistly Breetish an French, war [[Dunkirk evacuation|evacuated frae the continent at Dunkirk]] bi early Juin, awtho abandonin awmaist aw o thair equipment.{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=66–7}}

On the 10t Juin, [[Italian invasion o Fraunce|Italy invadit Fraunce]], declarin war on baith Fraunce an the Unitit Kinrick.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=207}} Paris fell tae the Germans on the 14t Juin an aicht days later [[Airmistice o 22 Juin 1940|Fraunce signed an airmistice wi Germany]] an wis suin dividit intae [[German militar admeenistration in occupied Fraunce in Warld War II|German]] an [[Italian occupation o Fraunce|Italian occupation zones]],{{sfn|Umbreit|1991|p=311}} an a wanoccupied [[rump state]] unner the [[Vichy Regime]], that, tho offeecially neutral, wis generally aligned wi Germany. Fraunce kept its fleet but the Breetish feared the Germans wad seize it, sae on 3 Julie, the Breetish [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|attacked it]].{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=xxx}}

The [[Battle o Breetain]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TF8kcx9hTssC&amp;pg=PA72 72]}} begoud in early Julie wi [[Kanalkampf|Luftwaffe attacks on shippin an herbours]].&lt;ref name=Murray_BoB&gt;{{harvnb|Murray|1983|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-2.html#cn70 The Battle of Britain].}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 19 Julie, Hitler again publicly offert tae end the war, sayin he wisna wantin tae destroy the [[Breetish Empire]]. The Unitit Kinrick rejectit this ultimatum.&lt;ref name=ibiblio_1940&gt;{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1940, with explanation |url= http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org |accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The main [[Adlertag|German air superiority campaign]] stairtit in August but failed tae defeat [[RAF Fechter Command]], an a [[Operation Sea Lion|proponed invasion]] wis postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German [[strategic bombin]] offensive intensifee'd as nicht attacks on Lunnon an ither ceeties in [[the Blitz]], but lairgely failed tae disrupt the Breetish war effort.{{r|Murray_BoB}}

Uisin newly capturt French ports, the German Navy [[Battle o the Atlantic#'Happy Time' (Juin 1940&amp;nbsp;– Februar 1941)|enjoyed success]] against an ower-extendit [[Ryal Navy]], uisin [[U-boat]]s agin Breetish shippin in the [[Battle o the Atlantic|Atlantic]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Goldstein|2004|p=35}}. Aircraft played a heichly important role in defeatin the German U-boats ({{Harvnb|Schofield|1981|p=122}}).&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;!-- REFERENCES NEEDED FOR THIS --&gt; The Breetish scored a signeeficant veectory on 27 Mey 1941 bi [[Last battle o the battleship Bismarck|sinkin the German battleship ''Bismarck'']].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Steury|1987|p=209}}; {{Harvnb|Zetterling|Tamelander|2009|p=282}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Aiblins maist importantly, in the Battle o Breetain the [[Ryal Air Force]] haed successfully reseestit the Luftwaffe's assault, an the German bombin campaign lairgely endit in Mey 1941.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=108–9}}

Ootthrou this period, the neutral Unitit States teuk meisurs tae assist Cheenae an the Wastren Allies. In November 1939, the American [[Neutrality Acts o 1930s|Neutrality Act]] wis amendit tae allou [[Cash an cairy (World War II)|&quot;cash an cairy&quot;]] purchases bi the Allies.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|pp=328–30}} In 1940, follaein the German captur o Paris, the size o the [[Unitit States Navy]] wis [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|signeeficantly increased]]. In September, the Unitit States forder greed tae a [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement|tred o American destroyers for Breetish bases]].{{sfn|Maingot|1994|p=52}} Still, a lairge majority o the American public conteena'd tae oppone ony direct militar intervention intae the conflict weel inte 1941.{{sfn|Cantril|1940|p=390}} Awtho Roosevelt haed promised tae keep the Unitit States oot o the war, he nivertheless teuk concrete steps tae prepare for war.

At the end o September 1940, the [[Tripartite Pact]] unitit Japan, Italy an Germany tae formalise the [[Axis Pouers]]. The Tripartite Pact stipulatit that ony kintra, wi the exception o the Soviet Union, no in the war that attacked ony Axis Power wad be forced tae gae tae war agin aw three.{{Sfn|Bilhartz|Elliott|2007|p=179}} The Axis expandit in November 1940 whan Hungary, Slovakie an [[Kinrick o Romanie|Romanie]] jynt the Tripartite Pact.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=877}} Romanie wad mak a [[Romanie in Warld War II|major contreibution]] (as [[Hungary in Warld War II|did Hungary]]) tae the Axis war agin the USSR, pairtially tae recaptur [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabie an Northren Bukovina|territory cedit tae the USSR]], pairtially tae pursue its leader [[Ion Antonescu]]'s desire tae combat communism.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745–6}}

=== Mediterranean (1940–41) ===
[[File:9 Div Tobruk(AWM 020779).jpg|thumb|right|Sodgers o the [[Breetish Empire in Warld War II|Breetish Commonweel forces]] frae the Australie Airmy's [[9t Diveesion (Australie)|9t Diveesion]] in the [[Siege o Tobruk]]; [[North African Campaign]], August 1941]]

Italy begoud operations in the Mediterranean, ineetiatin a [[Siege o Maltae (Warld War II)|siege o Maltae]] in Juin, [[Italian conquest o Breetish Somaliland|conquerin Breetish Somaliland]] in August, an [[Italian invasion o Egyp|makkin an incursion intae Breetish-held Egyp]] in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy stairtit the [[Greco-Italian War]] acause o Mussolini's jealousy o Hitler's success but within days wis repulsed wi few territorial gains an a stalemate suin occurred.{{sfn|Clogg|2002|p=118}} The Unitit Kinrick respondit tae Greek requests for assistance bi sendin truips tae Crete an providin air support tae Greece. Hitler decidit that whan the wather impruived he wad tak action against Greece tae assist the Italians an prevent the Breetish frae gaining a fithauld in the Balkans, tae strike against the Breetish naval dominance o the Mediterranean, an tae siccar his hauld on Romanie ile.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=146, 152}}; {{Harvnb|US Army|1986|pp=[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_1.htm 4–6]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bi late Mairch 1941, follaein [[Bulgarie]]'s signin o the [[Tripartite Pact]], the Germans war in poseetion tae intervene in Greece. Plans chynged, houiver, acause o developments in neighbourin [[Yugoslavie]]. The Yugoslav govrenment haed signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 Mairch, anerly tae be owerthrawn twa day efter bi a [[Yugoslav coup d'état|Breetish-encouraged coup]]. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile an immediately decidit tae eliminate it. On 6 Apryle Germany simultaneously invadit baith [[Invasion o Yugoslavie|Yugoslavie]] an [[Battle o Greece|Greece]], makkin rapid progress an forcin baith naitions tae surrender within the month. The Breetish war driven frae the Balkans efter Germany [[Battle o Crete|conquered the Greek island o Crete]] bi the end o Mey.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=229}} &lt;!-- REFERENCE SEEMS VERY NARROW FOR RANGE OF EVENTS COVERED --&gt; Awtho the Axis veectory wis swift, bitter pairtisan warfare subsequently brak oot agin the [[Axis occupation o Yugoslavie]], whilk conteena'd till the end o the war.

=== Axis attack on the USSR (1941) ===

Wi the situation in Europe an Asie relatively stable, Germany, Japan, an the Soviet Union made preparations. Wi the Soviets waurie o moontin tensions wi Germany an the Japanese plannin tae tak advantage o the European War bi seizin resoorce-rich European possessions in [[Sootheast Asie]], the twa pouers signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] in Apryle 1941.{{sfn|Garver|1988|p=114}} Bi contrast, the Germans war steadily makkin preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massin forces on the Soviet mairch.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=195}}

Hitler believed that Breetain's refuisal tae end the war wis based on the howp that the Unitit States an the Soviet Union wad enter the war agin Germany suiner or later.{{sfn|Murray|1983|p=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-3.html 69]}} He tharefore decidit tae try tae strenthen Germany's relations wi the Soviets, or failin that, tae attack an eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, [[German–Soviet Axis talks|negotiations teuk place]] tae determine if the Soviet Union wad jyne the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets shawed some interest, but asked for concessions frae Finland, Bulgarie, Turkey, an Japan that Germany conseedert unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive tae prepare for an invasion o the Soviet Union.

On 22 Juin 1941, Germany, supportit bi Italy an Romanie, invadit the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]], wi Germany accusin the Soviets o plottin agin them. Thay war jynt shortly bi Finland an Hungary.&lt;ref name=Events1941&gt;{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=pp. 267–312 ([http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The primar targets o this surprise offensive{{sfn|Sella|1978}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} war the [[Baltic region]], Moscow an [[Ukraine]], wi the [[Strategic goal (militar)|ultimate goal]] o endin the 1941 campaign near the [[A-A line|Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line]], frae the [[Caspian sea|Caspian]] tae the [[White Sea]]s. Hitler's objectives war tae eliminate the Soviet Union as a militar pouer, exterminate Communism, generate ''[[Lebensraum]]'' (&quot;leevin space&quot;){{sfn|Kershaw|2007|pp=66–9}} bi [[Generalplan Ost|dispossessin the native population]]{{sfn|Steinberg|1995}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} an guarantee access tae the strategic resoorces needit tae defeat Germany's remeenin rivals.{{sfn|Hauner|1978}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}}

[[File:German troops in Russia, 1941 - NARA - 540155.jpg|thumb|left|German sodgers in the invasion o the Soviet Union bi the [[Axis pouers]], 1941]]

Awtho the [[Reid Airmy]] wis preparin for strategic [[coonter-offensive]]s afore the war,{{sfn|Roberts|1995}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} ''Barbarossa'' forced the [[Stavka|Soviet supreme command]] tae adopt a [[strategic defence]]. In the simmer, the Axis made signeeficant gains intae Soviet territory, inflictin immense losses in baith personnel an materiel. By the middle o August, houiver, the German [[Oberkommando des Heeres|Airmy Heich Command]] decidit tae [[Battle o Smolensk (1941)|suspend the offensive]] o a conseederably depletit [[Airmy Group Centre]], an tae divert the [[2nt Panzer Group]] tae reinforce truips advancin taewart central Ukraine an Leningrad.{{sfn|Wilt|1981}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} The [[Battle o Kiev (1941)|Kiev offensive]] wis owerwhalminly successfu, resultin in encirclement an elimination o fower Soviet airmies, an made possible further [[Crimean Campaign|advance intae Crimea]] an industrially developit Eastren Ukraine (the [[First Battle o Kharkov]]).{{sfn|Erickson|2003|pp=114–37}}

The diversion o three quarter o the Axis truips an the majority o thair air forces frae Fraunce an the central Mediterranean tae the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]]{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=9}} promptit Breetain tae reconseeder its [[grand strategy]].{{sfn|Farrell|1993}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} In Julie, the UK an the Soviet Union formed a [[Anglo-Soviet Greement|militar alliance against Germany]]{{sfn|Keeble|1990|p=29}} The Breetish an Soviets [[Anglo-Soviet invasion o Iran|invadit neutral Iran]] tae siccar the [[Persian Corridor]] an Iran's [[ile field]]s.{{sfn|Bueno de Mesquita|Smith|Siverson|Morrow|2003|p=425}} In August, the Unitit Kinrick an the Unitit States jyntly issued the [[Atlantic Chairter]].{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=220}}

Bi October Axis [[operational objective]]s in Ukraine an the Baltic region war achieved, wi anerly the sieges o [[siege o Leningrad|Leningrad]]{{sfn|Kleinfeld|1983}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} an [[Siege o Sevastopol (1941–42)|Sevastopol]] conteenain.{{sfn|Jukes|2001|p=113}} A major [[battle o Moscow|offensive against Moscow]] wis renewed; efter twa month o fierce battles in increasinly hersh wather the German airmy awmaist reached the ooter suburbs o Moscow, whaur the exhaustit truips&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=26}}: &quot;By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½-million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; war forced tae suspend thair offensive.{{sfn|Reinhardt|1992|p=227}} Lairge territorial gains war made bi Axis forces, but thair campaign haed failed tae achieve its main objectives: twa key ceeties remeened in Soviet haunds, the Soviet [[Militar capability|capability tae resist]] wis nae brak, an the Soviet Union reteened a conseederable pairt o its militar potential. The ''blitzkrieg'' [[Phase (combat)|phase]] o the war in Europe haed endit.{{sfn|Milward|1964}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}}

Bi early December, freshly mobilised [[Militar reserve force|reserves]]{{sfn|Rotundo|1986}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} alloued the Soviets tae achieve numerical parity wi Axis truips.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=26}} This, as weel as [[Richard Sorge#Wartime intelligence supplee'd bi the Sorge Ring|intelligence data]] that established that a meenimal nummer o Soviet truips in the East wad be sufficient tae deter ony attack bi the Japanese [[Kwantung Airmy]],{{sfn|Garthoff|1969}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} alloued the Soviets tae begin a [[Soviet Offensive (1941–1942)|massive coonter-offensive]] that stairtit on 5 December aw alang the front an pushed German truips {{convert|100|-|250|km|mi}} wast.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Beevor|1998|pp=41–2}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=213–4}}, notes that &quot;Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before.&amp;nbsp;... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== War braks out in the Paceefic (1941) ===
{{main|Paceefic War}}
In 1939, the Unitit States haed renoonced its tred treaty wi Japan; an, beginnin wi an [[aviation petrol]] ban in Julie 1940, Japan becam subject tae increasin economic pressur.{{r|ibiblio_1940}} In this time, Japan launched its [[Battle o Changsha (1939)|first attack against Changsha]], a strategically important Cheenese ceety, but wis repulsed bi late September.{{sfn|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=14}} Despite [[1939–40 Winter Offensive|several offensives]] bi baith sides, the war atween Cheenae an Japan wis stalematit bi 1940. Tae increase pressur on Cheenae bi blockin supply routes, an tae better poseetion Japanese forces in the event o a war wi the Wastren powers, Japan invadit an [[Japanese invasion o French Indocheenae|occupied northren Indocheenae]].{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=289}} Efterwart, the Unitit States [[embargo]]ed airn, steel an mechanical pairts against Japan.{{sfn|Morison|2002|p=60}} Ither sanctions suin follaed.

[[File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burnin efter the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg|thumb|right|{{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}} in the Japanese surprise air attack on the [[Unitit States Paceefic Fleet|American paceefic fleet]], 7 December 1941]]

Syne early 1941 the Unitit States an Japan haed been engaged in negotiations in an attempt tae impruive thair streened relations an end the war in Cheenae. In thir negotiations Japan advanced a nummer o proponements that war dismissed bi the Americans as inadequate.&lt;ref name=USAWWIIcp5&gt;{{cite web |title=The decision for War |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years |pp=113–27 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time the US, Breetain, an the Netherlands engaged in saicret discussions for the jynt defence o thair territories, in the event o a Japanese attack against ony o them.&lt;ref name=USAWWIIcp4&gt;{{cite web |title=The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=63–96 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Roosevelt reinforced [[Commonweel o the Philippines|the Philippines (an American pertectorate scheduled for unthirldom in 1946)]] an wairned Japan that the US wad react tae Japanese attacks against ony &quot;neebourin kintra&quot;.{{r|USAWWIIcp4}} Japan prepared for war efter failed negotiations.

On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asie time zones), Japan attacked Breetish an American hauldins wi near-simultaneous [[Japanese expansion (1941–1942)|offensives against Sootheast Asie an the Central Paceefic]].{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–3}} Thir includit an [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor]], [[Philippines Campaign (1941–42)|the Philippines]], [[Malayan Campaign|landings in Thailand an Malaya]]{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–3}} an the [[battle o Hong Kong]]. Thir attacks led the [[Unitit States declaration o war on Japan|Unitit States]], [[Unitit Kinrick declaration o war on Japan|Unitit Kinrick]], Cheenae, Australie an several ither states tae formally declare war on Japan, whauras the Soviet Union, bein hivily involved in lairge-scale hostilities wi European Axis kintras, mainteened its neutrality agreement wi Japan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Dunn|1998|p=157}}. According to {{Harvnb|May|1955|p=155}}, Churchill stated: &quot;Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Germany, follaed bi the ither Axis states, declared war on the Unitit States&lt;ref&gt;[[s:Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States|Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States]] in Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt; in solidarity wi Japan, citin as juistification the American attacks on German war veshels that haed been ordered bi Roosevelt.{{r|Events1941}}&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=p. 310 ([http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Axis advance staws (1942–43) ===

In 1942, Allied offeecials debatit on the appropriate [[grand strategy]] tae pursue. Aw agreed that [[Europe first|defeatin Germany]] wis the primar objective. The Americans favourt a straichtforrit, [[Operation Sledgehammer|lairge-scale attack]] on Germany throu Fraunce. The Soviets wis forby demandin a seicont front. The Breetish, on the ither haund, argied that militar operations shoud target peripheral auries tae weir oot German strenth, leadin tae increasin demoralisation, an bolster resistance forces. Germany itsel wad be subject tae a hivy bombin campaign. An offensive agin Germany wad then be launched primarily bi Allied airmour withoot uisin lairge-scale airmies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=97–119 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Eventually, the Breetish persuadit the Americans that a laundingin Fraunce wis infeasible in 1942 an thay shoud insteid focus on drivin the Axis oot o North Africae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=266–92 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Paceefic (1942–43) ====
Bi the end o Apryle 1942, Japan an its ally Thailand haed awmaist fully conquered [[Japanese conquest o Burma|Burma]], [[Battle o Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch East Indies campaign|the Dutch East Indies]], [[Battle o Singapore|Singapore]], an [[Rabaul]], inflictin severe losses on Allied truips an takkin a lairge nummer o preesoners.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=247–267, 345}} Despite stubborn [[Philippines Campaign (1941–42)|resistance]] bi Filipino an US forces, the [[Philippine Commonweel]] wis eventually capturt in Mey 1942, forcin its govrenment intae exile.{{sfn|Lewis|1953|loc=p. 529 (Table 11)}}

In airly Mey 1942, Japan ineetiatit operations tae [[Operation Mo|captur Port Moresby]] bi [[amphibious assault]] an sicweys sever communications an supply lines atween the Unitit States an Australie. The plant invasion wis thortert whan an Allied task force, centred on twa American fleet cairiers, focht Japanese naval forces tae a draw in the [[Battle o the Coral Sea]].{{sfn|Maddox|1992|pp=111–2}} Japan's next plan, motivatit bi the earlier [[Doolittle Raid]], wis tae seize [[Midway Atoll]] an wyse American cairiers intae battle tae be eliminatit; as a diversion, Japan wad forby send forces tae [[Aleutian Islands Campaign|occupy the Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska.{{sfn|Salecker|2001|p=186}} In mid-Mey, Japan stairtit the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]] in Cheenae, wi the goal o inflictin retribution on the Cheenese that aidit the survivin American airmen in the Doolittle Raid bi destroyin air bases an fechtin against the Cheenese 23rd an 32nd Airmy Groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Schoppa|2011|p=28}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=lILltXBTo8oC&amp;pg=PA19 Chevrier &amp; Chomiczewski &amp; Garrigue 2004], p.19.&lt;/ref&gt; In early Juin, Japan put its operations intae action but the Americans, haein brak [[Japanese naval codes]] in late Mey, war fully awaur o plans an order o battle, an uised this knawledge tae achieve a decisive [[Battle o Midway|veectory at Midway]] ower the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Ropp|2000|p=368}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Eastren Front (1942–43) ====
[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Reid Airmy]] sodgers on the coonterattack, in the [[Battle o Stalingrad]], Februar 1943]]
Maugre conseederable losses, in airly 1942 Germany an its allies stappit a major Soviet offensive in central an soothren Roushie, keepin maist territorial gains thay haed achieved in the umwhile year.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=31}}

Bi mid-November, the Germans haed [[Battle o Stalingrad|nearly takken Stalingrad]] in bitter [[urban warfare|street fechtin]] whan the Soviets begoud thair seicont winter coonter-offensive, stairtin wi an [[Operation Uranus|encirclement o German forces at Stalingrad]]{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=239–65}} an an assault on the [[Operation Mars|Rzhev salient near Moscow]], tho the latter failed disastrously.{{sfn|Black|2003|p=119}} Bi early Februar 1943, the German Airmy haed taen tremendous losses; German truips at Stalingrad haed been forced tae surrender,{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=383–91}} an the front-line haed been pushed back ayont its poseetion afore the simmer offensive. In mid-Februar, efter the Soviet push haed tapered aff, the Germans launcht anither [[Third Battle o Kharkov|attack on Kharkov]], creautin a [[Salients, re-entrants an pockets|salient]] in thair front line aroond the Soviet ceety o [[Kursk]].{{sfn|Erickson|2001|p=142}}

==== Wastren Europe/Atlantic an Mediterranean (1942–43) ====
Exploitin puir American naval command deceesions, [[Seicont Happy Time|the German navy ravaged Allied shippin aff the American Atlantic coast]].{{sfn|Milner|1990|p=52}} Bi November 1941, Commonweel forces haed launched a coonter-offensive, [[Operation Crusader]], in North Africae, an reclaimed aw the gains the Germans an Italians haed made.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=224–8}}

In Juin 1943 the Breetish an Americans begoud [[Combined Bomber Offensive|a strategic bombin campaign]] against Germany wi a goal tae disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, an &quot;[[de-hoosin|de-hoose]]&quot; the ceevilian population.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc &quot;The Civilians&quot;] United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War)&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Bombin o Hamburg in Warld War II|firebombin o Hamburg]] wis amang the first attacks in this campaign, it lead tae signeeficant causalities an inflictit conseederable losses on infrastructur o this important industrial centre.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=119–120}}

=== Allies gain momentum (1943–44) ===
On 3 September 1943, the Wastren Allies [[Allied invasion o Italy|invadit the Italian mainland]], follaein [[Airmistice o Cassibile|Italy's airmistice wi the Allies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|p=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; Germany wi the help o fascists respondit bi disairmin Italian forces that wis in mony places withoot superior orders, seizin militar control o Italian auries,{{sfn|Mazower|2008|p=362}} an creautin a series o defensive lines.{{sfn|Hart|Hart|Hughes|2000|p=151}} German special forces then [[Gran Sasso raid|rescued Mussolini]], that then suin established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the [[Italian Social Republic]],{{sfn|Blinkhorn|2006|p=52}} causin an [[Italian Ceevil War|Italian ceevil war]]. The Wastren Allies focht throu several lines till reachin the [[Winter Line|main German defensive line]] in mid-November.{{sfn|Read|Fisher|2002|p=129}}

In November 1943, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] an Winston Churchill met wi [[Chiang Kai-shek]] [[Cairo Conference|in Cairo]] an then wi Joseph Stalin [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Kolko 1990 211,235,267_268&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|pp=211, 235, 267–8}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The umwhile conference determined the post-war return o Japanese territory&lt;ref name=&quot;Iriye 1981 154&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Iriye|1981|p=154}}.&lt;/ref&gt; an the militar plannin fur the [[Burma Campaign]],{{sfn|Mitter|2014|p=286}} while the latter includit greement that the Wastren Allies wad invade Europe in 1944 an that the Soviet Union wad declare war on Japan within three month o Germany's defeat.&lt;ref name=&quot;polley148&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Polley|2000|p=148}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Bi the end o Januar 1944, a major [[Leningrad Front|Soviet]] [[Siege o Leningrad#Soviet relief o the siege|offensive herried oot German forces]] frae the [[Leningrad Oblast|Leningrad region]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Glantz 2002 327_366&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=327–66}}.&lt;/ref&gt; endin the langest an [[Leet o battles bi casualties#Sieges an urban combat|maist lethal siege in history]]. Bi late Mey, the Soviets haed [[Crimean Offensive|leeberatit Crimea]], lairgely expelled Axis forces frae Ukraine, an made [[First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive|incursions intae Romanie]], that war repulsed bi the Axis truips.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chubarov 2001 122&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Chubarov|2001|p=122}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Allied offensives in Italy haed succeedit an, at the expense o allouin several German diveesions tae retreat, on 4 Juin, Roum wis capturt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Holland|2008|pp=169–84}}; {{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=568–73}}.&lt;br /&gt;The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ({{Harvnb|Mazower|2008|pp=500–2}}). The period featurt massacres wi victims in the hundrers at [[Civitella in Val di Chiana|Civitella]] ({{Harvnb|de Grazia|Paggi|1991}}; {{Harvnb|Belco|2010}}), [[Ardeatine massacre|Fosse Ardeatine]] ({{Harvnb|Portelli|2003}}), an [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre|Sant'Anna di Stazzema]] ({{Harvnb|Gordon|2012|pp=10–1}}), an is kaipit wi the [[Marzabotto massacre]].&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Allies close in (1944) ===
[[File:Approaching Omaha.jpg|thumb|American truips approachin [[Omaha Beach]], in the [[invasion o Normandy]] on [[Normandy laundins|D-Day]], 6 Juin 1944]]
On 6 Juin 1944 (kent as [[Normandy laundins|D-Day]]), efter three year o Soviet pressur,&lt;ref name=rees406&gt;{{Harvnb|Rees|2008|pp=406–7}}: &quot;Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; the Wastren Allies [[Invasion o Normandy|invadit northren Fraunce]]. Efter reassignin several Allied divisions frae Italy, thay forby [[Operation Dragoon|attacked soothren Fraunce]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Weinberg 2005 695&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=695}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Thir laundins war successfu, an led tae the defeat o the [[Falaise Pocket|German Airmy units]] in Fraunce. Paris wis [[Leeberation o Paris|leeberatit]] bi the [[French Reseestance|local reseestance]] assistit bi the [[Free French Forces]], baith led bi General [[Charles de Gaulle]], on 25 August&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Badsey|1990|p=91}}.&lt;/ref&gt; an the Wastren Allies conteena'd tae [[Allied advance frae Paris tae the Rhine|push back German forces]] in wastren Europe in the latter pairt o the year. An attempt tae advance intae northren Germany speirheidit bi [[Operation Market Garden|a major airborne operation]] in the Netherlands failed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=562}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Thareefter, the Wastren Allies slawly pushed intae Germany, but [[Operation Queen|failed tae cross the Ruhr river]] in a lairge offensive. In Italy, Allied advance forby slawed due tae the [[Gothic Line|last major German defensive line]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Forrest|Evans|Gibbons|2012|p=191}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 22 Juin, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belaroushie (&quot;[[Operation Bagration]]&quot;) that destroyed the German [[Airmy Group Centre]] awmaist completely.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zaloga 1996 7&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Zaloga|1996|p=7}}: &quot;It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Suin efter that [[Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive|anither Soviet strategic offensive]] forced German truips frae Wastren Ukraine an Eastren Poland. The Soviet advance promptit [[Armia Krajowa|reseestance forces in Poland]] tae [[Operation Tempest|ineetiate several uprisins]] agin the German occupation. Houiver, the lairgest o thir [[Warsaw Uprisin|in Warsaw]], whaur German sodgers massacred 200,000 ceevilians, an a [[Slovak Naitional Uprisin|naitional uprisin]] in [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakie]], did nae receive Soviet support an war subsequently suppressed bi the Germans.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Berend|1996|p=8}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Reid Airmy's [[Jassy–Kishinev Offensive|strategic offensive in eastren Romanie]] cut aff an destroyed the [[Airmy Group Sooth Ukraine|conseederable German truips thare]] an triggered [[Keeng Michael's Coup|a successfu coup d'état in Romanie]] an [[Bulgarie coup d'état o 1944|in Bulgarie]], follaed bi thae kintras' shift tae the Allied side.&lt;ref name=&quot;countrystudies.us&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm|title=Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation|publisher=US Library of Congress|accessdate=14 November 2009|quote=The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his personal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war agin the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists jist played a uphaudin role in the coup; efter-war Romanian historians, housomeir, ascribe tae the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In September 1944, Soviet truips advanced intae [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavie|Yugoslavie]] an forced the rapid widrawal o German Airmy Groups [[Airmy Group E|E]] an [[Airmy Group F|F]] in [[Axis occupation o Greece|Greece]], [[Albanie Kinrick (1943–44)|Albanie]] an Yugoslavie tae rescue them frae bein cut aff.&lt;ref name=&quot;Evans 2008 653&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=653}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Bi this pynt, the Communist-led [[Yugoslav Pairtisans|Pairtisans]] unner Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]], that haed led an [[Warld War II in Yugoslavia|increasinly successfu guerrilla campaign]] against the occupation syne 1941, controlled muckle o the territory o Yugoslavie an engaged in delayin efforts against German forces forder sooth. In northren [[Serbie (1941–1944)|Serbie]], the [[Reid Airmy]], wi leemitit support frae Bulgarie forces, assisted the Pairtisans in a jynt [[Belgrade Offensive|leeberation o the caipital ceety o Belgrade]] on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a [[Budapest Offensive|massive assault]] against [[Operation Panzerfaust|German-occupied]] Hungary that lastit till [[Battle o Budapest|the faw o Budapest]] in Februar 1945.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Wiest|Barbier|2002|pp=65–6}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Unlik impressive Soviet veectories in the Balkans, [[Continuation War|bitter Finnish reseestance]] tae the [[Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive|Soviet offensive]] in the [[Karelie Isthmus]] denee'd the Soviets occupation o Finland an led tae a [[Moscow Airmistice|Soviet-Finnish airmistice]] on relatively mild condeetions,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wiktor|first=Christian L|title=Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995|url=https://archive.org/details/multilateraltrea0000wikt|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=1998|isbn=90-411-0584-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/multilateraltrea0000wikt/page/426 426]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Newton|2004}}.&lt;/ref&gt; awtho Finland wis forced tae [[Lapland War|fecht thair umwhile allies]].

In the Paceefic, US forces conteena'd tae press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-Juin 1944, thay begoud thair [[Mariana an Palau Islands campaign|offensive agin the Mariana an Palau islands]], an decisively defeatit Japanese forces in the [[Battle o the Philippine Sea]]. Thir defeats led tae the resignation o the Japanese Prime Meenister, [[Hideki Tojo]], an providit the Unitit States wi air bases tae launch intensive hivy bomber attacks on the Japanese hame islands. In late October, American forces [[Battle o Leyte|invadit the Filipino island o Leyte]]; suin efter, Allied naval forces scored anither lairge veectory in the [[Battle o Leyte Gulf]], ane o the lairgest naval battles in history.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Cook|Bewes|1997|p=305}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Axis collapse, Allied veectory (1944–45) ===
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&amp;W).jpg|thumb|[[Yalta Conference]] held in Februar 1945, wi [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] an [[Joseph Stalin]]]]
On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Wastren Front bi uisin maist o its remeenin reserves tae launch [[Battle o the Bulge|a massive coonter-offensive in the Ardennes]] an [[Operation Nordwind|alang the French–German mairch]] tae split the Wastren Allies, encircle lairge portions o Wastren Allied truips an captur thair primar supply port at [[Antwerp]] tae prompt a poleetical dounset.&lt;ref name=&quot;parkerxiii&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Parker|2004|pp=xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bi Januar, the offensive haed been repulsed wi na strategic objectives fulfilled.&lt;ref name=&quot;parkerxiii&quot;/&gt; In Italy, the Wastren Allies remeened stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-Januar 1945, the Soviets an Poles attacked in Poland, [[Vistula–Oder Offensive|pushin frae the Vistula tae the Oder]] river in Germany, an [[East Proushie Offensive|overran East Proushie]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=85}}.&lt;/ref&gt; On 4 Februar, Soviet, Breetish an US leaders met for the [[Yalta Conference]]. Thay greed on the occupation o post-war Germany, an on whan the Soviet Union wad jyne the war against Japan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=709–22}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

In Februar, the Soviets [[Silesie Offensives|entered Silesie]] an [[East Pomeranie Offensive|Pomeranie]], while [[Wastren Allied invasion o Germany|Wastren Allies entered wastren Germany]] an closed tae the [[Rhine]] river. Bi Mairch, the Wastren Allies crossed the Rhine [[Operation Plunder|north]] an [[Remagen|sooth]] o the [[Rhine-Ruhr|Ruhr]], [[Ruhr Pocket|encirclin the German Airmy Group B]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=21}}.&lt;/ref&gt; while the Soviets advanced tae [[Vienna offensive|Vienna]]. In early Apryle, the Wastren Allies feenally [[Ware 1945 offensive in Italy|pushed forrit in Italy]] an soopit athort wastren Germany capturin [[Battle o Hamburg (1945)|Hamburg]] an [[Battle o Nuremberg (1945)|Nuremberg]], while Soviet an Polshforces [[Battle o Berlin|stormed Berlin]] in late Apryle. [[Elbe Day|American an Soviet forces met at the Elbe river]] on 25 Apryle. On 30 Apryle 1945, the [[Reichstag biggin|Reichstag]] wis capturt, seegnallin the militar defeat o Nazi Germany.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shepardson 1998&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Shepardson|1998}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Several chynges in leadership occurred in this period. On 12 Apryle, Preses Roosevelt dee'd an wis succeedit bi [[Harry S. Truman]]. Benito Mussolini [[Daith o Benito Mussolini|wis killt]] bi [[Italian reseestance muivement|Italian pairtisans]] on 28 Apryle.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Reilly 2001 244&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|O'Reilly|2001||p=244}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Twa days later, [[Daith o Adolf Hitler|Hitler committit suicide]], an wis succeedit bi [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Kershaw|2001|p=823}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 Apryle. [[German Instrument o Surrender|Tot an uncondeetional surrender]] wis signed [[Veectory in Europe Day|on 7 Mey]], tae be effective bi the end o [[Veectory Day (Eastren Front)|8 Mey]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Evans 2008 737&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=737}}.&lt;/ref&gt; German Airmy Group Centre [[Prague Offensive|reseestit in Prague]] till 11 Mey.&lt;ref name=&quot;Glantz 1998 34&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Glantz|1998|p=24}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

In the Paceefic theatre, American forces accompanied bi the forces o the [[Philippine Commonweel]] advanced [[Philippines Campaign (1944–1945)|in the Philippines]], [[Battle o Leyte|clearin Leyte]] bi the end o Apryle 1945. Thay [[Battle o Luzon|laundit on Luzon]] in Januar 1945 an [[Battle o Manila (1945)|recapturt Manila]] in Mairch follaein a battle that reduced the ceety tae ruins. Fechtin conteena'd on Luzon, [[Battle o Mindanao|Mindanao]], an ither islands o the Philippines till the [[End o Warld War II in Asie|end o the war]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Chant|first=Christopher|year=1986|title=The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco0000chan|publisher=Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco0000chan/page/118 118]|isbn=0-7102-0718-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, the [[Unitit States Airmy Air Forces]] (USAAF) war destroyin strategic an populatit ceeties an touns in Japan in an effort tae destroy Japanese war industrie an ceevilian morale. On the nicht o 9–10 Mairch, USAAF [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] [[bomber]]s [[Bombin o Tokyo|struck Tokyo]] wi thoosands o [[Incendiary device|incendiary bombs]], that killt 100,000 ceevilians an destroyed {{convert|16|sqmi}} within a few oors. Ower the next five month, the USAAF [[Air raids on Japan|firebombed a tot o 67 Japanese ceeties]], killin 393,000 ceevilians an destroyin 65% o biggit-up auries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=John Dower|title=Lessons from Iwo Jima|journal=Perspectives|year=2007|volume= 45|issue=6|pages=54–56|url=http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0709/index.cfm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 11 Julie, Allied leaders [[Potsdam Conference|met in Potsdam, Germany]]. Thay [[Potsdam Greement|confirmed earlier greements]] aboot Germany,&lt;ref name=&quot;Williams 2006 90&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Williams|2006|p=90}}.&lt;/ref&gt; an reiteratit the demand for uncondeetional surrender o aw Japanese forces bi Japan, speceefically statin that &quot;the alternative for Japan is prompt an utter destruction&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miscamble 2007 201&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|p=201}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In this conference, the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1945|Unitit Kinrick held its general election]], an [[Clement Attlee]] replaced Churchill as Prime Meenister.&lt;ref name=&quot;Miscamble 2007 203_204&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|pp=203–4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Shigemitsu-signs-surrender.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese foreign affairs meenister [[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] signs the [[Japanese Instrument o Surrender]] on buird {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}}, 2 September 1945]]

The Allies cried for uncondeetional Japanese surrender in the [[Potsdam Declaration]] o 27 Julie, but the Japanese govrenment rejectit the cry. In early August, the USAAF [[Atomic bombings o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|drappit atomic bombs]] on the Japanese ceeties o [[Hiroshima]] an [[Nagasaki]]. Atween the twa bombins, the Soviets, pursuant tae the Yalta greement, [[Soviet invasion o Manchurie|invadit Japanese-held Manchurie]], an quickly defeatit the [[Kwantung Airmy]], that wis the lairgest Japanese fechtin force.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Glantz|2005}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pape 1993&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Pape|1993}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The Reid Airmy an aw capturt [[Sakhalin]] Island an the [[Kuril Islands]]. On 15 August 1945, [[Surrender o Japan|Japan surrendered]], wi the [[Japanese Instrument o Surrender|surrender documents]] feenally signed at [[Tokyo Bay]] on the deck o the American battleship [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] on 2 September 1945, endin the war.&lt;ref name=&quot;Beevor 2012 776&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=776}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Eftermath ==
The Allies established occupation admeenistrations in [[Allied-occupied Austrick|Austrick]] an [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]]. The umwhile becam a neutral state, non-aligned wi ony poleetical bloc. The latter wis dividit intae wastren an eastren occupation zones controlled bi the Wastren Allies an the USSR, accordinly. A [[denazification]] programme in Germany led tae the [[Nuremberg trials|prosecution o Nazi war criminals]] an the remuival o ex-Nazis frae power, awtho this policy muived taewart amnesty an re-integration o ex-Nazis intae Wast German society.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frei 2002 41_66&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Frei|2002|pp=41–66}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

In an effort tae mainteen [[warld peace]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Yoder 1997 39&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Yoder|1997|p=39}}.&lt;/ref&gt; the Allies formed the [[Unitit Naitions]], that offeecially cam intae exeestence on 24 October 1945,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |title=History of the UN |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=25 January 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218221016/http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |archivedate=18 February 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; an adoptit the [[Universal Declaration o Human Richts]] in 1948, as a common staundart for aw [[Member states o the Unitit Naitions|member naitions]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Waltz 2002&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Waltz|2002}}.&lt;br /&gt;
The UDHR is viewable here [https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/].&lt;/ref&gt;

Post-war diveesion o the warld wis formalised bi twa internaitional militar alliances, the Unitit States-led [[NATO]] an the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]];&lt;ref name=&quot;Borstelmann 2005 318&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Borstelmann|2005|p=318}}.&lt;/ref&gt; the lang period o poleetical tensions an militar competeetion atween them, the [[Cauld War]], wad be accompanied bi an unprecedentit [[airms race]] an [[proxy war]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Leffler|Westad|2010}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Korea]], umwhile [[Korea unner Japanese rule|unner Japanese rule]], wis [[Diveesion o Korea|dividit an occupied]] bi the Soviet Union in the [[North Korea|North]] an the US in the [[Sooth Korea|Sooth]] atween 1945 an 1948. Separate republics emerged on baith sides o the 38t parallel in 1948, ilk claimin tae be the legitimate govrenment for aw o Korea, that led ultimately tae the [[Korean War]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Stueck|2010}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

In Cheenae, naitionalist an communist forces resumed [[Cheenese Ceevil War|the ceevil war]] in Juin 1946. Communist forces war veectorious an established the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae on the mainland, while naitionalist forces retreatit tae [[Taiwan]] in 1949.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lynch 2010 12_13&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Lynch|2010|pp=12–3}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Impact ==

=== Casualties an war crimes ===
Estimates fur the tot nummer o casualties in the war varies, acause mony diaths went wanrecordit. Maist suggests that some 60 million fowk dee'd in the war, includin aboot [[Battle casualties o Warld War II|20 million militar personnel]] an 40 million ceevilians.&lt;ref name=&quot;WWII: C&amp;C&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Prof. Joseph V |title=World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937–1945) |url=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225004221/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archivedate=25 December 2010 |work=Obee's History Page |publisher=John Jay College of Criminal Justice |accessdate=28 December 2013|df=dmy-all }} {{Cite web |url=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-06-02 |archive-date=2010-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225004221/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|first=Matthew|last=White|title=Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#Second|work=Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century|publisher=Matthew White's Homepage|accessdate=20 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=World War II Fatalities|url=http://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|publisher=secondworldwar.co.uk|accessdate=20 April 2007|archive-date=2008-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922185149/http://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Mony o the ceevilians dee'd acause o deliberate [[genocide]], [[Leet o massacres|massacres]], [[Strategic bombin in Warld War II|mass-bombins]], [[Infectious disease|disease]], an [[stairvation]].

[[File:Chinese civilians to be buried alive.jpg|thumb|Cheenese civilians bein buiried alive bi sodgers o the [[Imperial Japanese Airmy]], in the [[Nanking Massacre]], December 1937]]

In Asie an the Paceefic, atween 3 million an mair nor 10 million ceevilians, maistly Cheenese (estimatit at 7.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=290}}.&lt;/ref&gt;), wis killt bi the Japanese occupation forces.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM|title=Statistics|last=Rummell|first=R. J|work=Freedom, Democide, War|publisher=The University of Hawaii System|accessdate=25 January 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; The best-kent Japanese atrocity wis the [[Nanking Massacre]], in that fifty tae three hunder thoosand Cheenese ceevilians war raped an murthert.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Chang|1997|p=102}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Mitsuyoshi Himeta reportit that 2.7 million casualties occurred in the ''[[Three Alls Policy|Sankō Sakusen]]''. General [[Yasuji Okamura]] implementit the policy in Heipei an [[Shantung]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Bix|2000|p=?}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Soviet Union wis responsible for the [[Katyn massacre]] o 22,000 Pols officers,&lt;ref&gt;Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). &quot;Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre&quot;. Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; an the impreesonment or execution o thoosands o poleetical preesoners bi the [[NKVD]],&lt;ref&gt;Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 {{ISBN|1-4000-4005-1}} p. 391&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Genocide an concentration camps ===
The German govrenment led bi [[Adolf Hitler]] an the [[Nazi Pairty]] wis responsible for [[the Holocaust]] (killin o thareaboot 6 million Jews), as weel as fur killin o 2.7 million ethnic [[Nazi crimes agin the Pols nation|Poles]],&lt;ref&gt;Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski an Szarota. page 9 ''&quot;Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000&quot;''.&lt;/ref&gt; an 4 million ithers that war deemed &quot;[[life unworthy o life|unworthy o life]]&quot; (includin the [[Disabeelity|disabled]] an [[Mental disorder|mentally ill]], [[German mistreatment o Soviet preesoners o war|Soviet preesoners o war]], [[homosexuals]], [[Freemasons]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], an [[Romani fowk|Romani]]) as pairt o a programme o deliberate extermination. [[German mistreatment o Soviet preesoners o war|Soviet POWs]] wis kept in especially unbeirable condeetion, an, awtho thair extermination wisnae an offeecial goal, 3.6 million o Soviet POWs oot o 5.7 dee'd in Nazi camps in the war.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Herbert|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7Y9AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA222 222]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Overy 2004 568_569&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Overy|2004|pp=568–9}}.&lt;/ref&gt; In addeetion tae [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]], [[Extermination camp|daith camps]] wis creatit in Nazi Germany fur tae exterminate fowk at an industrial scale.

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
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:{{Cite book|last=Eastman|first=Lloyd E.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1986|chapter=Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945|title=''In [[John&amp;nbsp;K. Fairbank]] and [[Denis C. Twitchett|Denis Twitchett]],&amp;nbsp;eds.,'' [[The Cambridge History of China|The Cambridge History of China, Volume 13: Republican China 1912–1949, Part 2]]|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-24338-4|ref=harv}}
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:{{cite encyclopedia |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Gilbert |title=Final Solution |pages=285–292 |editor-last1=Dear |editor-first1=Ian |editor-last2=Foot |editor-first2=Richard D. |year=2001 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to World War II |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-280670-X |ref=harv}}
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:{{Cite book|last=Record|first=Jeffery&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2005|title=Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s|publisher=DIANE Publishing|page=50|isbn=1-58487-216-0|url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB622.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=15 November 2009|ref=harv|archive-date=2010-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411104102/http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB622.pdf|url-status=dead}}
:{{Cite book|last=Rees|first=Laurence&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Laurence Rees|year=2008|title=World War II Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West|location=London|publisher=[[BBC Books]]|isbn=978-0-563-49335-8|ref=harv}}
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:{{Cite book|editor-last=Schain|editor-first=Martin A.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2001|title=The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later|location=London|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-0-333-92983-4|ref=harv}}
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:{{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Timothy&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Timothy D. Snyder|year=2010|title=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodlandseurope0000snyd_e5a3|location=London|publisher=[[The Bodley Head]]|isbn=978-0-224-08141-2|ref=harv}}
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:{{Cite book|last=Swain|first=Bruce&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2001|title=A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45|location=Crows Nest|publisher=[[Allen &amp; Unwin]]|isbn=978-1-86508-352-0|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite journal|last=Swain|first=Geoffrey&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1992|title=The Cominform: Tito's International?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1992-09_35_3/page/641|journal=[[The Historical Journal]]|volume=35|issue=3|pages=641–663|doi=10.1017/S0018246X00026017|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Tanaka|first=Yuki&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1996|title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/hiddenhorrorsjap0000tana|location=Boulder, CO|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|isbn=978-0-8133-2717-4|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=A. J. P.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=A. J. P. Taylor|year=1961|title=The Origins of the Second World War|location=London|publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]]|isbn=|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|author=———|year=1979|title=How Wars Begin|url=https://archive.org/details/howwarsbegin0000tayl|location=London|publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]]|isbn=978-0-241-10017-2|ref={{sfnRef|Taylor|1979}} }}
:{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jay&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2009|title=The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China|url=https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl|location=Cambridge,&amp;nbsp;MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-03338-2|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Nigel&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|last2=Andrew|first2=Stephen|year=1998|title=German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa &amp; Balkans|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-85532-640-8|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=John Herd&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|last2=Randall|first2=Stephen J.|author2-link=Stephen Randall (political scientist)|year=2008|title=Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies|url=https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedsta00thom|edition=4th|location=Athens, GA|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|isbn=978-0-8203-3113-3|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Trachtenberg|first=Marc&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Marc Trachtenberg|year=1999|title=A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963|url=https://archive.org/details/constructedpeace0000trac|location=Princeton,&amp;nbsp;NJ|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-00273-6|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink1=Spencer C. Tucker|last2=Roberts|first2=Priscilla Mary|title=Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-57607-999-6|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Umbreit|first=Hans&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1991|chapter=The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe|title=''In P.&amp;nbsp;S. Falla,&amp;nbsp;ed.,'' Germany and the Second World War, Volume&amp;nbsp;2: Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe ''(pp.&amp;nbsp;227–326)''|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-822885-1|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|author=United States Army&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=United States Army|year=1986|origyear=1953|title=The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941)|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[Department of the Army]]|ref=CITEREFUS_Army1986|access-date=2018-06-02|archive-date=2009-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619234443/http://history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm|url-status=dead}}
:{{Cite journal|last=Waltz|first=Susan&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Susan Waltz|year=2002|title=Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_third-world-quarterly_2002_23_3/page/437|journal=[[Third World Quarterly]]|volume=23|issue=3|pages=437–448|jstor=3993535|doi=10.1080/01436590220138378|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Ward|first=Thomas A.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2010|title=Aerospace Propulsion Systems|location=Singapore|publisher=[[John Wiley &amp; Sons]]|isbn=978-0-470-82497-9|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=William E.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=William E. Watson|year=2003|title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/tricolorcrescent0000wats|location=Westport,&amp;nbsp;CT|publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]]|isbn=0-275-97470-7|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.| authorlink=Gerhard Weinberg&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2005|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-85316-3|ref=harv}}; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy
:{{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2008|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953|location=Lanham,&amp;nbsp;MD|publisher=[[Rowman &amp; Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last1=Wiest|first1=Andrew&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|last2=Barbier|first2=M. K.|year=2002|title=Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare|location=St Paul, MN|publisher=[[MBI Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-0-7603-1401-2|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Andrew&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2006|title=Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished|url=https://archive.org/details/liberalismwarvic0000will|location=Abingdon &amp; New York,&amp;nbsp;NY|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-35980-1|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite journal|last=Wilt|first=Alan F.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Alan F. Wilt|year=1981|title=Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941|journal=Military Affairs|volume=45|issue=4|pages=187–91|jstor=1987464|doi=10.2307/1987464|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Wohlstetter|first=Roberta&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Roberta Wohlstetter|year=1962|title=Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision|url=https://archive.org/details/pearlharborwarni0000wohl|location=Palo Alto,&amp;nbsp;CA|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8047-0597-4|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Wolf|first=Holger C.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1993|chapter=The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951|title=''In [[Rudi Dornbusch|Rudiger Dornbusch]], Wilhelm Nölling and [[Richard Layard, Baron Layard|Richard Layard]], eds.,'' Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today ''(pp.&amp;nbsp;29–56)''|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0-262-04136-2|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=James&amp;nbsp;B.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2007|title=Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable?|url=https://archive.org/details/japanesemilitary0000wood|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=[[Rowman &amp; Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5339-2|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Amos&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1997|title=The Evolution of the United Nations System|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofunite0000yode|edition=3rd|location=London &amp; Washington,&amp;nbsp;DC|publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]]|isbn=1-56032-546-1|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Zalampas|first=Michael&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=1989|title=Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939|url=https://archive.org/details/adolfhitlerthird0000zala|publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press|isbn=0-87972-462-5|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven&amp;nbsp;J.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|authorlink=Steven Zaloga|year=1996|title=Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-85532-478-7|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|author=———|year=2002|title=Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg|url=https://archive.org/details/poland1939birtho0000zalo|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84176-408-5|ref=CITEREFZaloga2002}}
: Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. ''A Companion to World War II'' (2 vol 2013), 1030pp; comprehensive overview by scholars
:{{Cite book|last=Zeiler|first=Thomas W.&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|year=2004|title=Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/unconditionaldef0000zeil|location=Wilmington, DE|publisher=Scholarly Resources|isbn=978-0-8420-2991-9|ref=harv}}
:{{Cite book|last1=Zetterling|first1=Niklas&lt;!--was small caps--&gt;|last2=Tamelander|first2=Michael|year=2009|title=''Bismarck'': The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship|url=https://archive.org/details/bismarckfinalday0000zett|location=Drexel Hill,&amp;nbsp;PA|publisher=[[Casemate Publishers|Casemate]]|isbn=978-1-935149-04-0|ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1939]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1940]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:Global conflicts]]
[[Category:History o Montenegro]]
[[Category:History o the Soviet Union an Soviet Roushie]]
[[Category:History o the Unitit States (1918–45)]]
[[Category:Modren Europe]]
[[Category:Modren history]]
[[Category:Nuclear warfare]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Albanie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Australie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Austrick]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Belgium]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Bolivie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Brazil]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Breetish Indie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Bulgarie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Burma]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Cambodie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Canadae]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Chile]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Colombie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Croatie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Cuba]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Czechoslovakie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Denmark]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Ecuador]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Egyp]]
[[Category:Wars involvin El Salvador]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Estonie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Ethiopie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Finland]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Fraunce]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Germany]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Greece]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Guatemala]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Haiti]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Honduras]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Hungary]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Iceland]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Indonesie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Italy]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Iran]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Iraq]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Japan]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Laos]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Latvie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Lebanon]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Liberie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Lithuanie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Mexico]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Mongolie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Montenegro]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Nepal]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Norawa]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Panama]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Paraguay]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Peru]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Poland]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Romanie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Saudi Arabie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Serbie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Slovakie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Slovenie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Sooth Africae]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Sirie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Thailand]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Turkey]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Philippines]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Republic o Cheenae]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Republic o Macedonie]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Unitit Kinrick]]
[[Category:Wars involvin the Unitit States]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Uruguay]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Venezuela]]
[[Category:Wars involvin Vietnam]]
[[Category:Warld War II|*]]</text>
      <sha1>3t5i455fw4h1mloi1ice1j71jlbwpu0</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>El Oro Province</title>
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      <text bytes="8176" sha1="3n0g87ioixsv2wb5w4xfzxdgyfu5c24" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See Template:Infobox Settlement for additional fields that may be available--&gt;
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;
|name                   = El Oro
|official_name          = Province of El Oro
|other_name             =
|native_name            = Provincia de El Oro &lt;!-- if different from the English name --&gt;
|native_name_lang       = sp &lt;!-- Use ISO639 code, e.g. &quot;fr&quot; for French.
                          If there is more than one native name, in different languages,
                          enter those names using {{lang}}, instead --&gt;
|nickname               =
|settlement_type        = [[Provinces o Ecuador|Province]]
|total_type             = &lt;!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --&gt;
|motto                  =
&lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
|image_flag             = Bandera Provincia El Oro.svg
|flag_size              =
|image_seal             =
|seal_size              =
|image_shield           =
|shield_size            =
|image_blank_emblem     =
|blank_emblem_type      =
|blank_emblem_size      =
|image_map              = El Oro in Ecuador (+Galapagos).svg
|mapsize                =
|map_caption            =
|image_map1             = Mapa de la provincia de El Oro (político 2020).svg
|mapsize1               =
|map_caption1           = Cantons o El Oro Province
|image_dot_map          =
|dot_mapsize            =
|dot_map_caption        =
|dot_x =  |dot_y =
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;
|subdivision_type       = Kintra
|subdivision_name       = [[Ecuador]]
&lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g. boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
|seat_type              = Caipital
|seat                   = [[Machala]]
|parts_type             = Cantons
|parts_style            = coll
|parts                  = Leet o Cantons
&lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
|government_footnotes   =
|government_type        =
|leader_party           =
|leader_title           = Prefect
|leader_name            =
|leader_title1          = 
|leader_name1           =
|established_title      = Established
|established_date       = 23 Aprile 1884
|extinct_title          =
|extinct_date           =
|founder                =
|named_for              =
&lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
|area_magnitude         = &lt;!-- use only to set a special wikilink --&gt;
|unit_pref              = Metric
|area_footnotes         =
|area_total_km2         = 5818
|area_land_km2          =
|area_water_km2         =
|area_total_sq_mi       =
|area_land_sq_mi        =
|area_water_sq_mi       =
|area_water_percent     =
|area_blank1_title      =
|area_blank1_km2        =
|area_blank1_sq_mi      =
&lt;!-- Elevation --------------------------&gt;
|elevation_footnotes    =  &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_max_footnotes=   &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url= http://www.enciclopediadelecuador.com/temasOpt.php?Ind=774&amp;Let= | title= Provincia de El Oro | date= 2012-01-22 | access-date= 2012-09-25 | archive-date= 2014-07-25 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140725193211/http://enciclopediadelecuador.com/temasOpt.php?Ind=774&amp;Let= | url-status= dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|elevation_min_footnotes=  &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_m            =
|elevation_ft           =
|elevation_max_m        = 3590|elevation_max_ft       =
|elevation_min_m        = 0
|elevation_min_ft       =
&lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
|population_as_of       = 2010
|population_footnotes   =
|population_note        =
|population_total       = 588546
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_density_sq_mi= auto
|population_est         =
|pop_est_as_of          =
|population_blank1_title= Urban
|population_blank1      = 401940
|population_density_blank1_km2 =  
|population_density_blank1_sq_mi =
|population_blank2_title= Population 2001
|population_blank2      = 539888
&lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
|timezone1              = [[Ecuador Time|ECT]]
|utc_offset1            = -5
|coor_pinpoint          = &lt;!-- can be used to specify exactly where/what the coordinates refer to --&gt;
|postal_code_type       =  &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal_code            = EC07xxxx
|postal2_code_type      =  &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal2_code           =
|area_code_type         =
|area_code              = 07
|blank_name_sec1        =
|blank_info_sec1        =
|blank1_name_sec1       =
|blank1_info_sec1       = &lt;!-- goes up to blank6_name_sec1 --&gt;
|website                = http://www.eloro.gob.ec
|footnotes              =
}}
[[File:Iglesia Parque Apartadero.jpg|thumb|Iglesia Parque Apartadero]]
'''El Oro''' province ({{lang-es|Provincia de El Oro}}, leeterally &quot;Province o Gowd&quot;) is the soothmaist o [[Ecuador]]'s coastal provinces. It wis namit for its historically important [[gowd]] production. The day it is ane o the warld's major exporters o [[bananae]]s. The caipital is [[Machala]].

==History==
El Oro province is historically the major aurie o bananae production in Ecuador.

==Geografie==
Tae the north an east the province haes borders wi the  provinces [[Guayas Province|Guayas]], [[Azuay]] an [[Loja Province|Loja]]. Tae the wast an sooth it is limitit bi the [[Paceefic Ocean]] an the [[Peru]]vian [[Tumbes Region]].

The province is dividit in 14 [[cantons o Ecuador|cantons]] an featurs a wide range o attractions, sic as the [[Jambelí Islands]], the [[petrified]] [[forest]] o the [[Puyango River]], an the island o [[Santa Clara (island)|Santa Clara]], tae name a few.

==Demografics==
Population 1990: 412.572
Population 2007: 525.763

==Economy==
El Oro economy is mainly based on export o bananae an shrimp. Ither agricultural products o importance are [[Cocoa bean|cacao]] an [[coffee]].

==Politics==
Unicameral govrenment.

==Cantons==
The province is dividit intae 14 [[canton (administrative division)|canton]]s. The follaein table leets each wi its population as o the 2001 [[census]], its aurie in square kilometres (km²), an the name o the [[canton seat]] or [[caipital ceety|caipital]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.statoids.com/yec.html Cantons of Ecuador]. Statoids.com. Retrieved 4 November 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! Canton !! Pop. (2001) !! Aurie (km²) !! Seat/Caipital
|-
| [[Arenillas Canton|Arenillas]] || align=right|22,477 || align=right|803 || [[Arenillas, Ecuador|Arenillas]]
|-
| [[Atahualpa Canton|Atahualpa]] || align=right|5,479 || align=right|278 || [[Paccha, Ecuador|Paccha]]
|-
| [[Balsas Canton|Balsas]] || align=right|5,348 || align=right|69 || [[Balsas, Ecuador|Balsas]]
|-
| [[Chilla Canton|Chilla]] || align=right|2,665 || align=right|328 || [[Chilla, Ecuador|Chilla]]
|-
| [[El Guabo Canton|El Guabo]] || align=right|41,078 || align=right|603 || [[El Guabo]]
|-
| [[Huaquillas Canton|Huaquillas]] || align=right|40,285 || align=right|72 || [[Huaquillas]]
|-
| [[Las Lajas Canton|Las Lajas]] || align=right|4,781 || align=right|297 || [[La Victoria, Ecuador|La Victoria]]
|-
| [[Machala Canton|Machala]] || align=right|217,696 || align=right|338 || [[Machala]]
|-
| [[Marcabelí Canton|Marcabelí]] || align=right|4,930 || align=right|147 || [[Marcabelí]]
|-
| [[Pasaje Canton|Pasaje]] || align=right|62,959 || align=right|452 || [[Pasaje]]
|-
| [[Piñas Canton|Piñas]] || align=right|23,246 || align=right|615 || [[Piñas, Ecuador|Piñas]]
|-
| [[Portovelo Canton|Portovelo]] || align=right|11,024 || align=right|282 || [[Portovelo]]
|-
| [[Santa Rosa Canton|Santa Rosa]] || align=right|60,388 || align=right|889 || [[Santa Rosa, El Oro|Santa Rosa]]
|-
| [[Zaruma Canton|Zaruma]] || align=right|23,407 || align=right|645 || [[Zaruma]]
|}

== See an aw ==
* [[Provinces o Ecuador]]
* [[Cantons o Ecuador]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Freemit airtins ==
{{commons cat}}
* {{es icon}} [http://www.eloro.gob.ec/ Gobierno Provincial Autonomo de El Oro] - wab steid o the El Oro Govrenment
* {{es icon}} [http://www.orenses.net/ Orenses Machala Comunidad Virtual de La Provincia de El Oro] - news aboot El Oro

{{Provinces o Ecuador}}

[[Category:El Oro Province| ]]
[[Category:Provinces o Ecuador]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Napo Province</title>
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      <text bytes="6935" sha1="hbdkgxx21cx0kz80oyq4q4qoqtn2nb9" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See Template:Infobox Settlement for additional fields that may be available--&gt;
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;
|name                   =  Napo
|official_name          = Province o Napo
|other_name             =
|native_name            =  &lt;!-- if different from the English name --&gt;
|native_name_lang       =  &lt;!-- Use ISO639 code, e.g. &quot;fr&quot; for French.
                           If there is more than one native name, in different languages,
                           enter those names using {{lang}}, instead --&gt;
|nickname               =
|settlement_type        = Province
|total_type             = &lt;!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --&gt;
|motto                  =
&lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
|image_flag             = Bandera Provincia Napo.svg
|flag_size              =
|image_seal             =
|seal_size              =
|image_shield           =
|shield_size            =
|image_blank_emblem     =
|blank_emblem_type      =
|blank_emblem_size      =
|image_map              = Napo in Ecuador (+Galapagos).svg
|mapsize                =
|map_caption            = Location o Napo Province in Ecuador.
|image_map1             = Mapa de la provincia de Napo (político 2020).svg
|mapsize1               =
|map_caption1           = Cantons o Napo Province
|image_dot_map          =
|dot_mapsize            =
|dot_map_caption        =
|dot_x =  |dot_y =
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;
|subdivision_type       = Kintra
|subdivision_name       = [[Ecuador]]
&lt;!-- Smaller parts (e.g. boroughs of a city) and seat of government --&gt;
|seat_type              = Caipital
|seat                   = [[Tena, Ecuador]]
|parts_type             = Cantons
|parts_style            = coll
|parts                  = Leet o Cantons
&lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
|government_footnotes   =
|government_type        =
|leader_party           =
|leader_title           = Mayor
|leader_name            =
|leader_title1          = 
|leader_name1           =
|established_title      = Established
|established_date       = 22 October 1959.
|extinct_title          =
|extinct_date           =
|founder                =
|named_for              =
&lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
|area_magnitude         = &lt;!-- use only to set a special wikilink --&gt;
|unit_pref                = Metric
|area_footnotes           =
|area_total_km2           = 12484
|area_land_km2            =
|area_water_km2           =
|area_total_sq_mi         =
|area_land_sq_mi          =
|area_water_sq_mi         =
|area_water_percent       =
|area_blank1_title        =
|area_blank1_km2          =
|area_blank1_sq_mi        =
&lt;!-- Elevation --------------------------&gt;
|elevation_footnotes    =  &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_max_footnotes=  &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_min_footnotes=  &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
|elevation_m            =
|elevation_ft           =
|elevation_max_m            =
|elevation_max_ft           =
|elevation_min_m            =
|elevation_min_ft           =
&lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
|population_as_of               =
|population_footnotes           =
|population_note                =
|population_total               = 79139
|population_density_km2         = &lt;!--For automatic calculation, any density field may contain: auto --&gt;
|population_density_sq_mi       =
|population_est                 =
|pop_est_as_of                  =
|population_blank1_title        = Urban
|population_blank1              = 25759
|population_density_blank1_km2 =  
|population_density_blank1_sq_mi =
&lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
|timezone1               =  [[Ecuador Time|ECT]]
|utc_offset1             = -5
|coor_pinpoint         =&lt;!-- can be used to specify exactly where/what the coordinates refer to --&gt;
|coordinates            = {{coord|0.9890|-77.8159|display=inline}}
|postal_code_type       =  &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal_code            =
|postal2_code_type      =  &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal2_code           =
|area_code_type         =
|area_code              =
|blank_name_sec1        =
|blank_info_sec1        =
|blank1_name_sec1       =
|blank1_info_sec1       = &lt;!-- goes up to blank6_name_sec1 --&gt;
|website                =
|footnotes              =
}}
[[File:Ecuador, Anden, Antisana a Cotopaxi.JPG|thumb|The Andes in Ecuador, wi the volcanoes Antisana (left) an Cotopaxi (richt), as seen frae the Pichincha muntain.]]
'''Napo''' is a [[province]] in [[Ecuador]]. Its [[Caipital ceety|caipital]] is [[Tena, Ecuador|Tena]]. The province contains the [[Napo River|Napo]] River. The province is law developit athoot hintle industrial presence. The thick rainforest is hame tae mony natives that remain isolatit bi preference, descendents o those who fled the Spaingie invasion in the Andes, an the Incas years afore. As o 2000, the province wis the sole remainin majority-indigenous province o Ecuador, wi 56.3% o the province either claimin indigenous identity or speakin an indigenous leid.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.siise.gov.ec/Publicaciones/2inf9.pdf Informe Social 2003. Retrieved July 30, 2011.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210160736/http://www.siise.gov.ec/Publicaciones/2inf9.pdf |date=2011-12-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

This province is ane o the mony locatit in Ecuador's section o the [[Amazon Rainforest]].

In Napo province are [[Antisana Ecological Reserve]] an [[Limoncocha Naitional Biological Reserve]] an aw.

== Cantons ==
The province is dividit intae five [[canton (admeenistrative diveesion)|canton]]s. The follaein table leets each wi its population as o the 2001 [[census]], its aurie in square kilometres (km²), an the name o the [[canton seat]] or [[caipital ceety|caipital]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.statoids.com/yec.html Cantons of Ecuador]. Statoids.com. Retrieved 4 November 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! Canton !! Pop. (2001) !! Aurie (km²) !! Seat/Caipital
|-
| [[Archidona Canton|Archidona]] || align=right|18,551 || align=right|3,029 || [[Archidona, Ecuador|Archidona]]
|-
| [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola Canton|Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola]] || align=right|2,943 || align=right|501 || [[Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola, Ecuador|Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola]]
|-
| [[El Chaco Canton|El Chaco]] || align=right|6,133 || align=right|3,473 || [[El Chaco, Ecuador|El Chaco]]
|-
| [[Quijos Canton|Quijos]] || align=right|5,505 || align=right|1,577 || [[Baeza, Ecuador|Baeza]]
|-
| [[Tena Canton|Tena]] || align=right|46,007 || align=right|3,904 || [[Tena, Ecuador|Tena]]
|}

== See an aw ==
* [[Provinces o Ecuador]]
* [[Cantons o Ecuador]]
* [[Cofán]] tribe

== References ==
{{commons cat|Province of Napo}}
&lt;references /&gt;

{{Provinces o Ecuador}}

[[Category:Napo Province| ]]
[[Category:Provinces o Ecuador]]</text>
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    <title>New Toun, Edinburgh</title>
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      <text bytes="17978" sha1="mt3rrxh6k6hdzgy5a63e7dm035xcieb" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Warld Heritage Steid
| WHS         = [[Auld Town, Edinburgh|Auld]] an New Touns o Edinburgh
| State Party = United Kingdom
| Image       = [[File:Edinburgh New Town from Edinburgh Castle.jpg|300px|Edinburgh's New Town, viewed from Edinburgh Castle. Princes Street and the Princes Street Gardens are visible in the foreground.]]
| Country     = Scotland
| Type        = Cultural
| Criteria    = ii, iv
| ID          = 728
| Region      = [[:en:List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe an North America]]
| Year        = 1995
| Session     = 19th
| Link        = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728
}}
[[File:Edinburgh map.png|thumb|Map o the ceety, showin New Toun, [[Auld Toun, Edinburgh|Auld Toun]], an the [[West End, Edinburgh|West End]].]]

The '''New Toun''' is a central aurie o [[Edinburgh]], the caipital o Scotland.  It is aften conseidert tae be a maisterpiece o [[ceety plannin]], an is a [[UNESCO]] [[Warld Heritage Steid]]. It wis biggit in stages atween 1765 an aroond 1850, an retains hintle o the oreeginal [[Neoclassicism|neo-classical]] an [[Georgian airchitectur|Georgian]] period airchitectur.

Its maist famous street is [[Princes Street]], facin [[Edinburgh Castle]] an the [[Auld Toun, Edinburgh|Auld Toun]] athort the geographical depression o the umwhile [[Nor Loch]]. The Auld an New Touns wis designate a UNESCO Warld Heritage Steid thegither in 1995.

==Preparin the grund==

Oreeginal plans tae creaut a New Toun in Edinburgh date back tae a general concept conseidert bi [[James VII, Keeng o Scots|Keeng James VII an II]] in the late 17t century.&lt;ref name = Glendinning/&gt;

The deceision tae bigg a New Toun wis taen bi the ceety faithers, efter owercroudin inside the Auld Toun ceety waws reakit breakin pynt an fur tae prevene an exodus o walthy ceetizens frae the ceety tae Lunnon.&lt;ref name = Glendinning&gt;{{cite book |last=Glendinning and MacKechnie|title=Scottish Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/scottisharchitec0000glen|publisher=Thames and Hudson|year=2004|isbn=0-500-20374-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/scottisharchitec0000glen/page/120 120]}}; citing pamphlet entitled 'Proposals for Carrying on Certain Public Works in the City of Edinburgh'&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Age o Enlichtenment]] haed arrived in Edinburgh, an the ootdatit ceety fabric didnae suit the modren thinkers wha bidit thare. [[Lord Provost]] [[George Drummond]] succeedit in stendin the boondary o the [[Ryal Burgh]] tae encompass the fields norlins o the Nor Loch, the hivily pollutit body o watter whilk occupee'd the strath immediately norlins o the ceety. A scheme tae dreep the Loch wis put intae action, awtho the process wisna fou complete till 1817. Crossin pynts wis biggit fur tae access the new land; the [[North Bridge, Edinburgh|North Bridge]] in 1772, an the Earthen Mound, whilk began as a tip fur material excavate durin construction o the New Toun. [[The Mound]], as it is kent the day, reached its present proportions in the 1830s.

As the successive stages o the New Toun wis developpit, the rich muivit northwart frae crampit tenements in narrae closes intae grand [[Georgian airchitectur|Georgian]] hames on wide roads. Housomeivver, the puir remained in the Auld Toun.

==The First New Toun==
A design competeetion wis held in Januar 1766 tae fynd a suitably modren layoot for the new suburb. It wis wan bi 26 year auld [[James Craig (airchitect)|James Craig]], wha, follaein the naitural contours o the laund, proponed a semple axial grid, wi a principal througang alang the rig linkin twa gairden squares. Twa ither main roads wis locatit doun the brae norlins an soothlins wi twa minor streets atween. Several [[mews]] aff the minor streets providit stable lanes fur the lairge hames. Completin the grid is three north-sooth cross streets.

Craig's oreeginal design haed been fur a centralisin diagonal layoot, reflectin a new era o ceevic Hanoverian Breetish patriotism bi echoin the design o the [[Union Banner]]. Whiles simpler, the revised design reflectit the same speirit in the names o its streets an ceevic spaces.&lt;ref name = Glendinning/&gt;

==Street names==
[[File:The New Town from Edinburgh Castle.JPG|thumb|left|View o the New Toun frae [[Edinburgh Castle]], lairgely obscured bi modren shoppin developments]]
The principal street wis namit George Street, efter the keeng at the time, [[George III o the Unitit Kinrick|George III]]. Queen Street wis tae be locatit norlins, namit efter his wife, an St. Giles Street tae the sooth, efter the ceety's patron saunt. St. Andrew's Square and St. George's Square wis the names chuisen tae represent the [[Acts o Union 1707|union o Scotland an Ingland]]. The idea wis continued wi the smawer Thistle Street (for Scotland's naitional emblem) atween George Street an Queen Street, an Rose Street (for Ingland's emblem) atween George Street an Princes Street.

Keeng George rejectit the name St. Giles Street, [[Saunt Giles|St Giles]] bein the patron saunt o lepers an the name o a slum aurie or 'rookery' on the edge o the Ceety o Lunnon. It wis tharefore renamit Princes Street efter his sons. The name o St. George's Square wis chyngit tae [[Charlotte Square]], efter [[Charlotte o Mecklenburg-Strelitz|the Queen]], tae avoid confuision wi the existin [[George Square, Edinburgh|George Square]] on the Auld Toun's Sooth Side. Thistle Street's wastmaist blocks wis renamit Hill Street an Young Street, garrin Thistle Street hauf the lenth o Rose Street. The three streets completin the grid, Castle, Frederick an Hanover Streets, wis named efter the view o the castle, Keeng George's faither [[Frederick, Prince o Wales|Frederick]], an the name o the ryal faimily respectively.

==Development==
Craig's proponins hit further problems whan development began. Initially the exposit new steid wis unpopular, leadin tae a £20 premium bein affert tae the first builder on steid. This wis receivit bi John Young wha biggit Thistle Court, the first biggins in the New Toun, at Thistle Street's east end in 1767. Insteid o biggin as a terrace as envisagit, he biggit a sma courtyard.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.ewht.org.uk/thistle-court | title = Thistle Court | accessdate = 2012-03-01 | archive-date = 2015-06-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150609050322/http://www.ewht.org.uk/thistle-court | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Douts wis owercome suin eneuch, an further construction stairtit in the east wi St. Andrew Square.

Craig haed proponed that George Street be terminate bi twa lairge kirks, situatit athin ilka square. [[Sir Lawrence Dundas, 1st Baronet|Sir Lawrence Dundas]], the laundawner, decidit tae bigg his ain hame here, an commissioned a design frae Sir [[William Chambers (airchitect)|William Chambers]]. The ootcomin [[Palladian airchitectur|Palladian]] mansion, completit in 1774, is nou the heidquairters o the [[Royal Bank of Scotland]]. [[St Andra's an St George's Kirk, Edinburgh|St. Andra's Kirk]] haed tae be biggit on a steid on George Street. The lack o a visual termination at this street end wis remeedit in 1823 wi [[William Burn]]'s monument tae [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscoont Melville|Henry Dundas]].

The first New Toun wis complete in 1820, wi the completion o Charlotte Square. This wis biggit tae a design bi [[Robert Adam]], an wis the anerlie airchitecturally unifee'd section o the New Toun. Adam producit a design for St. George's Kirk an aw, awtho his design wis supersedit bi that of [[Robert Reid (airchitect)|Robert Reid]]. The biggin, nou kent as West Register House, nou houses pairt o the [[National Archives of Scotland]]. Charlotte Square's north side featurs [[Bute House]] — umwhile the offeecial residence o the [[Secretary o State for Scotland]]. Syne [[devolution]]'s introduction intae Scotland, [[Bute House]] is the offeecial residence o the [[First Meenister o Scotland]].

[[File:Charlottesq2.jpg|thumb|centre|500px|Montage image o [[Robert Adam]]'s north side o Charlotte Square. [[Bute House]], the [[First Meenister o Scotland]]'s offeecial residence, is in the centre.]]

==Redevelopment==
[[File:Georgian buildings in Princes Street, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Survivin Georgian biggins in Princes Street]]
The New Toun wis envisagit as a purely residential suburb. In the Seicont New Toun, tounhooses generally occupee'd the east-wast streets, wi tenements alang the north-sooth streets. Shops wis oreeginally generally restricted tae the lawer floors o the wider north-sooth streets. The lairger hooses haed service mews runnin ahint an parallel tae thair terraces. In the First New Toun this paitren wis less rigid, an it haed few planned commercial grund floors.

It didnae tak lang fur the commercial potential o the steid tae be realisit. Shops wis suin appent on Princes Street, an durin the 19t century the majority o the tounhooses on that street wur replacit wi lairger commercial biggins. Occasional piecemeal redevelopment continues tae this day, tho maist o Queen Street an Thistle Street, an lairge sections o George Street, Hanover, Frederick an Castle Streets, are still lined wi thair oreeginal late 18t century biggins.  Vera lairge sections o the Seicont New Toun, biggit frae the early 19t century is still exactly as biggit an aw.

==Later addeetions==
[[File:Great King Street, Edinburgh New Town.JPG|thumb|Great King Street. Pairt o the northren extension tae the oreeginal New Toun]]
[[File:Moray Place, Edinburgh New Town.JPG|thumb|Moray Place. Pairt o the wastren extension tae the oreeginal New Toun]]
[[File:Regent Terrace Edinburgh3.JPG|thumb|right|Regent Terrace. Pairt o the eastren extension o the oreeginal New Toun]]
[[File:Drumsheugh Gardens, Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|Drumsheugh Gardens. Pairt o the further wastren, Victorian extension tae the New Toun]]
Efter 1800, the success o the first New Toun led tae grander schemes. The 'Northren New Toun' aimit tae extend Edinburgh frae the North o Queen Street Gardens&lt;ref name = EdCouncil&gt;{{cite web | year=2005 | url=http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/downloads/file/1503/new_town_conservation_area_character_appraisal | author=The City of Edinburgh Council | title=New Town Conservation Area Character Appraisal | accessdate=2011-06-13 | archive-date=2012-03-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313203734/http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk/downloads/file/1503/new_town_conservation_area_character_appraisal | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; aw the wey till the [[Watter o Leith]], wi extensions tae the East an Wast.  Thir developments teuk place maistly atween 1800-1830.  Initial designs follaeed the oreeginal grid orientation o Craig’s First New Toun, wi entire streets bein biggit as ane construction. Biggin continued on an extendit Hanover Street, here namit Dundas Street, amaist 1&amp;nbsp;km tae the Watter o Leith at Canonmills. Braid streets an grand squares wis laid oot tae aither side. The Picardy Place extension (includin Broughton Street, Union Street an East London Street) wis maistly feenisht bi 1809.&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt;  Tae the Wast o the oreeginal New Toun, Shandwick Place, an extension o Princes Street, wis stairtit in 1805.  Development o Melville Street an the aurie North o Shandwick Place follaeed in 1825.&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt;  The Gayfield Estate (Gayfield Square) extension wis designed in 1807 an frae aroond 1813 the New Toun gradually replacit an developit the aulder veelage o [[Stockbridge, Edinburgh|Stockbridge]].&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt; The Painter [[Henry Raeburn]] bocht the Deanhough estate in the Northwast o the New Toun an stairtit development in 1813 wi Ann Street namit efter his wife.&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt; In 1822 the [[Earl o Moray]], haed plans drawn up tae develop his estates (includin Moray Place) in the Northwest o the New Toun slopin doun tae the Watter o Leith an aw.&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt;

Fur tae stend the New Toun eastart, the Lord Provost, Sir John [[Marjoribanks]], succeedit in gettin the elegant [[Regent Bridge]] biggit. It wis complete in 1819. The brig spanned a deep ravine wi narrae inconvenient streets an made access tae [[Calton Hill]] hintle easier an greeable frae Princes Street.&lt;ref name = Report&gt;{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=27945 |title=Regent Bridge, Listed Building Report |publisher=Historic Scotland |accessdate=2009-10-17 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Edinburgh Toun Cooncil organisit a competeetion for plans tae develop the Eastren New Toun but the result wis inconclusive.  Hinderly, designs bi the Airchitect [[William Henry Playfair]] wis uised tae develop [[Calton Hill]] an Edinburgh’s Eastren New Toun frae 1820 forrit.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=49769 Listit building report o a house in Regent Terrace]{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}  Includes historical description of the development of Edinburgh’s Eastern New Town.  Accessed 2009-08-10&lt;/ref&gt; Playfair’s designs wis intendit tae creaut a New Toun even mair magnificent than Craig's.&lt;ref name = Youngson&gt;Youngson, A.J. (2001): “The Companion Guide to Edinburgh and the borders”, Chapter 9 (Calton Hill), [[Polygon Books]], Edinburgh, UK, ISBN 0-7486-6307-X&lt;/ref&gt; [[Regent Terrace]], Calton Terrace an Royal Terrace wur biggit but the developments norlins o Lunnon Road wis niver fully completit.  On the Sooth side o Calton Hill, various monuments wis erectit as weel as the [[Old Royal High School]] in Greek revival style.

A few modest developments in [[Canonmills]] wis stairtit in the 1820s but nane wis complete at that time.  Fur several decades, the [[tannage]] operations o at [[Silvermills]] inhibitit development in the immediate vicinity. Frae the 1830s forrit, development slawed but follaein the completion in 1831 o [[Thomas Telford]]’s Dean Bridge, the Dean Estate haed some developments biggit. Thir includit the Dean Orphanage (nou the [[Dean Gallery]]), [[Daniel Stewart's College]], streets tae the northeast o Queensferry Street (in the 1850s), Buckingham Terrace (in 1860) an Learmonth Terrace (in 1873).&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt; Plans tae develop the Moray Estate wur drawn up in 1822 an maist steids wur sauld bi 1836,&lt;ref name=Gifford&gt;{{cite book | last1=Gifford | first1=John | last2=McWilliam | first2=Colin | last3=Walker | first3=David | title=The buildings of Scotland: Edinburgh | url=https://archive.org/details/edinburgh0000giff | publisher=Penguin Books | year=1984 | isbn=0-14-071068-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; awtho some biggins wur no biggit till 1855.&lt;ref name = EdCouncil/&gt;

In the 19t century, Edinburgh's seicont railwey, the [[Edinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railway]], biggit a tunnel unner the New Toun tae link Scotland Street wi Canal Street (later absorbit intae [[Edinburgh Waverley railwey station|Waverley Station]]). Efter its closur, the tunnel wis uised tae growe puddock-stuils, an durin [[Warld War II]] as an air raid shelter.

==Principal losses==

Gien the great continuity o the biggit form in the New Toun it is quicker tae leet wha little haes gane, rather than muse on the numerous streets which are unchyngit.

Bellevue House bi [[Robert Adam]], whilk became the Excise or Custom House, wis biggit in 1775, afore the New Toun raxt the aurie, in whit is nou Drummond Place Gardens. Great Keeng Street an Lunnon Street in the Northren or Seicont New Toun wis aligned on this biggin but it wis demolisht in the 1840s due tae the Scotland Street railwey tunnel construction ablo.&lt;ref name=Gifford/&gt;

Lost streets include the anes in the St James Square aurie, demolisht in the 1960s tae mak wey fur the St James Shopping Centre an offices fur the [[Scottish Office]]. This wis demolisht lairgely on the basis o bein slums, but this generally wisnae defined on a structural basis.

Forby demolished as slums wis Jamaica Street bewast the Seicont New Toun.

==Cultur==
[[File:Street lamp, Edinburgh New Town.jpg|thumb|120px|New Toun street lamps]]
The New Toun is hame tae the [[National Gallery of Scotland]] an the [[Royal Scottish Academy Building|Royal Scottish Academy]], locatit on The Mound. The [[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]] is on Queen Street. Ither notable biggins includes the Assembly Rooms on George Street, the [[Balmoral Hotel]] (umwhile cried the ''North British Hotel'', efter a railwey company) wi its laundmerk clock touer abuin [[Edinburgh Waverley railwey station|Waverley Station]], an the [[Scott Monument]].

The [[Cockburn Association]] (Edinburgh Civic Trust) is prominent in campaignin tae preserve the airchitectural integrity o the New Toun.

==Shoppin==
The New Toun conteens Edinburgh's main shoppin streets. Princes Street is hame tae mony chain shops, as weel as [[Jenners|Jenners depairtment store]], an Edinburgh institution. [[George Street, Edinburgh|George Street]], ance the financial centre, nou haes numerous modren bars, mony occupyin umwhile bankin haws, while the new Multrees Walk on St. Andrew's Square is hame tae [[Harvey Nichols]] an ither designer shops. The [[St. James Centre]], at the east end o the New Toun, is an indoor maw completit in 1970. Aften conseidert an wanwalcome addition tae New Toun airchitectur, it includes a lairge [[John Lewis Partnership|John Lewis]] branch. Forby, bi the [[Edinburgh Waverley railway station|Waverley Railway Station]] lees the Princes Mall, whilk conteens mony heich street stores.

==See an aw==
* [[Warld Heritage Steids in Scotland]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further readin==
*Davey, Andy et al. ''The Care and Conservation of Georgian Houses: A maintenance manual for Edinburgh New Town''. 4t edition. Oxford: Butterworth-Architecture, 1995. ISBN 0-7506-1860-4

==Freemit airtins==
*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728 UNESCO World Heritage Site Inscription]
*http://www.aboutscotland.com/edin/newtown.html

{{Auries o Edinburgh}}

{{#invoke:coordinates|coord|display=title}}

[[Category:New Toun, Edinburgh| ]]
[[Category:Auries o Edinburgh]]</text>
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    <title>Katri Helena</title>
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'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a [[Finland|Finnish]] sangster who haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the most popular singers in Finland. Durin her career, she haes sauld a total o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, which maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the top 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed various hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; and &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Sky&quot;) an [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;[[Tule luo]]&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Festival in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the search for the [[Suuret suomalaiset|100 Greatest Finns o aw time]], votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 childer, 2 girls an a boy, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja who dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affected her so hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums for fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discografie==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Tohmajärvi]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Finnish Eurovision Sang Contest entrants]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1979]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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      <parentid>915610</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-24T22:05:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlantic306</username>
        <id>30244</id>
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      <comment>fixing reference</comment>
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&lt;!-- only free-content images are allowed for depicting living people. Non-free and &quot;fair use&quot; images, e.g. promo photos, CD/DVD covers, posters, screen captures, etc., will be deleted - see [[WP:NONFREE]] --&gt;

'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a [[Finland|Finnish]] sangster who haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the most popular singers in Finland. Durin her career, she haes sauld a total o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, which maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the top 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed various hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; and &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Sky&quot;) an [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;[[Tule luo]]&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Festival in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the search for the [[Suuret suomalaiset|100 Greatest Finns o aw time]], votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 childer, 2 girls an a boy, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja who dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affected her so hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums for fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Katri-Helenan poika kuoli sairauskohtaukseen|access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discografie==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Tohmajärvi]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Finnish Eurovision Sang Contest entrants]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1979]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-24T22:07:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlantic306</username>
        <id>30244</id>
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&lt;!-- only free-content images are allowed for depicting living people. Non-free and &quot;fair use&quot; images, e.g. promo photos, CD/DVD covers, posters, screen captures, etc., will be deleted - see [[WP:NONFREE]] --&gt;

'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a [[Finland|Finnish]] sangster who haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the most popular singers in Finland. Durin her career, she haes sauld a total o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, which maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the top 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed various hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; and &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Sky&quot;) an [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;[[Tule luo]]&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Festival in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the search for the [[Suuret suomalaiset|100 Greatest Finns o aw time]], votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 childer, 2 girls an a boy, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja who dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affected her so hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums for fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Katri-Helenan poika kuoli sairauskohtaukseen|website=www.hs.fi/kulttuuri|access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discografie==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Tohmajärvi]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Finnish Eurovision Sang Contest entrants]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1979]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-24T22:12:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlantic306</username>
        <id>30244</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed red linked categories with only one entry</comment>
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&lt;!-- only free-content images are allowed for depicting living people. Non-free and &quot;fair use&quot; images, e.g. promo photos, CD/DVD covers, posters, screen captures, etc., will be deleted - see [[WP:NONFREE]] --&gt;

'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a [[Finland|Finnish]] sangster who haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the most popular singers in Finland. Durin her career, she haes sauld a total o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, which maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the top 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed various hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; and &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;[[Katson sineen taivaan]]&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Sky&quot;) an [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;[[Tule luo]]&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Festival in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the search for the [[Suuret suomalaiset|100 Greatest Finns o aw time]], votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 childer, 2 girls an a boy, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja who dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affected her so hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums for fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Katri-Helenan poika kuoli sairauskohtaukseen|website=www.hs.fi/kulttuuri|access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discografie==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-24T22:13:55Z</timestamp>
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&lt;!-- only free-content images are allowed for depicting living people. Non-free and &quot;fair use&quot; images, e.g. promo photos, CD/DVD covers, posters, screen captures, etc., will be deleted - see [[WP:NONFREE]] --&gt;

'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a [[Finland|Finnish]] sangster who haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the most popular singers in Finland. Durin her career, she haes sauld a total o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, which maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the top 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed various hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;Katson sineen taivaan&quot; and &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;Katson sineen taivaan&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Sky&quot;) an [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;Tule luo&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Festival in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the search for the 100 Greatest Finns o aw time, votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 childer, 2 girls an a boy, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja who dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affected her so hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums for fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Katri-Helenan poika kuoli sairauskohtaukseen|website=www.hs.fi/kulttuuri|access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discografie==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-25T01:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>119895</id>
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&lt;!-- only free-content images are allowed for depicting living people. Non-free and &quot;fair use&quot; images, e.g. promo photos, CD/DVD covers, posters, screen captures, etc., will be deleted - see [[WP:NONFREE]] --&gt;

'''Katri Helena ''' ([[née]] Koistinen, born on 17 August 1945, [[Tohmajärvi]]) is a Finnish sangster wha haes been performin syne the 1960s. She haes been marriet three times (Turunen, Kalaoja, Rajala) an is nou livin as a single mither.

In terms o commercial success, Katri Helena is ane o the maist popular sangsters in Finland. Durin her career, she haes selt a tot o ower 630,000&amp;nbsp;[[Leet o muisic recordin certifications|certifee'd]] records, that maks her the seicont-best-sellin female soloist in Finland ahint [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] an places her amang the tap 20 best-sellin muisic airtists in the Finnish mercat an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;katrihelenasales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|title=Katri Helena|publisher=[[Musiikkituottajat &amp;ndash; IFPI Finland]]|language=Finnish|accessdate=July 9, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224124039/http://www.ifpi.fi/tilastot/artistit/katri+helena|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Katri Helena haes haed mony hits, includin &quot;Puhelinlangat laulaa&quot;, &quot;Katson sineen taivaan&quot; an &quot;Syysunelma&quot;. She haes twice representit Finland in the [[Eurovision Sang Contest]]: in [[Eurovision Sang Contest 1979|1979]] wi her sang &quot;Katson sineen taivaan&quot; (&quot;A'm Leukin at the Blue Lift&quot;) an [[Eurovision Sang Contest 1993|1993]] wi her sang &quot;Tule luo&quot; (&quot;Come tae me&quot;). She teuk pairt in the Internaitional Sopot Fest in 1969, singin &quot;Valssi&quot; durin the Pols day.

In the sairch fur the 100 Greatest Finns o aw time, votit in the simmer o 2004, Katri Helena placit 43rd.

Katri Helena haes 3 bairns, 2 lasses an a lad, wi her husband Timo Kalaoja wha dee'd o a hert attack in 1988. His daith affectit her sae hintle that she athdrew frae public view an stoppit performin an recordin albums fur fower years. Her anerly son, Juha Kalaoja, dee'd o a hert attack an aw at the age o 33, on 29 Aprile 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |title=Katri-Helenan poika kuoli sairauskohtaukseen|website=www.hs.fi/kulttuuri|access-date=2013-01-15 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020134531/http://www.hs.fi/kulttuuri/artikkeli/1135245745304 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Discography==
===Albums===
* ''Vaalea valloittaja'', 1964
* ''Puhelinlangat laulaa'', 1964
* ''Katri Helena'', 1966
* ''Katupoikien laulu'', 1967
* ''Paikka auringossa'', 1968
* ''Ei kauniimpaa'', 1969
* ''Kai laulaa saan'', 1971
* ''Lauluja meille kaikille'', 1972
* ''Kakarakestit'', 1973
* ''Kun kohdattiin'', 1973 
* ''Paloma Blanca'', 1975 
* ''Lady Love'', 1976 
* ''Ystävä'', 1978 
* ''Katson sineen taivaan'', 1979
* ''Sydämeni tänne jää'', 1980 
* ''Kotimaa'', 1981
* ''Minä soitan sulle illalla'', 1982
* ''Kirje sulle'', 1984 
* ''On elämä laulu'', 1986
* ''Almaz'', 1988
* ''Juhlakonsertti'', 1989
* ''Anna mulle tähtitaivas'', 1992 
* ''Lähemmäksi'', 1993
* ''Vie minut'', 1995
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 1996
* ''Missä oot'', 1998
* ''[[Leidit levyllä]]'', 2000 
* ''[[Tässä tällä hetkellä]]'', 2004
* ''[[Elämänlangat (albumi)|Elämänlangat]]'', 2006 
* ''Hiljaisuudessa'', 2006
* ''Tulet aina olemaan'', 2009 
* ''Valon maa'' (2011)
* ''Sinivalkoinen'' (2012)
* ''Taivaan tie'' (2014)
* ''Niin on aina ollut'' (2015)

==See an aw==
*[[:en:List of best-selling music artists in Finland|Leet o best-sellin muisic airtists in Finland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
* [http://www.katrihelena.fi/ Offeecial hame page.]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0441471/bio IMDB.com bio.]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Helena, Katri}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Finnish female sangsters]]
[[Category:Eurovision Sang Contest entrants o 1993]]</text>
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    <title>Oxygen</title>
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      <text bytes="4803" sha1="859uf1h88n2em2xtwgsu3scwi5smvkl" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox oxygen}}
'''Oxygen''' is a [[chemical element]] wi symbol&amp;nbsp;'''O''' an [[atomic nummer]] 8. It is a member o the [[chalcogen]] [[Group (periodic table)|group]] on the [[periodic cairt]] an is a heichly [[Chemical reaction|reactive]] [[nonmetal]] an [[oxidisin agent]] that readily forms [[oxide]]s wi maist elements as well as ither [[chemical compoond|compoonds]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=WebElements: the periodic table on the web – Oxygen: electronegativities |url=http://www.webelements.com/oxygen/electronegativity.html |publisher=WebElements.com |accessdate=November 7, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bi mass, oxygen is the third-[[Abundance o the chemical elements|maist abundant element]] in the universe, efter [[hydrogen]] an [[helium]].&lt;ref name=&quot;NBB297&quot;&gt;[[#Reference-idEmsley2001|Emsley 2001]], p.297&lt;/ref&gt; At [[staundart temperatur an pressur]], twa atoms o the element [[chemical bond|bind]] tae form [[Allotropes o oxygen#Dioxygen|dioxygen]], a colourless an odourless [[diatomic molecule|diatomic]] [[gas]] wi the formula {{chem|O|2}}. This is an important pairt o the [[Atmosphere o Yird|atmosphere]] an diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8% o the [[Yird's atmosphere]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ECE500&quot;&gt;[[#Reference-idCook1968|Cook &amp; Lauer 1968]], p.500&lt;/ref&gt; Addeetionally, as oxides the element maks up awmaist hauf o the [[Yird's crust]].&lt;ref name=&quot;lanl&quot;&gt;
{{cite web|url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/8.html|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory|title=Oxygen|accessdate=December 16, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026034224/http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/8.html &lt;!--Added by H3llBot--&gt;|archivedate=October 26, 2007}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

Dioxygen is uised in [[cellular respiration]] an mony major classes o [[organic molecule]]s in [[livin organism]]s conteen oxygen, sic as [[protein]]s, [[nucleic acid]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s, an [[fat]]s, as dae the major consteetuent [[inorganic compoond]]s o ainimal shells, teeth, an bane. Maist o the mass o livin organisms is oxygen as a component o watter, the major constituent o lifeforms. Conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished bi [[photosynthesis]], which uises the energy o sunlicht tae produce oxygen frae watter an carbon dioxide. Oxygen is ower chemically reactive tae remeen a free element in air withoot bein continuously replenished bi the photosynthetic action o livin organisms. Anither form ([[allotropes o oxygen|allotrope]]) o oxygen, [[ozone]] ({{chem|O|3}}), strangly absorbs ultraviolet [[UVB]] radiation an the heich-altitude [[ozone layer]] helps pertect the biosphere frae [[ultraviolet radiation]]. But ozone is a pollutant near the surface whaur it is a bi-product o [[smog]]. At [[law yird orbit]] altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present tae cause [[corrosion in space|corrosion o spacecraft]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|accessdate=August 8, 2009|url=http://www.spenvis.oma.be/spenvis/help/background/atmosphere/erosion.html|title=Atomic oxygen erosion|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613121048/http://www.spenvis.oma.be/spenvis/help/background/atmosphere/erosion.html|archivedate=June 13, 2007|deadurl=yes}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613121048/http://www.spenvis.oma.be/spenvis/help/background/atmosphere/erosion.html |date=2007-06-13 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Oxygen wis discovered independently bi [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]], in [[Uppsala]], in 1773 or earlier, an [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[Wiltshire]], in 1774, but Priestley is eften gien priority acause his wark wis published first. The name ''oxygen'' wis coined in 1777 bi [[Antoine Lavoisier]],&lt;ref name=&quot;mellor&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Parks|first=G. D.|last2=Mellor|first2=J. W.|date=1939|title=Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/b32772932|edition=6th |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; whase experiments wi oxygen helped tae discredit the then-popular [[phlogiston theory]] o [[combustion]] an [[corrosion]].  Its name derives frae the [[Greek leid|Greek]] roots ὀξύς ''oxys'', &quot;acid&quot;, leeterally &quot;sharp&quot;, referrin tae the [[Taste#Soorness|soor taste]] o [[acid]]s an -γενής ''-genes'', &quot;producer&quot;, leeterally &quot;begetter&quot;, acause at the time o namin, it wis mistakenly thocht that aw acids required oxygen in thair composeetion.

Common uise o oxygen includes residential [[HVAC|heatin]], [[internal combustion ingine]]s, production o [[steel]], [[plastics]] an [[textiles]], [[Oxy-fuel waldin an cuttin|brazin, waldin an cuttin]] o steels an ither [[metals]], [[rocket propellant]], [[oxygen therapy]], an [[life support seestem]]s in [[aircraft]], [[submarines]], [[human spaceflicht|spaceflicht]] an [[unnerwater divin|divin]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Periodic Cairt}}

{{Commonscat|Oxygen}}

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Nonmetals]]
[[Category:Oxygen]]</text>
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    <title>Greenwich</title>
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      <text bytes="4522" sha1="lb79wgnys8belev4egxqdfpgsv1vkq7" xml:space="preserve">{{aboot|Greenwich in Ingland}}
{{infobox UK place
|static_image_name        = 312SFEC LONDON-20070917.JPG
|static_image_caption     = [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]
|country                  = Ingland
|region                   = Greater London
|population               =
|official_name            = Greenwich
|constituency_westminster = [[Greenwich and Woolwich (UK Parliament constituency)|Greenwich and Woolwich]]
|post_town                = LONDON
|postcode_area            = SE
|postcode_district        = SE10 &amp; some parts of SE8
|dial_code                = 020
|os_grid_reference        = TQ395775
|london_borough           = Greenwich
|coordinates              = {{coord|51.48|0.00|display=inline,title}}
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'''Greenwich''' (UK {{IPAc-en|audio=En-uk-LBGreenwich.ogg|icon|ɡ|r|ɪ|n|ɪ|dʒ}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| last=Wells | first=John C. | authorlink=John C. Wells| year=2000 | title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia00jcwe | edition=2nd| location=Harlow | publisher=Pearson Education Limited | isbn=0-582-36467-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| last=Jones | first=Daniel | authorlink=Daniel Jones (phonetician) | year=1997 | title=English Pronouncing Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci15edjone | edition=15th | location=Cambridge | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=0-521-45903-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| year=1994 | title=Collins English Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/collinsenglishdi0000unse_y9h2 | edition=3rd updated| publisher=[[HarperCollins]] | isbn=0-00-470678-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; US {{IPAc-en|ɡ|r|ɛ|n|ɪ|tʃ}} or {{IPAc-en|ɡ|r|ɛ|n|ɪ|dʒ}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia
 | year = 2001
 | title = Greenwich Mean Time
 | encyclopedia = American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin
 | accessdate = July 6, 2011
 | url = http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Greenwich+Mean+Time
 | archive-date = 2012-07-08
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120708095007/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Greenwich+Mean+Time
 | url-status = dead
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.yourdictionary.com/Greenwich &quot;Greenwich&quot; in Merriam–Webster]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/greenwich &quot;Greenwich&quot; in Webster's New World Dictionary]&lt;/ref&gt; is a destrict o sooth-east [[Lunnon]], [[Ingland]], locatit in the [[Royal Borough of Greenwich]] an situatit 5.5 mile (8.9&amp;nbsp;km) east sooth-east o [[Charing Cross]].

Greenwich is notable for its [[maritime history]] an for givin its name tae the [[Greenwich Meridian]] (0° langitude) an [[Greenwich Mean Time]]. The toun became the steid o a ryal palace, the [[Palace of Placentia]] frae the 15t century, an wis the birthplace o mony in the [[Hoose o Tudor]], includin [[Henry VIII o Ingland|Henry VIII]] an [[Elizabeth I]]. The palace fell intae disrepair durin the [[Inglis Ceevil War]] an wis rebuilt as the [[Greenwich Hospital (Lunnon)|Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors]] bi Sir [[Christopher Wren]] an his assistant [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]. These biggins became the [[Old Royal Naval College|Royal Naval College]] in 1873, an they remained an establishment for militar education till 1998 when they passed intae the haunds o the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms athin these biggins remain open tae the public; ither biggins are uised bi [[University of Greenwich]] an [[Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance]].

The toun became a popular resort in the 17t century an mony grand hooses wur built thare, such as Vanbrugh Castle (1717) established on Maze Hill, next tae the pairk. Frae the [[Georgian period]] estates o hooses wur constructit abuin the toun centre. The maritime connections o Greenwich wur celebratit in the 20t century, wi the steidin o the [[Cutty Sark]] an [[Gipsy Moth IV]] next tae the river front, an the [[National Maritime Museum]] in the umwhile biggins o the [[Royal Hospital School]] in 1934. Greenwich formit pairt o [[Kent]] till 1889 when the [[County of London]] wis creatit.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{Commons category|Greenwich (district of London)|Greenwich}}

{{LB Greenwich}}
{{Lunnon Destricts}}

&lt;!-- Please respect Alphabetical order --&gt;

[[Category:Auries o Lunnon]]
[[Category:Warld Heritage Steids in Ingland]]
[[Category:Destricts o the Royal Borough of Greenwich]]
[[Category:Destricts o Lunnon on the River Thames]]
[[Category:Destricts o Lunnon leetit in the Domesday Book]]
[[Category:Port o Lunnon]]</text>
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    <title>Cinderella (1950 film)</title>
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{{Infobox film
| name           = Cinderella
| image          = Cinderella (Official 1950 Film Poster).png
| alt            = 
| caption        = Oreeginal theatrical release poster
| director       = {{Plainlist|
* [[Clyde Geronimi]]
* [[Hamilton Luske]]
* [[Wilfred Jackson]]}}
| producer       = [[Walt Disney]]
| writer         = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ken Anderson (animator)|Ken Anderson]]
* [[Perce Pearce]]
* Homer Brightman
* [[Winston Hibler]]
* [[Bill Peet]]
* Erdman Penner
* Harry Reeves
* Joe Rinaldi
* [[Ted Sears]]
* [[Maurice Rapf]] (uncredited)&lt;ref name=IndRapf&gt;{{cite news|title=Maurice Rapf obituary|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/maurice-rapf-36779.html|accessdate=10 Januar 2016|publisher=''The Independent''|date=17 Julie 2003|archive-date=2015-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226201132/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/maurice-rapf-36779.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=LARapf&gt;{{cite news|last1=Luther|first1=Claudia|title=Maurice H. Rapf, 88; Blacklisted Screenwriter Had Disney Credits|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/apr/19/local/me-rapf19|accessdate=10 Januar 2016|publisher=Los Angeles Times|date=13 Aprile 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| based on       = {{Based on|''[[Cinderella|Cendrillon]]''|[[Charles Perrault]]}}
| narrator       = [[Betty Lou Gerson]]
| starring       = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ilene Woods]]
* [[Eleanor Audley]]
* [[Verna Felton]]
* [[Rhoda Williams]]
* [[Jimmy MacDonald (sound effects artist)|James MacDonald]]
* [[Luis van Rooten]]
* [[Don Barclay (actor)|Don Barclay]]
* [[Mike Douglas]]
* [[Lucille Bliss]]}}
| music          = [[Oliver Wallace]]&lt;br&gt;[[Paul J. Smith (composer)|Paul J. Smith]]
| editing        = Donald Halliday
| studio         = [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Productions]]
| distributor    = [[RKO Pictures|RKO Radio Pictures]]
| released       = {{Film date|1950|2|15|Boston|1950|3|4|US|ref1=&lt;ref name=AFI&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/DetailView.aspx?s=&amp;Movie=25879|title=Cinderella: Detail View|publisher=American Film Institute|accessdate=Mey 13, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;|ref2=&lt;ref name=AFI /&gt;}}
| runtime        = 74 meenits&lt;!--Theatrical runtime: 74:21--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=''CINDERELLA'' (U)|url=http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/cinderella-1970-14|work=[[British Board of Film Classification]]|date=Mairch 9, 1950|accessdate=Mairch 9, 2013|archive-date=2016-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601140639/http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/cinderella-1970-14|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| country        = Unitit States
| language       = Inglis
| budget         = $2.9 million&lt;ref name=&quot;numbers&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Box Office Information for ''Cinderella.''|publisher=The Numbers|url=http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1950/0CNDR.php|accessdate=Aprile 14, 2012|archive-date=2014-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203152914/http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1950/0CNDR.php|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| gross          = $263.6 million&lt;ref name=&quot;numbers&quot;/&gt;
}}
'''''Cinderella''''' is a 1950 American [[Animation|animatit]] [[Muisical film|muisical]] [[fantasie film]] producit bi [[Walt Disney]] an oreeginally released bi [[RKO Radio Pictures]]. Based on the [[fairy tale]] ''[[Cinderella|Cendrillon]]'' bi [[Charles Perrault]], it is the twelft [[Leet o Walt Disney Animation Studios films|Disney animatit featur film]]. Directin credits gang tae [[Clyde Geronimi]], [[Hamilton Luske]], and [[Wilfred Jackson]]. Sangs wur written bi [[Mack David]], [[Jerry Livingston]], an [[Al Hoffman]]. Sangs in the film include &quot;Cinderella&quot;, &quot;[[A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]&quot;, &quot;Sing Sweet Nightingale&quot;, &quot;The Work Song&quot;, &quot;[[Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo|Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot;, an &quot;[[#Music|So This is Love]]&quot;. It featurs the vyces o [[Ilene Woods]], [[Eleanor Audley]], [[Verna Felton]], [[Rhoda Williams]], [[Jimmy MacDonald (sound effects artist)|James MacDonald]], [[Luis van Rooten]], [[Don Barclay (actor)|Don Barclay]], [[Mike Douglas]], an [[Lucille Bliss]].

At the time, [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]] haed suffered frae losin connections tae the European film markets due tae the outbreak o [[Warld War II]], endurin some [[box office bomb]]s lik ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'', an ''[[Bambi]]'', all o which wad later acome mair successfu wi several re-releases in theaters an on home video. At the time, houiver, the studio wis ower $4 million in debt an wis on the verge o bankruptcy. Walt Disney an his animators turned back tae feature film production in 1948 efter producin a string o package films wi the idea o adapting Charles Perrault's ''Cendrillon'' intae a motion picture. It is the first Disney film in which all of [[Disney's Nine Old Men]] worked thegither as directing animators. Efter two years in production, ''Cinderella'' wis released on Februar 15, 1950. It became the greatest critical an commercial hit for the studio syne ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' (1937) an helped reverse the studio's fortunes. It is considered [[AFI's 10 Top 10|one o the best American animated films ever made]], as selected bi the [[American Film Institute]]. It received three Academy Award nominations, includin [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Music, Original Song]] for &quot;Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo&quot;. Decades later, it wis followed bi two [[direct-to-video]] sequels—''[[Cinderella II: Dreams Come True]]'' an ''[[Cinderella III: A Twist in Time]]—''and a [[Cinderella (2015 Disney film)|2015 live-action remake]] directed bi [[Kenneth Branagh]].&lt;ref name=&quot;release&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Disney Dates ‘Cinderella’ For March 2015|url=http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/cinderella-movie-release-date-march-13-2015-disney/|accessdate=25 June 2013|newspaper=deadline.com|date=24 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Plot==
[[Cinderella (Disney character)|Cinderella]] lives an unhappy life, haein lost baith parents at a young age and bein forced to work as a scullery maid for her cruel stepmither, [[Lady Tremaine]], jealous of Cinderella's beauty, an stepsisters [[Drizella Tremaine|Drizella]] and [[Anastasia Tremaine|Anastasia]], in the dilapidated [[château]] thay live in. Despite this, Cinderella is a kynd and gentle young woman and is friends wi mice and birds that live in and aroond the château. Meanwhile, at the royal palace, the Keeng is frustrated that his son, the Prince, is still unmarried. He and the Grand Duke organize a ball in an effort to find a suitable wife for the Prince, requesting every eligible maiden attend. Upon receiving notice o the ball, Tremaine agrees to let Cinderella go if she finishes her chores and can find a suitable dress to wear.

Cinderella finds a gown that belongs to her mither and decides to refashion it for the ball, but her step faimily impedes this by giein her extra chores. Cinderella's ainimal friends, includin [[Jaq and Gus]], refashion it for her, completing the design wi a necklace and sash discarded by Drizella and Anastasia, respectively. When Cinderella comes downstairs wearing the dress, the stepsisters are angered when thay realize Cinderella is wearing thair accessories and angrily tear the dress to shreds afore leaving for the ball wi thair mither. A heartbroken Cinderella runs oot intae the gairden in tears, whaur her [[Fairy Godmother (Disney)|Fairy Godmother]] appears afore her. Insisting that Cinderella go tae the ball, the Fairy Godmither magically transforms a pumpkin intae a carriage, the mice intae horse, Cinderella's horse, Major, intae a coachman, an dug, Bruno, intae a footman, afore turning Cinderella's ruined dress intae a white ball gown and her shoes intae gless slippers. As Cinderella leaves for the ball, the Fairy Godmither warns her the spell will break at the stroke of midnicht.

At the ball, the Prince rejects every girl until he sees Cinderella, who agrees to dance wi him. The two faw in luve and go oot for a stroll thegither in the castle gardens. As thay are about to kiss, Cinderella hears the clock stairt to chime midnicht and flees. As she leaves the castle, ane o her slippers faws off. The palace guards gie chase as Cinderella flees in the coach afore the spell breaks on the last stroke of midnicht. Cinderella, her pets, an the mice hide in a wooded aurie as the guards pass.

The Grand Duke informs the Keeng that Cinderella, who remains anonymous, haes escaped, an that the Prince wishes to mairy her. The lost gless slipper is the anly piece of evidence. The Keeng issues a royal proclamation ordering every maiden in the kingdom to try on the slipper for size in an effort to find the girl. After this news reaches Cinderella's household, Tremaine realizes her stepdochter is that girl when hearing her humming the waltz played at the ball and locks her in her attic bedroom. Later, the Duke arrives at the château, an Jaq and Gus steal the key frae Tremaine's dress pocket and tak it up tae the attic as Anastasia and Drizella unsuccessfully try on the slipper. Tremaine's cat Lucifer ambushes the mice, but Bruno chases him oot o the hoose, allouin the mice to free Cinderella. As the Duke is about to leave, Cinderella appears and asks to try on the slipper. Knowing it will fit, Lady Tremaine trips the footman as he brings the Duke the slipper, causin it to shatter on the floor. Much to her horror, Cinderella presents the Duke wi the ither slipper, which fits perfectly. The film ends wi a nou-mairit Prince and Cinderella at thair wedding, sharin a kiss as thay leave.

== Cast==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Role
! Actor
! Voice
! Singer
|-
| Cinderella
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Helene Stanley]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center|[[Ilene Woods]]
|-
| Anastasia Tremaine
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Lucille Bliss]]
|-
| Lady Tremaine aka the Wicked Stepmither
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Eleanor Audley]]
|-
| Fairy Godmither
| [[Claire Du Brey]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center|[[Verna Felton]]
|-
| Prince Chairmin
| [[Jeffrey Stone]]
| [[William Phipps (actor)|William Phipps]]
| [[Mike Douglas]]
|-
| Drizella Tremaine
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Rhoda Williams]]
|-
| Jaq / Gus / Bruno
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Jimmy MacDonald (sound effects artist)|Jimmy MacDonald]]
|-
| Grand Duke / the Keeng
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Luis van Rooten]]
|-
| Doorman
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[Don Barclay (actor)|Don Barclay]]
|-
| Lucifer
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=center|[[June Foray]]
|-
| Narrator
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center|[[Betty Lou Gerson]]
| [[Marni Nixon]]
|}

== Animators==
* [[Marc Davis (animator)|Marc Davis]], [[Eric Larson]], and [[Les Clark]] war the supervising animators of [[Cinderella (Disney character)|Cinderella]]
* [[Frank Thomas (animator)|Frank Thomas]] wis the supervising animator of Lady Tremaine
* [[Milt Kahl]] wis the supervising animator of Fairy Godmither and Prince Chairmin
* [[Ollie Johnston]] wis the supervising animator of Drizella Tremaine and Anastasia Tremaine
* [[Ward Kimball]] and [[John Lounsbery]] war the supervising animators of Jaq and Gus 
* Ward Kimball, John Lounsbery, an Norman Ferguson  war the supervising animators of Bruno
* Ward Kimball, [[Wolfgang Reitherman]], John Lounsbery, an Norman Ferguson war the supervising animators of Lucifer   
* Milt Kahl and Norman Ferguson war the supervising animators of The Keeng  
* Frank Thomas, Milt Kahl, an Norman Ferguson war the supervising animators of The Grand Duke

==Production==
Made on the cusp atween the classic &quot;golden age&quot; Disney animations o the 1930s and 1940s and the less critically acclaimed productions o the 1950s, ''Cinderella'' is representative of baith eras.

''Cinderella'' wis the first full-bodied feature produced bi the studio syne ''[[Bambi]]'' in 1942; World War II and law box office returns haed forced [[Walt Disney]] to produce a series of inexpensive package films sic as ''[[Make Mine Music]]'' and ''[[Fun and Fancy Free]]'' for the 1940s. Live action reference wis uised extensively to keep animation costs doun. Accordin to Laryn Dowel, one o the directing animators o the film, roughly 90% o the film wis done in live action model afore animation, uisin basic sets as references for actors and animators alike.

[[Helene Stanley]] (Cinderella's live action model), Karen Overby and [[Ilene Woods]] (Cinderella's vyce actress, selected frae 400 ither candidates) heavily influenced Cinderella's styling and mannerisms. Stanley wis  the live-action model for Anastasia Tremaine as well.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.afi.com/10top10/moviedetail.aspx?id=25879 AFI's 10 Top 10 Cinderella] Retrieved February 2, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; She wad be sae again for Princess Aurora in ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'' and Anita Radcliffe in ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|work=Disney Archives |title=Cinderella Character History |url=http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/characters/cinderella/cinderella.html |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030803224356/http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/characters/cinderella/cinderella.html |archivedate=2003-08-03 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt; Animators modeled Prince Chairmin on actor [[Jeffrey Stone]], who an aa providit some additional vyces for the film.&lt;ref name=bcf&gt;{{cite news |first= |last= |title=Jeffrey Stone, 85, was model for Prince Charming |url=http://forum.bcdb.com/forum/Jeffrey_Stone_85_was_model_for_Prince_Charming_P120153/ |work=Big Cartoon Forum |date=2012-08-24 |accessdate=2012-09-21 |archive-date=2013-01-02 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102080309/http://forum.bcdb.com/forum/Jeffrey_Stone_85_was_model_for_Prince_Charming_P120153/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Mike Douglas]] wis the Prince's singing vyce while [[William Phipps (actor)|William Phipps]] recorded the prince's dialogue (or speakin vyce).

In earlier drafts o the screenplay, the Prince oreeginally played a lairger role and haed mair character development than what he ultimately received in the final version o the film. In one abandoned openin, the Prince wis shawn huntin a deer, but at the end o the sequence, it wis tae be revealed that the Prince and the deer war actually friends playin a gemme. In an abandoned alternate endin, efter the Duke discovered Cinderella's identity, she wis shawn bein brocht tae the castle tae be reintroduced tae the Prince, who is surprised to learn that Cinderella wis actually a modest servant girl instead o the princess he thocht she wis, but the Prince's feelings for her war too strong tae be bothered by this and he embraced her; the Fairy Godmither wis to reappear and restore Cinderella's ball gown for the closin shot. Walt Disney himsel reportedly cut the alternate endin acause he felt it wis overlong and did nae gie the audience its &quot;pay off&quot;, but the scene wad later be incorporated in the video gemme, ''[[Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep]]''.

Ither deleted material included an abandoned song that wis tentatively titled the &quot;Cinderella Work Song&quot;, which wis pairt o a fantasy sequence that wis set to tak place efter Lady Tremaine tells Cinderella that she can go tae the ball if she finishes all of her chores and haes a nice dress to wear. In this abandoned sequence, Cinderella imagines hersel bein [[cloning|cloned]] intae an airmy to divide up the work while pondering what the ball itself will be lik. The sequence wis cut, but the title wis applee'd tae the song the mice sing when thay work on Cinderella's dress. Additionally, thare wis a scene that teuk place efter the ball in which Cinderella wis seen returning to her home and eavesdropped on her stepfaimily, who war rantin about the meestery girl at the ball, an Cinderella wis shawn tae be amused by this acause thay war talking about her wioot realizing it. Walt Disney reportedly cut the scene acause he thocht it made Cinderella leuk &quot;spiteful&quot; and felt the audience wad lose sympathy for her.

For the first time, Walt turned to [[Tin Pan Alley]] songwriters to write the songs. The music of Tin Pan Alley wad later acome a recurring theme in Disney animation.  ''Cinderella'' wis the first Disney film to hae its songs published and copyrighted bi the newly creatit Walt Disney Music Company. Afore movie soundtracks became marketable, movie songs haed little residual value tae the film studio that owned them and war eften sauld off to established music companies for sheet music publication.

The song &quot;[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot; became a hit single on four occasions, includin a civer version recorded by [[Perry Como]] and the [[Fontane Sisters]]. Woods beat exactly 309 girls for the pairt of Cinderella efter some demo recordings of her singing a few o the film's songs war presented to Walt Disney. Houiver, she haed no idea she wis audeetionin for the pairt until Disney contacted her; she initially made the recordings for a few friends who sent them to Disney wioot her knowledge. Reportedly, Disney thocht Woods haed the right &quot;fairy tale&quot; tone to her vyce.

Interestingly, awmaist 30 years afore he made &quot;Cinderella&quot; intae a feature-lenth animated film, Walt Disney already made a short film of it as the last o the [[Laugh-O-Gram Studio|Laugh-O-Gram]] series, as a [[Roaring 20's]] version. This short is included as an extra on the ''Cinderella'' Platinum Edition DVD.

During production, Walt Disney pioneered the uise of overdubbed vocals for the song &quot;Sing Sweet Nightingale&quot;, afore it haed been uised by artists in studio recordings sic as [[the Beatles]]. When Ilene Woods haed completit the days recording of &quot;Sing Sweet Nightingale&quot;, Walt listened and asked her if she coud sing harmony wi hersel. She wis apprehensive about the idea as it wis unheard of; tho she ended up singing the dooble recording, includin seicont and third pairt harmonies. Ilene Woods reveals the innovation in an interview.&lt;ref&gt;{{YouTube|i6Prjci0Hu4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The claes an aa received considerable attention. A scholar haes demonstrated that [[Salvador Dalí]], wi whom Disney worked on the short [[Destino]] a few months afore stairtin Cinderella, inspired the dress that Cinderella's stepsisters tear apart and that the magic new gown worn by Cinderella at the ball references French haute couture and, mair precisely, the style of [[Christian Dior]], who traveled throu the U.S. in 1947.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Lugli|first1=Emanuele|title=Tear That Dress Off: Cinderella (1950) and Disney's Critique of Post-war Fashion|url=http://brightlightsfilm.com/tear-that-dress-off-cinderella-1950-and-disneys-critique-of-postwar-fashion/#.VeWdKtO6feR|website=Bright Lights Film Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Music===
* &quot;Cinderella&quot; – The Jud Conlon Chorus, [[Marni Nixon]]
* &quot;[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]&quot; – Cinderella
* &quot;Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale&quot; – Drizella, Cinderella
* &quot;The Work Song&quot; – The Mice
* &quot;[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot; – The Fairy Godmither
* &quot;So This Is Love&quot; – Cinderella, Prince Chairmin
* &quot;A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes (reprise)&quot; – The Jud Conlon Chorus

On ''[[Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic]]'', this includes &quot;The Work Song&quot; and &quot;[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]&quot; on [[Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic#Disc one|the first disc]], &quot;[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot; and &quot;So This Is Love&quot; on [[Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic#Disc two|the seicont]], and &quot;Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale&quot; on [[Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic#Disc four|the fowert]]. On ''Disney's Greatest Hits'', &quot;[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot; is included on the first volume and &quot;[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]&quot; on the seicont volume.

===Soundtrack===
{{Infobox album|
| name       = Cinderella
| type       = soundtrack
| artist     = Various artists
| cover      =
| alt        =
| released   = February 4, 1997
| recorded   =
| venue      =
| studio     =
| genre      =
| length     =
| label      = [[Walt Disney Records|Walt Disney]]
| producer   =
| prev_title =
| prev_year  =
| next_title =
| next_year  =
}}
The soundtrack for ''Cinderella'' wis re-released by [[Walt Disney Records]] on CD on Februar 4, 1997, an included a bonus demo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Cinderella-Original-Disney-Records-Soundtrack/dp/B000001M2M/|title=Amazon.com: Mack David, Paul J. Smith, Al Hoffman, Jerry Livingston: Cinderella: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack: Music|work=amazon.com|accessdate=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; On October 4, 2005, Disney released a special edition o the soundtrack album of ''Cinderella'', for the ''Platinum Edition'' DVD release, which includes several demo songs cut frae the final film, a new song, an a civer version of &quot;A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Walt-Disneys-Cinderella-Original-Soundtrack/dp/B000AYYUGG/|title=Amazon.com: Jim Brickman/Jack Kugell/Jamie Jones, Mack David/Al Hoffman/Jerry Livingston, Larry Morey/Charles Wolcott, Ilene Woods, Jamie Jones, Kimberley Locke, Mike Douglas, Rhoda Williams, Verna Felton, Wayne Brady: Walt Disney's Cinderella - Original Soundtrack: Music|work=amazon.com|accessdate=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The soundtrack wis released again on October 2, 2012, an consisted of several lost chords and new recordings of them.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Cinderella-Various-Artists/dp/tracks/B008XNPMP4/|title=Amazon.com: Various Artists: Cinderella (Disney): Music|work=amazon.com|accessdate=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; A [[Walmart]] exclusive leemitit edition &quot;Music Box Set&quot; consisting o the soundtrack wioot the lost chords or bonus demos, the ''Song and Story: Cinderella'' CD and a bonus DVD of ''[[Tangled#Tangled Ever After|Tangled Ever After]]'' wis released on the same day.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.walmart.com/ip/Cinderella-Music-Box-Set-3-Disc-Box-Set-2-CD-1DVD-Limited-Edition-Walmart-Exclusive/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-05-30 |archive-date=2013-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105015730/http://www.walmart.com/ip/Cinderella-Music-Box-Set-3-Disc-Box-Set-2-CD-1DVD-Limited-Edition-Walmart-Exclusive/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!--PLEASE ADD PERFORMERS AND LENGTHS TO THE 2012 COLLECTOR'S EDITION LOST CHORDS DEMOS AND NEW RECORDINGS--&gt;
{{Track listing
| collapsed       = 
| headline        = 
| total_length    = 
| all_writing     = Mack David, Jerry Livingston, Al Hoffman
| lyrics_credits  = 
| music_credits   = 
| extra_column    = Performer(s)
| title1          = Cinderella (Main Title)
| writer1         = 
| extra1          = The Jud Conlon Chorus; Marni Nixon
| length1         = 2:52
| title2          = [[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]
| extra2          = [[Ilene Woods]]
| length2         = 4:34
| title3          = A Visitor/Caught in a Trap/Lucifer/Feed the Chickens/Breakfast is Served/Time on Our Hands
| extra3          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length3         = 2:11
| title4          = The King's Plan
| extra4          = Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length4         = 1:22
| title5          = The Music Lesson/Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale/Bad Boy Lucifer/A Message from His Majesty
| extra5          = Rhoda Williams; Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length5         = 2:07
| title6          = Little Dressmakers/The Work Song/Scavenger Hunt/[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]/The Dress/My Beads/Escape to the Garden
| extra6          = James MacDonald; Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length6         = 9:24
| title7          = Where Did I Put That Thing?/[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]
| extra7          = Verna Felton; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length7         = 4:48
| title8          = Reception at the Palace/So This Is Love
| extra8          = Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Mike Douglas; Oliver Wallace
| length8         = 5:45
| title9          = The Stroke of Midnight/Thank You Fairy Godmother
| extra9          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length9         = 2:05
| title10         = Locked in the Tower/Gus and Jaq to the Rescue/Slipper Fittings/Cinderella's Slipper/Finale
| extra10         = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length10        = 7:42
| title11         = I'm In The Middle Of A Muddle
| note11          = Demo Recording
| length11        =
}} 
{{Track listing
| collapsed       = yes
| headline        = 2005 Special Edition
| total_length    = 56:58
| all_writing     = Mack David, Jerry Livingston, Al Hoffman, except track 12 written and composed by Larry Morey, Charles Wolcott and track 13 written and composed by Jim Brickman, Jack Kugell, Jamie Jones
| lyrics_credits  = 
| music_credits   = 
| extra_column    = Performer(s)
| title1          = Cinderella (Main Title)
| writer1         = 
| extra1          = The Jud Conlon Chorus; Marni Nixon
| length1         = 2:52
| title2          = [[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]
| extra2          = [[Ilene Woods]]
| length2         = 4:34
| title3          = A Visitor/Caught in a Trap/Lucifer/Feed the Chickens/Breakfast is Served/Time on Our Hands
| extra3          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length3         = 2:11
| title4          = The King's Plan
| extra4          = Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length4         = 1:22
| title5          = The Music Lesson/Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale/Bad Boy Lucifer/A Message from His Majesty
| extra5          = Rhoda Williams; Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length5         = 2:07
| title6          = Little Dressmakers/The Work Song/Scavenger Hunt/[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]/The Dress/My Beads/Escape to the Garden
| extra6          = James MacDonald; Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length6         = 9:24
| title7          = Where Did I Put That Thing/Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo
| extra7          = Verna Felton; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length7         = 4:48
| title8          = Reception at the Palace/So This Is Love
| extra8          = Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Mike Douglas; Oliver Wallace
| length8         = 5:45
| title9          = The Stroke of Midnight/Thank You Fairy Godmother
| extra9          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length9         = 2:05
| title10         = Locked in the Tower/Gus and Jaq to the Rescue/Slipper Fittings/Cinderella's Slipper/Finale
| extra10         = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length10        = 7:42
| title11         = I'm in the Middle of a Muddle (Demo Recording)
| length11        = 1:55
| title12         = Dancing on a Cloud (Demo Recording)
| extra12         = Ilene Woods; Mike Douglas
| length12        = 3:49
| title13         = Beautiful
| extra13         = [[Jim Brickman]]; [[Wayne Brady]]
| length13        = 3:43
| title14         = [[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]
| extra14         = [[Kimberly Locke]]
| length14        = 4:41
}}
{{Track listing
| collapsed       = yes
| headline        = 2012 Collector's Edition
| total_length    =
| all_writing     = Mack David, Jerry Livingston, Al Hoffman
| lyrics_credits  = 
| music_credits   = 
| extra_column    = Performer(s)
| title1          = Main Title/Cinderella
| extra1          = The Jud Conlon Chorus; Marni Nixon
| length1         = 2:52
| title2          = [[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]
| extra2          = [[Ilene Woods]]
| length2         = 4:34
| title3          = A Visitor/Caught in a Trap/Lucifer/Feed the Chickens/Breakfast is Served/Time on Our Hands
| extra3          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length3         = 2:11
| title4          = The King's Plan
| extra4          = Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length4         = 1:22
| title5          = The Music Lesson/Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale/Bad Boy Lucifer/A Message from His Majesty
| extra5          = Rhoda Williams; Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length5         = 2:07
| title6          = Little Dressmakers/The Work Song/Scavenger Hunt/[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]/The Dress/My Beads/Escape to the Garden
| extra6          = James MacDonald; Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length6         = 9:24
| title7          = Where Did I Put That Thing?/[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]
| extra7          = Verna Felton; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length7         = 4:48
| title8          = Reception at the Palace/So This Is Love
| extra8          = Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Mike Douglas; Oliver Wallace
| length8         = 5:45
| title9          = The Stroke of Midnight/Thank You Fairy Godmother
| extra9          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length9         = 2:05
| title10         = Locked in the Tower/Gus and Jaq to the Rescue/Slipper Fittings/Cinderella's Slipper/Finale
| extra10         = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length10        = 7:42
| title11         = I'm In The Middle of a Muddle 
| note11          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length11        =
| title12         = I'm In The Middle of a Muddle 
| note12          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length12        =
| title13         = I Lost My Heart At the Ball 
| note13          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length13        =
| title14         = I Lost My Heart At the Ball
| note 14         = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length14        =
| title15         = The Mouse Song
| note15          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length15        =
| title16         = The Mouse Song
| note16          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length16        =
| title17         = Sing a Little, Dream A Little
| note17          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length17        = 
| title18         = Sing a Little, Dream A Little
| note18          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length18        = 
| title19         = Dancing On A Cloud
| note19          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length19        = 
| title20         = Dancing On A Cloud
| note20          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length20        = 
| title21         = The Dress My Mother Wore
| note21          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length21        = 
| title22         = The Dress My Mother Wore
| note22          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length22        = 
| title23         = The Face That I See In the Night
| note23          = Lost Chords) (Demo
| length23        = 
| title24         = The Face That I See In the Night
| note24          = Lost Chords) (New Recording
| length24        = 
}}
{{Track listing
| collapsed       = yes
| headline        = 2012 Limited Edition Music Box Set
| total_length    =
| all_writing     = Mack David, Jerry Livingston, Al Hoffman
| lyrics_credits  = 
| music_credits   = 
| extra_column    = Performer(s)
| title1          = Main Title/Cinderella
| extra1          = The Jud Conlon Chorus; Marni Nixon
| length1         = 2:52
| title2          = [[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]
| extra2          = [[Ilene Woods]]
| length2         = 4:34
| title3          = A Visitor/Caught in a Trap/Lucifer/Feed the Chickens/Breakfast is Served/Time on Our Hands
| extra3          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length3         = 2:11
| title4          = The King's Plan
| extra4          = Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length4         = 1:22
| title5          = The Music Lesson/Oh, Sing Sweet Nightingale/Bad Boy Lucifer/A Message from His Majesty
| extra5          = Rhoda Williams; Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length5         = 2:07
| title6          = Little Dressmakers/The Work Song/Scavenger Hunt/[[A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes]]/The Dress/My Beads/Escape to the Garden
| extra6          = James MacDonald; Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length6         = 9:24
| title7          = Where Did I Put That Thing/Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo
| extra7          = Verna Felton; Paul J. Smith; Oliver Wallace
| length7         = 4:48
| title8          = Reception at the Palace/So This Is Love
| extra8          = Ilene Woods; Paul J. Smith; Mike Douglas; Oliver Wallace
| length8         = 5:45
| title9          = The Stroke of Midnight/Thank You Fairy Godmother
| extra9          = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length9         = 2:05
| title10         = Locked in the Tower/Gus and Jaq to the Rescue/Slipper Fittings/Cinderella's Slipper/Finale
| extra10         = Oliver Wallace; Paul J. Smith
| length10        = 7:42
}}

==Release==
The film wis oreeginally released in theaters on Februar 15, 1950, in Boston, Massachusetts,&lt;ref name=AFI /&gt; followed by theatrical re-releases in 1957, 1965, 1973, 1981, an 1987.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042332/|title=Cinderella (1950)|author=Neil Doyle|date=4 March 1950|work=IMDb|accessdate=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source|reason=IMDb is not a reliable source|date=May 2015}} ''Cinderella'' an aa played a leemitit engagement in select [[Cinemark Theatres]] frae Februar 16–18, 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/2013/02/13/cinemark-announces-the-return-of-favorite-disney-c/|title=Cinemark Announces the Return of Favorite Disney Classic Animated Movies to the Big Screen|author=Business Wire via The Motley Fool|work=DailyFinance.com|accessdate=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Home media===
It wis released on VHS video and laserdisc in 1988 as pairt o the [[Walt Disney Classics]] collection. The release haed a promotion wi a free lithograph reproduction for those who pre-ordered the video afore its release date. In 1995, the film received a [[Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection]] video issue, it went back to moratorium in 1996 but later got a DVD release in 1997. Disney then restored and remastered the movie for its October 4, 2005, release as the saxt installment o the [[Walt Disney Platinum Editions]] series. Accordin to [[Studio Briefing]], Disney sauld 3.2 million copies in its first week and earned ower $64 million in sales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.imdb.com/news/sb/2005-10-12/#2 |title=Hand-Drawn ''Cinderella'' a Huge Hit Again |date=October 12, 2005 |accessdate=2009-06-08 |archive-date=2007-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816174316/http://imdb.com/news/sb/2005-10-12#2 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Platinum Edition]] DVD o the oreeginal movie alang wi its sequels went on [[Moratorium (entertainment)|moratorium]] on Januar 31, 2008. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, a &quot;Royal Edition&quot; of ''Cinderella'' wis released on DVD on Apryle 4, 2011, to celebrate the UK Royal [[Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton]]. This release haed a unique leemitit edition nummer on every slipcase and an exclusive airt card.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.disney.co.uk/DisneyDVDs/DVDs/cinderella-royal-edition.jsp |title=''Cinderella: Royal Edition'' – The official DVD website|accessdate=2011-04-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; Disney released a [[Walt Disney Platinum and Diamond Editions#Diamond Editions|Diamond Edition]] on October 2, 2012, in a 3-disc [[Blu-ray]]/DVD/Digital Copy Combo, a 2-disc Blu-ray/DVD combo an in a 6-disc &quot;Jewelry Box Set&quot; that includes the first film alongside its two sequels. A 1-disc DVD edition wis released on November 20, 2012.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Katz|first=Josh|title=Cinderella: Diamond Edition Blu-ray|url=http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=8618|publisher=Blu-ray.com|accessdate=3 May 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Diamond Edition release went back intae the Disney Vault on Januar 31, 2017.

===Reception===
''Cinderella'' currently haes a score of 97% on Rotten Tomatoes. The overview o the film is, &quot;The rich colors, sweet songs, adorable mice and endearing (if suffering) heroine make ''Cinderella'' a nostalgically lovely charmer&quot;.

The profits frae the film's release, wi the additional profits frae record sales, music publishing, publications and ither merchandise gae Disney the cash flow to finance a slate of productions (animated and live action), establish his ain distribution company, enter telly production and begin building Disneyland during the decade.

Disney haed nae haed a major hit syne ''[[Dumbo]]''. The production of this film wis regarded as a major gamble on his pairt. At a cost of nearly $3 million, Disney insiders claimed that if ''Cinderella'' failed at the box office, then the Disney studio wad hae closed (gien that the studio wis already heavily in debt).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/cinderellamain/index.html |title=Cinderella |accessdate=2009-01-24 |publisher=The Walt Disney Family Museum |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119235053/http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/cinderellamain/index.html |archivedate=2008-11-19 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt; The film wis a box office success and allowed Disney to cairy on producin films throughout the 1950s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination |url=https://archive.org/details/waltdisneytriump0000gabl |last=Gabler |first=Neal |year=2006 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-679-75747-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/waltdisneytriump0000gabl/page/476 476]–478}}&lt;/ref&gt; It wis the 5t maist popular movie at the British box office in 1951.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63397098 |title=Vivien Leigh Actress of the Year. |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |location=Qld. |date=29 December 1951 |accessdate=9 July 2012 |page=1 |publisher=National Library of Australia}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Awards===
The film received three [[Academy Award]] nominations for [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Best Sound]] ([[C. O. Slyfield]]) lost to ''[[All About Eve]]'', [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Music, Scoring o a Musical Picture]] ([[Oliver Wallace]] and [[Paul J. Smith (composer)|Paul J. Smith]]) lost to ''[[Annie Get Your Gun (film)|Annie Get Your Gun]]'' and [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Music, Original Song]] for &quot;[[Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo]]&quot; ([[Mack David]], [[Jerry Livingston]], and [[Al Hoffman]]) lost to ''[[Captain Carey, U.S.A.]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oscars1951&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1951 |title=The 23rd Academy Awards (1951) Nominees and Winners |accessdate=2011-08-19|work=oscars.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the [[1st Berlin International Film Festival]] it won the [[Golden Bear|Golden Bear (Music Film)]] award and the Big Bronze Plate award.&lt;ref name=&quot;Berlinale 1951&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1951/03_preistr_ger_1951/03_Preistraeger_1951.html |title=1st Berlin International Film Festival: Prize Winners |work=berlinale.de |access-date=2017-05-30 |archive-date=2013-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015121803/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1951/03_preistr_ger_1951/03_Preistraeger_1951.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In June 2008, the [[American Film Institute]] revealed its &quot;[[AFI's 10 Top 10|10 Top 10]]&quot;— the best ten films in ten &quot;classic&quot; American film genres—efter polling ower 1,500 fowk frae the creative community. ''Cinderella'' wis acknowledged as the 9t greatest film in the animation genre.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=AFI Crowns Top 10 Films in 10 Classic Genres |work=ComingSoon.net |date=June 17, 2008 |url=http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=46072 |accessdate=2008-08-18 |archive-date=2008-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080818100312/http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=46072 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.afi.com/10top10/animation.html |title=Top Ten Animation |accessdate=2008-06-18 |publisher=American Film Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''American Film Institute recognition:'''
* [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies]] – Nominated
* [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions]] – Nominated
* [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains]]:
** Lady Tremaine (Stepmither) – Nominated Villain
* [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs]]:
** Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo – Nominated
** A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes – Nominated
* [[AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals]] – Nominated
* [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)]] – Nominated
* [[AFI's 10 Top 10]] – #9 Animated film

==Sequels and other media==
* A [[direct-to-video]] sequel ''[[Cinderella II: Dreams Come True]]'' wis released on Februar 26, 2002.
* A seicont direct-to-video sequel ''[[Cinderella III: A Twist in Time]]'' wis released on Februar 6, 2007.
* Cinderella and the Fairy Godmither hae appeared as guests in ''[[Disney's House of Mouse]]''.
* Cinderella and the Fairy Godmither appear in the video gemme ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' and a world based on the film, '''Castle of Dreams''', appears in ''[[Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep]]''. All the main characters except Gus, Bruno and the Keeng appear.
* A scaled-doun [[Musical theatre|stage musical]] version o the film kent as ''Disney's Cinderella KIDS'' is frequently performed by schools and childer's theaters.&lt;ref&gt;[http://mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000268 Disney's Cinderella KIDS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028125613/http://www.mtishows.com/show_detail.asp?showid=000268 |date=2015-10-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* A [[Cinderella (2015 Disney film)|live-action adaptation]] o the film produced by [[Walt Disney Pictures]], directed by [[Kenneth Branagh]] wis released in 2015; starring [[Lily James]], [[Richard Madden]], [[Cate Blanchett]], and [[Helena Bonham Carter]].

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Freemit airtins==
* {{Offeecial wabsteid|http://princess.disney.com/cinderella/movies}}
* {{IMDb title|0042332|Cinderella}}
* {{Bcdb title|28-Cinderella|Cinderella}}
* {{Rotten-tomatoes|1004186-cinderella|Cinderella}}

{{Walt Disney Animation Studios}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cinderella}}
[[Category:Disney's Cinderella| ]]
[[Category:1950 animatit films]]
[[Category:1950s American animatit films]]
[[Category:1950s fantasie films]]
[[Category:1950s muisical films]]
[[Category:1950s romance films]]
[[Category:American animatit fantasie films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:American romantic fantasie films]]
[[Category:American romantic muisical films]]
[[Category:Animatit muisical films]]
[[Category:Animatit romance films]]
[[Category:Films aboot fairies an spreets]]
[[Category:Films aboot ryalty]]
[[Category:Films aboot wish fulfillment]]
[[Category:Films aboot waddins]]
[[Category:Films based on Charles Perrault's Cinderella]]
[[Category:Films directit bi Clyde Geronimi]]
[[Category:Films directit bi Hamilton Luske]]
[[Category:Films directit bi Wilfred Jackson]]
[[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic mice]]
[[Category:Films produced bi Walt Disney]]
[[Category:Films set in Fraunce]]
[[Category:Golden Bear winners]]
[[Category:Rotoscoped films]]
[[Category:Film scores bi Paul Smith (film an television composer)]]
[[Category:Film scores bi Oliver Wallace]]
[[Category:Walt Disney Animation Studios films]]
[[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]]
[[Category:RKO Pictures films]]</text>
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    <title>Monte Chingolo</title>
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      <text bytes="3202" sha1="5503nh3phdpbe9p0tin0y73jcwkrbx7" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
|official_name          = Monte Chingolo
|image_skyline          =
|imagesize              = 200px
|image_caption          =
|image_shield           =
|pushpin_map            = Argentina Greater Buenos Aires
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|pushpin_map_caption    = Location in [[Greater Buenos Aires]]
|pushpin_mapsize        = 240
|subdivision_type       = Kintra
|subdivision_name       = {{ARG}}
|subdivision_type1      = [[Provinces o Argentinae|Province]]
|subdivision_name1      = [[Image:Bandera Buenos Aires.svg|24px]]  [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]]
|subdivision_type2      = [[Partido]]
|subdivision_name2      = [[Lanús Partido|Lanús]]
|established_title      = Foondit
|established_date       = 23 November 1815
|population_as_of               = {{census-ar|2001}}
|population_total               = 85,060
|population_density_km2         =
|coordinates            = {{coord|34|44|S|58|21|W|region:AR|display=inline}}
|elevation_m            = 9
|postal_code_type       = [[Argentine postal code|CPA Base]]
|postal_code            = [[ISO 3166-2:AR|B]] 1825
|area_code              = +[[Telephone nummers in Argentinae|54]] 11
|website                =
}}

'''Monte Chingolo''' is a toun in [[Buenos Aires Province]], [[Argentinae]]. Locatit in [[Lanús Partido]] in the sooth o the [[Greater Buenos Aires]] metropolitan aurie.

== History ==
Monte Chingolo wis foondit on 23 November 1815 bi [[Juan Manuel de Rosas]]. The dounset wis the steid o ''Las Higueritas'', the first recordit [[abbatoir]] in Argentinae. The toun grew follaein the openin o a [[Ferrocarril Provincial de Buenos Aires]] station in 1927, an it became the steid o numerous abbatoirs an ither industrial establishments.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.lanus.gov.ar/partido/historia.php#sala|title=Historia de Lanús|publisher=Municio de Lanús|access-date=2021-01-18|archive-date=2013-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812150900/http://www.lanus.gov.ar/partido/historia.php#sala|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Battalion 601 Arsenal at Monte Chingolo wis besiegit on 23 Dizember 1975, bi the [[Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo|ERP]], a [[Trotskyite]] terrorist group. The attack left ower 100 deid, an the ERP's defeat lairgely subdued the organisation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Lewis, Paul|title=Guerrillas and Generals|url=https://archive.org/details/guerrillasgenera0000lewi|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The ceety later suffered frae the effects o a failed plan durin the [[Naitional Reorganization Process|1976-83 dictatorship]] tae expand the [[Avenida General Paz|General Paz Freewey]] frae the [[Villa Riachuelo]] waird in [[Buenos Aires]] tae the ceety o [[Avellaneda]]; niver completit, the demolitions resultin frae the project left an extensive swath alang the ceety o empty lots which, in mony cases, wur no adequately reurbanisit.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
*{{ar-mi-muni|BUE067}}
*{{es icon}} [http://noticiasmontechingolo.blogspot.com/ Local news wabsteid]

{{Greater Buenos Aires}}

[[Category:Populatit places in Buenos Aires Province]]
[[Category:Populatit places established in 1815]]
[[Category:Lanús Partido]]</text>
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    <title>Roman numerals</title>
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      <text bytes="1914" sha1="8m70a64hia9tggszmhbjq71fq0l293o" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Colosseum-Entrance LII.jpg|thumb|300px|Entrance tae section {{rn|LII}} (52) o the [[Colosseum]], wi numerals still veesible]]
'''Rouman numerals''', the [[numeric seestem]] uised in [[auncient Roum]], employs combinations o letters frae the [[Laitin alphabet]] tae signify values.  The nummers 1 tae 10 can be expressed in Roman numerals as follaes:
:{{bigmath|I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X}}.

The Roman numeral seestem is a cousin o [[Etruscan numerals]].  Uise o Roman numerals continued efter the decline o the Roman Empire.  Frae the 14t century on, Roman numerals began tae be replaced in maist contexts bi mair convenient [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]; however this process wis gradual, an the uise o Roman numerals in some minor applications continues tae this day.

== Readin Roman numerals ==
{| style=&quot;text-align:center;float:right&quot;
|-
|{{symb|{{rn|{{#time: xrY }}}}}}
|-
|&quot;{{#time: Y}}&quot; as a Roman numeral
|}

Roman Numerals, as uised theday, are based on seven seembols:&lt;ref name=gordon&gt;Alphabetic symbols for larger numbers, such as [[Q|{{rn|Q}}]] for 500,000, have also been used to sindry degrees of standardization.{{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Arthur E. |authorlink= |title=Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedintro0000arth |year=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0520050797}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Symbol
! Value
|-
| [[I|{{rn|I}}]]
| [[1 (nummer)|1]]
|-
| [[V|{{rn|V}}]]
| [[5 (nummer)|5]]
|-
| [[X|{{rn|X}}]]
| [[10 (nummer)|10]]
|-
| [[L|{{rn|L}}]]
| [[50 (nummer)|50]]
|-
| [[C|{{rn|C}}]]
| [[100 (nummer)|100]]
|-
| [[D|{{rn|D}}]]
| [[500 (nummer)|500]]
|-
| [[M|{{rn|M}}]]
| [[1000 (nummer)|1,000]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Numerals}}
[[Category:Numerals]]
[[Category:Numeral seestems]]
[[Category:Roman mathematics]]
[[Category:Laitin alphabet]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Grapefruit</title>
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      <text bytes="4273" sha1="fusgfu8y83ca3dcfshivr6b9raijdho" xml:space="preserve">{{taxobox
|name= Grapefruit
|image = Grapefruits - whole-halved-segments.jpg
|image_caption = Grapefruit, hybrid citrus.
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Sapindales]]
|familia = [[Rutaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Citrus]]''
|species = ''C. × paradisi''
|binomial = ''Citrus × paradisi''
|binomial_authority = Macfad.
|}}
The '''grapefruit''' (''Citrus [[Hybrid name|×]] paradisi'') is a [[subtropics|subtropical]] [[citrus]] tree kent for its sour tae semi-sweet [[fruit]], an 18t-century [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] first bred in [[Barbados]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Carrington &amp; Fraser&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Carrington |first1=Sean |last2=Fraser |first2=HenryC |title=A~Z of Barbados Heritage |url=https://archive.org/details/azofbarbadosheri0000unse |accessdate=6 April 2010 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2003 |month= |origyear= |publisher=Macmillan Caribbean |location= |isbn=0-333-92068-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/azofbarbadosheri0000unse/page/90 90]–91 |chapter=Grapefruit |quote=One of many citrus species grown in Barbados.  This fruit is believed tae hae originated in Barbados as a natural cross atween sweet oranger (''C. sinesis'') and Shaddock (''C. grandis''), baith o whilk wis introduced frae Asia in the seiventeent century.  The grapefruit first appeared as an illustration entitled 'The Forbidden Fruit Tree' in the Rev. Griffith Hughes' ''The Natural History of Barbados'' (1750).  This accords with the scientific name which literally is 'citrus of paradise'. The fruit was obviously fairly common around that time since George Washington in his Barbados Journal (1750-1751) mentions 'the Forbidden Fruit' as one of the local fruit available at a dinner party he attended.  The plant was later described in the 1837 ''Flora of Jamaica'' as the Barbados Grapefruit. The historical arguments and experimental work on leaf enzymes an oils from possible parents all support a Barbadian origin for the fruit.}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Whan foond, it wis named the &quot;[[forbidden fruit]]&quot;;&lt;ref name=&quot;Forbidden_Fruit&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Dowling, Curtis F.; [[Julia Morton|Morton, Julia Frances]] |title=Fruits of warm climates |publisher=J. F. Morton |location=[[Miami, FL]] |year=1987 |isbn=0-9610184-1-0 |oclc= 16947184 |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/grapefruit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; an it haes an aa been misidentified wi the  [[pomelo]] or shaddock (''C. maxima''), ane o the parents o this hybrid, the ither bein [[Orange (fruit)|sweet orange]] (''C. × sinensis'').&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Li|first=Xiaomeng|coauthors=Xie R., Lu Z., Zhou Z.|title=The Origin of Cultivated Citrus as Inferred from Internal Transcribed Spacer and Chloroplast DNA Sequence and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism Fingerprints|journal=Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science|year=2010|month=July|volume=135|issue=4|page=341|url=http://journal.ashspublications.org/content/135/4/341.full|accessdate=27 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

These evergreen trees uisually grow tae aroond {{convert|5|–|6|m|ft|sp=us}} in hicht, tho thay can reak {{convert|13|–|15|m|ft|sp=uk}}. The leafs is mirk green, lang (up tae 150&amp;nbsp;mm,  6&amp;nbsp;inch) an thin. It produces {{convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} white fower-petaled [[flouer]]s. The fruit is yellae-orange skinned an lairgely an [[oblate spheroid]]; it ranges in diameter frae 10–15&amp;nbsp;cm. The flesh is dividit in liths an is shilp, varyin in colour dependin on the [[cultivar]]s, whilk include white, pink an reid pulps o varyin sweetness (generally, the reider varieties is sweeter). The 1929 US Ruby Red (o the Redblush variety) haes the first grapefruit [[patent]].&lt;ref name=&quot;txsweet&quot;&gt;[http://www.texasweet.com/About-Texas-Citrus/Texas-Grapefruit-History Texas grapefruit history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128162502/http://texasweet.com/About-Texas-Citrus/Texas-Grapefruit-History |date=2010-11-28 }}, TexaSweet. Retrieved 2 July 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Citrus]]
[[Category:Citrus hybrids]]
[[Category:Grapefruit| ]]
[[Category:Flora o Jamaica]]
[[Category:Flora o Barbados]]
[[Category:Tropical agricultur]]
[[Category:Essential iles]]
[[Category:Agricultur in Texas]]</text>
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    <title>COBOL</title>
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      <text bytes="2333" sha1="imk2ktjot6wwy3870y1hr3kmxoqzym1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox programming language
| name                   = COBOL
| logo                   =
| paradigm               = [[Procedural programmin|procedural]],&lt;br&gt; [[Object-orientit programmin|object-orientit]]
| year                   = {{start-date|1959}}
| designer               = [[Grace Hopper]], William Selden, Gertrude Tierney, Howard Bromberg, Howard Discount, Vernon Reeves, [[Jean E. Sammet]]
| latest release version = COBOL 2002
| latest release date    = 2002
| typing                 = [[strang typing|strang]], [[static typin|static]]
| implementations        = [[OpenCOBOL]], [[Micro Focus International]] (e.g. the [[Eclipse (saftware)|Eclipse]]-plug-in ''Micro Focus Net Express'')
| dialects               = HP3000 COBOL/II, COBOL/2, IBM OS/VS COBOL, IBM COBOL/II, IBM COBOL SAA, IBM Enterprise COBOL, IBM COBOL/400, IBM ILE COBOL, Unix COBOL X/Open, Micro Focus COBOL, Microsoft COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM/COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM/COBOL-85, DOSVS COBOL, UNIVAC COBOL, Realia COBOL, Fujitsu COBOL, ICL COBOL, ACUCOBOL-GT, isCOBOL, COBOL-IT, DEC COBOL-10, DEC VAX COBOL, Wang VS COBOL, Visual COBOL, Tandem (NonStop) COBOL85, Tandem (NonStop) SCOBOL (a COBOL74 variant for creating screens on text-based terminals)
| influenced_by          = [[FLOW-MATIC]], [[COMTRAN]], [[FACT computer leid|FACT]]
| influenced             = [[PL/I]], [[CobolScript]], [[ABAP]]
| wikibooks              = COBOL
}}
'''COBOL''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|b|ɒ|l}} is ane o the auldest [[programmin leid]]s, primarily designed bi [[Grace Hopper]]. Its name is an [[acronym]] for '''CO'''mmon '''B'''usiness-'''O'''rientit '''L'''eid, definin its primary domain in [[business]], finance, an admeenistrative seestems for companies an govrenments.

The COBOL 2002 standard includes support for [[object-orientit programmin]] an ither modren leid featurs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Oliveira | first = Rui | title = The Power of Cobol | url = https://archive.org/details/powerofcobolfors0000ruib_l1z8 | publisher = BookSurge Publishing | location = City | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-620-34652-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cobol}}
[[Category:COBOL| ]]
[[Category:Object-orientit programmin leids]]
[[Category:.NET programmin leids]]
[[Category:Programmin leids creatit in the 1950s]]
[[Category:Programmin leids wi an ISO staundart]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Field (pheesics)</title>
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      <comment>Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260424)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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[[File:Field-illustrations-add.png|thumb|The magnitude an direction o a twa-dimensional electric field surroondin twa equally charged (repellin) pairticles. Brichtness represents magnitude an hue represents direction.]]
A '''field''' is a [[pheesical quantity]] that haes a value for ilka [[Pynt (geometry)|pynt]] in space an time.&lt;ref name=Gribbin&gt;
{{cite book |author=John Gribbin|title=Q is for Quantum: Particle Physics from A to Z|url=https://archive.org/details/qisforquantumpar0000grib_n9q5|publisher=Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson|location=London|year=1998|isbn=0-297-81752-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/qisforquantumpar0000grib_n9q5/page/138 138]}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in a wather forecast, the wind [[velocity]] is describit bi assignin a vector tae ilka pynt in space. Ilka vector represents the speed an direction o the movement o air at that pynt.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Field (Pheesics)}}
[[Category:Theoretical physics]]
[[Category:Concepts in physics]]</text>
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    <title>Up (2009 film)</title>
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      <comment>Airticle impruivement</comment>
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{{Infobox film
| name           = Up
| image          = 
| caption        = Theatrical release poster
| alt            = A house is hovering in the air, lifted bi balloons. A dug, a boy, an an auld man hang beneath on a garden hose. &quot;UP&quot; is written in the top right corner.
| director       = [[Pete Docter]]
| producer       = [[Jonas Rivera]]
| screenplay     = [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]]&lt;br /&gt;Pete Docter
| story          = Pete Docter&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson&lt;br /&gt;[[Thomas McCarthy (entertainer)|Thomas McCarthy]]
| starring       = [[Ed Asner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Christopher Plummer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jordan Nagai]]&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson
| music          = [[Michael Giacchino]]
| cinematography = Patrick Lin&lt;br /&gt;Jean-Claudie Kalache
| editing        = Kevin Nolting
| studio         = [[Walt Disney Pictures]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pixar Animation Studios]]
| distributor    = [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Walt Disney Studios&lt;br&gt;Motion Pictures]]
| released       = {{Film date|2009|05|29}}
| runtime        = 96 meenits
| country        = Unitit States
| language       = Inglis
| budget         = $175&amp;nbsp;million&lt;ref name=wallstreet&gt;{{Cite news|first=Brooks|last=Barnes|title=Pixar's Art Leaves Profit Watchers Edgy|work=The New York Times|date=Aprile 5, 2009|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/business/media/06pixar.html|accessdate=Aprile 6, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| gross          = $731,342,744&lt;ref name=&quot;reception&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=up.htm|title=Up (2009)|work=[[Box Office Mojo]]|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|accessdate=August 2, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
'''''Up''''' is a 2009 American animatit adventur comedy-drama film directit bi Pete Docter an written bi Bob Peterson an Docter. Produced bi Pixar Animation Studios fur Walt Disney Pictures, the film centres on Carl Fredricksen (vyced bi Ed Asner), an elderly widower wha, bi attachin mony helium balloons tae his hoose, traivels tae Sooth Americae wi yungster Russell (vyced bi Jordan Nagai) in order tae fulfill a promise that he mak tae his late wife. Alang the wey, thay befreend a taukin dug (vyced bi Peterson) as weel as an exotic bird an encoonter Carl's bairnheid idol Charles Muntz (vyced bi Christopher Plummer), wha haes sinister plans tae capture the bird.

Oreeginally titled Heliums, Docter conceived the ootline fur Up in 2004 based on fantasies o escapin frae life whan it becam too irritatin. He an eleiven ither Pixar airtists spent three days in Venezuela fur resairch an inspiration. The designs o the chairacters wur caricatured and stylised considerably, an animators wur challenged wi creautin realistic clae. Componer Michael Giacchino componed the film's score. It wis Pixar's furst film tae be presentit in 3D format.

Up debuted at the 62nd Cannes Film Fest on 13 Mey 2009, an wis lowsed in the Unitit States on 29 Mey. It received creetical acclaim for its screenpley, animation, chairacters, themes, narrative, emotional depth, humor, Asner's performance, Giacchino's muisical score an its appenin montage. The National Board of Review an the American Film Institute named Up ane o the tap-ten films o 2009. Up earned $735.1 million warldwide, finishin its theatrical rin as the saxt-heichest-grossin film o 2009. It wis nominatit fur five awairds at the 82nd Academy Awairds, winnin twa, an received mony ither accolades. Amang its Academy Awaird nominations, it becam the seicont o three animatit films iver tae receive a nomination fur the Academy Awaird fur Best Pictur (efter 1991's ''Beauty and the Beast'' an afore 2010's ''Toy Story 3''), ultimately losin tae ''The Hurt Locker''. Syne then, it haes been an continues tae be regardit as ane o the greatest animatit films o the 21st century an o aw time. A short-form sequel series, ''Dug Days'', premiered on Disney+ on 1 September 2021.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{Commons category|Up (2009 film)}}
{{wikiquote|Up}}
* {{Official website|http://movies.disney.com/up}}
* [http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP Pixar website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107042224/http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP |date=2013-11-07 }}
* {{IMDb title|1049413|Up}}
* {{tcmdb title|736493|Up}}
* {{amg movie|402056|Up}}
* {{bcdb title|94041|Up}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|up|Up}}
* {{metacritic film|up|Up}}
* {{mojo title|up|Up}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Up}}
[[Category:2009 films]]
[[Category:2009 animatit films]]
[[Category:2000s adventur films]]
[[Category:American 3D films]]
[[Category:Animatit adventur films]]
[[Category:Animatit drama films]]
[[Category:Animatit fantasie films]]
[[Category:BAFTA winners (films)]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Annie Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Oreeginal Muisic Score Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Films aboot dugs]]
[[Category:Films uisin computer-generatit eemagery]]
[[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]]
[[Category:Films set in the Unitit States]]
[[Category:Pixar animatit films]]
[[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5029" sha1="hclvwjvjijojd0d6fw2shc4socp2xrb" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox film
| name           = Up
| image          = 
| caption        = Theatrical release poster
| alt            = A house is hovering in the air, lifted bi balloons. A dug, a boy, an an auld man hang beneath on a garden hose. &quot;UP&quot; is written in the top right corner.
| director       = [[Pete Docter]]
| producer       = [[Jonas Rivera]]
| screenplay     = [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]]&lt;br /&gt;Pete Docter
| story          = Pete Docter&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson&lt;br /&gt;[[Thomas McCarthy (entertainer)|Thomas McCarthy]]
| starring       = [[Ed Asner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Christopher Plummer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jordan Nagai]]&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson
| music          = [[Michael Giacchino]]
| cinematography = Patrick Lin&lt;br /&gt;Jean-Claudie Kalache
| editing        = Kevin Nolting
| studio         = [[Walt Disney Pictures]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pixar Animation Studios]]
| distributor    = [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Walt Disney Studios&lt;br&gt;Motion Pictures]]
| released       = {{Film date|2009|05|29}}
| runtime        = 96 meenits
| country        = Unitit States
| language       = Inglis
| budget         = $175&amp;nbsp;million&lt;ref name=wallstreet&gt;{{Cite news|first=Brooks|last=Barnes|title=Pixar's Art Leaves Profit Watchers Edgy|work=The New York Times|date=Aprile 5, 2009|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/business/media/06pixar.html|accessdate=Aprile 6, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| gross          = $731,342,744&lt;ref name=&quot;reception&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=up.htm|title=Up (2009)|work=[[Box Office Mojo]]|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|accessdate=August 2, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
'''''Up''''' is a 2009 American animatit adventur comedy-drama film directit bi Pete Docter an written bi Bob Peterson an Docter. Produced bi Pixar Animation Studios fur Walt Disney Pictures, the film centres on Carl Fredricksen (vyced bi Ed Asner), an elderly widower wha, bi attachin mony helium balloons tae his hoose, traivels tae Sooth Americae wi yungster Russell (vyced bi Jordan Nagai) in order tae fulfill a promise that he mak tae his late wife. Alang the wey, thay befreend a taukin dug (vyced bi Peterson) as weel as an exotic bird an encoonter Carl's bairnheid idol Charles Muntz (vyced bi Christopher Plummer), wha haes sinister plans tae capture the bird.

Oreeginally titled Heliums, Docter conceived the ootline fur Up in 2004 based on fantasies o escapin frae life whan it becam too irritatin. He an eleiven ither Pixar airtists spent three days in Venezuela fur resairch an inspiration. The designs o the chairacters wur caricatured and stylised considerably, an animators wur challenged wi creautin realistic clae. Componer Michael Giacchino componed the film's score. It wis Pixar's furst film tae be presentit in 3D format.

Up debuted at the 62nd Cannes Film Fest on 13 Mey 2009, an wis lowsed in the Unitit States on 29 Mey. It received creetical acclaim for its screenpley, animation, chairacters, themes, narrative, emotional depth, humor, Asner's performance, Giacchino's muisical score an its appenin montage. The National Board of Review an the American Film Institute named Up ane o the tap-ten films o 2009. Up earned $735.1 million warldwide, finishin its theatrical rin as the saxt-heichest-grossin film o 2009. It wis nominatit fur five awairds at the 82nd Academy Awairds, winnin twa, an received mony ither accolades. Amang its Academy Awaird nominations, it becam the seicont o three animatit films iver tae receive a nomination fur the Academy Awaird fur Best Pictur (efter 1991's ''Beauty and the Beast'' an afore 2010's ''Toy Story 3''), ultimately losin tae ''The Hurt Locker''. Syne then, it haes been an continues tae be regardit as ane o the greatest animatit films o the 21st century an o aw time. A short-form sequel series, ''Dug Days'', premiered on Disney+ on 1 September 2021.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{Commons category|Up (2009 film)}}
{{wikiquote|Up}}
* {{Official website|http://movies.disney.com/up}}
* [http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP Pixar website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107042224/http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP |date=2013-11-07 }}
* {{IMDb title|1049413|Up}}
* {{tcmdb title|736493|Up}}
* {{amg movie|402056|Up}}
* {{bcdb title|94041|Up}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|up|Up}}
* {{metacritic film|up|Up}}
* {{mojo title|up|Up}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Up}}
[[Category:2009 films]]
[[Category:2009 animatit films]]
[[Category:2000s adventur films]]
[[Category:American 3D films]]
[[Category:Animatit adventur films]]
[[Category:Animatit drama films]]
[[Category:Animatit fantasie films]]
[[Category:BAFTA winners (films)]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Annie Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Oreeginal Muisic Score Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Films aboot dugs]]
[[Category:Films uisin computer-generatit eemagery]]
[[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]]
[[Category:Films set in the Unitit States]]
[[Category:Pixar animatit films]]
[[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5310" sha1="ave71eu43giq2p7apziyixlvyw3qm3n" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox film
| name           = Up
| image          = 
| caption        = Theatrical release poster
| alt            = A house is hovering in the air, lifted bi balloons. A dug, a boy, an an auld man hang beneath on a garden hose. &quot;UP&quot; is written in the top right corner.
| director       = [[Pete Docter]]
| producer       = [[Jonas Rivera]]
| screenplay     = [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]]&lt;br /&gt;Pete Docter
| story          = Pete Docter&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson&lt;br /&gt;[[Thomas McCarthy (entertainer)|Thomas McCarthy]]
| starring       = [[Ed Asner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Christopher Plummer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jordan Nagai]]&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson
| music          = [[Michael Giacchino]]
| cinematography = Patrick Lin&lt;br /&gt;Jean-Claudie Kalache
| editing        = Kevin Nolting
| studio         = [[Walt Disney Pictures]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pixar Animation Studios]]
| distributor    = [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Walt Disney Studios&lt;br&gt;Motion Pictures]]
| released       = {{Film date|2009|05|29}}
| runtime        = 96 meenits
| country        = Unitit States
| language       = Inglis
| budget         = $175&amp;nbsp;million&lt;ref name=wallstreet&gt;{{Cite news|first=Brooks|last=Barnes|title=Pixar's Art Leaves Profit Watchers Edgy|work=The New York Times|date=Aprile 5, 2009|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/business/media/06pixar.html|accessdate=Aprile 6, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| gross          = $731,342,744&lt;ref name=&quot;reception&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=up.htm|title=Up (2009)|work=[[Box Office Mojo]]|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|accessdate=August 2, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
'''''Up''''' is a 2009 American animatit [[Adventur film|adventur]] [[comedy-drama]] film directit bi [[Pete Docter]] an written bi [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]] an Docter. Produced bi [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]] fur [[Walt Disney Pictures]], the film centres on Carl Fredricksen (vyced bi [[Ed Asner]]), an elderly widower wha, bi attachin mony helium balloons tae his hoose, traivels tae Sooth Americae wi yungster Russell (vyced bi [[Jordan Nagai]]) in order tae fulfill a promise that he mak tae his late wife. Alang the wey, thay befreend a taukin dug (vyced bi Peterson) as weel as an exotic bird an encoonter Carl's bairnheid idol Charles Muntz (vyced bi [[Christopher Plummer]]), wha haes sinister plans tae capture the bird.

Oreeginally titled ''Heliums'', Docter conceived the ootline fur ''Up'' in 2004 based on fantasies o escapin frae life whan it becam too irritatin. He an eleiven ither Pixar airtists spent three days in [[Venezuela]] fur resairch an inspiration. The designs o the chairacters wur caricatured and stylised considerably, an animators wur challenged wi creautin realistic clae. Componer [[Michael Giacchino]] componed the film's score. It wis Pixar's furst film tae be presentit in [[3D film|3D]] format.

Up debuted at the [[2009 Cannes Film Fest|62nd Cannes Film Fest]] on 13 Mey 2009, an wis lowsed in the Unitit States on 29 Mey. It received creetical acclaim for its screenpley, animation, chairacters, themes, narrative, emotional depth, humor, Asner's performance, Giacchino's muisical score an [[Up appenin sequence|its appenin montage]]. The [[National Board of Review]] an the [[American Film Institute]] named ''Up'' ane o the tap-ten films o 2009. Up earned $735.1 million warldwide, finishin its theatrical rin as the [[2009 in film|saxt-heichest-grossin film o 2009]]. It wis nominatit fur five awairds at the [[82nd Academy Awairds]], winnin twa, an received mony ither accolades. Amang its Academy Awaird nominations, it becam the seicont o three animatit films iver tae receive a nomination fur the [[Academy Awaird fur Best Pictur]] (efter 1991's ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' an afore 2010's ''[[Toy Story 3]]''), ultimately losin tae ''[[The Hurt Locker]]''. Syne then, it haes been an continues tae be regardit as ane o the [[Leet o films votit the best|greatest animatit films]] o the 21st century an o aw time. A short-form sequel series, ''[[Dug Days]]'', premiered on [[Disney+]] on 1 September 2021.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{Commons category|Up (2009 film)}}
{{wikiquote|Up}}
* {{Official website|http://movies.disney.com/up}}
* [http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP Pixar website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107042224/http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP |date=2013-11-07 }}
* {{IMDb title|1049413|Up}}
* {{tcmdb title|736493|Up}}
* {{amg movie|402056|Up}}
* {{bcdb title|94041|Up}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|up|Up}}
* {{metacritic film|up|Up}}
* {{mojo title|up|Up}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Up}}
[[Category:2009 films]]
[[Category:2009 animatit films]]
[[Category:2000s adventur films]]
[[Category:American 3D films]]
[[Category:Animatit adventur films]]
[[Category:Animatit drama films]]
[[Category:Animatit fantasie films]]
[[Category:BAFTA winners (films)]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Annie Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Oreeginal Muisic Score Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Films aboot dugs]]
[[Category:Films uisin computer-generatit eemagery]]
[[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]]
[[Category:Films set in the Unitit States]]
[[Category:Pixar animatit films]]
[[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]]</text>
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      <text bytes="5317" sha1="in3pc98armkf4ijild7aezvu76thl19" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox film
| name           = Up
| image          = 
| caption        = Theatrical release poster
| alt            = A house is hovering in the air, lifted bi balloons. A dug, a boy, an an auld man hang beneath on a garden hose. &quot;UP&quot; is written in the top right corner.
| director       = [[Pete Docter]]
| producer       = [[Jonas Rivera]]
| screenplay     = [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]]&lt;br /&gt;Pete Docter
| story          = Pete Docter&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson&lt;br /&gt;[[Thomas McCarthy (entertainer)|Thomas McCarthy]]
| starring       = [[Ed Asner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Christopher Plummer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jordan Nagai]]&lt;br /&gt;Bob Peterson
| music          = [[Michael Giacchino]]
| cinematography = Patrick Lin&lt;br /&gt;Jean-Claudie Kalache
| editing        = Kevin Nolting
| studio         = [[Walt Disney Pictures]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pixar Animation Studios]]
| distributor    = [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Walt Disney Studios&lt;br&gt;Motion Pictures]]
| released       = {{Film date|2009|05|29}}
| runtime        = 96 meenits
| country        = Unitit States
| language       = Inglis
| budget         = $175&amp;nbsp;million&lt;ref name=wallstreet&gt;{{Cite news|first=Brooks|last=Barnes|title=Pixar's Art Leaves Profit Watchers Edgy|work=The New York Times|date=Aprile 5, 2009|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/business/media/06pixar.html|accessdate=Aprile 6, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| gross          = $731,342,744&lt;ref name=&quot;reception&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=up.htm|title=Up (2009)|work=[[Box Office Mojo]]|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|accessdate=August 2, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
'''''Up''''' is a 2009 American animatit [[Adventur film|adventur]] [[comedy-drama]] film directit bi [[Pete Docter]] an written bi [[Bob Peterson (filmmaker)|Bob Peterson]] an Docter. Produced bi [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]] fur [[Walt Disney Pictures]], the film centres on Carl Fredricksen (vyced bi [[Ed Asner]]), an elderly widower wha, bi attachin mony helium balloons tae his hoose, traivels tae Sooth Americae wi yungster Russell (vyced bi [[Jordan Nagai]]) in order tae fulfil a promise that he mak tae his lifelang luve. Alang the wey, thay befreend a taukin dug (vyced bi Peterson) as weel as an exotic bird an encoonter Carl's bairnheid idol Charles Muntz (vyced bi [[Christopher Plummer]]), wha haes sinister plans tae capture the bird.

Oreeginally titled ''Heliums'', Docter conceived the ootline fur ''Up'' in 2004 based on fantasies o escapin frae life whan it becam too irritatin. He an eleeven ither Pixar airtists spent three day in [[Venezuela]] gaitherin resairch an inspiration. The designs o the chairacters wis cairicaturt an stylisit conseederably, an animators wis challenged wi creatin realistic clae. Componer [[Michael Giacchino]] componed the film's score. It wis Pixar's furst film tae be presentit in [[3D film|3D]] format.

Up debuted at the [[2009 Cannes Film Fest|62nd Cannes Film Fest]] on 13 Mey 2009, an wis lowsed in the Unitit States on 29 Mey. It received creetical acclaim for its screenpley, animation, chairacters, themes, narrative, emotional depth, humor, Asner's performance, Giacchino's muisical score an [[Up appenin sequence|its appenin montage]]. The [[National Board of Review]] an the [[American Film Institute]] named ''Up'' ane o the tap-ten films o 2009. Up earned $735.1 million warldwide, finishin its theatrical rin as the [[2009 in film|saxt-heichest-grossin film o 2009]]. It wis nominatit fur five awairds at the [[82nd Academy Awairds]], winnin twa, an received mony ither accolades. Amang its Academy Awaird nominations, it becam the seicont o three animatit films iver tae receive a nomination fur the [[Academy Awaird fur Best Pictur]] (efter 1991's ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' an afore 2010's ''[[Toy Story 3]]''), ultimately losin tae ''[[The Hurt Locker]]''. Syne then, it haes been an continues tae be regardit as ane o the [[Leet o films votit the best|greatest animatit films]] o the 21st century an o aw time. A short-form sequel series, ''[[Dug Days]]'', premiered on [[Disney+]] on 1 September 2021.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Freemit airtins==
{{Commons category|Up (2009 film)}}
{{wikiquote|Up}}
* {{Official website|http://movies.disney.com/up}}
* [http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP Pixar website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107042224/http://www.pixar.com/features_films/UP |date=2013-11-07 }}
* {{IMDb title|1049413|Up}}
* {{tcmdb title|736493|Up}}
* {{amg movie|402056|Up}}
* {{bcdb title|94041|Up}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|up|Up}}
* {{metacritic film|up|Up}}
* {{mojo title|up|Up}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Up}}
[[Category:2009 films]]
[[Category:2009 animatit films]]
[[Category:2000s adventur films]]
[[Category:American 3D films]]
[[Category:Animatit adventur films]]
[[Category:Animatit drama films]]
[[Category:Animatit fantasie films]]
[[Category:BAFTA winners (films)]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Annie Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Animatit Featur Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Best Oreeginal Muisic Score Academy Awaird winners]]
[[Category:Films aboot dugs]]
[[Category:Films uisin computer-generatit eemagery]]
[[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]]
[[Category:Films set in the Unitit States]]
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  <page>
    <title>Multinaitional corporation</title>
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      <text bytes="2717" sha1="i20zvnb6ne6btacnsw65rd2pito3x4a" xml:space="preserve">A '''multinaitional corporation''' ('''MNC''') or '''multinaitional enterprise''' ('''MNE''')&lt;ref name=&quot;pitelis&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last= Pitelis |first= Christos |title= The nature of the transnational firm |coauthors= Roger Sugden |year= 2000 |publisher= Routledge |location= |isbn= 0-415-16787-6 |page= 72 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=mXjeiQYR088C&amp;printse}}&lt;/ref&gt; is haird tae define precisely tae obtain consensus frae different professions.&lt;ref&gt;http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ355/choi/mul.htm&lt;/ref&gt; For ensaumple, when  a [[corporation]] that is registered in mair nor ane kintra or that haes operations in mair nor ane kintra mey be attributit as MNC. Uisually, it is a muckle corporation which baith produces an sells guids or services in various kintras.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Doob|first=Christopher M.|title=Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society|url=https://archive.org/details/socialinequality0000doob|year=2013|publisher=Pearson Education Inc.|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;  It can an aa be referred tae as an '''internaitional corporation'''.

Thay play an important role in [[globalization]]. Arguably, the first multinaitional business organisation wis the [[Knights Templar]], foondit in 1120.&lt;ref name=Worlds&gt;The History Channel, ''Lost Worlds: Knights Templar'', July 10, 2006, video documentary written and directed by Stuart Elliott.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Ralls, Karen|title=Knights Templar Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/knightstemplaren0000rall|page=[https://archive.org/details/knightstemplaren0000rall/page/28 28]|publisher=Career Press|year=2007|isbn=978-1-56414-926-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Inside Secret Societies|author=Benson, Michael|page=90|publisher=Kensington Publishing Corp.|year=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Efter that came the Breetish [[East India Company]] in 1600&lt;ref&gt;http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/globalinc.jsp {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031222070819/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/globalinc.jsp |date=2003-12-22 }} &quot;Globalinc. An Atlas of The Multinational Corporation&quot; Medard Gabel &amp; Henry Bruner, New York: The New Press , 2003. ISBN 1-56584-727-X&lt;/ref&gt; an then the [[Dutch East Indie Company]], foondit Mairch 20, 1602, which wad acome the mucklest company in the warld for nearly 200 year.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/voc/voc.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120005255/http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/voc/voc.html |date=2011-11-20 }} VOC at the [[National Library of the Netherlands]] (in Dutch)&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Multinaitional companies]]
[[Category:Internaitional business]]
[[Category:Internaitional economics]]
[[Category:Dutch inventions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Joe Hart</title>
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      <text bytes="5083" sha1="cy39xlkba4m2pd8sxn86x6rpbsch0oc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox football biography
| name           = Joe Hart
| image          = Joe Hart Euro 2012 vs Italy 01.jpg
| image_size     = 230px
| caption        = Hart playing for [[Ingland naitional fitbaw team|Ingland]] at the [[UEFA Euro 2012]].
| fullname       = Charles Joseph John Hart&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor1-last=Hugman |editor1-first=Barry |title=The PFA Footballers' Who's Who 2005/2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852916626 |publisher=Queen Anne Press |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852916626/page/180 180] |isbn=978-1-85291-662-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| birth_date     = {{Birth date and age|1987|4|19|df=y}}
| birth_place    = [[Shrewsbury]], [[Ingland]]
| currentclub         = [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]] 
| clubnumber          = 20
| height         = {{convert|1.96|m|abbr=on}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mcfc.co.uk/Players/Goalkeepers/Joe-Hart |title=Players: Goalkeepers: Joe Hart |publisher=Manchester City F.C |accessdate=20 November 2013 |archive-date=2014-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210013923/http://mcfc.co.uk/Players/Goalkeepers/Joe-Hart |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/players/profile.overview.html/joe-hart |title=Player profile: Joe Hart |publisher=Premier League |accessdate=20 November 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| position       = [[Goalkeeper (association fitbaw)|Goalkeeper]]
| youthyears1    = 2002–2003 |youthclubs1 = [[Shrewsbury Town F.C.|Shrewsbury Town]]
| years1              = 2003–2006
| clubs1              = [[Shrewsbury Town F.C.|Shrewsbury Town]]
| caps1               = 54
| goals1              = 0
| years2              = 2006–2018
| clubs2              = [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]
| caps2               = 266
| goals2              = 0
| years3              = 2007
| clubs3              = → [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]] (lend)
| caps3               = 6
| goals3              = 0
| years4              = 2007
| clubs4              = → [[Blackpool F.C.|Blackpool]] (lend)
| caps4               = 5
| goals4              = 0
| years5              = 2009–2010
| clubs5              = → [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] (lend)
| caps5               = 36
| goals5              = 0
| years6              = 2016–2017
| clubs6              = → [[Torino F.C.|Torino]] (lend)
| caps6               = 36
| goals6              = 0
| years7              = 2017–2018
| clubs7              = → [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] (lend)
| caps7               = 19
| goals7              = 0
| years8              = 2018–
| clubs8              = [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]]
| caps8               = 19
| goals8              = 0
| nationalyears1 = 2005–2006 |nationalteam1 = [[Ingland naitional unner-19 fitbaw team|Ingland U19]] |nationalcaps1 = 6  |nationalgoals1 = 0
| nationalyears2 = 2007–2009 |nationalteam2 = [[Ingland naitional unner-21 fitbaw team|Ingland U21]] |nationalcaps2 = 21 |nationalgoals2 = 0
| nationalyears3 = 2008–2017 |nationalteam3 = [[Ingland naitional fitbaw team|Ingland]]              
| nationalcaps3       = 75
| nationalgoals3      = 0
| club-update         = 00:54, 27 December 2018 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update = 19:56, 24 December 2018 (UTC)
}}
''' Charles Joseph John Hart''' (born 19 April 1987) is an Inglis [[Association fitbaw|fitbaw]] [[Goalkeeper (association fitbaw)|goalkeeper]] who plays for {{English football updater|Burnley}} club [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]] an the [[Ingland naitional fitbaw team]] an wis previously a regular for the [[Ingland naitional unner-21 fitbaw team|Ingland unner-21 team]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Navboxes colour
|title=Awairds
|bg=gold
|fg=navy
|list1=
{{Premier League Golden Glove}}
{{2005–06 Football League Two PFA Team of the Year}}
{{2009–10 Premier League PFA Team of the Year}}
{{2011–12 Premier League PFA Team of the Year}}
}}
{{Navboxes colour
|title=Ingland squads
|bg=white
|fg=#CE1124
|bordercolor=#0B0B3F
|list1=
{{England squad 2010 FIFA World Cup}}
{{England squad UEFA Euro 2012}}
{{England squad 2014 FIFA World Cup}}
}}
{{Burnley F.C. squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hart, Joe}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Shrewsbury]]
[[Category:Inglis fitbawers]]
[[Category:Ingland youth internaitional fitbawers]]
[[Category:Ingland unner-21 internaitional fitbawers]]
[[Category:Ingland internaitional fitbawers]]
[[Category:Association fitbaw goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Shrewsbury Town F.C. players]]
[[Category:Manchester City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Tranmere Rovers F.C. players]]
[[Category:Blackpool F.C. players]]
[[Category:Birmingham City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]
[[Category:English Football League players]]
[[Category:Fitbaa Conference players]]
[[Category:2010 FIFA Warld Cup players]]
[[Category:2014 FIFA Warld Cup players]]
[[Category:UEFA Euro 2012 players]]
[[Category:Torino F.C. players]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. players]]
[[Category:Burnley F.C. players]]</text>
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    <title>Jacques Derrida</title>
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      <text bytes="5069" sha1="000ply04v8m2pfzksmwzy7h0r41cbsd" xml:space="preserve">{{fixscots}}{{Infobox philosopher
|region           = Wastren philosofie
|era              = [[20t-century philosophy]]|
|image   = 
|caption =
|name             = Jacques Derrida
|birth_name       = Jackie Élie Derrida&lt;ref name=&quot;Jackie&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Peeters|first=Benoît|title=Derrida: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/derridabiography00peet|year=2012|publisher=Polity|pages=[https://archive.org/details/derridabiography00peet/page/12 12]–13|quote=&quot;Jackie was born at daybreak, on 15 July 1930, at El Biar, in the hilly suburbs of Algiers, in a holiday home. [...] The boy's main forename was probably chosen because of Jackie Coogan ... When he was circumcised, he was given a second forename, Elie, which was not entered on his birth certificate, unlike the equivalent names of his brother and sister.&quot;}}. See also {{cite book|last=Bennington|first=Geoffrey|title=Jacques Derrida|url=https://archive.org/details/jacquesderrida0000benn|year=1993|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/jacquesderrida0000benn/page/324 325]|quote=&quot;1930 Birth of Jackie Derrida, July 15, in El-Biar (near Algiers, in a holiday house).&quot;}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|birth_date       = {{Birth date|1930|07|15}}
|birth_place      = [[El Biar]], [[French Algerie]]
|death_date       = {{Death date and age|2004|10|09|1930|07|15}}
|death_place      = [[Paris]], [[Fraunce]]
|school_tradition = [[Continental philosophy]]
|notable_ideas    = [[Deconstruction]]{{·}} [[Différance]]{{·}} [[Phallogocentrism]]{{·}} [[Free Play (Derrida)|Free Play]]{{·}} [[Archi-writin]]{{·}} [[Metaphysics o presence]]
|influences       = [[Plato]]{{·}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]{{·}} [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]]{{·}} [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]]{{·}} [[Emmanuel Lévinas|Levinas]]{{·}} [[Maurice Blanchot|Blanchot]]{{·}} [[Antonin Artaud|Artaud]]{{·}} [[Roland Barthes|Barthes]]{{·}} [[Louis Althusser|Althusser]]{{·}} [[Georges Bataille|Bataille]]{{·}} [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussure]]{{·}} [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]{{·}}  [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]]{{·}} [[James Joyce|Joyce]]{{·}} [[Stéphane Mallarmé|Mallarmé]]{{·}} [[Edmond Jabès|Jabès]]{{·}} [[Karl Marx|Marx]]{{·}} [[André Leroi-Gourhan|Leroi-Gourhan]]
|influenced       = [[Richard Rorty]]{{·}} [[Paul de Man]]{{·}} [[Bernard Stiegler]]{{·}} [[Jean-Luc Nancy]]{{·}} [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]]{{·}} [[Ernesto Laclau]]{{·}} [[Chantal Mouffe]]{{·}} [[Judith Butler]]{{·}} [[Julia Kristeva]]{{·}} [[Louis Althusser]]{{·}} [[Peter Eisenman]]{{·}} [[Gayatri Spivak]]{{·}} [[John Caputo]]{{·}} [[Mario Kopić]]{{·}} [[Avital Ronell]]{{·}} [[Catherine Malabou]]{{·}} [[Geoffrey Hartman]]{{·}} [[J. Hillis Miller]]{{·}} [[Harold Bloom]]{{·}} [[Martin Hägglund]]{{·}} [[Simon Glendinning]]{{·}} [[Robert Magliola]]
|signature        =
}}
'''Jacques Derrida''' ({{IPAc-en|ʒ|ɑː|k|_|ˈ|d|ɛr|ɨ|d|ə}}; {{IPA-fr|ʒak dɛʁida|lang}}; born '''Jackie Élie Derrida''';&lt;ref name=&quot;Jackie&quot;&gt;, pp. 12-13.&lt;/ref&gt; Julie 15, 1930&amp;nbsp;– October 9, 2004) wis a French philosopher, born in [[French Algerie]]. Derrida is baist kent for developin a form o [[Semiotics|semiotic]] analysis kent as [[deconstruction]]. He is ane o the major figures associatit wi [[post-structuralism]] an [[postmodren philosophy]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bensmaia05&quot;&gt;Bensmaïa, Réda ''Poststructuralism'', in Kritzman (2005), pp. 92–93&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Poster88&quot;&gt;Poster (1988), pp. 5–6&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Leitch96&quot;&gt;Vincent B. Leitch ''Postmodernism: Local Effects, Global Flows'', SUNY Series in Postmodern Culture (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996), p. 27.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Derrida, Jacques}}
[[Category:1930 births]]
[[Category:2004 daiths]]
[[Category:20t-century French philosophers]]
[[Category:20t-century philosophers]]
[[Category:21st-century philosophers]]
[[Category:20t-century French writers]]
[[Category:21st-century French writers]]
[[Category:Algerie Jews]]
[[Category:Algerie emigrants tae Fraunce]]
[[Category:French fowk o Algerie-Jewish strynd]]
[[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]]
[[Category:Daiths frae cancer in Fraunce]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers]]
[[Category:Daiths frae pancreatic cancer]]
[[Category:Deconstruction]]
[[Category:École Normale Supérieure faculty]]
[[Category:European Graduate School faculty]]
[[Category:French Jews]]
[[Category:French leeterar creetics]]
[[Category:French philosophers]]
[[Category:Harvard Varsity alumni]]
[[Category:Jewish philosophers]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Algiers]]
[[Category:Phenomenologists]]
[[Category:Philosophers o airt]]
[[Category:Philosophers o eddication]]
[[Category:Pieds-Noirs]]
[[Category:Poststructuralists]]
[[Category:Rhetoric theorists]]
[[Category:Sephardi Jews]]
[[Category:Social democrats]]
[[Category:Translation scholars]]
[[Category:Varsity o Paris faculty]]
[[Category:Varsity o Californie, Irvine faculty]]
[[Category:Postmodren writers]]
[[Category:Fowk frae El Biar]]
[[Category:Jacques Derrida| ]]
[[Category:Hermeneutists]]</text>
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    <title>Margaret Thatcher</title>
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{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name             =  Baroness Thatcher
| honorific-suffix = [[Order of the Garter|LG]] [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]]
| image            = Margaret Thatcher stock portrait (cropped).jpg
| caption           = Thatcher {{circa}} 1995–96
| office1           = [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick]]
| monarch1       = [[Elizabeth II]]
| deputy1          = [[Geoffrey Howe]] (1989-90)
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1925|10|13|df=yes}}
| birth_place      = [[Grantham]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[Ingland]]
| death_date       = {{death date and age|2013|4|8|1925|10|13|df=yes}}
| death_place      = [[Lunnon]], Ingland
| term_start1      = 4 Mey 1979
| term_end1        = 28 November 1990
| predecessor1     = [[James Callaghan]]
| successor1       = [[John Major]]
| party            = [[Conservative Pairty (UK)|Conservative]]
| nationality      = [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]]
| spouse           = Sir [[Denis Thatcher]], Bt.&lt;br&gt;(m. 1951-2003, his daith)
| children         = [[Mark Thatcher]], [[Carol Thatcher]]
| relations        = [[Alfred Roberts]]&lt;br&gt;(faither)
}}
'''Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|commas=true|size=100%|LG|OM|PC|FRS|FRIC}} ({{nee|'''Roberts'''}}; 13 October 1925 &amp;ndash; 8 Apryle 2013) wis a Breetish stateswumman, wha sert as [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick]] frae 1979 tae 1990 an as [[Leader o the Conservative Pairty (UK)|Leader]] o the [[Conservative Pairty (UK)|Conservative Pairty]] frae 1975 tae 1990. She wis the langest-serrin Breetish prime meenister o the 20t yearhunner, an the first wumman tae haud the office. A Soviet jurnalist cried her '''The Airn Leddy''', an eik-name that becam associatit wi her uncompromisin politics an leadership style. As Prime Meenister, she implementit policies that hae come tae be kent as [[Thatcherism]].

A resairch [[chemist]] afore acomin a [[barrister]], Thatcher wis [[Leet o MPs electit in the Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|electit Memmer o Pairlament]] for [[Finchley (UK Pairlament constituency)|Finchley]] in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|1959]]. [[Edward Heath]] appyntit her [[Secretar o State for Eddication|Secretar o State for Eddication an Science]] in his [[Heath meenistry|1970 govrenment]]. In 1975, Thatcher defeatit Heath in the [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1975|Conservative Pairty leadership election]] tae acome [[Leader o the Opposeetion (Unitit Kinrick)|Leader o the Opposeetion]] an acame the first wumman tae lead a major poleetical pairty in the Unitit Kinrick. She acame Prime Meenister efter winnin the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1979|1979 general election]].

On muivin intae {{nowrap|[[10 Downing Street]]}}, Thatcher introduced mony poleetical an economic initiatives intendit tae reverse heich unemployment an Breetain's struissles in the wauk o the [[Winter o Discontent]] an an ongangin recession.{{refn|In her forewird tae the [[Leet o Conservative Pairty (UK) general election manifestos|Conservative manifesto]] o 1979, Thatcher wrate o &quot;a feeling of helplessness, that we are a once great nation that has somehow fallen behind&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=1979 Conservative Party General Election Manifesto |url=http://www.conservativemanifesto.com/1979/1979-conservative-manifesto.shtml |website=conservativemanifesto.com |accessdate=28 July 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;|group=nb}} Her poleetical filosofie an economic policies emphasised [[deregulation]] (parteecularly o the financial sector), flexible labour mercats, the privatisation o [[state-awned enterprise|state-awned companies]], an reducin the pouer an influence o tred unions. Thatcher's popularity in her first years in office waned amid recession an heich unemployment, till veectory in the 1982 [[Falklands War]] an the recoverin economy brocht a resurgence o support, resultin in her decisive [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1983|re-election in 1983]]. She narraely escapit an [[Brighton hotel bombin|assassination attempt in 1984]].

Thatcher wis re-electit for a third term in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1987|1987]]. In this period her support for a [[Community Charge]] (referred tae as the &quot;poll tax&quot;) wis widely unpopular, an her views on the [[European Economic Commonty|European Commonty]] war nae shared bi ithers in her Caibinet. She resigned as Prime Meenister an pairty leader in November 1990, efter [[Michael Heseltine]] lencht a [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1990|challenge tae her leadership]]. Efter reteerin frae the [[Hoose o Commons o the Unitit Kinrick|Commons]] in 1992, she wis gien a [[life peer]]age as Baroness Thatcher (o [[Kesteven]] in the Coonty o [[Lincolnshire]]) whilk enteetlt her tae sit in the [[Hoose o Lairds]]. Efter a nummer o wee straiks in 2002, she wis advised tae reteer frae public speakin. Nanetheless, she managed tae pre-record a eulogy tae [[Ronald Reagan]] afore his daith, whilk wis braidcast at [[Daith an state funeral o Ronald Reagan|his funeral]] in 2004. In 2013, [[Daith an funeral o Margaret Thatcher|she dee'd o anither straik]] in Lunnon, at the age o 87. Ayeweys a controversial feegur, she haes been laudit as [[Historical rankins o Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick|ane o the greatest]] an maist influential politeecians in Breetish historie, even as arguments ower Thatcherism perseest.

==Early life an eddication==
Thatcher wis born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925, in [[Grantham, Lincolnshire]]. Her faither wis [[Alfred Roberts]], oreeginally frae Northamptonshire, an her mither wis Beatrice Ethel (née Stephenson) frae Lincolnshire.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=1}} She spent her bairnheid in Grantham, whaur her faither awned twa grocery shaps.

Margaret Roberts attendit Huntingtower Road Primary School an wan a bursary tae [[Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=5}} Her schuil reports shawed haurd wark an continual impruivement; her extracurricular activities includit the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, soummin an walkin.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=6}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|pp=21–22}} In her [[saxt form|upper saxt year]] she applee'd for a bursary tae study chemistry at [[Somerville College, Oxford]], a weemen's college at the time, but she wis ineetially rejectit an wis offered a place anerly efter anither candidate widrew.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=12}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=23}} Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 an graduatit in 1947 wi [[Breetish undergraduate degree classification|Seicont-Cless Honours]] in the fower-year Chemistry Bachelor o Science degree, specialisin in [[X-ray crystallography]] unner the superveesion o [[Dorothy Hodgkin]].{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|pp=25–27}}{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=16}}

Roberts jyned the local Conservative Association an attendit the pairty conference at [[Llandudno]] in 1948, as a representative o the University Graduate Conservative Association.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}} Meanwhile she acame a heich-rankin member o the [[Vermin Club]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Moore |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Moore (journalist) |title=Golly: now we know what's truly offensive |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/charlesmoore/4520977/Golly-now-we-know-whats-truly-offensive.html |date=5 February 2009 |accessdate=29 April 2017 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |author=J.C. |magazine=[[The Economist]] |title=Gaffe-ology: why Mitchell had to go |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/blighty/2012/10/political-crises |date=21 October 2012 |accessdate=29 April 2017 |quote=In 1948 [[Aneurin Bevan]] called the Conservative Party &quot;lower than vermin&quot;, a comment that lost Labour thousands of moderate votes at the following election. The Tories embraced the phrase; some formed the Vermin Club in response (Margaret Thatcher was a member).}}&lt;/ref&gt; a group o gressruits Conservatives formed in response tae a derogatory remerk aboot the pairty.

Ane o her Oxford friends wis an aa a friend o the Chair o the [[Dartford]] Conservative Association in [[Kent]], wha war leukin for candidates.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}} Offeecials o the association war sae impressed bi her that thay askit her tae applee, even tho she wis nae on the Conservative Pairty's approved leet: she wis selectit in Januar 1951, aged 25, an addit tae the appruived leet ''[[:wikt:post ante|post ante]]''.{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=36}} At a dinner follaein her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in Februar 1951 she met [[Denis Thatcher]], a successfu an walthy divorced businessman, wha drave her tae her Essex train.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=36}} In preparation for the election Roberts muived tae Dartford, whaur she supportit hersel bi wirkin as a resairch chemist for [[J. Lyons and Co.]] in Hammersmith, pairt o a team developin [[emulsion|emulsifiers]] for [[ice cream]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}}&lt;ref name=&quot;ns-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Cream of the crop at Royal Society|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XRpdT3gc9KYC&amp;pg=PA5&amp;dq=Margaret+Thatcher+ice#v=onepage&amp;q=Margaret+Thatcher+ice&amp;f=false|journal=New Scientist|date=7 July 1983|page=5|accessdate=25 January 2011|volume=99|issue=1365|ref=harv|author1=Information|first1=Reed Business}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly efter her mairiage, she an her husband begoud attendin [[Kirk o Ingland|Anglican]] services an wad later convert tae [[Anglicanism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Belz&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://world.wng.org/2013/04/weather_maker |first=Mindy |last=Belz |title=Weather maker |agency=World Magazine |date=4 May 2013 |access-date=2017-06-07 |archive-date=2019-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203055950/https://world.wng.org/2013/04/weather_maker |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Filby&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/9992424/Margaret-Thatcher-her-unswerving-faith-shaped-by-her-father.html |first=Eliza |last=Filby |title=Margaret Thatcher: her unswerving faith shaped by her father |agency=The Telegraph |date=14 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Early political career==
In the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1950|1950]] an [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1951|1951 general elections]], Roberts wis the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat o [[Dartford (UK Pairlament constituency)|Dartford]]. The local pairty selectit her as its candidate acause, tho nae a dynamic public speaker, Roberts wis well-prepared an fearless in her answers. She attractit media attention as the youngest an the anerly female candidate.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=37}} She lost on baith occasions tae [[Norman Dodds]], but reduced the Labour majority bi 6,000, an then a further 1,000.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}} During the campaigns, she wis supportit bi her parents an bi Denis Thatcher, wha she mairied in December 1951.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Denis Thatcher&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/1434154/Sir-Denis-Thatcher-Bt.html |accessdate=6 January 2012 |date=27 June 2003 |title=Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Member o Pairlament: 1959–1970===
In 1954, Thatcher wis defeatit whan she socht selection tae be the Conservative pairty candidate for the [[Orpington bi-election, 1955|Orpington bi-election]] o Januar 1955. She chuise nae tae staund as a candidate in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1955|1955 general election]], in later years statin: &quot;I really just felt the twins were&amp;nbsp;... only two, I really felt that it was too soon. I couldn't do that.&quot;{{sfnp|Campbell|2000|p=100}} Efterwart, Thatcher begoud leukin for a Conservative [[sauf seat]] an wis selectit as the candidate for [[Finchley (UK Pairlament constituency)|Finchley]] in Apryle 1958 (narraely beatin [[Ian Fraser (Plymouth Sutton MP)|Ian Montagu Fraser]]). She wis electit as MP for the seat efter a haurd campaign in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|1959 election]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=27}}&lt;ref&gt;{{London Gazette|issue=41842|page=6433|date=13 October 1959}}&lt;/ref&gt; Benefitin frae her fortuinate result in a lottery for [[backbencher]]s tae propone new legislation,&lt;ref name=&quot;runciman20130606&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Runciman|first=David|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n11/david-runciman/rat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat|title=Rat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat|work=London Review of Books|date=6 June 2013|accessdate=11 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher's [[maiden speech]] wis in support o her [[private member's bill]] ([[Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960]]), requirin local authorities tae hauld thair cooncil meetins in public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/101055 |title =HC S 2R [Public Bodies (Admission of the Press to Meetings) Bill] (Maiden Speech) |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |date=5 February 1960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher's talent an drive caused her tae be mentioned as a futur Prime Meenister in her early 20s{{r|runciman20130606}} awtho she hersel wis mair pessimistic, statin as late as 1970: &quot;There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime{{snd}}the male population is too prejudiced.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;sandbrook20130409&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Sandbrook|first=Dominic|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22076886|title=Viewpoint: What if Margaret Thatcher had never been?|publisher=BBC|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=16 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; In October 1961 she wis promotit tae the [[frontbench]] as [[Pairlamentar Secretar tae the Meenister for Pensions|Pairlamentar Unnersecretar at the Meenistry o Pensions an Naitional Insurance]] bi [[Harold Macmillan]].{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=4}} Thatcher wis the youngest wumman in history tae receive sic a post, an amang the first [[Leet o MPs electit in the Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|MPs electit in 1959]] tae be promotit.{{r|scottsmith2003}}

Bi 1966, pairty leaders viewed Thatcher as a potential [[Offeecial Opposeetion Shaidae Cabinet (Unitit Kinrick)|Shaidae Cabinet member]]. [[James Prior]] suggestit her as a member efter the Conservatives' [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1966|1966 defeat]], but pairty leader [[Edward Heath]] an [[Chief Whip]] [[Willie Whitelaw]] insteid chuise tae promote [[Mervyn Pike]] as the [[First Shaidae Cabinet o Edward Heath|Shaidae Cabinet]]'s anerly wumman member.{{r|scottsmith2003}} At the Conservative Pairty conference o 1966 she criticised the heich-tax policies o the Labour govrenment as bein steps &quot;not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism&quot;, arguin that lawer taxes served as an incentive tae haurd wark.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=64}} Thatcher wis ane o the few Conservative MPs tae support [[Leo Abse]]'s Bill tae decriminalise male homosexuality.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/05/sexual-offences-no-2|title=Sexual Offences (No. 2)|date=5 July 1966|journal=Hansard|volume=731|page=267|access-date=2017-06-07|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104201938/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/05/sexual-offences-no-2|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; She an aa votit in favour o [[David Steel]]'s bill tae legalise abortion,{{sfnp|Thatcher|1995|p=150}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/22/medical-termination-of-pregnancy-bill|title=Medical Termination of Pregnancy Bill|date=22 July 1966|journal=Hansard|volume=732|page=1165|ref=harv|access-date=2017-06-07|archive-date=2020-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102150407/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/22/medical-termination-of-pregnancy-bill|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Efter Pike's reteerment, Heath appyntit Thatcher tae the Shaidae Cabinet&lt;ref name=scottsmith2003&gt;{{cite journal|last=Scott-Smith |first=Giles |title=&quot;Her Rather Ambitious Washington Program&quot;: Margaret Thatcher's International Visitor Program Visit to the United States in 1967 |url=http://mountainrunner.us/library/publicdiplomacy/Scott-Smith%20(2003)-%20%E2%80%98Her%20Rather%20Ambitious%20Washington%20Program%E2%80%99%20Margaret%20Thatcher%E2%80%99s%20International%20Visitor%20Program%20Visit%20to%20the%20US%20in%201967.pdf|date=Winter 2003|journal=Contemporary British History|volume=17|issue=4|pages=65–86|publisher=Routledge&amp;nbsp;– Taylor and Francis|issn=1743-7997|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126115302/http://mountainrunner.us/library/publicdiplomacy/Scott-Smith%20%282003%29-%20%E2%80%98Her%20Rather%20Ambitious%20Washington%20Program%E2%80%99%20Margaret%20Thatcher%E2%80%99s%20International%20Visitor%20Program%20Visit%20to%20the%20US%20in%201967.pdf|archivedate=26 November 2010 |ref=harv|doi=10.1080/13619460308565458}}&lt;/ref&gt; as Fuel an Pouer spokesman.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/margaret-thatchers-timeline-from-grantham-to-the-house-of-lords-via-arthur-scargill-and-the-8564555.html|title=Margaret Thatcher's timeline: From Grantham to the House of Lords, via Arthur Scargill and the Falklands War|date=8 April 2013|work=Independent|accessdate=2 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly afore the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1970|1970 election]], she wis promotit tae Shadow Transport spokesman an later tae Eddication.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=65}}

===Eddication Secretar: 1970–1974===
The Conservative Pairty unner [[Edward Heath]] wan the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1970|1970 general election]], an Thatcher wis subsequently appyntit tae the [[Cabinet o the Unitit Kinrick|Cabinet]] as [[Secretar o State for Eddication|Secretar o State for Eddication an Science]]. In her first months in office she attractit public attention as a result o the govrenment's attempts ae cut spendin. She gae priority tae academic needs in schuils.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=14}} She imponed public expenditur cuts on the state eddication seestem, resultin in the aboleetion o free milk for schuilchilder aged seiven tae eleiven.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}} She held that few childer wad thole if schuils war chairged for milk, but agreed tae provide younger childer wi a third o a pint daily, for nutreetional purposes.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}} Cabinet papers later revealed that she opponed the policy but haed been forced intae it bi the Thesaury.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tories-move-swiftly-to-avoid-milksnatcher-tag-2047372.html|title=Tories move swiftly to avoid 'milk-snatcher' tag|last=Hickman|first=Martin|date=9 August 2010|newspaper=The Independent|accessdate=9 April 2013|archive-date=2015-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925172651/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tories-move-swiftly-to-avoid-milksnatcher-tag-2047372.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her deceesion provoked a storm o protest frae Labour an the press,{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}} leadin tae the moniker &quot;Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher&quot;.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Rebecca|title=How Margaret Thatcher became known as 'Milk Snatcher'|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/7932963/How-Margaret-Thatcher-became-known-as-Milk-Snatcher.html|accessdate=9 April 2013|newspaper=The Sunday Telegraph|date=8 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; She reportitly conseedered leavin politics in the eftermath an later wrate in her autobiografie: &quot;I learned a valuable lesson {{bracket|from the experience}}. I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit.&quot;{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}}{{sfnp|Thatcher|1995|p=182}}

===Leader o the Opposeetion: 1975–1979===
[[File:Thatcher-loc.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Thatcher as Tory leader]]
The Heath govrenment continued tae experience difficulties wi [[1973 ile creesis|ile embargoes]] an union demands for wage increases in 1973 an lost the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, Februar 1974|Februar 1974 general election]].{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}} Labour formed a minority govrenment an went on tae win a narrae majority in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, October 1974|October 1974 general election]]. Heath's leadership o the Conservative Pairty leukit increasinly in dout. Thatcher wis nae ineetially the obvious replacement, but she eventually acame the main challenger, promisin a fresh stairt.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=16}} Her main support came frae the Conservative [[1922 Committee]],{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=16}} but Thatcher's time in office gae her the reputation o a pragmatist instead o an ideologue.{{r|runciman20130606}} She [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1975|defeatit Heath]] on the first ballot an he resigned the leadership.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article545321.ece?token=null&amp;offset=12&amp;page=2|url-access=limited|title=Thatcher leads tributes to Sir Edward Heath|date=18 July 2005|accessdate=14 October 2008|work=The Times|first=Philippe|last=Naughton}}{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; In the seicont ballot she defeatit Whitelaw, Heath's preferred successor. The vote polarised alang richt&amp;ndash;left lines, wi the region, experience an eddication o the MP an aa haein thair effects. Thatcher's support wis stranger amang MPs on the richt, thae frae soothren Ingland, an thae wha haed nae attendit public schuils or [[Oxbridge]].&lt;ref&gt;Philip Cowley and Matthew Bailey, &quot;Peasants' Uprising or Religious War? Re-Examining the 1975 Conservative Leadership Contest&quot;, ''British Journal of Political Science'' (2000) 30#4 pp.&amp;nbsp;599–629&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher acame Conservative Pairty leader an [[Leader o the Opposeetion (Unitit Kinrick)|Leader o the Opposeetion]] on 11 Februar 1975;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=102452|title=Press Conference after winning Conservative leadership (Grand Committee Room)|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=29 September 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; she appyntit Whitelaw as her [[Depute Leader o the Conservative Pairty (UK)|depute]]. Heath wis niver reconciled tae Thatcher's leadership.&lt;ref&gt;Moore, ''Thatcher'' 1:394–395, 430&lt;/ref&gt; In addeetion tae opposeetion tae [[Keynesian ecenomics]], Thatcher wantit tae prevent the creaution o a Scots assembly. She tauld Conservative MPs tae vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976, which wis defeatit, an then whan new Bills war proponed she supportit amendin the legislation tae allae the Inglis tae vote in the [[Scots devolution referendum, 1979|1979 referendum on devolution]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/how-thatcher-tried-to-thwart-devolution-1-1165673|title=How Thatcher tried to thwart devolution|date=27 April 2008|accessdate=20 April 2013|newspaper=The Scotsman|archive-date=2015-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016012202/http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/how-thatcher-tried-to-thwart-devolution-1-1165673|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Breetain's economy during the 1970s wis sae waik that Foreign Meenister [[James Callaghan]] wairned his fellae Labour Cabinet members in 1974 o the possibility o &quot;a breakdown of democracy&quot;, tellin them: &quot;If I were a young man, I would emigrate.&quot;{{sfnp|Beckett|2010|loc=chapter 7}} In mid-1978, the economy begoud tae impruive an opeenion polls shawed Labour in the lead, wi a general election bein expectit later that year an a Labour win a sairious possibility. Nou Prime Meenister, Callaghan surpreesed mony bi annooncin on 7 September that thare wad be na general election that year an he wad wait till 1979 afore gangin tae the polls. Thatcher reactit tae this bi buistin the Labour govrenment &quot;chickens&quot;, an [[Leeberal Pairty (UK)|Leeberal Pairty]] leader [[David Steel]] jyned in, criticisin Labour for &quot;running scared&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/7/newsid_2502000/2502781.stm|title=7 September 1978: Callaghan accused of running scared|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|accessdate=13 January 2012|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Conservatives attacked the Labour govrenment's unemployment record, uisin advertisin wi the slogan &quot;[[Labour Isn't Working]]&quot;. A [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1979|general election]] wis cried efter Callaghan's govrenment lost a [[1979 vote o na confidence in the govrenment o James Callaghan|motion o na confidence]] in early 1979. The Conservatives wan a 44-seat majority in the Hoose o Commons an Thatcher acame the first female Breetish prime meenister.&lt;ref&gt;David Butler and Dennis Kavanagh, ''The British general election of 1979'' (1980).&lt;/ref&gt;

==Premiership o the Unitit Kinrick: 1979–1990==
Thatcher acame Prime Meenister on 4 Mey 1979. Arrivin at Downing Street she said, paraphrasin the [[Prayer o Saunt Francis]]:{{poemquote|
Where there is discord, may we bring harmony;
Where there is error, may we bring truth;
Where there is doubt, may we bring faith;
And where there is despair, may we bring hope.
|char=Margaret Thatcher
|source=&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/104078 |title=Remarks on becoming Prime Minister (St Francis's prayer) |date=4 May 1979 |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |accessdate=21 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|title=her remarks on becoming Prime Minister
}}
Thatcher remained in office ootthrou the next decade. For muckle o her premiership, she wis descrived as the maist pouerfu wumman in the warld.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=How to Work for a Woman Boss, Even If You'd Rather Not |url=https://archive.org/details/howtoworkforwoma00bern |last=Bern |first=Paula |publisher=[[Dodd Mead]] |edition=1st |isbn=978-0396088394 |date=February 1987 |page=[https://archive.org/details/howtoworkforwoma00bern/page/43 43]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Maggie: An Intimate Portrait of a Woman in Power |url=https://archive.org/details/maggieintimatepo00ogde |last=Ogden |first=Chris |publisher=[[Simon &amp; Schuster]] |edition=1st |isbn=978-0671667603 |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/maggieintimatepo00ogde/page/9 9], 12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Current Biography Yearbook |titlelink=Current Biography |publisher=[[H. W. Wilson Co.]] |edition=1989 |volume=50 |year=1990 |page=567}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |title=Gail Sheehy on the most powerful woman in the world |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_vanity-fair_1989-07_52_7/page/102 |last=Sheehy |first=Gail |authorlink=Gail Sheehy |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |volume=52 |year=1989 |page=102}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |title=The most powerful woman in the world |last=Eisner |first=Jane |authorlink=Jane Eisner |magazine=The Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine |asin=B006RKBPBK |date=7 June 1987 |page=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Domestic affairs===
Thatcher wis Leader o the Opposeetion an Prime Meenister at a time o increased racial tension in Breetain. Commentin on the [[Unitit Kinrick local elections, 1977|local elections o Mey 1977]], ''[[The Economist]]'' notit &quot;The Tory tide swamped the smaller parties. That specifically includes the [[Naitional Front (UK)|National Front]], which suffered a clear decline from last year&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|work=The Economist|title=Votes go to Tories, and nobody else|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1977-05-14_263_6976/page/24|date=14 May 1977|volume=263|issue=6976|pages=24–28}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/93030FB632E147999D4BEB655587A134.pdf ''Conservative Party Campaign Guide Supplement 1978'']. Published by the Conservative and Unionist Central Office.&lt;/ref&gt; Her staundin in the polls rose bi 11% efter a Januar 1978 interview for ''[[World in Action]]'' in which she said &quot;the British character has done so much for democracy, for law and done so much throughout the world that if there is any fear that it might be swamped people are going to react and be rather hostile to those coming in&quot;, as well as &quot;in many ways {{bracket|minorities}} add to the richness and variety of this country. The moment the minority threatens to become a big one, people get frightened&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|work=The Times|title=Mrs Thatcher fears people might become hostile if immigrant flow is not cut|date=31 January 1978}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|work=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920566-3,00.html|title=Britain: Facing a Multiracial Future|date=27 August 1979|accessdate=20 January 2011|archive-date=2013-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724082825/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920566-3,00.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1979 general election, the Conservatives attracted voters frae the Naitional Front, whose support awmaist collapsed.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=26}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FtAiLTYSpA4C&amp;pg=PA128&amp;dq=thatcher+national+front#v=onepage&amp;q=thatcher%20national%20front&amp;f=false|title=Britishness since 1870|first=Paul|last=Ward|publisher=Routledge|accessdate=21 August 2011|isbn=978-0-415-22016-3|year=2004|page=128}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a meetin in Julie 1979 wi [[Secretar o State for Foreign an Commonweel Affairs|Foreign Secretar]] [[Peter Carington, 6t Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]] an [[Hame Secretar]] [[Willie Whitelaw]] she objectit tae the nummer o Asie immigrants, in the context o leemitin the tot o [[Vietnamese boat fowk]] allaed tae settle in the UK tae less nor 10,000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/margaret-thatcher/6906503/Margaret-Thatcher-complained-about-Asian-immigration-to-Britain.html|title=Margaret Thatcher complained about Asian immigration to Britain|date=30 December 2009|accessdate=20 January 2011|first=Jon|last=Swaine|archive-date=2011-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120061249/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/margaret-thatcher/6906503/Margaret-Thatcher-complained-about-Asian-immigration-to-Britain.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As Prime Meenister, Thatcher met weekly wi [[Queen Elizabeth II]] tae discuss govrenment business, an thair relationship came unner close scrutiny.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=28}}{{sfnp|Seward|2001|p=154}} Biografer [[John Campbell (biografer)|John Campbell]] says thair relations war &quot;punctiliously correct but there was little love lost on either side&quot;. The Queen's press secretar leaked anonymous rumours o a rift, which war offeecially denee'd bi the Palace. Campbell concludes that Thatcher haed &quot;an almost mystical reverence for the institution of the monarchy&quot; despite &quot;trying to modernise the country and sweep away many of the values and practices which the monarchy perpetuated&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Campbell, ''Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady 2:464&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher later wrate: &quot;I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct&amp;nbsp;... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up.&quot;{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|p=18}}

====Economy an taxation====
Thatcher's economic policy wis influenced bi [[monetarism|monetarist]] thinkin an economists sic as [[Milton Friedman]] an [[Alan Walters]].{{sfnp|Childs|2006|p=185}} Thegither wi [[Chancellor o the Exchequer]] [[Geoffrey Howe]], she lawered direct taxes on income an increased indirect taxes.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=30}} She increased interest rates tae slaw the growthe o the money supplee an tharebi lawer inflation,{{sfnp|Childs|2006|p=185}} introduced cash leemits on public spendin, an reduced expenditur on social services sic as eddication an hoosin.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=30}} Her cuts in heicher eddication spendin resultit in her bein the first Oxford-eddicatit post-war Prime Meenister nae tae be awairdit an honorar doctorate bae the Varsity o Oxford, efter a 738 tae 319 vote o the govrenin assembly an a student peteetion.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/29/newsid_2506000/2506019.stm |title=29 January 1985: Thatcher snubbed by Oxford dons |accessdate=9 April 2007 |work=On this day 1950–2005 |publisher=BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the sae-cried &quot;[[wets an drees|wets]]&quot;, expressed dout ower Thatcher's policies.&lt;ref name=&quot;nft&quot;/&gt; The [[1981 Ingland riots]] resultit in the Breetish media discussin the need for a policy U-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Pairty conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, wi a speech written bi the playwricht [[Ronald Millar]]{{sfnp|Jones|Kavanagh|Moran|2007|p=224}} that included the lines: &quot;You turn if you want to. [[The lady's not for turning]]!&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;nft&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/10/newsid_2541000/2541071.stm|title=10 October 1980: Thatcher 'not for turning'|accessdate=21 December 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher's job appruival ratin fell tae 23% bi December 1980, lawer nor recordit for ony previous Prime Meenister.{{sfnp|Thornton|2006|p=18}} As the [[Early 1980s recession|recession o the early 1980s]] deepened she increased taxes,{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=31}} despite concerns expressed in a statement signed bi 364&amp;nbsp;leadin economists issued taewart the end o Mairch 1981.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=An avalanche of economists|date=31 March 1981|url=http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/263/101/138526786w16/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS285575295&amp;dyn=75!xrn_1_0_CS285575295&amp;hst_1?sw_aep=mclib|url-access=limited|newspaper=The Times|page=17|accessdate=12 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bi 1982, the UK begoud tae experience signs o economic recovery;{{sfnp|Floud|Johnson|2004|p=392}} inflation wis doun tae 8.6% frae a heich o 18%, but unemployment wis ower 3&amp;nbsp;million for the first time syne the 1930s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/26/newsid_2506000/2506335.stm|title=26 January 1982: UK unemployment tops three million|accessdate=16 April 2010|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC News|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bi 1983 oweraw economic growthe wis stranger an inflation an mortgage rates war at thair lawest levels syne 1970, awtho manufacturin employment as a share o tot employment fell tae juist ower 30%,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Rowthorn |first1=Robert |authorlink1=Robert Rowthorn |last2=Wells |first2=John R. |title=De-Industrialization and Foreign Trade |url=https://archive.org/details/deindustrializat0000rowt |date=12 November 1987 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/deindustrializat0000rowt/page/234 234] |isbn=978-0521263603}}&lt;/ref&gt; wi tot unemployment remeenin heich, peakin at 3.3&amp;nbsp;million in 1984.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/unemployment-among-young-workers-hits-15-per-cent-1645728.html|title=Unemployment among young workers hits 15 per cent|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2009|accessdate=21 November 2010|first=Sean|last=O'Grady|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020085549/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/unemployment-among-young-workers-hits-15-per-cent-1645728.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bi 1987, unemployment wis fawin, the economy wis stable an strang an inflation wis law. Opeenion polls shawed a comfortable Conservative lead, an [[Unitit Kinrick local elections, 1987|local cooncil election]] results haed an aa been successfu, promptin Thatcher tae cry a general election for 11 Juin that year, despite the deidline for an election still bein 12 month awey. The [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1987|election]] saw Thatcher re-electit for a third successive term.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/background/pastelec/ge87.shtml|title=BBC Politics 97|publisher=BBC|date=11 June 1987|accessdate=14 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Industrial relations====
Thatcher wis committit tae reducin the pouer o the [[tred union]]s, whase leadership she accused o unnerminin pairlamentar democracy an economic performance throu strick action.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|pp=97–98, 339–340}} Several unions lenched stricks in response tae legislation introduced tae crib thair pouer, but reseestance eventually collapsed.&lt;ref name=&quot;thatcher-cw&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/thatcher|title=Margaret Thatcher|accessdate=29 October 2008|publisher=CNN|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703072749/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/thatcher|archivedate=3 July 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anerly 39% o union members votit for Labour in the 1983 general election.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Revzin|first=Philip|title=British Labor Unions Begin to Toe the Line, Realizing That the Times Have Changed|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=23 November 1984}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[UK miners' strick (1984–85)|miners' strick o 1984–85]] wis the biggest confrontation atween the unions an the Thatcher govrenment.

====Privatisation====
The policy o [[privatisation]] haes been cried &quot;a crucial ingredient o Thatcherism&quot;.{{sfnp|Seldon|Collings|2000|p=27}} Efter the 1983 election the sale o state utilities acceleratit;{{sfnp|Feigenbaum|Henig|Hamnett|1998|p=71}} maur than £29&amp;nbsp;billion wis raised frae the sale o naitionalised industries, an anither £18&amp;nbsp;billion frae the sale o cooncil hooses.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=428}} The process o privatisation, especially the preparation o naitionalised industries for privatisation, wis associatit wi merked impruivements in performance, pairteecularly in terms o [[wirkforce productivity|labour productivity]].&lt;ref name=ParkerMartin&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=David|last2=Martin|first2=Stephen|title=The impact of UK privatisation on labour and total factor productivity|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scottish-journal-of-political-economy_1995-05_42_2/page/216|journal=Scottish Journal of Political Economy|volume=42|issue=2|date=May 1995|pages=216–217|ref=harv|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9485.1995.tb01154.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Northren Ireland====
In 1980 an 1981, [[Proveesional Erse Republican Airmy]] (IRA) an [[Erse Naitional Leeberation Airmy]] (INLA) preesoners in Northren Ireland's [[HM Prison Maze|Maze Prison]] cairied oot [[1981 Erse hunger strick|hunger stricks]] in an effort tae regain the status o poleetical preesoners that haed been remuived in 1976 bi the precedin Labour govrenment.&lt;ref name=&quot;strike&quot;/&gt; [[Bobby Sands]] begoud the 1981 strick, sayin that he wad fest till daith unless preeson inmates wan concessions ower thair leevin condeetions.&lt;ref name=&quot;strike&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/3/newsid_2451000/2451503.stm|title=3 October 1981: IRA Maze hunger strikes at an end|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher refuised tae coontenance a return tae poleetical status for the preesoners, declarin &quot;Crime is crime is crime; it is not political&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;strike&quot;/&gt; but nivertheless the UK govrenment privately contactit republican leaders in a bid tae bring the hunger stricks tae an end.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/ireland/article6036723.ece|url-access=limited|title=Was Gerry Adams complicit over hunger strikers?|accessdate=20 April 2009|date=5 April 2009|newspaper=The Sunday Times|last=Clarke|first=Liam|archive-date=2011-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301124629/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/ireland/article6036723.ece|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Efter the daiths o Sands an nine ithers, the strick endit. Some richts war restored tae paramilitar preesoners, but nae offeecial recogneetion o poleetical status.&lt;ref name=&quot;CAIN-hs&quot;/&gt; Violence in Northren Ireland escalatit signeeficantly during the hunger stricks; in 1982 [[Sinn Féin]] politeecian [[Danny Morrison (Erse republican)|Danny Morrison]] descrived Thatcher as &quot;the biggest bastard we have ever known&quot;.{{sfnp|English|2005|pp=207–208}}

Thatcher narraely escaped injury in an IRA [[Brighton hotel bombin|assassination attempt]] at a Brighton hotel early in the mornin on 12 October 1984.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc-bomb&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/12/newsid_2531000/2531583.stm|accessdate=29 October 2008|title=12 October 1984: Tory Cabinet in Brighton bomb blast|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Five fowk war killed, includin the wife o Cabinet Meenister [[John Wakeham]]. Thatcher wis stayin at the hotel tae attend the Conservative Pairty conference, which she inseestit shoud open as scheduled the follaein day.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc-bomb&quot;/&gt; She delivered her speech as planned,{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|pp=379–383}} awbeit rewritten frae her oreeginal draft,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Travis |first=Alan |title=Thatcher was to call Labour and miners 'enemy within' in abandoned speech |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/03/thatcher-labour-miners-enemy-within-brighton-bomb |newspaper=The Guardian |date=3 October 2014 |accessdate=25 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; in a muive that wis widely supportit athort the poleetical spectrum an enhanced her popularity wi the public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lanoue|first1=David J.|last2=Headrick|first2=Barbara|title=Short-Term Political Events and British Government Popularity: Direct and Indirect Effects|journal=Polity|volume=30|issue=3|date=Spring 1998|pages=423, 427, 431, 432|ref=harv|doi=10.2307/3235208}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 6 November 1981, Thatcher an Erse [[Taoiseach]] [[Garret FitzGerald]] haed established the Anglo-Erse Inter-Govrenmental Cooncil, a forum for meetins atween the twa govrenments.&lt;ref name=&quot;CAIN-hs&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm|title=The Hunger Strike of 1981&amp;nbsp;– A Chronology of Main Events|publisher=[[CAIN]], University of Ulster|accessdate=27 January 2011|archive-date=2007-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070531003915/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 15 November 1985, Thatcher an FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough [[Anglo-Irish Agreement]], the first time a Breetish govrenment haed gien the Republic o Ireland an adveesory role in the govrenance o Northren Ireland. In protest the [[Ulster Says No]] muivement attractit 100,000 tae a rally in Belfast,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/aia/chron.htm |title=Anglo Irish Agreement Chronology |publisher=[[CAIN]], University of Ulster |accessdate=27 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206111841/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/aia/chron.htm |archivedate=6 December 2010 |df= }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ian Gow]] resigned as [[Meenister o State]] in the [[HM Thesaury]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=15 November 1985: Anglo-Irish agreement signed|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/15/newsid_2539000/2539849.stm |accessdate=4 May 2010 |work=On this day 1950–2005 |publisher=BBC |year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfnp|Moloney|2002|p=336}} an aw fifteen Unionist MPs resigned thair pairlamentar seats; anerly ane wis nae returned in the subsequent [[Leet o Unitit Kinrick bi-elections (1979–2010)#1983–1987 Pairlament|bi-elections]] on 23 Januar 1986.{{sfnp|Cochrane|2001|p=143}}

===Environment===
Thatcher supported an active climate pertection policy an wis instrumental in the creaution o the [[Environmental Protection Act 1990]] an in foundin the [[Intergovrenmental Panel on Climate Chynge]] an the Breetish [[Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research]] in Exeter.&lt;ref name=gw&gt;{{cite web |last=Bell |first=Alice |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2013/apr/09/margaret-thatcher-green-hero |title=Greenwashing Thatcher's history does an injustice both to her and to science and technology policy |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 April 2013 |accessdate=25 August 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; She helped tae put climate chynge, [[acid rain]] an general pollution in the Breetish mainstream in the early 1980s,&lt;ref name=gw/&gt; an gained distinction as the first warld leader tae wairn o [[global wairmin]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Booker&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Booker |first=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Booker |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/christopherbooker/7823477/Was-Margaret-Thatcher-the-first-climate-sceptic.html |title=Was Margaret Thatcher the first climate sceptic? |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 June 2010 |accessdate=3 June 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her speeches includit ane tae the [[Ryal Society]] on 27 September 1988&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/107346|title=Margaret Thatcher Speech to the Royal Society|date=27 September 1988|accessdate=27 April 2016|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation}}&lt;/ref&gt; an tae the [[Unitit Naitions General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] in November 1989. Houever, upon her retirement as Prime Meenister in 1990, she missed the [[Earth Summit]] 1992 an acame sceptical aboot [[Politics o global wairmin|climate chynge policy]].&lt;ref name=gw/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Booker&quot; /&gt;

===Foreign affairs===
Thatcher's first foreign policy creesis came wi the 1979 Soviet invasion o Afghanistan. She condemned the invasion, said it shawed the bankruptcy o a [[détente]] policy, an helped convince some Breetish athletes tae boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics. She gae waik support tae US Preses [[Jimmy Carter]] wha tried tae punish the USSR wi economic sanctions. Breetain's economic situation wis precarious, an maist o NATO wis reluctant tae cut tred ties.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel James Lahey, &quot;The Thatcher government's response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979–1980,&quot; ''Cold War History'' (2013) 13#1 pp&amp;nbsp;21–42.&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher acame closely aligned wi the [[Cauld War]] policies o US Preses [[Ronald Reagan]], based on thair shared distrust o Communism.&lt;ref name=&quot;thatcher-cw&quot;/&gt; A disgreement came in 1983 when Reagan did nae consult wi her on the [[invasion o Grenada]].&lt;ref&gt;Gary Williams, &quot;'A Matter of Regret': Britain, the 1983 Grenada Crisis, and the Special Relationship.&quot; ''Twentieth Century British History'' 12#2 (2001): 208–230.&lt;/ref&gt; During her first year as Prime Meenister she supportit [[NATO]]'s deceesion tae deploy US nuclear [[BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile|cruise]] an [[Pershing II]] missiles in Wastren Europe&lt;ref name=&quot;thatcher-cw&quot;/&gt; an permittit the US tae station mair nor 160&amp;nbsp;cruise missiles at [[RAF Greenham Common]], stairtin on 14 November 1983 an triggerin mass protests bi the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]].&lt;ref name=&quot;thatcher-cw&quot;/&gt; She bocht the [[Trident nuclear programme|Trident]] nuclear missile submarine seestem frae the US tae replace Polaris, triplin the UK's nuclear forces&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922079,00.html|title=Trident is go|accessdate=16 January 2011|date=28 July 1980|magazine=Time|archive-date=2013-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826001043/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922079,00.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; at an eventual cost o mair nor £12&amp;nbsp;billion (at 1996–97 prices).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/uk/slbm/vanguard.htm|title=Vanguard Class Ballistic Missile Submarine|accessdate=16 January 2011|date=5 November 1999|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|archive-date=2010-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123230232/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/uk/slbm/vanguard.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 2 Apryle 1982 the rulin [[Naitional Reorganisation Process|militar junta in Argentinae]] ordered the invasion o the Breetish-controlled [[Falkland Islands]] an [[Sooth Georgie an the Sooth Sandwich Islands|Sooth Georgie]], triggerin the [[Falklands War]].{{sfnp|Smith|1989|p=21}} At the suggestion o [[Harold Macmillan]] an [[Robert Armstrong, Baron Armstrong o Ilminster|Robert Armstrong]],{{sfnp|Jackling|2005|p=230}} she set up an chaired a smaw [[War cabinet#Falklands War|War Cabinet]] (formally cried ODSA, Owerseas an Defence committee, Sooth Atlantic) tae tak chairge o the conduct o the war,{{sfnp|Hastings|Jenkins|1983|pp=80–81}} which bi 5–6 Apryle haed authorised an dispatched a [[Breetish naval forces in the Falklands War|naval task force]] tae retak the islands.{{sfnp|Hastings|Jenkins|1983|p=95}} Argentinae [[Argentine surrender in the Falklands War|surrendered on 14 Juin]] an the operation wis hailed a success, naewistaundin the daiths o 255&amp;nbsp;Breetish servicemen an 3&amp;nbsp;Falkland Islanders. The &quot;[[Falklands factor]]&quot;, an economic recovery beginnin early in 1982, an a bitterly dividit opposeetion aw contreibutit tae Thatcher's seicont election veectory in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1983|1983]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sanders|first1=David|last2=Ward|first2=Hugh|last3=Marsh|first3=David|title=Government Popularity and the Falklands War: A Reassessment|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=17|date=July 1987 |pages=281–313|issue=3|doi=10.1017/s0007123400004762 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In September 1982 she veesitit Cheenae tae discuss wi [[Deng Xiaoping]] the [[Transfer o sovereignty ower Hong Kong|sovereignty o Hong Kong]] efter 1997. Cheenae wis the first communist state Thatcher haed veesitit an she wis the first Breetish prime meenister tae veesit Cheenae. Efter the ta-year negotiations, Thatcher concedit tae the PRC govrenment an signed the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] in Beijing in 1984, greein tae haund ower Hong Kong's sovereignty in 1997.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=116}}

Awtho sayin that she wis in favour o &quot;peaceful negotiations&quot; tae end [[apartheid]],&lt;ref&gt;See Hansard HC Debs (25 February 1988) [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1988/feb/25/engagements#S6CV0128P0_19880225_HOC_113 vol 128 col 437] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319104336/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1988/feb/25/engagements#S6CV0128P0_19880225_HOC_113 |date=2016-03-19 }} and Written Answers HC Deb (11 July 1988) [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1988/jul/11/south-africa#S6CV0137P0_19880711_CWA_21 vol 137 cols 3-4W] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630103039/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1988/jul/11/south-africa#S6CV0137P0_19880711_CWA_21 |date=2017-06-30 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher stuid against the sanctions imponed on Sooth Africae bi the [[Commonweel o Naitions|Commonweel]] an the [[European Economic Commonty|EC]].{{sfnp|Campbell|2011|p=322}} Thatcher dismissed the [[African Naitional Congress]] (ANC) in October 1987 as &quot;a typical terrorist organisation&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;See Mr Winnick, Hansard HC Deb (13 November 1987) vol 122 [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1987/nov/13/the-commonwealth-and-south-africa#S6CV0122P0_19871113_HOC_85 col 701] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034325/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1987/nov/13/the-commonwealth-and-south-africa#S6CV0122P0_19871113_HOC_85 |date=2016-03-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfnp|Howe|1994|pp=477–478}}

The Thatcher govrenment supportit the [[Khmer Rouge]] keepin thair seat in the UN efter thay war oostit frae pouer in Cambodie bi the [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]]. Awtho Thatcher denied it at the time, it wis revealed in 1991 that frae 1983 the [[Special Air Service|SAS]] wis sent tae saicretly train the &quot;non-Communist&quot; members o the [[Coaleetion Govrenment o Democratic Kampuchea|CGDK]] tae fecht against the Vietnamese-backed [[Fowkrepublic o Kampuchea]] govrenment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite Hansard|house=House of Commons|date=26 October 1990|column_start=655|column_end=667|title=Cambodia|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm198990/cmhansrd/1990-10-26/Debate-3.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|newspaper=The Observer|title=Butcher of Cambodia set to expose Thatcher's role|date=9 January 2000|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jan/09/cambodia|accessdate=26 May 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=newst&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2014/04/how-thatcher-gave-pol-pot-hand|title=How Thatcher gave Pol Pot a hand|date=17 April 2000|first=John|last=Pilger|authorlink=John Pilger|work=[[New Statesman]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher an her pairty haed supportit Breetish membership o the EC in the [[Unitit Kinrick European Communities membership referendum, 1975|1975 naitional referendum]],&lt;ref name=&quot;upi19750604&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=M7QsAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=lQoEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=2825%2C608551|title=Conservatives favor remaining in market|work=Wilmington Morning Star|date=4 June 1975|agency=United Press International|accessdate=26 December 2011|page=5}}&lt;/ref&gt; but she believed that the role o the organisation shoud be leemitit tae ensurin free tred an effective competeetion, an feared that the EC's approach wis at odds wi her views on smawer govrenment an deregulation.{{sfnp|Senden|2004|p=9}}

Thatcher wis ane o the first Wastren leaders tae respond wairmly tae reformist Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Follaein Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetins an reforms enactit bi Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that &quot;We're not in a Cold War now&quot;, but raither in a &quot;new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;reforms1988&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2DC1738F93BA25752C1A96E948260 |title=Gorbachev Policy Has Ended The Cold War, Thatcher Says|date=18 November 1988|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=30 October 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Challenges tae leadership an resignation===
Thatcher wis challenged for the leadership o the Conservative Pairty bi the little-kent backbench MP [[Sir Anthony Meyer, 3rd Baronet|Sir Anthony Meyer]] in the 1989 leadership election.&lt;ref name=&quot;89election&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/5/newsid_2528000/2528339.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|title=5 December 1989: Thatcher beats off leadership rival|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; O the 374&amp;nbsp;Conservative MPs eligible tae vote, 314 votit for Thatcher an 33 for Meyer.&lt;ref name=&quot;89election&quot;/&gt; Her supporters in the pairty viewed the result as a success, an rejectit suggestions that thare wis discontent within the pairty.&lt;ref name=&quot;89election&quot;/&gt;

Opeenion polls in September 1990 reportit that Labour haed established a 14% lead ower the Conservatives,&lt;ref name=&quot;howe&quot;/&gt; an bi November the Conservatives haed been trailin Labour for 18&amp;nbsp;months.&lt;ref name=&quot;ridley&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Ridley|first=Matt|title=Et Tu, Heseltine?; Unpopularity Was a Grievous Fault, and Thatcher Hath Answered for It|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=25 November 1990|page=2}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thir ratins, thegither wi Thatcher's combative personality an willinness tae owerride colleagues' opeenions, contreibuted tae discontent within her pairty.&lt;ref name=&quot;resign-nyt&quot;/&gt; On 1 November 1990, [[Geoffrey Howe]], the last remeenin member o Thatcher's oreeginal 1979 cabinet, resigned frae his poseetion as [[Depute Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick|Depute Prime Meenister]] ower her refuisal tae gree tae a timetable for Breetain tae jyn the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;howe&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/1/newsid_2513000/2513953.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|title=1 November 1990: Howe resigns over Europe policy|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Millership|first=Peter|title= Thatcher's Deputy Quits in Row over Europe |agency=Reuters News|date=1 November 1990}}&lt;/ref&gt; His resignation pruived fatal tae Thatcher's premiership.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Walters|first1=Alan|title=Sir Geoffrey Howe's resignation was fatal blow in Mrs Thatcher's political assassination|newspaper=The Times|date=5 December 1990}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 November, [[Michael Heseltine]] moontit a challenge for the leadership o the Conservative Pairty.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=473}} Opeenion polls haed indicatit that he wad gie the Conservatives a naitional lead ower Labour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |first=David |last=Lipsey |title=Poll swing followed downturn by Tories; Conservative Party leadership |newspaper=The Times |date=21 November 1990}}&lt;/ref&gt; Awtho Thatcher wan the first ballot wi 204 tae 152 votes an 16 abstentions, Heseltine haed attractit sufficient support tae force a seicont ballot. Unner pairty rules, Thatcher nae anerly needit tae win a majority, but her margin ower Heseltine haed tae be equivalent tae 15% o the 372 Conservative MPs in order tae win the leadership election ootricht; wi 54.8% against 40.9% for Heseltine, she came up fower votes short.&lt;ref name=&quot;number-10&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/past-prime-ministers/margaret-thatcher|title=Margaret Thatcher profile|accessdate=6 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher ineetially statit that she intendit to &quot;fight on and fight to win&quot; the seicont ballot, but consultation wi her Cabinet persuadit her tae widraw.&lt;ref name=&quot;resign-nyt&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6DB1438F930A15752C1A966958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=1 |title=Change in Britain; Thatcher Says She'll Quit; 11½ Years as Prime Minister Ended by Party Challenge|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=23 November 1990|newspaper=The New York Times|last=Whitney|first=Craig R.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;resign-bbc&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/22/newsid_2549000/2549189.stm|title=22 November 1990: Thatcher quits as prime minister|accessdate=1 November 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Efter an audience wi the Queen, cryin ither warld leaders, an makkin ane feenal Commons speech,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/108256 |title=HC S: [Confidence in Her Majesty's Government] |date=22 November 1990 |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |accessdate=21 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; she left Downing Street in tears. She reportitly regairdit her oustin as a betrayal.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=474}}

Her resignation surprised internaitional observers includin [[Henry Kissinger]] an [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/dec/30/margaret-thatcher-resignation-shocked-us-ussr-files|title=Margaret Thatcher's resignation shocked politicians in US and USSR, files show|last=Travis|first=Alan|date=30 December 2016|work=The Guardian|accessdate=30 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher wis replaced as Prime Meenister an pairty leader bi her Chancellor [[John Major]], wha prevailed ower Heseltine in the subsequent ballot. Major owersaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17&amp;nbsp;months leadin up tae the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1992|1992 general election]] an led the Conservatives tae thair fowert successive veectory on 9 Apryle 1992.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/apr/04/electionspast.past3|title=Pollsters taxed|work=The Guardian|date=4 April 2005|accessdate=23 January 2011|last=Kettle|first=Martin}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher haed favoured Major ower Heseltine in the leadership contest, but her support for him waikened in later years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/463873.stm|title=Major attacks 'warrior' Thatcher|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=3 October 1999|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Later life==
Thatcher returned tae the [[backbenches]] as a constituency pairlamentarian efter leavin the premiership.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=118}} Her domestic appruival ratin recovered efter her resignation; the balance o public opeenion wis that her govrenment haed been guid for the kintra.&lt;ref name=&quot;Crewe&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Crewe |first=Ivor |authorlink=Ivor Crewe |title=Margaret Thatcher: As the British Saw Her |url=https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/public-perspective/ppscan/22/22015.pdf |journal=The Public Perspective |accessdate=1 March 2017 |date=January 1991 |pages=15, 16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Margaret Thatcher (1925&amp;ndash;2013) |url=https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/margaret-thatcher-1925-2013 |publisher=[[Ipsos MORI]] |date=8 April 2013 |accessdate=25 May 2017 |quote=At the time of her resignation in November 1990, 52% of the public said that they thought her government had been good for the country and 40% that it had been bad. |archive-date=2017-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722003205/https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/margaret-thatcher-1925-2013 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Aged 66, she retired frae the Hoose at the 1992 general election, sayin that leavin the Commons wad allae her mair freedom tae speak her mynd.&lt;ref name=&quot;lords&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/30/newsid_2523000/2523395.stm|title=30 June 1992: Thatcher takes her place in Lords|accessdate=1 November 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Post-Commons: 1992–2003===
Upon leavin the Hoose o Commons, Thatcher acame the first umwhile Prime Meenister tae set up a foondation;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Thatcher Archive|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/thatcher-archive.asp|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=26 August 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; the Breetish weeng o the Margaret Thatcher Foundation wis dissolved in 2005 acause o financial difficulties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/may/11/conservatives.politics|title=End of an era for Thatcher foundation|last=Barkham|first=Patrick|date=11 May 2005|work=The Guardian|accessdate=27 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; She wrote twa volumes o memoirs, ''[[The Downing Street Years]]'' (1993) an ''[[The Path to Power (Margaret Thatcher)|The Path to Power]]'' (1995). In 1991 she an her husband Denis muived tae a hoose in [[Chester Square]], a residential gairden square in central Lunnon's [[Belgravia]] destrict.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/09/margaret-thatcher-estate-family-secret|title=Margaret Thatcher's estate still a family secret|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=14 April 2013|last=Taylor|first=Matthew|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher wis hired bi the tobaccae company [[Altria|Philip Morris]] as a &quot;geopoleetical consultant&quot; in Julie 1992, for $250,000 per year an an annual contreibution o $250,000 tae her foondation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Tobacco Company Hires Margaret Thatcher as Consultant |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1992-07-19/news/mn-4763_1_margaret-thatcher |accessdate=25 May 2017 |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=19 July 1992}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In August 1992 she cried for NATO tae stap the Serbie assault on [[Goražde]] an [[Sarajevo]] tae end [[ethnic cleansin]] during the [[Bosnie War]]. She made a series o speeches in the Lairds creeticisin the [[Maastricht Treaty]],&lt;ref name=&quot;lords&quot;/&gt; describing it as &quot;a treaty too far&quot; an statit: &quot;I could never have signed this treaty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=House of Lords European Communities (Amendment) Bill Speech|date=7 June 1993|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108314|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; She citit [[A. V. Dicey]] when statin that as aw three main pairties war in favour o the treaty, the fowk shoud hae thair say in a referendum.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=House of Commons European Community debate|date=20 November 1991|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108291|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rfter [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1994|election as Labour Pairty leader]] in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair  as &quot;probably the most formidable [[Leader o the Labour Pairty (UK)|Labour leader]] since [[Hugh Gaitskell]]&quot;, addin: &quot;I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Castle|first=Stephen|title=Thatcher praises 'formidable' Blair|newspaper=The Independent|date=28 May 1995}}&lt;/ref&gt; Blair reciprocated in describing Thatcher as a &quot;thoroughly determined person, and that is an admirable quality&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Robert |title=Thatcher seen closer to Blair than Major |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=gaZNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=s0MDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6603%2C5897694 |newspaper=[[The Nation (Thailand)|The Nation]] |date=15 March 1997 |accessdate=25 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

At the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 2001|2001 general election]], Thatcher supportit the Conservative campaign, as she haed done in 1992 an 1997, an in the [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 2001|Conservative leadership election]] follaein its defeat, she endorsed [[Iain Duncan Smith]] ower [[Kenneth Clarke]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Letter supporting Iain Duncan Smith for the Conservative leadership published in the ''Daily Telegraph''|date=21 August 2001|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108390|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2002 she encouraged [[George W. Bush]] tae aggressively tackle the &quot;unfinished business&quot; o [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq unner Saddam Hussein]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Thatcher NYT&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Thatcher|first=Margaret|date=11 February 2002|title=Advice to a Superpower|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/11/opinion/11THAT.html|website=The New York Times|accessdate=11 October 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; an praised Tony Blair for his &quot;strong, bold leadership&quot; in staundin wi Bush in the [[Iraq War]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thatcher Blair Iraq&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Harnden|first=Toby|date=11 December 2002|title=Thatcher praises Blair for standing firm with US on Iraq|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1415788/Thatcher-praises-Blair-for-standing-firm-with-US-on-Iraq.html|website=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=11 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

She broached the same subject in her ''[[Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World]]'', which wis published in Apryle 2002 an dedicatit tae [[Ronald Reagan]], writin that thare wad be na peace in the Middle East till [[Saddam Hussein]] wis toppled. Her beuk an aa said that Israel must tred [[laund for peace]], an that the European Union (EU) wis &quot;fundamentally unreformable&quot;, &quot;a classic utopian project, a monument to the vanity of intellectuals, a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Glover|first1=Peter C.|last2=Economides|first2=Michael J.|title=Energy and Climate Wars: How Naive Politicians, Green Ideologues, and Media Elites are Undermining the Truth about Energy and Climate|date=16 September 2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=1-4411-5307-1|page=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; She argued that Breetain shoud renegotiate its terms o membership or ense [[Brexit|leave the EU]] an jyn the [[North American Free Trade Agreement|North American Free Trade Area]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/mar/18/uk.eu|title=Britain must quit EU, says Thatcher|last=Wintour|first=Patrick|date=18 March 2002|work=The Guardian|accessdate=8 May 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Follaein several smaw strokes she wis advised bi her doctors nae tae engage in further public speakin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite press release|title=Statement from the office of the Rt Hon Baroness Thatcher LG OM FRS|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|date=22 March 2002|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=109305|accessdate=9 November 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 23 Mairch 2002, she annoonced that on the advice o her doctors she wad cancel aw planned speakin engagements an accept na mair.{{sfnp|Campbell|2003|pp=796–798}}

On 26 Juin 2003, Thatcher's husband [[Denis Thatcher|Sir Denis]] dee'd o [[pancreatic cancer]], an wis crematit on 3 Julie.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3041546.stm|title=Lady Thatcher bids Denis farewell|accessdate=20 January 2011|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Feenal years: 2003–2013===
On 11 Juin 2004, Thatcher, against doctor's orders, attendit the [[Daith an state funeral o Ronald Reagan|state funeral service for Ronald Reagan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Thatcher: 'Reagan's life was providential'|publisher=CNN|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=11 June 2004|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/11/thatcher.transcript|archive-date=2017-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109022946/http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/11/thatcher.transcript/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view o her heal, the message haed been pre-recordit several months earlier.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Thatcher's final visit to Reagan|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=10 June 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3793565.stm|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Russell|first1=Alec|last2=Sparrow|first2=Andrew|title=Thatcher's taped eulogy at Reagan funeral|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1463874/Thatchers-taped-eulogy-at-Reagan-funeral.html|accessdate=18 July 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=7 June 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thatcher flew tae [[Californie]] wi the Reagan entourage, an attendit the memorial service an interment ceremony for the preses at the [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3800315.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=12 June 2004|title=Private burial for Ronald Reagan|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; In early 2005 Thatcher creeticised the wey the deceesion tae [[2003 invasion o Iraq|invade Iraq]] haed been made twa years previously. Awtho she still supportit the intervention tae topple Saddam Hussein, she said that as a scientist, she wad ayeweys leuk for &quot;facts, evidence and proof&quot;, afore committin the airmed forces.&lt;ref name=&quot;grice&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/thatcher-reveals-her-doubts-over-basis-for-iraq-war-319542.html|title=Thatcher reveals her doubts over basis for Iraq war|last=Grice|first=Andrew|date=13 October 2005|work=[[The Independent]]|accessdate=22 September 2016|archive-date=2017-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731040334/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/thatcher-reveals-her-doubts-over-basis-for-iraq-war-319542.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thatcher celebratit her 80t birthday at the [[Mandarin Oriental Hyde Park, Lunnon|Mandarin Oriental Hotel]] in [[Hyde Park, Lunnon|Hyde Park]], Lunnon, on 13 October 2005; guests includit the Queen, the [[Prince Philip, Duke o Edinburgh|Duke o Edinburgh]], [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy|Princess Alexandra]] an Tony Blair.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4329132.stm|title=Thatcher marks 80th with a speech|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=13 October 2005|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Geoffrey Howe]], bi then Laird Howe o Aberavon, wis an aa present, an said o his umwhile leader: &quot;Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4337404.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=13 October 2005|title=Birthday tributes to Thatcher|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accordin tae a later airticle in ''The Daily Telegraph'', Thatcher's dauchter Carol first revealed that her mither haed [[dementia]] in 2005, sayin that &quot;Mum doesn't read much any more because of her memory loss&amp;nbsp;... It's pointless. She can't remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she reaches the end&quot;.&lt;ref name=Langley&gt;{{cite news|last=Langley|first=William|title=Carol Thatcher, daughter of the revolution|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/profiles/2652365/Profile-Carol-Thatcher-daughter-of-the-revolution.html|accessdate=11 February 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=30 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; She later recoontit hou she wis first struck bi her mither's dementia when in conversation Thatcher confuised the Falklands an Yugoslav conflicts; she recried the pyne o needin tae tell her mither repeatitly that her husband Denis wis deid.&lt;ref name=&quot;dem-cbs&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/08/25/health/main4380977.shtml|title=Book Recounts Margaret Thatcher's Decline|accessdate=20 November 2008|date=25 August 2008|publisher=CBS|agency=Associated Press|last=Satter|first=Raphael G.}}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2006, Thatcher attendit the offeecial Washington, D.C. memorial service tae commemorate the fift anniversary o the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] on the US. She wis a guest o Vice Preses [[Dick Cheney]], an met Secretar o State [[Condoleezza Rice]] during her veesit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=9/11 Remembrance Honors Victims from More Than 90 Countries|accessdate=1 November 2008|publisher=United States Department of State|date=11 September 2006|url=http://montevideo.usembassy.gov/usaweb/paginas/2006/06-334EN.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060922193936/http://montevideo.usembassy.gov/usaweb/paginas/2006/06-334EN.shtml|archivedate=22 September 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Februar 2007 Thatcher acame the first [[Leevin Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick|leevin Breetish prime meenister]] tae be honoured wi a [[Statue o Margaret Thatcher, Palace o Wastmeenster|statue in the Hooses o Pairlament]]. The bronze statue staunds opposite that o her poleetical hero, [[Statue o Winston Churchill, Palace o Wastmeenster|Sir Winston Churchill's]],&lt;ref name=&quot;bronze&quot;/&gt; an wis unveiled on 21 Februar 2007 wi Thatcher in attendance; she made brief remerks in the [[Members' Lobby]] o the Commons: &quot;I might have preferred iron{{snd}}but bronze will do&amp;nbsp;... It won't rust.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;bronze&quot;&gt;{{cite news|date=21 February 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6384029.stm|title=Iron Lady is honoured in bronze|accessdate=9 April 2007|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Daith an funeral: 2013===
Baroness Thatcher dee'd on 8 Apryle 2013, at the age o 87, efter sufferin a stroke. She haed been stayin at a suite in [[The Ritz Hotel, London|the Ritz Hotel]] in Lunnon syne December 2012 efter haein difficulty wi stairs at her [[Chester Square]] hame in [[Belgravia]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Swinford|first=Steven|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/9980269/Margaret-Thatcher-final-moments-in-hotel-without-her-family-by-her-bedside.html|title=Margaret Thatcher: final moments in hotel without her family by her bedside|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=8 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reactions tae the news o Thatcher's daith]] war mixed in the UK, rangin frae tributes laudin her as Breetain's greatest-ever peacetime Prime Meenister tae public celebrations o her daith an expressions o personalised vitriol.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Burns|first1=John F.|last2=Cowell|first2=Alan|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/11/world/europe/british-lawmakers-margaret-thatcher-legacy.html|url-access=limited|title=Parliament Debates Thatcher Legacy, as Vitriol Flows Online and in Streets|newspaper=The New York Times|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=25 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Details o Thatcher's funeral haed been greed wi her in advance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Independent, 12 April 2013&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Wright|first=Oliver|title=Funeral will be a 'ceremonial' service in line with Baroness Thatcher's wishes|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/funeral-will-be-a-ceremonial-service-in-line-with-baroness-thatchers-wishes-8565093.html|accessdate=12 April 2013|newspaper=The Independent|date=8 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; She received a [[State funerals in the Unitit Kinrick|ceremonial funeral]], includin full militar honours, wi a kirk service at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] on 17 Apryle.&lt;ref name=&quot;autogenerated1&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22067155|title=Ex-Prime Minister Baroness Thatcher dies, aged 87|accessdate=8 April 2013|date=8 April 2013|publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News, 9 April 2013&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Margaret Thatcher funeral set for next week|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22079749|accessdate=9 April 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=9 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Queen Elizabeth II an the Duke o Edinburgh attendit her funeral,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22177366|title=Margaret Thatcher: Queen leads mourners at funeral|publisher=BBC News|date=17 April 2013|accessdate=4 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; the seicont time in the Queen's reign that she haed attendit the funeral o ony o [[Leet o Prime Meenisters o Queen Elizabeth II|her umwhile Prime Meenisters]] (the first bein that o [[Winston Churchill]] in 1965).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Davies|first=Caroline|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/10/queen-decision-lady-thatcher-funeral|title=Queen made personal decision to attend Lady Thatcher's funeral|newspaper=The Guardian|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=3 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Efter the service at St Paul's Cathedral, Thatcher's bouk wis crematit at [[Mortlake Crematorium]], whaur her husband haed been crematit. On 28 September a service for Thatcher wis held in the Aw Saunts Chapel o the [[Royal Hospital Chelsea]]'s Margaret Thatcher Infirmary. In a private ceremony Thatcher's ess war interred in the grunds o the hospital, next tae thae o her husband.&lt;ref name=Telegraph-20130913&gt;{{cite news|title=Baroness Thatcher's ashes laid to rest|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/10341402/Baroness-Thatchers-ashes-laid-to-rest.html|accessdate=28 September 2013 |newspaper=The Telegraph|date=28 September 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=BBC-intere&gt;{{cite news|title=Margaret Thatcher's ashes laid to rest at Royal Hospital Chelsea|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-24316701|accessdate=28 September 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;nb&quot;/&gt;

==See forby==
* [[Sermon on the Mound]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliografie===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher |url=https://archive.org/details/thatcher0000beck |first=Clare |last=Beckett |publisher=Haus Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-904950-71-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher: A Portrait of the Iron Lady |url=https://archive.org/details/margaretthatcher0000blun |last=Blundell |first=John |publisher=Algora |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87586-630-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher; Volume One: The Grocer's Daughter |first=John |last=Campbell |publisher=Pimlico |year=2000 |isbn=0-7126-7418-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979–2001|first=Earl Aaron|last=Reitan |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |year=2003 |isbn=0-7425-2203-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: A Political Marriage |url=https://archive.org/details/ronaldreaganmarg00waps_0 |first=Nicholas |last=Wapshott |publisher=Sentinel |year=2007 |isbn=1-59523-047-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=The Path to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/pathtopower0000that |last=Thatcher |first=Margaret |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-00-638753-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Beckett |first=Andy |title=When the Lights Went Out; Britain in the Seventies |url=https://archive.org/details/whenlightswentou0000andy |year=2010 |publisher=Faber &amp; Faber |isbn=978-0-571-22137-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=The Queen and Di: The Untold Story |url=https://archive.org/details/queendiuntoldsto00sewa |first=Ingrid |last=Seward |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2001  |isbn=1-55970-561-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=The Downing Street Years |url=https://archive.org/details/downingstreetyea0000that_o3q4 |last=Thatcher |first=Margaret |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1993 |isbn=0-00-255354-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Britain since 1945: a political history|url=https://archive.org/details/britainsince19450000chil_q6m6|first=David |last=Childs |edition=6th |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-39326-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Politics UK |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsuk0000unse |last1=Jones |first1=Bill |last2=Kavanagh |first2=Dennis |last3=Moran |first3=Michael |publisher=Longman|edition=6 |chapter=Media organisations and the political process |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-2411-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Thornton|first=Richard C. |title=The Reagan Revolution II: Rebuilding the Western Alliance |year=2006 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4120-1356-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Floud |first1=Roderick |last2=Johnson |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain, Volume 3 |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52738-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Britain Under Thatcher |url=https://archive.org/details/britainunderthat0000seld |first1=Anthony |last1=Seldon |authorlink=Anthony Seldon |first2=Daniel |last2=Collings |publisher=Longman |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-582-31714-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Harvey |last2=Henig |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Hamnett |first3=Chris |title=Shrinking the State: The Political Underpinnings of Privatization |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63918-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=[[A History of Modern Britain]] |first=Andrew |last=Marr |authorlink=Andrew Marr |publisher=Pan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-330-43983-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA |first=Richard |last=English|isbn=978-0-19-517753-4 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Moloney|first=Ed|title=A Secret History of the IRA|url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofi00molo|year=2002|publisher=W. W. Norton &amp; Company |isbn=0-393-32502-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Cochrane |first=Feargal |title=Unionist Politics and the Politics of Unionism Since the Anglo-Irish Agreement |url=https://archive.org/details/unionistpolitics0000coch |year=2001 |publisher=Cork University Press |isbn=1-85918-259-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Battles of the Falklands War |first=Gordon |last=Smith |publisher=I. Allan |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7110-1792-4 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/NAVAL1982FALKLANDS.htm |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Jackling |first=Roger |contribution=The Impact of the Falklands Conflict on Defence Policy |authorlink=Roger Jackling |editor1-last=Badsey |editor1-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Grove |editor2-first=Mark |editor3-last=Havers |editor3-first=Rob |title=The Falklands Conflict Twenty Years On: Lessons for the Future (Sandhurst Conference Series) |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35030-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Battle for the Falklands |url=https://archive.org/details/battleforfalklan0000hast |first1=Max |last1=Hastings |first2=Simon |last2=Jenkins |authorlink1=Max Hastings |authorlink2=Simon Jenkins |publisher=Norton |year=1983 |isbn=0-393-30198-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Conflict of Loyalty |url=https://archive.org/details/conflictofloyalt0000howe |authorlink=Geoffrey Howe |first=Geoffrey |last=Howe |publisher=Macmillan |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-333-59283-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Soft Law in European Community Law |url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.341.2422.sen.21081 |first=Linda |last=Senden |publisher=Hart Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-84113-432-5 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

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{{Infobox saint
|name=Saint Thomas Aquinas&lt;br&gt;OP
|image=Carlo Crivelli 007.jpg
|caption=An altarpiece in [[Ascoli Piceno]], Italy,&lt;br&gt;bi [[Carlo Crivelli]] (15t century)
|feast_day=28 Januar (7 Mairch, till 1969)
|venerated_in=[[Roman Catholic Kirk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anglican Communion]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lutheranism]]
|titles=Releegious, priest an&lt;br&gt;[[Doctor o the Kirk]]
|birth_date = 28 Januar 1225&lt;ref name=TGI&gt;{{cite book |title=St. Thomas Aquinas Philosophical Texts |url=https://archive.org/details/stthomasaquinasp0000thom_n3c0 |first=Thomas |last=Gilby |year=1951 |place=Oxford Univ. Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|birth_place = [[Roccasecca]], [[Kinrick o Sicily]]
|death_date = 7 Mairch 1274&lt;ref name=TGI/&gt;
|death_place = [[Fossanova Abbey|Fossanova]], [[Papal States]]
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date= Julie 18, 1323
|canonized_place=[[Avignon]], [[Papal States]],
|canonized_by= [[Pape John XXII]]
|attributes=The ''[[Summa Theologica|Summa theologiae]]'', a model kirk, the sun on the chest o a Dominican friar
|patronage=Academics; against storms; against lichtnin; apologists; Aquino, Italy; [[Belcastro, Italy]]; beuk sellers; Catholic academies, schuils, an varsities; chastity; Falerna, Italy; learnin; pencil makers; filosophers; publishers; scholars; students; Varsity o Sto. Tomas; [[Santo Tomas, Batangas|Sto. Tomas, Batangas]]; theologians.&lt;ref&gt;http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-thomas-aquinas/&lt;/ref&gt;
|major_shrine=[[:fr:Ensemble conventuel des Jacobins|Kirk of the Jacobins]], [[Toulouse]], Fraunce
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}}
'''Thomas Aquinas''', [[Member o the Order o Preachers|OP]] ({{IPAc-en||ə|ˈ|k|w|aɪ|n|ə|s}}; 1225 – 7 March 1274), kent as '''Thomas o Aquin''' or '''Aquino''' forby, wis an Italian&lt;ref name=JPC&gt;{{cite book |title=Saint Thomas Aquinas |url=https://archive.org/details/saintthomasaquin00conwuoft |first=John Placid, O.P., Father |last=Conway |year=1911 |place=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=RBV&gt;{{cite book |title=The Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin: Vol.I |first=Roger Bede |last=Rev. Vaughan |year=1871 |place=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] an [[priesthuid (Catholic Church)|priest]] an an gye influential [[filosopher]] an [[theologian]] in the tradetioun o [[scholasticism]], athin whilk he is kent as the &quot;''Doctor Angelicus''&quot;, &quot;''Doctor Communis''&quot;, an &quot;''Doctor Universalis''&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;See Pius XI, ''Studiorum Ducem'' 11 (29 June 1923), AAS, XV (&quot;non modo Angelicum, sed etiam Communem seu Universalem Ecclesiae Doctorem&quot;). The title ''Doctor Communis'' dates to the fourteenth century; the title ''Doctor Angelicus'' dates to the fifteenth century, see Walz, ''Xenia Thomistica'', III, p. 164 n. 4. [[Tolomeo da Lucca]] writes in ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (1317): “This man is supreme among modern teachers of philosophy and theology, and indeed in every subject. And such is the common view and opinion, so that nowadays in the University of Paris they call him the ''Doctor Communis'' because of the outstanding clarity of his teaching.” ''Historia Eccles.'' xxiii, c. 9.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thomas Aquinas}}
[[Category:Thomas Aquinas| ]]
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{{stub/Releegion}}</text>
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    <title>Line o succession tae the Breetish throne</title>
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The '''line o succession tae the Breetish throne''' is the ordered sequence o aw those fowk eligible tae [[succession tae the Breetish throne|succeed tae the throne o the Unitit Kinrick]].

==Eligibility==
The richt o succession is regulatit bi the [[Act o Settlement 1701]], the [[Ryal Marriages Act 1772]] an [[common law]].&lt;ref&gt;Bogdanor, Vernon (1995). ''The Monarchy and the Constitution.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-829334-8 p. 42&lt;/ref&gt; The succession is ordered bi [[Male-preference primogeniture|male-preference cognatic primogeniture]]. An individual is in the line o succession if the twa follaein requirements are met:

*He or she is a legitimate descendant o [[Legitimacy law in Ingland an Wales|legitimate]] line frae the Electress [[Sophia o Hanover]]. [[Legitimacy Act 1926|Legitimised]] childer remain ineligible.&lt;ref group=n&gt;The [[Legitimacy Act 1926]], 10 (1) says, &quot;Nothing in this Act shall affect the Succession to any dignity or title of honour or render any person capable of succeeding to or transmitting a right to succeed to any such dignity or title.&quot; The [[Legitimacy Act 1959]], 6 (4) says, &quot;It is hereby declared that nothing in this Act affects the Succession to the Throne.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=wargs&gt;William Addams Reitwiesner, [http://www.wargs.com/essays/succession/2001.html &quot;Persons eligible to succeed to the British Throne as of 1 Jan 2001&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;
*He or she haes never been a [[Catholic Kirk|Roman Catholic]] an haes never mairit a Roman Catholic.&lt;ref name=wargs/&gt;

==Line o succession==
The leet ablo o persons in line o succession tae the present Queen is limitit tae the Queen's descendants (nummered 1 tae 16) an ithers in the nearest collateral lines, namely, the ither eligible descendants o the sons o [[George V]] (nummered 17 tae 51). Persons shawn who are nae in line tae the throne are in italics.

No offeecial, complete version o the line o succession is currently maintained. Ony person's actual poseetion in the line o succession mey chynge as a result o events sic as births an daiths.

[[File:William Submarines Crop.png|thumb|[[Prince William, Duke o Cambridge|William, Prince o Wales]], the [[heir apparent]]]]
{{Tree list}}
*[[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] ''[[George V|Keeng George V]] (1865–1936)''
**[[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]]  ''[[George VI|Keeng George VI]] (1895–1952)''
***[[Image:Simple silver crown.svg|15px]] ''[[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]]'' (1926-2022)
****[[Image:Simple gold crown.svg|15px]] '''[[Charles III|Keeng Charles III]] (born 1948) {{sup|B D W}}
***** '''(1)''' [[Prince William, Duke o Cambridge|The Prince o Wales]] (Prince William; b. 1982) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(2)''' [[Prince George o Cambridge|Prince George o Wales]]&lt;!--style referenced at his airticle--&gt; (b. 2013) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(3)''' [[Princess Charlotte o Cambridge|Princess Charlotte o Wales]] (b. 2015) {{sup| B D W}}
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(4)''' [[Prince Louis o Wales]] (b. 2018) {{sup|B D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(5) '''[[Prince Harry, Duke o Sussex|The Duke o Sussex]]  (b. 1984) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(6)''' [[Prince Archie o Sussex]] (b. 2019) {{sup|B D W}}
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(7)''' [[Princess Lilibet o Sussex]] (b. 2021) {{sup|B D}}
****'''(8)''' [[Prince Andrew, Duke o York|The Duke o York]] (Prince Andrew; b. 1960) {{sup|B D W}}
***** '''(9)''' [[Princess Beatrice o York|Princess Beatrice]] (b. 1988) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(10)''' Sienna Mapelli-Mozzi (b. 2021) {{sup|B D}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(11)''' [[Princess Eugenie o York|Princess Eugenie]] (b. 1990) {{sup|B D W}}
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(12)''' August Brooksbank (b. 2021) {{sup|B D}}
**** '''(13)''' [[Prince Edward, Duke o Edinburgh|The Duke o Edinburgh]] (Prince Edward; b. 1964) {{sup|B D W}}
***** '''(14)''' [[James, Earl o Wessex|Earl o Wessex]] (James Mountbatten-Windsor; b. 2007) {{sup|B D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(15)''' [[Lady Louise Windsor]] (b. 2003) {{sup|B D W}}
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(16)''' [[Anne, Princess Ryal|The Princess Ryal]] (Princess Anne; b. 1950) {{sup|B D W}}
***** '''(17)''' [[Peter Phillips]] (b. 1977) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(18)''' Savannah Phillips (b. 2010) {{sup|B D W}}
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(15)''' Isla Phillips (b. 2012) {{sup|B D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(16)''' [[Zara Phillips|Zara Tindall]] (née Phillips; b. 1981) {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(17)''' Mia Tindall (b. 2014)&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.royal.gov.uk/LatestNewsandDiary/Pressreleases/2014/AnnouncementofthebirthofMrandMrsTindallsfirstbaby1.aspx Announcement of the birth of Mr and Mrs Tindall's first baby, 17 January 2014]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25865137|title=Zara and Mike Tindall's baby named on Twitter}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{sup|B D W}}
****** '''(22)''' Lena Tindall (b. 2018) {{sup|B D W}}
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(23)''' Lucas Tindall (b. 2021) {{sup|B D W}}
*** {{Tree list/final branch}} ''[[Princess Margaret, Coontess o Snowdon]] (1930–2002)''{{sup|D88}}
**** '''(24)''' [[David Armstrong-Jones, Earl o Snowdon|The Earl o Snowdon]] (David Armstrong-Jones; b. 1961) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(25)''' [[Charles Armstrong-Jones, Viscoont Linley|Viscoont Linley]] (b. 1999) {{sup|D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(26)''' [[Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones]] (b. 2002) {{sup|D W}}
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(27)''' [[Lady Sarah Chatto]] (née Armstrong-Jones; b. 1964) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(28)''' Samuel Chatto (b. 1996) {{sup|D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(29)''' Arthur Chatto (b. 1999) {{sup|D W}}
** ''[[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester]] (1900–1974)''{{sup|1952}}
*** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(30)''' [[Prince Richard, Duke o Gloucester|The Duke o Gloucester]] (Prince Richard; b. 1944) {{sup|D W}}
**** '''(31)''' [[Alexander Windsor, Earl o Ulster|Earl o Ulster]] (Alexander Windsor; b. 1974) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(32)''' Lord Culloden (Xan Windsor; b. 2007) {{sup|D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(33)''' Lady Cosima Windsor (b. 2010) {{sup|D W}}
**** '''(34)''' [[Lady Davina Windsor]] (b. 1977) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(35)''' Senna Lewis (b. 2010) {{sup|D W}}&lt;ref name=&quot;PerthChange&quot; group=n&gt;The governments of the Commonwealth realms agreed to [[Perth Agreement|changes to the line of succession]] that would see Tāne Lewis and Rufus Gilman switch places with their elder sisters Senna and Lyla respectively. Since Tāne and Rufus were born after 28 October 2011 (the date of the agreement), they would lose their male preference under the changes.&lt;/ref&gt;
*****{{Tree list/final branch}} '''(36)''' Tāne Lewis (b. 2012) {{sup|D W}}&lt;ref name=&quot;PerthChange&quot; group=n /&gt;
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(37)''' [[Lady Rose Gilman]] (née Windsor; b. 1980) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(38)''' Lyla Gilman (b. 2010) {{sup|D W}}&lt;ref name=&quot;PerthChange&quot; group=n /&gt;
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(39)''' Rufus Gilman (b. 2012) {{sup|D W}}&lt;ref name=&quot;PerthChange&quot; group=n /&gt;
** {{Tree list/final branch}}''[[Prince George, Duke o Kent]] (1902–1942)''
*** '''(40)''' [[Prince Edward, Duke o Kent|The Duke o Kent]] (Prince Edward; b. 1935) {{sup|D W}}
**** '''(41)'''' [[George Windsor, Earl o St Andrews|Earl o St Andrews]] (George Windsor; b. 1962) {{sup|M D W}}
***** ''[[Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick|Lord Downpatrick]] (Edward Windsor; b. 1988)'' {{sup|XC / D W}}
***** ''[[Lady Marina Charlotte Windsor]] (b. 1992)'' {{sup|XC / D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(42)''' [[Lady Amelia Windsor]] (b. 1995) {{sup|D W}}
****&lt;!--Ignore the Royal website — sons and their lines ''always'' come before daughters and theirs--&gt;''[[Lord Nicholas Windsor]] (b. 1970)'' {{sup|XC / D W}}
***** '''(43)''' Albert Windsor (b. 2007) {{sup|XC? / D W}}&lt;ref group=n&gt;Albert and Leopold Windsor were listed on [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ThecurrentRoyalFamily/Successionandprecedence/Succession/Overview.aspx The Official Website of the British Monarchy] and in the 2013 edition of ''Whitaker's Almanack'' as following Estella Taylor (b 2004), not following Lady Amelia Windsor. As they were baptised as Catholics, they are not listed in Debrett's or editions of Whitaker's earlier than 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(44)''' Leopold Windsor (b. 2009) {{sup|XC? / D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(45)''' Louis Windsor (b. 2014) {{sup|XC? / D W}}
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(46)''' [[Lady Helen Taylor]] (née Windsor; b. 1964) {{sup|D W}}&lt;ref group=n&gt;Lady Helen Taylor was listed on [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ThecurrentRoyalFamily/Successionandprecedence/Succession/Overview.aspx The Official Website of the British Monarchy], Debrett's and Whitaker's as following Lady Amelia Windsor, not following Leopold Windsor.&lt;/ref&gt;
***** '''(47)''' Columbus Taylor (b. 1994) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(48)''' Cassius Taylor (b. 1996) {{sup|D W}}
***** '''(49)''' Eloise Taylor (b. 2003) {{sup|D W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(50)''' Estella Taylor (b. 2004) {{sup|D W}}
*** '''(51)''' [[Prince Michael o Kent]] (b. 1942) {{sup|M / W}}
**** '''(52)''' [[Lord Frederick Windsor]] (b. 1979) {{sup|W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(53)''' Maud Windsor (b. 2013) {{sup|W}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/10246517/Prince-and-Princess-Michael-of-Kent-welcome-first-grandchild.html |title=Prince and Princess Michael of Kent welcome first grandchild |access-date=2014-04-18 |archive-date=2020-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629053833/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/10246517/Prince-and-Princess-Michael-of-Kents-first-grandchild-is-named-Maud.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(54)''' Isabella Windsor (b. 2016) {{sup|W}}
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(55)''' [[Lady Gabriella Kingston]] (née Windsor; b. 1981) {{sup|W}}
*** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(56)''' [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy]] (b. 1936) {{sup|W}}
**** '''(57)''' [[James Ogilvy]] (b. 1964) {{sup|W}}
***** '''(58)''' Alexander Ogilvy (b. 1996) {{sup|W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(59)''' Flora Vesteberg (née Ogilvy; b. 1994) {{sup|W}}
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(60)''' Marina Ogilvy (b. 1966) {{sup|W}}
***** '''(61)''' Christian Mowatt (b. 1993) {{sup|W}}
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}'''(62)''' Zenouska Mowatt (b. 1990) {{sup|W}}
{{Tree list/end}}

'''Notes an soorces:'''
: ''{{sup|XC}} Excludit as Roman Catholics.  This exclusion will nae be affectit bi the [[Succession tae the Croun Act 2013]].''
: ''{{sup|MC}} These fowk wur excludit through marriage tae a Roman Catholic.  This exclusion is repealed unner s. 2(2) o the [[Succession tae the Croun Act 2013]], restorin them tae the line o succession ance it comes intae effect.''
: ''{{sup|B}} leeted bi the offeecial wabsteid o the Breetish Monarchy, [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ThecurrentRoyalFamily/Successionandprecedence/Succession/Overview.aspx &quot;Succession&quot;]
: ''{{sup|D}} leeted on [[Debrett's]] wabsteid (as o 9 August 2013): [http://www.debretts.com/people/royal-family/line-succession-0 &quot;The Line of Succession to the British Throne&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405125545/http://www.debretts.com/people/royal-family/line-succession-0 |date=2014-04-05 }}
: ''{{sup|W}} leetit bi [[Whitaker's Almanack]] 2013, London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1-4081-7207-0, p. 21''
: ''{{sup|D88}} Leeted bi Debretts (1988).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|page = [https://archive.org/details/debrettsdebretts0000davi/page/60 61]
|title = Debrett's Distinguished People of Today
|url = https://archive.org/details/debrettsdebretts0000davi
|publisher = Debrett's Peerage
|editor1-first = David
|editor1-last = Williamson
|editor2-first = Patricia
|editor2-last = Ellis
|year = 1988
|quote = &quot;First 25 in succession as listed - Viscount [David] Lascelles being the 25th&quot;
|isbn = 0905649990}}&lt;/ref&gt;
:''{{sup|1952}} Succession as published on the accession o Queen Elizabeth II in 1952&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news
|title = Line of succession to the throne
|url = http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/18257300
|date = 7 February 1952
|newspaper = The Sydney Morning Herald
|accessdate = 24 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;n&quot;/&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Breetish monarchy]]
[[Category:Breetish monarchy-relatit leets]]
[[Category:Breetish Ryal Faimily]]
[[Category:Breetish ryalty]]
[[Category:Lines o succession|Breetish throne]]
[[Category:Succession tae the Breetish croun]]
[[Category:Succession tae the Canadian Croun]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Timothy Dalton</title>
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      <text bytes="3524" sha1="eetyma990p7sz8obeb1dsacoo4uqita" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name         = Timothy Dalton
| birth_name   = Timothy Peter Dalton
| image        = Timothy Dalton 1987.jpg
| imagesize    =
| caption      = Timothy Dalton, Amsterdam 1987
| birth_date   = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1944|3|21}}&lt;br/&gt;or {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1946|3|21}}&lt;ref name=&quot;unknown date&quot;/&gt;
| birth_place  = [[Colwyn Bay]], [[Denbighshire]],&lt;!-- Do not change to Conway: Colwyn Bay was in Denbighshire in 1944/6 --&gt; [[Wales]], UK
| home_town    = [[Belper, Derbyshire]], [[Ingland]], UK
| nationality  = [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]]
| other_names  =
| known_for    = [[James Bond]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Alexei Volkoff]]
| occupation   = Actor
| years_active = 1967–present
| children     = Alexander Dalton
}}
'''Timothy Peter Dalton''' (born 21 Mairch 1944 or 1946)&lt;ref name=&quot;unknown date&quot;&gt;Soorces disagree, wi some sayin his year o birth is 1944:
*{{Cite book|last=LuKanic|first=Steven A.|title=Film Actors Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/filmactorsguide0000luka|publisher=Lone Eagle|year=1991|location=Los Angeles|page=[https://archive.org/details/filmactorsguide0000luka/page/123 123]|isbn=978-0-943728-38-4}}
*{{Cite book|last=Halliwell|first=Leslie|authorlink=Leslie Halliwell|title=Halliwell's Filmgoer's Companion|url=https://archive.org/details/halliwellsfilmgo0000hall_n4y3|edition=9th|publisher=[[Grafton (publisher)|Grafton]]|year=1988|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/halliwellsfilmgo0000hall_n4y3/page/185 185]}}

whilst ithers state 1946:
*{{Cite book|last1=Gareffa|first1=Peter M.|last2=Evory|first2=Ann|title=Newsmakers|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarynews0000anne|publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Research]]|year=1988|location=Detroit|pages=v, 93|isbn=978-0-8103-2203-5}}
*{{Cite book|last=Rubin|first=Steven Jay|title=The Complete James Bond Movie Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/completejamesbon0000rubi_w2j9|publisher=Contemporary Books|year=2003|edition=3rd|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/completejamesbon0000rubi_w2j9/page/97 97]|isbn=978-0-07-141246-9}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Alan |last2=Hearn |first2=Marcus |year=2001 |title=Kiss Kiss Bang! Bang!: the Unofficial James Bond Film Companion|publisher=[[Batsford Books]]|isbn=978-0-7134-8182-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Brady (1994)&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Brady|first=James|authorlink=James Brady (columnist)|title=In step with Timothy Dalton|newspaper=[[The Post and Courier]] ([[Charleston, South Carolina]]), [[Parade (magazine)|Parade Magazine]]|date=13 November 1994|page=24}} [http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=U1RSAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=tzYNAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4679,5129462&amp;dq=timothy-dalton+italian&amp;hl=en Available online.]{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; actor o film an telly.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dalton, Timothy}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:20t-century Breetish male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Breetish male actors]]
[[Category:Alumni o the Ryal Academy o Dramatic Airt]]
[[Category:Breetish male film actors]]
[[Category:Breetish male stage actors]]
[[Category:Breetish male televeesion actors]]
[[Category:Breetish fowk o American strynd]]
[[Category:Breetish fowk o Italian strynd]]
[[Category:Breetish fowk o Erse strynd]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:National Youth Theatre members]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Belper]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Colwyn Bay]]
[[Category:James Bond]]
[[Category:RAF Cadets]]
[[Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members]]</text>
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    <title>Blind Harry</title>
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|name = Blind Harry
|birth_date = {{circa}} 1440
|death_date = 1492 (aged c. 50)
|occupation = minstrel
|notable_works = ''The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace''
|years_active = c. 1470–1492 }}
'''Blind Harry''' ({{circa}} 1440 – 1492), kent as '''Harry''', '''Hary''' or '''Henry the Minstrel''', is renount as the author o ''The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace'', mair commonly kent as ''[[The Wallace (poem)|The Wallace]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Drabble, Margaret, ed. (1985). ''The Oxford Companion to English Literature''. p. 453.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hamilton|first=William|title=Blind Harry's Wallace|url=https://archive.org/details/blindharryswalla0000will|last2=King|first2=Elspeth|date=1998|publisher=Luath Press Limited|isbn=978-0-946487-33-2|location=Edinburgh}}&lt;/ref&gt; He wis peyed for his wark bi  [[James IV, King o Scots]].&lt;ref&gt;''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. 1 (1877), 184&lt;/ref&gt;

'''References'''
{{Reflist}}
{{Makars}}

'''Freemit Airtins'''
Books by Blind Hary, active 1470-1492 Project Gutenberg https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/45423&lt;nowiki/&gt;{{Stub/Scotland}}
{{Stub/Leid}}
{{Stub/Makar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Blind Harry}}
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[[Category:Wars o Scots Unthirldom]]
[[Category:Scots historians]]
[[Category:Scots sodgers]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Scots poets]]
[[Category:1440s births]]
[[Category:1492 daiths]]
[[Category:15t-century Scots fowk]]
[[Category:15t-century Scots writers]]
[[Category:15t-century poets]]
[[Category:Coort o James IV o Scotland]]
[[Category:Scots-leid writers]]
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    <title>Autonomous Republic o Crimea</title>
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{{Infobox country
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| native_name = {{smalldiv|{{unbulleted list |Автономна Республіка Крим |Автономная Республика Крым | Къырым Мухтар Джумхуриети | Qırım Muhtar Cumhuriyeti}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Crimea.svg
| image_coat = Emblem of Crimea.svg
| national_motto = &lt;br/&gt;{{native phrase|ru|&quot;Процветание в единстве&quot;|italics=off}}&lt;br/&gt;''Protsvetaniye v yedinstve''{{nbsp|2}}{{small|([[transleeteration]])}}&lt;br/&gt;''Prosperity in Unity''
| national_anthem = &lt;br/&gt;{{native name|ru|&quot;[[Hime o Crimea|Нивы и горы твои волшебны, Родина]]&quot;|italics=off|nolink=on}}&lt;br/&gt;''Nivy i gory tvoi volshebny, Rodina''{{nbsp|2}}{{small|(transliteration)&lt;br/&gt;''Your fields and mountains are magical, Motherland''}}
| image_map = Crimea in Ukraine.svg
| map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=the|country={{nobold|Autonomous Republic o Crimea}}|location_color=reid|region=Ukraine|region_color=light&amp;nbsp;yellae}}
| image_map2 = Outline Map of Crimea.svg
| map_caption2 = {{map caption|countryprefix=the|country={{nobold|Autonomous Republic o Crimea}}|location_color=licht&amp;nbsp;yellae|region=the [[Crimean Peninsula]]|region_color=none}}
| capital = [[Simferopol]]
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [[Ukrainian leid|Ukrainian]]
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
  | 60.12% [[Roushies in Ukraine|Roushies]]
  | 25.78% [[Ukrainians]]
  | {{nowrap|14.1% [[Crimean Tatars]]}}
 }}
| ethnic_groups_year = [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|2001]]
| membership = {{flag|Ukraine}}
| membership_type = Kintra
| sovereignty_type = Establishment
| established_event1 = [[Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Autonomy]]
| established_date1 = 12 Februar 1991
| established_event2 = [[Temporarily occupied and uncontrolled territories of Ukraine|Official Ukrainian date of loss of control]]
| established_date2 = 20 Februar 2014{{#tag:ref|In 2015 the [[Ukrainian pairlament]] offeecially set 20 Februar 2014 as the date o &quot;the beginnin o the [[Temporarily occupied an uncontrolled territories o Ukraine|temporary occupation o Crimea an Sevastopol bi Roushie]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;10404918crimea&quot;&gt;[https://www.unian.info/m/society/10404918-twitter-verifies-account-of-russia-s-mfa-in-crimea-ukraine-files-complaint.html Twitter verifies account of Russia's MFA in Crimea, Ukraine files complaint], [[UNIAN]] (11 January 2019)&lt;br&gt;{{uk icon}} [https://ukr.segodnya.ua/regions/krym/nyasha-poklonskaya-obeshchaet-boycam-berkuta-nakazat-uchastnikov-maydana-700800.html &quot;Nasha&quot; Poklonsky promises to the &quot;Berkut&quot; fighters to punish the participants of the Maidan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329222625/https://ukr.segodnya.ua/regions/krym/nyasha-poklonskaya-obeshchaet-boycam-berkuta-nakazat-uchastnikov-maydana-700800.html |date=2019-03-29 }}, [[Segodnya]] (20 March 2016)&lt;/ref&gt;|group=nb}}
| established_event3 = [[Annexation o Crimea bi the Roushie Federation|Annexation bi Roushie]]
| established_date3 = 18 Mairch 2014&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url=http://rt.com/news/putin-include-crimea-sevastopol-russia-578/ | work=Russia Today | title=Treaty to accept Crimea, Sevastopol to Russian Federation signed | date=18 March 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_km2 = 26,100
| area_sq_mi = 10,038 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
| population_census = 2,033,700
| population_census_year = [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|2001]]
| population_density_km2 = 77.9
| population_density_sq_mi = 202.6 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
| iso3166code = UA-43
| footnotes = [[File:Crimean culture collage.jpg|250px|Collage o Crimean cultur]]
| status = [[Unitit Naitions General Assemmly Resolution 68/262|Autonomous republic]]
| recognized_regional_languages = [[Roushie leid|Roushie]], [[Crimean Tatar leid|Crimean Tatar]]
}}
'''Crimea''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|k|r|aɪ|ˈ|m|iː|ə}}), kent offeecially as the '''Autonomous Republic o Crimea''' ({{lang-uk|Автономна Республіка Крим}}, ''Avtonomna Respublika Krym''; {{lang-ru|Автономная Республика Крым}}, ''Avtonomnaya Respublika Krym''; {{lang-crh|Qırım Muhtar Cumhuriyeti}}, Къырым Мухтар Джумхуриети), is a sub-naitional unit, an [[autonomous republic]], o [[Ukraine]]. It is locatit on the northren coast o the [[Black Sea]], occupyin a [[peninsulae]] o the same name.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6080890.stm Regions and territories: The Republic of Crimea ]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/ukraine/arc.htm Autonomous Republic of Crimea]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/en/publish/printable_article?art_id=301361 Government Portal of The Autonomous Republic of Crimea]&lt;/ref&gt; It wis aften referred tae wi the definite airticle, as '''the Crimea''', till well intae the 20t century.

== Admeenistrative diveesions ==
Crimea is subdividit intae 25 regions: 14 [[raion]]s ([[destrict]]s) an 11 ceety municipalities, offeecially kent as &quot;territories govrened bi ceety cooncils&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/pls/z7502/A005?rdat1=24.02.2007&amp;rf7571=2 |title=Infobox card — Avtonomna Respublika Krym |accessdate=February 23, 2007 |work=[[Verkhovna Rada|Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine]] |language=Ukrainian |archive-date=2007-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001015441/http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/pls/z7502/A005?rdat1=24.02.2007&amp;rf7571=2 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; While the [[Sevastopol|Ceety o Sevastopol]] is located on the Crimean peninsula, it is administratively separate from the rest of Crimea and is one of two special municipalities of Ukraine. Sevastopol, while having a separate administration, is tichtly integrated within the infrastructure of the whole peninsula.

=== Raions ===
[[File:Crimea-regions alternative.PNG|375px|right|Subdivisions of Crimea]]
{|
|-
|
:1. [[Bakhchisaray Raion]]
:2. [[Bilohirsk Raion]]
:3. [[Dzhankoy Raion]]
:4. [[Kirovske Raion]]
:5. [[Krasnohvardiyske Raion]]
:6. [[Krasnoperekopsk Raion]]
:7. [[Lenine Raion]]
|
:8. [[Nizhnyohirskyi Raion]]
:9. [[Pervomayske Raion]]
:10. [[Rozdolne Raion]]
:11. [[Saky Raion]]
:12. [[Simferopol Raion]]
:13. [[Sovetskyi Raion]]
:14. [[Chornomorske Raion]]
|}

=== Ceety municipalities ===
{|
|-
|
:15. [[Alushta municipality]]
:16. [[Armyansk municipality]]
:17. [[Dzhankoy municipality]]
:18. [[Yevpatoria municipality]]
:19. [[Kerch municipality]]
:20. [[Krasnoperekopsk municipality]]
|
:21. [[Saki municipality]]
:22. [[Simferopol municipality]]
:23. [[Sudak municipality]]
:24. [[Feodosiya municipality]]
:25. [[Yalta municipality]]
|}

[[File:Simferopol center.jpg|thumb|right|[[Simferopol]]]]

=== Major ceeties ===
{|
|-
|
* [[File:COA Simferopol.svg|15px]] [[Simferopol]]: capital
* [[File:COA of Sevastopol.svg|15px]] [[Sevastopol]]: [[Hero Ceety]], [[Black Sea Fleet]] base (admeenistratively separate)
* [[File:Kerch coat.svg|15px]] [[Kerch]]:[[Hero Ceety]],  important industrial, transport an tourist centre
* [[File:Evpato s.gif|15px]] [[Yevpatoria]]: major port, a rail hub, an resort ceety
* [[File:Feodos_Soviet.png|15px]] [[Feodosiya]]: port an resort ceety
|
* [[File:COA Yalta, Krym.svg|15px]] [[Yalta]]: ane o the maist important resorts in Crimea
* [[File:UHT Dzhankoi.svg|15px]] [[Dzhankoy]]: important railwey connection
* [[File:COA Bakhchysarai.svg|15px]] [[Bakhchisaray]]: historical caipital o the [[Crimean Khanate]]
* [[File:COA Krasnoperekopsk.svg|15px]] [[Krasnoperekopsk]]: industrial ceety
*[[Armyansk]]: industrial ceety
* [[File:Coat of Arms of Alushta.png|15px]] [[Alushta]]: resort ceety
|}

== Fuitnotes an references ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{Template group
|title = Geographic locale
|list  =
{{Subdiveesions o Crimea}}
{{Admeenistrative diveesions o Ukraine}}
}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Crimea|*]]
[[Category:Autonomous republics]]
[[Category:Roushie-speakin kintras an territories]]
[[Category:Autonomous Turkic states]]</text>
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    <title>East–Wast Schism</title>
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      <text bytes="9747" sha1="beiej3aew7yipagiu0cqv5238f32omd" xml:space="preserve">The '''East–Wast Schism''' is the break o [[communion (Christian)|communion]] atween whit is nou the [[Eastren Orthodox Kirk|Eastren Orthodox]] an [[Catholic Kirk|Roman Catholic]] Kirks which began in the 11t century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | type = article | contribution = Great Schism | title = Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-19-280290-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Thare haed lang been [[Eastren Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences|ecclesiastical differences an theological disputes]] atween the [[Greek East an Laitin Wast]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;&gt;{{cite book|editor-last =Cross | editor-first = FL |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|url =https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_o5w8 |location=New York|publisher = Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-19-280290-9 | type = article | contribution = Great Schism (1)}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | first = MG | last = D'Agostino | title = Il Primato della Sede di Roma in Leone IX (1049–1054). Studio dei testi latini nella controversia greco-romana nel periodo pregregoriano | trans_title = The primacy of the Roman see in Leo IX (1049–54).  Study of the Latin texts in the Greek-Roman controversy in the pre-Gregorian period | publisher = San Paolo | place = Cinisello Balsamo | year = 2008}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | first = Axel | last = Bayer | title = Spaltung der Christenheit.  Das sogennante Morgenländische Schisma von 1054 | place = Köln-Weimar-Wien | year = 2002 | language = German}}.&lt;/ref&gt;  Prominent amang thir war the issues o the soorce o the [[Holy Spirit]] (&quot;''[[Filioque]]''&quot;), whether leavened or [[unleavened bread]] should be uised in the [[Eucharist]],{{Efn | A late 11t-century pamphlet, ''Against the Franks'',&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | url = http://loki.stockton.edu/~papadema/Syndey_Palatianos.pdf | title = Syndey Palatiano | publisher = Stockton | format = [[Portable document format|PDF]] | access-date = 2015-07-24 | archive-date = 2011-07-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110720051937/http://loki.stockton.edu/~papadema/Syndey_Palatianos.pdf | url-status = dead }}.&lt;/ref&gt; falsely attributed tae [[Photios I o Constantinople|Photios]], leets this as seicont point, richt efter the Filioque.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | first = J | last = Hergenröther | title = Monumenta Graeca ad Photium eiusque historiam pertinentiam | language = Latin | place = Regensburg | year = 1869 | pages = 62–71}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | first = Hans-Georg | last = Beck | title = Byzantinisches Lesebuch| language = German | place = München | year = 1982 | pages = 245–47}}.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the Pape's claim tae [[Papal supremacy|universal jurisdiction]], an the place o [[Constantinople]] in relation tae the [[Pentarchy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | first = Martin | last = Lembke | type = lecture | title = Meetings with the World's Religions | publisher = Centre for Theology and Religious Studies | place = Lund University |date=Spring 2010}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1053, the first step wis taken in the process which led tae formal schism. [[Patriarch o Constantinople]] [[Michael Cerularius]] ordered the closur o aw Laitin kirks in Constantinople, in response tae the Greek kirks in soothren Italy havin been forced tae aither close or conform tae Latin practices.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=mlM1SRCdXtkC&amp;pg=PA44|first= Anthony|last= Dragani|title= Adrian Fortescue and the Eastern Christian Churches|isbn= 978-1-59333345-4|page= 44|publisher= Gorgias|year= 2007|accessdate= 23 February 2013|archive-date= 2014-07-06|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140706223848/http://books.google.com/books?id=mlM1SRCdXtkC&amp;pg=PA44|url-status= dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=JqgNAQAAMAAJ | first1 =Karl | last1 = Bihlmeyer | first2 = Hermann | last2 = Tüchle|title= Church History: The Middle Ages |page= 102 | publisher = Newman Press|year=1967|accessdate=23 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Bury&gt;{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9lHeh36S8ooC&amp;pg=PT1522 | first =John Bagnell | last = Bury|title= The Cambridge Medieval Histories |volume=4|page=267|publisher=Plantagenet Publishing|year=1923|accessdate= 23 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accordin tae the historian [[John Bagnell Bury]], Cerularius' purpose in closin the Laitin kirks wis &quot;tae cut short ony attempt at conciliation&quot;.&lt;ref name=Bury /&gt;
 
In 1054, the [[Papal legate]] traveled tae Constantinople for purposes that included refusin tae Cerularius the title o &quot;[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]&quot; an insistin that he recognise Roum's claim tae be the heid an mither o the kirks.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;/&gt; The main purpose o the papal legation wis tae seek help frae the Byzantine Emperor in view o the [[Norman conquest o soothren Italy]] an tae deal wi recent attacks bi [[Leo o Ohrid]] against the uise o unleavened bread an ither Wastren customs,&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=auT8VbgOe48C&amp;pg=PA113 | first = A Edward | last = Siecienski | title = The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy | publisher = Oxford University Press | date=2010 | isbn = 978-0-19-537204-5 | page = 113}}.&lt;/ref&gt; attacks that haed the support o Cerularius; Axel Bayer says the legation wis sent in response tae twa letters, ane frae the Emperor seekin assistance in arrangin a common militar campaign bi the eastren an wastren empires against the Normans, an the ither frae Cerularius.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=LYD7XoGwafAC&amp;pg=PA80 | first = Axel | last = Bayer | title = Spaltung der Christenheit | language = German | publisher = Böhlau | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-3-41214204-9 | page = 80}}.&lt;/ref&gt; On the refusal o Cerularius tae accept the demand, the leader o the legation, [[Cardinal Humbert]], [[Excommunication|excommunicatit]] him, an in return Cerularius excommunicatit Cardinal Humbert an the ither legates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;/&gt; This wis anly the first act in a centuries-lang process that eventually acame a complete schism.{{Sfn | Runciman | 1955}}

The validity o the Wastren legates' act is doubtful, syne Pape Leo haed died an Cerularius' excommunication applee'd anly tae the legates personally.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;/&gt; Still, the Kirk split alang [[doctrine|doctrinal]], [[theology|theological]], [[lingueestics|lingueestic]], [[politics|poleetical]], an [[geografie|geografical]] lines, an the fundamental breach haes never been healed, wi each side whiles accusin the ither o havin fallen intae [[heresy]] an o havin ineetiatit the diveesion.  The [[Crusades]], the [[Massacre o the Laitins]] in 1182, the Wast's retaliation in the [[Sack o Thessalonica (1185)|Sackin o Thessalonica in 1185]], the captur an [[sack f Constantinople]] in 1204, an the imposeetion o [[Patriarch#Other historical Latin patriarchates|Latin patriarchs]] made reconciliation mair difficult.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;/&gt; Establishing [[Latin Church|Latin]] [[hierarch]]ies in the [[Crusader states]] meant that thare war twa rival claimants tae each o the patriarchal sees o Antioch, Constantinople, an Jerusalem, makin the existence o schism clear.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hje62q52XNsC&amp;pg=PA281 | first =Aidan, OP | last = Nichols |title= Rome and the Eastern Churches |isbn=978-1-58617282-4|page=281| publisher = Ignatius Press|year=2010|accessdate=23 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Seicont Cooncil o Lyon]] in 1274 an the [[Cooncil o Florence]] in 1439 attemptit tae reunite the twa kirks. Despite acceptance bi the pairteecipatin eastren delegations, no effective reconciliation wis realised, syne the Orthodox believe that the acts o cooncils must be ratified bi the wider Kirk an the acts o thir cooncils never attained widespread acceptance amang Orthodox kirks. In 1484, 31 years efter the [[Faw o Constantinople]] tae the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], a Synod o Constantinople repudiatit the Union o Florence, offeecially statin the poseetion that haed already been taken bi Orthodox in general.

In 1965, [[Paul VI|Pape Paul VI]] an the [[Ecumenical Patriarch o Constantinople]] [[Athenagoras I]] nullified the anathemas o 1054,&lt;ref name=&quot;Cross&quot;/&gt; althou this nullification o measurs taken against a few individuals wis essentially a guidwill gestur an did nae constitute ony sort o reunion atween kirks.&lt;ref&gt;The absence o full communion atween the kirks is mentioned explicitly even in the permission that [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2S.HTM canon 844 §3 o the Code o Canon Law] accords for the admeenisterin bi Catholic meenisters o the sacraments o penance, the Eucharist an anointin o the sick tae spontaneously requestin members o eastren kirks such as the Eastren Orthodox Kirk (as an aa the [[Oriental Orthodox]] kirks an the [[Kirk o the East]]) an o wastren kirks such as the Auld Catholic Kirk.&lt;/ref&gt; Contacts atween the twa sides continue: Every year a delegation frae each jyns in the ither's celebration o its patronal feast, [[Feast o Saunts Peter an Paul|Saunts Peter an Paul]] (29 Juin) for Roum an [[Feast o Saunt Andrew|Saunt Andrew]] (30 November) for Constantinople, an thare hae been a nummer o veesits bi the heids o each tae the ither. The efforts o the Ecumenical Patriarchs towards reconciliation wi the Catholic Kirk hae eften been the target o sharp criticism frae some fellae Orthodox.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|publisher=Society of Saint John Chrysostom|year=2001|journal=Eastern Churches Journal|volume=8|number=Issues 1–2|page=149}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot;/&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:East-Wast Schism}}
[[Category:Releegion]]
[[Category:East–Wast Schism| ]]
[[Category:11t century in Europe]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abbasid Caliphate</title>
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      <text bytes="73023" sha1="o06k345fdcd3e8yaa6fsq8rv0vdxkx8" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Former Country
| native_name            = الخلافة العباسية
| native_name_lang       = ar
| conventional_long_name = Abbasid Caliphate
| common_name            = Abbasids
| continent              = Afro-Eurasie
| region                 = Middle East
| status                 = Empire
| government_type        = Caliphate
| life_span              = 750–1258&lt;br /&gt;1261–1517&lt;br /&gt; {{small|(unner the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate o Cairo]])}}
| year_start             = 750
| year_end               = 1517
| image_flag             = Abbassid banner.svg
| flag_type              = The Black Banner o the Abbasids.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Akhtar |first1=Muhammad Wajid |title=Ten Things You Didn’t Know About The Kaaba |url=http://muslimmatters.org/2012/11/15/ten-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-kaaba |website=MuslimMatters.org |publisher=Muslim Matters |access-date=1 August 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| p1                     = Umayyad Caliphate
| flag_p1                = Umayyad Flag.svg
| flag_p4                = 
| s1                     = Mongol Empire
| flag_s1                = 
| s2                     = Fatimid Islamic Caliphate
| flag_s2                = Rectangular green flag.svg
| s3                     = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
| flag_s3                = Mameluke Flag.svg
| s4                     = Saffarid dynasty
| flag_s4                = 
| image_map              = Abbasids850.png
| image_map_caption      = Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent, c. 850.
| capital                = [[Kufa]]&lt;br /&gt;{{small|(750–762)}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Baghdad]]&lt;br /&gt;{{small|(762–796, 809–836, 892–1258)}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ar-Raqqah]]&lt;br /&gt;{{small|(796–809)}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]]&lt;br /&gt;{{small|(836–892)}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Cairo]]&lt;br /&gt;{{small|(1261–1517)}}
| common_languages       = Offeecial leid:&lt;br /&gt;[[Arabic leid|Arabic]]&lt;br /&gt;Regional leids:&lt;br /&gt;[[Turkic leids|Oghuz Turkic]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Aramaic leid|Aramaic]], [[Armenie leid|Armenian]], [[Berber leids|Berber]], [[Coptic leid|Coptic]], [[Georgian leid|Georgian]], [[Greek leid|Greek]], [[Kurdish leid|Kurdish]], [[Middle Persie|Persie]], [[Prakrit leid|Prakrit]]
| religion               = [[Sunni Islam]]
| currency               = [[Gowd dinar|Dinar]] (gowd coin)&lt;br /&gt;[[Dirham]] (siller coin)&lt;br /&gt; [[Fals]] (copper coin)
| leader1                = [[As-Saffah]] {{small|(first)}}
| year_leader1           = 750–754
| leader2                = [[Al-Musta'sim]] {{small|(last) (caliph in Baghdad)}}
| year_leader2           = 1242–1258
| leader3                = [[al-Mutawakkil III]]{{small|(last) (caliph in cairo)}}
| year_leader3           = 1508–1517
| title_leader           = [[Caliph]]
| today                  = {{Collapsible list|title=Kintras theday | {{flag |Afghanistan}}|{{flag|Algerie}}|{{flag |Andorrae}}|{{flag|Armenie}}|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}|{{flag |Cyprus}}|{{flag |Egyp}}|{{flag |Fraunce}}|{{flag |Georgie}}|{{flag|Indie}}|{{flag |Gibraltar}}|{{flag |Greece}}|{{flag|Iran}}|{{flag|Iraq}}|{{flag|Israel}}|{{flag|Italy}}|{{flag |Jordan}}|{{flag |Kazakhstan}}|{{flag |Kuwait}}|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}|{{flag |Lebanon}}|{{flag |Libie}}|{{flag|Malta}}|{{flag|Oman}}|{{flag|Pakistan}}|{{flag|Palestinian Authority}}|{{flag |Portugal}}|{{flag |Qatar}}|{{flag|Roushie}}|{{flag |Saudi Arabie}}|{{flag |Spain}}|{{flag |Sirie}}|{{flag|Tajikistan}}|{{flag|Tunisie}}|{{flag|Turkey}}|{{flag |Turkmenistan}}|{{flag |Unitit Arab Emirates}}|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}|{{flag |Yemen}}
}}
| footnotes = 
}}
The '''Abbasid Caliphate''' ({{lang-ar|الخلافة العباسية}} ''{{transl|ar|al-Khilāfah al-‘Abbāsīyah}}'') wis the third o the [[Islam]]ic [[caliphate]]s tae succeed the [[Prophets in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. It wis foondit bi a dynasty descendit frae Muhammad's uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib]] (566–653 CE), frae that the dynasty taks its name.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Thay ruled as [[caliphs]] for maist o the caliphate frae thair caipital in [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]] in modren-day [[Iraq]], efter haein owerthrawn the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in the [[Abbasid Revolution]] o 750 CE (132&amp;nbsp;[[anno Hegirae|AH]]).

The Abbasid Caliphate first centred its govrenment in [[Kufa]], modren-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph [[Al-Mansur]] foondit the ceety o Baghdad, near the auncient [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] caipital ceety o [[Ctesiphon]]. The Abbasid period wis merkit bi reliance on [[Greater Iran|Persie]] [[bureaucrat]]s (notably the [[Barmakids|Barmakid]] faimily) for govrenin the territories as weel as an increasin inclusion o [[Mawla|non-Arab Muslims]] in the ''[[ummah]]'' (naitional commonty). [[Persianate customs]] war braidly adoptit bi the ruling elite, an thay begoud patronage o airtists an scholarts.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Canfield |first1=Robert L. |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |page=5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baghdad becam a centre o science, cultur, filosofie an invention in whit becam kent as the [[Islamic Gowden Age|Gowden Age o Islam]].

Despite this ineetial cooperation, the Abbasids o the late 8t century haed alienated baith non-Arab ''[[mawali]]'' (clients)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABŪ MOSLEM ḴORĀSĀNĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-moslem-abd-al-rahman-b |website=www.iranicaonline.org |access-date=2015-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122132055/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-moslem-abd-al-rahman-b# |archive-date=22 November 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt; an Iranian bureaucrats.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times: Volume II: The Intermediate Ages p.720 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEab85xHAMC |publisher=OUP Oxford |date=1999-01-01 |isbn=978-0-19-820790-0 |first=S. E. |last=Finer}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thay war forced tae cede authority ower [[Al-Andalus]] an the [[Maghreb]] tae the [[Emirate o Córdoba|Umayyads]] in 756, [[Morocco]] tae the [[Idrisid dynasty]] in 788, [[Ifriqiya]] tae the [[Aghlabids]] in 800 an [[Egyp in the Middle Ages|Egyp]] tae the [[Isma'ili]]-[[Shia]] caliphate o the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] in 969.

The poleetical pouer o the caliphs lairgely endit wi the rise o the Iranian [[Buyids]] an the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq Turks]], that ilk capturt Baghdad in 945 an 1055 respectively. Awtho Abbasid leadership ower the vast [[Islamic empire]] wis gradually reduced tae a ceremonial releegious function, the dynasty retained control ower its [[Mesopotamian]] domeen. The Abbasids' period o cultural frueetion endit in 1258 wi the [[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|sack o Baghdad]] bi the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] unner [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Abbasid line o rulers, an Muslim cultur in general, re-centred themsels in the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] caipital o [[Cairo]] in 1261. Tho lackin in poleetical pouer, the dynasty conteena'd tae claim releegious authority till efter the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)|conquest o Egyp]] in 1517.{{sfn|Holt|1984}}

== History ==

=== Abbasid Revolution (750–751) ===
{{main|Abbasid Revolution}}
The Abbasid caliphs war [[Arab fowk|Arabs]] descendit frae [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]], ane o the youngest uncles o Muhammad an o the same [[Banu Hashim]] clan. The Abbasids claimed tae be the true successors o Prophet Muhammad in replacin the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] descendants o [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams|Banu Umayya]] bi virtue o thair closer bluidline tae Muhammad.

The Abbasids an aw distinguished themsels frae the Umayyads bi attackin thair moral chairacter an admeenistration in general. Accordin tae [[Ira Lapidus]], &quot;The Abbasid revolt wis supportit lairgely bi Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers o [[Merv]] wi the addeetion o the Yemeni faction an thair [[Mawali]]&quot;.{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|p=54}} The Abbasids an aw appealed tae non-Arab Muslims, kent as ''mawali'', that remeened ootside the kinship-based society o the Arabs an war perceived as a lawer cless within the Umayyad empire. [[Mohammad ibn Ali Abbasi|Muhammad ibn 'Ali]], a great-grandson o Abbas, begoud tae campaign in [[Greater Persie|Persie]] for the return o pouer tae the faimily o Prophet Muhammad, the [[Hashimites]], in the ring o [[Umar II]].

In the ring o [[Marwan II]], this opposeetion culminatit in the rebellion o Ibrahim the Imam, the fowert in strynd frae Abbas. Supportit bi the province o [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (Eastren Persie), even tho the govrenor opponed them, an the Shia Arabs,{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} he achieved conseederable success, but wis capturt in the year 747 an dee'd, possibly assassinated, in preeson.

On 9 Juin 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), [[Abu Muslim]], risin frae Khorasan, successfully ineetiatit an appen revolt against Umayyad rule, that wis cairied oot unner the sign o the [[Black Staundart]]. Close tae 10,000 sodgers war unner Abu Muslim's command whan the hostilities offeecially begoud in [[Merv (East Sirie Ecclesiastical Province)|Merv]].{{sfn|Lewis|1995|p=102}} [[Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i|General Qahtaba]] follaed the fleein govrenor [[Nasr ibn Sayyar]] wast defeatin the Umayyads at the Battle o Gorgan, the Battle o Nahāvand an feenally in the Battle o Karbala, aw in the year 748.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}}
[[File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Abu'l-'Abbas al-Saffah is proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph (cropped).jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Folio frae ''Tarikhnama'' o [[Muhammad Bal'ami|Bal'ami]] depictin [[As-Saffah|al-Saffah]] as he receives [[Bay'ah|pledges o allegiance]] in [[Kufa]]]]
The quarry wis taken up bi Ibrahim's brither Abdallah, kent bi the name o [[As-Saffah|Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah]], that defeatit the Umayyads in 750 in the [[Battle o the Zab|battle near the Great Zab]] an wis subsequently proclaimed [[caliph]].&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot;&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Abbasids|volume=1|page=10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Efter this loss, Marwan fled tae Egyp, whaur he wis subsequently assassinatit. The remainder o his faimily, baurin ane male, war an aw eliminatit.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}}

Immediately efter thair veectory, As-Saffah sent his forces tae [[Central Asie]], whaur his forces fecht against [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] expansion in the [[Battle o Talas]]. The noble Iranian faimily [[Barmakids]], that warinstrumental in biggin [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]], introduced the warld's first recordit [[paper mill]] in the ceety, sicweys beginnin a new era o intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. As-Saffah focused on pittin doun numerous rebellions in Sirie an Mesopotamie. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] conducted raids in these early distractions.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}}

=== Pouer (752–775) ===
[[File:Baghdad 150 to 300 AH.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The ceety o [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]] atween 767 an 912 AD. The roond plan reflects pre-Islamic Persian urban design.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baghdad-iranian-connection-1-pr-Mongol# |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117020537/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baghdad-iranian-connection-1-pr-Mongol# |archive-date=17 November 2017 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Battle of Talas.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Battle o Talas]], 751]]
The first chynge the Abbasids, under [[Al-Mansur]], made wis tae muive the empire's caipital frae [[Damascus]], in Sirie, tae Baghdad in Iraq. This wis tae baith appease as weel tae be closer tae the Persie ''mawali'' support base that existit in this region mair influenced bi Persie history an cultur, an pairt o the Persie mawali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. Baghdad wis established on the [[Tigris River]] in 762. A new poseetion, that of the [[vizier]], wis an aw established tae delegate central authority, an even greater authority wis delegatit tae local emirs.&lt;ref name=&quot;AHGC&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Anon|2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This eventually meant that mony Abbasid caliphs war relegatit tae a mair ceremonial role than unner the Umayyads, as the viziers begoud tae exert greater influence, an the role o the auld Arab aristocracy wis slawly replaced bi a Persie bureaucracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;AHGC&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Anon|2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Al-Mansur's time control o [[Al-Andalus]] wis lost, an the Shia revoltit an war defeatit a year later at the [[Alid revolt o 762–763|Battle o Bakhamra]].{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}}

The Abbasids haed dependit hivily on the support o Persies{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} in thair owerthraw o the Umayyads. Abu al-'Abbas' successor, [[Al-Mansur]] welcomed nan-Arab Muslims tae his coort. While this helped integrate Arab an Persie culturs, it alienatit mony o thair Arab supporters, pairteecularly the [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasanian]] Arabs that had supportit them in thair battles against the Umayyads.

Thir fissurs in thair support led tae immediate problems. The Umayyads, while oot o pouer, war nae destroyed. The anerly survivin member o the Umayyad ryal faumily, that haed been aw but annihilatit, ultimately made his way tae Spain whaur he established himsel as an independent [[Emir]] ([[Abd ar-Rahman I]], 756). In 929, [[Abd ar-Rahman III]] assumed the teetle o Caliph, establishin [[Al Andalus]] frae [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] as a rival tae Baghdad as the legitimate caipital o the Islamic Empire.

In 756, the Abbasid Caliph [[Al-Mansur]] sent ower 4,000 Arab mercenaries tae assist the Cheenese [[Tang dynasty]] in the [[An Shi Rebellion]] against [[An Lushan]]. The Abbasides or &quot;Black Banners,&quot; as thay war commonly cried, war kent in Tang dynasty chronicles as the ''hēiyī Dàshí'', &quot;The Black-robed Tazi&quot;, ({{lang|zh|黑衣大食}}) (&quot;Tazi&quot; bein a borraein frae Persian ''[[wikt:تازی|Tāzī]]'', the wird for &quot;Arab&quot;).{{refn|group=nb|Wade states &quot;Tazi in Persie soorces referred tae a fowk in that laund, but wis later extendit tae kiver Arab launds. The Persie term wis adoptit bi Tang China (Dàshí :大食) tae refer tae the Arabs till the 12t century.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Wade|2012|p=138}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Jenkins|1999|p=61}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Carné|1872|p=295}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ghosh|1961|p=60}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Hermann|1912|p=77}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Anon|1928|p=1617}}&lt;/ref&gt; After the war, these embassies remained in China &lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Chapuis|1995|p=92}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Kitagawa|1989|p=283}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Smith|Weng|1973|p=129}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Baker|1990|p=53}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fitzgerald|1961|p=332}}&lt;/ref&gt; wi Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] establishin an alliance wi Cheenae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dennis Bloodworth, Ching Ping Bloodworth 2004 214&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Bloodworth|Bloodworth|2004|p=214}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several embassies frae the Abbasid Caliphs tae the Cheenese coort hae been recordit in the T'ang Annals, the maist important o thir bein thae o [[As-Saffah|Abul Abbas al-Saffah]], the first Abbasid caliph, his successor [[Al-Mansur|Abu Jafar]], an [[Harun al-Rashid]].

=== Abbasid Gowden Age (775–861) ===
[[File:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Harun al-Rashid]] receivin a delegation sent bi [[Charlemagne]] at his coort in Baghdad. Pentin bi German penter {{ill|Julius Köckert|fr}} (1827–1918), datit 1864. Ile on canvas.]]
The Abbasid leadership haed tae wirk haurd in the last hauf o the 8t century (750–800), unner several competent caliphs an thair viziers tae owercome the poleetical challenges creatit bi the faur flung naitur o the empire, an the leemitit communication athort it an usher in the admeenistrative chynges needit tae keep order.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brauer&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Brauer|1995}}&lt;/ref&gt; It wus an aw in this early period o the dynasty, in pairteecular in the govrenance o [[al-Mansur]], [[Harun al-Rashid]], an [[al-Ma'mun]], that the reputation an pouer o the dynasty wis creatit.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}

Al-Mahdi [[Abbasid invasion o Asia Minor (782)|restairtit the fechtin]] wi the Byzantines an his sons conteena'd the conflict till [[Irene o Athens|Empress Irene]] pushed for peace.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} Efter several years o peace, [[Nikephoros I]] brak the treaty, then fendit aff multiple incursions in the first decade o the 9t century. Thir attacks pushed intae the [[Taurus Muntains]] culminatin wi a veectory at the [[Battle o Krasos]] an the [[Abbasid invasion o Asia Minor (806)|massive invasion o 806]], led bi Rashid himsel.&lt;ref name=DD1&gt;{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=265}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rashid's navy an aw pruived successfu as he teuk [[Cyprus]]. Eventually, the momentum turned an muckle o the laund gained wis lost. Rashid decidit tae focus on the rebellion o [[Rafi ibn al-Layth]] in Khorasan an dee'd while there.&lt;ref name=&quot;DD1&quot; /&gt; While the [[Byzantine Empire]] wis fechtin Abbasid rule in Sirie an [[Anatolie]], militar operations in this period war meenimal, as the caliphate focused on internal maiters, its govrenors exertin greater autonomy an uisin thair increasin pouer tae mak thair poseetions hereditary.&lt;ref name=&quot;AHGC&quot; /&gt;

At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenges closer tae hame. Harun al-Rashid turned on the [[Barmakids]], a Persie faimily that haed grawn signeeficantly in pouer within the admeenistration o the state an killt maist o the faimily.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Meisami|1999}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the same period, several factions begoud aither tae leave the empire for ither launds or tae tak control o distant pairts o the empire awey frae the Abbasids. The ring o al-Rashid an his sons war conseedert tae be the apex o the Abbasids.&lt;ref name=mag&gt;{{harvnb|Magnusson|Goring|1990|p=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Gowd dinar]] mintit in the ring o [[al-Amin]] (809–813)]]
Efter Rashid's death, the empire wis split bi a [[Fowert Fitna|ceevil war]] atween the caliph [[al-Amin]] an his brither [[al-Ma'mun]] that had the support o Khorasan. This war endit wi a [[Siege o Baghdad (812–813)|twa-year siege]] o Baghdad an the eventual daith o al-Amin in 813.&lt;ref name=DD1 /&gt; Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years o relative caum interspersed wi a rebellion supportit bi the Byzantines in [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] bi the [[Khurramites]]. Al-Ma'mun wis an aw responsible for the creaution o an autonomous Khorasan, an the conteena'd repulsin o Byzantine forays.&lt;ref name=DD1 /&gt;

[[Al-Mu'tasim]] gained pouer in 833 an his rule merkit the end o the strang caliphs. He strenthened his personal airmy wi Turkis mercenaries an promptly restairtit the war wi the Byzantines. His militar excursions war generally successfu culminatin wi a resoondin veectory in the [[Sack o Amorium]]. His attempt at seizin [[Constantinople]] failed whan his fleet wis destroyed bi a storm.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dupuy|dupuy|1986|pp=265–266}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Byzantines restairtit the fechtin bi [[Sack o Damietta (853)|sackin Damietta]] in Egyp. [[Al-Mutawakkil]] respondit bi sendin his truips intae [[Anatolie]] again, sackin an maraudin till thay war [[Battle o Lalakaon|eventually annihilatit]] in 863.&lt;ref name=DD3&gt;{{harvnb|Dupuy|dupuy|1986|p=266}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fractur tae autonomous dynasties (861–945) ==
[[File:Abbasid Caliphate 891-892.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map o the fragmentit Abbasid empire, wi auries still unner direct control o the Abbasid central govrenment (daurk green) an unner autonomous rulers (licht green) adherin tae nominal Abbasid suzerainty, {{circa|892}}]]

Even bi 820, the [[Samanid]]s had begun the process o exercisin independent authority in [[Transoxiana]] an [[Greater Khorasan]], as haed the [[Twaler]]-Shia [[Hamdanid]]s in Northren Sirie, an the succeedin [[Tahirid]] an [[Saffarid]] dynasties o Iran. The Saffarids, frae Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, an the [[Tulunid]]s teuk control o maist o Sirie. The trend o waikenin o the central pouer an strenthenin o the minor caliphates on the periphery conteena'd.&lt;ref name=mag /&gt;

An exception wis the 10-year period o [[Al-Mu'tadid]]'s rule. He brocht pairts o Egyp, Sirie, an Khorasan back intae the Abbasid's control. Especially efter the &quot;[[Anarchy at Samarra]]&quot;, the Abbasid central govrenment wis waikened an centrifugal tendencies becam mair prominent in the Caliphate's provinces. Bi the early 10t century, the Abbasids awmaist laist control o Iraq tae various [[amir]]s, an the caliph [[al-Radi]] wis forced tae acknawledge thair pouer bi creautin the position o &quot;Prince o Princes&quot; (''[[amir al-umara]]'').&lt;ref name=mag /&gt;

[[Al-Mustakfi]] haed a short ring frae 944–946, an it wis in this period that the Persie faction kent as the [[Buyids]] frae [[Daylam]] swept intae pouer an assumed control ower the bureaucracy in Baghdad. Accordin tae the history o [[Miskawayh]], thay begoud distributin [[iqta]]s ([[fief]]s in the form o tax ferms) tae thair supporters. This period o localised secular control wis tae last nearly 100 years.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} The loss o Abbasid pouer tae the Buyids wad shift as the Seljuks wad tak ower frae the Persies.&lt;ref name=mag /&gt;

At the end o the aicht century the Abbasids foond thay coud na langer keep a huge polity lairger nor that o Roum thegither frae Baghdad. In 793 the [[Zaydi]]-Shia dynasty o [[Idrisids]] set up a state frae Fez in Morocco, while a faimily o govrenors unner the Abbasids becam increasinly independent till thay foondit the Aghlabid Emirate frae the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim stairtit the dounwart slide bi utilisin non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal airmy. An aw in this period officers stairtit assassinatin superiors wi that thay fawed oot wi, in pairteecular the caliphs.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}

Bi the 870s Egyp becam autonomous unner [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]]. In the East as weel, govrenors decreased thair ties tae the centre. The [[Saffarids]] o Herat an the [[Samanids]] o Bukhara haed braken awey frae the 870s, cultivatin a muckle mair [[Persianate cultur]] an statecraft. Bi this time anerly the central launds o Mesopotamie war unner direct Abbasid control, wi Palestine an the Hijaz eften managed bi the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, haed begun tae push Arab Muslims faur east in Anatolie.

Bi the 920s, the situation haed chynged faur, as North Africae wis lost tae the Abbasids. A Shia sect anerly recognisin the first five Imams an tracin its ruits tae Muhammad's dochter Fatima teuk control o Idrisid an then Aghlabid domeens.&lt;ref name=mag /&gt; Cried the [[Fatimid dynasty]], thay had advanced tae Egyp in 969, establishin thair caipital near Fustat in Cairo, that thay biggit as a bastion o Shia learin an politics. Bi 1000 thay haed acome the chief poleetical an ideological challenge tae Sunni Islam in the form o the Abbasids. Bi this time the latter state had fragmentit intae several govrenorships that, while recognisin caliphal authority frae Baghdad, did maistly as thay wantit, fechtin wi ilk ither. The Caliph himsel wis unner 'pertection' o the Buyid Emirs that possessed aw o Iraq an wastren Iran, an war quietly Shia in thair sympathies.

Ootside Iraq, aw the autonomous provinces slawly teuk on the chairactereestic o de facto states wi hereditary rulers, airmies, an revenues an operatit unner anerly nominal caliph suzerainty, that mey nae necessarily be reflectit bi ony contreibution tae the thesaury, sic as the [[Soomro]] [[Emir]]s that haed gained control o [[Sindh]] an ruled the entire province frae thair caipital o [[Mansura, Sindh|Mansura]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Brauer&quot; /&gt; [[Mahmud o Ghazni]] teuk the teetle o sultan, as opponed tae the [[Emir|&quot;amir&quot;]] that haed been in mair common uissage, seegnifeein the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid Empire]]'s unthirldom frae caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays o Sunni orthodoxy an reetual submission tae the caliph. In the 11t century, the loss o respect for the caliphs conteena'd, as some Islamic rulers na langer mentioned the caliph's name in the Fryday [[khutba]], or struck it aff thair coinage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brauer&quot; /&gt;

The [[Isma'ili]] [[Fatimid]] dynasty o Cairo contestit the Abbasids for even the teetular authority o the Islamic [[ummah]]. Thay commandit some support in the Shia sections o Baghdad (sic as [[Karkh]]), awtho Baghdad wis the ceety maist closely connectit tae the caliphate, even in the Buyid an Seljuq eras. The Fatimids' green banners contrastit wi Abbasids' black, an the challenge o the Fatimids anerly endit wi thair dounfaw in the 12t century.

=== Buyid an Seljuq control (945–1118) ===
Despite the pouer o the [[Buyids|Buyid]] amirs, the Abbasids reteened a heichly reetualised coort in Baghdad, as descrived bi the Buyid bureaucrat [[Hilal al-Sabi']], an thay retained a certain influence ower Baghdad as weel as releegious life. As Buyid pouer waned efter the daith o [[Baha' al-Daula]], the caliphate wis able tae regain some meisur o strenth. The caliph [[al-Qadir]], for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia wi writins sic as the ''[[Baghdad Manifesto]]''. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itsel, attemptin tae prevent the ootbreak o [[fitna (wird)|fitnas]] in the caipital, eften contendin wi the ''[[ayyarun]]''

Wi the Buyid dynasty on the dwyne, a vacuum wis creatit that wis eventually filled bi the dynasty o [[Oghuz Turks]] kent as the [[Seljuqs]]. Bi 1055, the Seljuqs haed wrestit control frae the Buyids an Abbasids, an teuk ony remeenin temporal pouer.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Whan the amir an umwhile sclave [[Basasiri]] teuk up the Shia [[Fatimid]] banner in Baghdad in, the caliph [[al-Qa'im (caliph)|al-Qa'im]] wis unable tae defeat him withoot ootside help. [[Toghril Beg]], the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad tae Sunni rule an teuk Iraq for his dynasty.

Ance again, the Abbasids war forced tae deal wi a military pouer that thay coud nae match, tho the Abbasid caliph remeened the teetular heid o the Islamic commonty. The succeedin sultans [[Alp Arslan]] an [[Malikshah]], as weel as thair vizier [[Nizam al-Mulk]], teuk up residence in Persie, but held pouer ower the Abbasids in Baghdad. Whan the dynasty begoud tae waiken in the 12t century, the Abbasids gained greater unthirldom ance again.

=== Revival o militar strenth (1118–1258) ===
[[File:Abbasids Baghdad Iraq 1244.JPG|thumb|upright|220px|Coin o the Abbasids, Baghdad, 1244]]
While the Caliph [[al-Mustarshid]] wis the first caliph tae big an airmy capable o meetin a Seljuk airmy in battle, he wis nanetheless defeatit in 1135 an assassinatit. The Caliph [[Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)|al-Muqtafi]] wus the first Abbasid Caliph tae regain the full militar unthirldom o the Caliphate, wi the help o his vizier [[Awn ad-Din ibn Hubayra|Ibn Hubayra]]. Efter nearly 250 years o subjection tae furrin dynasties, he successfully defendit Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the [[siege o Baghdad (1157)]], sicweys siccarin Iraq for the Abbasids. The ring o [[al-Nasir]] (d. 1225) brocht the caliphate back intae pouer ootthrou Iraq, based in lairge part on the [[Sufi]] [[futuwwa]] organisations that the caliph heidit.&lt;ref name=mag /&gt; [[Al-Mustansir (caliph)|Al-Mustansir]] biggit the [[Mustansiriya Schuil]], in an attempt tae eclipse the Seljuq-era [[Al-Nizamiyya o Baghdad|Nizamiyya]] biggit bi [[Nizam al-Mulk]].

=== Mongol invasion (1206–1258) ===
[[File:DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad a.jpg|thumb|upright|220px|[[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|Siege o Baghdad]] bi the Mongols led bi [[Hulagu Khan]] in 1258]]
In 1206, [[Genghis Khan]] established a pouerfu dynasty amang the [[Mongol]]s o [[central Asie]]. In the 13t century, this [[Mongol Empire]] conquered maist o the Eurasie laund mass, includin baith Cheenae in the east an muckle o the auld Islamic caliphate (as weel as [[Kievan Rus']]) in the wast. [[Hulagu Khan]]'s [[Battle o Baghdad (1258)|destruction o Baghdad]] in 1258 is tradeetionally seen as the approximate end o the Golden Age.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Cooper|Yue|2008|p=215}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mongols feared that a supernaitural disaster wad strick if the bluid o [[Al-Musta'sim]], a direct descendant o Muhammad's uncle [[Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib]],&lt;ref name=encyclopedia&gt;{{harvnb|Glassé|Smith|2002}}&lt;/ref&gt; an the last ringin Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, wis spilled. The Shia o [[Persia]] statit that na sic calamity haed happened efter the daith o [[Husayn ibn Ali]] in the [[Battle o Kerbala]]; nivertheless, as a precaution an in accordance wi a Mongol taboo that forbade spillin ryal bluid, Hulagu haed Al-Musta'sim wrapped in a cairpet an trampled tae daith bi horse on 20 Februar 1258. The Caliph's immediate faimily wis an aw executit, wi the lone exceptions o his youngest son that wis sent tae Mongolie, an a dochter that becam a sclave in the [[harem]] o Hulagu.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Frazier|2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Abbasid Caliphate o Cairo (1261–1517) ===
In the 9t century, the Abbasids creatit an airmy leal anerly tae thair caliphate, componed o non-Arab oreegin fowk, kent as [[Mamluks]].&lt;ref name=&quot;István Vásáry 2005&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Isichei 1997 192&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Isichei|1997|p=192}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;T. Pavlidis 2011&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Pavlidis|2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mikaberidze|2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;bbs&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Visser|2005|p=19}}&lt;/ref&gt; This force, creatit in the ring o [[al-Ma'mun]] (813–33) an his brither an successor [[al-Mu'tasim]] (833–42), preventit the forder disintegration o the empire. The Mamluk airmy, tho eften viewed negatively, baith helped an hurt the caliphate. Early on, it providit the govrenment wi a stable force tae address domestic an furrin problems. Houiver, creaution o this furrin airmy an al-Mu'tasim's transfer o the caipital frae Baghdad tae [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]] creatit a diveesion atween the caliphate an the fowks thay claimed tae rule. In addeetion, the pouer o the Mamluks steadily grew till [[al-Radi]] (934–41) wis constrained tae haund ower maist o the ryal functions tae [[Muhammad ibn Ra'iq]].&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot; /&gt;

== Culture ==

=== Islamic Gowden Age ===
{{main|Islamic Gowden Age}}
[[File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Manuscript frae the Abbasid era]]

The Abbasid historical period lastin tae the [[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|Mongol conquest o Baghdad]] in 1258 CE is conseedert the Islamic Gowden Age.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tahir Abbas&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Abbas|2011|p=9}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Islamic Gowden Age wis inauguratit bi the middle o the 8t century bi the ascension o the Abbasid [[Caliphate]] an the transfer o the caipital frae [[Damascus]] tae Baghdad.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vartan&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Gregorian|2003}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Abbassids war influenced bi the [[Qur'an]]ic injunctions an [[hadith]] sic as &quot;the ink o a scholart is mair haly nor the bluid o a mairtyr&quot; stressin the vailyie o knawledge. In this period the Muslim warld becam an intellectual centre for science, filosofie, medicine an eddication as &lt;ref name=&quot;Vartan&quot; /&gt; the Abbasids championed the cause o knawledge an established the [[Hoose o Wicedom]] in Baghdad; whaur baith Muslim an nan-Muslim scholarts socht tae translate an gaither aw the warld's knawledge intae [[Arabic leid|Arabic]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Vartan&quot; /&gt; Mony clessic warks o antiquity that wad itherwise hae been lost war translatit intae Arabic an Persie an later in turn translatit intae Turkis, Ebreu an Laitin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vartan&quot; /&gt; In this period the Muslim warld wis a caudron o culturs that collectit, synthesized an signeeficantly advanced the knawledge gained frae the auncient [[Auncient Roum|Roman]], Cheenese, [[History o Indie|Indie]], [[Sasanian Empire|Persie]], [[Auncient Egyp|Egyptian]], North African, [[Auncient Greece|Greek]] an [[Byzantine]] ceevilisations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vartan&quot; /&gt; &quot;In virtually ivery field o endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics an so forth—the Caliphate's scientists war in the forefront o scienteefic advance.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Huff|2003|p=48}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Science ===
[[File:Mustansiriya University CPT.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Mustansiriya Varsity]] in [[Baghdad]]]]The rings o [[Harun al-Rashid]] (786–809) an his successors fostered an age o great intellectual achievement. In lairge part, this wis the result o the schismatic forces that haed unnermined the Umayyad regime, that relied on the assertion o the superiority o [[Arab cultur]] as pairt o its claim tae legitimacy, an the Abbasids' welcomin o support frae nan-Arab Muslims. It is weel established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled thair admeenistration on that o the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gibb|1982|p=66}}&lt;/ref&gt; Harun al-Rashid's son, [[Al-Ma'mun]] (that's mither wis [[Persie fowk|Persie]]), is even quotit as sayin:
{{quote |The Persies ruled for a thoosand years an did nae need us Arabs even for a day. We hae been rulin them for ane or twa centuries an canna dae withoot them for an oor.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Spuler|1960|p=29}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

A nummer o medieval thinkers an scientists leevin unner Islamic rule played a role in transmittin [[Islamic science]] tae the Christian Wast. In addeetion, the period saw the rekivery o muckle o the [[Alexandria]]n mathematical, geometric an astronomical knawledge, sic as that o [[Euclid]] an Claudius [[Ptolemy]]. Thir rekivert mathematical methods war later enhanced an developit bi ither Islamic scholarts, notably bi [[Persie fowk|Persie]] scientists [[Al-Biruni]] an [[Abu Nasr Mansur]].
[[File:Al-Jaahith - African Arab Naturalist - Basra - al jahiz.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Jabir ibn Hayyan]], &quot;the faither o [[Chemistry]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Derewenda|2007|p=247}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Vallely|2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;|left]]

[[Christians]] (pairteecularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians) contreibutit tae the Arab Islamic Ceevilisation in the [[Ummayads]] an the Abbasids bi translatin warks o [[Greek filosofers]] tae [[Syriac leid|Syriac]] an efterwart tae [[Arabic leid|Arabic]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Hill|1993|p=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Brague|2009|p=164}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation o Arab cultur,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010a|p=612}}&lt;/ref&gt; wi the [[Jundishapur]] schuil bein prominent in the late [[Sassanid]], [[Umayyad]] an early Abbasid periods.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Söylemez|2005|p=3}}&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, aicht generations o the Nestorian [[Bukhtishu]] faimily served as preevat doctors tae caliphs an sultans atween the aicht an elevent centuries.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Bonner|Ener|Singer|2003|p=97}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ruano|Burgos|1992|p=527}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Algebra]] wis signeeficantly developit bi Persie scientist [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] in this time in his laundmerk text, ''[[The Compendious Beuk on Calculation bi Completion an Balancin|Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala]]'', frae that the term ''algebra'' is derived. He is sicweys conseedert tae be the faither o algebra bi some,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Eglash|1999|p=61}}&lt;/ref&gt; awtho the Greek mathematician [[Diophantus]] haes an aw been gien this teetle. The terms [[algorism]] an [[algorithm]] are derived frae the name o al-Khwarizmi, that wis an aw responsible for introducin the [[Arabic numerals]] an [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] ayont the [[Indie subcontinent]].
[[File:Alhazen (122459248).jpg|thumb|220px|[[Alhazen|Ibn al-Haytham]], &quot;the faither o [[Optics]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Verma|1969}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

[[Arab]] scientist [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) developed an early [[scienteefic method]] in his ''[[Beuk o Optics]]'' (1021). The maist important development o the scienteefic method wis the uise o experiments tae distinguish atween competin scienteefic theories set within a generally [[empiricism|empirical]] orientation, that begoud amang Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham's [[empirical]] pruif o the intromission theory o licht (that is, that licht rays entered the een raither than bein [[emission theory (veesion)|emittit bi them]]) wis pairteecularly important. Alhazen wis signeeficant in the [[history o scienteefic method]], pairteecularly in his approach tae experimentation,&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Toomer|1964}}&lt;/ref&gt; and has been referred to as the &quot;world’s first true scientist&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Al-Khalili|2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Medicine in medieval Islam]] wis an aurie o science that advanced pairteecularly in the Abbasids' ring. In the 9t century, Baghdad conteened ower 800 doctors, an great diskiveries in the unnerstaundin o anatomy an diseases war made. The clinical distinction atween [[maisles]] and [[smawpox]] wis descrived in this time. Famous Persie scientist [[Ibn Sina]] (kent tae the Wast as [[Avicenna]]) produced treatises an warks that summarised the vast amoont o knawledge that scientists haed accumulatit, an wis verra influential throu his encyclopaedias, ''[[The Canon o Medicine]]'' an ''[[The Beuk o Healin]]''. The wark o him an mony ithers directly influenced the resairch o European scientists in the [[Renaissance]].

[[Alchemy an chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim alchemists]] influenced medieval European alchemists, pairteecularly the writins attributit tae [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Geber). A nummer o [[chemical process]]es sic as [[distillation]] techniques ear developed in the Muslim warld an then spreid tae Europe.

=== Leeteratur ===
[[File:More tales from the Arabian nights-14566176968.jpg|right|thumb|Illustration frae ''Mair tales frae the Arabian nichts'' (1915)]]

The best kent feection frae the Islamic warld is ''[[The Beuk o Ane Thoosand an Ane Nichts]]'', a collection o fantastical fowk tales, leegends an parables compiled primarily in the Abbassid era. The collection is recordit as haein oreeginatit frae an Arabic translation o a Sassanian era Persie prototeep, wi likely oreegins in Indie leeterar tradeetions. Stories frae [[Arabic leeteratur|Arabic]], [[Persie leeteratur|Persie]], [[Mesopotamie]], an [[Egyptian leeteratur|Egyptian]] fowklair an leeteratur war later incorporatit. The epic is believed tae hae taken shape in the 10t century an reached its feenal form bi the 14t century; the nummer an teep o tales hae varied frae ane manuscript tae anither.&lt;ref name=&quot;arabianNights&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb | Grant | Clute | 1999 | p = 51}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Aw Arabian [[fantasie]] tales war eften cried &quot;Arabian Nichts&quot; whan translatit intae Inglis, regairdless o whether thay appeared in ''The Beuk o Ane Thoosand an Ane Nichts''.&lt;ref name=&quot;arabianNights&quot; /&gt; This epic haes been influential in the Wast syne it wis translatit in the 18t century, first bi [[Antoine Galland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|de Camp|1976|p=10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many imitations were written, especially in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;arabianNights2&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Grant|Clute|1999|p=52}}&lt;/ref&gt; Various chairacters frae this epic hae themsels acome cultural icons in Wastren cultur, sic as [[Aladdin]], [[Sinbad]] an [[Ali Baba]].

A famous example o Islamic poetry on [[romance (luve)|romance]] wis ''[[Layla an Majnun]]'', an oreeginally [[Arabic]] story that wis faur developed bi [[Iranian fowks|Iranian]], [[Azerbaijani fowk|Azerbaijani]] an ither poets in [[Persian leid|Persian]], [[Azerbaijani leid|Azerbaijani]], [[Turkis leid|Turkis]] leids.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Clinton|2000|pp=15–16}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is a [[Tragedy|tragic]] story of undying love much like the later ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Arabic poetry reached its greatest hicht in the Abbasid era, especially afore the loss o central authority an the rise o the Persianate dynasties. Writers lik [[Abu Tammam]] an [[Abu Nuwas]] war closely connectit tae the caliphal coort in Baghdad in the early 9t century, while ithers such as [[al-Mutanabbi]] received thair patronage frae regional coorts.

=== Filosofie ===
Ane o the common defineetions for &quot;Islamic filosofie&quot; is &quot;the style o filosofie produced within the framewark o Islamic cultur.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;RoutledgeEoP&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Leaman|1998}}&lt;/ref&gt; Islamic filosofie, in this defineetion is naither necessarily concerned wi releegious issues, nor is exclusively produced bi Muslims.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoutledgeEoP&quot; /&gt; Thair warks on [[Aristotle]] wis a key step in the transmission o learnin frae auncient Greeks tae the Islamic warld an the Wast. Thay eften correctit the filosofer, encouragin a lively debate in the speerit o [[ijtihad]].

Three speculative thinkers, [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Farabi]], an [[Avicenna]], combined [[Aristotelianism]] an [[Neoplatonism]] wi ither ideas introduced throu Islam, an [[Avicennism]] wis later established as a result. Ither influential Abbasid filosofers include [[al-Jahiz]], an [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen).

=== Airchitectur ===
[[File:Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg|thumb|[[Zumurrud Khatun Mosque|Zumurrud Khatun Tomb]] (1200 CE), in seemetry at [[Baghdad]]]]
As the pouer shiftit frae the Umayyads tae the Abbasids, the airchitectur styles chynged an aw. The Christian styles evolved intae a style based mair on the [[Sasanian Empire]] utilisin mud bricks an baked bricks wi cairved stucco.&lt;ref name=wil&gt;{{harvnb|Wilber|1969|p=5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anither major development wis the creaution or vast enlairgement o ceeties as thay war turned intae the caipital o the empire. First, stairtin wi the creaution o Baghdad, stairtin in 762, that wis planned as a wawed ceety wi a mosque an pailace in the centre. The waws war tae hae fower gates tae exit the ceety. Al-Mansur, that wis responsible for the creaution o Baghdad, an aw planned the ceety o [[Raqqa]], alang the [[Euphrates]]. Feenally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim muived the caipital tae a new steid that he creatit alang the [[Tigris]], cried [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]]. This ceety saw 60 years o wark, wi race-coorses an gemme preserves tae add tae the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=wil /&gt; Due tae the dry remote naitur o the environment, some o the pailaces biggit in this era war isolatit havens. [[Al-Ukhaidir Fortress]] is a fine ensaumple o this teep o biggin that haes stables, leevin quarters, an a mosque, aw surroondin inner coortyairds.&lt;ref name=wil /&gt; Ither mosques o this era, sic as the [[Mosque o Ibn Tulun]], in [[Cairo]], an the [[Great Mosque o Kairouan]] in [[Tunisie]] while ultimately biggit in the Umayyad dynasty, it wis substantially renovatit in the 9t century. This renovation wis sae extensive as tae ostensibly be a rebig, wis in the faurest reaches o the Muslim warld, in an aurie that the [[Aghlabids]] controlled; houiver the styles utilized war mainly o the Abbasids.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Wilmer|1969|pp=5–6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mesopotamie anerly haes ane survivin [[mausoleum]] frae this era, in Samarra. This octagonal dome is the feenal restin place o [[al-Muntasir]].&lt;ref name=wil2&gt;{{harvnb|Wilber|1969|p=6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ither airchitectural innovations an styles war few, sic as the [[fower-centred airch|fower-centred arch]], an a dome erectit on [[squinch]]es. Unfortunately, muckle wis lost due tae the ephemeral naitur o the stucco an luster tiles.&lt;ref name=wil2 /&gt;

=== Technology ===
[[File:Wasseruhr Harun al Raschid.jpg|thumb|Illustration shawin a [[watter clock]] gien tae [[Charlemagne]] bi [[Harun al-Rashid]]]]
In technology, the Abbasids adoptit [[papermakkin]] frae Cheenae.&lt;ref name=Lucas&gt;{{harvnb|Lucas|2005|p=10}}&lt;/ref&gt; The uise o paper spreid frae Cheenae intae the caliphate in the 8t century CE, arrivin in [[al-Andalus]] (Islamic Spain) an then the rest o Europe in the 10t century. It wis easier tae manufactur nor [[pairchment]], less likely tae crack nor [[papyrus]], an coud resorb ink, makkin it ideal for makkin records an makkin copies o the Koran. &quot;Islamic paper makkers devised assemmly-line methods o haund-copyin manuscripts tae turn oot edeetions faur lairger nor ony available in Europe for centuries.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Cotter|2001}}&lt;/ref&gt;  It wis frae the Abbasids that the rest o the warld learned tae mak paper frae linen.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Dunn|2003|p=166}}&lt;/ref&gt; The knawledge o [[gunpouder]] wis an aw transmitted frae Cheenae via the caliphate, whaur the formulas for pure [[potassium nitrate]] an an [[explosive]] gunpouder effect war first developed.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|al-Hassan|2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Advances war made in [[irrigation]] an fermin, uisin new technology sic as the [[windmill]]. Craps such as [[awmond]]s an [[citrus]] fruit war brocht tae Europe throu [[al-Andalus]], an succar cultivation wis gradually adoptit bi the Europeans. Apairt frae the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] an [[Euphrates]], navigable rivers war uncommon, sae transport bi sea wis verra important. Navigational sciences war heichly developed, makkin uise o a rudimentary [[sextant]] (kent as a kamal). Whan combined wi detailed maps o the period, sailors war able tae sail athort oceans raither nor skirt alang the coast. Abbasid sailors war an aw responsible for reintroducin lairge three mastit merchant veshels tae the [[Mediterranean]]. The name [[caravel]] mey derive frae an earlier Arab ship kent as the ''qārib''.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Schwarz|2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Arab merchants dominatit tred in the Indie Ocean till the arrival o the Portuguese in the 16t century. [[Ormus|Hormuz]] wis an important centre for this tred. Thare wis an aw a dense netwark o tred routes in the [[Mediterranean]], alang that Muslim kintras treddit wi ilk ither an wi European pouers sic as [[Venice]] or [[Genoa]]. The [[Silk Road]] crossin Central Asie passed throu Abbasid caliphate atween Cheenae an Europe.

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliografie ==
{{refbegin|2}}
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* {{cite book |last=Verma |first=R. L. |year=1969 |title=Al-Hazen: Father of Modern Optics |ref=harv}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Visser |first=Reidar |title=Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq |url={{Google books|pCC4ffbOv_YC|page=19|Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq | plainurl = yes}} |year=2005 |isbn=3-8258-8799-5 |publisher=Transaction Publisher |location=New Brunswick, NJ |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Wade |first=Geoffrey |editor1-last=Wade |editor1-first=Geoff |editor2-last=Tana |editor2-first=Li |chapter=Southeast Asian Islam and Southern China in the Fourteenth Century |title=Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |place=Singapore |year=2012 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Warren |first=John |year=2005 |title=War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: A Sadly Mismanaged Affair |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_third-world-quarterly_2005_26_4-5/page/815 |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=4-5 |pages=815–30 |doi=10.1080/01436590500128048 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wilber |first=Donald N. |editor-last1=Myers |editor-first1=Bernard S. |editor-last2=Myers |editor-first2=Shirley D. |encyclopedia=McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art |year=1969 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |location=New York, NY |volume=1: Aa-Ceylon |title=Abbasid Architecture |lccn=68026314 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Abbasid Caliphate| ]]
[[Category:Arab dynasties]]
[[Category:History o Iran]]
[[Category:Medieval Iraq]]
[[Category:States in medieval Anatolie]]
[[Category:States in medieval Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:750 establishments]]
[[Category:1510s disestablishments in Asie]]
[[Category:16t-century disestablishments in the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:Umwhile caliphates]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Robert E. Lee</title>
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      <text bytes="4474" sha1="t8js4wn8mvcgwhsco3l57zf58x3m7oy" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox military person
|honorific_prefix = {{small|[[General officers in the Confederate States Airmy#General (Full general)|General]]}}
|birth_name = Robert Edward Lee
|birth_date = {{birth date|1807|1|19}}
|married_ = [[Mary Anna Randolph Custis]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1870|10|12|1807|1|19}}
|birth_place = [[Stratford Hall (plantation)|Stratford Hall]], [[Virginie]], U.S.
|death_place = [[Lexington, Virginie]], U.S.
|placeofburial = {{plainlist|
* Lee Chapel
* Washington an Lee Varsity
* [[Lexington, Virginie]], U.S.
}}
|image = Robert Edward Lee.jpg
|caption = Julian Vannerson's photograph o Robert E. Lee in Mairch 1864
|religion = Episcopal Kirk in the Unitit States o Americae{{!}}Episcopalian
|nickname = Bobby Lee (never tae his face), Uncle Robert, Marse Robert, Granny Lee, the King of Spades ({{lang-en|the Keeng o Spades}}), the Old Man ({{lang-en|the Auld Man}}), the Marble Man
|allegiance = {{plainlist|
* {{flag|Unitit States|name=Unitit States o Americae|1822|size=23px}}
* {{flagcountry|Confederate States o Americae|name=Confederate States|1861|size=23px}}
}}
|serviceyears = {{plainlist|
* 1829–1861 (U.S. Army)
* 1861–1865 (C.S. Army)
}}
|branch={{plainlist|
* [[File:Seal of the United States Board of War and Ordnance.svg|25px]] [[Unitit States Airmy]]
* {{army|Confederate States o Americae|name=Confederate Airmy|size=23px}}
}}
|rank = {{plainlist|
* [[File:Union Army colonel rank insignia.png|border|23px]] [[Colonel (Unitit States)|Colonel]] (U.S. Army)
* [[File:Confederate States of America General-collar.svg|25px]] [[General (CSA)|General]] (C.S. Army)
}}
|commands = {{plainlist|
* Superintendents o the Unitit States Militar Academy|Superintendent, [[Unitit States Militar Academy|U.S. Militar Academy]]
* Airmy o Northren Virginie
}}
|battles = {{plainlist|
* [[Mexican–American War]]
* [[John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry|Harpers Ferry Raid]]
* [[American Ceevil War]]
}}
|relatives=[[Henry Lee III|Henry &quot;Light Horse Harry&quot; Lee III]] &lt;small&gt;(father)&lt;/small&gt;
|awards =
|laterwork = [[Leet o Preses o Washington an Lee Varsity|Preses]] o [[Washington an Lee Varsity]]
|signature=Robert E Lee Signature.svg
}}
'''Robert Edward Lee''' (Januar 19, 1807&amp;nbsp;– October 12, 1870) wis an American sodgier kent for commandin the [[Confederate States o Americae|Confederate]] Airmy o Northren Virginie in the [[American Ceevil War]] &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Robert E. Lee: a Life|url=https://archive.org/details/roberteleelife0000guel|date=2021|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-1-101-94622-0|edition=First edition|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; frae 1862 till his surrender in 1865.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|title=Crucible of commmand: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee -- the war they fought, the peace they forged|url=https://archive.org/details/crucibleofcomman0000davi|date=2014|publisher=Da Capo Press, a Member of the Perseus Books Group|isbn=978-0-306-82245-2|location=Boston, MA}}&lt;/ref&gt; He hud predictit a bluidy, lang an devastatin conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Pryor|first=Elizabeth Brown|date=2011-04-20|title=The General in His Study|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/19/the-general-in-his-study/|access-date=2025-11-13|website=Opinionator|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{Reflist}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Lee, Robert E.}}
[[Category:1807 births]]
[[Category:1870 daiths]]
[[Category:19t-century American Episcopalians]]
[[Category:19t-century American fowk]]
[[Category:American Ceevil War]]
[[Category:American generals]]
[[Category:American militar leaders]]
[[Category:American militar personnel o the Mexican–American War]]
[[Category:American fowk o Inglis strynd]]
[[Category:American planters]]
[[Category:Confederate States Airmy generals]]
[[Category:Daiths frae pneumonia]]
[[Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees]]
[[Category:History o the Soothren Unitit States]]
[[Category:History o the Unitit States (1849–65)]]
[[Category:History o the Unitit States (1865–1918)]]
[[Category:Lee faimily o Virginie]]
[[Category:Militar history o the American Ceevil War]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Lexington, Virginie]]
[[Category:Fowk o American Reconstruction]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Virginie]]
[[Category:Preses o Washington an Lee Varsity]]
[[Category:Stateless fowk]]
[[Category:Superintendents o the Unitit States Militar Academy]]
[[Category:Unitit States Militar Academy alumni]]

{{Stub/UnititStates}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Max von Laue</title>
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      <text bytes="3823" sha1="tead78134crkat1hth7x4graoseo4ih" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox scientist
|nobel=yes
| name              = Max von Laue
| image             = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U0205-502, Max von Laue.jpg
| caption           = Laue in 1929
| image_size        = 230px
| birth_name        = Max Theodor Felix Laue
| birth_date        = {{Birth date|1879|10|9|df=y}}
| birth_place       = Koblenz{{!}}Pfaffendorf, [[Kinrick o Proushie]], [[German Empire]]
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1960|4|24|1879|10|9|df=y}}
| death_place       = [[Wast Berlin]]
| nationality       = [[Germany|German]]
| field             = [[Physics]]
| workplaces        = [[Varsity o Zürich]]&lt;br&gt;[[Goethe Varsity Frankfurt|Varsity o Frankfurt]]&lt;br&gt;[[Varsity o Berlin]]&lt;br&gt;[[Max Planck Institute]]
| alma_mater        = [[Varsity o Strasbourg]]&lt;br&gt;[[Varsity o Göttingen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Varsity o Munich]]&lt;br&gt;[[Varsity o Berlin]]
| doctoral_advisor  = [[Max Planck]]
| doctoral_students = [[Leó Szilárd]]&lt;br&gt;[[Friedrich Beck]]&lt;br&gt;Max Kohler&lt;br&gt;Erna Weber
| notable_students  = [[Fritz London]]
| known_for         = [[Diffraction]] o [[X-rays]]
| prizes            = {{nowrap|[[Nobel Prize for Physics]] &lt;small&gt;(1914)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Matteucci Medal]] &lt;small&gt;(1914)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Max Planck Medal]] &lt;small&gt;(1932)&lt;/small&gt;}}
}}
'''Max Theodor Felix von Laue''' (9 October 1879 – 24 Aprile 1960) wis a [[German fowk|German]] [[physicist]] that won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1914 for his discovery o the [[diffraction]] o [[X-rays]] bi crystals.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stoddart|first=Charlotte|date=2022-03-01|title=Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up|url=https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/living-world/2022/structural-biology-how-proteins-got-their-closeup|journal=Knowable Magazine|language=en|doi=10.1146/knowable-022822-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Jungnickel|first=Christa|title=Intellectual mastery of nature: theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein. 1: The torch of mathematics, 1800 - 1870|date=1986|place=Chicago|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-41582-6|access-date=|last2=McCormmach|first2=Russell}}&lt;/ref&gt; He forby refusit tae cooperate wi the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Coffey|first=Patrick|title=Cathedrals of science: the personalities and rivalries that made modern chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralsofscie0000coff|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971746-0|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{DEFAULTSORT:Laue, Max Von}}
[[Category:1879 births]]
[[Category:1960 daiths]]
[[Category:20t-century physicists]]
[[Category:Fowk frae Koblenz]]
[[Category:Experimental physicists]]
[[Category:German physicists]]
[[Category:Optical physicists]]
[[Category:Members o the Pontifical Academy o Sciences]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
[[Category:German Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Fowk frae the Rhine Province]]
[[Category:Recipients o the Pour le Mérite (ceevil cless)]]
[[Category:Varsity o Strasbourg alumni]]
[[Category:Varsity o Göttingen alumni]]
[[Category:Ludwig Maximilian Varsity o Munich alumni]]
[[Category:Ludwig Maximilian Varsity o Munich faculty]]
[[Category:Humboldt Varsity o Berlin alumni]]
[[Category:Humboldt Varsity o Berlin faculty]]
[[Category:Fowk associatit wi the Varsity o Zurich]]
[[Category:Goethe Varsity Frankfurt faculty]]
[[Category:Members o the Proushie Academy o Sciences]]
[[Category:Correspondin Members o the Roushie Academy o Sciences (1917–25)]]
[[Category:Correspondin Members o the USSR Academy o Sciences]]
[[Category:Honorar Members o the USSR Academy o Sciences]]
[[Category:Foreign Members o the USSR Academy o Sciences]]
[[Category:Crystallografers]]
[[Category:Foreign Members o the Ryal Society]]
[[Category:Road accident daiths in Germany]]
[[Category:Winners o the Max Planck Medal]]
[[Category:Scientists frae Frankfurt]]</text>
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    <title>Eratosthenes</title>
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| name = Eratosthenes
| image = Eratosthene.01.png
| alt = An etchin o a man's heid an neck in profile, leuking tae the richt. The man haes a beard an is baldin.
| birth_date = 276 BC
| birth_place = [[Cyrene, Libie|Cyrene]]
| death_date = 194 BC
| death_place = [[Alexandria]]
| ethnicity = Greek
| occupation = {{hlist|class=nowrap |Scholar |Librarian |Poet |Inventor}}
}}
'''Eratosthenes o [[Cyrene, Libie|Cyrene]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ɛr|ə|ˈ|t|ɒ|s|θ|ə|n|iː|z}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Ἐρατοσθένης}}, {{IPA-el|eratostʰénɛːs|IPA}}; {{nowrap|c. 276 BC}}&lt;ref&gt;The [[Suda]] states that he wis born in the 126t [[Olympiad]], (276–272&amp;nbsp;BC). [[Strabo]] (''Geography'', i.2.2), tho, states that he wis a &quot;pupil&quot; (γνωριμος) o [[Zeno o Citium]] (who died 262&amp;nbsp;BC), that wad implee an earlier year-o-birth ({{nowrap|c. 285 BC}}) syne he is unlikely tae hae studied unner him at the young age o 14. However, γνωριμος can an aa mean &quot;acquaintance&quot;, an the year o Zeno's daith is bi no means definite. Cf. ''Eratosthenes'' entry in the ''[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]'' (1971)&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;nbsp;– {{nowrap|c. 195/194 BC}}&lt;ref&gt;The [[Suda]] states he died at the age o 80, [[Censorinus]] (''De die natali'', 15) at the age o 81, an [[Pseudo-Lucian]] (''Makrobioi'', 27) at the age o 82.&lt;/ref&gt;) wis a [[Greek mathematics|Greek mathematician]], [[geografer]], [[poet]], [[astronomer]], an [[muisic theory|muisic theorist]]. He wis a man o learin, acomin the chief leebrarian at the [[Leebrar o Alexandria]]. He inventit the discipline o [[geografie]], includin the terminology uised the day.&lt;ref name=&quot;Roller, Duane W 2010&quot;&gt;Roller, Duane W. Eratosthenes' Geography. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;

He is best kent for bein the first person tae calculate the [[History o geodesy#Hellenic warld|circumference o the Yird]], that he did bi comparin [[Angle o incidence (optics)|angles]] o the mid-day Sun at twa places a kent North-Sooth distance apairt.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Universe|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000unse_u1m2|last=Ridpath|first=Ian|publisher=Watson-Guptill|year=2001|isbn=0-8230-2512-8|location=New York, NY|page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000unse_u1m2/page/30 31]}}&lt;/ref&gt; His calculation wis remerkably accurat. He wis an aw the first tae calculate the [[Axial tilt#Obliquity o the ecliptic (Yird's axial tilt)|tilt o the Yird's axis]], again wi remerkable accuracy.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hosting.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/eratosthenes.htm &quot;Eratosthenes (276 - 195 B.C.)&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224112430/http://hosting.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/eratosthenes.htm |date=2021-02-24 }}. Cornell University. Accessed 28 Julie 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, he mey hae accuratly calculatit the [[Astronomical unit|distance frae the Yird tae the Sun]] an inventit the [[leap day]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/06/dayintech_0619 |title=June 19, 240 B.C.: The Earth Is Round, and It's This Big |first=Randy |last=Alfred |journal=Wired |date=June 19, 2008 | accessdate=2013-06-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; He creatit the first [[Auncient warld maps#Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE)|map o the warld]], incorporatin [[Circle o latitude|parallels]] an [[Longitude|meridians]] based on the available geografic knawledge o his era.

Eratosthenes wis the foonder o scienteefic [[chronology]]; he endeavoured tae revise the dates o the chief leeterar an poleetical events frae the conquest o [[Troy]]. Eratosthenes datit [[Trojan War|The Sack o Troy]] tae 1183 BC. In [[nummer theory]], he introduced the [[sieve o Eratosthenes]], an efficient method o identifeein [[prime nummer]]s.

He wis a feegur o influence in mony fields.  Accordin tae an entry&lt;ref&gt;Entry {{lang|grc|ε}} 2898&lt;/ref&gt; in the [[Suda]] (a 10t-century reference), his creetics scorned him, cryin him ''Beta'' (the seicont letter o the Greek alphabet) acause he ayeweys cam in seicont in aw his endeavors.&lt;ref&gt;See also Asimov, Isaac. ''Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology'', new revised edition. 1975. Entry #42, &quot;Eratosthenes&quot;, Page 29. Pan Books Ltd, London. {{ISBN|0-330-24323-3}}. This was also asserted by Carl Sagan 31 minutes into his Cosmos episode ''The Shores of the Cosmic Ocean''&lt;/ref&gt; Nanetheless, his devotees nicknamed him ''Pentathlos'' efter the Olympians that war weel roondit competitors, for he haed pruiven himsel tae be knawledgeable in ivery aurie o learin. Eratosthenes yearned tae unnerstaund the complexities o the entire warld.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chambers, James T 1998&quot;&gt;Chambers, James T. &quot;Eratosthenes of Cyrene.&quot; Dictionary Of World Biography: The Ancient World (January 1998): 1–3.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:276 BC]]
[[Category:194 BC]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC Greek fowk]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC poets]]
[[Category:Auncient Greek astronomers]]
[[Category:Auncient Greek geografers]]
[[Category:Auncient Greek muisic theorists]]
[[Category:Auncient Greek mathematicians]]
[[Category:Auncient Greek poets]]
[[Category:Cyrenean Greeks]]
[[Category:Daiths bi stairvation]]
[[Category:Geodesists]]
[[Category:Geometers]]
[[Category:Hellenistic Egyptians]]
[[Category:Leebrarians o Alexandria]]
[[Category:Nummer theorists]]
[[Category:270s BC births]]
[[Category:190s BC daiths]]</text>
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    <title>Isaac Asimov</title>
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      <text bytes="9825" sha1="nn8rudgshgdm5xeml9z6nmnykqv6g4p" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer
|name = Isaac Asimov
|image = Isaac.Asimov01.jpg
|caption = Isaac Asimov in 1965
|birth_name = Isaak Yudovich Ozimov
|birth_date = Between October 4, 1919 an Januar 2, 1920&lt;ref name=&quot;birthday&quot;/&gt;
|birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Petrovichi, Smolensk Oblast|Petrovichi]], [[Roushie Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Roushie SFSR]]}}
|spouse = Gertrude Blugerman (1942–1973; divorced)&lt;br&gt;[[Janet Asimov|Janet Opal Jeppson]] (1973–1992; his daith)
|children = David Asimov&lt;br&gt;Robyn Joan Asimov
|death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|1992|4|6|1920|1|2}}
|death_place = [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], U.S.
|nationality = Roushie (early years), American
|ethnicity = 
|occupation = Writer, professor o [[biochemistry]]
|period = 1939–1992
|genre = Science feection ([[haurd SF]], [[social SF]]), [[mystery feection|mystery]]
|subject = [[Popular science]], science [[textbeuks]], essays, [[leeterary creeticism]]
|education = [[Columbia Varsity]], PhD. [[Biochemistry]], 1948
|movement = [[Gowden Age o Science Feection]]
|notableworks = {{plain list|
*The ''[[Foundation Series]]''
*The ''[[Robot series (Asimov)|Robot series]]''
*''[[Nightfall (Asimov short story)|Nightfall]]''
*''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science]]''
*''[[I, Robot]]''
*''[[The Bicentennial Man]]''
*''[[The Gods Themselves]]''
}}
|debut_works = &quot;[[Marooned Off Vesta]]&quot;, an S.F. short story
|signature = Isaac Asimov signature.svg
|website =
}}
'''Isaac Asimov''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|z|ɨ|k|_|ˈ|æ|z|ɨ|m|ɒ|v}};&lt;ref&gt;''Pronunciation note'': In the humorous poem &quot;The Prime of Life&quot; published in the anthology ''[[The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories]]'', Asimov rhymes his name thusly: &quot;Why, [[mazel tov]], it's Asimov&quot;. In his comments tae the poem, Asimov wrote that oreeginally it was &quot;Why, stars above, it's Asimov&quot;, an when someone suggestit tae uise &quot;mazel tov&quot; insteid, Asimov acceptit this as a signeeficant impruivement.&lt;/ref&gt; born '''Isaak Yudovich Ozimov'''; ''circa'' Januar 2, 1920&lt;ref name=&quot;birthday&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |title=In Memory Yet Green |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/inmemoryyetgreen00asim |quote=The date of my birth, as I celebrate it, was January 2, 1920. It could not have been later than that. It might, however, have been earlier. Allowing for the uncertainties of the times, of the lack of [[civil registry|records]], of the [[Ebreu calendar|Jewish]] and [[Julian calendar]]s, it might have been as early as October 4, 1919. There is, however, no way of finding out. My parents were always uncertain and it really doesn't matter. I celebrate January 2, 1920, so let it be.}}&lt;/ref&gt; – Aprile 6, 1992) wis an American author an professor o [[biochemistry]] at [[Boston Varsity]], best kent for his wirks o [[science feection]] an for his [[popular science]] beuks. Asimov wis a [[Leet o proleefic writers|proleefic writer]] that wrote or eeditit mair nor 500 beuks an an estimatit 90,000 letters an [[postcaird]]s.{{efn|{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Stanley |title=Yours, Isaac Asimov |date=1996 |quote=My estimate is that Isaac received about 100,000 letters in his professional career. And with the compulsiveness that has to be a character trait of a writer of almost 500 books, he answered 90 percent of them. He answered mair nor hauf wi postcairds an didna mak caurbons o them. But wi the 100,000 letters he received, thare are caurbons o about 45,000 that he wrote.}}}} His beuks hae been published in 9 o the 10 major categories o the [[Dewey Decimal Clessification]].&lt;ref name=&quot;AsimovFAQ-DeweyDecimal&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Seiler |first=Edward |last2=Jenkins |first2=John H. |url=http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_FAQ.html#others11 |title=Isaac Asimov FAQ |publisher=Isaac Asimov Home Page |date=June 27, 2008 |accessdate=July 2, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Asimov wrote [[haurd science feection]]. Alang wi [[Robert A. Heinlein]] an [[Arthur C. Clarke]], Asimov wis conseedert ane o the &quot;Big Three&quot; science feection writers in his lifetime.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Freedman |first=Carl | author-link = Carl Freedman |title=Critical Theory and Science Fiction |publisher=Doubleday |date=2000 |page=71 |postscript=&lt;!--None--&gt;}}&lt;/ref&gt; Asimov's maist famous wark is the [[Foundation series|&quot;Foundation&quot; series]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.biblio.com/authors/212/Isaac_Asimov_Biography.html |title=Isaac Asimov Biography and List of Works |accessdate=March 5, 2008 |work=Biblio.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; his ither major series are the [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series|&quot;Galactic Empire&quot; series]] an the [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot series]]. The Galactic Empire novelles are set in earlier history o the same feectional universe as the Foundation series. Later, wi ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986), he airtit this distant futur tae the Robot stories, creautin a unifee'd &quot;[[future history]]&quot; for his stories muckle lik thae pioneered bi Robert A. Heinlein an previously produced bi [[Cordwainer Smith]] an [[Poul Anderson]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |url=https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0 |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |date=1994 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=0-385-41701-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0/page/475 475]–76}}&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote hunders o short stories, includin the [[social science feection]] novelette &quot;[[Nightfall (Asimov novelette an novelle)|Nightfall]]&quot;; in 1964, it wis votit the best short science feection story o aw time bi the [[Science Fiction Writers of America]]. Asimov wrote the [[Lucky Starr series|''Lucky Starr'' series]] o [[young adult feection|juvenile]] science-feection novelles uisin the pen name Paul French.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |title=Opus 100 |url=https://archive.org/details/opus1000000asim |year=1969 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |quote=So [Walter Bradbury] said, 'Use a pseudonym.' And I did. I choose Paul French and...}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Asimov an aw wrote [[mystery feection|mysteries]] an [[fantasy]], as weel as muckle nonfeection. Maist o his popular science beuks expleen concepts in a historical wey, gaein as faur back as possible tae a time whan the science in quaisten wis at its semplest stage. Ensaumples include ''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science|Guide to Science]]'', the three-vollum set ''[[Understanding Physics]]'', an ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery'', as weel as warks on [[chemistry]], [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[history]], an [[William Shakespeare]]'s writins.

He wis preses o the [[American Humanist Association]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |url=https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0 |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |date=1994 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=0-385-41701-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0/page/500 500]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[asteroid]] [[5020 Asimov]],&lt;ref name=&quot;asteroid&quot;&gt;[http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?utf8=✓&amp;object_id=5020 Minor Planet Center] (retrieved 22 October 2017)&lt;/ref&gt; a [[Asimov crater|crater]] on the planet [[Maurs]],&lt;ref name=crater&gt;{{cite web |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/14567 |title=USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, Mars: Asimov |accessdate=September 4, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; a [[Brooklyn]] primar schuil,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.schools.nyc.gov/schools/K099 &quot;P.S. 099 Isaac Asimov&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806183127/https://www.schools.nyc.gov/schools/K099 |date=2018-08-06 }} at New York City Department of Education website. (Retrieved 6 August 2018.)&lt;/ref&gt; an a [[Isaac Asimov Awairds|leeterar awaird]] are named in his honour.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
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    <title>Noam Chomsky</title>
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      <text bytes="14181" sha1="ngfm7ax2bvmx8g2my9pgzzwvu2r5218" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox philosopher&lt;!-- Philosopher category --&gt;
 | region           = [[Wastren filosofie]]
 | era              = [[20t-century filosofie|20t]]/[[21st-century filosofie]]
 | color            = #B0C4DE
 | name             = Noam Chomsky
 | other_names      = Avram Noam Chomsky
 | image            = Noam Chomsky, 2004.jpg
 | image_size       = 230px
 | caption          = Chomsky at an [[antiwar]] rally in [[Vancouver]], 2004
 | birth_date       = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1928|12|7}}
 | birth_place      = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvanie]], Unitit States
 | death_date       =
 | spouse = {{Plainlist|
* [[Carol Chomsky|Carol Doris Schatz]] (1949–2008, her death)
* Valeria Wasserman (2014–present)
 }}
 | alma_mater       = {{Plainlist|
*[[Varsity o Pennsylvanie]] &lt;small&gt;([[Bachelor o Airts|B.A.]]) 1949, ([[Master o Airts|M.A.]]) 1951, ([[Ph.D.]]) 1955 &lt;/small&gt;
*[[Harvard Society o Fellaes]] (1951–1955)}}
 | institutions     = {{Plainlist|
*[[Massachusetts Institute o Technology|MIT]] (1955–present)
*[[Institute for Advanced Study]] (1958-1959)}}
 | school_tradition = [[Generative lingueestics]], [[analytic filosofie]]
 | main_interests = {{Plainlist|
* [[Lingueestics]]
* [[Metalingueestics]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Filosofie o leid]]
* [[Filosofie o mynd]]
* [[Politics]]{{·}} [[Ethics]]
 }}
 | notable_ideas = {{collapsible list| title = {{nbsp}} | {{Plainlist|
* [[Universal grammar]]
* [[Generative grammar]]
* [[Transformational grammar]]
* [[Context-sensitive grammar]]
* [[Deterministic context-free grammar]]
* [[Context-free grammar]]
* [[Phrase structur grammar]]
* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Generative lingueestics]]
* [[Cartesian lingueestics]]
* [[Transformational syntax]]
* [[Govrenment an bindin]]
* [[X-bar theory]]
* [[Chomsky hierarchy]]
* [[Deegital infinity]]
* [[Principles an parameters]]
* [[Minimalist program]]
* [[Leid acquisition device]]
* [[Lingueestic competence]]
* [[Innateness hypothesis]]
* [[Poverty o the stimulus]]
* [[Levels o adequacy]]
* [[Psychological nativism]]
* [[Seicont-leid acquisition]]
* [[Stateestical leid acquiseetion]]
* [[Speech community]]
* [[Plato's Problem]]
* [[Deep structur]]
* [[Cognitive closur (philosofie)|Cognitive closur]]
* &quot;[[Colourless green ideas sleep furiously]]&quot;
* [[Leid]]
* [[Markedness]]
* [[Mentalism (filosofie)|Mentalism]]
* [[Merge (lingueestics)|Merge]]
* [[M-command]]
* [[Parasitic gap]]
* [[Phonology]]
* [[Scansion]]
* [[Subjacency]]
* [[Symbol (formal)|Seembol]]
* [[Immediate constituent analysis]]
* [[Lingueestic performance]]
* [[Innateness hypothesis|Innate leid]]
* [[Non-configurational leid]]
* [[Recursion|Recursion in leid]]
* [[Phrase structur rules]]
* [[Tensed-S condeetion]]
* [[Specified subject condeetion]]
* [[Empty category principle]]
* [[Structur preservation principle]]
* [[Trace erasur principle]]
* [[Projection Principle]]
* [[Extended Projection Principle]]
* [[Axiom of categoricity]]
* [[Logical Form]]
* [[Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem (disambiguation)|Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem]]
* [[Chomsky Normal Form]]
* [[Terminal an nonterminal seembols]]
* [[Formal democracy]]
* [[Intellectual responsibility]]
* [[Boucht priesthuid]]
* [[Corporate media]]
* [[Elite media]]
* [[Media manipulation]]
* [[Sel-censorship]]
* [[Propaganda model]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Safty letter&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Safty|1994}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }} }}
 | influences       = [[William Chomsky]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[George Orwell]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], [[John Dewey]], [[Dwight Macdonald]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite video |people=Noam Chomsky |date=September 22, 2011 |title=Noam Chomsky on the Responsibility of Intellectuals: Redux |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK9W5DE7ZtQ |medium= |language= |trans_title= |publisher=Ideas Matter |location= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate=October 16, 2011 |time=09:23 |id= |isbn= |oclc= |quote= |ref= }}&lt;/ref&gt;  [[Alex Carey]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|title=Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian|year=1996|publisher=Pluto Press|location=London|pages=28–29|quote=The real importance of Carey's work is that it's the first effort and until now the major effort to bring some of this to public attention. It's had a tremendous influence on the work I've done.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Pāṇini]], [[René Descartes]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent|year=1998|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-52255-7|page=106|author=Robert F. Barsky|chapter=3}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Hume]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky|url=https://archive.org/details/noamchomskyreakt00sper|year=2006|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-269-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/noamchomskyreakt00sper/page/n45 44]–45|author=Wolfgang B. Sperlich}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Immanuel Kant]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Time and Psychological Explanation: The Spectacle of Spain's Tourist Boom and the Reinvention of Difference|url=https://archive.org/details/timepsychologica0000slif_p2k0|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1469-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/timepsychologica0000slif_p2k0/page/115 115]|author=Brent D. Slife}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Zellig Harris]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Taylor &amp; Francis&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments, Volumes 2–3|year=1994|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-0-415-10694-8|page=487|editor=Carlos Peregrín Otero}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Taylor &amp; Francis&quot; /&gt; [[Adam Smith]], [[Peter Kropotkin]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Noam Chomsky Reading List|url=http://leftreferenceguide.wordpress.com/noam-chomsky-reading-list/|publisher=Left Reference Guide|accessdate=8 January 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[C. West Churchman]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Willard Van Orman Quine|W. V. O. Quine]], [[Nelson Goodman]], [[J. L. Austin]], [[George Armitage Miller]], [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Anton Pannekoek]], [[Roushie leeteratur]], [[Ebreu leeteratur]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Noam Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm |title=Personal influences, by Noam Chomsky (Excerpted from The Chomsky Reader) |publisher=Chomsky.info |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29 |archive-date=2013-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528032708/http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | influenced       = [[Colin McGinn]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellguideto02edunse_n4v3|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-1-118-51426-9|edition=2|editor=Hugh LaFollette, Ingmar Persson}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Edward Said]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Edward Said and the Religious Effects of Culture|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77810-7|page=116|author=William D. Hart}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Steven Pinker]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Narrative, Religion and Science: Fundamentalism Versus Irony, 1700–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativereligio00pric|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00983-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/narrativereligio00pric/page/n243 234]|author=Stephen Prickett}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Searle]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=A Special Supplement: Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1972/jun/29/a-special-supplement-chomskys-revolution-in-lingui/|publisher=NYREV, Inc.|author=John R. Searle|date=June 29, 1972}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Daniel Dennett]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Chomsky Amid the Philosophers&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Chomsky Amid the Philosophers|url=http://www.uea.ac.uk/~j108/chomsky.htm|publisher=University of East Anglia|accessdate=8 January 2014|archive-date=2013-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113154032/http://www.uea.ac.uk/~j108/chomsky.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Stephen Jay Gould]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Gould_dep&quot;&gt;Gould, S. J. (1981). [http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/depos/pf_gould_dep.htm &quot;Official Transcript for Gould's deposition in McLean v. Arkansas&quot;.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218210726/http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/depos/pf_gould_dep.htm |date=2015-02-18 }} (Nov. 27).&lt;/ref&gt; [[Niels Kaj Jerne]], [[Crispin Wright]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Chomsky Amid the Philosophers&quot; /&gt; [[Norbert Hornstein]], [[Morris Halle]], [[Robert Fisk]], [[Norman Finkelstein]], [[Hugo Chávez]], [[Michael Albert]], [[Daniel Everett]], [[Amy Goodman]], [[Donald Knuth]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Knuth|first1=Donald E.|date=2003|title=Selected Papers on Computer Languages|url=|location=|publisher=|page=1|chapter=Preface: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition|isbn=1-57586-382-0| accessdate       = }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Backus]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=John W. Backus (1924–2007)|url=http://betanews.com/2007/03/20/john-w-backus-1924-2007/|publisher=BetaNews, Inc.|author=Scott M. Fulton, III}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Aaron Swartz]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Book That Changed My Life|url=http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/epiphany|publisher=Raw Thought|accessdate=8 January 2014|author=Aaron Swartz|date=May 15, 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ann Nocenti]],&lt;ref name=SequentialTart&gt;Keller, Katherine (November 2, 2007). [http://www.sequentialtart.com/article.php?id=737 &quot;Writer, Creator, Journalist, and Uppity Woman: Ann Nocenti&quot;]. ''Sequential Tart''.&lt;/ref&gt; [[George Lakoff]]
 | website          = {{URL|chomsky.info}}
}}
'''Avram Noam Chomsky''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|oʊ|m|_|ˈ|tʃ|ɒ|m|s|k|i}}; born December 7, 1928) is an American [[linguist]], [[philosopher]], [[cognitive scientist]], [[historian]], [[logician]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-57356-521-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil/page/43 43]–44|author=Edwin D. Reilly|quote=In 1956, the logician Noam Chomsky showed that there are only four basically different forms Church-Turing thesis of grammar, which, in decreasing order of sophistication, he called grammars of Type 0, 1, 2, and 3.}}. Viewed July 15, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Readings in Machine Translation|url=https://archive.org/details/readingsinmachin0000unse|year=2003|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-14074-4|author=H. L. Somers|editor=Sergei Nirenburg, H. L. Somers, Yorick Wilks|page=[https://archive.org/details/readingsinmachin0000unse/page/68 68]|quote=I think that this should be of sufficient interest to warrant some more detailed exhibition, especially since this insight is due to an important new, not to say revolutionary, view of the structure of language, recently outlined by the American linguist and logician Noam Chomsky [2], and could perhaps, in its turn and in due time, be turned into a new method of [[machine translation]], which would be more complex than the known ones but also more effective.}}. Viewed July 15, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments, Volume 1; Volume 3|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-0-415-10693-1|pages=14–15|authorlink=Bar-Hillel|editor=Carlos Peregrín Otero|year=1994|quote=Chomsky is a professional linguist, a competent mathematical logician, and a trained methodologist with a keen critical sense and an uncanny ability to follow the most abstruse mathematical argument or, if necessary, to produce one himself.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[social critic]], an [[poleetical activist]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

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      <text bytes="12249" sha1="7j9a67r9t9smme36am57nh4pyo0nkxf" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox programming language
|name                   = Python
|logo                   = [[File:Python logo and wordmark.svg|260px]]
|logo_size              = 260px
|paradigm               = [[multi-paradigm programmin leid|multi-paradigm]]: [[object-orientit programmin|object-orientit]], [[imperative programmin|imperative]], [[functional programmin|functional]], [[procedural programmin|procedural]], [[reflective programmin|reflective]]
|designer               = [[Guido van Rossum]]
|developer              = [[Python Software Foundation]]
|released               = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1991|2|20}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://python-history.blogspot.com/2009/01/brief-timeline-of-python.html|title=The History of Python: A Brief Timeline of Python|work=[[Blogger (service)|Blogger]]|date=2009-01-20|accessdate=2016-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|latest_release_version = 3.5.1 /&lt;br&gt;{{Start date|df=yes|2015|12|07}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://blog.python.org/2015/12/python-351-and-python-344rc1-are-now.html |title=Python 3.5.1 and Python 3.4.4rc1 are now available |website=Python Insider |publisher=The Python Core Developers |first=Larry |last=Hastings |date=2015-12-07 |accessdate=2015-12-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;2.7.11 /&lt;br&gt;{{Start date|df=yes|2015|12|05}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-2711/ |title=Python Release Python 2.7.11 |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=16 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|latest_preview_version = &lt;!-- 3.5.0rc3 /&lt;br&gt;{{Start date|df=yes|2015|09|08}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Python Release Python 3.5.0rc3&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-350rc3/ |title=Python Release Python 3.5.0rc3 |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=9 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;2.7.9rc1 /&lt;br&gt;{{Start date|df=yes|2014|11|26}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-279rc1/ |title=Python 2.7.9 rc1 Release |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref --&gt;
|typing                 = [[duck teepin|duck]], [[dynamic teepin|dynamic]], [[strang teepin|strang]], [[gradual teepin|gradual]] (as o Python 3.5)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://lwn.net/Articles/627418/|title=Type hinting for Python|publisher=LWN.net|date=24 December 2014|accessdate=5 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|implementations        = [[CPython]], [[IronPython]], [[Jython]], [[PyPy]]
|dialects               = [[Cython]], [[RPython]], [[Stackless Python]]
|influenced_by          = [[ABC (programmin leid)|ABC]],&lt;ref name=&quot;faq-created&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/faq/general.html#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place |title=Why was Python created in the first place? |work=General Python FAQ |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ALGOL 68]],&lt;ref name=&quot;98-interview&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/gvr-interview |title=Interview with Guido van Rossum (July 1998) |last=Kuchling |first=Andrew M. |work=amk.ca |date=22 December 2006 |accessdate=12 March 2012 |archive-date=2012-03-30 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66Xsipt2D?url=http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/gvr-interview |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[C (programmin leid)|C]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-1&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal |last=van Rossum |first=Guido |year=1993 |title=An Introduction to Python for UNIX/C Programmers |journal=Proceedings of the NLUUG najaarsconferentie (Dutch UNIX users group) |quote=even though the design of C is far from ideal, its influence on Python is considerable. |url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.38.2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[C++]],&lt;ref name=&quot;classmix&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/tutorial/classes.html |title=Classes |work=The Python Tutorial |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=20 February 2012 |quote=It is a mixture of the class mechanisms found in C++ and Modula-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Dylan (programmin leid)|Dylan]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/ |title=The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order |last=Simionato |first=Michele |publisher=Python Software Foundation |quote=The C3 method itself has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Haskell (programmin leid)|Haskell]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-3&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/howto/functional.html |title=Functional Programming HOWTO |last=Kuchling |first=A. M. |work=Python v2.7.2 documentation |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Icon (programmin leid)|Icon]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-4&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255/ |title=PEP 255&amp;nbsp;– Simple Generators |first1=Neil |last1=Schemenauer |first2=Tim |last2=Peters |first3=Magnus Lie |last3=Hetland |date=18 May 2001 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Java (programmin leid)|Java]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-5&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0318/ |title=PEP 318&amp;nbsp;– Decorators for Functions and Methods |first1=Kevin D. |last1=Smith |first2=Jim J. |last2=Jewett |first3=Skip |last3=Montanaro |first4=Anthony |last4=Baxter |date=2 September 2004 |work=Python Enhancement Proposals |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=24 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Lisp (programmin leid)|Lisp]],&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-6&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3.2/tutorial/controlflow.html |title=More Control Flow Tools |work=Python 3 documentation |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=24 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Modula-3|Modula&amp;#8209;3]],&lt;ref name=&quot;classmix&quot; /&gt; [[Perl]]
|influenced             = [[Boo (programmin leid)|Boo]], [[Cobra (programmin leid)|Cobra]], [[CoffeeScript]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://coffeescript.org/|title=CoffeeScript borrows chained comparisons from Python}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[D (programmin leid)|D]], [[F Sharp (programmin leid)|F#]], [[Falcon (programmin leid)|Falcon]], [[Genie (programmin leid)|Genie]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web 
|url=https://wiki.gnome.org/action/show/Projects/Genie
|title=Genie Language - A brief guide 
|accessdate=2015-12-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Go (programmin leid)|Go]], [[Groovy (programmin leid)|Groovy]], [[JavaScript]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title = Perl and Python influences in JavaScript
|date= 24 February 2013
|website= www.2ality.com
|url= http://www.2ality.com/2013/02/javascript-influences.html
|accessdate= 15 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Chapter 3: The Nature of JavaScript; Influences
|last=Rauschmayer
|first=Axel
|website=O'Reilly, Speaking JavaScript
|url=http://speakingjs.com/es5/ch03.html
|accessdate=15 May 2015
|archive-date=2018-12-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226141123/http://speakingjs.com/es5/ch03.html%0A
|url-status=dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Julia (programmin leid)|Julia]],&lt;ref name=Julia&gt;{{cite web| title = Why We Created Julia| date= February 2012| website= Julia website| url= http://julialang.org/blog/2012/02/why-we-created-julia| accessdate= 5 June 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nim (programmin leid)|Nim]], [[Ruby (programmin leid)|Ruby]],&lt;ref name=&quot;bini&quot;&gt;{{ cite book |last=Bini |first=Ola |title=Practical JRuby on Rails Web 2.0 Projects: bringing Ruby on Rails to the Java platform |url=https://archive.org/details/practicaljrubyon00bini |year=2007 |publisher=APress |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-1-59059-881-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/practicaljrubyon00bini/page/n30 3]}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Swift (Apple programmin leid)|Swift]],&lt;ref name=&quot;lattner2014&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://nondot.org/sabre/|title=Chris Lattner's Homepage|last=Lattner|first=Chris|date=3 June 2014|accessdate=3 June 2014|publisher=Chris Lattner|quote=The Swift language is the product of tireless effort from a team of language experts, documentation gurus, compiler optimization ninjas, and an incredibly important internal dogfooding group who provided feedback to help refine and battle-test ideas. Of course, it also greatly benefited from the experiences hard-won by many other languages in the field, drawing ideas from Objective-C, Rust, Haskell, Ruby, Python, C#, CLU, and far too many others to list.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|operating_system       = [[Cross-platform]]
|license                = [[Python Software Foundation License]]
|website                = {{URL|https://www.python.org/}}
|file_ext               = .py, .pyc, .pyd, .pyo,&lt;ref&gt;File extension .pyo will be removed in Python 3.5. See [https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488/ PEP 0488]&lt;/ref&gt; pyw, .pyz&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441/|last=Holth|first=Moore|date=30 March 2014|accessdate=12 Nov 2015|title=PEP 0441 -- Improving Python ZIP Application Support}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|wikibooks              = Python Programming
}}
'''Python''' is a widely uised [[heich-level programmin leid]] for [[general-purpose programmin leid|general-purpose programmin]], creatit bi [[Guido van Rossum]] an first released in 1991&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The History of the Python Language: A Journey Through Time|url=https://coderivers.org/blog/history-of-python-language|website=coderivers.org|access-date=2025-09-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;. An [[interpretit leid]], Python haes a design filosofie which emphasizes code [[readability]] (notably uisin [[whitespace chairacter|whitespace]] indentation tae deleemit [[code block]]s rather nor curly braces or keywirds), an a syntax which allaes programmers tae express concepts in fewer [[soorce lines o code|lines o code]] nor possible in leids sic as [[C++]] or [[Java (programmin leid)|Java]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Summerfield&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Rapid GUI Programming with Python and Qt |year=2008 |url=https://archive.org/details/rapidguiprogramm0000summ |last=Summerfield |first=Mark |quote=Python is a very expressive language, which means that we can usually write far fewer lines of Python code than would be required for an equivalent application written in, say, C++ or Java}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JfE7TGUwvgC&amp;pg=PT100|title=Code Complete, p. 100|isbn=9780735636972|last1=McConnell|first1=Steve|date=30 November 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The leid provides constructs intendit tae enable writin clear programs on baith a smaw an lairge scale.&lt;ref name=&quot;AutoNT-7&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Kuhlman |first=Dave |url=http://cutter.rexx.com/~dkuhlman/python_book_01.html |title=A Python Book: Beginning Python, Advanced Python, and Python Exercises |access-date=2017-04-19 |archive-date=2012-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623165941/http://cutter.rexx.com/~dkuhlman/python_book_01.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Python featurs a [[dynamic teep]] seestem an automatic [[memory management]] an supports multiple [[programmin paradigm]]s, includin [[object-orientit programmin|object-orientit]], [[imperative programmin|imperative]], [[functional programmin]], an [[procedural programmin|procedural]] styles. It haes a lairge an comprehensive [[staundart leebrar]].&lt;ref name=&quot;About&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/about |title=About Python |publisher=Python Software Foundation |accessdate=24 April 2012}}, second section &quot;Fans of Python use the phrase &quot;batteries included&quot; to describe the standard library, which covers everything from asynchronous processing to zip files.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Python interpreters are available for mony [[operatin seestem]]s, allaein Python code tae run on a wide variety o seestems. [[CPython]], the [[reference implementation]] o Python, is [[open soorce]] saftware&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://docs.python.org/3/license.html|title=History and License|accessdate=5 December 2016}} &quot;All Python releases are Open Source&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; an haes a commonty-based development model, as dae nearly aw o its variant implementations. CPython is managed bi the non-profit [[Python Software Foundation]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cless-based programmin leids]]
[[Category:Cross-platform free saftware]]
[[Category:Dutch inventions]]
[[Category:Dynamically teeped programmin leids]]
[[Category:Eddicational programmin leids]]
[[Category:Heich-level programmin leids]]
[[Category:Object-orientit programmin leids]]
[[Category:Programmin leids creatit in 1991]]
[[Category:Python (programmin leid)| ]]
[[Category:Scriptin leids]]
[[Category:Text-orientit programmin leids]]</text>
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    <title>Cupar</title>
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      <text bytes="4289" sha1="ojq2s9d48nce67akoht1qgx08gi4lqr" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox UK place  
 | official_name= Cupar
 | gaelic_name= Cùbar
 | scots_name=    
 | local_name=    
 | country=       Scotland 
| population = 9,200
| population_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;Population Estimate&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/files2/stats/population-estimates/08mye-localities-table2.xls |title=Mid-2008 Population Estimates &amp;ndash; Localities in order of size |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland |year=2008 |accessdate=2010-09-08 |archive-date=2010-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702235600/http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/files2/stats/population-estimates/08mye-localities-table2.xls |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | static_image= [[File:Cupar-from-Tarvit.jpg|240px]]
| static_image_caption= Cupar seen frae the summit o nearby [[Hill o Tarvit|Tarvit Hill]]
 | os_grid_reference=     NO374146

 | coordinates = {{coord|56.32|-3.01|display=inline,title}}
 | post_town=             CUPAR
 | postcode_area=         KY
 | postcode_district=     KY14 - 15
 | dial_code=             01334
 | constituency_westminster=    [[North East Fife (UK Pairlament constituency)|North East Fife]]
 | unitary_scotland=      [[Fife]]
 | lieutenancy_scotland=  [[Fife]]
 | constituency_scottish_parliament= [[North East Fife (Scots Pairlament constituency)|North East Fife]]
}}
'''Cupar''' ({{Audio|Cupar.ogg|listen}}; {{lang-gd|Cùbar}}) is a toun, umwhile [[ryal burgh]] an pairish in [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. It lies atween [[Dundee]] and [[Glenrothes]]. Accordin tae a 2011 population estimate, Cupar haed a population aroond 9,000, makkin it the nint lairgest settlement in Fife, an the ceevil pairish a population o 11,183 (in 2011).&lt;ref name= KS101SC&gt;Census of Scotland 2011, Table KS101SC – Usually Resident Population, publ. by National Records of Scotland. Web site http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ retrieved March 2016. See “Standard Outputs”, Table KS101SC, Area type: Civil Parish 1930&lt;/ref&gt; It is the historic [[coonty toun]] o Fife, afore the cooncil muived tae [[Glenrothes]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Complete Atlas of the British Isles|page=218|publisher=Readers' Digest|date=1965}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==History==
The toun is believed tae hae grewn aroond the steid o Cupar Castle, that wis the seat o the shirra an wis awned bi the yerls o Fife.{{sfn|Martin|2006|p=9}} The aurie becam a centre for judiciary as the coonty o Fife an as a mercat toun caterin for baith cattle an sheep.{{sfn|Lamont-Brown|2002|p=49}}

Taewart the latter stages o the 13th century, the burgh becam the steid o an assemmly o the three estates - clergy, nobility an burgesses - organised bi [[Alexander III o Scotland|Alexander III]] in 1276 as a predecessor o the [[Pairlament o Scotland]].{{sfn|Lamont-Brown|2002|p=49}} Awtho written information o a chairter for the modren toun wis lost, evidence suggestit that this existit as ane o the mony properties awned bi the Yerls o Fife bi 1294.{{sfn|Martin|2006|pp=9-10}}

In the middle o the 14t century, the burgh stairtit tae pay customs on taxable incomes, that probably meant that ryal burgh status wis grantit sometime atween 1294 an 1328.{{sfn|Martin|2006|pp=9-10}} The auldest document, referrin tae the ryal burgh, wis a grant i [[Robert II o Scotland|Robert II]] in 1381 tae gie a port at [[Gairbrig]] on the [[River Eden, Fife|River Eden]] tae help tred wi [[Flanders]]. This grant wis offeecially recognised bi [[James II o Scotland|James II]] in 1428.{{sfn|Pride|1999|pp=106-111}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliografie===
*{{cite book |last=Pride |first=Glen L. |title=Kingdom of Fife |edition=2nd |publisher=The Rutland Press |year=1999 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Lamont-Brown |first=Raymond |title=Fife in History and Legend |url=https://archive.org/details/fifeinhistoryleg0000lamo |publisher=John Donald |location=[[Edinburgh]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-85976-567-9 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Paula |title=Cupar: The History of a small Scottish town |url=https://archive.org/details/cuparhistoryofsm0000mart |publisher=Birlinn Publishing |location=[[Edinburgh]] |year=2006 |ref=harv}}

[[Category:Cupar| ]]
[[Category:Ryal burghs]]
[[Category:Scots coonty touns]]
[[Category:Touns in Fife]]
[[Category:Pairishes in Fife]]
[[Category:Places o Scotland]]
{{Stub/Places o Scotland}}</text>
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    <title>Cyprinidae</title>
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{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Cyprinidae
|authority=| fossil_range = {{fossil range|55|0|[[Eocene]] - [[Holocene]]}}
| image = Caprinus_carpio_Prague_Vltava_1.jpg 
| image_caption = The [[cairp]], ''Cyprinus carpio''
| taxon = Cyprinidae
| subdivision_ranks = [[Subfaimilies]]
| subdivision       =
* [[Acheilognathinae]]
* [[Cyprininae]]
* [[Danioninae]]
* [[Gobioninae]]
* [[Labeoninae]] &lt;small&gt;(disputed)&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Leptobarbinae]]
* [[Leuciscinae]]
* [[Probarbinae]]
* [[Smiliogastrinae]]
* [[Tanichthyinae]]
* [[Tincinae]]
* [[Torinae]]
* [[Xenocyprinae]]
an see [[#Subfaimilies an genera|text]]
}}
The '''Cyprinidae ''' are a [[Faimily (biology)|faimily]] o freshwatter fishes. A memmer o this family is cried a '''cyprinid'''. Cyprinids include [[cairp]]s, the true [[minnon]]s, an thair relatives (for exemple, the [[barb (fish)|barb]]s an [[barbel (fish)|barbel]]s). The Cyprinidae is for ordinar cried the '''cairp faimily''' or '''minnon faimily'''.

Cyprinidae is the mucklest kent fish faimily an the mucklest [[vertebrate]] faimily in general, wi aboot 3,000 livin an extinct [[species]] in aboot 370 [[genus|genera]].&lt;ref name=FB&gt;{{FishBase family | family = Cyprinidae| month = July | year = 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=CoF&gt;Eschmeyer, W.N., Fong, J.D. (2015) [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp#Cyprinidae Species by family/subfamily] in the [[Catalog of Fishes]], California Academy of Sciences (retrieved 2 July 2015)&lt;/ref&gt; The faimily belangs tae the [[ostariophysi]]an order [[Cypriniformes]], that the cyprinids mak mair nor twa-thirds o the genera an species.&lt;ref name=CoF/&gt;&lt;ref name=FB/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Nelson | first = Joseph | title = Fishes of the World | url = https://archive.org/details/fishesofworld0000nels_q3j5 | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons | location = Chichester | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-471-25031-7 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The faimily name is derived frae the [[Auncient Greek]] ''kyprînos'' (κυπρῖνος, &quot;cairp&quot;).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{taxonbar|from=Q35047}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cyprinidae| ]]
[[Category:Ray-finned fish faimilies]]
[[Category:Fish o North Americae]]
[[Category:Fish o Asie]]
[[Category:Fish o Europe]]
[[Category:Fish o Africae]]
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]
{{stub/Fish}}</text>
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    <title>Olive baboon</title>
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{{Taxobox
 |name=Olive baboon&lt;ref name=&quot;msw3&quot;&gt;{{MSW3 Primates |pages=166 |id=12100581}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 |status=LC
 |status_system=iucn3.1
 |status_ref=&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |authors=Kingdon, J.; Butynski, T.M; De Jong, Y. |title=''Papio anubis'' |journal=[[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |volume=2008 | page = e.T40647A10348950 |publisher=[[IUCN]] |year=2008 |url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/40647/0 | accessdate = 27 August 2016 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T40647A10348950.en}}
&lt;/ref&gt;
 |image=Olive baboon Ngorongoro.jpg
 |regnum=[[Animal]]ia
 |phylum=[[Chordate|Chordata]]
 |classis=[[Mammal]]ia
 |ordo=[[Primate]]s
 |familia=[[Cercopithecidae]]
 |genus=''[[Papio]]''
 |species='''''P. anubis'''''
 |binomial=''Papio anubis''
 |binomial_authority=( [[Rene Primevere Lesson|Lesson]], 1827)
 |range_map=Papio anubis distribution.svg
 |range_map_caption=Geographic range
}}

The '''olive baboon''' (''Papio anubis''), cried the '''Anubis baboon''' an aw, is a memmer o the faimily Cercopithecidae ([[Auld Warld pug]]s). The species is the maist wide-rangin o aw [[baboon]]s,&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; bein foond in 25 kintras athort [[Africae]], extendin frae [[Mali]] eastwaird tae [[Ethiopie]] an [[Tanzanie]]. Isolatit populations are present in some muntainous regions o the [[Sahara]] an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; It bides in [[savannah]]s, [[steppe]]s, an [[forest]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; The common name is springheidit frae its coat colour, that is a shade o green-grey at a distance. A variety o communications, vocal an non-vocal, facilitate a complex social structur.

==Pheesical chairacteristics==
[[File:Papio anubis skulls.jpg|thumb|left|Skull o a male (left) an female (richt)]]
The olive baboon is cried for its coat, that, at a distance, is a shade o green-grey.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Cawthon Lang, KA |date=2006-04-18 |title=Primate Factsheets: Olive baboon (''Papio anubis'') Taxonomy, Morphology, &amp; Ecology |url=http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/olive_baboon/taxon |accessdate=2007-01-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its alternative name comes frae the [[Auncient Egyp|Egyptian]] god [[Anubis]], that wis aften shawn as a dug heid resemblin the dug-lik muzzle o the baboon. At closer range, its coat is multicolourt, due tae rings o yellae-broun an black on the hairs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rowe1996&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Rowe |first=N. |year=1996 |title=The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates |url=https://archive.org/details/pictorialguideto0000rowe_p5o5 |location=East Hampton (NY) |publisher=Pogonias Press |isbn=0-9648825-0-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; The hair on the baboon's face, houiver, is coarser an ranges frae dark grey tae black.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; This coloration is shared bi baith sexes, awtho males hae a mane o langer hair that tapers doun tae ordinar lenth alang the back.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt;

Besides the mane, the male olive baboon differs frae the female in terms o size an wicht, an canine tuith size; males are, on average, {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} taw while staundin an females measur {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} in hicht.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Shefferly |first1=N. |year=2004 |title=Papio anubis |work=Animal Diversity Web |accessdate=2007-01-27 |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Papio_anubis.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fleagle&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Fleagle |first=John |title=Primate Adaptation and Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/primateadaptatio00flea |year=1999 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=0-12-260341-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/primateadaptatio00flea/page/n209 195]–197 |edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt; The olive baboon is ane o the lairgest species o pug; anerly the [[chacma baboon]] an the [[mandrill]] attain seemilar sizes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |pmid=6869499 |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/37620/1/1330600116_ftp.pdf |year=1983 |last1=Dechow |first1=PC |title=Estimation of body weights from craniometric variables in baboons |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=113–23 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330600116 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology}}&lt;/ref&gt; The heid-an-bouk lenth can range frae {{convert|50|to|114|cm|in|abbr=on}}, wi a species average o aroond {{convert|85|cm|in|abbr=on}}. At the shouder on aw fowers, females average {{convert|55|cm|in|abbr=on}} against males, which average {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The teepical wicht range for baith sexes is reportitly {{convert|10|-|37|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, wi males averagin {{convert|24|kg|lb|abbr=on}} an females averagin {{convert|14.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Some males mey wich as hintle as {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Burnie&quot;&gt;Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), ISBN 0-7894-7764-5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20051230112707/http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/fauna/babuino.html Wildlife: Mammals: Olive baboon]. kenyalogy.com&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/olive_baboon Primate Factsheets: Olive baboon (''Papio anubis'') Taxonomy, Morphology, &amp; Ecology]. Pin.primate.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kingdon&quot;&gt;Kingdon, Jonathan ''Kingdon Guide to African Mammals'' (1993) ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9&lt;/ref&gt;

Lik ither baboons, the olive baboon haes a elongatit, dug-lik muzzle.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; In fact, alang wi the muzzle, the animal's tail ({{convert|38|-|58|cm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) an fower-legged gait can mak baboons seem very canine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nagel1973&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Nagel |first=U. |year=1973 |title=A Comparison of Anubis Baboons, Hamadryas Baboons and Their Hybrids at a Species Border in Ethiopia |journal=Folia Primatol |volume=19 |issue=2–3 |pages=104–65 |doi=10.1159/000155536}}&lt;/ref&gt; The tail amaist leuks as if it is breuken, as it is erect for the first quairter, efter which it drops doun shairply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; The bare patch o a baboon's rump, famously seen in cartoons an movies, is a guid deal smawer in the olive baboon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; The olive baboon, lik maist [[cercopithecine]]s, haes a cheek pouch wi which tae store fuid.&lt;ref name=&quot;Groves2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Groves |first=C. |year=2001 |title=Primate Taxonomy |url=https://archive.org/details/primatetaxonomy0000grov |location=Washington DC |publisher=Smithsonian Inst Pr. |isbn=1-56098-872-X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Distribution an habitat==
The species inhabits a strip o 25 equatorial African kintras, very nearly rangin frae the east tae wast coasts o the continent.&lt;ref name=&quot;Groves2001&quot; /&gt; The exact boondars o this strip are no clearly defined, as the species' territory owerlaps wi that o ither baboon species.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; In mony places, this haes resultit in cross-breedin atween species.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; For ensaumple, considerable hybridization haes occurred atween the olive baboon an the [[hamadryas baboon]] in Ethiopie.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nagel1973&quot; /&gt; Cross-breedin wi the [[yellae baboon]] an the [[Guinea baboon]] haes been observit an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; Awtho this haes been notit, the hybrids hae no as yet been well studiet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt;

Throuoot its wide range, the olive baboon can be foond in a nummer o different habitats.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; It is uisually classifee'd as savanna-dwellin, livin in the wide plains o the grassland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Rowell |first=T. E. |year=1966 |title=Forest living baboons in Uganda |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1966-07_149_3/page/344 |journal=J Zool |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=344–365 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1966.tb04054.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; The grassland, especially those near open firthland, dae mak up a lairge pairt o its habitat, but the baboon inhabits rainforests an deserts an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; [[Uganda]] an the [[Democratic Republic o the Congo]], for instance, baith support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt;

==Behaviour an ecologie==
[[File:Papio anubis 1.JPG|thumb|upright|Bi climbin trees, individuals can act as a leukoot tae detect predators.]]

===Social structur===
The olive baboon lives in groups o 15 tae 150, made up o a few males, mony females, an thair young.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Cawthon Lang, KA |date=2006-04-18 |title=Primate Factsheets: Olive baboon (''Papio anubis'') Behavior |url=http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/olive_baboon/behav |accessdate=2007-01-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; Each baboon haes a social rankin somewhaur in the group, dependin on its dominance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Female dominance is hereditary, wi dochters haein nearly the same rank as thair mithers,&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |author=Smuts, Barbara |authorlink=Barbara Smuts |year=1985 |title=Sex and Friendship in Baboons |place=New York |publisher=Aldine Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx_l76muFWMC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=smuts+%22Sex+and+Friendship+in+Baboons%22&amp;q |isbn=978-0-202-02027-3 |accessdate=28 April 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; an adult females formin the core o the social seestem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot; /&gt; Female relatives form thair awn subgroups in the troop.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Related females are lairgely friendly tae ilk ither. Thay tend tae stay close thegither an gruim ane anither, an team up in aggressive encoonters athin the troop.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot; /&gt; Female kin form thir strang bonds acause thay dinnae emigrate frae thair natal groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Strier |first=Karen |title=Primate Behavioral Ecology |url=https://archive.org/details/primatebehaviora0000stri_m7l4 |year=2011 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River |isbn=0-205-79017-8 |edition=4th}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Occasionally, groups mey split up when thay acome sae lairge that competeetion for resoorces is problematic, but even then, members o matrilines tend tae stick thegither.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Dominant females procur mair fuid, mateins, an supporters. Amang olive baboons in Tanzanie, heich-rankin females gie birth at shorter intervals tae infants wi a heicher survival rate, an thair dochters tend tae matur faster than law-rankin females.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Housomeivver, thir heich-rankin females appear tae hae a higher probability o miscarriages an aw an some heich-rankin matrilines hae inexplicably law growthiness.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Ane theory suggests this occurs due tae stress on the heich-rankin females, awtho this theory is controversial.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Baboons Kenya 2007.jpg|thumb|left|Troop in Kenyae]]
A female aften forms a lang-lastin social relationship wi a male in her troop, kent as a &quot;friendship&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot; /&gt; Thir nansexual affiliative friendships benefit baith the male an female.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Males benefit frae thir relationships acause thay are uisually formed suin efter he immigrates intae a new group,&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; an helps the male integrate intae the group mair easily.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; He coud potentially en up matein wi his female friend in the futur an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Females gain pertection frae threats tae thairsels an thair infants (if thay hae ony).&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Males occasionally &quot;baby-sit&quot; for thair female friends, sae she can feed an forage freely athoot the burden o haein tae cairy or watch the infant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Sexually receptive females an newly immigratit males can form sic friendships.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Thir relationships are whiles endurin an the pair grooms an remains close tae ilk ither.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Thay traivel, forage, sleep, an raise infants thegither an aw, as well as fecht thegither against aggressive conspecifics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot; /&gt;

Males establish thair dominance mair forcefully than females.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; A male disperses,&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; or leaves his natal group an jyns anither group, efter reachin sexual maturity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Adult males are vera competitive wi ilk ither an fecht for access tae females.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smuts1985&quot; /&gt; Heicher dominance means better access tae matein an earlier access tae fuid, sae naturally a great deal o fechtin ower rank occurs, wi younger males constantly treein tae rise in poseetion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Acause females stay wi thair groups thair entire lives, an males emigrate tae ithers, aften a new male challenges an aulder ane for dominance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Frequently, when aulder baboons drop in the social hierarchy, thay muive tae anither tribe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; The younger males wha pushed thaim doun aften bullies an harasses thaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; Aulder males tend tae hae mair supportive an equal relationships than those o the younger males. The umwhile micht form coalitions against the latter.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smut 1990&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Smuts |first=B. B. |last2=Watanabe |first2=J. M. |year=1990 |title=Social relationships and ritualized greetings in adult male baboons (''Papio cynocephalus anubis'') |journal=Int J Primatol |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=147–172 |doi=10.1007/BF02192786}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Despite bein hierarchical, baboons appear tae be &quot;democratic&quot; when it comes tae decidin the direction o collective muivement. Indwallers are mair likely tae follae when multiple decision-makkers gree on wha direction tae go rather than simply follaein dominant indwallers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Strandburg-Peshkin, Ariana. |author2=Farine, Damien R. |author3=Couzin, Iain D. |author4=Crofoot, Margaret C. |year=2015 |title=Shared decision-making drives collective movement in wild baboons |journal=Science |volume=348 |issue=624 |pages=1358–1361 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa5099 |pmid=26089514 |pmc=4801504}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Reproduction an parentin===
[[File:Olive baboon (Papio anubis) suckling, Semliki Wildlife Reserve.jpg|thumb|left|sucklin, [[Uganda]]]]
[[Image:Baby baboon on back.jpg|thumb|Wi baby, [[Lake Manyara National Park]], [[Tanzanie]]]]
[[File:Olive baboon (Papio anubis) with juvenile.jpg|thumb|wi juvenile, [[Uganda]]]]
Females are sexually matur at seiven tae aicht year auld, an males at seiven tae 10 years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; The beginnin o a female's ovulation is a signal tae the males that she is ready tae mate. Durin ovulation, the skin o the female's anogenital aurie swells an turns a bricht reid/pink.&lt;ref name=&quot;Motluk&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Motluk, Alison |title=Big Bottom |journal=New Scientist |volume=19 |issue=7 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn494-big-bottom.html |year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; The swellin maks it difficult tae muive an increases the female's chance o microbial or parasitic infection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Motluk&quot; /&gt; Females wi mair swollen anogenital auries reproduce while younger, produce mair affspring per year, an those affspring hae a better chance o survivin. Thir females attract mair males an aw, an are mair likely tae cause aggressive fechts atween thaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Olive baboons tend tae mate promiscuously.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; A male forms a matein consortship wi a estrous female, stayin close tae an copulatin wi her.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Packer |first=C. |year=1979 |title=Inter-troop transfer and [[inbreeding avoidance]] in ''Papio anubis'' |journal=Anim Behav |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(79)90126-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Males gaird thair pairtner against ony ither male treein tae mate wi her. Unless a female is in a multiday consortship, she aften copulates wi mair nor ane male each day.&lt;ref name=&quot;Leigh&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Reproduction and Fitness in Baboons: Behavioral, Ecological, and Life History Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/reproductionfitn00swed |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media, LLC |location=New York |isbn=0-387-30688-9 |editor1=Steven Leigh |editor2=Larissa Swedell |page=[https://archive.org/details/reproductionfitn00swed/page/28 28]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Multiple copulations are no necessar for reproduction, but mey function tae mak the actual paternity o the female's affspring ambiguous. This lack o paternal certainty coud help reduce the occurrence o infanticide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; Occasionally, male olive baboons monopolize a female for her entire period o probable conception.&lt;ref name=&quot;Leigh&quot; /&gt; The male protects his female frae bein matit bi ither males durin consortship.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bercovitch |first=F. B. |year=1991 |title=Mate selection, consortship formation, and reproductive tactics in adult female savanna baboons |journal=Primates |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=437–452 |doi=10.1007/BF02381935}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Grooming monkeys PLW edit.jpg|thumb|left|Adult [[social groomin|groomin]] young in the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], Tanzanie]]
Newborns hae black natal coats an bricht pink skin. Females are the primar caregiers o infants, but males play a role an aw.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; In its first few days, the infant mey be unable tae stay attached tae its mither an relies on her for pheesical support. Housomeivver, its grasp graws stranger bi its first week an it is able tae cling tae its mither's fur bi itsel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; Bi twa weeks, the infant begins tae splore its surroondins for short periods, but stays near her. The distance the infant spends awa frae its mither increases the aulder it gets.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Nash |first=L. T. |year=1978 |title=The development of the mother-infant relationship in wild baboons (''Papio anubis'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_animal-behaviour_1978-08_26_3/page/746 |journal=Anim Behav |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=746–759 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(78)90141-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; In general, heicher-rankin females are uisually mair relaxed parents than females o lawer rank, which uisually keep thair affspring close tae thaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; Housomeivver, this difference anerly lasts for approximately the first aicht weeks o a infant's life.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; Olive baboons dae no seem tae practice co-operative parentin, but a female mey gruim an infant that is no hers. Subadult an juvenile females are mair likely tae care for anither's young, as thay hae no yet producit affspring o thair awn.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shefferly&quot; /&gt; Ane theory for why immatur females tend tae seek oot infants is that thay can prepare for thair futur roles as mithers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Infant baboons born tae first-time mithers suffer heicher mortality than those born tae experiencit mithers, which suggests that prior experience in carin for infants is important.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strier&quot; /&gt; Adult males in the groups care for the infants an aw, as thay are likely tae be relatit tae thaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Packer1980&quot; /&gt; Males gruim infants, reducin the amoont o parasites thay mey hae, an calm thaim when thay are stressed. Thay mey pertect thaim frae predators an aw, sic as chimpanzees. Housomeivver, adult males exploit infants an uise thaim tae reduce the likeliheid that ither males will threaten thaim.&lt;ref name=&quot;Packer1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Packer |first=C. |year=1980 |title=Male care and exploitation of infants in ''Papio anubis'' |journal=Anim Behav |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=512–520 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80059-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Communication===
[[File:BABOON-e.JPG|thumb|Face o olive baboon]]
Olive baboons communicate wi various vocalisations an facial expressions. Throuoot the day, baboons o aw ages emit the &quot;basic grunt&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ransom1981&quot;&gt;Ransom TW. (1981) Beach troop of the Gombe. East Brunswick (NJ): Assoc Univ Press ISBN 0-8387-1704-7.&lt;/ref&gt; Adults gie a range o caws. The &quot;roargrunt&quot; is made bi adult males displayin tae ilk ither. The &quot;cough-bark&quot;, an the &quot;cough geck&quot; are made when law-fleein birds or humans thay dae no ken are sichtit. A &quot;wa-hoo&quot; caw is made in response tae predators or neebourin groups at nicht an durin stressful situations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ransom1981&quot; /&gt; Ither vocalisations include &quot;breuken gruntin&quot; (law-volume, quick series o grunts made durin relatively calm aggressive encoonters), &quot;pant-grunts&quot; (made when aggressive encoonters escalate), &quot;shrill barks&quot; (loud caws gien when potential threats appear suddent), an &quot;screams&quot; (continuous heich-pitch soonds respondin tae strang emotions).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ransom1981&quot; /&gt; The maist common facial expression o the olive baboon is &quot;lipsmackin&quot;, which is associatit wi a nummer o behaviours.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; &quot;Ear flattenin&quot;, &quot;ees narraeed&quot;, &quot;heid shakin&quot;, &quot;jaw-clappin&quot;, lipsmackin, an &quot;tongue protrusion&quot;  are uised when baboons are greetin ilk ither, an are whiles made wi a &quot;rear present&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ransom1981&quot; /&gt; &quot;Eebrou raisin&quot;, &quot;molar grindin&quot;, &quot;starin&quot;, an &quot;yawnin&quot;  are uised tae threaten ither baboons.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang2&quot; /&gt; A submissive baboon responds wi displays sic as the &quot;fear grin&quot;, the &quot;rigid crouch&quot;, an &quot;tail erect&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ransom1981&quot; /&gt;

===Diet===
[[File:Papio anubis in Kenya.jpg|thumb|right|Foragin in Kenyae]]
Ane major raison for its widespread success is that the olive baboon is omnivorous.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; As sic it is able tae fynd nutrition in amaist ony environs, an it is able tae adapt wi different foragin tactics.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whiten1991&quot; /&gt; For instance, the olive baboon in grassland goes aboot fyndin fuid differently frae ane in a forest.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; The baboon forages on aw levels o a environs, abuin an beneath the grund an in the canopy o forests.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whiten1991&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Whiten |first=A. |last2=Byrne |first2=R. W. |last3=Barton |first3=R. A. |last4=Waterman |first4=P. G. |last5=Henzi |first5=S. P. |year=1991 |title=Dietary and foraging strategies of baboons |journal=Phil Trans R Soc Lond |volume=334 |issue=1270 |pages=187–197 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1991.0108}}&lt;/ref&gt; Maist ainimals anerly leuk for fuid at ane level; an arboreal species sic as a [[lemur]] daes no leuk for fuid on the grund. The olive baboon searches as wide a aurie as it can, an it eats virtually iverything it fynds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whiten1991&quot; /&gt;

The diet teepically includes a lairge variety o [[plant]]s, an [[invertebrate]]s an smaw mammals, as well as birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Skelton&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Skelton, S. |title=Savanna Baboon (Papio cynocephalusd) |url=http://wanp.exis.net/~spook/babtxt.hml |accessdate=2007-01-29 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; The olive baboon eats leaves, gress, ruits, bark, flouers, fruit, lichens, tubers, seeds, mushrooms, corms, an rhizomes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Skelton&quot; /&gt; Corms an rhizomes are especially important in times o drocht, acause gress luises a great deal o its nutritional value.&lt;ref name=&quot;Skelton&quot; /&gt; In dry, arid regions, sic as the northeastren deserts, smaw invertebrates lik insects, speeders, an scorpions fill oot its diet.&lt;ref name=&quot;Skelton&quot; /&gt;

The olive baboon actively hunts prey an aw, frae smaw rodents an hares tae tods an ither primates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; Its leemit is uisually smaw antelope, sic as [[Thomson's gazelle]] an an aw, rarely, sheep, goats, an live chickens, which mey amoont tae 33.5% o its fuid frae huntin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; Huntin is uisually a group activity, wi baith males an females pairticipatin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lang&quot; /&gt; Interestinly, this seestematic predation wis apparently developit recently.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strum&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Strum, S C. |title=Primate Predation: Interim Report on the Development of a Tradition in a Troop of Olive Baboons |journal=Science |volume=187 |page=4178 |year=1975 |doi=10.1126/science.187.4178.755 |pmid=17795248 |issue=4178}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a field study, sic behaviour wis observit as stairtin wi the males o ane troop an spreadin throu aw ages an sexes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Strum&quot; /&gt;

In [[Eritrea]], the olive baboon haes formed a seembiotic relationship wi that kintra's endangered [[elephant]] population. The baboons uise the watter holes dug bi the elephants, whilk the elephants uise the tree-tap baboons as a early warnin seestem.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The rediscovery of Eritrea's elephants |work=BBC Wildlife magazine |date=July 2003 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |accessdate=2007-09-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314104912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archivedate=2006-03-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Conservation status==
The olive baboon is leetit as [[least concern]] bi the [[IUCN]] acause &quot;this species is vera widespread an abundant an awtho persecutit as a crop raider thare are nae major threats believit tae be resultin in a range-wide population decline&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn&quot; /&gt; Despite persecution, the baboon is still widespread an numerous.&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn&quot; /&gt; Housomeivver, competeetion an disease hae possibly led tae fewer baboons in closed forests. It haes been actively persecutit as a pest.&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Wikispecies|Papio anubis|olive baboon}}
{{Commons category|Papio anubis}}
{{reflist|30em}}

== Freemit airtins ==
* {{UCSC genomes|papAnu2}}

[[Category:Cercopithecine pugs]]
[[Category:Mammals o Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Mammals o Ethiopie]]
[[Category:Mammals o Mali]]
[[Category:Fauna o the Sahara]]
[[Category:Mammals o Somalie]]
[[Category:Mammals o Tanzanie]]
[[Category:Fauna o East Africae]]
[[Category:Fauna o Wast Africae]]
[[Category:Primates o Africae]]
[[Category:Megafauna o Africae]]
[[Category:Ainimals descrived in 1827]]
[[Category:Mammals o Uganda]]
[[Category:Mammals o Benin]]
[[Category:Mammals o Burundi]]
[[Category:Mammals o Cameroon]]
[[Category:Mammals o the Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Mammals o Chad]]
[[Category:Mammals o the Democratic Republic o the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals o the Republic o the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals o Ivory Coast]]
[[Category:Mammals o Eritrea]]
[[Category:Mammals o Ghana]]
[[Category:Mammals o Guinea]]
[[Category:Mammals o Kenyae]]
[[Category:Mammals o Mauritanie]]
[[Category:Mammals o Niger]]
[[Category:Mammals o Nigerie]]
[[Category:Mammals o Rwanda]]
[[Category:Mammals o Sierra Leone]]
[[Category:Mammals o Sooth Sudan]]
[[Category:Mammals o Sudan]]
[[Category:Mammals o Togo]]</text>
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    <title>George Square</title>
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{{Infobox street|image=Wfm glasgow cityhall.jpg|caption=George Square an Glesga Ceetie Chaumers|name=George Square|namesake=King George III|location=[[Glesga]], [[Scotland]]|coordinates={{Coord|55.861161|-4.250178|region:GB_scale:5000|display=inline,title}}|map_caption=Location in Glesga|former_names=George's Square}}

'''George Square''' ({{lang-gd|Ceàrnag Sheòrais}}) is the main [[Toun square|civic square]] in the middle o [[Glesga]], [[Scotland]]. It is cried fur [[George III o the Unitit Kinrick|King George III]]. It's ane oot o sax squares in the ceetie centre.[[File:City Chambers, George Square, Glasgow 05.jpg|thumb|250px|George Square wi the Scott moniment in the centre, [[Glesga Ceety Chambers|Glesga Ceetie Chambers]] tae the left an the umwhile Post Office tae the richt. ]]
[[File:Panorama Card of George Square.jpg|thumb|350px|Panorama postcaird shawin the square in 1905]]
[[File:Panorama George Square north side to City Chambers.jpg|thumb|350px|George Square in 2019]]

The idea ahint the square wis pit oot in 1781, bit didna become developit fur anither 20 year. George Square wis sorroondit bi important biggins. Tae the east is the Glesga Ceetie Chambers, kent as the Municipal Chaumers an aw, whase stane foondin wit pit in 1883, an tae the wast o't is the Merchants Hoose.&lt;ref&gt;''Glasgow'' bi Irene Maver, pit oot in 2000 {{en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSE00418&amp;t=2|title=Foundation ceremony, People's Palace, Social History File|work=www.theglasgowstory.com|access-date=5 July 2021}}{{en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ben the square is an important collection o statues an monimets, sic as thae dedicatit tae [[Robert Burns]], [[James Watt]] an [[Sir Walter Scott]].
==History==
Plans fur George's Square, as it was kent at the stairt&lt;ref name=&quot;Foreman 91&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Carol Foreman|title=Lost Glasgow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r6q8BQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT91|date=13 May 2013|publisher=Birlinn|isbn=978-0-85790-634-2|page=91|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, wis laid oot in 1781 as pairt o a Georgian hypodamic plan thit stairtit aff raxin fae Stockwell Street tae [[Buchanan Street]]. This plan, thit wis later on raxed wast tae Blythswood Hill, wis maistlins the wirk bi architects [[James Barry]], [[James Craig (airchitect)|James Craig]], an [[James Gillespie Graham]]. 

Hounaiver, durin the early years, it wisnae muckle mair nor a glaury aurie, fillt wi dirty watter an uised fur sacrificin horses. Atween 1787 an the 1820s, the square appent up an Georgie hooses an hotels war biggit on the east an wast sides. In 1842, [[Glesga Queen Street railwey station]], the end o The Embro an Glesga railwey, wis appent on the north side. Bi 1850, the square haed turnt intae a hub fur merchant actívitie. In 1877, [[Merchands Hoose]] wis muived tae the square, an the square itsel, thit wis a private gairden fur the sorroondin hooses, wis turnt intae a public space efter a croud malafoustered the gates durin a riot. 

A statue o King George III wis tae occupt the centre o the square tae stairt wi but the stamash an anxiety caused bi the ceetie's tabacco traders bi the [[American War o Unthirldom]] in 1775 an the follaein Breetish defeat in 1783, alangsyd King George's frequent fumin fits, had caused mixed feelins fur the king, an as a result, it wis decided tae honor [[Sir Walter Scott]] insteid, wi a sculptur o [[John Greenshields]] pit abuinn a 24-metre heich Doric Column bi Alexander Handyside Ritchie. Baith wis complete atween 1834 an 1837. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.glasgowsculpture.com/pg_biography.php?sub=greenshields_j|title=John Greenshields (1792-1835), sculptor, a biography|publisher=glasgowsculpture.com|access-date=15 December 2016|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Biggins==
Thir days, maist o the east side consists o the Glesga Ceetie chambers, hame tae the [[Glesga Ceetiy Cooncil|Glesga Ceetie Cooncil]], thit appent in 1888. On the sooth side ur twa three biggins, lik the umwhile Post Office, biggit in 1878 an turnt intae office space in [[2007]], a Chicago-style office biggin fae [[1924]], an the ceetie's main tourist office.

The north side consists o Queen Street Station, the Millennium Hotel (umwhile the North British Railwey Hotel) fae the 1840s,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=C. |last2=Patrick |first2=L. |title=Scottish Railway Icons: Central Belt to the Borders |publisher=Amberley Publishing |series=Scottish Railway Icons |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4456-2115-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-AgCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT82 |access-date=10 March 2019 |page=82 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229222519/https://books.google.com/books?id=f-AgCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT82 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; an George Hoose, thit's an aulder Georgie biggin, biggit in 1979 tae gie mair space fur offices.

Queen Street, thit rins alang the wast side o the square, haes the Merchands Hoose, thit hooses the Glesga Chaumer o Commerce, designed bi [[John Burnet]] an appent in 1874. In [[1907]], [[John James Burnet]] pit in 2 flairs, wi a domed touer on the tap, whilk haes the Hoose emblem, a shop on a [[Globe]], engraved on it, tae mind fowk on the importance o maritime trade tae the propsperity tae Glesga. The wastren side haes the umwhile [[Bank of Scotland|Bank o Scotland]] biggin an aw, bit nou conteens offices an a [[Weatherspoons]] pub.

The east side o the square is flankit bi twa greens an conteens the ceetie [[Cenotapah]] an aw, thit tae stairt wi, wis designed bi John James Burnet an wis biggit in [[1922]] bi the [[Earl Haig Fund]] tae mynd the fowk fae Glesga thit lost thair lifes in the [[First Warld War]]. A 24 Metre heich [[Column]], pit up in 1837, shaws the scriever [[Walter Scott]]. A feck o Glesga's public statues is fund aboot the square an amang thaim are the ainly kent equestrian statues o a yung [[Queen Victoria]] an her husband Prince Albert, the makars Robert Burns an [[Thomas Campbell]], the inventor James Watt, the chemist [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]], the generals [[Sir John Moore]], [[Lord Clyde]], an the politícians [[William Ewart Gladstone]], [[Robert Peel]] an [[James Oswald]].

==Social Importance==
The square haes been muckle uised as a place fur public gaitherins, polítical gitthegithers, royets, protests, handselins, ceremonies, parauds an concerts. Ane o the maist weel kent wis the [[Black Friday Demonstrations in 1919]], whan pairt-takers haudit a muckle demonstration fur tae see impruivement on wirkin condítions (For example, agin 56 oors o wirk ilka week in mony factories in the ceetie), wi mair nor 90,000 protestor in the square an the surroondin streets. The event turnt intae stramashs atween protestors an the polis, an the [[Riot Act]] bein rade. The radical reputation o the ceetie, an the haudin up o the red flag by some fowk thare, made the [[Leeberalism|Líberal]] govrenment feart o a [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] revolution wis aboot tae happen. The govrenment reponed bi cawin oot fully airmed troops an tanks in the square an streets in the ceetie.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hatherley |first1=Owen |title=A Guide to the New Ruins of Great Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetonewruinso0000hath |date=2011 |publisher=Verso Press |location=London }}&lt;/ref&gt;


Syne, the square haes sert as a venue fur polítical campaigns an gitthegithers o a hale wheen o kynds, protests agin the [[Poll tax]], an the [[Iraq War]], annual [[Remembrance Day]] parauds an recent-like, haes turnt intae the place for stendit [[Hogmanay]] handselins in the ceetie. In the winter, thare is an ice rink in the square. 

In Februar [[2005]], the square wis closed tae gangers fur a twa-month sortin project, thit includit replacin the red pavement, an statuee an stane cleanin, espeicially Walter Scott's. 

The chyce tae tak oot the green areas an rent oot the square fur temporar firms wis controversial. In [[2012]], a campaign stairtit tae bring the square back tae it's oríginal wey.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.restoregeorgesquare.com|title=Restore George Square|access-date=15 December 2016|lang=en|archive-date=2021-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422025836/https://www.restoregeorgesquare.com/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Juist efter [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s deith in [[2013]], thare wis ettlins tae pit thegither street pairties tae handsel the event. As a repone tae dae it in George Square, Glesga Ceetie Cooncil pit oot a statement statin: &quot;Regaridless aboot whether or no it's appropriate tae hiv a pairty tae hailsin somebody's deith, this event is bein pit thegither wioot the appruival fae the Glasgow City Cooncil, an we are concernt anent the sauftie o aw pairt-takers. Actual event organisers hiv tae git permíssion tae uise the square. Thay hiv tae shaw tae the ceetie cooncil thit thay will tak safuety measures sic as provide first-aid, eneuch public cludgies an guards, as weel as gittin a liability license an aw. We'r cawin fur fowk tae keep awa fae thir events.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-22072150|title=Glasgow City Council criticises George Square Thatcher 'party'|publisher=BBC News|date=8 April 2013|access-date=15 December 2016|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; It's thocht thit mair nor 100 fowk arrived efter hauf an oor.

Durin the [[Scots unthirldom referendum, 2014|2014 Scots unthirldom referendum]], George Square wis a weel kent settin fur polítical rallies, maistly amang the supporters fur unthrildom.

==Fremmit airtins==
*[https://www.glasgowheritage.org.uk/the-evolution-of-george-square-with-niall-murphy/ 'The Evolution of George Square' tauk bi Niall Murphy]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{en}}
*[https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=32315&amp;p=0 'George Square Heritage Trail' bi Glesga City Cooncil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517104304/https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=32315&amp;p=0 |date=2021-05-17 }} {{en}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Category A leetit biggins in Glesga]]
[[Category:Pairks an commons in Scotland]]
[[Category:Places o Scotland]]
[[Category:Civic centres]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dál Riata</title>
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[[File:Dalriada.png|right|thumb|200px|Satellite eemage o Scotland an Ireland shawin the approximate greatest extent o Dál Riata (shadit). The moontainous spine that separates the east an wast coasts o Scotland can be seen.]]
'''Dál Riata''' or '''Dál Riada''' ('''Dalriada''') wis a [[Gaels|Gaelic]] owerkinrick that includit pairts o wastren [[Scotland]] an northeastren [[Ireland]], on ilk side o the [[North Channel (Great Breetain an Ireland)|North Channel]].&lt;ref&gt;Clancy, Thomas Owen, &quot;Philosopher King: Nechtan mac Der Ilei,&quot; SHR 83 (2004): 135–149&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OxfordCompanion1&quot;&gt;Oxford Companion to Scottish History p. 161–162, edited by Michael Lynch, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-923482-0}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland c. AD 400–1200|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofcel0000lain|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Laing, Lloyd Robert|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofcel0000lain/page/324 324]|isbn=978-0521838627|quote=The inhabitants of what is now Co. Antrim, Ireland, were known as the Scots, a name they transported to what is now Argyll and the adjacent islands where they established the kingdom of Dál Riata.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}{{Stub/Places o Scotland}}{{Stub/Scotland}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dal Riata}}
[[Category:Scotland in the Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Érainn]]
[[Category:Umwhile monarchies o Europe]]
[[Category:Umwhile kintras in Europe]]
[[Category:Gaelic-Erse naitions an dynasties]]
[[Category:Umwhile kintras in the Breetish Isles]]
[[Category:States an territories established in the 6t century]]
[[Category:6t century in Scotland]]
[[Category:Kinricks o medieval Ireland]]
[[Category:History o Argyll an Bute]]
[[Category:Ulaid]]
[[Category:Places o Scotland]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Scott Bain</title>
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      <text bytes="3051" sha1="0ush17uob60luh338uhps2luk9u6neh" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox football biography
|name           = Scott Bain
|image          = ScottBain2018.jpg
|caption        = Scott Bain in 2018
|fullname       = Scott Bain
|birth_date     = {{birth date and age|1991|11|22|df=y}}
|birth_place    = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
|height         = {{height|m=1.83}}
|currentclub    = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|clubnumber     = 19
|youthyears1    = 2008–2010
|youthclubs1    = [[Aberdeen F.C. Reserves and Academy|Aberdeen]]
|years1         = 2010–2011
|clubs1         = [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]]
|caps1          = 0
|goals1         = 0
|years2         = 2010–2011
|clubs2         = → [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]] (loan)
|caps2          = 11
|goals2         = 0
|years3         = 2011–2014
|clubs3         = [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]]
|caps3          = 100
|goals3         = 0
|years4         = 2014–2018
|clubs4         = [[Dundee F.C.|Dundee]]
|caps4          = 108
|goals4         = 0
|years5         = 2018
|clubs5         = → [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] (loan)
|caps5          = 0
|goals5         = 0
|years6         = 2018
|clubs6         = → [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] (loan)
|caps6          = 7
|goals6         = 0
|years7         = 2018–2025
|clubs7         = [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]]
|caps7          = 46
|goals7         = 0
|years8         = 2025–
|clubs8         = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|caps8          = 28
|goals8         = 0
&lt;!--domestic league matches only--&gt;| nationalyears1 = 2010
|nationalteam1  = [[Scotland naitional unner-19 fitbaw team|Scotland U-19]]
|nationalcaps1  = 1
|nationalgoals1 = 0
|nationalyears2 = 2018–
|nationalteam2 = [[Scotland naitional fitbaw team|Scotland]]
|nationalcaps2 = 4
|nationalgoals2 = 0
|medaltemplates = 
|club-update = 1 March 2026
|ntupdate = 8 April 2026
}}

'''Scott Bain''' (born 22 November 1991) is a [[Scots fowk|Scots]] [[Association fitbaw|fitbawer]] that plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association fitbaw)|goalkeeper]] for [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/articles/ce8rmlzklylo|title='Outstanding' Bain extends Falkirk stay|work=www.bbc.co.uk|date=9 Januar 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; He haes previously played for [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]], [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]], [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]] an [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Fremmit airtins ==
* {{SFA player}}
* {{Soccerway}}
* {{Soccerbase}}

{{2015–16 PFA Scotland Scottish Premiership Team of the Year}}

{{Celtic F.C. squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bain, Scott}}
[[Category:1991 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Sportsfowk frae Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Scots fitbawers]]
[[Category:Association fitbaw goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Aberdeen F.C. players]]
[[Category:Elgin City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Alloa Athletic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Dundee F.C. players]]
[[Category:Hibernian F.C. players]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Scottish Football League players]]
[[Category:Scottish Professional Football League players]]
[[Category:Scotland internaitional fitbawers]]

{{Stub/Sport}}</text>
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|image          = ScottBain2018.jpg
|caption        = Scott Bain in 2018
|fullname       = Scott Bain
|birth_date     = {{birth date and age|1991|11|22|df=y}}
|birth_place    = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
|height         = {{height|m=1.83}}
|currentclub    = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|clubnumber     = 19
|youthyears1    = 2008–2010
|youthclubs1    = [[Aberdeen F.C. Reserves and Academy|Aberdeen]]
|years1         = 2010–2011
|clubs1         = [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]]
|caps1          = 0
|goals1         = 0
|years2         = 2010–2011
|clubs2         = → [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]] (loan)
|caps2          = 11
|goals2         = 0
|years3         = 2011–2014
|clubs3         = [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]]
|caps3          = 100
|goals3         = 0
|years4         = 2014–2018
|clubs4         = [[Dundee F.C.|Dundee]]
|caps4          = 108
|goals4         = 0
|years5         = 2018
|clubs5         = → [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] (loan)
|caps5          = 0
|goals5         = 0
|years6         = 2018
|clubs6         = → [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] (loan)
|caps6          = 7
|goals6         = 0
|years7         = 2018–2025
|clubs7         = [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]]
|caps7          = 46
|goals7         = 0
|years8         = 2025–
|clubs8         = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|caps8          = 28
|goals8         = 0
&lt;!--domestic league matches only--&gt;| nationalyears1 = 2010
|nationalteam1  = [[Scotland naitional unner-19 fitbaw team|Scotland U-19]]
|nationalcaps1  = 1
|nationalgoals1 = 0
|nationalyears2 = 2018–
|nationalteam2 = [[Scotland naitional fitbaw team|Scotland]]
|nationalcaps2 = 4
|nationalgoals2 = 0
|medaltemplates = 
|club-update = 1 March 2026
|ntupdate = 8 April 2026
}}

'''Scott Bain''' (born 22 November 1991) is a [[Scots fowk|Scots]] [[Association fitbaw|fitbawer]] that plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association fitbaw)|goalkeeper]] for [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/articles/ce8rmlzklylo|title='Outstanding' Bain extends Falkirk stay|work=www.bbc.co.uk|date=9 Januar 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; He haes previously played for [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]], [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]], [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]] an [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Fremmit airtins ==
* [https://www.scottishfa.co.uk/players/?pid=48101&amp;lid=1 Scott Bain at SFA]
* {{Soccerway}}
* {{Soccerbase}}

{{2015–16 PFA Scotland Scottish Premiership Team of the Year}}

{{Celtic F.C. squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bain, Scott}}
[[Category:1991 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Sportsfowk frae Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Scots fitbawers]]
[[Category:Association fitbaw goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Aberdeen F.C. players]]
[[Category:Elgin City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Alloa Athletic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Dundee F.C. players]]
[[Category:Hibernian F.C. players]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Scottish Football League players]]
[[Category:Scottish Professional Football League players]]
[[Category:Scotland internaitional fitbawers]]

{{Stub/Sport}}</text>
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    <revision>
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      <text bytes="3183" sha1="7udo8zomniqdh3ehq7mb7t59bgypxe0" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox football biography
|name           = Scott Bain
|image          = ScottBain2018.jpg
|caption        = Scott Bain in 2018
|fullname       = Scott Bain
|birth_date     = {{birth date and age|1991|11|22|df=y}}
|birth_place    = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
|height         = {{height|m=1.83}}
|currentclub    = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|clubnumber     = 19
|youthyears1    = 2008–2010
|youthclubs1    = [[Aberdeen F.C. Reserves and Academy|Aberdeen]]
|years1         = 2010–2011
|clubs1         = [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]]
|caps1          = 0
|goals1         = 0
|years2         = 2010–2011
|clubs2         = → [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]] (loan)
|caps2          = 11
|goals2         = 0
|years3         = 2011–2014
|clubs3         = [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]]
|caps3          = 100
|goals3         = 0
|years4         = 2014–2018
|clubs4         = [[Dundee F.C.|Dundee]]
|caps4          = 108
|goals4         = 0
|years5         = 2018
|clubs5         = → [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] (loan)
|caps5          = 0
|goals5         = 0
|years6         = 2018
|clubs6         = → [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] (loan)
|caps6          = 7
|goals6         = 0
|years7         = 2018–2025
|clubs7         = [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]]
|caps7          = 46
|goals7         = 0
|years8         = 2025–
|clubs8         = [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]]
|caps8          = 28
|goals8         = 0
&lt;!--domestic league matches only--&gt;| nationalyears1 = 2010
|nationalteam1  = [[Scotland naitional unner-19 fitbaw team|Scotland U-19]]
|nationalcaps1  = 1
|nationalgoals1 = 0
|nationalyears2 = 2018–
|nationalteam2 = [[Scotland naitional fitbaw team|Scotland]]
|nationalcaps2 = 4
|nationalgoals2 = 0
|medaltemplates = 
|club-update = 1 March 2026
|ntupdate = 8 April 2026
}}

'''Scott Bain''' (born 22 November 1991) is a [[Scots fowk|Scots]] [[Association fitbaw|fitbawer]] that plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association fitbaw)|goalkeeper]] for [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/articles/ce8rmlzklylo|title='Outstanding' Bain extends Falkirk stay|work=www.bbc.co.uk|date=9 Januar 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; He haes previously played for [[Aberdeen F.C.|Aberdeen]], [[Elgin City F.C.|Elgin City]], [[Alloa Athletic F.C.|Alloa Athletic]] an [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Fremmit airtins ==
* [https://www.scottishfa.co.uk/players/?pid=48101&amp;lid=1 Scott Bain at SFA]
* {{Soccerway}}
* [https://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id=52521 Scott Bain at Soccerbase]

{{2015–16 PFA Scotland Scottish Premiership Team of the Year}}

{{Celtic F.C. squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bain, Scott}}
[[Category:1991 births]]
[[Category:Livin fowk]]
[[Category:Sportsfowk frae Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Scots fitbawers]]
[[Category:Association fitbaw goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Aberdeen F.C. players]]
[[Category:Elgin City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Alloa Athletic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Dundee F.C. players]]
[[Category:Hibernian F.C. players]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. players]]
[[Category:Scottish Football League players]]
[[Category:Scottish Professional Football League players]]
[[Category:Scotland internaitional fitbawers]]

{{Stub/Sport}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Comedy drama</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-25T02:08:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr.Murdoch78</username>
        <id>119895</id>
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      <comment>NOTE: The text o this edit, wis owersettit frae the existin Inglis Wikipaedia airtin at [[:en:Comedy drama]]; see its history fur attreibution</comment>
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      <text bytes="2764" sha1="9kgpusemh2fn8kz6tfpzqt2c4m5z42v" xml:space="preserve">'''Comedy drama''', forby kent bi the [[portmanteau]] '''''dramedy''''',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=DRAMEDY {{!}} Meaning &amp; Definition for UK English {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=dramedy noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes {{!}} Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[hybrid genre]] that combines elements o [[comedy]] an [[drama]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2026-04-22|title=dramedy|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In film, as weel as scriptit telly series, serious dramatic subjecks are haundled wi realism an subtlety, whiles preservin a licht or humorous tone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Thorpe|first=Vanessa|last2=Arts|last3=Correspondent|first3=Media|date=2019-05-11|title=Seriously funny: why we fell in love with dramedies|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/may/11/why-we-fell-in-love-with-dramedies|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The term &quot;dramedy&quot; begound tae be uised in the telly industrie in the 1980s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=The Best And The Brightest Abc`s Hooperman -- The Hands-down Winner Of The Best New Show Of The Year -- Introduces A New Format, ``dramedy,`` While Slap Maxwell Reintroduces Dabney Coleman.|language=en|work=tribunedigital-sunsentinel|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1987-09-23/features/8703150300_1_hooperman-lewis-erlicht-brandon-stoddard|access-date=2026-04-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Press|first=Joy|date=2018-03-05|title=Meet the dramedy queens: the women who built TV’s new golden age|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/mar/05/meet-the-dramedy-queens-the-women-built-tvs-new-golden-age-derry-girls-insecure-catastrophe|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rethinking the Dramedy: What Is It, Anyway?|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/comedy/dramedy/rethinking-the-dramedy-what-is-it-anyway|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Paste Magazine|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Modren telly comedy dramas tend tae hae mair humour integratit intae the story nor the comic relief common in drama series, bit uisually contain a lower joke rate nor [[Sitcom|sitcoms]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Comedy-drama| ]]
[[Category:Comedy genres|Drama]]
[[Category:Drama genres]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Televeesion genres]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Mr.Murdoch78 flittit page [[Comedy-drama]] til [[Comedy drama]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2764" sha1="9kgpusemh2fn8kz6tfpzqt2c4m5z42v" xml:space="preserve">'''Comedy drama''', forby kent bi the [[portmanteau]] '''''dramedy''''',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=DRAMEDY {{!}} Meaning &amp; Definition for UK English {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=dramedy noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes {{!}} Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[hybrid genre]] that combines elements o [[comedy]] an [[drama]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2026-04-22|title=dramedy|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In film, as weel as scriptit telly series, serious dramatic subjecks are haundled wi realism an subtlety, whiles preservin a licht or humorous tone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Thorpe|first=Vanessa|last2=Arts|last3=Correspondent|first3=Media|date=2019-05-11|title=Seriously funny: why we fell in love with dramedies|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/may/11/why-we-fell-in-love-with-dramedies|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The term &quot;dramedy&quot; begound tae be uised in the telly industrie in the 1980s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=The Best And The Brightest Abc`s Hooperman -- The Hands-down Winner Of The Best New Show Of The Year -- Introduces A New Format, ``dramedy,`` While Slap Maxwell Reintroduces Dabney Coleman.|language=en|work=tribunedigital-sunsentinel|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1987-09-23/features/8703150300_1_hooperman-lewis-erlicht-brandon-stoddard|access-date=2026-04-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Press|first=Joy|date=2018-03-05|title=Meet the dramedy queens: the women who built TV’s new golden age|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/mar/05/meet-the-dramedy-queens-the-women-built-tvs-new-golden-age-derry-girls-insecure-catastrophe|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rethinking the Dramedy: What Is It, Anyway?|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/comedy/dramedy/rethinking-the-dramedy-what-is-it-anyway|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Paste Magazine|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Modren telly comedy dramas tend tae hae mair humour integratit intae the story nor the comic relief common in drama series, bit uisually contain a lower joke rate nor [[Sitcom|sitcoms]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Comedy-drama| ]]
[[Category:Comedy genres|Drama]]
[[Category:Drama genres]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Televeesion genres]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2753" sha1="9p53cubkn5hgldab6lo8u7bzdqoh4e0" xml:space="preserve">'''Comedy drama''', forby kent bi the [[portmanteau]] '''''dramedy''''',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=DRAMEDY {{!}} Meaning &amp; Definition for UK English {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=dramedy noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes {{!}} Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[hybrid genre]] that combines elements o [[comedy]] an [[drama]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2026-04-22|title=dramedy|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/dramedy|access-date=2026-04-25|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; In film, as weel as scriptit telly series, serious dramatic subjecks are haundled wi realism an subtlety, whiles preservin a licht or humorous tone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Thorpe|first=Vanessa|last2=Arts|last3=Correspondent|first3=Media|date=2019-05-11|title=Seriously funny: why we fell in love with dramedies|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/may/11/why-we-fell-in-love-with-dramedies|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The term &quot;dramedy&quot; begound tae be uised in the telly industrie in the 1980s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=The Best And The Brightest Abc`s Hooperman -- The Hands-down Winner Of The Best New Show Of The Year -- Introduces A New Format, ``dramedy,`` While Slap Maxwell Reintroduces Dabney Coleman.|language=en|work=tribunedigital-sunsentinel|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1987-09-23/features/8703150300_1_hooperman-lewis-erlicht-brandon-stoddard|access-date=2026-04-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Press|first=Joy|date=2018-03-05|title=Meet the dramedy queens: the women who built TV’s new golden age|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/mar/05/meet-the-dramedy-queens-the-women-built-tvs-new-golden-age-derry-girls-insecure-catastrophe|access-date=2026-04-25|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rethinking the Dramedy: What Is It, Anyway?|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/comedy/dramedy/rethinking-the-dramedy-what-is-it-anyway|access-date=2026-04-25|website=Paste Magazine|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Modren telly comedy dramas tend tae hae mair humour integratit intae the story nor the comic relief common in drama series, bit tend tae hae a lawer joke rate nor [[sitcom]]s.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Comedy-drama| ]]
[[Category:Comedy genres|Drama]]
[[Category:Drama genres]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Televeesion genres]]</text>
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    <title>Collogue:Comedy drama</title>
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    <title>Crichope Linn</title>
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'''Crichope Linn''' or '''Crichop Linn''', oreeginally '''Creehope'''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=R.|year=1901|title=Closeburn (Dumfriesshire). Reminiscent, Historic &amp; Traditional|url=https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats|publisher=Inglis Ker &amp; Co.|isbn=|page=[https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats/page/262 254]}}&lt;/ref&gt; is a [[Canyon|gorge]] an [[watterfaw]] near [[Gatelawbrig]] in [[Dumfries an Gallowa]], soothren Scotland.&lt;ref name=OS78&gt;{{cite map|title=Ordnance Survey: Landranger map sheet 78 ''Nithsdale &amp; Annandale (Sanquhar &amp; Moffat)''|ISBN= 9780319229590 |publisher=Ordnance Survey|date=2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=OSGaz50&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/opendatadownload/products.html |title=Ordnance Survey: 1:50,000 Scale Gazetteer |format=csv (download) |date= 1 January 2016 |publisher=Ordnance Survey |website=www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk |accessdate=18 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|55.2414|-3.7142|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Laundforms o Dumfries an Gallowa]]
[[Category:Canyons an gorges o Scotland]]
[[Category:Watterfaws o Dumfries and Gallowa]]
[[Category:Robert Burns]]</text>
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|caption=Rossay Castle, wi the 16t yearhunner forewark in the centre, an the 13t yearhunner &quot;Pigeon Touer&quot; on the richt
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|map_size=150
|type=Curtain Waw an Moat
|built=13t yearhunner
|builder=[[Alan fitz Walter, 2nt Heich Stewart o Scotland|Alan, Heich Stewart o Scotland]] or [[Walter Stewart, 3rd Heich Stewart o Scotland|Walter Stewart]]
|controlledby=[[Hoose o Stuart]]
|materials=Stane
|height=
|used=Till 1660
|condition=Ruined
|ownership=[[Historic Scotland]]
|open_to_public= Aye
|image2=[[File:RothesayCastleS.jpg|300px]]
|caption2=The 13t century curtain waw seen frae the sooth-east, athort  the moat. The bases o the sooth-east an sooth-wast touers can be seen.
}}
'''Rossay Castle''' is a ruined castle in [[Rossay]], the principal toun on the [[Isle o Bute]], in wastren [[Scotland]]. The castle haes been descrieved as &quot;ane o the maist byordinar in Scotland&quot;, fur its lang history stairtin fae the 13t yearhunner, an its unco circular plan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lindsay|first=Maurice|title=The Castles of Scotland|url=https://archive.org/details/castlesofscotlan0000lind|publisher=Constable &amp; Co.|year=1986|isbn=0094646007|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/castlesofscotlan0000lind/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The castle haes a muckle curtain waw, strenthened bi fower roond touers, thegither wi a 16t-yearhunner forewark, the hale castle is suroondit bi a broad moat. The castle, biggit bi the Stewart faimily, survived fechts wi the [[Vikings|Norse]] an became an airt whaur ryals wid bide. Throu fawin intae ruin efter the 17t yearhunner, the castle wis repaired bi the Marquess o Bute afore passin intae the states hauns in the 20t yearhunner. 

A paddle steamer cried efter the castle wis biggit in 1816.

== The aerlie castle ==
The castle wis biggit bi Alan fitz Walter, Steward o Scotland (d1204), or bi his son Walter (d1246). Durin Alan’s tenure, the faimily eikit the Isle o Bute tae thair lordship. A widden castle wis biggit first, but the stane circular curtain waw wis pit in place bi the 1230s, whan the castle wis pit unner siege an taen bi the Norwegian-backed fleet o Óspakr-Hákon, King o the Isles (d1230). ''Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar'' seyed that Óspakr's forces focht fur three day tae tak the castle, knockin doun pairt o the eastren waw bi hewin the stane wi thair axes. This stramash is the aerliest recordit accoont o an attack on a Scots castle. In 1263, Rossay wis taen bi the Norwegian forces unner Hákon Hákonarson, King o [[Norawa]] afore the [[Battle o Largs]]. E'en tho the Battle o Largs is cried indecisive, Hákon's campaign wis a failure, the Norse retreatit, an it stapped Norawa’s haud ower westren Scotland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|last=Barrow|first=Geoffrey Wallis Steuart|year=2004|title=Stewart family|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=online|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/49411}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The aerlie castle anely haed the circular curtain waw, 2.7 m (9 ft) thick, 7.9 m (26 ft) heich an aroon 42 m (138 ft) in diameter, biggit on a laich mound, wi a battlement on tap accessed bi apen stairs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rothesay from The Gazetteer for Scotland|url=https://www.scottish-places.info/towns/townfirst551.html|access-date=2025-12-31|website=The Gazetteer for Scotland|language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;The moat wis jyned thegither wi the sea, wi the shoreline then bein nearer tae the north-east o the caste nor it is the day. The broad crenellations kin be makkit oot athin the waws, that war later raised. Holes in the tap o the waw wid hae supportit a timber bretasche, a projectin structur uised as an eikit battlement. This curtain waw wis biggit o coursed ashlar, an haed anely twa apenins in its lenth. The main yett wis an arched apenin wi a simple timber door. The secont apenin wis a smaw postern yett in the west waw, that haes syne been blockit.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Bute, Rothesay, Rothesay Cast... {{!}} Place {{!}} trove.scot|url=https://www.trove.scot/place/40395|access-date=2025-12-31|website=www.trove.scot}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the later pairt o the 13th yearhunner, the castle wis strenthened bi the eikin o fower roond touers, anely the north-west touer is aye thegither the day. Thae three-storey touers haed strang splayed bases, wi arrow slits ablo the crenellated parapet. A portcullis wis eikit tae the main yett.

== Wars o unthirldom an the Stewarts ==
Durin the [[Wars o Scots Unthirldom]], Rossay was haudit bi the [[Ingland|Inglis]], but wis taen back bi [[Robert the Bruce]] in 1311. It wis taen bi the Inglis in 1334 ance mair, afore bein taen back bi the Scots. Follaein the accession o the Stewarts tae the throne o Scotland in 1371, the castle became a favourite place tae bide fur kings siclik [[Robert II o Scotland|Robert II]] an [[Robert III]]. Robert II gied the hereditary keepership o the castle tae his son John, ancestor o the Earls an Marquesses o Bute. Robert III makkit his auldest son David Duke of Rossay in 1401, stairtin a tradition o honourin the heir tae the throne o Scotland wi this title. In 1462 the castle survived a siege bi the forces o John o Islay, Earl o Ross an the last Lord o the Isles.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rothesay Castle|url=https://castlesuncovered.com/scotland/rothesaycastle|access-date=2025-12-31|website=castlesuncovered.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== The 16t an 17t yearhunners ==
In the aerlie 16t yearhunner Rossay Castle wis strenthened mair. A gatehoose stairtit tae be biggit, eikit fae the north of o curtain waw, an it begoud at the stairt o the yearhunner, tae gie a mair modren bidin fur [[James IV]]. The curtain waw itsel wis raised up tae ten metre in heicht, the warks wint ower intae the reign o [[James V o Scotland|James V]]. In 1527 the castle withstood anither siege bi the Master o Ruthven, that destroyed muckle pairts o the Rossay burgh. In 1544, the castle fell tae the Earl o Lennox, actin fur the Inglis durin the sae cried &quot;[[Rough Wooing]]&quot;.

The forewark is an L-plan structur, that juttit intae the moat an wis accessed bi a draw-brig. The laicher flair haed a vaultit entrance tunnel rinnin intae the aulder castle courtyaird. Abuin, the fower-storey touer haed ryal lodgins, an aye bears the [[Ryal coat o airms o Scotland|ryal coat o airms]] abuin the door. In the aerlie 16t yearhunner, a chaipel wis biggit inside the auld castle. Simple in form, the chaipel measured aroon 7 m (23 ft) bi 14 m (45 ft), an is nou the anely survivin structur athin the curtain waw. The north-west touer wis chynged intae a [[doocot]], an is kent as the &quot;Pigeon Touer&quot;, owin tae the nest boxes biggit intae the ootside waw.

Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox, a favourite o James VI wis compelled bi the Ruthven Regime tae flit ootwi Scotland. He wint first tae [[Dumbarton Castle]], an syne steyed at Rossay Castle in October 1582.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Bowes|first=Robert|title=The Correspondence of Robert Bowes, of Aske, Esquire, the Ambassador of Queen Elizabeth in the Court of Scotland|publisher=J. B. Nichols and Son (for the Surtees Society, vol. 14)|year=1842|isbn=|location=London|pages=205, 211, 217}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rossay garrisoned fur the occupyin forces o [[Oliver Cromwell]], wha invadit Scotland wi his New Model Airmy in the aerlie 1650s. Whan thay shiftit in 1660, the troops pairtly dismantled the structur. Whit wis left wis burnt bi the supporters o Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl o Argyll durin his risin of 1685, in support o the Monmouth Rebellion agin [[James VII, King o Scots|James VII]].

== Mendin o the castle ==
[[File:Rothesay_Castle_entrance.JPG|thumb|300x300px|The vaultit entrance tunnel.]]
Follaein a lang period o neglect, the 2nd Marquess o Bute employed 70 men tae excavate the ruins, clearin muckle amoonts o rubbish fae the castle in 1816–17. But it wisnae till 1871 that wark stairtit back up an the ruins war stabilised.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=Nicki|title=Rothesay Castle|publisher=Historic Environment Scotland|year=2018|isbn=|location=Edinburgh}}&lt;/ref&gt;The 3rd Marquess, a restorer o historic biggins, stairtit mony repairs an restorations, follaein surveys an advice fae his regular architect William Burges. His &quot;restorations&quot; wint on til 1900, an include the clearin an shapin o the moat, as weel as the eikin o reid sandstane tae the forewark, thay reinstatit the haw roof whiles makin muckle chynges tae the biggin.

In 1961 Rossay Castle wis gied tae the state, an is nou a Scheduled Auncient Monument, in the hauns o Historic Environment Scotland.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rothesay Castle, castle 75m N of Bute Museum (SM12970)|url=https://portal.historicenvironment.scot/apex/f?p=1505%3A300%3A%3A%3A%3A%3AVIEWTYPE%2CVIEWREF%3Adesignation%2CSM12970|access-date=2025-12-31|website=portal.historicenvironment.scot|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==Soorces==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Biggins an structurs completit in the 13t century]]
[[Category:Ruint castles in Argyll an Bute]]
[[Category:Historic Scotland properties in Argyll an Bute]]
[[Category:Rossay, Bute]]
[[Category:Scheduled Auncient Monuments in Argyll an Bute]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Austrick–Turkey relations</title>
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[[File:Embassy of Austria to Turkey (Амбасада Аустрије у Турској).jpg|thumb|Embassy o Austrick in Ankara]]

'''Austrian–Turkish relations''' is relations atween [[Austrick]] an [[Turkey]] an thair [[succession o states|predecessor state]]s.

== The Habsburgs and the Ottomans ==
Frae the [[middle ages]] til the twentieth yeirhunner, Austrick an Turkey wur the [[Core-periphery|core region]]s athin mair muckle empires. Austrick wis the seat o the [[Hoose o Habsburg]] an Turkey wis ruled bi the [[Hoose o Osman]] (kent as the [[Ottoman Dynasty]] forby). The Habsburg an Ottoman states wur baith muckle multi-ethnic conglomerations sustained bi conquest. These rival empires waged frequent wars agin ilka ither ower control o much [[Central Europe]] an [[the Balkans]].

Durin its peak, the [[Ottoman Empire]] threitint tae conquer the Austrick caipital o [[Vienna]] twice: in [[Siege o Vienna|1529]] an [[Battle o Vienna|1683]]. Efter the seicont Ottoman defeat at Vienna an the end o the [[Great Turkis War]] in 1699, houaniver, the Habsburgs gained the upper haund, an captured [[Hungary]] an [[Croatie]] frae the Ottomans. Efter thir gains, Austrick wisnae able tae advance intae the Balkans, acause o the rival influence o [[Roushie Empire|Roushie]], in a stalemate an dispute kent as the [[Eastren Question]]. Whiles Ottoman control in the Balkans went intae decline, the Austrians wurnae able tae annex ony new territory until [[annexation o Bosnie|Bosnie in 1908]], an e'en that caused a diplomatic crisis (the [[Bosnie creesis]]). In the interim, Roushie haed gien help tae seeveral nationalities in the Balkans tae tak up airms agin the Ottomans an create separate nation-states in the Balkans. Efter the culmination o aw the chynges frae the [[Greek War o Unthirldom]] (1821–1829) tae the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912–1913) the Austrick an Ottoman empires nae langer haed mairches wi ilk ither. This alloued baith tae join the [[Central Powers]] as allies durin the [[First Warld War]]. The defeat o the Central Powers lead tae baith monarchies bein owerthrawn.

== Austrick an Turkis republics ==
[[Austrick]] currently haes normal relations wi [[Turkey]]. Houaniver, thare are some minor complications. [[Austrick]], that haes aboot 250,000 Turks bidin there (about 3% o Austrick's population), haes been at the forefront o stappin [[Turkey's accession tae the European Union]].

==Accession o Turkey tae the European Union==
On 10 November 2010 relations atween the twa kintras wur excessively tensed efter the Turkis ambassador tae Austria accused the Austrick public an poleetical elite o xenophobia an called on internaitional organisations wi buildings in [[Vienna]] tae relocate tae anither kintra. The Freedom Pairtt cawed for the suspension o diplomatic relations an fur stappin the [[Accession o Turkey tae the European Union|EU accession talks]] wi Ankara.

In December 2017, Turkey accuised the incomin Austrick govrenment o discrimination an racism, efter it wudnae agree tae Ankara jynin the EU. In addeition, Turkey slammed the EU for nae condemnin the Austrick govrenment's approach. The Turkis foreign meenistry accuised the incomin government o “dishonesty” forby an gied ae wairnishin that thair approach waukd bring Austrick “tae the brink o losing Turkey’s friendship” an be met wi “the reaction that it deserves.”&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.timesofisrael.com/turkey-accuses-new-austria-government-of-racism/ Turkey accuses new Austria government of racism]&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
* {{cite book |first=Ian D.|last= Armour |title=A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofeastern0000armo_j4g0|location= |publisher=Hodder Arnold  |year=2007 |isbn=0-340-76040-0 }}
* [http://www.politico.com/story/2016/11/trump-turkey-fethullah-gulen-extradition-231238]

== Freemit airtins ==
* [http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey_s-political-relations-with-austria.en.mfa Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Austria]

[[Category:Austrick–Turkey relations|*]]
{{stub/Turkey}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Barburgh</title>
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      <text bytes="20984" sha1="7q3wuh12qxpjsghoa6t9872p4454bjd" xml:space="preserve">{{infobox UK place 
|country = Scotland
|official_name= Barburgh Mill
|scots_name=
|static_image_name=
|static_image_caption= 
|population=  
|os_grid_reference= NX 90116 88316
|map_type= Scotland
|coordinates = {{coord|55.176892|-3.7269615|display=inline,title}}
|unitary_scotland= [[Dumfries an Gallowa]]
|lieutenancy_scotland= [[Dumfriesshire|Dumfries]]
|constituency_westminster= [[Dumfries and Galloway (UK Parliament constituency)|Dumfries and Galloway]]
|constituency_scottish_parliament= 
|post_town= 
|postcode_district =
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}}

'''Barburgh''' or '''Barburgh Mill''' is a clachan makkit up o an auld lint mill, later biggit up as a wull mill, an its associatit biggins that lies north o [[Auldgirth]] on the [[A76 road]] on the road tae [[Closeburn, Dumfries an Gallowa|Closeburn]] in Closeburn Pairish, in the historical coonty o [[Dumfriesshire]] in [[Dumfries an Gallowa]], [[Scotland]]. Hit’s oreeginal hert wis the auld mill an its linkit biggins, the smiddy, the tow hoose, an the miller's an wirkers' dwallins. The steid his the A76 road that rins bynear, the [[River Nith]], an the Lake Burn that ance pouert the mill by a lade afore jynin the Nith. The airie is kent for its connection wi the [[Covenanter]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Groome|first=Francis|year=1886|title=Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland. Vol III|publisher=Thomas C Jack|isbn=|page=574}}&lt;/ref&gt; A Roman road is thocht tae hae run throu Nithsdale at this bit.

In Breetish uiss Barburgh is technical a clachan raither nor a veelage as hit his aye wantit a formal dedicatit kirk o its ain.

==History==
[[File:Menteth of Closeburn family burial ground, Dalgarnock, Dumfries &amp; Galloway, Scotland.jpg|thumb|Buriial steid o Charles Stuart Menteth o Closeburn at Dalgarnock.]]

The clachan stans aboot 2.5 mile sooth o [[Closeburn, Dumfries an Gallowa|Closeburn]] an is noo aye kent as 'Barburgh' an the burn recordit as the Lake Burn wi its soorce pairtly fae the steid o the auld Closeburn Loch. The clachan his haen mony names recordit, includin Barbauch, Burborough, Burnburgh, Burbrught, Barbaroch, Barbarock, Burbrough, Bird-brugh, Barbouy, an Barbuy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Scotlands Places|url=https://scotlandsplaces.gov.uk/digital-volumes/ordnance-survey-name-books/dumfriesshire-os-name-books-1848-1858/dumfriesshire-volume-06/267|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412020258/https://scotlandsplaces.gov.uk/digital-volumes/ordnance-survey-name-books/dumfriesshire-os-name-books-1848-1858/dumfriesshire-volume-06/267|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Afore 1606 an for a speal up tae 1697 the clachan lay in the pairish o [[Dalgarnock]].

The Lake Burn rins doon fae the steid o the noo-soukit Closeburn Loch near Closeburn Castle an his its infaw here wi the [[River Nith]] at the Lintmill Puil. The airie is kent for its connection wi the [[Covenanter]]s an the events o the sae-cried &quot;Killin Times&quot; that occurt durin the rings o [[Charles II, Keeng o Scots]] (King Charles II o England) an [[James VII, Keeng o Scots]] (King James II o England) an hinderly led til the estaiblishment o the [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Kirk o Scotland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Groome|first=Francis|year=1886|title=Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland|publisher=Thomas C Jack|isbn=|page=574}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Etymology===

The name 'Barborough' is said bi the Ordnance Sruvey tae mean 'the whizzin toun', derived fae the bummin soond fae the lint manufacturin process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;/&gt;  The name 'Lintmill Puil' is thocht tae hae come fae an umwhile uiss o the mill for the graithin o lint or linen fae the [[lint]] plant, houiver it is notit that the lint wis left in various deep 'lint puils' alang the river as a pairt o the rottin process that cam afore the lint wis taen tae be processed in the mill.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;/&gt; Barburg wis recordit an aw as 'Bridburgh' in 1247 an micht derive fae 'Bridda's Fort' or 'Fort o the Birds'.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=An Eighth-century Reference to the Monastery at Hoddom|url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V6/JSNS6%20Parker.pdf|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402174600/http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V6/JSNS6%20Parker.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first record o the name on Roy's map o 1747-1755 nae clear reads as 'Bolybruchhead' bit nae mill or dounset is merkit an whit is noo Whitespots Hill micht be myntit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755|url=http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1766&amp;lon=-3.7135&amp;layers=4&amp;b=1|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2012-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130162106/http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1766&amp;lon=-3.7135&amp;layers=4&amp;b=1|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; It micht shaw a fort linkin tae Watsons confuised details o a 'Bar Brugh', the 'Defence Fort

In 1901 Watson refers til a 'Bar Brugh' or 'Defence Fort' made fae an &quot;''... immense mass of stones contiguous to the farm of Cairn, and situated on a narrow plain bounded on one side by the Bar-Hill and on the other side by the River Nith.''&quot; He states that this circular fort o uncementit stanes gairdit the entry til the pairish fae the sootheast houiver. A sootheast confuision wi the nor'wast micht expleen the reference as nae sic structur or name exists elsewhaur in the pairish.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watson 1901 53&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=R.|year=1901|title=Closeburn (Dumfriesshire). Reminiscent, Historic &amp; Traditional|url=https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats|publisher=Inglis Ker &amp; Co.|isbn=|page=[https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats/page/52 53]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The railwey rins throu this steid an micht hae wrackit ony fort that existit near Cairn Ferm.

The name micht shaw a fort an aw linkin Watson's confuised details o a 'Bar Brugh', the &quot;Defence Fort&quot;, a circular fort near Cairns Ferm.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watson 1901 53&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755|url=http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1766&amp;lon=-3.7135&amp;layers=4&amp;b=1|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2012-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130162106/http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1766&amp;lon=-3.7135&amp;layers=4&amp;b=1|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the 1848-1858 OS Name Beuk the name is gien as 'Burbrough' wi several cots praisent wi gairdens an at that time a pirn mill, makkin the wuiden pirns vital tae spinnin an weavin in whit wis afore a lint or linen mill.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;/&gt; The wee Cairns schuil stuid near Cairns Ferm, Blackwuid, an the Railwey Cots in 1899.

==Barburgh Mill, Smiddy, an Burn==
[[File:Bairds of Closeburn grave, Closeburn cemetery, Dumfries &amp; Galloway, Scotland.jpg|thumb|left|Buirial site o the Bairds o Closeburn at Closeburn seemetry.]]

The mill's watter supply wisna via the [[River Nith]] bit wis insteid fae the watters o the Lake Burn via a lade that ran doun fae Stepends an Whitespots Ferms wi a seestem o slooshes, owerfleets, an mill pownds. This watter supply is pairt o the Garroch Waterpower Scheme&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Garroch Waterpower Scheme : Part V. Barburgh Mill by Richard J. Clarke|url=http://www.dgnhas.org.uk/transonline/SerIII-Vol64.pdf|access-date=27 November 2017|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510094354/http://www.dgnhas.org.uk/transonline/SerIII-Vol64.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; that pouert the Park limestane warks, Stepends Ferm thrashin machine, etc. The first record o Barburgh Mill (NX 90116 88316) is tha John Padzean, the [[Covenanter]], wrocht there in 1684, possibly as the miller as Thomas Macmury is notit an aw, bit anely as a residenter.&lt;ref name=&quot;archive.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Closeburn (Dumfriesshire); reminiscent, historic and traditional|url=https://archive.org/stream/closeburndumfrie00wats/closeburndumfrie00wats_djvu.txt|access-date=26 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the River Nith near Barburgh Mill is OS recordit the place name &quot;Lintmill Pool&quot;, likely name't fae the ae-time uiss o the mill for the graithin o lint or linen fae the [[lint]] plant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;/&gt; The mill is first shawn on maps in 1804 an is merkit as a lint mill,&lt;ref name=&quot;maps.nls.uk&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=William CRAWFORD - Map of Dumfries-shire.|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/74400221|access-date=27 November 2017|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412020254/https://maps.nls.uk/view/74400221|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; as it is in 1821&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=John AINSLIE - Ainslie's Map of the Southern Part of Scotland.|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/74400286|access-date=27 November 2017}}{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; an 1828.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=1828 - John THOMSON - Dumfriesshire.|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/74400174|access-date=27 November 2017}}{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; The first OS map o 1855 records a 'Bobbin mill' in English (a spellin mistak gies 'Bobbing')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dumfries Sheet XL.4 (Closeburn). Survey date: 1855. Publication date: 1861|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/74942468|access-date=27 November 2017}}{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; houiver by 1899 it is shawn as a ooen mill an it steyed as sick until its feenal closur in the 1960s.&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dumfriesshire 040.04 (includes: Closeburn). Publication date: 1900. Revised:1899|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/82876191|access-date=27 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The praisent mill micht hae been built bi Charles Stuart Menteth o the Closeburn Estate aroond 1790-1810 an by 1862 it wis haudit bi the Baird faimily that haed bocht the estate.&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;/&gt;

Upon his deith in 1867 James Mackie McKerlie o Barburgh wis descrived as a 'manufacturer' withoot forder speceefication, confirmin that the mill wisna a corn or meal mill.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wright 2005 33&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Margaret|year=2005|title=Dalgarnock Kirkyard Memorial Inscriptions|publisher=Dumfries and Galloway Family Research Centre|isbn=|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt; Alexander an John Cowan becam tenants an in 1900s entrys John Elliot is recordit as the tenant.

In the early 19t century the twa-story Barburgh Mill, an 'L'-shapit grummel-built structur wis uised as a ooen mill, manufacturin blankes in 1939&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;/&gt; an closed syne the 1960s, later pairt uised as store.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Canmore -Barburgh Mill|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/65804/barburgh-mill|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412020258/https://canmore.org.uk/site/65804/barburgh-mill|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Margaret|year=2005|title=The Industrial Archaeology of Scotland. I. The Lowlands and Borders|publisher=B.T.Batsford Ltd|isbn=|page=96}}&lt;/ref&gt; The owershot wheel wis parrockit within a wheel hoose an the mill sahws various eikins and alterins, sich as the shiftin o the coorse o the lade.&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;/&gt;

Barburgh Smiddy stuid til the wast o the mill, single-storey an grummle-built wi a brick-built eikin, no dout servin local needs in addeetion tae thaim o the mill. A saw pit wis locatit nearby.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Canmore - Barburgh Smithy|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/152772/barburgh-smithy|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412020255/https://canmore.org.uk/site/152772/barburgh-smithy|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Stables micht hae been praisent here as weel as wirkers accommodation.&lt;ref name=&quot;waterpower&quot;/&gt;

Barburgh Mill Hoose staunds til the wast o the burn an providit accommodation for the miller in 1854 - the hoose haes a [[sundial]], uisually a heich-status featur.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=1854-1858 - ORDNANCE SURVEY - Six-inch 1st edition maps of Scotland|url=http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1788&amp;lon=-3.7257&amp;layers=5&amp;b=1|access-date=27 November 2017|archive-date=2012-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130162106/http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1788&amp;lon=-3.7257&amp;layers=5&amp;b=1|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Barburgh Mill Roman Fortlet==

In 1945 Barburgh Mill Roman Fortlent (NX 9021 8844) wis diskivert close til the mill an in 1971 it wis fully howkit afore the graivel-quarrelin at the location. Quarrel operations haed wrackit aw o the north side o the fortlet an muckle o its soothren side an aw. Aw o the surface hints o the fortlet in the survivin aurie hae noo gane.

The Roman road ran aneath the fortlet's hillock site. Awtho turves wis fund, naething o the rampairts wis fund, an an inby surface aurie o ae fift o ae acre wis calculatit. Twa timmer berricks, ilk wi sax rooms, wis praisent. Durin the first Antonine speal sic a fortlet wad hae providit accommodation for ae century o infantry. The ditch wad have been veesible until at least the 14t century. An annexe micht hae been praisent bit no inby structurs wis fund.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Canmore - Barburgh Mill|url=https://canmore.org.uk/site/65789/barburgh-mill|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2020-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412022026/https://canmore.org.uk/site/65789/barburgh-mill|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==The Killin Times==

On 5 Mey 1864, bi scry, the follaein people fae Closeburn Pairish wis declare't tae be &quot;outlins an fugies&quot;:
''Gien unner wir seegnatur, at Edinburgh, the 5t o Mey, ane thoosand sax hunner aichty an fower year, an o wir ring the thirtyt an sax year..''

{| cellpadding=10 border=&quot;0&quot; align=center
|-
| bgcolor=#f4f4f4|
''John Padzean at the Mill o Bird-brugh (Barbrugh). ''&lt;br&gt;
''Thomas Macmurdy, Barbuy (Barburgh).''&lt;br&gt;
''James Harkness in Locherbain.''&lt;br&gt;
''Thomas Milligan at the Mill o Closeburn.''&lt;br&gt;
''James Gilkerse in Holm o [[Dalgarnock]].''&lt;br&gt;
''James Hunter, younger in Wood-end.''&lt;br&gt; 
''James Watson, Hill-end.''&lt;br&gt; 
''William Ferguson, Three-rigs.''&lt;br&gt; 
''Robert Dalziel in Cleughfoot, [[Dalgarnock]].''&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;archive.org&quot;/&gt;
|}

The Mairtyrs Cross at [[Dalgarnock Kirk]] daesna record the deiths o the [[Covenanter]]s John Padzean or Thomas Macmurdy, suggestin that thay survived the Killin Times.

John Kirkpatrick bade at Barburgh Heid near the mill an haed been responsible as an informer for the captur o the Covenanter John Mathison. John haed been deportit til Americae houiver he wis able tae retour an conteena his wirk. John Kirkpatrick haed taen wee revenge upon the deith o John Mathison bi wrackin his heidstane in a nicht-time act o vandalism, houiver his actions haedna gane unobservit an efter receivin a follaein letter his wis gart tae pey for a replacement:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=R.|year=1901|title=Closeburn (Dumfriesshire). Reminiscent, Historic &amp; Traditional|url=https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats|publisher=Inglis Ker &amp; Co.|isbn=|page=[https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats/page/16 16]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'“Mr. [John] Kirkpatrick [in Barburgh head],

We have received information from our friends in Nithsdale how you retaining your old malignity and enmity against the people of God have in pursuance there of adventured to run the risque of meddling with the monument of the dead, demolishing and breaking the gravestone of a sufferer for the cause of Christ which is highly criminal in the eyes of the law, and is more than your neck is worth, and deserves just severity as bringing to remembrance your old hatred, and the hand you had in his sufferings. And now ye seem to be longing for a visit for your old murthering actions, which if you would evite, we straitly charge and command you, upon your perill to repair that stone, by laying one upon the grave, fully as good as the former with the same precise motto as well engraven, and that you perform the work with all expedition, and if it be not done against May day first [1714], which is a sufficient time, we promise to pay you a visit, perhaps to your cost, and if you oblige us which to assure yourself that your old deeds will be remembered to purpose which to assure you of we have ordered this to be written in presence of our correspondence at Crawford-John, March 1, 1714, and subscribed in our name by Hu[gh]. Clerk, c[ler]k.''”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=R.|year=1901|title=Closeburn (Dumfriesshire). Reminiscent, Historic &amp; Traditional|url=https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats|publisher=Inglis Ker &amp; Co.|isbn=|page=[https://archive.org/details/closeburndumfrie00wats/page/262 263]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Deith Records for Barburgh==
[[File:John Mathieson the Covenanters gravestone, Closeburn Parish Cemetery, Dumfries &amp; Galloway.jpg|thumb|upright|The heidstane o the Covenanter James Mathieson at Closeburn seemetry.]]

Thir records is maistly taen fae the inscriptions on the heidstanes at Dalgarnock an shaw a variety o version o the 'Barburgh' placename.

* On 28 Mairch 1872, William Grassie dee'd at '''Barburgh Mill''', aged 40,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Margaret|year=2005|title=Dalgarnock Kirkyard Memorial Inscriptions|publisher=Dumfries and Galloway Family Research Centre|isbn=|page=123}}&lt;/ref&gt; an wis buirit at the [[Dalgarnock|Dalgarnock Seemetry]] whaur his memorial staunds yet.
* On 16 October 1852, Agnes Maxwell dee'd at '''Burbraugh Mill''' aged 4 year. Agnes's paurents wis William Maxwell an Elizabeth Bennoch. She wis buirit at the Dalgarnock Seemetry an aw wi her paurents.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Margaret|year=2005|title=Dalgarnock Kirkyard Memorial Inscriptions|publisher=Dumfries and Galloway Family Research Centre|isbn=|page=31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* In 1704 John Nivison o '''Barbouy''' (Barburgh) place't a memorial tae his faither, that haed been the miller at Closeburn, at Dalgarnock Seemetry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Margaret|year=2005|title=Dalgarnock Kirkyard Memorial Inscriptions|publisher=Dumfries and Galloway Family Research Centre|isbn=|page=32}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* On 5 Februar 1867 James Mackie McKerlie, manufacturer, aged 24, dee'd at the mill, an his guidwife Mary Ann Mackie dee'd at the mill an aw, aged 51.
* Isabella Love, dochter o John an Henriette McKerlie, dee'd at th mill on 15 Julie 1871 aged 18 month. Johm McKerlie later flittit til the ooen mill at Cample Mill an dee'd aged 60 fae injurs acquire't fae a mishanter at Campleslacks in 1881.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wright 2005 33&quot;/&gt;
* John Jackson wis praisent at '''Barbarock Mill''' aboot 1840-1850.&lt;ref name=&quot;Scotlands Places&quot;/&gt;

==Transport==

Barburgh lies in Nithsdale, a naitural communication througang that haes upshottit in the main A76 road passin throu it, an the railwey cutthin throu it an aw at a greater hicht. The [[Dumfries]]-til-[[Aur]] road rins throu on its way tae [[Thornhill, Dumfries an Gallowa|Thornhill]] fae [[Auldgirth]]. The veelage niver haed a railwey station, the nearest nouadays bein [[Sanquhar railwey station]] an afore a station wis praisent at [[Auldgirth railwey station|Auldgirth]].

As an auld towl road the A76 ance haed a towl hoose, first recordit as Burbrught Toll in 1821 an in 1828 an aw,&lt;ref name=&quot;maps.nls.uk&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=1828 - John THOMSON - Dumfriesshire.|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/74400174|access-date=27 November 2017}}{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; houiver on the 1843-1882 OS map it is cried 'Stepends Toll' wi a tron an a watter troch nearby.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Ordnance Survey Maps - Six-inch 1st edition, Scotland, 1843-1882|url=http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1797&amp;lon=-3.7275&amp;layers=5&amp;b=1|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2012-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130162106/http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/#zoom=16&amp;lat=55.1797&amp;lon=-3.7275&amp;layers=5&amp;b=1|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 899 the towl seestem no langer existit an the site is recordit as &quot;Whitespots Cottages&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dumfriesshire 040.04 (includes: Closeburn). Publication date: 1900. Revised:1899|url=http://maps.nls.uk/view/82876191|access-date=27 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{commons category|Barburgh Mill}}

==External links==
*[http://www.futuremuseum.co.uk/maps/time-periods/the-roman-period/roman-objects/barburgh-mill.aspx Roman remeens rekivert at Barburgh Mill Roman Fortlet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021161613/http://futuremuseum.co.uk/maps/time-periods/the-roman-period/roman-objects/barburgh-mill.aspx |date=2020-10-21 }}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzqN7vcvvTQ Video footage o James Harkness's graff an Dalgarnock Seemetry.]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Veelages in Dumfries an Gallowa]]
[[Category:Dumfries an Gallowa]]
[[Category:Places o Scotland]]
{{Stub/Places o Scotland}}</text>
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    <title>Christenmas decorations</title>
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[[File:Y Christmas Tree 2.jpg|thumb|A decoratit Christenmas tree.]]
A '''Christenmas decoration''' is ony kynd o decoration uised durin Yuiltime. Sic decorations are an important pairt o the [[Christenmas]] haliday. The tradeetional colours o Christenmas are green, white, an reid. Blue an white are aften uised tae represent winter. Thay can be uised tae represent [[Hanukkah]] forby, thit is aboot the same time. Kenspeckle haliday seembols include [[Jesus|Babbie Jesus]], [[Santae Claus]], an the [[Starn o Bethlehem]]. Mony kintras hae different decorations dependin on thair tradeetions an the resoorces thay hae.

The day fur pittin up Christenmas decorations is sindry dependin on the place. In mony kintras, sic as [[Swaden]], fowk stairt tae pit up thair decorations on the first day o [[Advent]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Michelin2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Michelin|first=|title=Germany Green Guide Michelin 2012–2013|quote=Advent – The four weeks before Christmas are celebrated by counting down the days with an advent calendar, hanging up Christmas decorations and lightning an additional candle every Sunday on the four-candle advent wreath.|date=10 October 2012|publisher=Michelin |isbn=9782067182110|page=73}}&lt;!--|accessdate=9 April 2014--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In the [[Unitit Kinrick]], decorations are maistlins pit up in late November or early Dizember, naur the stairt o Advent. In the [[Unitit States]], the tradeetional stairt o Yuiltime is [[Thanksgiein]]. In the Wastren Christian warld, the twa tradeetional days fur taein doun Christenmas decorations are [[Auld Yuil]] an [[Caunlemas]]. Gin thay'r no taen doun on Auld Yuil, thay shoud be left up till Caunlemas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/holydays/candlemas.shtml|title=Candlemas|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|accessdate=9 April 2014|quote=Any Christmas decorations not taken down by Twelfth Night (January 5th) should be left up until Candlemas Day and then taken down.|lang=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Tree==
The tradeetion o decoratin trees is said tae be awfie auld. Fur the [[Celts]], trees war the seembol o life. Thay decoratit thaim fur midwinter.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.treffpunktboulevard.ch/FR/cadre_repertoire/social/Reflexion/Noel/noel_origines.html |title=The millennial cult of the sun |access-date=2020-12-12 |archive-date=2012-09-13 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913144652/http://www.treffpunktboulevard.ch/FR/cadre_repertoire/social/Reflexion/Noel/noel_origines.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Fowk fae [[Scandinavie]] daed this an aw, fur the Yuil festival, thit wis haudit aboot the ilk date as Christenmas. The [[Christenmas tree]] wis first uised by German Lutherans in the 16t yearhunner, wi records shawin thit a Christenmas tree wis pit in the [[Strasbourg Cathedral|Cathedral o Strasbourg]] in 1539, unner the guideship o the Protestant Reformer, [[Martin Bucer]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Senn2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Senn |first=Frank C. |date=2012 |title=Introduction to Christian Liturgy |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_O8-CYW-593 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=9781451424331 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_O8-CYW-593/page/118 118] |quote=The Christmas tree as we know it seemed to emerge in Lutheran lands in Germany in the sixteenth century. Although no specific city or town has been identified as the first to have a Christmas tree, records for the Cathedral of Strassburg indicate that a Christmas tree was set up in that church in 1539 during Martin Bucer's superintendency.|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1936 |title=The Christmas Tree |journal=Lutheran Spokesman |volume=29–32 |quote=The Christmas tree became a widespread custom among German Lutherans by the eighteenth century.|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Christenmas]]</text>
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    <title>Flora MacDonald</title>
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      <text bytes="14001" sha1="mttyyor3f3n2cnbba3k6rp12qdsif2w" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Flora Macdonald
| image              = Floramacdonald2.jpg
| alt                = Portrait o Flora Macdonald bi the airtist Allan Ramsay
| caption            = Flora Macdonald bi [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]] c. 1749–1750; the roses is a Jacobite symbol. [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford.
| birth_date         = {{birth year|1722}}
| birth_place        = [[Milton (Outer Hebrides)|Milton]], [[South Uist]], [[Scotland]]
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1790|3|5|1722|df=y}}
| death_place        = [[Kingsburgh, Skye|Kingsburgh]], [[Isle of Skye]]
|nationality         = Scots
| known_for          = aidin [[Charles Edward Stuart]] efter his defeat at the [[Battle o Culloden]]
| signature          = Appletons' McDonald Flora signature.png
}}
'''Flora MacDonald''' ([[Scots Gaelic|Gaelic]]: ''Fionnghal nic Dhòmhnaill''); (1722 – 5 March 1790) wis a memmer o [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|the Macdonalds o Sleat]], that gied help tae Charles Edward Stuart tae evade govrenment sodgers efter the [[Battle o Culloden]] in Apryle 1746. Her faimily supportit the govrenment durin the [[Jacobite risin o 1745|1745 Rising]] an Flora later claimt tae hiv assistit Charles oot o sympathy fur his seituation.

She wis arreistit an haudit in the Touer o Lunnon but let oot unner a general amnesty in Juin 1747. She later mairrit Allan MacDonald an the couple flittit tae [[North Carolina]] in 1773. Thair support fur the British govrenment durin the [[American Revolutionary War|American War o Independence]] cost thaim thair American estates an thay returnt tae Scotland, whaur Flora deet in 1790.

== Early life ==
[[File:Sunset,_South_Uist_-_geograph.org.uk_-_603223.jpg|left|thumb|Sunset on [[Sooth Uist|South Uist]], where Flora was born in 1722]]
Flora MacDonald wis born in 1722 at Milton on the isle o [[Sooth Uist]] in the [[The Waster Isles|Ooter Hebrides]], third an last bairn o Ranald MacDonald (d. 1723) an his seicont wife Marion. Her faither wis a memmer o the minor gentry, bein tacksman an leasehauder o Milton an Balivanich; she haed twa brithers, Angus, that later inheritit the Milton tack an Ronald, that deet as a bairn.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}}

Her faither deet suin efter her birth an in 1728, her mither remairrit Hugh MacDonald o Armadale, Skye. Flora wis brocht up bi her faither's cousin, Sir Alexander MacDonald o [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|Sleat]]. Whiles some MacDonalds remaint Catholic, in pairticular in the Isles, her faimily wis part o the [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] majority.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}}

== The escape o Prince Charles Edward Stuart ==
[[File:Isle_of_Skye_UK_relief_location_map_labels.jpg|right|thumb|Isles o [[Skye]] an Raasay, [[Portree]] mid-left]]
Flora wis visitin Benbecula in the Ooter Hebrides whan Prince Charles an a small group o aides teuk refuge there efter the [[Battle o Culloden]] in Juin 1746. Ane o his companions, Captain Conn O'Neill fae [[Coontie Antrim|County Antrim]], wis a distant relation tae Flora an speirt fur her help. [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|MacDonald o Sleat]] hadnae jynt the [[Jacobite risin o 1745|Rebellion]] an Benbecula wis rin bi a pro-govrenment militia heidit bi Flora's step-faither, Hugh MacDonald. This connection alloued her tae obtain the needit permits but she wis apparent hesitant, feart o the consequences fur her faimily gif thay war caucht. She micht hiv been takin less o a risk nor it appears; witnesses later claimt Hugh advist the Prince whaur tae tak scouk fae his sairch pairties.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}}

Passes wis gien oot allouin vaiyage tae the mainland fur Flora, a boat's crew o sax men an twa personal servants, includin Charles disguised as an Irish maid cried Betty Burke. On 27 Juin, thay laundit near Sir Alexander's hoose at Monkstadt, near Kilbride, Skye. In his absence, his wife Lady Margaret arranged lodgin wi her stewart, MacDonald o Kingsburgh, that telt Charles tae remuive his disguise, as it jist makit him mair conspicuous. The neist day, Charles wis taen fae [[Portree]] tae the isle o Raasay; Flora steyed on Skye an thay niver met again.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}}

Twa week later, the boatmen wis detaint an confesst; Flora an Kingsburgh wis arreistit an taen tae the Touer o Lunnon. Efter Lady Margaret intervent on her behauf wi the chief Scots legal officer, Duncan Forbes o Culloden, she wis alloued tae bide ootwi the Touer unner the ee o a &quot;King's Messenger&quot; an releast efter the Juin 1747 [[Jacobite risin o 1745|Act of Indemnity]].{{Sfn|Riding|2016}} Aristocratic sympathisers gaithert ower £1,500 fur her, ane o the conteributors bein [[Frederick, Prince o Wales]], heir t the throne; Flora allegedly telt him she aidit Charles oot o chairity an wid hiv duin the selsame fur him.{{Sfn|MacLoed|1985}}

On 6 November 1750, at the age o 28, she mairrit Allen MacDonald, a captain in the [[Breetish Airmy|British Airmy]] an Kingsburgh's auldest son.{{Sfn|MacInnes|2009}} The couple furst bidit at Flodigarry, Skye an inheritit the faimily estate efter Kingsburgh deet in 1772. The scriever an Jacobite sympathiser Samuel Johnson met her in 1773 durin his visit tae the isle, an later descrievit her as &quot;a wumman o saft featurs, gentle manners, kind soul an elegant presence&quot;. He wis the author ofthe inscrievin on her memorial at Kilmuir: &quot;a name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour&quot;.{{Sfn|Bate|1955}}

== Emigration tae North Carolina ==
Allan MacDonald serrt in the 114th an 62nd Regiments of Foot durin the 1756–1763 [[Seiven Years' War]] but wis a puir businessman. Efter haein an argiment wi his clan chief ower rent, he an Flora emigratit tae Anson County, North Carolina in 1774 whaur they sattlit on an estate near Mountain Creek, cried 'Killegray'.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} Whan the [[American Revolutionary War|American War o Independence]] stairtit in 1775, Allan raisit the Anson Battalion o the Loyalist North Carolina Militia, a tot o aroond 1,000 men, includin his sons Alexander an James. En route tae the coast fur collection b British transports, thay war atteckit bi an American force at the Battle o Moore's Creek Brig on 28 Februar 1776 an Allan wis taen prisoner.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander &amp; Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|access-date=2 August 2018|website=UE.org|publisher=Mr McConnell's article provides third party references for the points included here}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In Apryle 1777, the North Carolina Provincial Congress confiscatit Loyalist-awnt property an Flora wis evickit fae Killegray, wi the loss o aw her possessions. Efter 18 month in captivity, Allan wis releast in September 1777; he wis postit tae Fort Edward, Nova Scotia as heistmast o the 84th Regiment of Foot whaur Flora jynt him in August 1778.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}}

== Return tae Skye ==
[[File:Flora_Macdonald's_Grave_and_Monument_-_geograph.org.uk_-_636148.jpg|right|thumb|Flora's grave in Kilmuir Cemetery, Skye]]
Efter a harsh winter in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], in September 1779 Flora teuk vaiyag fur Lunnon in the ''Dunmore,'' a British privateer; durin the traivals, she brakit her airm an ill-heal delayed her return tae Scotland til spring 1780.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} She spent the neist twathree year bidin wi sindry faimily memmers, includin [[Dunvegan]], hame o her son-in-law Major General Alexander Macleod, the mucklemaist laundawner in Skye efter the MacDonalds.{{Sfn|MacGregor|2009}} The compensation received fur the loss o thair North Carolina estates wisna eneuch tae let thaim sattle in Nova Scotia an Allan returnt tae Scotland in 1784. As Kingsburgh wis noo hame tae Flora's hauf-sister an her husband, Flora an Allan sattlit on the near tack o Penduin.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}}

She deet in 1790 at the age o 68 an wis buirit in Kilmuir Cemetery, her husband deein in September 1792. Thay haed seeven livin bairns, twa dauchters an five sons; twa o thaim wur lost at sea in 1781 an 1782. A third son John makit his siller in Indie, giein his parents eneuch tae spend thair final years in some comfort.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:Statue of Flora Macdonald, Inverness.jpg|left|thumb|200x200px|1896 statue, Inverness Castle]]
Tradeitional portrayals o the escape focus on Charles, wi Flora playin a seicontar row. She anerly spake rare o the episode an her last contact wi Charles wis whan thay pairtit weys at Portree; it seems at least ane motive wis that his presence pit her faimily in danger.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}}

The Victorians makit a Scots cultural identity shawn throu tairtans, the late 19th-yeirhunner inventions o [[Burns supper|Burns Suppers]] an [[Hieland gemmes|Heiland Gemms]], an the co-option o romantic icons siclik [[Mary, Queen o Scots|Mary, Queen of Scots]] an Bonnie Prince Charlie.{{Sfn|Morris|1992}} In 1878, Flora teuk her place in this pantheon wi the furthsettin o an alleged 'Autobiography'; ghaist-scrievit b her granddauchter Flora Frances Wylde; it wis sae fu o mony errors that it cidnae hae been wrate bi Flora hersel.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} Repeatit bi Charles Ewald in his 1886 buik ''The Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward'', it remains the basis fur mony weel kent leuks on her life an motivations.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}}

In 1884, Sir Harold Boulton wrate an adaptation o an existin melody that he cried 'The Skye Boat Song'. This wis suin follaed b the first performance o the Scots Heilan Dance &quot;Flora MacDonald's Fancy&quot;, whiles a bronze statue wis pit up at Inverness Castle in 1896.&lt;ref&gt;{{Canmore|num=13434|desc=Inverness, Castle Wynd, Statue Of Flora Macdonald|access-date=26 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Flora MacDonald Academy, aat uised tae be Flora Macdonald College, in Red Springs, North Carolina is cried efter her an twa o her bairns ar buirit on the campus; til 2009, it wis the steid o the Flora Macdonald Heiland Gemms an aw.

Flora wis pentit mony times bi Scots portrait artist Allan Ramsay (1713–1784), the majority o that wis wrackit. The ane uised in this airticle wis duin efter her release fae the Touer in 1749–1750; in 2015, a foregaun unrecordit pentin, alleged bi Ramsay as weel, wis fand in Florida.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fictional portrayals include;

* Inglis Fletcher, ''The Scotswoman'' (1954); a novel based on Flora MacDonald's life in North Carolina durin the American War o Independence;
* ''Highlander: The Series''; in the 3rd-season episode, &quot;Take Back the Night&quot;, Ceirdwyn, an Immortal, is bidin unner the name &quot;Flora MacDonald&quot; whan Charles an his pairty stap on thair wey tae the coast, seekin ae boat tae France;
* ''A Breath of Snow and Ashes''; the 6t buik o Diana Gabaldon's ''The Outlander'' series, the episode featurs an accoont o Flora MacDonald's arrival in the American colonies.

In the 1948 film ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', Flora is played bi Margaret Leighton, wi David Niven as Charles.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Soorces ==

* {{Cite book|last=Bate|first=W Jackson|title=The Achievement of Samuel Johnson|date=1955|publisher=OUP|isbn=978-0195004762}}
* Douglas, Hugh; ''Flora MacDonald: The Most Loyal Rebel;'' (Sutton Publishing, 1999);
* {{Cite ODNB|last1=Douglas|first1=Hugh|title=Flora MacDonald}}
* {{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander &amp; Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|website=UE.org}}
* {{Cite book|last=MacInnes|first=John|title=The Brave Sons of Skye; Containing the Military Records (compiled From Authentic Sources) of the Leading Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers, and private soldiers whom &quot;Eilean a' Cheo&quot; has produced|date=December 2009}}
* {{Cite book|last=MacLeod|first=Ruairidh|title=Flora MacDonald: The Jacobite Heroine in Scotland and North America|date=1985|publisher=Shepheard-Walwyn|isbn=978-0856831478}}
* {{Cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Alexander|title=The life of Flora Macdonald, and her adventures with Prince Charles|date=December 2009|publisher=[[Nabu Press]]|edition=[[Print On Demand]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyer|first=Duane|url=https://archive.org/details/highlandscotsofn1963meye|title=The Highland Scots of North Carolina|date=1963|publisher=Raleigh, N.C.: Carolina Charter Tercentenary Commission}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=RJ|date=1992|title=Victorian Values in Scotland &amp; England|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|issue=78}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Quyn|first=Dorothy Mackay|date=July 1941|title=Flora MacDonald in History|journal=The North Carolina Historical Review|volume=18|issue=3}}
* {{Cite book|last=Riding|first=Jacqueline|title=Jacobites; A New History of the 45 Rebellion|url=https://archive.org/details/jacobitesnewhist0000ridi|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-1408819128}}

== Fremmit airtins ==

* {{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander &amp; Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|access-date=2 August 2018|website=UE.org|publisher=Mr McConnell's article provides third party references for the points included here}}
* {{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}}
* {{Canmore|access-date=26 January 2015}}
* {{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}}
[[Category:18t-century Scots fowk]]
[[Category:Scots Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Prisoners in the Touer o Lunnon]]
[[Category:Scots Jacobites]]
[[Category:1790 daiths]]
[[Category:1722 births]]</text>
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    <title>Stanley Robertson</title>
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[[Category:Pages using infobox person with unknown empty parameters|home_townStanley Robertson (folk singer)]]
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'''Stanley Robertson''' (8 June 1940 – 2 August 2009&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Obituaries – Stanley Robertson|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/oct/07/stanley-robertson-obituary|access-date=21 March 2016|website=The Guardian}}&lt;/ref&gt;) wis a Scots upmakker, ballad sangster, an [[Bagpipe|piper]].

He wis born in [[Aiberdeen|Aberdeen]] in 1940&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Robertson|first=Stanley|title=Exodus to Alford|url=https://archive.org/details/exodustoalford0000robe|publisher=Balnain Books|year=1988|isbn=0-9509792-6-0|location=Nairn|pages=[https://archive.org/details/exodustoalford0000robe/page/214 214]}}&lt;/ref&gt; intae a Traiveller faimlie at haed sattlet yonder. Frae his untie (fowk sangstress Jeannie Robertson) an ithers amang fam his faither,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Tobar an Dualchais|url=https://www.tobarandualchais.co.uk/track/91117?l=en|access-date=2021-10-25|website=Tobar an Dualchais|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; he wis heir tae a repertoire repertoire o northeast ballads.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Robertson|first=Stanley|title=Nyakim's Windows|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780950979274|publisher=Balnain Books|year=1989|isbn=0-9509792-7-9|location=Nairn|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780950979274/page/212 212]}}&lt;/ref&gt; He wis the keywirker for the Heritage Lottery-foonit &quot;Oral and Cultural Traditions of Scottish Travellers&quot; project at the Elphinstone Institute o Aiberdeen Varsity, frae April 2002 til April 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Former Associates – Stanley Robertson|url=http://abdn.ac.uk/elphinstone/people/former-associates.php#SR|access-date=21 March 2016|publisher=Elphinstone Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/music-obituaries/6068547/Stanley-Robertson.html Stanley Robertson Daily Telegraph obituary]
* [https://www.tobarandualchais.co.uk/search?l=en&amp;term=%22Robertson%2C+Stanley%2C+1940-2009+%282895%29%22&amp;type=archival_object Archive of 37 recordings of ballads sung by Stanley Robertson]{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:21st-century Scots writers]]
[[Category:20t-century Scots writers]]
[[Category:20t-century Breetish dramatists an playwrichts]]
[[Category:Scots dramatists an playwrichts]]
[[Category:2009 daiths]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Scots sangwriters]]</text>
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    <title>Frederick Crews</title>
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      <text bytes="12084" sha1="a2dqcvim9nvxkdke8hhu2zjf4e8yi21" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer|name=Frederick Crews|image=Frederick Crews.JPG|caption=Crews in 2005|birth_date={{birth date|1933|02|20}}|birth_place=[[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, U.S.|death_date={{death date and age|2024|06|21|1933|02|20}}|death_place=[[Oakland, California]], U.S.|alma_mater=|awards=|signature=&lt;!--(filename only)--&gt;|education=[[Yale University]] ([[B. A.|BA]])&lt;br /&gt;[[Princeton University]] (PhD)}}

'''Frederick Campbell Crews''' (20 February, 1933 – 21 June, 2024) wis an American essayist and leeterarie ceeitic. Professor o the English at the University o Californie, Berkeley,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Frederick C. Crews, Emeritus – Staff page at UC, Berkeley|url=http://english.berkeley.edu/profiles/87|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708184022/http://english.berkeley.edu/profiles/87|archive-date=July 8, 2015|access-date=February 19, 2009|publisher=[[University]] of [[California]], [[Berkeley]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Crews wis the owthor o thrang buiks, includin ''The Tragedy of Manners: Moral Drama in the Later Novels of Henry James'' (1957), ''E. M. Forster: The Perils of Humanism'' (1962), and ''The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne's Psychological Themes'' (1966), a communin o the wark o [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]. He received popular tent fur ''The Pooh Perplex'' (1963), a buik o satirical essays parodyin sindrie scuils o literary criticism.  Firstlins a proponent o psychoanalytic literary criticism, Crews efter rejeckit psychoanalysis, becomin a creetic o [[Sigmund Freud]] and his scientific an ethical staunarts. Crews wis a kenspeckle participant in the &quot;Freud wars&quot; o the 1980s and 1990s, a flyte ower the name, scholarship, an impact on the 20th century o Freud, wha foondit psychoanalysis. In 2017, he furthset ''Freud: The Making of an Illusion''.

== Honours an awairds ==

* Fulbright Lectureship, Turin, Italy, 1961–62&lt;ref name=&quot;Fulbright-Turin-1961-1962&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Frederick Crews|url=https://fulbrightscholars.org/grantee/frederick-crews|access-date=June 29, 2024|website=Fulbright Scholar Program, fulbrightscholars.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Essay Prize, Naitional Cooncil on the Airts an Humanities, 1968
* Fell, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, 1965–66&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Frederick Crews|url=https://casbs.stanford.edu/people/frederick-crews|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2024|website=casbs.stanford.edu|publisher=Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Guggenheim Fellowship (Literary criticism), 1970&lt;ref name=&quot;GF&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation list of All Fellows|url=http://www.gf.org/fellows/all?index=c&amp;page=20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603234203/http://www.gf.org/fellows/all?index=c&amp;page=20|archive-date=June 3, 2011|access-date=February 19, 2009|publisher=John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Distinguished Teaching Award, University of California, Berkeley, 1985&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|year=1985|title=Frederick Crews – Distinguished Teaching Award: 1985, English|url=http://teaching.berkeley.edu/goodteachers/crews.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213005910/http://teaching.berkeley.edu/goodteachers/crews.html|archive-date=February 13, 2009|access-date=February 19, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1991&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Alphabetical Index of Active Members|url=http://www.amacad.org/pdfs/alphaList08.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902163646/http://www.amacad.org/pdfs/alphaList08.pdf|archive-date=September 2, 2009|access-date=April 27, 2009|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Faculty Research Lecturer, University of California, Berkeley, 1991–92&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Faculty Research Lecturers 1990–Present|url=https://academic-senate.berkeley.edu/committees/frl/faculty-research-lecturers-1990-present|url-status=dead|access-date=June 29, 2024|website=academic-senate.berkeley.edu|publisher=Academic Senate, [[University]] of [[California]], [[Berkeley]]|archive-date=2024-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202034441/https://academic-senate.berkeley.edu/committees/frl/faculty-research-lecturers-1990-present}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Editorial Board, &quot;Rethinking Theory&quot; series, Northwestern University Press, 1992–2024
* Nomination for National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction (''The Critics Bear It Away''), 1992&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=1992 Winners &amp; Finalists. The National Book Critics Circle Awards|url=https://www.bookcritics.org/past-awards/1992/|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2024|website=National Book Critics Circle}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay (''The Critics Bear It Away''), 1993&lt;ref name=&quot;SDA&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Spielvogel-Diamonstein Award for the Art of the Essay Winners|url=http://www.pen.org/page.php/prmID/907|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316093958/http://www.pen.org/page.php/prmID/907|archive-date=March 16, 2009|access-date=February 19, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Berkeley Citation, 1994&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=December 16, 2008|title=University of California, Berkeley Citation: Historical list of recipients as of 12/16/2008|url=http://awards.berkeley.edu/pdf/Berkeley_Citation.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609221313/http://awards.berkeley.edu/pdf/Berkeley_Citation.pdf|archive-date=June 9, 2010|access-date=February 19, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Inclusion in ''The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2002'', ed. Natalie Angier (Houghton Mifflin), 2002&lt;ref name=&quot;The Best American Science and Nature Writing&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Online Index to The Best American Science and Nature Writing|url=https://bachlab.balbach.net/basnw.html|access-date=June 29, 2024|website=bachlab.balbach.net}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Fellow, Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health, 2003–2024&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health: Coordinating Committee &amp; Fellows|url=http://www.csmmh.org/fellows.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925212504/http://www.csmmh.org/fellows.html|archive-date=September 25, 2010|access-date=February 19, 2009|publisher=Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Berkeley Fellow, 2005–2024
* Inclusion in ''The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2005'', ed. Jonathan Weiner (Houghton Mifflin), 2005&lt;ref name=&quot;The Best American Science and Nature Writing&quot; /&gt;
* Nominated for National Book Critics Circle Award (''Follies of the Wise''), 2006&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Getlin|first=Josh|date=January 21, 2007|title=Book Critics Circle nominees declared|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-jan-21-na-books21-story.html|access-date=June 26, 2024|website=Los Angeles Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bibliography ==

=== As author ===

* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/tragedyofmanners0000crew|title=The Tragedy of Manners: Moral Drama in the Later Novels of Henry James|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1957|isbn=0-208-01047-5|orig-year=1971 Archon books re-issue|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/emforsterperils00crew|title=E. M. Forster: The Perils of Humanism|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1962|isbn=0-7581-5768-1|orig-year=2003 Textbook Publishers re-issue|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|title=The Pooh Perplex: A Student Casebook (2003 re-issue)|publisher=E.P. Dutton/University of [[Chicago]] Press|year=2003|isbn=0-226-12058-9|orig-year=1963}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/sinsoffathershaw1881crew|title=The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne's Psychological Themes|publisher=University of [[California]] Press|year=1989|isbn=0-520-06817-3|location=Berkeley|orig-year=1966}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/patchcommission00crew|title=The Patch Commission|publisher=E. P. Dutton|year=1968|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmysystem00fred|title=Out of My System: Psychoanalysis, Ideology, and Critical Method|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|year=1975|isbn=0-19-501947-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/randomhousehand000crew|title=The Random House Handbook|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1991|isbn=0-07-013636-X|orig-year=1980}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|title=The Random House Reader|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1981|isbn=978-0075535973}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/skepticalengagem00crew|title=Skeptical Engagements|publisher=[[Oxford University]] Press|year=1986|isbn=0-19-503950-5}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/criticsbearitawa00crew|title=The Critics Bear It Away: American Fiction and the Academy|publisher=Random House|year=1992|isbn=0-679-40413-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|title=The Borzoi Handbook for Writers (3rd ed.)|last2=Schor S|last3=Hennessy M|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1993|isbn=0-07-911401-6}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/memorywarsfreuds00crew|title=The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute|publisher=The New York Review of Books|year=1995|isbn=0-940322-04-8|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/postmodernpooh00crew|title=Postmodern Pooh|publisher=North Point Press|year=2001|isbn=0-86547-626-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|title=Follies of the Wise: Dissenting Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/folliesofwisedis0000crew|publisher=Shoemaker &amp; Hoard|year=2006|isbn=1-59376-101-5}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|title=Freud: The Making of an Illusion|url=https://archive.org/details/freudmakingofill0000crew|publisher=Metropolitan Books|year=2017|isbn=9781627797177}}

=== As editor ===

* {{Cite book|last=Hawthorne|first=N.|url=https://archive.org/details/greatshortworkso00hawt|title=Great Short Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne|publisher=Harper &amp; Row|year=1962|isbn=978-0060830748|editor-last=Crews, FC|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/psychoanalysisli00crew|title=Psychoanalysis and Literary Process|publisher=Winthrop Publishers|year=1970|isbn=0-13-732362-X}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IunrAAAAMAAJ|title=Starting Over: A College Reader|last2=Schell O|publisher=Random House|year=1970|author-link2=Orville Schell}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews, FC; McMichael GL|url=https://archive.org/details/anthologyofameri0001unse|title=Anthology of American Literature|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1997|isbn=0-13-573973-X|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/unauthorizedfreu00fred_0|title=Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend|publisher=Viking Press|year=1998|isbn=0-670-87221-0|url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book|last=Crews|first=FC|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseanthology00mcmi|title=Concise Anthology of American Literature|last2=McMichael GL|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1998|isbn=0-13-373291-6|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J}}

=== As contributor ===

* {{Cite book|last=Crane|first=S.|title=The Red Badge of Courage (Fourth Edition) (Norton Critical Editions)|url=https://archive.org/details/redbadgeofcourag0000cran_h5b9|publisher=W. W. Norton &amp; Company|year=2007|isbn=978-0393930757|editor-last=E. C. Link|location=New York|editor-last2=D. Pizer}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.nybooks.com/authors/6671 Book reviews by Crews] at The New York Review of Books magazine
* [[openlibrary:a/OL770232A|Frederick C. Crews]] at the Open Library
[[Category:Yale Varsity alumni]]
[[Category:Writers frae Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Princeton Varsity alumni]]
[[Category:American sceptics]]
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2024 daiths]]</text>
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    <title>Hannibal Lecter</title>
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      <text bytes="543" sha1="69ypql6feszdyl31xqve8ong5418nrd" xml:space="preserve">{{Notability|date=1 Mairch 2026}}
'''Hannibal Lecter''' is a feectional cannibal an serial killer creatit bi tha American owthor Thomas Harris.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Harris|first=Thomas|title=Red Dragon|url=https://archive.org/details/reddragon0000harr|publisher=Penguin.|year=1981|isbn=0-399-12442-X|location=United States}}&lt;/ref&gt; He wuz furst seen in tha novelle Red Dragon, an is maistly ken frae tha sequel novelle an its film, The Silence of the Lambs, quhair he wuz played bi Welsh actor [[Anthony Hopkins]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}</text>
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    <title>Siol nan Gaidheal</title>
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      <text bytes="3803" sha1="kifr5vznfth20bxgm3mopv36158biur" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Scottish ethnic and ultranationalist group}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}

{{Infobox political party|name=Siol nan Gaidheal|native_name=Sìol nan Gàidheal|native_name_lang=gd|logo=Siol nan Gaidheal Flag.svg|image_border=|size=|caption=Black and white saltire used by the group.|map=|msize=|mcaption=|motto=|founded={{ubl|1978&lt;ref name=&quot;found1978&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hamish Henderson: Poetry Becomes People (1952-2002)|last=Neat|first=Timothy|year=2012|publisher=Birlinn|isbn=9780857904874}}&lt;/ref&gt; (original form)|1997 (current form)}}|founder={{ubl|Tom Moore (original form)|Jackie Stokes (current form)}}|extinction=|headquarters=|location=|membership=|newspaper=Firinn Albannach (1980s)|ideology={{ubl|[[Scots Nationalism|Scottish]] [[ultranationalism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Extreme Scottish nationalists: hunting lapdogs and traitors|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/devolution/2017/04/extreme-scottish-nationalists-hunting-lapdogs-and-traitors|access-date=2021-03-26|website=www.newstatesman.com|date=11 April 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-26924026 |title=The Scottish National Party at 80 |work= BBC News |date=11 April 2014 |access-date=11 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Scots unthirldom]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Gilligan&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/scottish-independence/11079296/Anti-English-racists-terrorising-the-No-campaign-in-Scotland.html|title=Anti-English racists terrorising the No campaign in Scotland|last=Gilligan|first=Andrew|date=7 September 2014|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=26 June 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Anglophobia]]}}|leader_name=|key_people=|num_staff=|budget=|website={{Offeecial wabsteid|http://www.siol-nan-gaidheal.org/}}}}'''Siol nan Gaidheal''' (meanin &quot;Seed o the Gaels&quot;) is a wee allegedly Scottish [[Ultranationalism|ultranationalist]]&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;{{cite news|date=11 April 2014|title=The Scottish National Party at 80|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-26924026|access-date=11 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Ethnic nationalism|ethnic nationalist]] group which describes itsel as a &quot;cultural an fraternal organisation&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;when&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=James|title=Scottish National Party (SNP) Leaders|publisher=Biteback Publishing|year=2016|isbn=9781785901232}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first version o the group wis set up bi Tom Moore in 1978, tho it gaed defunct twice, an wis set up again bi Jackie Stokes in 1987 an ance mair in 1997.

Tho the group publicly disclaims politics, SnG haes been descrived bi commentators in mony different weys, rangin frae &quot;traditionalist&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;td&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Devine|first=Tom|title=The Scottish Nation: A Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/scottishnationmo0000tmde|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|year=2012|isbn=9780718196738}}&lt;/ref&gt; tae &quot;[[crypto-fascist]]&quot; or &quot;[[proto-fascist]]&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;td&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=McArthur|first=Colin|title=Brigadoon, Braveheart and the Scots: Distortions of Scotland in Hollywood Cinema|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2003|isbn=9780857711014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; Members o the group hae been banned frae membership o the mainstream nationalis [[Scots National Pairty|Scots National Pairty]] syne 1982.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=History of our Movement|url=http://www.siol-nan-gaidheal.org/hstoom.htm|access-date=7 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Name ==
The name, properly spelt {{lang|gd|Sìol nan Gàidheal}}, is [[Scots Gaelic]] for 'Seed of the Gaels'. The term {{lang|gd|sìol}} mony meanins, maist commonly translated as &quot;breed, brood, lineage, progeny, seed&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Mark, C. (2004). ''The Gaelic-English Dictionary''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|0-415-29761-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{Reflist}}</text>
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    <title>Midi Libre</title>
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      <text bytes="2434" sha1="psnkymce8gg06p5a6rmkl9szmkvv4bz" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Midi Libre
| logo = Midi Libre logo.png
| type = Daily newspaper
| owners = Noel-Jean Bergeroux (Director, 2002)&lt;ref name=&quot;we2003&quot;/&gt;
| publisher = Societe du Journal Midi Libre S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web| url = http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/product-compint-0000461595-page.html | title = Societe du Journal Midi Libre S.A. | publisher = Goliath company profile | accessdate = 2009-01-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| chief_editor = Alian Plombat (2002)&lt;ref name=&quot;we2003&quot;/&gt;
| foundation = 1944
| language = [[French leid|French]]
| headquarters = 34923 [[Montpellier]] [[Cedex (Fraunce)|Cedex]] 9
| circulation = 68,000 (2024)
| ISSN = 0397-2550
| oclc = 11968582
| website = {{URL|midilibre.fr}}
}}

'''''Midi Libre''''' ({{IPA-fr|midi libʁ}}) is a French daily newspaper in [[Montpellier]] that kivers general news. It begound publication in 1944.&lt;ref name=&quot;we2003&quot;&gt;{{Cite book| title = Western Europe 2003 | url = https://archive.org/details/westerneurope2000000unse | author = Europa Publications Staff, Juliet Love, Eur, Jillian O'Brien | year = 2002 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 1-85743-152-9 | page = [https://archive.org/details/westerneurope2000000unse/page/228 229] }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | title = Visit to Midi Libre 19th March | url = http://www.afal.fr/index_an.php?pge=soleil_an&amp;idx=43 | journal = Le Soleil | publisher = Alliance Franco-Anglaise du Languedoc | date = July 2007 | accessdate = 2009-01-10 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081118105503/http://www.afal.fr/index_an.php?pge=soleil_an&amp;idx=43 | archivedate = 18 November 2008 | df = dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Syne 1949, the newspaper haes organisit a cyclin stage race, the [[Grand Prix du Midi Libre]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Circulation - soorce : ACPM&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Midi Libre - ACPM|url=https://www.acpm.fr/Support/midi-libre|access-date=2021-05-11|website=www.acpm.fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!Year
!2016
!2017
!2018
!2019
!2020
|-
|Circulation
|105,592
|101,423
|95,757
|87,932
|84,865
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Fremmit airtins==
{{sister project links|d=Q1465340|q=no|c=category:Midi Libre|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}}
* [http://www.midilibre.fr/ Wabsteid]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Midi Libre}}
[[Category:1944 establishments in Fraunce]]
[[Category:Mass media in Montpellier]]
[[Category:Daily newspapers published in Fraunce]]
[[Category:Newspapers established in 1944]]</text>
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