Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.1 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 3989 730904 713003 2026-10-30T05:36:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Sajarah lisan''' atawa '''sajarah oral''' hartina [[sajarah]] anu diturunkeun sacara lisan, turun-tumurun ti hiji [[generasi]] ka generasi salajengna. Ku lolobana [[ahli sajarah|ahli]] mah, sajarah lisan téh teu bisa dipercaya salaku sumber rujukan. Najan kitu, aya ogé ahli nu nganggap salaku cara pikeun miara jeung nyebarkeun sajarah, utamana nalika budaya tulisan can nyerep di hiji kaadaban. Pangalaman dina budaya [[sastra]] nunjukkeun yén manusa téh salawasna ngawangun ulang [[ingetan]]ana (mémori). Najan aya parobahan, inti caritana mah ilaharna tetep kapiara. Nuturkeun guluyurna waktu, parobahan-parobahan téh beuki euyeub nepi ka antukna teu dipikawanoh deui. Jalma nu hirup dina budaya sastra bisa baé salah ngajénan kana kasohéhan sajarah lisan nu sumebar dina budaya prasastra. Saméméh mekarna basa tulisan dina hiji masyarakat, sajarah lisan téh mangrupa alat utama pikeun ngawariskeun émbaran ka turunanana. Nu ilahar mah nyaéta maké dongéng, utamana dina wanda sajak/tembang (misalna [[carita pantun]] & [[guguritan]], sangkan leuwih gampang kaapalkeun) nu katelah tradisi lisan. Kombinasi tradisi lisan nu ngandung [[moral]] katut [[ritual]] téh katelahna [[carita rahayat]] (''folklore''). Sajarah lisan mangrupa salah sahiji ti asal kahirupan manusa, anu bisa dipaké sah minangka penulisan sajarah. Sajarah lisan ieu dibedakeun kalawan tradisi lisan, anu miboga harti béda. Lamun talari lisan éta ngagaduhan hartos ceritera rahayat anu diungkabkeun ku jalan lisan sarta dikembangkeun beruntun ogé ku jalan lisan. Si pelisan (pengungkap ceritera) henteu kabeungkeut ku kajadian na éta sorangan. Si pelisan lain penyaksi atawa lain peserta dina kajadian sajarah ceritera, sarta henteu tanggel walon luhur parnyataan anu diceriterakannya. Sajarah lisan ngabogaan harti anu has anu tanggel walon, nyaéta asal sajarah anu dilisankeun ku jalmi pamilu atawa anu barobah kaayaan saksi rék kitu kaayaanana kajadian sajarah dina jaman na. Si pelisan bener-bener nyaho, milu dina kajadian mangsa kapungkur anu diceriterakeun, kalawan caos tanggel walon luhur leresan na. Ku kituna si pelisan kudu diseleksi sacara kritis sakumaha nyanghareupan asal sajarah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Darban|first=A. Adaby|date=1997|title=Sejarah Lisan Memburu Sumber Sejarah dari Para Pelaku dan Penyaksi Sejarah|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/12222/|journal=Humaniora|language=id|issue=4|pages=12222|doi=10.22146/jh.v0i4.1908|issn=0852-0801}}</ref> Kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan nyaéta dina panalungtikan (panalitian). Ari kaleuwihan ti panalungtikan sajarah lisan, di antarana pangumpulan data bisa dipigawé kalawan kitu kaayaanana komunikasi ti dua arah (antawis peneliti kalawan inohong) ku kituna lamun aya perkawis anu teu bisa langsung ditanyakeun ka narasumber. Penulisan sajarah robah kaayaan langkung démokratis (kabuka) margi matak bisa sejarawan kanggo pilari informasi ti sakabéh golongan balaréa (boh rahayat dawam dugi pajabat). Ngalengkepan kakurangan data atawa informasi anu tacan kacutat dina asal ditulis atawa dokumén.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2022/08/30/133000269/sejarah-lisan-pengertian-jenis-data-kelebihan-dan-kekurangannya|title=Sejarah Lisan: Pengertian, Jenis Data, Kelebihan, dan Kekurangannya Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2023-03-01}}</ref> <!-- The information passed on has occasionally shown a surprising accuracy over long periods of time. For example, the ''[[Iliad]]'', an epic poem of [[Homer]] describing the conquest of [[Troy]], was passed down as oral history from perhaps the [[8th century BC]], until being recorded in writing by [[Pisistratus|Pisistratos]]. Nonetheless, factual elements of the ''Iliad'' were at least partially validated by the discovery of ruins discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1870]], thought to be those of the city described in the poem. A famous example of oral history comes from the works of several authors who have, over the span of many hundreds of years, collected folklore which was ultimately put together in a book known as the [[Old Testament]]. The [[New Testament]] was created by several different original authors whose slightly differing versions of many biblical events were combined. The [[Bible]] was therefore nearly entirely created using oral history. Contemporary oral history involves recording or transcribing eyewitness accounts of historical events. Some [[anthropologist]]s started collecting recordings (at first especially of [[American Indian folklore]]) on [[Phonograph cylinder|phonograph cylinders]] in the late [[19th century]]. In the [[1930s]] the [[United States]] [[Library of Congress]] started an oral history program to record traditional folk music, and accounts by surviving witnesses of the [[American Civil War]], [[Slavery]], and other major historical events, onto [[gramophone record|acetate discs]]. With the development of [[audio tape]] recordings the task of oral historians became easier. Anthropologists who collect oral history avoid asking leading questions, for many people will tend to say what they think the interviewer wants them to say. Oral historians attempt to record the memories of many different people when researching a given event. Since any given individual may misremember events or distort their account for personal reasons, the historical documentation is considered to reside in the points of agreement of many different sources, rather than the account of any one person. Oral history is now often used when historians investigate [[history from below]]. ==Notable people== ===Storytellers=== *[[Thomas King]] *[[Harry Robinson]] *[[Studs Terkel]] ===Theorists=== *[[Milman Parry]] *[[Albert Lord]] *[[Eric A. Havelock]] *[[Marshall McLuhan]] *[[Walter J. Ong]] *[[Wendy Wickwire]]--> ==Rujukan== *''[[:en:Oral history|Oral history]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (5 Méi 2006). * {{cite book | first=Donald A. | last=Ritchie | year=2003 | title=Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press | id= | url=https://archive.org/details/doingoralhistory0000ritc_x1p9| authorlink= }} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120718145057/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/wpaintro/wpahome.html American Life Histories] WPA Writers' Project 1936–1940 di Library of Congress (US) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191028235921/http://www.oraltradition.org/ Center for Studies in Oral Tradition] The center's mission is to facilitate communication across disciplinary boundaries by créating linkages among specialists in different fields. Through our various activities we try to foster conversations and exchanges about oral tradition that would not otherwise take place. * [http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html Oral History Archives of World War II — Universitas Rutgers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616212344/http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/index.html |date=2006-06-16 }} * [http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ Oral History Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060405090007/http://omega.dickinson.edu/organizations/oha/ |date=2006-04-05 }} (US) * [http://www.ohaa.net.au/ Oral History Association of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201528/http://www.ohaa.net.au/ |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ Oral History Directory of Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060603153500/http://www.nla.gov.au/ohdir/ |date=2006-06-03 }} * [http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/ohonline/ Oral History Online —Berkeley University] (lolobana California jeung Dunya Kulon) * [http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ Oral History Society (GB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501012441/http://www.oralhistory.org.uk/ |date=2011-05-01 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060504213036/http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/oral.htm Techniques and Procedures of Oral History] US Army Center of Military History * [http://www.tellingstories.org/index.html Telling stories — Urban School of San Francisco] (Holocaust narratives) * [http://www.oralhistoryproject.com/ World War II Submarine Veterans History Project] California Center for Military History *[http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Work+Projects+Administration eTexts] of oral history of former U.S. slaves collected in the 1930s by the WPA, at [[Project Gutenberg]] *[http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ In the First Person] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516024800/http://www.inthefirstperson.com/ |date=2008-05-16 }} Béréndélan leuwih ti 2.500 kumpulan sajarah lisan dina basa Inggris ti sakuliah dunya. *[http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ Proyék Sajarah Lisan New Haven di Universitas Yale.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626055934/http://www.newhavenoralhistoryproject.org/ |date=2006-06-26 }} *[http://storycorps.net/ Story Corps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410042616/http://storycorps.net/ |date=2014-04-10 }} Program nu ngarékam sajarah lisan manusa kiwari; sakabéhna disimpen di Library of Congress. *[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ ALPAMYSH; A study in Central Asian oral history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034048/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ |date=2020-11-09 }} *[http://www.sohp.org/ Southern Oral History Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516162951/http://www.sohp.org/ |date=2006-05-16 }} diadegkeun taun 1979 ku UNC-Chapel Hill kalawan prinsip "''Anjeun teu kudu kawentar pikeun jadi sajarah''" - Nell Sigmon *[http://www.fleau.be/mondelingegeschiedenis/ ORAL HISTORY IN FLANDERS; Ramatloka ngeunaan sajarah lisan Flanders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426122443/http://www.fleau.be/mondelingegeschiedenis/ |date=2006-04-26 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Komunikasi lisan]] [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Historiografi]] [[Kategori:Tradisi]] cf09qwpf4lld59pzr3p33fq4x4krqep 0 17332 730900 712783 2026-10-30T04:18:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Primata | fossil_range = Tungtung [[Kretasius]] - Kiwari | image = Olive baboon.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Babon Zaitun]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | subclassis = [[Eutheria]] | unranked_ordo = [[Euarchontoglires]] | superordo = [[Euarchonta]] | ordo = '''Primata''' | ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Kulawarga | subdivision = * 15, Tempo [[Primata#Klasifikasi jeung épolusi|klasifikasi]] }} '''Primata''' (L. ''prima'', kahiji) hartina sakabéh anggota [[ordo]] nu ilaharna patali jeung [[lemur]], [[monyét]], jeung [[kera]], kaasup [[manusa]].<ref name=Goodman2>{{cite journal | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | year = 1990 | volume = 30 | pages = 260–266 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2109087&dopt=Abstract | title = Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids | author = M. Goodman, D. A. Tagle, D. H. Fitch, W. Bailey, J. Czelusniak, B. F. Koop, P. Benson, J. L. Slightom}}</ref> Primata aya di sakuliah dunya, tapi lolobana mah (nu lain manusa) ayana di [[Amérika Tengah]] jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]], [[Aprika]], jeung [[Asia]] Kidul. Ordo primata sacara teu resmi dibagi deui kana tilu golongan utama: [[prosimian]], [[Monyét Dunya Anyar]], jeung monyét sarta kera [[Katarini|Dunya Kuna]]. Prosimian téh [[spésiés]] nu awakna ampir sarupa jeung proto-primata awal, misalna [[lemur]] [[Madagaskar]] jeung [[kapuloan Komoro]] nu kakurung ti dunya luar. Monyét Dunya Anyar ngawengku [[monyét kapucin]], [[monyét howler|howler]], jeung [[monyét bajing]] nu ukur aya di Amérika. Di saluarkeun manusa, [[simian]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] jeung kera mah ngeusi Aprika jeung Asia Kidul & Tengah, najan aya bukti fosil nu nunjukkeun yén spésiés-spésiés éta ogé kungsi aya di [[Éropah]]. Kiwari kacatet aya 190–448 [[spésiés]] primata hirup, gumantung kana klasipikasi anu dipaké. Di [[Asia]], kacatet aya 119 spésiés, satengahna aya di [[Indonésia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christian Roos, Ramesh Boonratana, Jatna Supriatna, John R. Fellowes, Colin P. Groves, Stephen D. Nash, Anthony B. Rylands, Russell A. Mittermeier|first=|date=2014|title=An updated taxonomy and conservation status review of Asian primates|url=|journal=Asian Primates Journal|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> == Dedegan == [[Gambar:Human.svg|right|thumb|180px|Dedegan manusa]] Sakabéh primata boga lima ramo ([[pentadaktili]]), pola huntu nu sarua, sarta [[widang awak]] nu primitip. Ciri pangbéda séjénna nyaéta ayana [[kuku]]. [[Jempol]] nu nyanghareup ka ramo lianna ogé mangrupa ciri primata, najan aya ogé sato séjén nu boga ciri kieu. <!--Nurutkeun téori épolusi mah, jempol nu nyanghareup, ramo nu panjang tapi kukuna pondok téh hasil tina kabiasaan karuhun muntang kana dahan, and has, in part, allowed some species to develop [[brachiation]] as a significant means of transportation. Forward-facing color [[binocular vision]] was also useful for the brachiating ancestors of humans, particularly for finding and collecting food, although recent studies suggest it was more useful in courtship. All primates, even those that lack the features typical of other primates (like [[loris]]es), share eye orbit characteristics, such as a [[postorbital bar]], that distinguish them from other taxonomic orders.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Catarrhini|Old World]] species (apes and some monkeys) tend to have significant [[sexual dimorphism]]. This is characterized most in size difference, with males being up to a bit more than twice as heavy as females. This dimorphism is a result of a [[polygyny|polygynous]] [[mating system]] where there is significant pressure to attract and defend multiple mates. [[New World monkeys|New World]] species form [[monogamy|pair bonds]], and so these species (including [[tamarin]]s and [[marmoset]]s) generally do not show a significant size difference between the sexes.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ==Habitat== Primates evolved from [[arboreal]] animals and many modern species live mostly in trees and hardly ever come to the ground. Other species are partially [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], such as [[baboon]]s and the [[Patas Monkey]]. Only a few species are fully terrestrial, such as the [[Gelada]] and [[Human]]s. Primates live in a diverse number of forested habitats, including [[rain forest]]s, [[mangrove]] forests, and [[montaine|mountain forest]]s to altitudes of over 3000 m. Although most species are generally shy of water, a few are fine swimmers and are comfortable in swamps and watery areas, including the [[Proboscis Monkey]], [[De Brazza's Monkey]] and [[Allen's Swamp Monkey]], which even developed small webbing between its fingers. Some primates, such the [[Rhesus Macaque]] and the [[Hanuman Langur]], are [[hemerophile]] species and cities and villages have become their typical habitat.<ref name="German">http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten</ref> == Classification and evolution== ===Close relations=== The Primate [[order (biology)|order]] lies in a tight clustering of related orders (the [[Euarchontoglires]]) within the [[Eutheria]], a subclass of [[Mammalia]]. Recent molecular genetic research on primates, [[flying lemur]]s, and [[treeshrew]]s has shown that the two species of flying lemur ([[Dermoptera]]) are more closely related to the primates than the treeshrews of the order [[Scandentia]], even though the treeshrews were at one time considered primates. These three orders make up the [[Euarchonta]] [[clade]]. This clade combines with the [[Glires]] clade (made up of the [[Rodentia]] and [[Lagomorpha]]) to form the Euarchontoglires clade. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Also, some scientists consider Dermoptera a suborder of Primates and call the "true" primates the suborder [[Euprimates]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} {{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75% | label1=[[Euarchontoglires]] | 1={{Clade | label1=[[Glires]] | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Rodentia]] (rodents) | 2=[[Lagomorpha]] (rabbits, hares, pikas)}} | label2=[[Euarchonta]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Treeshrew|Scandentia]] (treeshrews) | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Colugo|Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs) | 2={{Clade | 1=†[[Plesiadapiformes]] | 2=Primates}} }} }} }} }} ===Classification=== [[Image:Ring_tailed_lemurs.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Ring-tailed Lemur]], a [[strepsirrhine]] primate]] In older classifications, the Primates were divided into two superfamilies: Prosimii and Anthropoidea. The Prosimii included all of the [[prosimian]]s: all of Strepsirrhini plus the tarsiers. The Anthropoidea contained all of the [[simian]]s. In modern, cladistic reckonings, the Primate order is also a true clade. The suborder [[Strepsirrhini]], the "[[rhinarium|wet-nosed]]" primates, split off from the primitive primate line about 63 [[mya (unit)|million years ago (mya)]]. The seven strepsirhine families are the four related [[lemur]] families and the three remaining families that include the [[loris]]es, the [[Aye-aye]], the [[galago]]s, and the [[potto]]s.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=111-184}}</ref> Some classification schemes wrap the [[Lepilemuridae]] into the [[Lemuridae]] and the [[Galagidae]] into the [[Lorisidae]], yielding a three-two family split instead of the four-three split as presented here.<ref name=MSW3/> Other lineages of lower primates inhabited Earth. During the [[Eocene]], most of the northern continents were dominated by two dominant groups, the [[adapid]]s and the [[omomyid]]s. The former is considered a member of Strepsirrhini, but it does not have a [[tooth-comb]] like modern lemurs. The latter was related closely to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. Adapids survived until 10 mya; omomyids on the other hand perished 20 million years earlier. The Aye-aye is difficult to place in Strepsirrhini.<ref name=MSW3/> Its family, Daubentoniidae, could be a lemuriform primate and its ancestors split from lemur line more recently than the lemurs and lorises split, about 50 mya. Otherwise it is sister to all of the other strepsirrhines, in which case in evolved away from the main strepsirrhine line between 50 and 63 mya. [[Image:EmperorTamarin.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Emperor Tamarin]], a [[New World monkey]]]] The suborder [[Haplorrhini]], the "dry-nosed" primates, is composed of two sister clades.<ref name=MSW3/> The [[prosimian]] tarsiers in family [[Tarsiidae]] (monotypic in its own infraorder [[Tarsiiformes]]), represent the most primitive division at about 58 mya. The [[Simiiformes]] infraorder contains the two parvorders: the [[New World monkey]]s in one, and the [[Old World monkey]]s, [[human]]s and the other [[ape]]s in the other.<ref name=MSW3/> This division happened about 40 mya. However about 30 mya, three groups split from the main haplorrhine lineage. One group stayed in Asia and are closest in kin to the "dawn monkey" ''[[Eosimias]]''. The second stayed in Africa, where they developed into the Old World primates. The third rafted to South America to become the New World monkeys. Mysteriously the aboriginal Asian Haplorrhini vanished from record once Africa collided with Eurasia 24 mya. Apes and monkeys spread into Europe and Asia. Close behind came lorises and tarsiers, also African castaways. The first hominid fossils were discovered in Northern Africa and date back 7 mya. Modern humans did not appear until 0.2 mya, eventually becoming the most prevalent primate and mammal on Earth. The discovery of new species happens at a rate of a few new species each year, and the evaluation of current populations as distinct species is in flux. [[Colin Groves]] lists about 350 species of primates in ''Primate Taxonomy'' in 2001.<ref name=PT>''Primate Taxonomy'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2001), Colin Groves (ISBN 1-56098-872-X )</ref> The recently published third edition of ''Mammal Species of the World'' (2005) lists 376 species.<ref name=MSW3/> But even MSW3's list falls short of current understanding as its collection cutoff was in 2003, and a number publications since MSW3 push the number of species up to 405. Notable new species not listed in MSW3 include the [[Bemaraha Woolly Lemur]] (''Avahi cleesei'') (named after [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actor]] and [[lemur]] enthusiast [[John Cleese]]) and the [[GoldenPalace.com Monkey]] (whose name was put up for auction). ====Extant primate families==== * '''ORDER PRIMATES''' ** '''Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]''': non-tarsier prosimians *** Infraorder [[Lemuriformes]] **** Superfamily [[Cheirogaleidae|Cheirogaleoidea]] ***** Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]: dwarf lemurs and mouse-lemurs (30 species) **** Superfamily [[Lemuroidea]] ***** Family [[Lemuridae]]: lemurs (19 species) ***** Family [[Lepilemuridae]]: sportive lemurs (22 species) ***** Family [[Indriidae]]: woolly lemurs and allies (14 species) *** Infraorder [[Aye-aye|Chiromyiformes]] **** Family [[Aye-aye|Daubentoniidae]]: Aye-aye (1 species) *** Infraorder [[Lorisiformes]] **** Family [[Lorisidae]]: lorises, pottos and allies (9 species) **** Family [[Galagidae]]: galagos (19 species) ** '''Suborder [[Haplorrhini]]''': tarsiers, monkeys and apes *** Infraorder [[tarsier|Tarsiiformes]] **** Family [[tarsier|Tarsiidae]]: tarsiers (8 species) *** Infraorder [[Simiiformes]] **** Parvorder [[Platyrrhini]]: New World monkeys ***** Family [[Cebidae]]: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeys (56 species) ***** Family [[Aotidae]]: night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (7 species) ***** Family [[Pitheciidae]]: titis, sakis and uakaris (41 species) ***** Family [[Atelidae]]: howler, spider and woolly monkeys (24 species) **** Parvorder [[Catarrhini]] ***** Superfamily [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecoidea]] ****** Family [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecidae]]: Old World monkeys (135 species) ***** Superfamily [[Hominoidea]] ****** Family [[Hylobatidae]]: gibbons or "lesser apes" (13 species) ****** Family [[Hominidae]]: humans and other great apes (7 species) ====Some prehistoric primates==== *''[[Adapis]]'', an adapid *''[[Australopithecus]]'', ape-like human ancestor *''[[Branisella boliviana]]'', an early New World monkey *''[[Dryopithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Eosimias]]'', an early catarrhine *''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', a possible ancestor of humans *''[[Aegyptopithecus zeuxis]]'', an early haplorrhine *''[[Pliopithecus]]'', ancestor of the modern gibbons *''[[Gigantopithecus]]'', the largest ape *''[[Godinotia]]'', an adapid *''[[Megaladapis]]'', a giant lemur *''[[Notharctus]]'', an adapid *''[[Plesiopithecus teras]]'', a relative of lorises and galagos *''[[Protopithecus brasiliensis]]'', a giant New World monkey *''[[Sivapithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Tielhardina]]'', the earliest haplorrhines *''[[Victoriapithecus]]'', an early Old World monkey *''[[Pierolapithecus catalaunicus]]'', a possible ancestor of large apes ==Primate hybrids== In ''The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication'' [[Charles Darwin]] noted: "Several members of the family of [[Lemur]]s have produced hybrids in the Zoological Gardens." Many [[gibbon]]s are hard to identify based on fur coloration and are identified either by song or genetics. These morphological ambiguities have led to [[hybrid]]s in zoos. Zoo gibbons usually come from the black market pet trade in Southeast Asia, which transported gibbons across countries all over the region. As a result, perhaps as much as 95% of zoo gibbons are of unknown geographic origin. As most zoos rely on morphological variation or labels that are impossible to verify to assign species and subspecies names, it is unfortunately common for gibbons to be misidentified and housed together. For example, some collections' supposedly pure breeding pairs were actually mixed pairs or hybrids from previous mixed pairs. The hybrid offspring were sent to other gibbon breeders and led to further hybridization in captive gibbons. Within-genus hybrids also occur in wild gibbons where the ranges overlap ([[Agile Gibbon]]s and [[Pileated Gibbon]]s x [[Lar Gibbon]]s, [[Agile Gibbon]]s x [[Müller's Bornean Gibbon]], [[Yellow-cheeked Gibbon]]s x [[Northern White-cheeked Gibbon]]s). Intergeneric gibbon hybridizations have only occurred in captivity. [[Silvery Gibbon]]s (''Hylobates moloch'') and Müller's Bornean Gibbon (''H. muelleri'') have hybridized with [[Siamang]]s (''Symphalangus syndactylus'') in captivity - a female Siamang produced hybrid "Siabon" offspring on 2 occasions when housed with a male gibbon; only one hybrid survived. [[Anubis Baboon]]s and [[Hamadryas Baboon]]s have hybridized in the wild where their ranges meet. A [[Rheboon]] is a captive-bred [[Rhesus Macaque]]/Hamadryas Baboon hybrid with a [[baboon]]-like body shape and [[macaque]]-like tail. Different macaque species can interbreed. In "The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication" Charles Darwin wrote: ''A Macacus, according to Flourens, bred in Paris; and more than one species of this genus has produced young in London, especially the Macacus rhesus, which everywhere shows a special capacity to breed under confinement. Hybrids have been produced both in Paris and London from this same genus.'' The [[Japanese Macaque]] (''Macaca fuscata'') has interbred with the introduced [[Taiwanese Macacque]] (''M. cyclopis'') when the latter escaped into the wild from private zoos. Various hybrid monkeys are bred within the pet trade, for example: * Hybrid [[capuchin monkey]]s e.g. [[Tufted Capuchin]] (''Cebus apella'') x [[Weeper Capuchin]] (''C. olivaceus'') * [[Liontail Macaque]] x [[Pigtail Macaque]] hybrids * [[Rhesus Macaque]] x [[Stumptail Macaque]] hybrids. Among [[Old World monkey]]s, natural hybridization is not uncommon. There numerous field reports of hybrid monkeys and detailed studies of zones where species overlap and hybrids occur. Among the great apes, [[Sumatran Orangutan|Sumatran]] and [[Bornean Orangutan|Bornean]] [[orangutan]]s are considered separate species with anatomical differences, producing sterile or poorly fertile hybrids. Hybrid orangutans are genetically weaker, with lower survival rates than pure animals. ==Legal status== [[Image:Monkey5.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Monkeys imported for experimentation in a crate. Credit: [[BUAV]]]] Humans are recognized as [[person]]s and protected in law by the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]<ref name=UN>[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html UN Declaration of Human Rights]</ref> and by all governments, though to varying degrees. Non-human primates are not classified as persons, which means their individual interests have no formal recognition or protection. The status of non-human primates has generated much debate, particularly through the [[Great Ape Project]]<ref name=GA>[http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html ''Declaration on Great Apes''], Great Ape Project</ref> which argues for their [[personhood]]. Thousands of primates are used every year around the world in scientific [[Animal testing|experiments]] because of their psychological and physiological similarity to [[human]]s. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[baboon]]s, [[marmoset]]s, [[macaque]]s, and [[green monkey]]s are most commonly used in these [[non-human primate experiments|experiments]]. In the [[European Union]], around 10,000 were used in 2004, with 4,652 experiments conducted on 3,115 non-human primates in the UK alone in 2005.<ref name=BUAV>[http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection - Primates]</ref> As of 2004, 3,100 non-human primates were living in captivity in the [[United States]], in [[zoo]]s, [[circus]]es, and [[Laboratory|laboratories]], 1,280 of them being used in experiments.<ref name=GA/> European campaign groups such as the [[BUAV]] are seeking a ban on all primate use in experiments as part of the [[European Union]]'s current review of existing law on animal experimentation. ==Laughter in primates== {{splitsection}} {{Merge|Laughter|date=December 2006}} [[Laughter]] might not be confined or unique to humans, despite Aristotle's observation that "only the human animal laughs". The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. However, some behavioural psychologists argue that self-awareness of one's situation, or the ability to identify with somebody else's predicament, are prerequisites for laughter, so animals are not really laughing in the same way that we do. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[gorillas]], and [[orangutans]] show laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognizable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. There are instances in which non-human primates have been reported to have expressed joy. One study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human babies and bonobos also known as pygmy chimpanzees were tickled. It found although the bonobo’s laugh was a higher frequency, the laugh followed the same spectrographic pattern of human babies to include as similar facial expressions. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age. <ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.discover.com/issues/apr-03/features/featlaugh/ | journal = Discover | author = Johnson, Steven | title = Emotions and the Brain | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | month = April | year = 2003}}</ref>--> == Évolusi primata == Lima puluh juta taun ka tukang, dina mangsa Éosen, jumlah primata—kaasup spésiés nu hirup di tangkal jeung nu hirup di taneuh—ngaronjat kalawan gancang. Antukna, évolusi garis katurunan primata ngahasilkeun manusa. Primata dina mangsa éta—saperti prosimian nu katelah ''Tetonius''—mibanda nonjolan leutik dina tulang tangkorak bagian otak, nyaéta wewengkon tempat lobus frontal bakal mekar saterusna. Bukti fosil pangkolotna ngeunaan otak nu némbongkeun ciri-ciri nu rada mirip jeung manusa asalna ti dalapan belas juta taun ka tukang dina mangsa Miosen, nu bareng jeung munculna kera antropoid nu katelah ''Proconsul''. ''Proconsul'' téh mahluk nu leumpang maké opat suku sarta hirup di tangkal; kamungkinan pisan mahluk ieu téh karuhun ti kera-kera badag modérn sarta, bisa jadi, karuhun ''Homo sapiens''. ''Proconsul'' bisa jadi kacida miripna jeung gambaran urang ngeunaan karuhun babarengan antara kera jeung manusa. Bagian jero tangkorak ''Proconsul'' némbongkeun lobus frontal anu nonjol, nanging lipatan néokortéksna henteu mekar sapertos anu kapanggih dina kera modérn sareng manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=85087}}</ref> == Uteuk primata == Sacara rata-rata, otak primata téh kira-kira dua nepi ka dua puluh kali leuwih gedé batan otak mamalia non-primata anu boga massa awak sarua.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=Jakarta|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=32}}</ref> == Baca ogé == * [[Téori arboréal]] * [[Primatologi]] == Rujukan == {{Wikispecies|Primates}} <references/> * {{note|PQ}}''Primates in Question'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2003), Robert W. Shumaker & Benjamin B. Beck (ISBN 1-58834-176-3 ) == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases] * [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu Primate Info Net] * [http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html Primates in scientific experimentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613190035/http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University] * [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram/spec_laugh.jpg&imgrefurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram.htm&h=382&w=784&sz=94&hl=en&start=6&tbnid=SzTd6o7BvU2mUM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DChimpanzee%2Blaughter%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DHPIA,HPIA:2006-24,HPIA:en%26sa%3DN Chimpanzee Facial Expression & Vocalizations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190903011242/http://www.euprim-net.eu/ EUPRIM-Net: European Primate Network] * [http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm A chimpanzee laughter sample.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327034516/http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm |date=2009-03-27 }} * [http://sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/mammals/apevsmonkey.htm Ape differences from monkeys.] {{pondok}} {{Mamalia}} {{Primata}} [[Kategori:Primata]] 7fo501jbmwrq527y5kqcux5ry1i6ghi 0 24860 730896 728585 2026-10-29T22:43:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''República de Chile''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> |conventional_long_name = Republik Cilé |common_name = Cilé |image_flag = Flag of Chile.svg |image_map = Chile in its region.svg |national_motto = ''Por la Razón o la Fuerza''<br />{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small>: "By right or might"<ref>{{citeweb|title=Banknotes and Coins|url=http://www.bcentral.cl/eng/banknotes-coins/coins/m0100.htm|work=Chilean Central Bank|accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref>) |national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional de Chile]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> |official_languages = [[Basa Spanyol|Spanyol]] |demonym = Chilean |capital = [[Santiago, Cilé|Santiago]]¹ |latd = 33 |latm = 26 |latNS = S |longd = 70 |longm = 40 |longEW = W |largest_city = ibu kota |government_type = [[Republik|Republik demokratik]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Chile|President]] | leader_name1 = [[:es:Gabriel Boric|Gabriel Boric]] | leader_title2 = [[President of the Senate of Chile|President of the Senate]] | leader_name2 = [[:es:Álvaro Elizalde|Álvaro Elizalde]] | leader_title3 = [[President of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile|President of the Chamber of Deputies]] | leader_name3 = [[:es:Raúl Soto|Raúl Soto]] | leader_title4 = [[Constitutional Convention (Chile)|President of the Constitutional Convention]] | leader_name4 = [[:es:María Elisa Quinteros|María Elisa Quinteros]] | leader_title5 = [[Supreme Court of Chile|President of Supreme Court]] | leader_name5 = [[:es:Guillermo Silva|Guillermo Silva]] | area_rank = 37th | area_km2 = 756,096.3<ref name="ce2006">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ine.cl/canales/publicaciones/compendio_estadistico/pdf/2006/compendio2006.pdf |title=Compendio estadístico 2006 |access-date=29 November 2007 |author=Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas |date=October 2006|author-link=National Statistics Institute (Chile) }}</ref> | area_sq_mi = 291,930.4 | area_footnote = | percent_water = 2.1 (as of 2015)<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#}}</ref> | population_census = 17,574,003<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=http://www.censo2017.cl/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Presentacion_Resultados_Definitivos_Censo2017.pdf|title=RESULTADOS CENSO 2017|work=RESULTADOS DEFINITIVOS CENSO 2017|publisher=[[National Statistics Institute (Chile)|National Statistics Institute]]|date=1 January 2018|access-date=18 January 2017|accessdate=16 March 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203225015/http://www.censo2017.cl/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Presentacion_Resultados_Definitivos_Censo2017.pdf|archivedate=3 December 2024}}</ref> | population_census_rank = 64th | population_census_year = 2017 | population_density_km2 = 24 | population_density_sq_mi = 61 | population_density_rank = 198th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $550.450 billion<ref name="imf">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=228,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2019&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|work=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2021|publisher=International Monetary Fund|title=Chile|access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 43rd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $27,629<ref name="imf" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 57th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $352.664 billion<ref name="imf" /> | GDP_nominal_rank = 45th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $17,702<ref name="imf" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 55th | Gini_year = 2021 | Gini_change = increase | Gini = 46 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="Inequality - Income inequality">{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |title=Inequality - Income inequality |publisher= [[OECD]] |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.851 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 43rd |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Cilé|Merdika]] |sovereignty_note = ti [[Spanyol]] |established_event1 = [[Pamaréntahan Junta Cilé (1810)|Pamaréntahan Junta<br />Nagara Anyar]] |established_date1 = <br />[[18 Séptémber]] [[1810]] |established_event2 = Déklarasi |established_date2 = [[12 Pébruari]] [[1818]] |established_event3 = Diakuan |established_date3 = [[25 April]] [[1844]] |currency = [[Péso Cilé|Péso]] |currency_code = CLP |time_zone = t/a |utc_offset = -4 |time_zone_DST = t/a |utc_offset_DST = -3 |cctld = [[.cl]] |calling_code = 56 |footnote1 = [[Pulitik Cilé#Cabang legislatif|Badan legislatif]] oprasi di [[Valparaíso]]. |footnote2 = Kaasup [[Easter Island]] jeung [[Isla Sala y Gómez]]; teu kaasup 1,250,000&nbsp;km² teritori nu diaku di [[Antarktika]]. }} [[Gambar:Pueblo de San Pedro de Atacama 2013-09-21 11-52-31.jpg|thumb|Atakama]] '''Cilé''', resmina '''Républik Cilé''' ([[Basa Spanyol]]: {{Audio|Es-República de Chile.oga|''República de Chile''}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Amérika Kidul]] nu nempatan widang [[basisir]] nu panjang jeung heureut nu dicepit ku pagunungan [[Andes]] jeung [[Samudra Pasifik]]. Pacific ngawates sakabéh wates béh kulon, [[Peru]] di béh kaler, [[Bolivia]] di wetan kaler, [[Argentina]] di béh wetan, tur [[Drake Passage]] dina tungtung pangkidulna nagara ieu. Cilé ngaku 1,250,000&nbsp;km² [[Wewengkon Antartika Cilé|wewengkon di Antartika]]. == Tempo ogé == {{columns |width=300px |col1 = * [[Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Cilé]] * [[Géopulitik Antarktika Cilé]] * [[Komunikasi di Cilé]] * [[Pamilu di Cilé]] * [[Atikan di Cilé]] * [[Hubungan luar nagri Cilé]] * [[Poé peré di Cilé]] * [[Daptar pausahaan Cilé]] * [[Daptar urang Cilé]] |col2 = * [[Daptar saluran televisi Cilé]] * [[Transportasi di Cilé]] * [[Intervénsi AS di Cilé]] * [[Kawijakan farmasi Cilé]] * [[Urang Spanyol Cilé]] * [[Anggur Cilé]] * [[Rodéo Cilé]] * [[Asociación de Guías y Scouts de Chile]] * [[Panyadiaan cai jeung sanitasi di Cilé]] }} == Rengking internasional == {| class="wikitable" ! Publisher !! Index !! Overall ranking !! [[Latin America|Lat. Am.]] ranking !! Countries surveyed !! Top % !! Date |- | [[Freedom House]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20070203062724/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/press_release/fiw07_charts.pdf Freedom in the World 2007] || Free || Free || 193 || — || January 2007 |- | [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]] || [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204123131/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ |date=2008-02-04 }} [[Index of Economic Freedom]] || 11 || 1 || 157 || 7 || January 2007 |- | [[Fraser Institute]] || [[Economic Freedom of the World Index|Economic Freedom of the World]] - [http://www.freetheworld.com/release.html 2007 Annual Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904154024/http://www.freetheworld.com/release.html |date=2006-09-04 }} || 11 || 1 || 141 || 8 || September 2007 |- | [[Fund for Peace]] || [http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=229&Itemid=366 Failed States Index 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620194359/http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=229&Itemid=366 |date=2007-06-20 }} || 159&nbsp;(18)<ref name="reversed">Reversed ranking in parentheses</ref> || 20&nbsp;(1)<ref name="reversed"/> || 177 || 10 || July 2007 |- | [[Transparency International]] || [http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2007/cpi2007/cpi_2007_table 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index] || 22 || 1 || 179 || 12 || September 2007 |- | [[The Economist]] || [[Global Peace Index|The Global Peace Index]], [http://www.visionofhumanity.com/ 2007] || 16 || 1 || 121 || 13 || May 2007 |- | [[World Health Organization]] || [http://www.who.int/entity/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf The world health report 2000 - Health system performance (overall)] || 33 || 2 || 191 || 17 || June 2000 |- | [[The Economist]] || [http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/DEMOCRACY_TABLE_2007_v3.pdf The World in 2007 - Democracy index, 2006] || 30 || 3 || 167 || 18 || November 2006 |- | [[World Bank]] || [http://www.doingbusiness.org/economyrankings/ Doing Business - Ease of Doing Business, 2008] || 33 || 2<ref>Second after [[Puerto Rico]], which is not an independent country</ref> || 178 || 19 || September 2007 |- | [[World Economic Forum]] || [http://www.gcr.weforum.org/ The Global Competitiveness Report 2007-2008's Global Competitiveness Index] || 26 || 1 || 131 || 20 || October 2007 |- | [[UNDP]] || [[Human Development Report]] - [[Human Development Index]] [http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006 2006] || 38 || 2 || 177 || 21 || November 2006 |- | [[AccountAbility]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20070709203551/http://www.accountability21.net/uploadedFiles/publications/The%20State%20of%20Responsible%20Competitiveness.pdf Responsible Competitiveness Index 2007] || 24 || 1 || 108 || 22 || July 2007 |- | [[Reporters without borders]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20071017084149/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24022 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007] || 39 || 3 || 169 || 23 || October 2007 |- | [[World Economic Forum]] || [http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%20Information%20Technology%20Report/GlobalInformationTechnology The Global Information Technology Report 2006-2007's Networked Readiness Index] || 31 || 1 || 122 || 25 || March 2007 |- | [[International Living]] || [http://www.internationalliving.com/issues/2007/2007_article.html Quality of Life Index 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023054559/http://www.internationalliving.com/issues/2007/2007_article.html |date=2007-10-23 }} || 49 || 9 || 193 || 25 || January 2007 |- | [[World Bank]] || [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/ORGANIZATION/EXTESSDNETWORK/0,,contentMDK:20645168~menuPK:481167~pagePK:64159605~piPK:64157667~theSitePK:481161,00.html Where is the Wealth of Nations? (2005) - Total wealth per capita] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016153842/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/ORGANIZATION/EXTESSDNETWORK/0,,contentMDK:20645168~menuPK:481167~pagePK:64159605~piPK:64157667~theSitePK:481161,00.html |date=2008-10-16 }} || 32 || 4 || 118 || 27 || September 2005 |- | [[The Economist]] || [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005] || 31 || 1 || 111 || 28 || November 2004 |- | [[Yale University]]/[[Columbia University]] || [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061123124235/http://www.yale.edu/esi/ |date=2006-11-23 }} || 42 || 9 || 146 || 29 || January 2005 |- | [[Freedom House]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20070614035859/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2007/pfscharts.pdf Freedom of the Press 2007] || 66 || 2 || 195 || 34 || May 2007 |- | [[FedEx]] || [http://www.fedex.com/us/about/today/access/GreaterAccessChange5_15_06.pdf The Power of Access - 2006 Access Index] || 32 || 1 || 75 || 43 || May 2006 |- | [[Brown University]] || [http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2007-08/07-011.html Seventh Annual Global e-Government Study (2007)] || 85 || 8 || 198 || 43 || July 2007 |- | [[IMD International]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080746/http://www.imd.ch/research/challenges/upload/Perspective.pdf World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007] || 26 || 1 || 55 || 47 || May 2007 |- | [[Economist Intelligence Unit]]/[[Business Software Alliance]] || [http://www.bsa.org/~/media/12EB624EB30C486FBEA0A4B653DD5E89.ashx IT industry competitiveness index 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716005737/http://www.bsa.org/~/media/12EB624EB30C486FBEA0A4B653DD5E89.ashx |date=2007-07-16 }} || 31 || 1 || 64 || 48 || July 2007 |- | [[World Economic Forum]] || [https://web.archive.org/web/20071127010014/http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/rankings2007.pdf The Global Gender Gap Index 2007] || 86 || 16 || 128 || 67 || November 2007 |- | [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]] || [http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4030#rankings Globalization Index 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201001759/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4030#rankings |date=2007-12-01 }} || 43 || 2 || 72 || 78 || Nov./Dec. 2007 |} == Catetan jeung rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Bibliograpi == * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs], [[United States Department of State]], August 2006 * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html Library of Congress country profile] * [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Chile Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chile - Country Page] * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ci.html The (CIA) World Factbook: Chile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106030337/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ci.html |date=2015-11-06 }} * [http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/cecap/publicaciones/tercer.php Disputes between Chile and Argentine] == Tumbu luar == {{sisterlinks|Chile}} {{wikisource|CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Chile}} === Sumber resmi === * [http://www.gobierno.cl/ Gobierno] - Government ([http://www.chileangovernment.cl/ English version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027011904/http://www.chileangovernment.cl/ |date=2008-10-27 }}) ** [http://www.presidencia.gov.cl/ Presidencia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040523212549/http://www.presidencia.gov.cl/ |date=2004-05-23 }} - présidéncy ([http://www.presidencyofchile.cl/ English version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123170917/http://www.presidencyofchile.cl/ |date=2007-01-23 }}) ** [http://www.interior.cl/ Ministerio del Interior] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980112180112/http://interior.cl/ |date=1998-01-12 }} - Interior Ministry ** [http://www.minrel.gov.cl/ Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs ** [http://www.hacienda.gov.cl/ Ministerio de Hacienda] - Ministry of Finance ([http://www.hacienda.gov.cl/lenguaje.php?lang=EN English version]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) * [http://www.congreso.cl/ Congreso Nacional] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329023718/http://www.congreso.cl/ |date=2020-03-29 }} - National Congress ** [http://www.senado.cl/ Senado] - Senate ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20070709224906/http://www.camara.cl/ Cámara de Diputados] - Chamber of Deputies ** [http://www.bcn.cl/ Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional] - Library of National Congress * [http://www.poderjudicial.cl/ Poder Judicial] - Judiciary * [http://www.bcentral.cl/ Banco Central] - Central Bank ([http://www.bcentral.cl/eng/ English version]) * [http://www.ine.cl/ Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE)] - National Statistics Institute === Informasi umum === {{wikivoyage|Chile}} * [http://www.redatacama.com/english Atacama, Chile Web Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511110857/http://www.redatacama.com/english/ |date=2008-05-11 }} * [http://www.atacamachile.cl Atacama Chile] * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Chile Open Directory Project - ''Chile''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108234652/http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Chile/ |date=2007-11-08 }} directory category * [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/chile/ Several links compiled by LANIC] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091121074246/http://www.coha.org/ Council of Hemispheric Affairs] An independent source of Latin American News and Opinion * [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=chile&search_crit=fulltext&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Chile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416003713/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=chile&search_crit=fulltext&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form |date=2008-04-16 }} * [http://www.chileangovernment.cl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=65&Itemid=41 Invest in Chile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308114512/http://www.chileangovernment.cl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=65&Itemid=41 |date=2007-03-08 }} * [http://www.chilebosque.cl Native flora species] {{Template group |title = [[Gambar:Nuvola_filesystems_www.png|25lpx]]&nbsp;Géografi lokal |list = {{Countries of South America}} }} {{Template group |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Latin Union}} {{G15 nations}} {{South American Community of Nations (CSN)}} {{Mercosur/Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} {{Organization of American States (OAS)}} }} [[Kategori:Cilé| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu basana Basa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Nagara G15]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Républik konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] sc2pem819t16tdj7rz0bfpzl3fialig 0 26210 730899 711798 2026-10-30T02:35:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{electromagnetism3|mstat=true}} [[Gambar:Magnet0873.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Garis médan]] magnétik anu dipintonkeun ku bubuk [[beusi]].]] Dina [[fisika]], '''médan magnétik''' nyaéta hiji médan anu nembus rohangan sarta ngeprakkeun ''gaya magnétik'' kana [[muatan listrik]] jeung batang magnétik dua kutub. Médan magnétik ngurilingan [[arus listrik]], batang magnét dua kutub, sarta médan listrik anu barobah. Mangsa ditempatkeun dina hiji medan magnétik, batang magnétik ngalempengkeun sumbuna supaya sajajar jeung médan magnétik, saperti bisa kasaksén lamun bubuk beusi aya di sabudeureun hiji [[magnét]] (tempo gambar di beulah kénca). Médan magnétik ogé boga [[énergi]] jeung [[moméntum]] sorangan, kalayan rapat énergina sabanding jeung kuadrat tina inténsitas médan. Médan magnétik diukur maké [[hijian]] [[teslas]] ([[hijian]] [[SI]]) atawa [[gauss]] (hijian [[cgs]]). Aya sababaraha sifat médan magnétik anu katempo. Pikeun fisika nu ngabahas bahan magnétik, tempo [[magnétisme]] jeung [[magnét]], sarta pikeun leuwih jero tempo [[ferromagnétisme]], [[paramagnétisme]], jeung [[diamagnétisme]]. Pikeun médan magnét nu tetep, saperti anu dihasilkeun ku batang magnétik dua kutub anu stasionér jeung [[arus]] anu tetep, tempo [[magnétostatika]]. Pikeun médan magnétik anu dihasilkeun ku médan listrik anu barobah, tempo [[éléktromagnétisme]]. [[Médan listrik]] jeung médan magnét mangrupa unsur-unsur anu ngawangun [[médan éléktromagnétik]]. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Définisi == In classical physics,the magnetic field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is a [[vector field]] (that is, some vector at every point of space and time), with [[SI]] units of teslas (one tesla is one [[newton]]-[[second]] per [[coulomb]]-[[metre]]) and [[cgs]] units of [[gauss (unit)|gauss]]. It has the property of being a [[solenoidal]] vector field. The field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> can be both defined and méasured by méans of a small magnetic dipole (i.e., [[magnet|bar magnet]]). The magnetic field exerts a [[torque]] on magnetic dipoles that tends to maké them point in the same direction as the magnetic field (as in a [[compass]]), and moréover the magnitude of that torque is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field. Therefore, in order to méasure the magnetic field at a particular point in space, you can put a small freely-rotating bar magnet (such as a compass) there: the direction it winds up pointing is the direction of <math>\mathbf{B}</math>; and the ratio of the maximum magnitude of the torque to the [[dipole moment]] of the bar magnet is the magnitude <math>|\mathbf{B}|</math>. (There are, in addition, several other different but physically equivalent ways to define the magnetic field, for example via the [[Lorentz force]] law (see below), or as the solution to [[Maxwell's equations]].) It follows from any of these definitions that the magnetic field vector (being a [[vector product]]) is a [[pseudovector]] (also called an [[axial vector]]). === B jeung H === There are two quantities that physicists may refer to as the magnetic field, notated <math>\mathbf{H}</math> and <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. The vector field <math>\mathbf{H}</math> is known among [[electrical engineer]]s as the ''magnetic field intensity'' or ''magnetic field strength'' also known as ''auxiliary magnetic field'' or ''magnetizing field''. The vector field <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is known as ''magnetic flux density'' or ''magnetic induction'' or simply ''magnetic field'', as used by physicists, and has the SI units of teslas (T), equivalent to [[weber (unit)|webers]] (Wb) per square metre or [[volt]] seconds per square metre. [[Magnetic flux]] has the SI units of webers so the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> field is that of its aréal density. [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html][http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm][http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094533/http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html |date=2008-09-05 }}[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html]<ref>Magnetic Field Strength is also sometimes called Magnetic Field Intensity. For more information reference the sources Durney and Johnson, and also Rao.</ref> The vector field <math>\mathbf{H}</math> has the SI units of [[ampere]]s per metre and is something of the magnetic analog to the [[electric displacement field]] represented by <math>\mathbf{D}</math>, with the SI units of the latter being ampere-seconds per square metre. Although the term "magnetic field" was historically reserved for <math>\mathbf{H}</math>, with <math>\mathbf{B}</math> being termed the "magnetic induction", <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is now understood to be the more fundamental entity, and most modérn writers refer to <math>\mathbf{B}</math> as the magnetic field, except when context fails to maké it cléar whether the quantity being discussed is <math>\mathbf{H}</math> or <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. See:<ref>The standard graduate textbook by Jackson follows this usage. Edward Purcell, in Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill, 1963, writes, ''Even some modern writers who treat B as the primary field feel obliged to call it the magnetic induction because the name magnetic field was historically preempted by H. This seems clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the laboratory and ask a physicist what causes the pion trajectories in his bubble chamber to curve, he'll probably answer "magnetic field," not "magnetic induction." You will seldom hear a geophysicist refer to the earth's magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist talk about the magnetic induction of the galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B the magnetic field. As for H, although other names have been invented for it, we shall call it "the field H" or even "the magnetic field H".''</ref> The difference between the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> and the <math>\mathbf{H}</math> vectors can be traced back to Maxwell's 1855 paper entitled ''On Faraday's Lines of Force''. It is later clarified in his concept of a séa of molecular vortices that appéars in his 1861 paper [https://web.archive.org/web/20080406182956/http://www.vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf On Physical Lines of Force - 1861]. Within that context, <math>\mathbf{H}</math> represented pure vorticity (spin), wheréas <math>\mathbf{B}</math> was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the density of the vortex séa. Maxwell considered [[magnetic permeability]] µ to be a méasure of the density of the vortex séa. Hence the relationship, (1) '''Magnetic induction current''' causes a magnetic current density <math>\mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H}</math> was essentially a rotational analogy to the linéar electric current relationship, (2) '''Electric convection current''' <math>\mathbf{J} = \rho \mathbf{v}</math> where <math>\rho</math> is electric charge density. <math>\mathbf{B}</math> was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial planes, with <math>\mathbf{H}</math> being the circumferential velocity of the vortices. With µ representing vortex density, we can now see how the product of µ with vorticity <math>\mathbf{H}</math> léads to the term [[magnetic flux density]] which we denote as <math>\mathbf{B}</math>. The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of [[electric charge]] that involves linéar motion. By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linéar motion in the inductive current along the direction of the <math>\mathbf{B}</math> vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it represents lines of inverse square law force. The extension of the above considerations confirms that where <math>\mathbf{B}</math> is to <math>\mathbf{H}</math>, and where <math>\mathbf{J}</math> is to ρ, then it necessarily follows from Gauss's law and from the equation of continuity of charge that <math>\mathbf{E}</math> is to <math>\mathbf{D}</math>. Ie. <math>\mathbf{B}</math> parallels with <math>\mathbf{E}</math>, wheréas <math>\mathbf{H}</math> parallels with <math>\mathbf{D}</math>. In SI units, <math> \mathbf{B} \ </math> and <math> \mathbf{H} \ </math> are méasured in teslas (T) and amperes per metre (A/m), respectively; or, in cgs units, in gauss (G) and [[oersted]]s (Oe), respectively. Two parallel wires carrying an electric current in the same direction will generate a magnetic field that will cause a force of attraction between them. This fact is used to define the value of an ampere of electric current. The fields <math>\mathbf{B}</math> and <math>\mathbf{H}</math> are also related by the equation :<math>\mathbf{B}=\mu_0(\mathbf{H}+\mathbf{M})</math> ([[SI]] units) :<math>\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{H}+4\pi\mathbf{M}</math> ([[cgs]] units), where <math>\mathbf{M}</math> is [[magnetization]]. == Gaya akibat médan magnétik == {{utama|Lorentz force}} === Gaya kana partikel anu dibere muatan === [[Gambar:charged-particle-drifts.svg|300px|thumbnail|right|'''Charged particle [[Guiding center|drifts]]''' in a homogenous magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B) With an electric field, E (C) With an independent force, F (eg. gravity) (D) In an inhomgeneous magnetic field, grad H]] :<math>\mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}),</math> where :'''F''' is the [[force]] (in [[newton]]s) :''q'' is the [[electric charge]] of the particle (in coulombs) :'''v''' is the instantaneous [[velocity]] of the particle (in metres per second) :'''B''' is the [[magnetic field]] (in teslas) :and × is the [[cross product]]. === Gaya kana kawat nu arusna barobah === A straight, stationary [[wire]] carrying an [[electric current]], when placed in an external magnetic field, feels a force. This force is the result of the [[Lorentz force]] (see above) acting on éach electron (or any other charge carrier) moving in the wire. The formula for the total force is as follows: :<math>\mathbf{F} = I \mathbf{L} \times \mathbf{B} \,</math> where :'''F''' = Force, measured in newtons :''I'' = current in wire, measured in amperes :'''B''' = magnetic field vector, measured in teslas :<math>\times</math> = vector cross product :'''L''' = a vector, whose magnitude is the length of wire (measured in metres), and whose direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of [[conventional current]] flow. Alternatively, some authors write :<math>\mathbf{F} = L \mathbf{I} \times \mathbf{B}</math> where the vector direction is now associated with the current variable, instéad of the length variable. The two forms are equivalent. If the wire is not straight but curved, the force on it can be computed by applying this formula to éach [[infinitesimal]] segment of wire, then adding up all these forces via [[Integral|integration]]. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the ''[[Laplace force]]''. === Arah gaya === [[Gambar:Left hand rule.png|thumb|right|300px|Demonstration of [[Fleming's left hand rule]] ]] The direction of force is determined by the above equations, in particular using the [[right-hand rule]] to evaluate the cross product. Equivalently, one can use [[Fleming's left hand rule]] for motion, current and polarity to determine the direction of any one of those from the other two, as seen in the example. It can also be remembéréd in the following way. The digits from the thumb to second finger indicate 'Force', 'B-field', and 'I(Current)' respectively, or F-B-I in short. Another similar trick is the [[right hand grip rule]]. == Médan magnétik tina arus tetep == {{utama|Biot-Savart law}} [[Gambar:Electromagnetism.png|200px|thumbnail|right|Current (''I'') through a wire produces a magnetic field (<math>\mathbf{B}</math>) around the wire. The field is oriented according to the [[right hand grip rule]].]] The magnetic field generated by a ''steady [[electric current|current]]'' (a continual flow of [[electric charge|charges]], for example through a wire, which is constant in time and in which charge is neither building up nor depleting at any point), is described by the [[Biot-Savart law]]: :<math> d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{\hat r}}{r^2} </math> (in [[SI]] units), where :<math>I</math> is the current, :<math>d\mathbf{l}</math> is a vector, whose magnitude is the length of the [[infinitesimal|differential]] element of the wire, and whose direction is the direction of [[conventional current]], :<math> d\mathbf{B}</math> is the differential contribution to the magnetic field resulting from this differential element of wire, :<math>\mu_0</math> is the [[magnetic constant]], :<math>\mathbf{\hat r}</math> is the unit displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed, and :<math>r</math> is the distance from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed. This is a consequence of [[Ampere's law]], one of the four [[Maxwell's equations]]. Alternatively, it can be thought of as a true, empirical law in its own right, which contributes to the ''derivation'' of Maxwell's equations. From a practical point of view, though, the law is true and useful regardless of its philosophical origin. == Pasifatan == ===Garis médan magnétik===<!-- This section is linked from [[Aurora (astronomy)]] --> Like any [[vector field]], the magnetic field can be depicted with [[field line]]s—a set of lines through space whose direction at any point is the direction of the local magnetic field vector, and whose density is proportional to the magnitude of the local magnetic field vector. Note that the choice of which field lines to draw in such a depiction is arbitrary, apart from the requirement that they be spaced out so that their density approximates the magnitude of the local field. The level of detail at which the magnetic field is depicted can be incréased by incréasing the number of lines. Although any vector field can be depicted with field lines, this visualization is particularly helpful for the magnetic field (in three-dimensional space), as it makes certain aspects of it more transparent. For example, "[[Maxwell's equations|Gauss's law for magnetism]]" states that the magnetic field is [[solenoidal vector field|solenoidal]] (has zero [[divergence]]). This is equivalent to the simple statement that, in any field-line depiction of a magnetic field, the field lines cannot have starting or ending points; they must form a [[closed manifold|closed loop]], or else extend to infinity on both ends. Various physical phenomena have the effect of displaying field lines. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field will line up in such a way as to visually show magnetic field lines (see figure at top); although a close inspection will revéal that the "lines" are not quite continuous. Another place where magnetic field lines are visually displayed is in the [[Aurora (astronomy)|polar auroras]], in which visible stréaks of light line up with the local direction of éarth's magnetic field (due to plasma particle dipole interactions). Note that when a magnetic field is depicted with field lines, it is ''not'' méant to imply that the field is only nonzero along the drawn-in field lines. The field is typically smooth and continuous everywhere, and can be estimated at ''any'' point (whether on a field line or not) by looking at the direction and density of the field lines néarby. The use of iron filings to display a field presents something of an exception to this picture: the magnetic field is in fact much larger along the "lines" of iron, due to the large [[magnetic permeability|permeability]] of iron relative to air. The direction of the magnetic field corresponds to the direction that a [[magnetic dipole]] (such as a small magnet) will orient itself in that magnetic field (see definition above). Therefore, a cluster of small particles of [[ferromagnetic]] material, such as iron filings, placed in the magnetic field will line up in such a way as to visually show the magnetic field lines (see figure at top). Another place where magnetic field lines are visually displayed is the [[Aurora (astronomy)|polar auroras]], in which visible stréaks of light line up with the local direction of éarth's magnetic field. === Kabingung dina nandaan kutub === ''See also [[North Magnetic Pole]] and [[South Magnetic Pole]].'' The end of a [[compass]] needle that points north was historically called the "north" magnetic pole of the needle. Since [[dipole]]s are [[vector (spatial)|vectors]] and align "head to tail" with éach other to minimize their magnetic potential energy, the magnetic pole located néar the géographic [[North Pole]] is actually the "south" pole. The "north" and "south" poles of a magnet or a magnetic dipole are labelled similarly to north and south poles of a compass needle. Néar the north pole of a bar or a cylinder magnet, the magnetic field vector is directed out of the magnet; néar the south pole, into the magnet. This magnetic field continues inside the magnet (so there are no actual "poles" anywhere inside or outside of a magnet where the field stops or starts). Bréaking a magnet in half does not separate the poles but produces two magnets with two poles éach. [[Earth's magnetic field]] is probably produced by [[electric current]]s in its liquid core. == Médan magnétik anu muter == {{utama|Alternator}} The rotating magnetic field is a key principle in the operation of [[electric motor#AC motors|alternating-current motors]]. A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was conceptualized by [[Nikola Tesla]], and later utilised in his, and others, éarly AC (alternating-current) electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and so, in order to overcome it, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual géometrical angles of 120 degrees will créate the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to créate a rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is one of the main réasons why three-phase systems dominate the world's electrical power supply systems. Because magnets degrade with time, [[synchronous motor]]s and [[induction motor]]s use short-circuited [[Rotor (electric)|rotors]] (instéad of a magnet) following the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled [[stator]]. The short-circuited turns of the rotor develop [[eddy current]]s in the rotating field of the stator, and these currents in turn move the rotor by the Lorentz force. In [[1882]], Nikola Tesla identified the concept of the rotating magnetic field. In [[1885]], [[Galileo Ferraris]] independently reséarched the concept. In [[1888]], Tesla gained {{US patent|381968}} for his work. Also in 1888, Ferraris published his reséarch in a paper to the ''Royal Academy of Sciences'' in [[Turin]]. == Éfék Hall == {{utama|Hall effect}} Because the [[Lorentz force]] is charge-sign-dependent (see above), it results in charge separation when a conductor with current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, with a buildup of opposite charges on two opposite sides of conductor in the direction normal to the magnetic field, and the potential difference between these sides can be méasured. The [[Hall effect]] is often used to méasure the magnitude of a magnetic field as well as to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes). == Rélativitas husus jeung éléktromagnétisme == {{utama|Relativistic electromagnetism}} According to [[special relativity]], electric and magnetic forces are part of a single physical phenomenon, [[electromagnetism]]; an electric force perceived by one observer will be perceived by another observer in a different frame of reference as a mixture of electric and magnetic forces. A magnetic force can be considered as simply the relativistic part of an [[electric force]] when the latter is seen by a moving observer. More specifically, rather than tréating the electric and magnetic fields as separate fields, special relativity shows that they naturally mix together into a rank-2 [[tensor]], called the [[electromagnetic tensor]]. This is analogous to the way that special relativity "mixes" space and time into [[spacetime]], and mass, momentum and energy into [[four-momentum]]. == Gambaran wangunan médan magnétik == [[Gambar:Magnetic quadrupole moment.svg|right|thumb|Schematic [[quadrupole magnet]]("''four-pole''") magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles.]] * An '''azimuthal''' magnetic field is one that runs éast-west. * A '''meridional''' magnetic field is one that runs north-south. In the [[solar dynamo]] modél of the Sun, differential rotation of the solar plasma causes the meridional magnetic field to stretch into an azimuthal magnetic field, a process called the ''omega-effect''. The reverse process is called the ''alpha-effect''.<ref>[http://www.cora.nwra.com/~werne/eos/text/dynamo.html The Solar Dynamo], retrieved Sep 15, 2007.</ref> * A [[magnetic dipole|'''dipole''' magnetic field]] is one seen around a bar magnet or around a particle with nonzero [[spin (physics)|spin]]. * A [[quadrupole magnet|'''quadrupole''' magnetic field]] is one seen, for example, between the poles of four bar magnets. The field strength grows linéarly with the radial distance from its longitudinal axis. * A '''solenoidal''' magnetic field is similar to a dipole magnetic field, except that a solid bar magnet is replaced by a hollow electromagnetic coil magnet. * A '''toroidal''' magnetic field occurs in a doughnut-shaped coil, the electric current spiraling around the tube-like surface, and is found, for example, in a [[tokamak]]. * A '''poloidal''' magnetic field is generated by a current flowing in a ring, and is found, for example, in a [[tokamak]]. == Tempo ogé == '''General''' * ''[[Electric field]]'' — effect produced by an electric charge that exerts a force on charged objects in its vicinity. * ''[[Electromagnetic field]]'' — a field composed of two related vector fields, the electric field and the magnetic field. * ''[[Electromagnetism]]'' — the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field, encompassing all of space, composed of the electric field and the magnetic field. * ''[[Magnetism]]'' — phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials. * ''[[Magnetohydrodynamics]]'' — the academic discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. * ''[[Magnetic flux]]'' * ''[[Magnetic monopole]]'' — hypothetical physical quantity which would cause nonzero divergence of magnetic field. * ''[[Magnetic reconnection]]'' - an effect which causes solar flares and auroras. * ''[[SI electromagnetism units]]'' '''Mathematics''' * ''[[Ampére's law]]'' — magnetic equivalent of Gauss's law. * ''[[Biot-Savart law]]'' — the magnetic field set up by a stéadily flowing line current. * ''[[Magnetic helicity]]'' — extent to which a magnetic field "wraps around itself". * ''[[Maxwell's equations]]'' — four equations describing the behavior of the electric and magnetic fields, and their interaction with matter. '''Applications''' * ''[[Helmholtz coil]]'' — a device for producing a region of néarly uniform magnetic field. * ''[[Maxwell coil]]'' — a device for producing a large volume of almost constant magnetic field. * ''[[Earth's magnetic field]]'' — a discussion of the magnetic field of the éarth. * ''[[Dynamo theory]]'' — a proposed mechanism for the création of the éarth's magnetic field. * ''[[Electric motor]]'' — AC motors used magnetic fields. * ''[[Rapid-decay theory]]'' - a créationist théory. * ''[[Stellar magnetic field]]'' — a discussion of the magnetic field of stars. * ''[[Teltron Tube]]'' == Rujukan == '''Web''' * {{Citation | last = Nave | first = R. | title = Magnetic Field Strength H | url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfield.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Keitch | first = Paul | title = Magnetic Field Strength and Magnetic Flux Density | url = http://www.electric-fields.bris.ac.uk/MagneticFieldStrength.htm | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} * {{Citation | last = Oppelt | first = Arnulf | date = [[2006-11-02]] | title = magnetic field strength | url = http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905094533/http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00.html |date=2008-09-05 }} * {{Citation | title = magnetic field strength converter | url = http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/magnetic-field-strength.html | access-date = 2007-06-04 }} '''Buku''' * {{cite book | author=Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. | title=Introduction to modern electromagnetics | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo0000durn | publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] |year=1969 |id=ISBN 0-07-018388-0}} * {{cite book | author=Rao, Nannapaneni N. | title=Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.)| publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1994 |id=ISBN 0-13-948746-8}} * {{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J. | title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=1999 |id=ISBN 0-13-805326-X}} * {{cite book | author=Jackson, John D. | title=Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.) | publisher=[[Wiley]] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-471-30932-X}} * {{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.) | url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0000tipl_y7c5 | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7167-0810-8}} * {{cite book | author=Furlani, Edward P. | title=Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications | publisher= Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-12-269951-3}} == Cutatan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == '''Information''' * Crowell, B., "''[http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html Electromagnetism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233123/http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html |date=2011-06-03 }}''". * Nave, R., "''[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfie.html Magnetic Field]''". HyperPhysics. * "''Magnetism''", [http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node2.html#SECTION00110000000000000000 The Magnetic Field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709195126/http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node2.html#SECTION00110000000000000000 |date=2006-07-09 }}. théory.uwinnipeg.ca. * Hoadley, Rick, "''[http://my.execpc.com/~rhoadley/magfield.htm What do magnetic fields look like] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219102314/http://my.execpc.com/~rhoadley/magfield.htm |date=2011-02-19 }}?''" [[17 July]] [[2005]]. '''Field density''' * Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to Electronic Properties of Materials (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-412-49580-5. '''Rotating magnetic fields''' * "''[http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18a.htm Rotating magnetic fields] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050512032554/http://www.tpub.com/neets/book5/18a.htm |date=2005-05-12 }}''". Integrated Publishing. * "''Introduction to Generators and Motors''", [http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14177/css/14177_87.htm rotating magnetic field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307162104/http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14177/css/14177_87.htm |date=2005-03-07 }}. Integrated Publishing. * "''[http://www.egr.msu.edu/~jurkovi4/Experiment4.pdf Induction Motor-Rotating Fields] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050929102550/http://www.egr.msu.edu/~jurkovi4/Experiment4.pdf |date=2005-09-29 }}''". '''Diagrams''' * McCulloch, Malcolm,"''A2: Electrical Power and Machines''", [http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/~epgmdm/A2/img89.htm Rotating magnetic field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427025126/http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/~epgmdm/A2/img89.htm |date=2006-04-27 }}. eng.ox.ac.uk. * "''AC Motor Theory''" [http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v4/css/h1011v4_23.htm Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050824063453/http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v4/css/h1011v4_23.htm |date=2005-08-24 }}. Integrated Publishing. '''Journal Articles''' * Yaakov Kraftmakher, "''[http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0143-0807/22/5/302 Two experiments with rotating magnetic field]''". 2001 Eur. J. Phys. 22 477-482. * Bogdan Mielnik and David J. Fernández C., "''[http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JMAPAQ000030000002000537000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes An electron trapped in a rotating magnetic field]''". Journal of Mathematical Physics, February 1989, Volume 30, Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;537–549. * Sonia Melle, Miguel A. Rubio and Gerald G. Fuller "''[http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v61/i4/p4111_1 Structure and dynamics of magnetorheological fluids in rotating magnetic fields]''". Phys. Rev. E 61, 4111 – 4117 (2000). [[Kategori:Konsép fisika dasar]] [[Kategori:Magnétostatika]] [[Kategori:Magnétisme]] [[Kategori:Kuantitas fisik]] [[Kategori:Pangwanoh fisika]] [[Kategori:Éléktromagnétisme]] d2l1v4h9c8dr56xtg0ld2vcsd223lf2 0 34276 730895 729280 2026-10-29T19:23:35Z -wuppertaler 36424 changed one image (better quality) 730895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''România'' |conventional_long_name = Romania |common_name = Romania |image_flag = Flag of Romania.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Romania.svg |image_map = EU-Romania.svg |map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color=héjo |region=[[Éropa]] |region_color=kulawu kolot |subregion=[[Uni Éropa]] |subregion_color=héjo ngora |legend=EU-Romania.svg}} |national_anthem = <span style="line-height:1.25em;">''[[Deşteaptă-te, române!]]''</span> |official_languages = [[Basa Romania|Romania]] |ethnic_groups = 89.5% Romania, 6.6% [[Hungaria]], 2.5% [[Urang Rom|Rom]], 1.4% grup minoritas lianna |government_type = Républik kahijian semi-présidénsial |capital = [[Bukares]]&nbsp;(''Bucureşti'') |latd = 44 |latm = 25 |latNS = N |longd = 26 |longm = 06 |longEW = E |largest_city = Bukares |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Romania|Présidén]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Menteri Romania|Perdana Menteri]] |leader_name1 = [[:ro:Klaus Iohannis|Klaus Iohannis]] |leader_name2 = [[:ro:Nicolae Ciuca|Nicolae Ciuca]] |area_rank = 82 |area_magnitude = 1_E+11 |area = 238.391 |areami² = 92.043 |percent_water = 3 |population_estimate_year = 2021 |population_estimate = {{Nts|19186201}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf|title=Populația rezidentă la 1 Ianuarie 2021|language=ro|trans-title=The usually resident population on 1 January 2021|publisher=[[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)|National Institute of Statistics]]|website=Insse.ro|access-date=3 December 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114072541/https://insse.ro/cms/sites/default/files/com_presa/com_pdf/poprez_ian2021r.pdf |date=14 November 2021 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = 61 |population_census_year = 2021 |population_census = 20,121,641<ref name="CensusRef" /> |population_density_km2 = 80.4 |population_density_sq_mi = 218.6 |population_density_rank = 136 |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $653.903&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_rank = 36 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $33,833<ref name="IMFWEORO"/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 44 |GDP_nominal = $289.130&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEORO">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021 Edition |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=3 December 2021 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407050829/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April |date=7 April 2021 }}</ref> |GDP_nominal_rank = 46 |GDP_nominal_year = 2021 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $14,968<ref name="IMFWEORO" /> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 56t |HDI_year = 2019 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.828 |HDI_rank = 63 |HDI_category = <span style="color:green;">luhur</span> |Gini = 33.8 |Gini_year = 2020 |Gini_rank = 21 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#090;">handap</span> |legislature = [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Romania|Sénat]] |established_event1 = [[Transilvania]] |established_date1 = Abad ka-10 |established_event2 = [[Wallachia]] |established_date2 = 1290 |established_event3 = [[Moldavia]] |established_date3 = 1346 |established_event4 = [[Mihai Viteazul|Unifikasi kahiji]] |established_date4 = 1599 |established_event5 = Réunifikasi [[Alexander Ioan Cuza|Wallachia jeung Moldavia]] |established_date5 = 24 Januari 1859 |established_event6 = Pangakuan kamerdékaan ti [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] |established_date6 = 13 Juli 1878 |established_event7 = Unifikasi sareng Transilvania |established_date7 = 1 Désémber 1918 |accessionEUdate = 1 Januari 2007 |currency = [[Leu Romania|Leu]] (L) |currency_code = RON |time_zone = [[Wanci Éropa Wétan|EET]] |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = [[Wanci Usum Panas Éropa Wétan|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +3 |drives_on = tengen |cctld = [[.ro]] [[.eu]] |calling_code = 40 |footnotes = }} '''Romania''' (ogé diéja '''Rumania''' atawa '''Roumania'''; {{lang-ro|România}}) nyaéta nagara nu aya di [[Éropa Tenggara]], di bagian kalér [[Samenanjung Balkan]] jeung tepung wates sareng [[Laut Hideung]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm|title=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|publisher=NATO|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525123235/http://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm |date=2017-05-25 }}</ref> Méh sakabéh [[délta Donau|délta walungan Donau]] aya di wewengkon Romania. Nagara ieu tepung wates sareng [[Hungaria]] jeung [[Sérbia]] di kulon, [[Ukraina]] jeung [[Moldova]] di wétan-kalér, jeung [[Bulgaria]] di kidul. Sajarah nyatetan yén [[bangsa Dacia]], [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], [[Kakaisaran Bulgaria]], [[Karajaan Hungaria]], jeung [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] pernah ngawasaan wewengkon ieu. Salaku hiji nagara, Romania diwangun dina taun 1859 ti panghijian wewengkon [[Moldavia]] jeung [[Wallachia]], nu miboga pangakuan internasional dina taun 1878. Dina taun 1918, [[Transilvania]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Bessarabia]] ngadéklarasikeun ngagabung sareng Romania. Dina ahir [[Perang Dunya II]], [[Uni Soviét]] ngawasaan sabagian daérahna (kira-kira ngawengku sakabéh daérah [[Moldova]] ayeuna) jeung Romania minangka anggota [[Pakta Warsawa]]. Kalawan labuhna [[Tirai Beusi]] dina taun [[Révolusi Romania 1989|1989]], Romania ngamimitian réformasi politik jeung ékonomi. Dina ngalawan masalah ékonomi pasca-révolusi, nagara ieu maké pajak handap dina taun 2005 jeung ngagabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007. Sanajan tingkat pamasukan Romania kaasup salah sahiji nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa, réformasi geus ningkatkeun kamekaran ékonomina. Romania kiwari kaasup nagara nu miboga pamasukan nengah ka luhur. Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan téritori nu pangluasna ka-9 jeung jumlah padumuk nu panggedéna ka-7 di Uni Éropa.<ref name=population>{{Citeweb|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|title=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|year=2007|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/en/cp2.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Ibu kota jeung kota nu panggedéna nyaéta kota [[Bukares]] ({{lang-ro|Bucureşti}}), nu ogé mangrupa kota nu panggedéna ka-6 di Uni Éropa. [[Sibiu]], hiji kota di Transilvania, dina taun 2007 kapilih minangka [[Ibu kota Kabudayaan Éropa]].<ref>{{citeweb|publisher=The Selection Panel for the European Capital of Culture (ECOC) 2007|title=Report on the Nominations from Luxembourg and Romania for the European Capital of Culture 2007|date=2004-04-05|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/pdf/doc670_en.pdf|format=pdf|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Romania gabung ka [[NATO]] dina kaping 29 Maret 2004, jeung ogé mangrupa anggota ti [[Uni Latin]], [[Francophonie]], [[OSCE]], jeung [[Komunitas Nagara-nagara pamaké basa Portugis|CPLP]]. Nagara ieu méangrupakeun nagara kahijian semi-présidénsial. == Sajarah == === Sajarah awal === Sésa-sésa manusa modérn nu pangkolotna di Éropa geus dipanggih di "[[Peştera cu Oase]]", Romania.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Trinkaus|first =E.|title=Early Modern Human Cranial remains from the Peştera cu Oase|journal =Journal of Human Evolution|volume=45|pages=245–253|year=2003| accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.08.003}}</ref> Titiinggalan éta kira-kira umurna 42.000 taun, jeung meureunan téh sésa-sésa ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' awal nu asup ka buana Éropa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zilhão|first=João|title=Neanderthals and Moderns Mixed and It Matters|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume =15|pages=183–195|date=|year=2006|accessdate=2008-01-10|doi=10.1002/evan.20110}}</ref> tapi bukti tinulis kahiji ngeunaan manusa nu ngadumuk di wewengkon Romania asalna ti [[Herodotus]], nu dina bukuna [[Historia (Herodotus)|Historia]] volume IV dina taun 440 SM nulis ngeunaan kaayaan séké-séké [[Getae]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Herodotus|author-link =Herodotus|translation =William Beloe|title =The Ancient History of Herodotus By Herodotus|digitized =Google Book Search|pages =213–217|publisher =Derby & Jackson|year =1859|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en|accessdate =2008-01-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211091917/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=herodotus+dacians+darius&source=web&ots=G4uX7Mnsqb&sig=kYPtXH157JEzuk7V618EreDadqY&hl=en |date=2023-02-11 }}</ref> [[Bangsa Dacia]], nu dianggap bagian ti Getae, mangrupa cabang ti bangsa [[Trakia]] nu nyicingan wewengkon [[Dacia]] (aya di Romania modérn, [[Moldova]], jeung [[Bulgaria]] kalér). Karajaan Dacia miboga puncak kajayaanna dina jaman Raja [[Burebista]] kira-kira taun 82 SM. Sanggeus Dacia narajang propinsi [[Moesia]] [[Romawi]] dina taun 87, Kaisar [[Trajan]]us ngayakeun [[Perang Dacia]] nu réngsé kalawan meunangna bangsa Romawi taun 106. Akibat kameunangan éta, Dacia robah kana propinsi [[Dacia Romawi]].<ref>{{Citeweb|title =Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions|publisher =De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|url =http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Lobana bijih beusi, emas, jeung pérak nu dipanggih di propinsi éta<ref>{{citeweb|title=Dacia-Province of the Roman Empire|publisher =United Nations of Roma Victor|url =http://www.unrv.com/provinces/dacia.php|text="and were found in great quantities in the [[Western Carpathians]]. After Trajan's conquest, he brought back to Rome over 165 tons of gold and 330 tons of silver"|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> ngakibatkeun bangsa Romawi ngalaksanakeun kolonisasi kana wewengkon Dacia.<ref>{{citebook|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=Colloquial Romanian|publisher=Routledge|year=1995|location=New York|pages =1|isbn=9780415129008}}</ref> Prosés kolonisasi mawa sarta basa [[Latin Vulgar]] nu nyababkeun dimimitianna période romanisasi, nu salajengna bakal ngahasilkeun basa proto-[[basa Romania|Romania]].<ref>{{citebook|last=Matley|first=Ian| title=Romania; a Profile |publisher=Praeger|year=1970|pages=85}}</ref><ref>{{citebook|last=Giurescu|first=Constantin C.|title=The Making of the Romanian People and Language|publisher=Meridiane Publishing House|year=1972|location=Bucharest|pages=43, 98–101,141}}</ref> Dina abad ka-3 séké-séké pangumbara kawas bangsa [[Goth]] loba ngalaksanakeun invasi, jadina maksa bangsa Romawi kira-kira taun 271 mundur ti Dacia, jeung nyieunanna propinsi kahiji nu ditinggalkeun ku Romawi.<ref>{{citebook|last=Eutropius|authorlink=Eutropius|coauthors=Justin, Cornelius Nepos|title=Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History|publisher=George Bell and Sons|year=1886|location=London|url=http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220200338/http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm |date=2009-02-20 }}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|last=Watkins|first=Thayer|title=The Economic History of the Western Roman Empire|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/barbarians.htm|quote="The Emperor Aurelian recognized the realities of the military situation in Dacia and around 271 A.D. withdrew Roman troops from Dacia leaving it to the Goths. The Danube once again became the northern frontier of the Roman Empire in eastern Europe"|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> === Abad patengahan === [[Image:Bran Castle TB1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Istana Bran]] diwangun dina taun 1212, jeung leuwih katelah minangka ''Istana Drakula'']] Sanggeus Romawi ninggalkeun Dacia, wewengkon éta, sacara tumurut, ditarajang ku séké [[Goth]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordanes|authorlink=Jordanes|title=Getica, sive, De Origine Actibusque Gothorum|year=551 A.D.|location=Constantinople|url=http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007203824/http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/Goths/Goths1.htm |date=2008-10-07 }}</ref> teras ku séké [[Hun]] dina abad ka-4,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Iliescu| first=Vl.|last2=Paschale| first2=Chronicon| title=Fontes Historiae Daco-Romanae|volume=II|pages=363, 587|place=Bucureşti|year=1970}}</ref> jeung dipipilu ku séké-séké nomaden nu séjén kawas séké [[Gepid]],<ref name=gepids/><ref>{{Cite web|first=István|last=Bóna|editor-last=Köpeczi|editor-first=Béla|title=History of Transylvania: II.3. The Kingdom of the Gepids|volume=1|publisher=Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York|year=2001|url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094220/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html |date=2008-12-06 }}</ref> [[Avar]],<ref>{{Cite web| first = István| last = Bóna| editor-last = Köpeczi| editor-first = Béla| title = History of Transylvania: II.4. The Period of the Avar Rule| volume = 1| publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences| distributor = Columbia University Press| location = New York| year = 2001| url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html| accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193756/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/41.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> [[Bulgar]],<ref name=gepids>{{cite book|last=Teodor|first=Dan Gh.|title=Istoria României de la începuturi până în secolul al VIII-lea|year =1995|location =Bucureşti|pages=294–325 |volume=2}}</ref> [[Pecheneg]],<ref>{{cite book| last =Constantine VII| first =Porphyrogenitus| authorlink =Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus| title =Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio| date =| location =Constantinople| url =http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html| accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023071109/http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/constp.html |date=2008-10-23 }}</ref> jeung [[Cuman]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Xenopol|first =Alexandru D.|title =Histoire des Roumains|place=Paris|year =1896|volume =i|pages=168}}</ref> Bangsa Romania salajengna kabagi dina tilu wewengkon kapangéranan nu béda: [[Wallachia]] ({{lang-ro|Ţara Românească}}), [[Moldavia]] ({{lang-ro|Moldova}}), jeung [[Transilvania]]. Transilvania jadi bagian ti [[Karajaan Hongaria]] dina abad ka-11,<ref>{{Cite web|first = László|last = Makkai|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193801/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/57.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> jeung miboga kamerdékaanna salaku [[Kapangéranan Transilvania]] ti abad ka-16<ref>{{Cite web|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: IV. The First Period of the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1606)|volume = 1|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|location = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210193819/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> nepi ka taun 1711.<ref>{{citebook|first = Ágnes R.|last = Várkonyi|editor-last = Köpeczi|editor-first = Béla|title = History of Transylvania: VI. The Last Decades of the Independent Principality (1660–1711)|volume = 2|publisher = Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences|distributor = Columbia University Press|place = New York|year = 2001|url = http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html|accessdate = 2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430052120/http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/221.html |date=2008-04-30 }}</ref> Kapangéranan Romania lianna ngalawan ancaman [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]] dina abad ka-14.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Ştefănescu|first =Ştefan |title =Istoria medie a României|year =1991|location =Bucharest|volume =I|pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last =Predescu|first =Lucian |title =Enciclopedia Cugetarea|year =1940}}</ref> [[File:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|250px|left|Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania dina ahir abad ka-16]] Dina taun 1541, sakabéh [[samenanjung Balkan]] jeung méh sakabéh [[Hongaria]] jadi bagian ti Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Sabalikna, Moldavia, Wallachia, jeung Transilvania jadi bagian ti ''[[suzerainty]]'' Utsmaniyah, kalawan hak otonomi internal. Kapangéranan Wallachia, Moldavia, jeung Transilvania dipingpin ku pangéran Wallachia, [[Mihai Viteazul]], dina taun 1600. Mihai Vitéazul nyobian rék ngahijikeun tilu kapangéranan éta,<ref>{{cite journal|language =Romanian|last =Rezachevici|first =Constantin|title =Mihai Viteazul: itinerariul moldovean|year =2000|journal =Magazin istoric|issue =5|url =http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231040/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref> tapi kasempetan unifikasi hancur ku sabab rajapati Mihai ku tentara Austria. Sanggeus pupusna, salaku nagara ''vassal'', Moldavia jeung Wallachia geus miboga otonomi internal pinuh, nu ahirna leungit dina abad ka-18. Dina taun 1699, Transilvania jadi daérah kakaisaran Austria sanggeus meunangna Austria ti Turki dina [[Perang Turki Raya]]. Austria ngalaksanakeun paluasan kakawasaan lianna ka wewengkon Wallachia jeung Moldavia, jeung [[Kakaisaran Rusia]] ngawasaan [[Bessarabia]] taun 1812. === Kamerdékaan jeung Monarki === [[Image:Romanians before WW1.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Wewengkon nu dicicingan bangsa Romania saméméh Perang Dunya I]] Dina période kakawasaan [[Austria-Hongaria]] di Transilvania, jeung ''suzerainty'' Utsmaniyah di Wallachia jeung Moldavia, status bangsa Romania nyaéta [[Supplex Libellus Valachorum|padumuk kelas dua]] (atawa malah sanés padumuk)<ref>{{citeweb|publisher =GenealogyRO Group|title =The Magyarization Process|url= http://www.genealogy.ro/cont/13.htm |accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> di wewengkon tempat bangsa aranjeunna jadi bangsa mayoritas.<ref>{{citebook |last =Kocsis |first =Karoly |last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter |year =1999 |title =Ethnic structure of the population on the present territory of Transylvania (1880-1992) |url =http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |accessdate =2008-08-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222171134/http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |date=2008-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kocsis |first =Karoly|last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter|title =Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo |year =2001|pages =[https://archive.org/details/ethnicgeographyo0000karo/page/102 102]|publisher =Simon Publications|isbn =193131375X}}</ref> Di sababraha kota di Transilvania, kawas [[Braşov]], bangsa Romania dilarang tinggal di jeroeun témbok kota.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Prodan|first =David |title =Supplex Libellus Valachorum= Or, The Politicle Struggle of Romanians in Transylvania During the 18th Century|publisher=Academy of Social Republic of Romania|year =1971|location =Bucharest}}</ref> Sanggeus gagalna [[Révolusi 1848]], nagara-nagara gedé teu ngadukung usaha unifikasi Romania, jadina aranjeunna kapaksa joang sorangan ngalawan Kasultanan Utsmaniyah. Éléktor di Moldavia jeung Wallachia milih [[Alexander John Cuza|Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] minangka pangéran (''[[Domnitor]]'' dina [[basa Romania]]) dina taun 1859.<ref>{{Cite book|last =Bobango|first =Gerald J|title =The emergence of the Romanian national State|url =https://archive.org/details/emergenceofroman0000boba|publisher =Boulder|year =1979|location =New York|isbn = 9780914710516}}</ref> Pamilihan Alexandru Ioan Cuza minangka ''domnitor'' hasil ngahijikeun Wallachia jeung Moldavia minangka Romania, tapi Transilvania masih encan kénéh kaasup kana wewengkon Romania. Di Transilvania, bangsa Hungaria aya di kelas luhur, jadina bangsa Romania ngamimitian palawanan ka Hongaria. Dina kudéta taun 1866, [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza|Cuza]] diasingkeun jeung digantikeun ku Pangéran Karl ti [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]], nu katelah minangka [[Pangéran Karol ti Romania]]. Dina [[Perang Rusia-Turki 1877-78]], Romania ngadukung Rusia,<ref>{{Citeweb|language|Russian|title =San Stefano Preliminary Treaty|year =1878|url =http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/stefano.htm|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung dina [[Traktat Berlin 1878]], kamerdékaan Romania diakuan.<ref>{{Cite book|work=Internet Modern History Sourcebook|title=The Treaty of Berlin, 1878 - Excerpts on the Balkans|date=July 13, 1878|place=Berlin|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|accessdate=2008-08-31|publisher=Fordham University}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608120300/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html |date=2008-06-08 }}</ref> Gagantina, Romania méré tilu distrik kidul di [[Bessarabia]] ka Rusia jeung meunangan wewengkon [[Dobrogea]]. Dina taun 1881, kapangéranan robah kana karajaan. Période 1878-1914 mangrupa période kastabilan jeung kamajuan pikeun Romania. Dina [[Perang Balkan Kadua]], Romania ngagabung jeung [[Yunani]], [[Sérbia]], [[Monténégro]], jeung [[Turki]] ngalawan [[Bulgaria]], jeung dina [[Traktat Bukares (1913)]], Romania miboga kakawasaan dina wewengkon [[Dobrogea Kidul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last =Anderson|first =Frank Maloy|last2 =Hershey|first2 =Amos Shartle|title =Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914|url =https://archive.org/details/handbookfordipl00hersgoog|publisher =Government Printing Office|year =1918|location =Washington D.C.}}</ref> === Perang Dunya === Dina Agustus 1914, basa [[Perang Dunya I]], Romania ngumumkeun nétral. Dua taun saterasna, dina tekenan Sakutu (utamana Perancis nu hayang muka front anyar), dina 14/27 Agustus 1916, Romania gabung ka Sakutu jeung ngadéklarasikeun perang ka [[Austria-Hongaria]]. Lantaran kitu, liwat [[Traktat Bukares (1916)|konvénsi militér rahasia]], Sakutu jangji méré dukungan ka Romania dina usaha ngahijikeun sadaya rahayat Romania.<ref>{{Cite web|last =Horne|first =Charles F.|year =Horne|title =Ion Bratianu's Declaration of War Delivered to the Austrian Minister in Romania on August 28, 1916|volume =V|publisher =Source Records of the Great War|url =http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207045455/http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/romaniawardeclaration.htm |date=2008-12-07 }}</ref> [[Kampanye Romania (Perang Dunya I)|Kampanye militér Romania]] ahir kalawan karusuhan pikeun Romania sabab [[Blok Séntral]] nalukkeun 2/3 téritori Romania dina wanci opat bulan, tapi [[Moldavia]] tetep aya dina kawasa Romania sanggeus invasi eureun dina taun 1917. Dina ahir perang, Austria-Hongaria jeung Kakaisaran Rusia ngalaman disintegrasi, jadina [[Bessarabia]], [[Bukovina]], jeung [[Transilvania]] ngadéklarasikeun panghijian jeung [[Karajaan Romania]]. [[File:Romania1941.png|thumb|right|250px]] Dina [[Perang Dunya Kadua]], Romania ngadéklarasikeun nétral deui, tapi dina 28 Juni 1940, Romania narima [[ultimatum Soviét Juni 1940|ultimatum ti Uni Soviét]].<ref name="ultimatum">{{cite book|url=http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm|archivedate=2007-11-13|title=Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940|author=Ioan Scurtu, Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu|language=Romanian|publisher=University of Bucharest|year=2002|accessdate=2011-10-30}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |date=2007-11-13 }}</ref> Dina tekenan [[Mosow]] jeung [[Bérlin]], Romania kapaksa mundur ti [[Bessarabia]] jeung [[Bukovina Kalér]] pikeun nyingkahan perang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nagy-Talavera|first=Nicolas M.|title=Green Shirts and Others: a History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1970|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_817918515/page/n322 305]}}</ref> Kajadian ieu, ditambih ku sababaraha faktor nu lian, nyieunan pamaréntah Romania gabung ka [[Blok Poros]]. Akibat kaputusan blok Poros, [[Dobrogea]] kidul dibéré ka Bulgaria, samentara Hongaria miboga [[Transilvania|Transilvania Kalér]].<ref>{{citejournal|author=M. Broszat|language=German|title=Deutschland — Ungarn — Rumänien. Entwicklung und Grundfaktoren nationalsozialistischer Hegemonial- und Bündnispolitik 1938-1941|journal=[[Historische Zeitschrift]]|issue=206|year=1968|pages=552–553}}</ref> Dina perang, Romania mangrupa sumber minyak nu penting pikeun [[Jérman Nazi|Nazi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti|title=The Biggest Mistakes In World War 2:Ploesti - the most important target|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918013749/http://www.2worldwar2.com/mistakes.htm#ploesti |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref> jadina Sakutu [[Operasi Tidal Wave|ngalaksanakeun pamboman]]. Sanggeus [[Operasi Barbarossa|invasi Jérman ka Uni Soviét]], Romania ngarebut deui Bessarabia jeung Bukovina Kalér ti Soviét. Sanggeus Raja [[Mihai I ti Romania]] diistrénan jeung ngalabuhkeun [[Ion Antonescu]], Romania ngagabung ka Sakutu, tapi lakuannna dina nalukkeun Jérman Nazi teu diakuan ku [[Konferénsi Parapihan Paris]] taun 1947.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033400/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/5/38D4D252-BE7E-4943-A6A9-4E3C1B32A05F.html|archivedate=2007-09-30|title=World War II – 60 Years After: Former Romanian Monarch Remembers Decision To Switch Sides|author=Eugen Tomiuc|date=May 6, 2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Wates kulon Romania balik deui kawas saméméhna, tapi Bukovina Kalér jeung Bessarabia tetep dikawasaan ku Soviet. === Komunisme === Dina taun 1947, kaum komunis maksa Raja Mihai I lungsur jeung angkat ninggalkeun nagara. Romania diproklamasikeun minangka [[républik rahayat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|publisher=CIA - The World Factbook|title=Romania|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515163205/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html |date=2020-05-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html|title=Romania - Country Background and Profile|publisher=ed-u.com|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210194350/http://www.ed-u.com/ro.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> Romania tetep aya dina [[Panjajahan Soviét di Romania|panjajahan militér]] jeung [[SovRoms|kontrol ékonomi]] Uni Soviét nepi ka ahir taun 1950-an. Dina période ieu, sumber daya Romania diserep<ref>{{Cite web|first=Carmen|last=Rîjnoveanu|title=Romania's Policy of Autonomy in the Context of the Sino-Soviet Conflict|year=2003|pages=1|publisher=Czech Republic Military History Institute, Militärgeschichtliches Forscheungamt|url=http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624195137/http://www.servicehistorique.sga.defense.gouv.fr/07autredossiers/groupetravailhistoiremilitaire/pdfs/2003-gthm.pdf |date=2008-06-24 }}</ref> ku pausahaan Soviét-Romania ([[SovRoms]]).<ref>{{Citebook|last=Roper|first=Stephen D.|title=Romania: The Unfinished Revolution|place=London|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=9058230279|pages=18}}</ref><ref>{{Citebook|last=Cioroianu|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Cioroianu|title="On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"|language=Romanian|publisher=Editura Curtea Veche|year =2005|location=Bucharest|pages=68–73|isbn=9736691756}}</ref> [[Image:Nicolae Ceaușescu (1988).jpg|thumb|left|[[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]]] Pamaréntahan komunis ngawangun rézim nu utamana dilaksanakeun liwat [[Securitate]] (pulisi rasiah anyar). Aranjeunna ngalaksanakeun kampanye pikeun maraéhan "musuh nagara", jadina aya rajapati atawa ditangkepna individu-individu ku alesan politik jeung ékonomi.<ref>{{Citebook|last =Caraza|first =Grigore|title =Aiud însângerat|publisher =Editura Vremea XXI|year=2004|volume=Chapter IV|isbn=9736450503|language=Romanian}}</ref> Hukuman ngawengku déportasi, pangasingan internal, gawé paksa, atawa dipanjarakeun. Catetan sajarah nyatet rupa-rupa kasus panyiksaan jeung rajapati, boh ka musuh politik atawa rahayat biasa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cicerone Ioniţoiu|title=Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestaţi, torturaţi, întemniţaţi, ucişi. Dicţionar|publisher=Editura Maşina de scris|location=Bucharest|year=2000 |isbn= 973-99994-2-5|language=Romanian}}</ref> Dina taun 1965, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] mimita ngawasa jeung ngalaksanakeun kawijakan indepénden, kawas jadi sahiji-hijina nagara [[Pakta Warsawa]] nu teu satuju kana invasi Soviét ka [[Cékoslowakia]] taun 1968, neruskeun hubungan ka [[Israél]] sanggeus [[Perang Genep Poé]] tahn 1967, sarta muka hubungan diplomatik jeung ékonomi sareng [[Jérman Kulon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm|publisher=Country Studies.us|title=Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705191547/http://countrystudies.us/romania/75.htm |date=2009-07-05 }}</ref> Romania ogé miboga hubungan nu deukeut kalawan nagara-nagara [[Dunya Arab|Arab]], nyieun Romania maénkeun laku penting dina prosés parapihan [[Israél]]–[[Mesir]] jeung Israél–[[Organisasi Pambébasan Paléstina|Paléstina]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/80.htm |publisher=countrystudies.us| title=Middle East policies in Communist Romania|publisher=Country Studies.us|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Ku sabab hutang luar nagri Romania naék drastis antara taun 1977 nepi ka 1981 (ti 3 nepi ka 10 miliar dollar AS),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=New Evidence on Romania and the Warsaw Pact, 1955-1989|publisher=Cold War International History Project e-Dossier Series|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029113345/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=16367&group_id=13349 |date=2008-10-29 }}</ref> pangaruh organisasi monetér internasional kawas [[IMF]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] ningkat, nu teu cocog jeung kawijakan [[autarki]] Nicolae Céauşescu. Anjeunna ngusahakeun mayar hutang kalawan netepkeun kawijakan nu miskinkeun rahayat jeung nyieun ékonomi Romania leuleus. Salian ti éta, anjeunna ngaluasan kakawasaan [[Securitate]]. Akibatna, popularitas Céauşescu ngirang, nu ahir kalawan labuhna Céauşescu dina [[Révolusi Romania 1989]]. === Romania kiwari === Sanggeus [[Perang Tiis]] ahir, Romania mekarkeun hubungan nu leuwih deukeut sareng [[Eropa Kulon]]. Romania ngagabung ka [[NATO]] dina taun 2004, jeung jadi tuan bumi [[patepungan Puncak Bukares 2008|patepungan puncak NATO di Bukares taun 2008]].<ref>{{Cite news|title =NATO update: NATO welcomes seven new members|url =http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm|publisher =NATO|accessdate =2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911134550/http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0402a.htm |date=2008-09-11 }}</ref> Romania ogé gabung ka [[Uni Éropa]] dina 1 Januari 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|title=EU approves Bulgaria and Romania|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203223404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5380024.stm |date=2008-12-03 }}</ref> Sabab kahéséan hirup sanggeus déprési ékonomi taun 1990-an, muncul [[diaspora Romania|diaspora]] gedé Romania. Tujuan émigrasi utama nyaéta [[Spanyol]], [[Italia]], [[Austria]], [[Jérman]], [[Britania Raya]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name=diaspora>{{cite web|url= http://www.focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1|title= Romania|accessdate= 2008-08-28|publisher= focus-migration.de}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207131655/http://focus-migration.de/index.php?id=2515&L=1 |date=2009-02-07 }}</ref> == Politik jeung pamaréntahan == [[Konstitusi Romania]] dijieun dumasar kana [[Konstitusi Perancis]]<ref name="Europaworld">{{cite book|encyclopedia=The Europa World Year Book|year=2007|volume=2|edition=48|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York|title=Romania|pages=3734–3759|isbn=9781857434125}}</ref> jeung ditarima liwat réferéndum nasional dina 8 Désémber 1991.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Hiji panyandakan sora nu diayakeun dina Oktober 2003 narima 79 amandemén konstitusi, nyieunannna cocog jeung législasi Uni Éropa.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Romania téh mangrupa [[républik]] [[démokrasi|démokratis]] multipartéy. Fungsi éksekutif dilaksanakeun ku présidén jeung perdana menteri. [[Présidén Romania]] dipilih liwat pamilihan umum saban lima taun. Présidén nunjuk [[Perdana Menteri Romania|perdana menteri]], nu mingpin pamaréntahan.<ref name="Europaworld"/> Présidén hirup di [[Istana Cotroceni]], samentara Perdana Menteri jeung pamaréntahan Romania kantorna di [[Istana Victoria]]. Cabang [[législatif]] pamaréntahan Romania, nu kawanoh minangka [[Parlemén Romania|Parlemén]] (''Parlamentul României''), diwangun ti dua majelis, ''Senat'' ([[Sénat]]), nu miboga 137 anggota (dina 2005), jeung ''[[Camera Deputaţilor]]'' (majelis handap), nu miboga 332 anggota (dina 2004). Anggota ti dua majelis ieu dipilih saban opat taun. Institusi nu pangluhurna dina sistem hukum Romania nyaéta [[Pangadilan Luhur Kasasi jeung Kaadilan]] (''Înalta Curte de Casaţie şi Justiţie''), nu mangrupa mahkamah ageung Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.scj.ro/monogr_en.asp|publisher=High Court of Cassation and Justice - —Romania|title=Presentation|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Sistem hukum di Romania loba kapangaruh ku hukum di Perancis.<ref name="Europaworld"/><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/2000//legal_system.html|title=Romanian Legal system|publisher=CIA Factbook|year=2000|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> == Hubungan luar nagri == Ti Désémber 1989, Romania terus ngiatan hubungan sareng Kulon, utamana jeung Amérika Sarikat jeung Uni Éropa. Romania ngagabung ka ''[[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]'' (NATO) dina 29 Maret 2004, Uni Éropa dina 1 Januari 2007, [[Dana Monetér Internasional]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]] dina taun 1972, jeung ngagabung ogé ka [[World Trade Organization]]. Pamaréntah Romania ayeuna ngusahakan ngiatan hubungan jeung nagara-nagara [[Eropa Wétan]] (utamana [[Moldova]], [[Ukraina]], jeung [[Géorgia]]).<ref name=mae>{{cite web|title=Foreign Policy Priorities of Romania for 2008|language=Romanian|url=http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914103728/http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=35181&idlnk=1&cat=3 |date=2008-09-14 }}</ref> Romania ogé ngadéklarasikeun dukunganna ka [[Turki]], [[Kroasia]], jeung [[Moldova]] pikeun gabung ka Uni Éropa. Dina Désémber 2005, Présidén, [[Traian Băsescu]], jeung [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat]], [[Condoleezza Rice]], nandatanganan pasatujuan nu ngijinkeun hadirna militér AS di sababaraha fasilitas Romania, utamana di bagian wétan nagara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Background Note: Romania - U.S.-Romanian Relations}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610072904/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm |date=2009-06-10 }}</ref> Dina Méi 2009, Sekretaris Nagara AS, [[Hillary Clinton]], nyebutkeun yén "Romania mangrupa salah sahiji batur nu paling dipercaya jeung paling dihormat ku Amérika Sarikat".<ref>http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512144240/http://www.bucharestherald.com/politics/34-politics/3116-hillary-clinton-romania-one-of-the-most-trustworthy-and-respectable-partners-of-the-usa- |date=2009-05-12 }}</ref> Hubungan diplomatik antara Romania jeung Moldova jadi istiméwa<ref name=mae/> sabab duanana miboga basa jeung sajarah nu sarua. [[Gerakan pikeun unifikasi Romania jeung Moldova]] muncul dina awal taun 1990-an sanggeus kadua nagara bébas ti kakawasaan komunis,<ref name=cfis>{{cite journal|url=http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm|title=Romania'S Relations With The Republic Of Moldova|author=Gabriel Andreescu, Valentin Stan, Renate Weber|journal=International Studies|publisher=Center for International Studies|date=1994-10-30|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223003657/http://studint.ong.ro/moldova.htm |date=2008-02-23 }}</ref> tapi leungit sabab pamaréntah Moldova nu anyar hayang tetep merdika ti Romania.<ref name=Ihrig>{{cite web|url=http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf|format=PDF|title=Rediscovering History, Rediscovering Ultimate Truth|author=Stefan Ihrig|accessdate=2008-09-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001165700/http://www.desk.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/download/es_5_Ihrig.pdf |date=2008-10-01 }}</ref> Romania katarik jeung Moldova jeung sacara resmi nolak [[Pakta Molotov-Ribbentrop]], pajangjian nu nyababkeun direbutna sabagian wewengkon Romania ku [[Uni Soviét]]<ref name=cfis/>. Tapi dua nagara ieu teu bisa tepung ka pasatujuan dina pajangjian bilateral.<ref>{{cite news|http://www.romanianewswatch.com/2007/12/moldova-urging-romania-to-sign-basic.html|title=Moldova urging Romania to sign basic political treaty|publisher=Romania News Watch|accessdate=2008-08-28|date=2007-12-16}}</ref> == Militér == Angkatan Pakarang Romania diwangun ti angkatan darat, laut, jeung udara, jeung dipingpin ku [[panglima pangluhurna]]. Présidén Romania mangrupa panglima nu pangluhurna ti angkatan pakarang dina masa perang. Romania miboga 90.000 tentara.<ref>{{cite press release|publisher=Ministry of National Defense of Romania|url=http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm|title=Press conference|date=2003-01-21|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403205407/http://www.mapn.ro/briefing/030122/030121conf.htm |date=2008-04-03 }}</ref> Romania miboga anggaran patahanan 2.05% ti [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]], nyaéta kira-kira 2.9 miliar dollar, tapi tentara Romania bakal ngagunakeun kira-kira 11 miliar dollar dina 2006 2011 pikeun modérnisasi jeung akuisisi palengkepan anyar.<ref name="ZF">{{citeweb|url= http://www.zf.ro/articol_99920/bugetul_mapn__2_05__din_pib__in_2007.html |title=MoND Budget as of 2007|publisher=''[[Ziarul Financiar]]''|date=2006-10-30|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Angkatan pakarang Romania geus kalibet dina sababaraha perang, kawas misi [[NATO]] di [[Apganistan]]. == Babagian administratif == [[Image:Romanian license plate codes.png|thumb|right|500px|Babagian administratif di Romania]] Romania dibagi kana 41 ''judeţe'', sarupa [[propinsi]], ditambih munisipalitas [[Bukares]] (Bucureşti). Saban judeţe miboga déwan judeţe (''consiliu judeţean''), nu boga tanggung jawab pamaréntahan daérah. Judeţe dibagi kana kota (tung. ''oraş'', jam. ''oraşe'') jeung komune (tung. ''comună'', jam. ''comune''). Aya 319 kota jeung 2686 komune di Romania.<ref name="total">{{cite report|language=ro|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|chapter=1.8|title=Administrative Organisation of Romanian Territory, on December 31, 2005|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Saban kota jeung komune miboga walikota (''primar'') jeung déwan daérah (''consiliu local''). Ieu daptar judeţe/propinsi Romania (alfabétis): {| | * [[Propinsi Alba|Alba]] * [[Propinsi Arad|Arad]] * [[Propinsi Argeş|Argeş]] * [[Propinsi Bacău|Bacău]] * [[Propinsi Bihor|Bihor]] * [[Propinsi Bistriţa-Năsăud|Bistriţa-Năsăud]] * [[Propinsi Botoşani|Botoşani]] * [[Propinsi Braşov|Braşov]] * [[Propinsi Brăila|Brăila]] * [[Propinsi Buzău|Buzău]] * [[Propinsi Caraş-Severin|Caraş-Severin]] * [[Propinsi Călăraşi|Călăraşi]] * [[Propinsi Cluj|Cluj]] * [[Propinsi Constanţa|Constanţa]] * [[Propinsi Covasna|Covasna]] * [[Propinsi Dâmboviţa|Dâmboviţa]] * [[Propinsi Dolj|Dolj]] * [[Propinsi Galaţi|Galaţi]] * [[Propinsi Giurgiu|Giurgiu]] * [[Propinsi Gorj|Gorj]] * [[Propinsi Harghita|Harghita]] | * [[Propinsi Hunedoara|Hunedoara]] * [[Propinsi Ialomiţa|Ialomiţa]] * [[Propinsi Iaşi|Iaşi]] * [[Propinsi Ilfov|Ilfov]] * [[Propinsi Maramureş|Maramureş]] * [[Propinsi Mehedinţi|Mehedinţi]] * [[Propinsi Mureş|Mureş]] * [[Propinsi Neamţ|Neamţ]] * [[Propinsi Olt|Olt]] * [[Propinsi Prahova|Prahova]] * [[Propinsi Satu Mare|Satu Mare]] * [[Propinsi Sălaj|Sălaj]] * [[Propinsi Sibiu|Sibiu]] * [[Propinsi Suceava|Suceava]] * [[Propinsi Teleorman|Teleorman]] * [[Propinsi Timiş|Timiş]] * [[Propinsi Tulcea|Tulcea]] * [[Propinsi Vaslui|Vaslui]] * [[Propinsi Vâlcea|Vâlcea]] * [[Propinsi Vrancea|Vrancea]] |} == Géografi == [[Gambar:Physical map of Romania.jpg|thumb|250px|Peta topografi Romania]] Kalawan téritori saluas {{convert|238391|km2|sqmi|}}, Romania mangrupa nagara nu pangluasna di [[Eropa Tenggara]] jeung nu panggedéna ka-12 di Éropa.<ref name="statistical">{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|title=Geography, Meteorology and Environment|date=2004|publisher=Romanian Statistical Yearbook|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> Kalobaannana ti wates Romania jeung Serbia sarta [[Bulgaria]] diwangun ti [[Walungan Donau]]. Walungan Donau ngalir ka [[Laut Hideung]] liwat wewengkon Romania, ngawangun [[Délta Donau]], délta nu panggedéna kadua di Éropa, nu jadi [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]].<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-09}}</ref> Walungan penting lian nyaéta [[Walungan Siret|Siret]], [[Walungan Olt|Olt]] jenung [[Walungan Mureş|Mureş]].<ref name="statistical"/> Topografi Romania dibagi antara pagunungan, papasiran, jeung dataran handap. [[Pagunungan Carpathia]] ngadominasi puseur Romania, kalawan 14 puncakna nu nepi ka kaluhuran leuwih ti 2.000 méter.<ref name="statistical"/> Gunung nu pangluhurna di Romania nyaéta [[Puncak Moldoveanu]] ({{convert|2544|m|ft|disp=s|abbr=on}}). Di Romania kidul bagian tengah, pagunungan robah ka papasiran. Divérsitas géografi nyababkeun divérsitas flora jeung fauna di Romania.<ref name="statistical"/> === Ékosistem === [[Image:Retezat-bucura-peleaga.jpg|thumb|250px|Danau glasial di [[Taman Nasional Retezat]]]] 47% wewengkon Romania diwangun ti ékosistem natural jeung semi-natural.<ref name=biodiversity>{{citeweb|url=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/romania/robiodiv.htm|title=Romania's Biodiversity|publisher=Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection of Romania|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Ku sabab méh saparo leuweung di Romania (13% téritori) geus diatur pikeun konsérvasi [[Daérah Aliran Walungan]] tinimbang produksi, Romania miboga salah sahiji wewengkon leuweung nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref name=biodiversity/> Aya kira-kira {{convert|10000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} wewengkon nu dilindung di Romania.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/protarea.htm|title=Protected Areas in Romania|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> [[Délta Donau|Cagar Biosfer Donau]] mangrupa komplék lahan baseuh nu panggedéna jeung paling saeutik diruksak di Éropa, ngawengku wewengkon saluas {{convert|5800|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.envir.ee/programmid/pharecd/soes/romania/html/biodiversity/ariiprot/delta.htm|title=Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere|publisher=Romanian Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Pentingna biodivérsitas di Délta Donau geus diakuan di dunya, jadina didéklarasikeun minangka [[Situs Warisan Dunya UNESCO]] dina Désémber 1991.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588|title=Danube Delta|publisher=UNESCO's World Heritage Center|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Aya dua cagar biosfer lian di Romania, nyaéta [[Taman Nasional Retezat]] jeung [[Pagunungan Rodna|Taman Nasional Rodna]]. === Flora jeung fauna === [[Image:Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG|250px|left|thumb|[[Pelikan]] di Délta Donau]] Di Romania aya 3.700 spésiés tutuwuhan. 23 geus disebutkeun minangka monumén alam, 74 spésiés hilang, 39 spésiés kaancam, 171 spésiés pikacilakaeun, jeung 1.253 spésiés dianggap langka.<ref name="flora">{{cite web|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm|title=Flora si fauna salbatica|publisher=enrin.grida.no|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223142209/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/romania/soe2000/rom/cap5/ff.htm |date=2009-02-23 }}</ref> Tilu zona végetasi utama di Romania nyaéta zona alpine, zona leuweung, jeung zona stépa. Végetasi nyebar dumasar kana karakteristik taneuh, iklim, jeung kaluhuran. Fauna di Romania diwangun ti 33.792 spésiés, 33.085 spésiés mangrupa [[invértébrata]] jeung 707 spésiés mangrupa [[vértébrata]].<ref name="flora"/> Spésiés vértébrata diwangun ti 191 spésiés lauk, 20 spésiés ampibi, 30 spésiés réptil, 364 spésiés manuk, jeung 102 spésiés mamalia.<ref name="flora"/> Fauna nyebar dumasar kana rupa végétasi di mana maranéhna aya. === Iklim === Romania miboga iklim transisional antara [[iklim sedeng]] jeung [[iklim kontinéntal|kontinéntal]]. Rarata suhu di Romania nyaéta 11&nbsp;°C (52&nbsp;°F) di kidul jeung {{convert|8|°C}} di kalér.<ref name=climate>{{citeweb|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/34.htm|title=Romania: Climate|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Suhu pangpanasna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta {{convert|44.5|°C}} di [[Ion Sion]] 1951 jeung suhu pangtiisna nu pernah dicatet nyaéta -38.5 (−37&nbsp;°F) di [[Bod, Braşov|Bod]] 1942.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.romaniatourism.com/climate.html|title=Romania: climate|publisher=Climate|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Di Romania aya opat usum, nyaéta usum semi, panas, gugur, jeung tiis. Usum panas biasana haneut pisan atawa panas, kalawan rarata suhu dibukares kira-kira {{convert|28|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Romania/Climate/|title=The monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest|publisher=WorldTravels|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Usum semi boga ciri isuk jeung peuting nu tiis, jeung siang nu haneut. Usum gugur boga ciri garing jeung tiis, upami usum tiis miobga rarata suhu nu pangpanasna teu leuwih ti {{convert|2|°C}}.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://clic.npolar.no/disc/disc_datasets_metadata.php?s=0&desc=1&table=Datasets&id=DISC_GCMD_GGD30&tag=All&Category=&WCRP=&Location=All&stype=phrase&limit=10&q=|title=Permafrost Monitoring and Prediction in Southern Carpathians, Romania|publisher=CliC International Project Office (CIPO)|date=2004-12-22|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Rarata curah hujan di pagunungan kulon Romania nyaéta {{convert|750|mm|in|abbr=on}} per taun. Di wewengkon kidul bagian tengah (sakurilingeun Bukares), tingkat curah hujan nepi ka {{convert|600|mm|in|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf|format=PDF|title=The 2004 Yearbook|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210503/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/ro/cap1.pdf |date=2007-09-27 }}</ref> ari di Délta Donau, curah hujan leutik pisan, kalawan rarata 370&nbsp;mm. == Démografi == [[Image:Romania harta etnica 2011.PNG|350px|thumb|Peta pasebaran étnis di Romania dina taun 2011]] Dumasar kana sénsus taun 2002, Romania miboga populasi 21.698.181 jeung kira-kira bakal ngirang. 89.5% padumuk Romania mangrupa [[bangsa Romania]]. Étnis minoritas nu panggedéna nyaéta [[Hungar]], nu ngawangun 6.6% populasi jeung [[urang Rom|Rom]] nu ngawangun 2.46% populasi. Dumasar kana sénsus resmi, 535.250 urang Rom tinggal di Romania. Hungar, nu mangrupa minoritas di [[Transilvania]], jadi mayoritas di county [[County Harghita|Harghita]] jeung [[County Covasna|Covasna]]. [[Bangsa Ukraina]], [[Bangsa Jérman|Jérman]], [[Lipovan]], [[Bangsa Turki|Turki]], [[Tatar]], [[Bangsa Sérbia|Sérbia]], [[Bangsa Slowakia|Slowakia]], [[Bangsa Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Bangsa Kroasia|Kroasia]], [[Bangsa Yunani|Yunani]], [[Bangsa Rusia|Rusia]], [[Yahudi]], [[Bangsa Céko|Céko]], [[Bangsa Polandia|Polandia]], [[Bangsa Italia|Italia]], [[Bangsa Arménia|Arménia]], jeung sababaraha grup étnis lianna ngawangun 1.4% populasi.<ref name="census">{{cite report|url=http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html|title=Official site of the results of the 2002 Census|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325223653/http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html%23 |date=2008-03-25 }}</ref> Basa resmi Romania nyaéta [[basa Romania]]. Basa Romania mangrupa basa asli pikeun 91% padumuk Romania, jeung [[basa Hongaria]] sareng [[Rom]] minangka basa minoritas nu pangpentingna, dipaké ku 6.7% jeung 1.1% padumuk.<ref name="census" /> Di tempat étnis minoritas ngawangun 20% populasi, basa minoritas éta bisa dipaké dina administrasi jeung hukum. [[Basa Inggris]] jeung [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]] mangrupa basa asing utama nu diajarkeun di sakola-sakola. Basa Inggris digunakeun ku 5 yuta padumuk Romania, Perancis ku 4–5 yuta^{[''nu bener?'']} padumuk, jeung Jérman, Italia, jeung Spanyol dipaké ku 1–2 yuta padumuk.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.anis.ro/index.php?page=afaceri&sec=afaceri_avantaje&lang=ro|title=Outsourcing IT în România|language=Romanian|publisher=Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Saméméhna, basa Perancis mangrupa basa asing utama di Romania, tapi basa Inggris geus ngagantina. Basa Jérman diajarkeun di Transilvania lantaran kakawasaan Austria-Hongaria di propinsi ieu sebelumnya. Romania mangrupa [[nagara sékulér]], jadina teu boga agama nasional. Agama nu loba diagem nyaéta [[Garéja Orthodox Romania]] (86.7%). Agama penting lianna nyaéta [[Katolik Roma]] (4.7%), [[Protéstan]] (3.7%), [[Garéja Péntakosta|Péntakosta]] (1.5%), jeung [[Garéja Katolik-Yunani Romania]] (0.9%).<ref name="census" /> [[Islam]] ogé diagem jeung museur di [[Dobrogea]]. Salian ti Islam, agama [[Yahudi]] ogé diagem ku sabagian padumuk Romania. == Atikan == [[Image:Bucharest university.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Universitas Bukares]]]] Ti Révolusi Romania 1989, sistem atikan Romania terus diréformasi.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002165335/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_1.html |date=2008-10-02 }}</ref> Dumasar kana Undang-Undang Atikan nu dipaké dina taun 1995, sistem atikan diatur ku [[Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan Romania|Kamentrian Atikan jeung Panalungtikan]]. [[TK]] mangrupa atika opsional pikeun barudak nu yuswana 3 nepi ka 6 taun. Sakola dimimiti dina yuswa 7 taun (kadang-kadang 6), jeung wajib nepi ka kelas 10 (dina yuswa kira-kira 16 atawa 17).<ref>{{cite report|publisher=UNESCO|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html|title=The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001200457/http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/romania/rapport_2.html |date=2008-10-01 }}</ref> Dumasar kana [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]], dina taun 2006 euweuh universitas di Romania nu asup ka 500 universitas nu pangalusna di dunya.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf|format=pdf|title=Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205043418/http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006FULLLIST-BY%20RANK%20(PDF).pdf |date=2012-02-05 }}</ref> Dilaporkeun yén universitas nu pangalusna di Romania, [[Universitas Bukares]] ngan miboga peunteun saparo ti universitas nu miboga tingkat ka-500.<ref>{{cite report|publisher=Asociaţia Ad Astra a cercetătorilor rom âni|author=Răzvan Florian|url=http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf|format=pdf|title=Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings|location=Cluj-Napoca, România|pages=7–9|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023140037/http://www.ad-astra.ro/journal/8/florian_shanghai_romania.pdf |date=2006-10-23 }}</ref> == Ékonomi == [[Image:MittalSteelGalati200607.jpg|thumb|250px|Pabrik baja [[ArcelorMittal]] di [[Galaţi]]]] Kalawan [[Produk Doméstik Bruto|PDB]] $264 miliar jeung [[PDB per kapita]] ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) $12.285<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=968&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIPCH&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=87&pr1.y=12 |title=IMF World Economic Outlook April 2008 - Central and Eastern Europe|month=April | year=2008|publisher=IMF|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> dina taun 2008, Romania mangrupa nagara kalawan pamasukan nengah ka luhur<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income|publisher=World Bank|title=Country Classification Groups|year=2005|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> jeung geus jadi bagian ti Uni Éropa ti 1 Januari 2007. Sanggeus rézim komunis labuh dina taun 1989, nagara ieu ngalaman dékade panurunan jeung kateustabilan ékonomi, disababkeun ku labuhna basis industri jeung kirangnya réformasi struktural, tapi ti taun 2000, ékonomi Romania robah kana ékonomi kalawan kastabilan [[ékonomi makro]], jeung ciri kamekaran ékonomi luhur, tingkat pangangguran handap jeung ngirangna [[inflasi]]. Dina taun 2006, Romania nyitak kamekaran ékonomi 7.7%, salah sahiji nu panggedéna di Éropa.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/pib/pibr06.pdf|format=PDF|title=GDP in 2006|publisher=Romanian National Institute of Statistics|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Kamekaran ékonomi turun ka 6.1% dina taun 2007,<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|title=World Bank: In 2008 Romania will have an economic growth of 5.9%|url=http://www.romanialibera.ro/a115093/banca-mondiala-in-2008-romania-va-avea-o-crestere-economica-de-5-9.html|accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> tapi nepi ka 8.9% dina salapan bulan awal taun 2008. Kamekaran ékonomi labuh ka 2.9% dina triwulan ka-4 jeung kamekaran ékonomi Romania dina taun 2008 jadi 7.1%. Hal ieu disababkeun ku ayana [[krisis finansial global 2008-2009|krisis finansial global]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea+economica+din+2008+a+franat+brusc+in+T+4|title=Creşterea economică din 2008 a frânat brusc în T 4|work=Curierul National|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030004320/http://www.curierulnational.ro/Economie/2009-03-05/Cresterea%20economica%20din%202008%20a%20franat%20brusc%20in%20T%204 |date=2009-10-30 }}</ref> Romania miboga tingkat pangangguran 3.9% dina Séptémber 2007,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf|format=PDF|title=Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007|publisher=National Institute of Statistics of Romania|language=Romanian|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827223300/http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/lunar_indicatori/a07/sic09r07.pdf |date=2008-08-27 }}</ref> nu lumayan handap lamjun dibandingkeun jeung nagara Éropa lianna, kawas [[Polandia]], Perancis, Jérman, jeung Spanyol. Utang luar nagri Romania ogé lumayan handap, kalawan jumlah 20.3% ti PDB.<ref name="CIA">{{citeweb|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ro.html|title=Romania|publisher=CIA World Factbook|year=2006|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Tingkat ékspor Romania ogé terus ningkat dina sababaraha taun ieu, kalawan komoditas nu diékspor nyaéta tékstil, mesin industri, pakakas éléktronik, produk [[métalurgi]], bahan atah, mobil, pakakas hipu, farmasi, bahan kimia, jeung produk agrikultur (bungbuahan, sayur, jeung kembang). Romania loba ngalaksanakeun dagang sareng nagara-nagara Uni Éropa, kalawan Jérman jeung Italia salaku mitra dagang nu panggedéna, tapi Romania ngalaman défisit dagang nu gedé, nu ningkat 50% dina taun 2007.<ref name=economywatch>{{citeweb|url=http://romaniaeconomywatch.blogspot.com/2007/11/romania-trade-balance-september-2007.html|title=Romania at A Glance - January 2008|publisher=Romania Economy Watch|year=2008|month=January|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Sanggeus privatisasi jeung réformasi dina ahir taun 1990-an jeung awal 2000-an, intervénsi pamaréntah dina ékonomi Romania leuwih handap dibandingkeun nagara-nagara Éropa lianna.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Romania|title=Index of Economic Freedom: Romania|publisher=heritage.org|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> Dina taun 2005, pamaréntah ngagentos [[sistem pajak progrésif]] Romania jadi [[sistem pajak tetep]] 16%, jadina Romania miboga tanggung jawab fiskal nu panghandapna di Uni Éropa,<ref>{{cite report|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF|format=pdf|title=Taxation trends in the EU|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|date=2007-06-26|accessdate=2008-08-31}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628064604/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_06/2-26062007-EN-AP.PDF |date=2007-06-28 }}</ref> faktor nu ngabantu tumuwuhna séktor swasta. Ékonomi Romania leuwih ngagantung dina jasa (55% ti PDB), sanajan industri (35% ti PDB) jeung agrikultur (15% ti PDB) ogé boga pangaruh. Salian ti étu, 32% padumuk Romania gawé dina séktor agrikultur jeung produksi.<ref name="CIA" /> Ti taun 2000, Romania geus narik perhatosan invéstor ti luar nagri jeung jadi tujuan invéstasi nu panggedéna di Éropa Tengah jeung Tenggara. Dina taun 2006, jumlah total arus asup ''[[foreign direct investment]]'' di Romania nyaéta €8.3 miliar.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.portalino.it/nuke/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=20346 |title=Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn|accessdate=2008-08-31}}</ref> == Transportasi == [[Image:Romania-drumuri.svg|right|thumb|250px|Peta jaringan jalan di Romania]] Ku lantaran lokasina, Romania mangrupa simpangan pikeun patukeran ékonomi internasional di [[Eropa]], tapi lantaran kirangna invéstasi, pangurusan jeung paropéaan infrastruktur transportasi Romania teu minuhan kabutuhan pasar jeung katinggal ti [[Eropa Kulon]].<ref name="drumuri">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20|title=Prezentarea generală a reţelei de drumuri|publisher=cnadnr.ro|language=Romanian|accessdate=2009-09-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211132511/http://www.cnadnr.ro/pagina.php?idg=20 |date=2010-02-11 }}</ref> Tapi, kondisi ieu terus ngabener jeung standar [[jaringan transportasi Trans-Eropa]] terus diudag. Sababaraha proyék geus dimimitian kalawan dana ti [[Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession]] (ISPA) jeung injeuman ti [[International Financial Institutions]] ([[Bank Dunya]], [[IMF]], jsb.). Bank Dunya ngira-ngira yén jaringan rél karéta api nu aya di Romania dina taun 2004 nepi ka 22.298&nbsp;km, nyieunanna jaringan karéta api nu panggedéna ka-4 di Éropa.<ref name="cai ferate">{{citeweb|url=http://www.cfr.ro/jf/romana/0208/retea.htm|title=Reteaua feroviara|language=Romanian|publisher=cfr.to|accessdate=2009-09-06}}</ref> == Budaya == [[Image:Iasi cultural palace.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Istana Budaya (Iaşi)|Istana Budaya]] di [[Iaşi]] diwangun antara taun 1906 jeung 1925.]] Romania miboga budaya nu unik, nu kacipta ti géografi jeung sajarahna. Idéntitas Romania mimiti kawangun ti pangaruh budaya [[Romawi]] jeung [[Dacia]]. Ti abad patengahan, pangaruh budaya muncul ti [[bangsa Slavia]] nu migrasi di deukeut Romania.<ref name=influences>{{cite book|title=Romania: Borderland of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia|author=Lucian Boia, James Christian Brown|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|isbn=9781861891037|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romaniaborderlan0000boia/page/13 13], 36–40}}</ref> Budaya modérn Romania mekar dina pangaruh [[budaya Kulon]], utamana [[budaya Perancis|Perancis]]<ref name=iciculture/> jeung [[budaya Jérman|Jérman]].<ref name=iciculture>{{cite web|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html|title=Cultural aspects|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307182620/http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/cultural_aspects.html |date=2008-03-07 }}</ref> === Seni jeung sastra === Sastra Romania mimiti évolusi sanggeus [[révolusi Wallachia 1848]]. Murid Romania mimiti neuleuman di Perancis, Italia, jeung Jérman. Filsafat Jérman jeung budaya Perancis kaintegrasi kana sastra Romania modérn jeung muncul inohong kawas [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[George Coşbuc]], jeung [[Ioan Slavici]]. Sanajan aranjeunna kirang kasohor di luar Romania, aranjeunna diapresiasikeun pisan di Romania sahah nyieun sastra Romania. Di antara aranjeunna, Eminescu dianggap salaku panyair Romania nu pangpentingna, jeung karyana masih dipikaresep, utamana puisi ''[[Luceafărul]]''.<ref>{{citeweb|language=Romanian|url=http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/cultura/l_eminescu.html|title=Mihai Eminescu|publisher=National Institute for Research & Development in Informatics, Romania|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Panulis lian nu méré kontribusi dina abad ka-19 nyaéta [[Mihail Kogălniceanu]], [[Vasile Alecsandri]], [[Nicolae Bălcescu]], [[Ion Luca Caragiale]], jeung [[Ion Creangă]]. Awal abad ka-20 dianggap minangka jaman kajayaan budaya Romania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html|title=Romanian Cultural Debate of the Summer: Romanian Intellectuals and Their Status Groups|publisher=Romanian Club @ Columbia University|author=Mona Momescu|accessdate=2008-08-28}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624212717/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/romanian/articles/TheRomanianCulturalDebateOfTheSummer.html |date=2016-06-24 }}</ref> Inohong penting nu geus mangaruhan budaya dunya nyaéta [[Constantin Brâncuşi]], figur utama gerakan modérn, panaratas abstraksi jeung panganyar skulptur dunya.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.brancusi.com/bio.html|title=Constantin Brâncuşi's bio|publisher=Brancusi.com|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Salah sahiji karyana, "''[[Bird in Space]]''" , kajual $27.5 yuta dina taun 2005.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://antiquesandthearts.com/AW-2005-05-10-12-15-39p1.htm|title=Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000|publisher=Antiques and the Arts Online|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|url=http://crib.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en&id=31&s=15441&arhiva=true|publisher=Romanian Information Center in Brussels|title=November 9, The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when “Bird in Space” was sold for USD 27.5 M|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Dina période antar perang dunya, inohong kawas [[Tudor Arghezi]], [[Lucian Blaga]], [[Eugen Lovinescu]], [[Ion Barbu]], [[Liviu Rebreanu]] ngusahakeun nyinkronisasikeun sastra Romania jeung sastra Éropa. [[George Enescu]], panembang Romania nu kasohor, ogé asalna ti période ini.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.enescusociety.org/georgeenescu.php|title=George Enescu, the composer|publisher=International Enescu Society|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> Sanggeus perang dunya réngsé, komunisme mawa panyénsoran gedé. Kabébasan nepikeun pamikiran dilarang, tapi inohong kawas [[Gellu Naum]], [[Nichita Stănescu]], jeung [[Marin Sorescu]] hasil lolos ti panyénsoran, jeung mangrupa pamingpin "Renaissance" leutik pikeun sastra Romania.<ref>{{citebook|last=Ştefănescu|first=Alex.|title=Nichita Stănescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands|language=Romanian|publisher=Maşina de scris|year=1999|pages=8|isbn=9789739929745}}</ref> samentara teu loba karya nu hasil lolos ka dunya internasional lantaran panyénsoran, karya figur kawas [[Constantin Noica]], [[Paul Goma]], jeung [[Mircea Cărtărescu]] dipublikasikeun di luar nagri sanajan aranjeunna dipanjarakeun lantaran rupa-rupa alesan politik. Sababaraha senima milih ninggalkeun nagara jeung nyumbang karyana dina pangasingan, kawas [[Eugen Ionescu]], [[Mircea Eliade]], jeung [[Emil Cioran]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar nagara]] == Catetan suku == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20061004115558/http://www.gov.ro/engleza/ Loka resmi pamaréntah Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.presidency.ro/?lang=en Présidén Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.senat.ro/ Sénat Romania] * {{ro}} [http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 Camera Deputaţilor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207033814/http://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site.page?id=103&idl=2 |date=2006-12-07 }} (majelis handap di parlemén) * {{en}} [http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng Kamentrian Pariwisata] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305192745/http://www.mtromania.ro/page.html?lg=eng |date=2005-03-05 }} * {{ro}} [http://www.mae.ro/index.php?lang=en Kamentrian Luar Nagri] {{nagara-geo-stub}} {{Artikel Geulis}} {{Éropa}}<br/> {{Laut Hideung}}<br/> {{Uni Éropa}}<br/> {{Déwan Éropa}}<br/> {{NATO}}<br/> {{OSCE}}<br/> {{WTO}}<br/> {{Uni Latin}}<br/> {{La Francophonie}} [[Kategori:Romania| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Éropa Wétan]] 372dxd23hkvp1vuaqa86dc880yi4si8 0 35624 730897 705863 2026-10-29T23:09:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox |name = Infobox/doc |title = Google |image = [[Gambar:Google 2015 logo.svg|100px]] |caption = Logo Google 2015 }} '''Google Inc''' nyaéta hiji pausahaan téhnologi ti [[Amerika Serikat]] nu produkna mangrupa téhnologi internét.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last1=Hosch |author-first1=William L.| author-last2=Hall |author-first2=Mark|title=Google |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Google-Inc | date=11 Méi 2020 | access-date=30 Januari 2022}}</ref> Parusahaan ieu diadegkeun ku [[Larry Page]] jeung [[Sergey Brin]] tanggal 4 Séptémber 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://about.google/our-story/#:~:text=The%20Google%20story%20begins%20in,assigned%20to%20show%20him%20around.&text=In%20August%201998%2C%20Sun%20co,was%20officially%20born. |title=From the garage to the Googleplex |access-date=Januari 30, 2022}}</ref> Basa harita, [[Larry Page]], [[Sergey Brin]], jeung [[Eric Schmidt]] satuju digawé bareng di Google salila dua puluh taun, nepi ka taun 2024.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brin|first=Sergey|author-link=Sergey Brin|last2=Page|first2=Lawrence|author-link2=Larry Page|year=1998|title=The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine|url=http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/papers/google.pdf|journal=Computer Networks and ISDN Systems|volume=30|issue=1–7|pages=107–117|citeseerx=10.1.1.115.5930|doi=10.1016/S0169-7552(98)00110-X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927004511/http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/papers/google.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-27|accessdate=2019-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Barroso |first=L.A. |last2=Dean |first2=J. |last3=Holzle |first3=U. |date=April 29, 2003 |title=Web search for a planet: the google cluster architecture |journal=IEEE Micro |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=22–28 |doi=10.1109/mm.2003.1196112 |quote=We believe that the best price/performance tradeoff for our applications comes from fashioning a reliable computing infrastructure from clusters of unreliable commodity PCs.|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/8db8e53c92af2f97974707119525aa089f6ed53a }}</ref> ==Program== ===Google Dictionary=== Pamakéan [[Google Dictionary]] hampir sarua jeung pamakéan [[Google Translate]] da sateuacanna mangrupa bagean ti layanan tarjamahan ieu. Sangkan gampang diinget, ku kituna layanan ieu dipisahkeun.<ref name="Translate">[http://www.speedytown.com/kimyong/index.php/2008/12/12/google-dictionary-mencari-definisi-arti-sebuah-kata-dalam-berbagai-bahasa/ Translate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215231310/http://www.speedytown.com/kimyong/index.php/2008/12/12/google-dictionary-mencari-definisi-arti-sebuah-kata-dalam-berbagai-bahasa/ |date=2012-02-15 }}(Diakses tanggal 4 Desember 2011)</ref> Google Translate dipaké pikeun néangan wangenan atawa hartos hiji kecap. Mesin sacara otomatis bakal méré sababaraha sumber bahasan ngeunaan kacap éta.<ref name="Translate"/> Sumberna sapertos Princenton, Wikipedia, Wiktionary, jeung sajabana.<ref name="Translate"/> Ku maké Google Dictionary, tiasa leuwih ngahemat ku lantaran teu kudu meuli kamus ti sababaraha basa.<ref name="Translate"/> ===Google Maps=== [[Google Maps]] nyaéta peta daring haratis anu disadiakeun ku Google. Peta ieu tiasa ditempo di http://maps.google.com. Peta ieu ngamunculkeun gambar satelit di sakabéh dunya, jeung deui nawarkeun perencana rute jeung néangan lokasi bisnis di U.S., [[Kanada]], [[Jepang]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Cina]], UK, [[Irlandia]] (puseur kota na wungkul) jeung sababaraha bagian [[Eropa]].<ref name="Maps">[http://vibulletin.com/mobile/t-186442.html Maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112005752/http://vibulletin.com/mobile/t-186442.html |date=2023-11-12 }} (Diakses tangal 4 Desember 2011)</ref> === Google Earth === [[Google Earth]] nyaéta hiji aplikasi desktop pikeun Mac, PC, atawa [[komputer Linux]] sangkan bisa nganavigasi [[planét]] [[bumi]] ti sababaraha sawangan.<ref name="Earth">{{en}} [http://google.about.com/od/googleproducts/g/earthdef.htm Earth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518211531/http://google.about.com/od/googleproducts/g/earthdef.htm |date=2012-05-18 }} (Diakses tanggal4 Desember 2011)</ref> [[Google Earth]] ngagabungkeun foto-foto [[satelit]] jeung peta maké mesin paluruh sangkan tiasa nemu arah jeung alamat nu dimaksud.<ref name="Earth"/> ===Google Books=== Tujuan Google numutkeun Google Books nyaéta nyieun arsip raksasa pikeun ngawetkan pangaweruh manusa.<ref name="Books">[http://teknologi.vivanews.com/news/read/148913-toko_buku_google_diluncurkan_juni_2010 Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728232913/http://teknologi.vivanews.com/news/read/148913-toko_buku_google_diluncurkan_juni_2010 |date=2010-07-28 }} (Diakses tanggal 4 Desember 2011)</ref> ===Google Chrome=== [[Google Chrome]] nyaéta browser nu ngagabungkeun désain minimalis jeung téhnologi canggih sangkan tiasa ngabuka web leuwih gancang, aman, jeung gampang.<ref name="Chrome">[http://zoftpc.com/browser/google-chrome-5-0-375-55-stable/ Chrome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203210549/http://zoftpc.com/browser/google-chrome-5-0-375-55-stable/ |date=2011-12-03 }} (Diakses tanggal 4 Desember 2011)</ref> ===Android=== [[Android (sistim operasi)|Android]] nyaéta sistem operasi [[telepon keupeul]] dimekarkeun ku Google, dumasar kana versi dirobah tina kernel Linux Ubuntu jeung ''open source software'' sejen tur dirancang utamina pikeun alat layar sentuh kayaning ''smartphone'' sarta tablet. Sajaba ti éta, Google geus salajengna dimekarkeun Android TV keur televisi, Android Otomatis keur mobil, sarta ngagem OS pikeun arloji pigeulang, unggal ku panganteur pamaké husus. Varian Android anu ogé dipaké dina konsol game, kaméra digital, PCS jeung éléktronika lianna. {{Pondok}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Google]] hmpigio833vuztzqknvztgjngibu2jj 0 36428 730903 729285 2026-10-30T05:16:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country |native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية<br />''{{Unicode|Al-Jumhūrīyya al-`Arabīyya aṣ-Ṣaḥrāwīyya ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyya}}''<br />República Árabe Saharaui Democrática |conventional_long_name = Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi | common_name = Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi | image_flag = Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.svg | image_map = Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=|location_color=paul kolot|region=[[Afrika]]|region_color=kulawu kolot|subregion=[[Uni Afrika]]|subregion_color=paul ngora|legend=Location Western Sahara AU Africa.svg}} | national_motto = حرية ديمقراطية وحدة | national_anthem = "[[Yā Banīy As-Saharā]]" | official_languages = [[Basa Arab]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071030220604/http://www.rasd-state.ws/p_estadosahraui.htm Artilce 3 of the SADR constitution]</ref> |languages_type = Spoken languages |languages = [[Hassānīya language|Hassānīya Arabic]], [[Berber languages]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]<ref>Cf. Pilar Candela Romero, [http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf «El español en los compamentos de refugiados saharauis (Tinduf, Argelia)»] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226150735/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_3.pdf |date=2016-12-26 }}.</ref>. | demonym = [[Sahrawi]] | capital = [[El Aaiún]]¹<ref>Pasal 4 konstitusi Sahrawi.</ref> &nbsp;(diproklamasikeun, dina administrasi Maroko)<br />[[Bir Lehlou]] jeung [[kémah pangungsian Sahrawi]] (administratif) |latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW= | government_type = [[Nagara hiji partéy]]<ref>Pasal 32 konstitusi RDAS: ''The [[Polisario]] is the sole political formation allowed for Sahrawis to exercise politics until complete independence''{{cite web|last=SADR|title=Constitution of the SADR|url=http://www.rasd-state.ws/babtani.htm|accessdate=19 October 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111161544/http://www.rasd-state.ws/babtani.htm|archivedate=11 November 2007}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Présidén Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi|Présidén]] | leader_name1 = [[Brahim Ghali]] | leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_name2 = [[Abdelkader Taleb Oumar]] | area_rank = ka-83 | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | area = 266.000 | areami² = 102.703 | percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun | population_estimate = 100.000 atawa 502,585³ | population_estimate_year = Séptémber 2010 | population_estimate_rank = ka-182 | population_census = | population_census_year = | population_density = 1,9 | population_densitymi² = 4,9 | population_density_rank = ka-236 | currency = [[Dinar Aljazair]] <small>(de facto)</small><ref>{{cite web|title=Au coeur du Polisario|url=http://www.telquel-online.com/329/couverture_329.shtml|publisher=Telquel}}</ref><br /> [[Peseta Sahrawi]] <small>(komémoratif)</small> | GDP_PPP_year = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | HDI_year = | HDI = | HDI_rank = | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">sedeng</font> | sovereignty_type = Dipaséakeun | sovereignty_note = jeung [[Maroko]] | established_event1 = [[Sahara Kulon]]<br/>{{nbsp|3}}{{nowrap|dileupaskeun ku [[Spanyol]]}} | established_date1 = <br/>14 Nopémber 1975 | established_event2 = Didéklarasikeun | established_date2 = 27 Pébruari 1976 | established_event3 = Éféktif | established_date3 = 80% téritori nu diklaim aya dina [[Status sah Sahara Kulon|Administrasi]] Maroko salaku "propinsi kidul" ''de facto''. | time_zone = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] | utc_offset = +0 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | cctld = [[.eh]] kapesen. | footnotes = ¹ Basis pamaréntahan RDAS aya di kémah pangungsian di [[Tindouf]], [[Aljazair]]. Pamaréntahan éta ngawasaan wewengkon wétaneun [[Témbok Maroko]] di Sahara Kulon nu dilandi "[[Zona Bébas (wewengkon)|Zona Bébas]]". Bir Lehlou aya di wewengkon éta.<br />² Sadaya téritori ([[Sahara Kulon]]) diklaim ku RDAS.<br />³ 500.000 mangrupa pakiraan nu dibéré pikeun populasi Sahara Kulon dumasar panalungtikan pabandingan ti pamekaran populasi saprak 1975, basa sénsus pangahirna di Sahara Kulon. 100.000 mangrupa pakiraan jumlah urang nu midumukan kémah pangungsian di [[propinsi Tindouf]], [[Aljazair]] markasna RDAS. }} <!--{{Sahara conflict}}--> '''Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi''' ('''RDAS''') ({{lang-ar|'''الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية'''}}) nyaéta hiji [[Daptar nagara nu teu diakuan|nagara nu sabagiannana diakuan]] nu ngaklaim kadaulatan kana sadaya wewengkon [[Sahara Kulon]], hiji urut jajahan [[Spanyol]]. RDAS ieu diproklamasikeun ku [[Front Polisario]] dina 27 Pébruari 1976, di [[Bir Lehlu]], Sahara Kulon. Pamaréntahan RDAS ngawasaan kira-kira 20-25% ti [[wewengkon]] nu diklaimna.<ref>[http://suevia2008.googlepages.com/CUADROZONASDIVISINDELSHARAOCCIDENTAL.pdf Cuadro de zonas de división del Sáhara Occidental] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407173125/http://suevia2008.googlepages.com/CUADROZONASDIVISINDELSHARAOCCIDENTAL.pdf |date=2020-04-07 }} {{es icon}}</ref> Otoritas éta nyebut téritori nu dikawasaannana "Wewengkon Merdika" atawa "[[Zona Bébas (région Sahara Kulon)|Zona Bébas]]. [[Maroko]] ngawasaan sésana jeung nyebutanna [[Propinsi Kidul]]. == Peré Nasional == [[File:Mezquita en Dajla (Sahara Occidental).jpg|thumb|right|175px|Hiji [[mesjid]] di [[Dakhla, Sahara Kulon|Dakhla]]]] [[Image:Veronica Forque en el Sáhara libre.jpg|thumb|Aktris Spanyol [[Verónica Forqué]] di [[Féstival Pilem Sahara]]]] {| class="wikitable" !width="80px"| Kaping !!width="200px"| Ngaran ! Kajadian / Catetan |- | 27 Pébruari || [[Poé Kamerdikaan]] | {{smaller|Proklamasi RDAS di [[Bir Lehlou]], 1976}} |- | 10 Méi || Pawangunan [[Front Polisario]] | {{smaller|Ngadeg 1973}} |- | 20 Méi || Révolusi 20 Méi | {{smaller|Mimitina palawanan senjataan ka Spanyol dina 1973}} |- | 5 Juni || Poé [[Kaleungitan paksaan|Leungit]] | {{smaller|Miélingan leungitna urang [[Sahrawi]]}} |- | 9 Juni || Poé [[Syuhada]] | {{smaller|Kaping di mana [[El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed|El-Ouali]] pupus dina 1976}} |- | 17 Juni || [[Zemla Intifada]] | {{smaller|Karusuhan [[Harakat Tahrir]] di [[El-Aaiun]], 1970}} |- | 12 Oktober || Poé [[Kahijian Nasional]] | {{smaller|Ngarayakeun Konferénsi [[Ain Ben Tili]], 1975}} |} === Kaping Islam === Kaping dumasar kana [[kalénder Hijriah]]. {| class="wikitable" !width="120px"| Kaping !!width="80px"| Ngaran |- | 10 Dzulhijjah || [[Idul Adha]] |- | 1 Syawal || [[Idul Fitri]] |} ==Tempo ogé== *[[Témbok Maroko]] *[[Daptar kota di Sahara Kulon]] *[[Pamilu di Sahara Kulon]] *[[Pulitik Sahara Kulon]] *[[Front Polisario]] *[[Status sah Sahara Kulon]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == ; Kaca resmi RDAS *{{ar icon}}{{es}} [http://www.polisario.es/ Kaca resmi Délégasi Sahrawi di Spanyol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520045150/http://www.polisario.es/ |date=2019-05-20 }} * {{ar icon}}{{en}}{{fr}}{{es}} [http://www.spsrasd.info/ Sahara Press Service (SPS)] * {{ar icon}}{{es}} [http://www.rasd-tv.com RASD TV] &nbsp;{{smaller|(saluran TV resmi)}} * {{ar icon}}{{es}} [http://web.jet.es/rasd/radionacional.htm Radio Nasional RDAS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327062458/http://web.jet.es/rasd/radionacional.htm |date=2015-03-27 }} &nbsp;{{smaller|(saluran radio resmi)}} {{SADR topics}} {{African Union}} {{Africa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Arab Sahrawi Republik Demokratik}} [[Kategori:Républik Démokratik Arab Sahrawi| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Pamaréntahan di pangasingan]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Pamisahan di Maroko]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipaséakeun di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Républik Arab]] [[Kategori:Front Polisario]] [[Kategori:Nagara hiji partéy]] [[Kategori:Nagara sosialis]] [[Kategori:Papaséaan wewengkon Maroko]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Afrika}} kg8d6z9qi7ea1r5yc6f9vsy4tetrlh4 0 39882 730898 559023 2026-10-29T23:16:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Image:Henryk Mikołaj Górecki Polish composer.jpg|thumb|220px|Henryk Gorecki]] '''Henryk Mikołaj Górecki''' (6 December 1933—12 November 2010) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[composer]].<ref name=aust>{{Cite web |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/arts/polish-composers-greatest-hits-came-late/story-e6frg8n6-1225953446127 |title= Henryk Gorecki's greatest hits came late |3= The Australian |work= theaustralian.com.au |accessdate= 3 December 2010 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20190407121701/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/arts/polish-composers-greatest-hits-came-late/story-e6frg8n6-1225953446127 |archivedate= 7 April 2019 }}</ref> His most famous work was his Symphony No.3, the Symphony of Sorrowful Songs, written in 1992.<ref name=aust/> More than one million recordings have been sold which makes it the most popular recording by a contemporary composer, getting to number 6 on the [[Britain|British]] album charts.<ref name=aust/> In 2010 Gorecki was given The Order of the White éagle, [[Poland]]'s highest honour.<ref name=aust/> == References == {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gorecki, Henryk}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1933]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 2010]] [[Kategori:Maot dina usua 77]] {{bio-stub}} t5dtoxtogdjzsthpsrpkryqzqf8qt2q 14 41480 730893 709656 2026-10-29T12:30:15Z Rafka Aditia 29183 730893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia category|tracking=yes|purpose=[[WP:kategori|Kategori]] ieu téh keur nyusud kaca [[WP:dokuméntasi|dokuméntasi]] nu teu aya dina [[WP:rohang ngaran|rohang ngaran]] [[WP:rohang ngaran citakan|citakan]], [[WP:rohang ngaran modul|modul]] atawa [[WP:rohang ngaran pamaké|pamaké]], lamun ''ditandaan'' ku citakan {{tlx|sub kaca dokuméntasi}}.}} [[Kategori:Kaca dokuméntasi]] bevrbdzdmsjvxct18oy0aumf5oztugq 4 45565 730908 730891 2026-10-30T10:59:35Z Hasnanf 28942 /* Satuju */ 730908 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{hider kaca sawala|Ajuan|alpha=yes|start=100| Ide anyar sarta ajuan mah disawalakeunna didieu ''saméméh prung'' téh: * Ajuan parobahan '''pakakas lemes''' mah kudu di [[phabricator:|Pabrikator]] (parobahan pangaturan kudu di [[meta:Requesting wiki configuration changes|pamundut meta]]). * Ajuan parobahan '''kawijakan''' mah kudu di [[Wikipedia:Sawala (kawijakan)]]. * Ajuan '''wiki anyar''' mah kudu [[meta:Proposals for new projects|ajuan proyék anyar meta]]. * Ajuan '''artikel anyar''' mah kudu di [[Wikipedia:Artikel pamundut]]. |WP:SA|WP:SAJU}}__NEWSECTIONLINK__<!-- -->[[<!-- OK -->Category:Sawala Wikipedia]] __TOC__ <span id="below_toc"></span> {{clear}} <!-- TULISNA HANDAPEUN KALIMAH IEU --></noinclude> == Usulan kaca Tepas anyar == Sampurasun baraya sadaya!<br> Aya usulah ti simkuring pikeun ngarobah kaca Tepas Wikipédia Sunda. Kaca anyarna saheulaanan aya dina kotrétan kaca pamaké kuring <big>[[Pamaké:Uchup19/Kotrétan|'''nu ieu''']]</big>, mangga baraya sadaya ngedalkeun pamendakna perkawis ieu usulan.--[[Pamaké:Uchup19|'''<font color="#">Uchup19 (SAB17)</font>''']]&nbsp;[[Obrolan_pamaké:Uchup19|<font color="#">✉</font>]] 29 Méi 2019 00.36 (UTC)<br> :Tembusan birokrat abah {{gero|Kumincir}}, para-''sysop'': {{gero|Ilham.nurwansah}}, {{gero|A.R Dipusparaga}}, {{gero|RXerself}}, {{gero|Mssetiadi}}. :hatur nuhun ka sadaya nu parantos nga-''vote'', margi tos kaétang samingon ti awal ajuan, mangka ieu usulan dianggap satuju sadaya. Cag!--[[Pamaké:Uchup19|'''<font color="#">yusup_ramdani</font>''']]&nbsp;[[Obrolan_pamaké:Uchup19|<font color="#">✉</font>]] 4 Juni 2019 08.44 (UTC) === Satuju === <!--{{done|pamendakna}}--~~~~--> *{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:A2613|A2613]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:A2613|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 00.45 (UTC) *{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:Kumincir|kumincir]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Kumincir|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 01.06 (UTC) *{{vote|Y}} [[Pamaké:Ilham.nurwansah|ilhamkang]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Ilham.nurwansah|sawala]]) 29 Méi 2019 03.57 (UTC) === Teu satuju === <!--{{not done|pamendakna}}--~~~~--> === Kumabaé === * == Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 == [[File:Spanduk Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020.png|right|500px]] Tahun 2020 telah berlalu, tidak terhitung betapa banyaknya jasa sukarelawan Wikimedia dalam upaya membebaskan pengetahuan bagi khalayak Indonesia khususnya, dan khalayak dunia pada umumnya. Wikimedia Indonesia berterima kasih kepada para sukarelawan Wikimedia yang telah turut serta berurun daya, waktu, ilmu, dan sebagainya. Karena itu, terlintas di benak kami perlunya penganugerahan penghargaan kepada sukarelawan terbaik. Untuk itu, diadakanlah Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 ini. Sisihkan waktu Anda sejenak untuk memberikan kepada kami rekomendasi siapakah yang menurut Anda layak mendapatkan Penghargaan Sukarelawan Wikimedia 2020 melalui tautan berikut ini: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXR1vVhfeCNq0791g4K0ompjQZgbjWV6cmnMOEUnd9jtXbpg/viewform bit.ly/wmid-penghargaansukarelawan2020] Salam, [[Pamaké:Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)|Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Hillun Vilayl Napis (WMID)|sawala]]) 20 Januari 2021 08.52 (UTC) == IMPORTANT: Admin activity review == Hello. A policy regarding the removal of "advanced rights" (administrator, bureaucrat, interface administrator, etc.) was adopted by [[:m:Requests for comment/Activity levels of advanced administrative rights holders|global community consensus]] in 2013. According to this policy, the [[:m:stewards|stewards]] are reviewing administrators' activity on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis with no inactivity policy. To the best of our knowledge, your wiki does not have a formal process for removing "advanced rights" from inactive accounts. This means that the stewards will take care of this according to the [[:m:Admin activity review|admin activity review]]. We have determined that the following users meet the inactivity criteria (no edits and no logged actions for more than 2 years): #A.R Dipusparaga (administrator) These users will receive a notification soon, asking them to start a community discussion if they want to retain some or all of their rights. If the users do not respond, then their advanced rights will be removed by the stewards. However, if you as a community would like to create your own activity review process superseding the global one, want to make another decision about these inactive rights holders, or already have a policy that we missed, then please notify the [[:m:Stewards' noticeboard|stewards on Meta-Wiki]] so that we know not to proceed with the rights review on your wiki. Thanks, [[Pamaké:علاء|علاء]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:علاء|sawala]]) 7 Pébruari 2021 18.56 (UTC) == Usulan perobihan rohang ngaran == Simkuring hoyong ngusulkeun perobihan sababaraha rohang ngaran dina proyék ieu. Di handap ieu nyaéta sababaraha rohang ngaran anu hoyong dirobih: * '''Gambar''' → '''Berkas''' (File/Berkas) * '''Obrolan gambar''' → '''Obrolan berkas''' (File talk/Pembicaraan Berkas) * '''Wikipedia''' → '''Wikipédia''' (Wikipedia) * '''Obrolan Wikipedia''' → '''Obrolan Wikipédia''' (Wikipedia talk/Pembicaraan Wikipedia) * '''Pembicaraan Modul''' → '''Obrolan modul''' (Module talk/Pembicaraan Modul) * '''Pembicaraan Acara''' → '''Obrolan acara''' (Event talk/Pembicaraan Acara) Mangga baraya sadaya pikeun ngedalkeun pamendakna perkawis ieu usulan. Simkuring ogé ngulem ka {{Ping|A2613|Badak Jawa|Deepturquoise|Hayati Mayang Arum|Ilham.nurwansah|Kumincir|Mirani Pramitasari|Mssetiadi|Oceanmuse|Pijri Paijar|Zulf}} pikeun ngedalkeun pamendakna sareng sorana dina ieu usulan. Hatur nuhun [[Pamaké:Rafka Aditia|Rafka Aditia]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Rafka Aditia|sawala]]) 26 Oktober 2026 22.11 (UTC) === Satuju === <!-- {{Satuju}} pamendakna ~~~~ --> * {{Satuju}} salaku pangusul [[Pamaké:Rafka Aditia|Rafka Aditia]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Rafka Aditia|sawala]]) 26 Oktober 2026 22.12 (UTC) * {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Mirani Pramitasari|Mirani Pramitasari]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Mirani Pramitasari|sawala]]) 28 Oktober 2026 06.50 (UTC) * {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Oceanmuse|Oceanmuse]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Oceanmuse|sawala]]) 28 Oktober 2026 12.17 (UTC) * {{Satuju}} <span style="font-family:Candara">[[User:Henri_Aja|🅷🅴🅽🆁🅸]][[User_Talk:Henri_Aja|<span style="text-shadow: 2px 5px 2px #7A7A7A;"> <small>^{'''nyarios?'''}</small> &#9993;</span>]]</span> 29 Oktober 2026 06.33 (UTC) * {{Satuju}} [[Pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]] ([[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|sawala]]) 30 Oktober 2026 10.59 (UTC) === Teu satuju === <!-- {{Teu satuju}} pamendakna ~~~~ --> * === Kumabaé === * hy6ptiyy12oysb4g9iyszqs02plkycr 0 71539 730905 703496 2026-10-30T06:48:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730905 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Suku''' ([[Basa Latin|Lat.]]: ''familia'', jama ''familiae'') dina [[Klasifikasi biologi|klasifikasi ilmiah]] nyaéta hiji takson nu aya antara [[Ordo (Biologi)|ordo]] jeung [[génus]], mangrupa taksonomi nu di jerona ngawengku sawatara génus nu sacara filogénétis kapisahkeun tina familia lianna. Diindonesiakeun ieu takson nyaéta jadi '''sélér''' (dipaké dina loba pustaka ilmiah), '''famili''', atwa '''kulawarga'''. Hiji familia bisa kabagi jadi sawatara [[Subkeluarga|subfamilia]], nyéta takson tengah nu ayana di luhureun génus. Dina pamakéan [[ngaran umum]], hiji familia bisa dingaranan sarua njeung ngaran salah sahiji anggotana nu maneuh dipikanyaho. Sagalaning nu kaasup atawa teu kaasup kana hiji familia atawa nalika hiji familia diaku nyorangan diusulkeun sarta ditetepkeun ku para taksonomis. Taya aturan baku dina ngagambarkeun atawa ngémbarkeun hiji familia, atawa deuih takson lianna. Para taksonomis meuren aya dina posisi nu béda ngeunaan déskripsi hiji takson sarta meureun taya konsénsus nu katampa kalawan di kalang komunitas ilmiah salila sawatara waktu. Salila taya konsénsus mah data jeung kedalan-kedalan anyar bakal tuluy dideudeul nu ngamumkinkeun ayana panyaluyuan-panyaluyuan. == Noménklatur == Pangaranan familia dikodifikasikeun dina mangrupa-rupa kodeu internasional. * Dina noménklatur [[Suung|fungi]], [[alga]], jeung botani, ngaran familia tutuwuhan, fungi, jeung alga rarangkén tukangna "-aceae", jeung pangiwalan sajumlah leutik ngaran historis ngan lumayan lega dipaké, kaasup [[Asteraceae|Compositae]] jeung [[Poaceae|Gramineae]].{{Sfn|Barnhart|1895}}{{Sfn|ICN|2012|loc=[http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=art18 Section 2. Names of families and subfamilies, tribes and subtribes Article 18]}} * Dina noménklatur zoologi, ngaran familia sata rarangkén tukangna "-idae".<ref name="ICZN">{{Cite book|url=http://iczn.org/iczn/index.jsp|title=International Code of Zoological Nomenclature|last=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature|publisher=International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, XXIX|year=1999|edition=Fourth|pages=306|chapter=Article 29.2. Suffixes for family-group names}} [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/index.jsp?article=29&nfv=#2]</ref> == Sejarah == Ieu istilah munggaran pisan diwanohkeun ku ahli [[botani]] [[Perancis]] [[Pierre Magnol]] dina bukuna ''Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum, in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur'' taun [[1689]]. Manéhna nyebut 76 kelompok tutuwuhan nu ku manéhna geus diidéntifikasi minangka familia (''familiae''). Konsep undakan/takson dina mangsa harita can ditetepkeun jeung dina pajajap éta buku, Magnol nyebutkeun ngahijikeun éta familia-familia kana ''genera'' nu leuwih lega, jauh saméméh éta istilah mimiti dipaké siga ayeuna. Carolus Linnaeus maké istilah ''familia'' dina bukuna ''Philosophia botanica'' ([[1751]]) pikeun ngarujuk kana kelompok utama tutuwuhan. Manéhna maké éta istilah ngan dina bagéan morfologis, nyaéta bagéan nu ngadadarkeun organ végétatif jeung generatif tina tutuwuhan. Tuluy, dina publikasi-publikasi botani Perancis, ti saprak karya Michel Adanson, ''{{Lang|fr|Familles naturelles des plantes}}'' (1763) nepi ka abad ka-19 katompérnakeun, kecap ''{{Lang|fr|famille}}'' dipaké dina [[basa Perancis]] nu ékuivalen jeung kecap atawa istilah basa Latin ''{{Lang|la|ordo}}'' (atawa ''{{Lang|la|[[ordo naturalis]]}}''). Dina tulisan-tulisan abad ka-19, kayaning ''{{Lang|la|[[Sistem de Candolle|Prodromus]]}}'' karya Augustin Pyrame de Candolle jeung ''{{Lang|la|[[Sistem Bentham & Hooker|Genera Plantarum]]}}'' ajén pamikiran Géorge Bentham jeung Joseph Dalton Hooker, kecap ''{{Lang|la|ordo}}'' dipaké pikeun undakan nu kiwari mah undakan familia. Dina zoologi, familia minangka hiji undakan tengah di antara ordo jeung genus diwanohkeun ku Pierre André Latreille dina tulisanna, ''{{Lang|fr|Précis des caractéres génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel}}'' (1796). Manéhna maké istilah "familia" (sawatara kelompok teu dingaranan) dina sawatara kelompok, tapi teu dina sakum ordo "serangga"-na (nu tuluy ngawengku sakum [[Arthropoda|artropoda]]). == Pamakéan == Familia bisa dipaké pikeun studi évolusi, palaéontologi, jeung générik lantaran leuwih stabil tinimbang undak taksonomi di handapna, kayaning génus jeung spésiés.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{Cite journal|last=Sahney|first=Sarda|year=2010|url=http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/4/544.full.pdf+html|title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land|journal=[[Biology Letters]]|volume=6|issue=4|pages=544–547}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106230121/http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/4/544.full.pdf+html |date=2015-11-06 }}</ref><ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{Cite journal|last=Sahney|first=Sarda|year=2008|url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/275/1636/759.full.pdf|title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=275|issue=1636|pages=759–765}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719131056/http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/275/1636/759.full.pdf |date=2018-07-19 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Sistematika]] * [[Kladistik]] * [[Filogeni]] == Rujukan == {{reflist|30em}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal|last1=Barnhart|first1=John Hendley|authorlink=John Hendley Barnhart|title=Family Nomenclature|journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club|year=1895|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–25|doi=10.2307/2485402|ref=harv|jstor=2485402}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bullock|first1=A. A.|title=Indicis Nominum Familiarum Angiospermarum Prodromus|journal=Taxon|date=Januari 1958|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–35|doi=10.2307/1216226|jstor=1216226}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bullock|first1=A. A.|title=Indicis Nominum Familiarum Angiospermarum Prodromus: Additamenta et Corrigenda I|journal=Taxon |date=Agustus 1958|volume=7|issue=6|pages=158–163|doi=10.2307/1217503|jstor=1217503}} * {{cite web|last=ICN|authorlink=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants|title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants|url=http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title|publisher=[[International Association for Plant Taxonomy]]|accessdate=17-01-2016|location=[[Bratislava]]|year=2012|ref=harv|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104060236/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title|archivedate=2013-11-04}} {{refend}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Klasifikasi ilmiah]] {{biologi-stub}} 84qu64ajf87m1v19p2hbo0upukcualj 0 72330 730907 729637 2026-10-30T08:14:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo perguruantinggi |nama=Universitas Komunikasi Indonesia <br>(UNIKOM) |logo= |tahun=[[28 Agustus]] [[2000]] |jenis=Paguron luhur swasta |rektor= Dr. Ir. Eddy Suryanto Soegoto |lokasi=[[Bandung]], [[Jawa Barat]] |alamat=Jalan Dipatiukur No 112-114 Bandung |situs=[http://www.unikom.ac.id http://www.unikom.ac.id] }} '''Universitas Komputer Indonesia''' atawa nu ilahar dipiwanoh '''UNIKOM''' nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur swasta nu aya di [[Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]], alamatna di [[Jalan Dipatiukur]] No 112-114, Bandung. == Sajarah == UNIKOM sacara resmi gadeg dina tanggal [[8 Agustus 2000]] numutkeun Surat Keputusan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional nomor 126/D/0/2000. Munggaran dimimitian di bulan Juli taun [[1994]] waktu di adegkeunna '''Lembaga Pendidikan Komputer Indonesia Jerman''', disingget '''LPKIG''' nu tempatna di jalan Dipati Ukur 102 Bandung. Miboga hiji rohang kelas nu eusina bisa dipaké pikeun 50 urangeun jeung hiji ''[[laboratorium]]'' [[komputer]] nu miboga 25 unit komputer. Lembaga ieu ngabuka program pendidikan sataun jeung 5 program studi nyaéta [[Ahli Komputer Aplikasi Bisnis]], [[Ahli Komputer Keuangan dan Perbankan]], [[Ahli Komputer Akuntansi dan Perpajakan]], [[Ahli Komputer Manajemen dan Pemasaran]] jeung [[Sekretaris Eksekutif]]. Jumlah sakabéh pamilon atikan di taun mimiti nyaéta 223 siswa. Di taun kadua, [[1995]] mimiti dibuka program studi 3 taun, salian ti ngamekarkeun [[institusi]], pikeun nyumponan lobana mahasiswa ditaun ajaran munggaran. Dina taun ieu ogé dibuka program anyar, nyaéta: [[Ahli Komputer Teknik Informatika]], [[Ahli Komputer Manajemen Informatika]] dan [[Sekretaris Eksekutif]]. Rohang kelas ditambahan 2 rohang jeung ''labolatorium'' komputer jadi 2, jumlah siswana nyaéta 457 urang Dina taun katilu, [[1996]], nambahan gedung kuliah anyar nu tempatna di jalan Dipati Ukur 116 ( nu ayeuna gedung FISIP ) sakaligus mindahkeun puseur administrasi jeung kantor. Di gedung ieu ditambahan hiji rohang ''labolatorium'', jeung 5 rohang kelas, rohangan pikeun [[dosén]] jeung rohangan pikeun kamahasiswaan. Jumlah siswa ti taun [[1996]] nepi ka taun [[1998]] nambahan tina 632 urang jadi 1184 urang. Dina taun kalima, [[1998]],mimiti diwangun gedung kampus anyar (Gedung Rektorat / nu ayeuna kampus-1 miboga 6 tingkat ) di jalan Dipati Ukur No. 114. Wangunan gedung anyar ieu bisa anggeus di bulan [[agustus]] taun [[1999]], nu bisa dipaké di pakuliahan bulan [[september]] taun [[1999]]. Dina tanggal [[24 Desember 1998]] diadegkeun '''Yayasan Science dan Teknologi''' jeung dituluykeun ngajukeun pikeun ngadegna '''STIMIK IGI''' jeung '''STIE IGI''' ka [[DIKTI]]. Di bulan [[Juli]] taun [[1999]] STIE IGI diresmikeun ku kaluarna SK Mendiknas no. 119/D/O/1999 nu ngawengku 5 program studi : [[Akuntansi]] S1, [[Manajemen]] S1, [[Manajemen Pemasaran]] D3, [[Keuangan Perbankan]] D3 sarta [[Akuntansi]] D3. Dina bulan [[Agustus 1999]] '''STIMIK IGI''' diresmikeun ku kaluarna SK Mendiknas no. 143/D/O/1999 nu ngawengku 5 program studi : [[Teknik Informatika]] S1, [[Manajemen Informatika]] D3, [[Teknik Komputer]] D3, [[Komputerisasi Akuntansi]] D3 sarta [[Teknik Informatika]] D3. Sangkan sistem didunia atikan leuwih produktif, 6 bulan sanggeus éta diajukeun ka DIKTI pikeun ngagabungkeun kadua Sakola Luhur éta jadi [[Universitas]]. Tanggal [[8 Agustus 2000]] kaluar SK MENDIKNAS no. 126/D/O/2000 keur '''Universitas Komputer Indonesia''' atawa nu disingget '''UNIKOM'''. Dina SK éta sakaligus diijinan pikeun dibukana 11 program studi anyar nyaéta : [[Teknik Komputer]] S1, [[Manajemen Informatika]] S1, [[Teknik Industri]] S1, [[Teknik Arsitektur]] S1, [[Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota]] S1, [[Ilmu Hukum]] S1, [[Ilmu Komunikasi]] S1, [[Ilmu Pemerintahan]] S1, [[Desain Interior]] D3, [[Desain Komunikasi Visual]] S1 jeung [[Desain Komunikasi Visual]] D3. Ti mimiti ngadegna taun [[2000]], unggal taunna '''UNIKOM''' narima kurang leuwih 2.000 mahasiswa anyar. Panungtungan di taun [[2014]] narima 3.108 mahasiswa anyar. Nepi ka taun ajaran 2015/2016, '''UNIKOM''' miboga 6 Fakultas sarta 23 Program Studi kalawan jumlah mahasiswa 15.000 urang nu asalna ti sababaraha daérah di [[Indonésia]], aya ogé nu ti luar nagri. == Daptar fakultas == Ieu di handap nyaéta daptar fakultas-fakultas nu aya di [http://www.unikom.ac.id/ UNIKOM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015175929/https://unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-15 }}, sarta program studi nu aya difakultas sewang-sewangan, pikeun strata 1 (sarjana – S1), atawa nu diploma 3 (ahli madya – D3) === Fakultas Teknik dan Ilmu Komputer === * [http://tk.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Komputer (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110110725/http://tk.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-10 }} * [http://if.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Informatika (S1)] * [http://ti.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Industri (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116224000/http://ti.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-16 }} * [http://sipil.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Sipil (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111174522/http://sipil.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-11 }} * [http://elektro.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Elektro (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028131656/http://elektro.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://ar.unikom.ac.id/ Teknik Arsitektur (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129080619/http://ar.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-29 }} * [http://pwk.unikom.ac.id/ Perencanaan Kota dan Regional (S1)] * [http://mi.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen Informatika (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109211206/http://mi.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-09 }} * [http://ka.unikom.ac.id/ Komputerisasi Akuntansi (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123042101/http://ka.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-01-23 }} === Fakultas Ekonomi === * [http://mn.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027102332/http://mn.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-27 }} * [http://ak.unikom.ac.id/ Akuntansi (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023091057/http://ak.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-23 }} * [http://mp.unikom.ac.id/ Manajemen Pemasaran(D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104013459/http://mp.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-04 }} * [http://kp.unikom.ac.id/ Keuangan dan Perbankan (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114103129/http://kp.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-14 }} === Fakultas Hukum === * [http://hk.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Hukum (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171101044742/http://hk.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-01 }} === Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Politik === * [http://ik.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Komunikasi (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028131556/http://ik.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://ip.unikom.ac.id/ Ilmu Pemerintahan (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028130808/http://ip.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-28 }} * [http://hi.unikom.ac.id/ Hubungan Internasional (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123014252/http://hi.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-23 }} * [http://se.unikom.ac.id/ Sekretaris Eksekutif (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109012431/http://se.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-09 }} * [http://pr.unikom.ac.id/ Public Relations (D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104013300/http://pr.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-04 }} === Fakultas Desain === * [http://dkv.unikom.ac.id/ Desain Komunikasi Visual (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103112850/http://dkv.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-03 }} * [http://di.unikom.ac.id/ Desain Interior (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102064948/http://di.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} === Fakultas Sastra === * [http://si.unikom.ac.id/ Sastra Inggris (S1 dan D3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102075113/http://si.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [http://sj.unikom.ac.id/ Sastra Jepang (S1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030220924/http://sj.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} === Pasca Sarjana/Magister === * [http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ Magister Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802155751/http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-08-02 }} * [http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ Magister Information System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802155751/http://pasca.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2019-08-02 }} == Fasilitas == Fasilitas nu aya di UNIKOM kaitung lengkep, ampir sakabéh kagiatan nu aya sok ditepikeun ngaliwatan ''online''. Mahasiswa ogé bisa nyitak jeung ninggali daptar nilai ujian ngaliwatan hiji situs khusus. Salian ti éta, sadia ''labolatorium'' saluyu jeung program studi nu aya. Salaku Universitas Komputer nu munggaran aya di Indonésia, mata kuliah ''[[software]]'' jeung ''[[hardware]]'' dijadikeun mata kuliah wajib pikeun mahasiswa di UNIKOM. Di UNIKOM ogé disadiakeun fasilitas internet haratis atawa nu ilaar disebut [[Hotspot]] (''Wi-fi) .'' Sababaraha fasilitas ''online'' nu aya di UNIKOM : === Fasilitas online === * [http://kampus.unikom.ac.id/ Layanan Jejaring Sosial Unikom] * [http://repository.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom Scholar Repository] * [http://m.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom Mobil Layanan informasi akademik via Handphone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102080307/http://m.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [http://nilaionline.unikom.ac.id/ Layanan informasi Nilai Online] * [http://kuliahonline.unikom.ac.id/ Kuliah Online dan Materi Kuliah Online Open Course Ware] * [http://mail.unikom.ac.id/ Webmail Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316094845/https://mail.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2016-03-16 }} * [http://wap.unikom.ac.id/ Unikom WAP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030211002/http://wap.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} * [http://autodebet.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Autodebet] * [http://forum.unikom.ac.id/ Forum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923103128/http://forum.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-09-23 }} * [http://blog.unikom.ac.id/ Blog Komunitas Unikom Bandung] * [http://email.unikom.ac.id/ E Mail mahasiswa] === Perpustakaan === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171025022632/http://lib.unikom.ac.id/ Web Perpustakaan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210210223224/http://elib.unikom.ac.id/ Elektronik Library Perpustakaan Digital] * [http://abstrak.unikom.ac.id/ Abstrak]{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://jurnal.unikom.ac.id/ Jurnal Unikom] === Informasi Institusi === * [http://perwalian.unikom.ac.id/ Perwalian] * [http://dokumen.unikom.ac.id/ Dokumen Online] * [http://jadwal.unikom.ac.id/ Jadwal Online]{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://perwalian.unikom.ac.id/ KRS Online] * [http://aset.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Aset]{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://borang.unikom.ac.id/ Akreditasi Institusi & Program Studi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103034236/http://borang.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-03 }} * [http://simep.unikom.ac.id/ Sistem Informasi Evaluasi Perkuliahan] * [http://alumni.unikom.ac.id/ Daftar Alumni dan Komunitas alumni Unikom]{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://career.unikom.ac.id/ Informasi Lowongan Kerja] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114014251/http://career.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-14 }} * [http://unikom.jobecs.net/ Informasi Lowongan Kerja di jobecs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128191244/http://unikom.jobecs.net/ |date=2012-01-28 }} * [http://baak.unikom.ac.id/ BAAK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102064517/http://baak.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-11-02 }} * [http://www.unikomcenter.com/ Unikom Center]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://msdn.unikom.ac.id/ MSDN Academic Alliance Microsoft Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030213441/http://msdn.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-10-30 }} === Direktorat jeung lembaga lianna === * [http://www.unikomcenter.com/ Direktorat ICT&Multimedia Unikom Center]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://rnd.unikom.ac.id/ Direktorat Researc & Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210083407/http://rnd.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2018-02-10 }} * [http://csr.unikom.ac.id/ Direktorat Corporate Social Responsibility]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://lppm.unikom.ac.id/ LPPM Unikom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716145947/https://lppm.unikom.ac.id/ |date=2017-07-16 }} == Rujukan == * [https://www.unikom.ac.id/page/sejarah Situs resmi UNIKOM] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron luhur swasta di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Paguron swasta di Bandung]] rpfp1felqh0o8xrxrwmw2v4p68urft4 0 107804 730901 705306 2026-10-30T04:26:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730901 wikitext text/x-wiki {| align="right" style="border:1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color:#f8f9fa; width:300px; margin-left:1em; border-spacing:3px;" |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#002868; color:white; padding:0.8em;" | <big>'''Présidén Amérika Sarikat'''</big><br/><small>''President of the United States''</small> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:white;" | [[File:Seal of the President of the United States.svg|150px|Segel Présidén]]<br/><small>Segel Resmi</small> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:white;" | [[File:White House.jpg|250px|Gedong Bodas]]<br/><small>[[Gedong Bodas]], kantor sarta padumukan resmi présidén.</small> |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em; width:40%;" | Anu Ngajabat | '''[[Donald Trump]]''' |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Mimiti Ngajabat | 20 Januari 2025 |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Mimiti Aya | 30 April 1789 |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Inohong Munggaran | [[George Washington]] |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Mangsa Jabatan | 4 taun (maksimal 2 période) |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Gaji | $400,000 per taun |- ! style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaecf0; padding:0.4em;" | Ramat Loka | [https://www.whitehouse.gov WhiteHouse.gov] |} '''Présidén Amérika Sarikat''' (Basa Inggris: ''President of the United States'', disingget '''POTUS''') nyaéta pupuhu nagara sakaligus pupuhu pamaréntahan di nagara [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Présidén mingpin bagéan [[éksékutif]] tina pamaréntahan fédéral sarta janten Panglima pang luhurna (''Commander-in-Chief'') [[Angkatan Bersenjata Amérika Sarikat]]. Jabatan ieu dianggap salah sahiji ''posisi'' pulitik anu pangmimitina miboga pangaruh pangbadagna di dunya, alatan kakuatan [[ékonomi]], [[militér]], sarta [[diplomasi]] ieu nagara adidaya. == Sajarah sarta Dasar Hukum == Jabatan présidén ''dibentuk'' dumasar kana [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] anu dirumuskeun dina taun 1787 sarta mimiti jalan dina taun 1789. [[George Washington]] dilantik janten présidén munggaran dina tanggal 30 April 1789. Dina mimitina, tacan aya watesan sabaraha kali hiji jalma tiasa ngajabat. Nanging, saatos [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ngajabat salami opat période, Amérika nambihan [[Amandemén ka-22]] kana Konstitusina dina taun 1951, anu ngawatesan jabatan présidén mung dua période (maksimal 8 taun).<ref name="whitehouse_gov">"The Executive Branch". ''WhiteHouse.gov''. Diaksés 5 Pébruari 2026.</ref> == Wewenang sarta Pancén == Salaku pamingpin dahan éksékutif, présidén miboga wewenang anu kacida legana dumasar kana Pasal II Konstitusi: * '''Panglima Luhur''': Ngatur sarta mingpin sakumna kakuatan militér nagara. * '''Kawijakan Luar Nagara''': Ngayakeun perjangjian internasional sarta narima duta ti nagara deungeun.<ref name="kissinger">Kissinger, Henry (1994). ''Diplomacy''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0671510992.</ref> * '''Hak Véto''': Miboga hak pikeun nolak undang-undang anu parantos disatujuan ku [[Kongrés]]. * '''Nunjuk Pajabat''': Nunjuk hakim-hakim [[Mahkamah Agung]], menteri kabinét, sarta duta ageung kalayan persetujuan Sénat.<ref name="senate_powers">"Powers and Procedures: Nominations". ''Senate.gov''. Diaksés 5 Pébruari 2026.</ref> == Sistim Pamilihan == Pamilihan Présidén Amérika Sarikat lumangsung unggal opat taun sakali. Présidén henteu dipilih langsung ku sora rakyat (''popular vote''), tapi ngaliwatan sistim '''[[Electoral College]]'''. Calon présidén kedah kénging saeutikna 270 sora éléktoral tina total 538 sora pikeun meunangkeun pamilihan.<ref name="archives_gov">"About the Electoral College". ''National Archives and Records Administration''. Diaksés 5 Pébruari 2026.</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; font-size:95%;" ! colspan="4" style="background-color:#002868; color:white; text-align:center; padding:10px;" | [[Daptar Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] (1789–2026) |- ! style="background-color:#eaecf0; width:5%;" | No ! style="background-color:#eaecf0; width:30%;" | Nami Présidén ! style="background-color:#eaecf0; width:30%;" | Masa Jabatan ! style="background-color:#eaecf0; width:35%;" | Partéy Pulitik |- | 1 || [[George Washington]] || 1789–1797 || Indepénden |- | 2 || [[John adams|John Adams]] || 1797–1801 || Fédéralis |- | 3 || [[Thomas Jefferson]] || 1801–1809 || Démokrat-Républik |- | 4 || [[James Madison]] || 1809–1817 || Démokrat-Républik |- | 5 || [[James Monroe]] || 1817–1825 || Démokrat-Républik |- | 6 || [[John Quincy Adams]] || 1825–1829 || Démokrat-Républik |- | 7 || [[Andrew Jackson]] || 1829–1837 || Démokrat |- | 8 || [[Martin Van Buren]] || 1837–1841 || Démokrat |- | 9 || [[William Henry Harrison]] || 1841 || Whig |- | 10 || [[John Tyler]] || 1841–1845 || Whig |- | 11 || [[James K. Polk]] || 1845–1849 || Démokrat |- | 12 || [[Zachary Taylor]] || 1849–1850 || Whig |- | 13 || [[Millard Fillmore]] || 1850–1853 || Whig |- | 14 || [[Franklin Pierce]] || 1853–1857 || Démokrat |- | 15 || [[James Buchanan]] || 1857–1861 || Démokrat |- | 16 || [[Abraham Lincoln]] || 1861–1865 || Républik |- | 17 || [[Andrew Johnson]] || 1865–1869 || Démokrat |- | 18 || [[Ulysses S. Grant]] || 1869–1877 || Républik |- | 19 || [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] || 1877–1881 || Républik |- | 20 || [[James A. Garfield]] || 1881 || Républik |- | 21 || [[Chester A. Arthur]] || 1881–1885 || Républik |- | 22 || [[Grover Cleveland]] || 1885–1889 || Démokrat |- | 23 || [[Benjamin Harrison]] || 1889–1893 || Républik |- | 24 || [[Grover Cleveland]] || 1893–1897 || Démokrat |- | 25 || [[William McKinley]] || 1897–1901 || Républik |- | 26 || [[Theodore Roosevelt]] || 1901–1909 || Républik |- | 27 || [[William Howard Taft]] || 1909–1913 || Républik |- | 28 || [[Woodrow Wilson]] || 1913–1921 || Démokrat |- | 29 || [[Warren G. Harding]] || 1921–1923 || Républik |- | 30 || [[Calvin Coolidge]] || 1923–1929 || Républik |- | 31 || [[Herbert Hoover]] || 1929–1933 || Républik |- | 32 || [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] || 1933–1945 || Démokrat |- | 33 || [[Harry S. Truman]] || 1945–1953 || Démokrat |- | 34 || [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] || 1953–1961 || Républik |- | 35 || [[John F. Kennedy]] || 1961–1963 || Démokrat |- | 36 || [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] || 1963–1969 || Démokrat |- | 37 || [[Richard Nixon]] || 1969–1974 || Républik |- | 38 || [[Gerald Ford]] || 1974–1977 || Républik |- | 39 || [[Jimmy Carter]] || 1977–1981 || Démokrat |- | 40 || [[Ronald Reagan]] || 1981–1989 || Républik |- | 41 || [[George H. W. Bush]] || 1989–1993 || Républik |- | 42 || [[Bill Clinton]] || 1993–2001 || Démokrat |- | 43 || [[George W. Bush]] || 2001–2009 || Républik |- | 44 || [[Barack Obama]] || 2009–2017 || Démokrat |- | 45 || [[Donald Trump]] || 2017–2021 || Républik |- | 46 || [[Joe Biden]] || 2021–ayeuna || Démokrat |} == Dicutat tina == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu Kaluar == * {{en}} [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ Loka resmi Gedong Bodas (White House)] * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20191212192807/https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/about.html Émbaran Electoral College di National Archives] * {{en}} [https://www.loc.gov/collections/presidential-papers/about-this-collection/ Dokumén sarta Makalah Présidén di Library of Congress] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat| ]] [[Kategori:Pamaréntahan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Inohong dunya]] h3tj85x24nq26pe9pofxbyg4zlx8xex 0 108808 730902 729994 2026-10-30T04:32:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730902 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Desa Wisata Malahing (9).jpg|kiri|jmpl|Ilustrasi Desa Wisata Malahing, Kalimatan]] '''Pulo Lakkang''' nyaéta hiji pulo leutik anu aya di délta [[Walungan Tallo]] jeung [[Walungan Pampang]], sarta sacara administratif asup kana wilayah sabagian Kalurahan Lakkang, Kacamatan Tallo jeung sabagian Kalurahan Pampang, Kacamatan [[Panakkukang]], Kota Makassar, [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[Indonésia]]. Sacara astronomis, ieu pulo perenahna di titik koordinat 5°7′21.920″LS, 119°27′40.780″BT. Numutkeun ahli géologi, ieu pulo kabentuk akibat sédiméntasi walungan salila ratusan taun. Pulo anu geus ditetepkeun jadi tempat wisata ieu dikurilingan ku végétasi anu rupa-rupa. Ieu pulo téh daérah anu unik, masih aya di puseur Kota Makassar, tapi ngan bisa diaksés ku jalur walungan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sulselnews.sigapnews.co.id/kota-makassar/sn-43446/top-camat-tallo-apresiasi-mahasiswa-unhas-penelitian-di-pulau-lakkang|title=Top! Camat Tallo Apresiasi Mahasiswa Unhas Penelitian di Pulau Lakkang - SulselNews|last=sigapnews|website=https://sulselnews.sigapnews.co.id/|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Laksanakan PKM Berbasis Pentahelix, Dosen STISIP Makassar meriahkan Kemerdekaan RI ke 77 tahun di Lakkang {{!}} Narasi Makassar|url=https://www.narasimakassar.com/post/laksanakan-pkm-berbasis-pentahelix-dosen-stisip-makassar-meriahkan-kemerdekaan-ri-ke-77-tahun-di-lakkang|access-date=2026-08-09|language=en}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429062735/https://www.narasimakassar.com/post/laksanakan-pkm-berbasis-pentahelix-dosen-stisip-makassar-meriahkan-kemerdekaan-ri-ke-77-tahun-di-lakkang |date=2023-04-29 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sulselprov.go.id/|title=Pemerintah Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan|last=Selatan|first=Pemerintah Provinsi Sulawesi|website=Pemerintah Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan|language=en|accessdate=2026-08-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015055412/http://www.sulselprov.go.id/|archivedate=2023-10-15}}</ref> == Letak geograpis == Pulo Lakkang saterusna dimekarkeun jadi désa wisata. Lokasina aya di hiji pulo leutik dina délta Walungan Tallo jeung Walungan Pampang. Pulo ieu kabentuk tina prosés sedimentasi walungan. Wewengkon Désa Wisata Lakkang dikurilingan ku vegetasi leuweung nipah, mangrove, sarta lahan tambak lauk anu dikokolakeun ku masarakat satempat. Akses ka ieu wewengkon ngagunakeun jalur transportasi walungan ku parahu. Pulo ieu miboga nilai sajarah lantaran aya bunker titinggal mangsa pendudukan Jepang. Salian ti éta, Pulo Lakkang dipikawanoh ku karajinan awi anu dijadikeun salah sahiji oleh-oleh pikeun wisatawan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://explore.makassar.go.id/desa-wisata-lakkang-daya-tarik-wisata-alam-tersembunyi-dengan-panorama-yang-memukau/|title=Desa Wisata Lakkang, Daya Tarik Wisata Alam Tersembunyi dengan Panorama yang Memukau – Explore Makassar|website=explore.makassar.go.id|accessdate=2026-10-07}}</ref> Salian ti jadi tujuan wisata alam, Désa Wisata Lakkang ogé jadi objék panalungtikan jeung observasi pikeun kalangan pelajar jeung akademisi. Di ieu wewengkon ogé aya padumukan masarakat anu ngagunakeun imah adat Bugis. Fasilitas séjén anu aya di ieu wewengkon di antarana balong pamancingan anu dikokolakeun ku masarakat satempat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indonesiakaya.com/pustaka-indonesia/lakkang-desa-wisata-edukatif-bernuansa-sejarah-di-makassar/|title=Lakkang, Desa Wisata Edukatif Bernuansa Sejarah di Makassar|website=Indonesia Kaya|accessdate=2026-10-07}}</ref> Pulo anu aya di tengah Kota Makassar ieu diapit ku Walungan Tallo jeung Walungan Pampang. Ku kituna, daratan di wewengkon ieu disebut pulo. Pulo Lakkang miboga legana 165 héktar, ditambah lahan di sisi walungan anu legana 122 héktar. Perjalanan ka Pulo Lakkang merlukeun waktu kira-kira 25-30 menit. Wisatawan bisa ngagunakeun transportasi cai, nyaéta parahu atawa rakit, anu bisa diaksés ngaliwatan tilu tempat, nyaéta Dermaga Kera-Kera di lingkungan kampus Universitas Hasanuddin (UNHAS), dermaga tol heubeul di kawasan industri, jeung dermaga tambak. Ongkos transportasi nyaéta Rp3.000 per jalma sarta Rp5.000 pikeun angkutan motor sacara indit-balik.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Pulau Wisata Lakkang, Wisata Bahari Eksotis yang Sarat Sejarah di Makassar - Pesisir|url=https://www.pesisir.net/pulau-wisata-lakkang-makassar|newspaper=Pesisir|date=2023-02-15|access-date=2026-10-07|language=en-US}}</ref> == Référénsi == [[Kategori:WikiRempah]] [[Kategori:WikiRempah Bandung]] <references />{{Pondok}} lfn8ivx111a41o2oimd5nlrw1c93yz2 0 109270 730906 730568 2026-10-30T07:43:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead. #IABot (v2.0.9.6) 730906 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Peta topografi kaldera Beratan, Bali.png|jmpl|Conto peta topografi]] '''Topografi''' mangrupa hiji cabang élmu [[géografi]] jeung géodési nu ngulik, mapakeun (metakeun), jeung ngagambarkeun wangun, réliéf, sarta karakteristik bentang alam atawa beungeut bumi sacara wincik.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/topography|title=Definition of TOPOGRAPHY|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-10-19}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-6225562/apa-itu-topografi-peta-topografi-dan-fungsinya|title=Apa Itu Topografi, Peta Topografi, dan Fungsinya|last=Wulandari|first=Trisna|website=detikedu|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-10-19}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.regaeng.com/back-to-basics-in-topography-what-is-it-and-why-you-need-it|title=Back to Basics in Topography: What Is It and Why You Need It|website=REGA Engineering Group}}</ref> Istilah "topografi" asalna tina [[basa Yunani kuno]], nyaéta ''topos'' nu hartina "tempat" jeung ''graphein'' nu hartina "nulis," "ngagambarkeun," atawa "ngalukis".<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.technogis.co.id/topografi-artinya-definisi-topografi-dan-istilah-terkait/|title=Topografi Artinya: Definisi Topografi dan Istilah Terkait|last=|language=id|accessdate=2026-10-19}}</ref> Sacara ésénsial, topografi méré gambaran struktur tilu diménsi tina beungeut bumi kana wangun format dua diménsi ([[Peta géologis|peta]] atawa modél), nu ngawengku konfigurasi fitur alam (kawas [[gunung]], [[pasir]], [[léngkob]], [[walungan]], jeung [[situ]]) atawa fitur kultural/jieunan manusa (kawas [[jalan]], [[cukang]], [[wangunan]], jeung [[utilitas]]) katut posisi rélatif jeung katinggian (élévasi) géografisna.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> == Répreséntasi == Répréséntasi utama tina data topografi téh nyaéta [[peta topografi]].<ref name=":2" /> Béda jeung peta biasa, peta topografi nyajikeun gambaran réliéf atawa luhur-handapna beungeut bumi nu diukur kana hiji datum vertikal (kawas rata-rata beungeut cai laut/Luhur Beungeut Cai Laut).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://bpiw.pu.go.id/bankdata/dictionary/words?q=topografi&id=1373|title=Topografi|website=Kamus Badan Pengembangan Infrastruktur Wilayah (BPIW) - Kementerian PUPR RI.}} {{Dead link|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Fitur pang-hasna tina hiji peta topografi nyaéta ayana [[garis kontur]] (garis élévasi).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> Garis kontur téh mangrupa garis implengan (hayal) dina peta nu nyambungkeun titik-titik di beungeut bumi nu boga tingkat katinggian nu sarua.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" /> Tingkat kerepna (kerapatan) garis kontur ieu téh informatif pisan; garis kontur nu jarakna kerep némbongkeun médan atawa daérah nu curam jeung lungkawing, sedengkeun garis kontur nu anggang némbongkeun médan nu landéy atawa datar.<ref name=":2" /> Kaakuratan informasi dina ieu peta ogé ditangtukeun pisan ku skalana (leutik, sedeng, atawa gedé), di mana skala nu leuwih gedé bakal ngahasilkeun gambaran posisi data di lapangan nu jauh leuwih akurat jeung wincik.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> == Kagunaan == Pamahaman ngeunaan topografi boga peran jeung fungsi nu vital pisan salaku fondasi dina rupa-rupa disiplin rékayasa (kawas [[Rékayasa sipil|téhnik sipil]] jeung [[téhnik lingkungan]]), rarancang tata ruang, nepi ka manajemén bencana.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Fungsi utama peta jeung survei topografi di antarana nyaéta: === Rarancang tata letak (s''ite'' ''planning'') === Méré data dasar nu akurat pisan ngeunaan kaayaan lahan sangkan para [[insinyur]] jeung [[Arsitek|arsiték]] bisa ngarancang tata letak (pangwangunan jalan, rél karéta, gedong, jeung fasilitas publik) sacara presisi, pikeun nyegah kasalahan konstruksi jeung neken résiko gagalna struktur.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> === Manajemén sistim drainase === Mantuan dina ngukur condongna lahan (gradién) pikeun nganalisis pola aliran cai beungeut, ngarancang sistem tata kelola cai hujan (''stormwater''), mitigasi résiko banjir, sarta nyegah [[érosi]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> === Navigasi jeung éksplorasi luar rohangan === Umumna dipaké ku para pamanjat gawir, pandaki, panggiat alam liar, jeung personil militér pikeun nangtukeun rute lalampahan nu aman ngaliwatan idéntifikasi variasi médan. === Konsérvasi lingkungan === Mantuan mapakeun jeung ngajénan (menilai) daérah-daérah ékologis nu sénsitif (kawas lahan baseuh atawa habitat kritis) sangkan teu keuna ku pangaruh ruksakna alatan pangwangunan infrastruktur, sakaligus ngarojong kapatuhan kana régulasi perijinan lahan (zonasi). == Référénsi == [[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn]] d6v8zd0om6eiyoxbsd7w9lcw14ze9qf 828 109381 730892 2026-10-29T12:00:27Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Modul anyar 730892 Scribunto text/plain --[[ |1=, |2=, |3=, |4=, |5=, |6=, |7=, |8=, |9=: Optional unnamed parameters for 0 to 9 items to be listed. Whitespace is trimmed off both ends and the strings are urlencoded as if they were query strings. |article-link=: Optional Wikipedia article name to link to. |article-name=: Optional alternative text to be displayed for |article-link= link in front of catalog link. If not specified, |article-link= is used for display as well. If both parameters are not specified, the prefix is omitted completely. |article-suffix=: Optional symbol to be displayed after article name or link (f.e. ":"; omitted, if not defined). |link-prefix=: Optional prefix portion of url to external catalog item(s). |link-suffix=: Optional suffix portion of url to external catalog item(s). |item-prefix=: Optional text displayed in front of each external link (omitted, if not defined) |item-suffix=: Optional text displayed immediately after each external link (omitted, if not defined) |list-separator=: Optional alternative separator displayed between list items (default: ", ", if not specified). Whitespace must be encoded. |list-leadout=: Optional alternative leadout text displayed between the last two list items (f.e. "and", "or", "as well as", etc., default is the |list-separator= or ", ".) |leadout-suffix=: Optional alternative suffix text of the leadout (see |list-leadout=) displayed between the last two list items. This gets added in front of the last list item instead of the default whitespace which is added without this parameter. This may be necessary if |list-separator= is used not only to define the list separator but also parts of the item prefix (except for the first one). (At present, this is used only to cope with format oddities of the {{MR}} template.) new parameters that support access icons: |allowed_icons= – comma-separated list of keywords: free, limited, registration, subscription, none, all (default; 'all' implied when this parameter empty or omitted) the icons specified in the following parameters are checked agains the list in |allowed-icons=; not in the list? not displayed |url-access-all= – applies specified icon to all items in the list; accepted keywords: free, limited, registration, subscription; |url-accessn= – applies specified icon to item n of the list (the nth positional parameter); accepted keywords: free, limited, registration, subscription; ]] require('strict'); local getArgs = require ('Module:Arguments').getArgs; local lock_icons = { --icon classes are defined in Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css ['free'] = {'id-lock-free', 'Bisa Diaksés sacara gratis'}, ['registration'] = {'id-lock-registration', 'Perlu ngadaptar sacara gratis'}, ['limited'] = {'id-lock-limited', 'Bisa diaksés sacara gratis kalawan masa uji coba kawates, biasana perlu langganan'}, ['subscription'] = {'id-lock-subscription', 'Perlu langganan mayar'}, } --[[--------------------------< I S _ S E T >------------------------------------------------------------------ Returns true if argument is set; false otherwise. Argument is 'set' when it exists (not nil) or when it is not an empty string. ]] local function is_set( var ) return not (var == nil or var == ''); end --[=[-------------------------< M A K E _ L A B E L >---------------------------------------------------------- Makes a wikilinked or plain text label from arguments; when both link and display text is provided, makes a wikilink in the form [[L|D]]; if only link is provided, makes a wikilinked label in the form [[L]]; if only display is provided, makes a plain-text label; if neither are provided makes a label from suffix, returns an empty string else. ]=] local function make_label (link, display, suffix) local label = ''; if is_set (link) then if is_set (display) then label = table.concat ({'[[', link, '|', display, ']]'}); -- make [[L|D]] wikilinked label else label = table.concat ({'[[', link, ']]'}); -- make [[L]] wikilinked label end elseif is_set (display) then label = display; -- plain-text label end if is_set (label) then return table.concat ({label, suffix, '&nbsp;'}); -- assemble the complete label else return suffix; -- no space after suffix if no label end end --[[--------------------------< I C O N _ I N D E X _ G E T >-------------------------------------------------- returns index into lock_icons[] if value assigned to |url-access= or |url-access-all= is a valid icon selector (free, limited, registration, subscription) icon selection may be limited to a subset of the icons with: |allow_icons=<comma-separated list of allowed icons> <comma-separated list of allowed icons> may be any of the keywords: free, limited, registration, subscription, none, all keyword 'all' is default condition; 'all' is implied when |allowed=icons= is empty or omitted keyword 'none' for use with identifiers where icons are inappropriate (isbn, issn, oclc) Templates using this module should set: |allow_icons=free for most identifiers; |allow_icons=none for isbn, issn, oclc, etc |url-access= is alias of |url-access1= ]] local function icon_index_get (args, k) local icon; local param_name = (1 == k and is_set (args['url-access']) and 'url-access') or table.concat ({'url-access', k}); -- make an enumerated parameter name if is_set (args['url-access-all']) and lock_icons[args['url-access-all']] then -- if set and valid icon = args['url-access-all']; -- tentatively elseif is_set (args[param_name]) and lock_icons[args[param_name]] then -- if set and valid icon = args[param_name]; -- tentatively else return nil; -- neither |url-access-all= nor |url-accessn= set so return nil end if args['allow_icons'] and args['allow_icons']:find ('none') then -- if 'none' keyword is present return nil; -- icons display not allowed end if not is_set (args['allow_icons']) or args['allow_icons']:find ('all') or args['allow_icons']:find (icon) then --if all allowed or specified icon is allowed return icon; -- return selected icon as index into icon table end end --[[--------------------------< M A I N >---------------------------------------------------------------------- Template entrypoint to this module; arguments come primarily from the parent frame though in templates that use this module, |allowed-icons= is typically set, if needed, in the {{#invoke:}}. ]] local function _main (args, frame) if not frame then frame = mw.getCurrentFrame(); end local out_text = ''; if is_set(args[1]) then local result = {}; local label; local article_suffix = args['article-suffix'] or args['article-postfix'] or ''; local link_prefix = args['link-prefix'] or ''; local link_suffix = args['link-suffix'] or args['link-postfix'] or ''; local item_prefix = args['item-prefix'] or ''; local item_suffix = args['item-suffix'] or args['item-postfix'] or ''; local list_separator = args['list-separator'] or ', '; local leadout_suffix = args['leadout-suffix'] or args['leadout-postfix'] or ' '; local list_leadout; local icon_index; if is_set (args['list-leadout']) then list_leadout = table.concat ({ mw.ustring.gsub (args['list-leadout'], '^(%a)', ' %1'), -- insert leading space if first character is a letter leadout_suffix, }); else list_leadout = ''; end label = make_label (args['article-link'], args['article-name'], article_suffix); for k, item in ipairs (args) do -- for each of the positional parameters item = mw.text.trim (item); -- remove extraneous whitespace if is_set (link_prefix) then -- if there is link prefix... item = table.concat ({ -- create an external link item '[', -- open ext link markup link_prefix, -- url prefix mw.uri.encode (item), -- item is part of url link_suffix, -- url suffix ' ', -- required space between url and label item_prefix, -- label prefix item, -- item as label item_suffix, -- item suffix ']' -- close ext link markup }); icon_index = icon_index_get (args, k); -- set if icon specified and allowed for this item; nil else if icon_index then item = table.concat ({ -- add access icon markup to this item '<span class="', -- open the opening span tag; icon classes are defined in Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css lock_icons[icon_index][1], -- add the appropriate lock icon class '" title="', -- and the title attribute lock_icons[icon_index][2], -- for an appropriate tool tip '">', -- close the opening span tag item, '</span>', -- and close the span }); end else item = table.concat ({ -- create an unlinked item item_prefix, -- label prefix item, -- item as label item_suffix, -- item suffix }); end table.insert (result, item); -- add the item to the result list end out_text = frame:callParserFunction('#tag', {'templatestyles', '', src=table.concat({ 'Modul:Citation/CS1', mw.ustring.match(frame:getTitle(), '/kotrétan$') or '', '/styles.css', })}); if is_set (args['list-leadout']) then out_text = table.concat ({out_text, label, mw.text.listToText (result, list_separator, list_leadout)}); else out_text = table.concat ({out_text, label, table.concat (result, list_separator)}); end end --is_set (args[1]) return out_text end local function main (frame) local args = getArgs (frame); return _main (args, frame) end return {main = main, _main = _main}; bxiwixkkt7h2w4k23gg2nrn7j7xsda7 828 109382 730894 2026-10-29T12:51:52Z Rafka Aditia 29183 Subkaca dokuméntasi anyar 730894 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{High-use}} -->{{Module rating |release}} {{lua|Modul:Arguments}} {{uses TemplateStyles|Modul:Citation/CS1/styles.css}} <!-- Please place categories where indicated at the bottom of this page and interwikis at Wikidata (see [[Wikipedia:Wikidata]]) --> Nyadiakeun bagéan tukang (''backend'') pikeun {{tl|Catalog lookup link}}. == Pamakéan == <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>#invoke:{{BASEPAGENAME}}|main<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|kotrétan | | <!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> }}</includeonly> <noinclude> [[Kategori:Kaca dokuméntasi modul]] </noinclude> pz7f97303kkirr6z4vcm8kskivl650o